Transportation Systems for Tourism (Advances in Spatial Science) 3031221265, 9783031221262

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
List of Figures
List of Tables
1 Transportation Systems and Tourism
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Road Transport
1.2.1 Road Infrastructures: Linear Infrastructures
1.2.2 Road Infrastructures: Terminals
1.2.3 Road Transport Services
1.2.4 Road Technologies
1.3 Rail Transport
1.3.1 Rail Infrastructures: Linear Infrastructures
1.3.2 Rail Infrastructures: Terminals/Stations
1.3.3 Rail Technologies
1.4 Air Transport
1.4.1 Air Transport: Linear Infrastructures
1.4.2 Air Transport: Terminals/Airports
1.4.3 Air Technologies
1.5 Maritime Transport
1.5.1 Maritime Transport: Linear Infrastructures/Routes
1.5.2 Maritime Transport: Terminals/Ports
1.6 Tourism: Evolution and the Concept
1.7 Tourism: One of the Largest Economic Sectors
1.8 Transportation Systems and Tourism: The Intricate Relationship
1.9 Conclusion
References
2 Tourism Transportation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Tourism Transportation
2.3 Transport as a ‘Means to End’ and ‘Focal Element of Tourism Product’
2.4 Transport Modes and Tourism
2.5 Tourism Demand and Transportation Demand
2.5.1 Tourism Transportation: Derived Demand?
2.6 Tourism Transportation and the Role of Policies
2.7 Recreational Role of Transport
2.8 Transportation as Experience
2.8.1 ‘Travelling Landscape’
2.9 Tourism Promotion Role of Transport
2.10 Social Significance
2.11 Mobility Enhancement
2.12 Transportation: Experience Enhancer
2.13 ‘Transport’s Role as a Facilitator of Tourist-Host Interaction’
2.14 Tourism Development Role
2.15 Transportation for First and Last Impression
2.16 Conclusion
References
3 Destination and Transport Geography
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Destination
3.3 The Geography of Tourism Transportation
3.3.1 Tourism Transport: A ‘Force of Concentration’?
3.4 Spatial Interactions
3.4.1 Complementarity
3.4.2 Transferability
3.4.3 Intervening Opportunity
3.5 Space, Time, and Cost Relationship
3.6 Tourism Transportation and Geographical Concerns
3.6.1 Locational Disadvantages
3.6.2 Physical Constraints
3.6.3 Friction of Distance
3.6.4 Friction of Space
3.6.5 Time-Space Divergence
3.7 Intermodal/Multimodal Transportation and Tourism
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Accessibility of Destinations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Accessibility
4.3 Access and Accessibility Differences
4.4 Mobility and Destinations
4.5 Transport Cost and Rates
4.6 Elements of Tourism Transport Network
4.6.1 Gateway
4.6.2 Hubs
4.6.3 Route
4.7 Tourist Movement Patterns
4.8 Destination Transport Development
4.9 Transport-Related Conflicts
4.10 Accessibility for All
4.11 Conclusion
References
5 Public Transport and Urban-Rural Tourism
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Public Transport
5.3 Public Transport Systems: Elements and Essential Conditions
5.4 Advantages of Public Transport
5.5 Ecological Significance of Public Transport
5.6 Limitations and Barriers to Public Transport
5.7 Transport Policy for Public Transport
5.8 Urban Public Transport and Tourism
5.9 Public Transportation in Rural Tourism Destinations
5.10 Strategies for Promoting Public Transport in Tourism
5.11 Public Transport Users and the Motivations
5.11.1 Buying Behavior and Satisfaction
5.12 Conclusion
References
6 Coach Tourism
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Coach Tourism: The Concept
6.2.1 The Nature and the Experience Provided
6.3 Significance of Coach Tourism
6.4 Coach Tourism Typology
6.5 Facilities and Services
6.6 Attributes and Features of Coach Tourism
6.6.1 Coach Tourism and Safety
6.6.2 Comfortable, Relaxing, and Enjoyable Trip
6.6.3 The Best Outside View Enroute
6.6.4 Sustainable Mode of Travel
6.6.5 Congestion Reliever
6.6.6 Free of Parking Stress
6.6.7 Easiness of Luggage Handling
6.6.8 Value for Money
6.6.9 Convenience and Flexibility
6.6.10 Coach Tourism—An ‘Environmental Bubble’?
6.7 Coach Tourism—A Comparison
6.8 Coach Tourism Players
6.9 Escort, Courier, Guide and Driver
6.10 Conclusion
References
7 Drive Tourism
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Drive Tourism
7.3 Drive Tourism Features
7.4 Types of Drive Tourism
7.5 Advantages of Drive Tourism
7.6 Significance of Route in Drive Tourism
7.7 Determinants of Drive Tourism
7.8 Drive Tourism Supply
7.9 Drive Tourism Demand and Motivation
7.10 Drive Tourism Decision and Satisfaction
7.11 Unsustainability Aspects of Drive Tourism
7.12 Conclusion
References
8 Drive Tourism: Cars, Motorcycles and RVs
8.1 Drive Automobile/Car Tourism
8.2 Car Tourism Spaces
8.3 Consumers and Buying Behavior
8.4 Car Rental Market
8.5 Drive Car Tourism: Contributing Factors and Advantages
8.6 Disadvantages and Sustainability Concerns
8.7 Motorcycle Tourism
8.8 Self-Drive RV Tourism
8.9 Conclusion
References
9 Bicycle Tourism
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Conceptualizing Bicycle Tourism
9.3 Determinants of Bicycle Tourism
9.4 The Bicycle Tourist
9.4.1 Bicycle Tourist Typology
9.4.2 Bicycle Tourist Motivations
9.5 Bicycle Tourism Experience and the Facilitating Factors
9.6 Cycling Tourism and the Environment
9.7 The Case of Bicycle Tourism in the Republic of Croatia
9.8 Conclusion
References
10 Rail Tourism
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Rail Companies and Stations Choice
10.3 The Station as an Attraction: The Station City
10.4 Attributes of Rail Tourism
10.5 Attractiveness of Rail Tourism According to Tourist Models
10.6 Trains as Hotels
10.7 Train Tour Packages
10.8 Train Digital Tourism Experience
10.9 Investments in New Technologies for Rail Tourism Development: The High-Speed Rail Systems
10.10 Conclusion
References
11 Water Transport and Tourism
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Water Transport and Tourism
11.3 River Transport
11.3.1 Roles of River in Tourism
11.4 River Cruise Tourism
11.5 River Cruises and Sea Cruises: A Comparison
11.6 Canal Tourism
11.7 Backwater Tourism
11.8 Boating Tourism
11.9 Water Tram
11.10 Ferry Tourism
11.11 Cruise Tourism
11.11.1 Cruise Ports
11.11.2 Port of Call
11.11.3 Base/Home Port
11.11.4 Role of Ports in Cruise Tourism
11.11.5 Cruise Line
11.11.6 Cruise Vessel
11.11.7 Cruise Tourist
11.11.8 Who Gets the Benefits of Cruise Tourism?
11.11.9 Shore Excursions
11.11.10 Cruise Itinerary
11.12 Conclusion
References
12 Recreational Transportation and Tourism
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Recreational Transportation
12.3 Water-Based Recreational Transportation
12.4 Nautical Tourism
12.5 Yachting Tourism
12.6 Sailing Tourism
12.6.1 Kayaking
12.6.2 Canoeing
12.6.3 River Cycling
12.6.4 Barging Holidays
12.6.5 Power Boats
12.6.6 Iceboats
12.6.7 Snowmobile
12.6.8 Water Skiing
12.6.9 Surf Crafts
12.6.10 Windsurfing
12.6.11 Personal Water Craft (PWC)/Jet Ski
12.6.12 White-Water Rafting
12.7 Lad-Based Recreational Transportation
12.7.1 Hop-on Hop-off Tours
12.7.2 Recreation Vehicles (RVs)
12.7.3 Cycling Tourism
12.7.4 Golf Car/Golf Cart/LSV
12.7.5 All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs)/Quad Bike
12.7.6 Walking as Recreation and Walking Trails
12.7.7 Other Road-Based Recreation Vehicles in Use
12.8 Rail-Based Recreational/Leisure Tourism
12.9 Air-Based Recreational Transport Activities
12.10 Conclusion
References
13 Air Transport and Tourism
13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Increasing Significance of Air Transport in Tourism
13.2.1 Integrating the Markets and Industry Together
13.2.2 Additional Roles of Air Transport in Tourism
13.3 Critical Role of Airlines and Airports
13.4 Charter Flights
13.5 Types of Charter Services
13.5.1 Advance Booking Charter (ABC) or Non-Affinity Group Charter
13.5.2 Inclusive Tour Charter (ITC)
13.5.3 Affinity Group Charter
13.5.4 Special Event Charter
13.5.5 Single Entity Charter
13.5.6 Public Charter
13.5.7 Cargo Charter Flights
13.6 Charter Carriers
13.6.1 Business Strategies of Charter Carriers
13.7 Charter Tours: Benefits
13.8 Charter–Destination Nexus
13.9 Conclusion
References
14 Space Tourism
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is Space Tourism?
14.3 Evolution of Space Tourism
14.4 Importance and Limitations
14.5 Type of Space Tours
14.5.1 Terrestrial Space Tourism
14.5.2 Sub-orbital Space Tourism
14.5.3 Orbital Space Tourism
14.5.4 Beyond Orbital Space Tourism
14.5.5 Zero-G Tours
14.6 Leisurenaut: A Tourist?
14.7 Privatization and Commercialization: Is Space Tourism a Predecessor for Larger Commercialization of Space?
14.8 Who Are in the Business?
14.9 Space Tourism: Motivation and Demand
14.10 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Space Tourism
14.11 Future of Space Tourism
14.12 Conclusion
References
15 Transportation and Tourist Buying Behavior Modeling
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Travel Behavior and Choices
15.3 Transport Choice
15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis
15.4.1 Data for Modeling Purposes
15.4.2 Random Utility Theory
15.4.3 Model Formulations
15.4.4 Applications of DCA in Tourism
15.4.5 Other Modeling Techniques
15.5 Conclusion
References
16 Tourism Transportation and Sustainability
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Tourism Transportation and Traffic Congestion
16.3 Excess Energy Consumption
16.4 Parking Issues
16.5 Water Quality Degradation
16.6 Noise Pollution
16.7 Air Quality
16.8 Soil Quality
16.9 Visual Impact/Aesthetic Pollution
16.10 Biodiversity
16.11 Carbon Emissions, Global Warming and Climate Change
16.12 Differences of Transport Access Between Tourists and Local People
16.13 Accidents
16.14 Environmental Impacts: The Case of Cruise Tourism
16.15 Tourism Transportation and Sustainability Conundrum
16.16 Sustainability Concerns: The Case of Air Transport and Tourism
16.16.1 Hypermobility Aspect of Tourism
16.16.2 GHG Emissions from Air Transport and Climate Change
16.16.3 Air Transport Emissions, Hypermobility, and Sustainability Hopes of Tourism
16.17 Ensuring Sustainability in Tourism Transportation
16.18 Conclusion
References
Index

Citation preview

Advances in Spatial Science

M. R. Dileep Francesca Pagliara

Transportation Systems for Tourism

Advances in Spatial Science The Regional Science Series

Series Editors Manfred M. Fischer , Institute for Economic Geography and GIScience, Vienna University of Economics and Busin, Vienna, Austria Jean-Claude Thill , Department of Geography & Earth Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlott, Charlotte, NC, USA Jouke van Dijk , Faculty of Spatial Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands Hans Westlund , Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden Advisory Editors Geoffrey J. D. Hewings, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA Peter Nijkamp, Free University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Folke Snickars, Editorial Board, Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

This series contains scientific studies focusing on spatial phenomena, utilising theoretical frameworks, analytical methods, and empirical procedures specifically designed for spatial analysis. Advances in Spatial Science brings together innovative spatial research utilising concepts, perspectives, and methods relevant to both basic science and policy making. The aim is to present advances in spatial science to an informed readership in universities, research organisations, and policy-making institutions throughout the world. The type of material considered for publication in the series includes: Monographs of theoretical and applied research in spatial science; state-of-the-art volumes in areas of basic research; reports of innovative theories and methods in spatial science; tightly edited reports from specially organised research seminars. The series and the volumes published in it are indexed by Scopus. For further information on the series and to submit a proposal for consideration, please contact Johannes Glaeser (Senior Editor Economics) Johannes.glaeser@springer. com.

M. R. Dileep · Francesca Pagliara

Transportation Systems for Tourism

M. R. Dileep Kerala Institute of Tourism and Travel Studies (KITTS) Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Francesca Pagliara Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering University of Naples Federico II Naples, Italy

ISSN 1430-9602 ISSN 2197-9375 (electronic) Advances in Spatial Science ISBN 978-3-031-22126-2 ISBN 978-3-031-22127-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

A transportation system, consisting of a set of elements and their interaction, provides comfortable, convenient, safe, fast, and reliable transportation of passengers and goods using a range of related infrastructures and a fleet of vehicles. While it ultimately aims at the efficient coordination of the movement of people, goods, and vehicles, it is important that cost-effectiveness is ensured and the impacts of operations which have been a concern for decades, are reduced. Tourism, one of the largest economic sectors in the world, thrives with the support of transportation. The history of tourism reveals an intricate relationship with transportation that seems to have existed since the beginning of tourism in the era of the Romans, and the advancements in transportation at regular intervals of history have stimulated the growth of tourism immensely. Similarly, the progress of tourism also facilitated the development of transportation by fostering demand and by playing a key role in the development of transportation infrastructures. Despite sharing a close relationship, tourism and transport are two distinctly vast areas and are to be dealt with separately in literature. While transport and tourism are seen to be rapidly advancing, the link between them is also recording incredible progress. Albeit having a dearth of literature that deals comprehensively with various aspects of the interactions between tourism and transportation, the significance of learning the nuances of tourism transportation has steadily increased. Moreover, travel and tourism is fast becoming a major discipline of study worldwide, and hence, it is inevitable for the students to learn the above aspects in detail. This book, an outcome of an extensive literature review, is prepared as an ideal reference material for scholars and enthusiasts to learn about the nature of the relationship between tourism and transport, the way transport forms become a part of the tourism process and to learn about how different types of transportation systems interact and get integrated within the tourism destination framework. The professionals in travel, tourism, transport, and hospitality industries can use this as a suitable reference book to learn further about the nuances of tourism transportation link, its benefits and impacts. In addition, planners, developers, and policymakers in tourism and transport can use this book to refer to the complexities, potentials, and

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Preface

strategies of tourism transport development, from the accessibility as well as recreational perspectives. Moreover, this is envisaged as an inevitable reference book for the undergraduate, postgraduate, and research students of transport, tourism, and hospitality courses. Students of transport disciplines can also use it as an additional reference book. Understanding the leisure and recreational aspects of the transportation system, tourist destinations can strategically use this learning source to foster their tourist appeal. This book begins in Chapter 1 with the introduction of the transportation systems that are relevant in the context of tourism, and the following chapter describes the roles played by transportation systems in tourism. The next two units illustrate the geographical aspects of tourism transportation, especially linked to the destinations. The focus of the fifth chapter is the scope of public transportation system in tourism. Coach tourism is evaluated in the following chapter, followed by a detailed discussion on various aspects and different types of drive tourism. The chapters like ‘Recreational Tourism Transportation’, ‘Coach Tourism’, ‘Rail Tourism’, ‘Cycling Tourism’, ‘Space Tourism’, and ‘Water Transport-based Tourism’ provide insights into the directly proportional relationship between transport and tourism. Bicycle tourism, a more sustainable form of tourist travel, is explored in the ninth chapter of the book. The role of air transport in tourism is described in Chapter 14. It is followed by a chapter on behavior analysis of tourists in which tourists’ behavior has been analyzed through different modeling approaches. The book ends with a chapter that entails a discussion on the impacts of tourism transportation and the scope for sustainability from the perspective of tourism. Thus, by considering almost every aspect of tourism transportation interactions, the book is presented as the most comprehensive source material in the tourism transportation arena. Thiruvananthapuram, India Naples, Italy

M. R. Dileep Francesca Pagliara

Acknowledgments

First of all, we would like to express our wholehearted gratitude to God Almighty for the blessings He has bestowed upon us and for giving us the strength and wisdom to achieve this dream. The completion of this book could not have been possible without the support and blessings of a large number of people. We are extremely lucky to enjoy the strong support of family, colleagues, well-wishers, and friends. I, Dileep, have immense pleasure to acknowledge all my colleagues and friends at Pahassiraja College (Wayanad, Kerala, India), Kerala Institute of Tourism and Travel Studies (KITTS, Thiruvananthapuram), and the College of Applied Sciences (Ministry of Higher Education), Sultanate of Oman. Also, I am happy to express my thanks to all the office bearers and members of the Indian Tourism and Hospitality Congress (ITHC), a professional body of tourism academics in India. Many of my students who are now in different parts of the world in different positions have been encouraging me to do better. I personally thank all of them. Moreover, my friends always inspired my accomplishments, and I am grateful to them. And most particularly, I am indebted to my family members and relatives. I owe a heartfelt thanks to all of them for their unconditional support and care, especially my wife, Soorya A. N.; son, Gautham Krishna; father, Mr. Madhavakurup; mother, Mrs. Radhika Devi; father-in-law, Mr. V. K. N. Panicker; and mother-in-law, Mrs. Ambika Devi. I, Francesca Pagliara, have great pleasure to acknowledge the University of Naples Federico II (Naples, Italy), where I got my master’s degree in Civil Engineering with a specialization in Transportation Engineering. I always thank my students, who are for me the real engine of this job, and for them I try to be a better educator every time. I thank my mother for always providing me with the right advice and my sister for being the best one I could have. I thank my father for being an immense source of inspiration and for still guiding me in my choices, I know that from the above he still follows me every day. I thank my partner for always finding the right words to say and for encouraging me to do always better. I also thank my brother-in-law, who left us too early, for having been besides us in important moments of our lives.

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Last, but not the least, I would like to thank Prof. Dileep for writing with me this book. I will always remember his kindness calling me till the very end of this project “Madam”.

Contents

1

2

Transportation Systems and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Road Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Road Infrastructures: Linear Infrastructures . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Road Infrastructures: Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Road Transport Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Road Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Rail Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Rail Infrastructures: Linear Infrastructures . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Rail Infrastructures: Terminals/Stations . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Rail Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Air Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.1 Air Transport: Linear Infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Air Transport: Terminals/Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.3 Air Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Maritime Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.1 Maritime Transport: Linear Infrastructures/Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5.2 Maritime Transport: Terminals/Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Tourism: Evolution and the Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Tourism: One of the Largest Economic Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 Transportation Systems and Tourism: The Intricate Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 4 5 6 6 7 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14

Tourism Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Tourism Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Transport as a ‘Means to End’ and ‘Focal Element of Tourism Product’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27 27 28

15 15 15 20 23 24 24

31

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2.4 2.5

3

4

Transport Modes and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism Demand and Transportation Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Tourism Transportation: Derived Demand? . . . . . . . . 2.6 Tourism Transportation and the Role of Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Recreational Role of Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Transportation as Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8.1 ‘Travelling Landscape’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Tourism Promotion Role of Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Social Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 Mobility Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Transportation: Experience Enhancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 ‘Transport’s Role as a Facilitator of Tourist-Host Interaction’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.14 Tourism Development Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 Transportation for First and Last Impression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.16 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32 36 37 40 41 42 42 42 43 44 44

Destination and Transport Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 The Geography of Tourism Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Tourism Transport: A ‘Force of Concentration’? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Spatial Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Transferability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Intervening Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Space, Time, and Cost Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Tourism Transportation and Geographical Concerns . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Locational Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Physical Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 Friction of Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.4 Friction of Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.5 Time-Space Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Intermodal/Multimodal Transportation and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51 51 52 54

Accessibility of Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Access and Accessibility Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Mobility and Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Transport Cost and Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Elements of Tourism Transport Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65 65 66 68 68 69 69

45 45 46 46 47

55 56 56 57 57 58 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 62 63

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5

6

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4.6.1 Gateway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.2 Hubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.3 Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Tourist Movement Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Destination Transport Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Transport-Related Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 Accessibility for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70 72 72 73 75 78 79 80 81

Public Transport and Urban-Rural Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Public Transport Systems: Elements and Essential Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Advantages of Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Ecological Significance of Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Limitations and Barriers to Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Transport Policy for Public Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Urban Public Transport and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Public Transportation in Rural Tourism Destinations . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Strategies for Promoting Public Transport in Tourism . . . . . . . . . 5.11 Public Transport Users and the Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11.1 Buying Behavior and Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85 85 85

Coach Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Coach Tourism: The Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 The Nature and the Experience Provided . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Significance of Coach Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Coach Tourism Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Facilities and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Attributes and Features of Coach Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 Coach Tourism and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 Comfortable, Relaxing, and Enjoyable Trip . . . . . . . . 6.6.3 The Best Outside View Enroute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.4 Sustainable Mode of Travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.5 Congestion Reliever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.6 Free of Parking Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.7 Easiness of Luggage Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.8 Value for Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.9 Convenience and Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.10 Coach Tourism—An ‘Environmental Bubble’? . . . . 6.7 Coach Tourism—A Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103 103 104 105 107 110 112 112 113 113 113 114 114 114 115 115 115 115 116

87 89 90 90 91 92 94 95 96 97 99 99

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6.8 Coach Tourism Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Escort, Courier, Guide and Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117 117 119 119

7

Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Drive Tourism Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Types of Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Advantages of Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Significance of Route in Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Determinants of Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Drive Tourism Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Drive Tourism Demand and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Drive Tourism Decision and Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11 Unsustainability Aspects of Drive Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

121 121 122 123 125 126 127 128 129 130 132 133 133 134

8

Drive Tourism: Cars, Motorcycles and RVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Drive Automobile/Car Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Car Tourism Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Consumers and Buying Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Car Rental Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Drive Car Tourism: Contributing Factors and Advantages . . . . . 8.6 Disadvantages and Sustainability Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Motorcycle Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 Self-Drive RV Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

137 137 138 140 143 143 146 147 148 150 150

9

Bicycle Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Conceptualizing Bicycle Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Determinants of Bicycle Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 The Bicycle Tourist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Bicycle Tourist Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2 Bicycle Tourist Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Bicycle Tourism Experience and the Facilitating Factors . . . . . . 9.6 Cycling Tourism and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 The Case of Bicycle Tourism in the Republic of Croatia . . . . . . 9.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

153 153 155 156 159 160 161 162 163 164 168 169

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10 Rail Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Rail Companies and Stations Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 The Station as an Attraction: The Station City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Attributes of Rail Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Attractiveness of Rail Tourism According to Tourist Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Trains as Hotels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Train Tour Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 Train Digital Tourism Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9 Investments in New Technologies for Rail Tourism Development: The High-Speed Rail Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171 171 172 172 174

11 Water Transport and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Water Transport and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 River Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.1 Roles of River in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 River Cruise Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 River Cruises and Sea Cruises: A Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 Canal Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 Backwater Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 Boating Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 Water Tram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.10 Ferry Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11 Cruise Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.1 Cruise Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.2 Port of Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.3 Base/Home Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.4 Role of Ports in Cruise Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.5 Cruise Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.6 Cruise Vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.7 Cruise Tourist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.8 Who Gets the Benefits of Cruise Tourism? . . . . . . . . 11.11.9 Shore Excursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.11.10 Cruise Itinerary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189 189 190 191 192 193 195 195 197 198 198 199 200 203 204 207 207 208 209 210 212 214 215 216 216

12 Recreational Transportation and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Recreational Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Water-Based Recreational Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Nautical Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

221 221 221 225 226

175 176 179 179 182 185 186

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12.5 12.6

Yachting Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sailing Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.1 Kayaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.2 Canoeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.3 River Cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.4 Barging Holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.5 Power Boats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.6 Iceboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.7 Snowmobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.8 Water Skiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.9 Surf Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.10 Windsurfing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.11 Personal Water Craft (PWC)/Jet Ski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.6.12 White-Water Rafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7 Lad-Based Recreational Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.1 Hop-on Hop-off Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.2 Recreation Vehicles (RVs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.3 Cycling Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.4 Golf Car/Golf Cart/LSV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.5 All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs)/Quad Bike . . . . . . . . . . . 12.7.6 Walking as Recreation and Walking Trails . . . . . . . . 12.7.7 Other Road-Based Recreation Vehicles in Use . . . . . 12.8 Rail-Based Recreational/Leisure Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.9 Air-Based Recreational Transport Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

226 227 228 229 229 229 230 231 231 232 232 233 234 235 236 236 238 239 239 240 240 241 241 241 242 243

13 Air Transport and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 The Increasing Significance of Air Transport in Tourism . . . . . . 13.2.1 Integrating the Markets and Industry Together . . . . . 13.2.2 Additional Roles of Air Transport in Tourism . . . . . . 13.3 Critical Role of Airlines and Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Charter Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Types of Charter Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.1 Advance Booking Charter (ABC) or Non-Affinity Group Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.2 Inclusive Tour Charter (ITC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.3 Affinity Group Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.4 Special Event Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.5 Single Entity Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.6 Public Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.7 Cargo Charter Flights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Charter Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.1 Business Strategies of Charter Carriers . . . . . . . . . . .

247 247 248 249 251 252 254 255 256 256 257 257 257 258 258 258 260

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13.7 Charter Tours: Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8 Charter–Destination Nexus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

262 264 265 266

14 Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 What Is Space Tourism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Evolution of Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Importance and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Type of Space Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.1 Terrestrial Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.2 Sub-orbital Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.3 Orbital Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.4 Beyond Orbital Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.5 Zero-G Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6 Leisurenaut: A Tourist? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Privatization and Commercialization: Is Space Tourism a Predecessor for Larger Commercialization of Space? . . . . . . . 14.8 Who Are in the Business? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.9 Space Tourism: Motivation and Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.10 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.11 Future of Space Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

269 269 270 272 274 276 276 277 277 278 279 279

15 Transportation and Tourist Buying Behavior Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Travel Behavior and Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Transport Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.1 Data for Modeling Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.2 Random Utility Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.3 Model Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.4 Applications of DCA in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.5 Other Modeling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

289 289 290 292 294 295 296 297 298 306 310 310

16 Tourism Transportation and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Tourism Transportation and Traffic Congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Excess Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Parking Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 Water Quality Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Noise Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

317 317 317 319 319 321 321

280 281 283 284 285 286 286

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Contents

16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.11 16.12

Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visual Impact/Aesthetic Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carbon Emissions, Global Warming and Climate Change . . . . . Differences of Transport Access Between Tourists and Local People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.13 Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.14 Environmental Impacts: The Case of Cruise Tourism . . . . . . . . . 16.15 Tourism Transportation and Sustainability Conundrum . . . . . . . 16.16 Sustainability Concerns: The Case of Air Transport and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.16.1 Hypermobility Aspect of Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.16.2 GHG Emissions from Air Transport and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.16.3 Air Transport Emissions, Hypermobility, and Sustainability Hopes of Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.17 Ensuring Sustainability in Tourism Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . 16.18 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

322 323 323 324 324 328 328 329 331 333 333 334 335 337 341 341

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

About the Authors

Dr. M. R. Dileep is a noted tourism academic, author, and columnist. As an author, his latest books include Air Transport and Tourism: Interrelationship, Operations and Strategies (2021) and Tourism, Transport and Travel Management (2019), published by Routledge (Taylor & Francis). He has been engaged in tourism academics for over two decades; he is currently with Pazhassiraja College of the University of Calicut (Kerala, India). For seven years, he worked with the Ministry of Higher Education (CAS Salalah), Sultanate of Oman, as faculty, major head, and system-wide coordinator of tourism subjects. Moreover, he was the head of the Department of Tourism at Kerala Institute of Tourism and Travel Studies (KITTS) on government deputation for seven years. Furthermore, he is one of the contributors to the ‘Encyclopedia of Tourism’, published by Springer. As a columnist, he regularly contributed to Manorama Traveller (travel magazine in Malayalam) and Tourism News Live (www.tourismnewslive.com). Currently, he is the chairman of the board of studies of tourism with the University of Calicut and a member of the same with some other universities/institutes. Several research publications along with conference presentations are there to his credit. His qualifications include MTA, M.Phil., Ph.D., and IATA Diplomas in Air Transport and Cargo. He was appreciated by the Ministry of Higher Education, Sultanate of Oman, for his significant academic contribution and received awards like PERFICIO Best young Achiever 2020, by DHS Foundation in collaboration with Campbell University, USA; and ‘Indira Gandhi Gold Award’ of GEPRA for being an outstanding emerging contributor in academics and research (Tourism). Dr. Francesca Pagliara is Associate Professor in Transportation Engineering at the University of Naples Federico II. During her Ph.D. course, in 2000, she worked at David Simmonds Consultancy in Cambridge. In 2002, she worked at the Transport Studies Unit of the University of Oxford as a research officer; in 2006, she worked at the Institute for Transport Planning and Systems of ETH in Zurich, and in 2013, she worked at the Laboratoire des Villes Mobilité et Transports of the University of Paris-Est in France. She was visiting professor at the Transportation Research Group of the University of Southampton (2007 and 2009); at TRANSYT of the University of xvii

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About the Authors

Madrid (2007 and 2010, 2015); at the University of Wuhan (2011); at the Department of Economics of the University of Valencia (2012); at the Institute for Transportation of the Technical University of Munich (2013); at the University of Castilla-La Mancha in Ciudad Real in Spain (2016); at the Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Development (TIDES) of the University of Las Palmas in Spain (2018); and at the Department of Tourism Management of the School of Economics and Management of the Beijing Jiaotong University (2019). She has been appointed as Adjunct Professor of the School of Economics and Management of the Beijing Jiaotong University for three years since July 2019. She is currently Adjunct Professor of the International Railway Transportation Center of Silk Road at the Beijing Jiatong University. Since 2021 she is the promoter of the International Workshop on HighSpeed Rail Socioeconomic Impacts, supported by the International Union of Railways (UIC). Since June 2022 she is member of the Urban Tourist Observatory (OUT—Osservatorio Turistico Urbano), providing support to the Municipality of the city of Naples (Italy) for the development of initiatives for tourists visiting the city. Her main fields of research are the wider socio-economic impacts of transportation systems investments (including High-Speed Rail); the impact of transportation systems on the tourism market; Engagement in the transportation decision-making process; Transit-Oriented Development Policies; and Integrated Land use/Transport models. She is author of academic books both in Italian and in English and of more than 100 papers. She co-edited two books published by Springer. She participated at several research projects.

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3

Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.5

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 3.1

Fig. 4.1

A stylized representation of the transportation system and its interaction with the activity system. Source Authors’ elaborations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Left: Representation of the connection between V2V vehicles (Energy Today, 2021); right: representation of the components and connections in the interaction between vehicles and V2X infrastructures (Etf Trends, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Left: Navya, self-driving bus (Il Sole 24 ore, 2021); right: Next future modules, modular public transport (Leds Padova, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Left: the section of the Hyperloop model (Hyperloop Manchester, 2021); right: Virgin Hyperloop test track in the Nevada desert (BBC, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Left: example of a drone for passenger transport (Rol and Berger, 2021); right: example of a cargo Drone (Rol and Berger, 2021) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transport modes used by tourists visiting foreign countries from 2000–2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Three modes of Transport Rio de Janeiro: Flight to São Paulo, a boat going to Niterói, and the famous bridge linking Rio and Niterói for road transport. Courtesy Joao Carlos Medau, available in Wikimedia commons, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=24228490 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . London Heathrow: A Hub Airport a view of Terminal 1. Courtesy Brendan & Ruth McCartney, https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=106084097 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

7

10

12

14 29

62

73

xix

xx

Fig. 5.1

Fig. 5.2 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 8.1

Fig. 8.2

Fig. 8.3 Fig. 9.1

Fig. 9.2

Fig. 10.1

Fig. 10.2

Fig. 10.3

Fig. 10.4

List of Figures

New York Fifth Avenue public transport vehicle [New York Fifth Avenue Coach Co. was a famous public transport company operated services between 1885 and 1960]. Courtesy Wikipedia commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airport shuttle service bus (Eindhoven, the Netherlands). Courtesy Jan Oosterhuis/Wikimedia commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Tourist car in Akagera National Park (Rwanda) Courtesy Alex shema/Wikimedia Commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means of transport for tourism trips made by European Union Residents. Source Eurostat, Available online at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostatnews/-/ddn-20170630-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Car tourists in front of Old Faithful Inn/Yellowstone National Park (Year 1922) Source National Park Service (USA) Historic Photograph Collection/retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php? curid=4867289 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motorhome park in Pont-à-Mousson (France). Courtesy Wikipedia Commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Road cycling tourists: a view from Rottnest Island off the coast of Perth, Australia. Courtesy Loveperth.com.au, retrieved from https://commons.wik imedia.org/w/index.php?curid=21529715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corridors of the main national cycle routes (in Black) and EuroVelo Routes (marked with numbers). Source edited in accordance with (Klari´c et al. 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The main facade of the São Bento Railway Station, Porto, Portugal. Source HombreDHojalata, Wikipedia Commons, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia. org/w/index.php?curid=34956782) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Venice Simplon-Orient Express Suite. Source Venice Simplon-Orient Express—The World’s Most Iconic Train Journey. https://www.uniqhotels.com/media/hotels/28/ 12.jpg.730x486_q85_box-0%2C0%2C2000%2C1333_ crop_detail.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kruger Shalati Train Hotel Bedroom. Source Kruger Shalati—The Train on the Bridge in South Africa. https:// www.uniqhotels.com/media/hotels/d5/8._kruger_shalatiafrica_photographic-kyle_lewin-241.jpg.730x486_q85_ box-0%2C0%2C2000%2C1333_crop_detail.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . Crowne Plaza Hotel Indianapolis Downtown Pullman train car exterior. Source https://www.uniqhotels.com/ media/hotels/77/6._pullman_train_car_exterior_conduc tor.jpg.730x488_q85_box-0%2C0%2C1200%2C803_ crop_detail.jpg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87 93 123

138

141 149

154

165

173

177

178

178

List of Figures

Fig. 10.5

Fig. 10.6

Fig. 10.7

Fig. 10.8

Fig. 10.9

Fig. 10.10

Fig. 11.1

Fig. 12.1

Fig. 12.2

Fig. 12.3

Fig. 12.4 Fig. 14.1

Fig. 15.1

xxi

The religious tour package offered by the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation. Source https://www. indiatvnews.com/news/india/irctc-offers-11-day-tour-pac kage-for-religious-places-check-details-here-latest-upd ates-shirdi-jyotirlinga-mahakaleshwar-omkareshwar-dwa rikadhish-2022-07-06-789994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The California Zephyr train promoted by Amtrak in USA. Source https://www.amtrakvacations.com/vacationtypes/famous-routes/california-zephyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experience before the trip. Source https://www.centrica. it/2021/07/02/virtuitaly-wins-train-digital-tourism-experi ence-fs-innova-by-trenitalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experience in the station. Source https://www.centrica.it/ 2021/07/02/virtuitaly-wins-train-digital-tourism-experi ence-fs-innova-by-trenitalia/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experience on train. Source https://www.centrica.it/2021/ 07/02/virtuitaly-wins-train-digital-tourism-experience-fsinnova-by-trenitalia/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experience in the city. Source https://www.centrica.it/ 2021/07/02/virtuitaly-wins-train-digital-tourism-experi ence-fs-innova-by-trenitalia/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . River cruise ships on the Danube in Budapest. Courtesy Jerome Strauss—Flickr: Ukrainian cruise boat on the Danube, Wikipedia Commmons, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php? curid=13334796 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kayaking. Courtesy Vastateparksstaff/Wikipedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?curid=57399170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snowmobile tour at Yellowstone National Park. Courtesy Great Scott/Wikipedia Commons, retrieved from https:// commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=810084 . . . . . . . . A jet ski kick off. Courtesy Feras Nabil Battikh/ Wikipedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/ w/index.php?curid=33860164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Open loop New York hop-on hop-off tour bus. Courtesy Wikipedia Commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Space Station. Courtesy By NASA/Boeinghttps://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/ image/iss_rosa_correct_channels.jpg (https://www.nasa. gov/feature/new-solar-arrays-to-power-nasa-s-internati onal-space-station-research), Public Domain, https://com mons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10561008 . . . . . . . . . . Classification of tourism trips by main travel purpose . . . . . . . .

180

181

181

182

183

183

194

228

232

234 237

270 291

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Fig. 16.1

List of Figures

Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the USA. Source United States Environmental Protection Agency, retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sou rces-greenhouse-gas-emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

326

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 1.4 Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 2.4 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Table 5.1 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 9.1 Table 9.2

Operational attributes of transport systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Levels of road self-driving SAE International Standard J3016 (SAE, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impacts of Covid-19 on tourism in 2020 (in comparison with 2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major milestones in the history of tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Share (%) of the transport modes used by tourists visiting foreign countries over the last two decades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major tourism transport modes: advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of TDM measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transport regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Top ten destinations (pre-pandemic status-2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . Absolute and relative barriers associated with physical constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors affecting accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . World’s busiest air routes (July 2022) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Postulates in the role of transport in tourism development . . . . UNWTO recommendations for accessibility for all . . . . . . . . . . Elements of good traffic management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Highlights of UK Coach tourism statistics (2019) . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of coach tourism visitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visitor arrival and expenditure figures of coach tourism in Great Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means of transport for tourism trips made by European Union residents (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AVIS car rentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bicycle tourism typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type of bicycle use at the destination in relation to the social component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 8 16 19 28 34 39 40 52 55 67 74 77 80 88 105 106 109 138 144 157 166

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xxiv

Table 9.3 Table 9.4 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table 11.6 Table 11.7 Table 11.8 Table 11.9 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 12.3 Table 12.4 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 13.4 Table 14.1 Table 14.2 Table 14.3 Table 14.4 Table 14.5 Table 15.1 Table 15.2 Table 15.3 Table 16.1 Table 16.2 Table 16.3 Table 16.4 Table 16.5

List of Tables

Results of the research on cycling as an activity and the offer of cycle paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of the research on the types of accommodation and the offer of cycle paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some of the differences between ocean cruises and river cruises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of Corona pandemic on cruise tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences between micro cruises and mega cruises . . . . . . . . Key characteristics of cruise tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cruise port facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cruise port services and facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cruise tourist statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cruise tourism characteristics (age group wise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cost factors in cruise tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recreational transport vehicles exported by the USA (through 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rising popularity of water adventure tourism: contributing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surf craft typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of RVs in use in some European countries (2013) (in 000s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-scheduled air services: characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charter Airline clients and the reasons/benefits of using charter services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charter carriers: characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charter contracting by tour operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Early space tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major milestones in the history of space tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . Space tourism: the Pros and Cons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Space tourism packages for sale now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of spacecraft/tools used in space tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors influencing transport choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leisure travelers’ expectations from a transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discrete choice approach in tourism: a review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impacts of increasing motorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water based recreational transport (power boating, water skiing) and impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major greenhouse gases and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Direct (tank-to-wheel) strategies to reduce GHG emissions from transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable tourism transport network for destinations: planning framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

167 167 196 200 201 201 205 206 210 212 213 224 225 233 238 255 258 259 264 271 273 275 278 279 293 294 299 320 325 327 328 339

Chapter 1

Transportation Systems and Tourism

1.1 Introduction The term “transportation system” is usually referred to the equipment and logistics of transporting passengers and goods. It covers the trips by all means of transport, from cars and buses to boats, aircraft, and even space travel. The objective of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people, goods, and vehicles in order to use routes most efficiently. When implemented, transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through effective timetabling and route management. Periodic re-evaluations and the development of alternative routes allow for timely changes to the transportation system to for increasing the efficiency. A standard transportation system will usually feature multiple timetables designed to inform the user of where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any given point in time. These timetables are developed alongside an array of route plans designed to coordinate vehicle movements in a way that prevents bottlenecks in any one location. The main benefit of implementing a transportation system is delivery of goods and users to their destinations in a timely manner. This, in turn, increases the efficiency of vehicle use, as the same vehicle can be used for “multi-drop” jobs, such as bus services or home delivery networks, far more effectively when their routes are planned in advance rather than being generated “on the fly”. Transportation systems are developed in a wide variety of sizes. Local transport networks spanning the bus network for a city and its suburbs are common, as are country-wide delivery networks for haulage firms. Airlines use international transportation systems to coordinate their flights. The larger the distance being covered, the more effective the use of vehicles when a transportation system is used. A definition of the transportation system then follows: “A transportation system can be defined as the combination of elements and their interactions, which produce the demand for travel within a given area and the supply of transportation services to satisfy this demand”. This is the definition that Cascetta (2009) provided in the first chapter of his book on transportation systems engineering. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_1

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Fig. 1.1 A stylized representation of the transportation system and its interaction with the activity system. Source Authors’ elaborations

Therefore, a transportation system is made up of two sub-systems: physical and organizational elements interacting with each other to produce transport opportunities (Supply sub-system); mobility demand that takes advantage of these opportunities to make trips from one place to another (Demand sub-system) (see Fig. 1.1). Both systems interact with the activity system. Mode of transport is a term used to distinguish between different ways of moving people and goods. The different modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, which includes rail or railways, road and off-road transport. Other modes also exist, including pipelines, cable transport, and space transport. Human-powered transport and animal-powered transport are sometimes regarded as their own mode, but never fall into the other categories. In general, transportation is used for moving of people, animals, and other goods from one place to another. Means of transport, on the other hand, refers to the transport facilities used to carry people or cargo, according to the chosen mode (animal, vehicle, car, airplane, ship, truck, train, and so on and so forth). Each mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, transport operators, and operations. Transport modes can be classified according to the technology, in: • • • •

Road transport Rail transport Air transport Maritime and waterway transport.

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Waterway transport can be considered an adaptation of maritime transport to the specificities of inland waterways, such as rivers, canals, and lakes. Transport technologies can also be distinguished with respect to the vehicle’s driver freedom defining the trajectory: • Free driving (such as road and maritime transport) • Bounded driving (such as rail and air transport). Transport modes can also be classified with respect to the supplied service into: • Individual (or private) transport modes with non-scheduled service in time and accessible everywhere. These systems are also named continuous in time and space. An example is the road transport, such as car; • Collective (or public) transport modes with scheduled services in time and accessible only in given parts of the space (i.e., in terminals). These systems are also named discontinuous in time and space; • Individual passengers (motorcycles, cars) if the use is intended for individuals or groups of users who use and manage the vehicle independently; • Collective passengers (taxi, bus, trolley bus, tram) if the management of the system is entrusted to a manager who defines the routes used and the passage times of the individual system trips; • Goods (trucks, articulated lorries) if they are intended for the transport of goods; combined mode (vans) if the vehicles are used for the transport of people and goods. Infrastructures can be grouped into two classes: • Linear infrastructures, used for moving vehicles between different points. • Punctual infrastructures if located in restricted areas and originating from the confluence of several linear infrastructures. Terminals can be points of interchange within the same modal system, ensuring continuity of the flows. This is particularly the case for air and port operations with hubs connecting parts of the network. Terminals, however, are also critical points of transfer between modes. The importance of a transport terminal is often a function of its size. Large transport terminals, particularly ports and airports, confer the status of gateway or hub to their location since they become obligatory points of transit between different segments of the global transport system. There are large hub airports located in global cities, connecting continents down to the small local airport, and limited daily services to a few destinations. Three following major attributes are linked with the importance and the performance of transport terminals (Rodrigue, 2020): • Location: The major locational factor of a transport terminal is obviously to serve a large concentration of economic activities, representing a terminal’s market area. Specific terminals have specific locational constraints, such as port and airport sites. New transport terminals tend to be located outside central areas to avoid high land costs and congestion.

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Table 1.1 Operational attributes of transport systems • Good comfort level • Confiability (the ability to accomplish the contract) • Domestic or international operations • Intermodality • Fare/tariff

• Transport elements such as the terminal, vehicle, the way, and power • Public or private • Schedule or charter • Safety and security • Speed

Source Lohmann and Duval (2013)

• Accessibility. Accessibility to other terminals (at the local, regional and global scale) as well as how well the terminal is linked to the regional transport system is of importance. For instance, a maritime terminal has little relevance if it is poorly connected to its market area through an inland transport system (rail, road, or barge). • Infrastructure: The primary function of a terminal is to handle and tranship freight or passengers since modes are physically separated. They have a nominal capacity, which is related to the amount of land they occupy and their level of technological, labor, and managerial intensity. Infrastructure considerations are essential as they must accommodate current traffic and anticipate future trends along with technological and logistical changes. Modern terminal infrastructures consequently require massive investments and are among the largest structures ever built. Airports, ports, and distribution centers are visible on remote sensing images. Operational attributes of transport system are reported in Table 1.1. The transportation system is a critical element international tourism system (Culpan, 1987). An efficient and convenient transportation system within a destination can eventually help in higher tourist expenditure, better destination image, more tourist arrivals, effective management of visitors, and reduced traffic congestion and crowding (Gutiérrez & Miravet, 2016). On the other hand, an unreliable and inefficient public transportation system can hinder the successful development of a destination’s tourism industry.

1.2 Road Transport Road transport is given by the set of infrastructure; vehicles; management; and control systems that interact with each other to facilitate the movement of people and goods on board vehicles on unconstrained/free driving. Essential elements of road transport are vehicles (means that allow the movement); users (traveling on board vehicles); and infrastructures (roads on which vehicles move) equipped with control and regulation systems. Road vehicles can be classified in relation to several characteristics: by people and for goods transported and by number of axes present. The infrastructures used for road transport can be grouped into two classes:

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– linear infrastructures (roads), used for moving vehicles between different points; – punctual infrastructures if located in restricted areas and originating from the confluence of several roads. These can be divided further into two categories: intersections, crossroads between road infrastructures that can be crossed by vehicles and terminals, if used for parking the vehicles themselves.

1.2.1 Road Infrastructures: Linear Infrastructures Roads should be designed to cater for a defined function. This typically reflects the distance of travel, level of traffic flow, and desired speed of travel. Road networks in most countries will, therefore, reflect the development of a hierarchy of roads, with motorways at the highest level and local access roads at the lowest. In practice a basic hierarchy will occur naturally through the more heavily trafficked roads being engineered to higher standards. But it is important that the hierarchy is established to clear guidelines linking design to function, throughout the network. This is particularly necessary where different functional levels or different geographical areas are managed by different road authorities. It is well established that managing roads and traffic to safety management principles in urban areas can produce overall accident reductions of at least 15%. There are also good examples of integrating safety management with other urban planning objectives (OECD, 1990). Similarly, it is well established that most serious injury accidents on rural roads are associated with a small number of accident types which can be addressed by different aspects of engineering design (OECD, 1999). These accident types occur in different patterns on roads with different designs and speed limits (Lynam & Lawson, 2005). At the simplest level, road function can be divided into three groups—arterial or through traffic flow routes, distributor roads, and access roads. Flow function Roads with a flow function allow efficient throughput of (long distance) motorized traffic. All motorways and express roads as well as some urban ring roads have a flow function. The number of access and exit points is limited. Area distributor function Roads with an area distributor function allow entering and leaving residential areas, recreational areas, industrial zones, and rural settlements with scattered destinations. Junctions are for traffic exchange (allowing changes in direction, etc.); road sections between junctions should facilitate traffic in flowing. Access function Roads with an access function allow actual access to properties alongside a road or street. Both junctions and the road sections between them are for traffic exchange. The first two of these groups may be further subdivided into primary and local arterials and distributors, reflecting different flow levels within each group.

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Roads are also often grouped by design “types”, i.e., motorways, other divided roads, 2-lane roads. While motorways will always cater for a flow function, the other road types are often not used consistently to reflect a particular function, and designs within the road type groups can vary considerably. On average there are large differences in accident rate (both per km and per vehicle km) on the different road types, and thus national accident rates can be reduced by ensuring drivers use the most appropriate road for their trip purpose, and that the road design is optimized for its function. The match between driver behavior and road design will be optimized where the road design gives a clear message to road user of the function of the road, and the hazards that are likely to be encountered.

1.2.2 Road Infrastructures: Terminals Road terminals are those places intended for the parking of road vehicles and can be divided into two categories: • car parks intended for the parking of motor vehicles. • bus stations whose main function is to allow vehicles to park and to welcome users waiting to use the service provided by buses.

1.2.3 Road Transport Services Transport services are activities carried out by a supplier in order to satisfy the (mobility) needs of one or more customers. Examples of not scheduled services are sharing services, such as car, motorbike, and bicycle. The user, subscribed to the service, books the vehicle in advance at the preferred parking lot, uses it, and returns it to the parking lot of origin or to another one, prior to notice at the time of booking and with a possible extra charge as defined in the contract. One can renounce to the property of the private vehicle, but not to the flexibility connected with it. The cost for the user includes an annual fee and the consumption fees for the individual periods of use. The service manager takes care of all the tasks and expenses related to the management of the car, including fuel. The percentage of time in which vehicles remain unused decreases drastically, as does the number of parked vehicles and parking. Sharing services: bicycle stations are installed at different points in the city where bicycles can be placed. In general, the first half of hour or hour is free, then the service is paid and the more it is used the bicycle (and therefore not shared) the more the cost increases. Bicycles are locked and can only be used by registered users of the service after having unlocked them either with a key or with a card. It is a simple, ecological, and economic system that allows a wider use of the city and pedestrian areas, with the benefit for the environment and traffic. It can be a very good one

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«solution for the last km»: use of shared bicycles, where the public transport does not arrive or cannot arrive—increase in the demand for public transport thanks to the intermodality provided by the use of bicycles.

1.2.4 Road Technologies The term “self-driving and connected vehicles” refers to vehicles capable of moving with little participation by the driver or even without a human operator. They represent a technological innovation that is involving the transport sector, influencing the evolution of passenger and freight vehicles, as well as transport infrastructures. These innovations are possible thanks to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), satellite navigation, sensors, automation, artificial intelligence, and 5G technology. The most important technologies used for autonomous driving, the connection between vehicles (V2V), and the connection between vehicles and infrastructure (V2X) are shown in Fig. 1.2 Self-driving vehicles (also referred to as “Autonomous Vehicles”, in short “AV” or “Connected Autonomous Vehicles”, “CAV”) will revolutionize the world of transport. In fact, their diffusion can profoundly modify costs, performances, models of use and possession for travelers, and availability. The automotive world aims to create autonomous cars, self-driving vehicles that use sensors, cameras, radar, and artificial intelligence (AI) to move safely and without any driver. They are able to move even on roads not adapted to their circulation. Table 1.2 shows a scale through which it is possible to evaluate the degree of autonomy of a vehicle. It is frequently used by the automotive sector and ranges from 0 to 5. To date, level 1 technologies are present in almost all new car models, level 2 and 3 technologies are present only on high-end vehicles while level 4 and 5 technologies are being tested. For example, Waymo (a Google company) is designing level 5 selfdriving cars. Currently, its fleet has covered 32 million kilometers. Zoox (an Amazon company) is designing a robotaxi, a level 5 autonomous taxi with no steering and

Fig. 1.2 Left: Representation of the connection between V2V vehicles (Energy Today, 2021); right: representation of the components and connections in the interaction between vehicles and V2X infrastructures (Etf Trends, 2021)

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Table 1.2 Levels of road self-driving SAE International Standard J3016 (SAE, 2016) 0 No automation

Full-time performance by the human driver of all aspects of the dynamic driving task, albeit enhanced by warning or intervention systems

1 Driving assistance

The driver is in control of the vehicle, but the driver assistance system can take action on the speed and direction of the vehicle’s steering

2 Semi-automated

The second level of automation corresponds to semi-automated driving, in which the system takes care of both accelerating/braking and steering for a certain amount of time or in specific situations. The driver must be able to control the vehicle if corrections are needed

3 Conditional automation The third level of automation corresponds to highly automated driving. The vehicle assumes control over acceleration/braking and steering for a specified amount of time or in specific situations, without the driver being required to constantly monitor the vehicle. Those specific conditions and the human driver must be ready to intervene when the system requires it 4 High automation

This level of automation corresponds to autonomous/fully automated driving, in which the system assumes full driving of the vehicle in a specific application case (Operational Domain Design, ODD), automatically addressing all related situations. Human presence is no longer necessary, but its applications are limited to specific conditions

5 Full automation

The highest level of automation is driverless driving, in which the vehicle takes full control of driving from departure to arrival in all possible application cases, with all vehicle occupants as passengers

pedals. Another example is that of Singapore, where, since 2016, in an area with a radius of 2.5 km, the operation of a self-driving taxi is being tested. Several studies have observed that autonomous driving, by eliminating action and reaction times, will significantly increase the flow capacity on the road and the safety of travelers. If the entire car fleet in circulation were composed only of autonomous cars, it would be possible to design the road flow in an optimal way. It has also been shown that in a mixed environment, where both autonomous and traditional vehicles travel, the level of safety is reduced as drivers, recognizing self-driving vehicles, react more slowly due to the confidence they have in automation (Cascetta et al., 2021). Furthermore, few users want to buy an autonomous vehicle, either because of their distrust of this technology or because of their reluctance to pay more for it. Technological innovations concerning the autonomous and connected car affect not only individual vehicles but also the communications between them and the infrastructures. Through the “smart roads”, it is possible to allow connection and communication with the vehicles moving on it. Smart roads have a set of technologies for automatic data detection: • cameras, radar, and sensors in the pavement, • fast and bidirectional communication technologies both of the V2V (Vehicle to infrastructure) and V2X (vehicle to infrastructure and vehicles) type,

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• platforms for analysis, traffic forecasting, and management of control interventions in conditions of ordinary and emergency flow. There are several benefits associated with the adoption of intelligent roads (without taking into account autonomous vehicles) (ANAS, 2018): reduction of travel times in the order of 20%; • • • • •

increases in network capacity of 5–10%; decrease in the number of injuries of 10–15%; decrease in congestion of the 15%; reduction of polluting emissions by 10%; reduction in energy consumption by 12%.

Smart roads are already a reality. An example is the Austrian pilot project C-ROADS, which started in February 2016 and became operational in 2019. The aim of the project is to install the C-ITS system on 300 km of motorway. Through the ITS-G5 mobile network, it provides C-ITS services on board vehicles such as road work alerts, accident notifications, and weather information. The digitization of vehicles and infrastructures implies a rather complex renewal of the legislation, as it concerns many aspects including IT and road safety, responsibility of the various actors involved, protection of privacy, technologies and technical standards for communication, etc. Today the USA and the UK have a more mature regulatory framework that also allows for self-driving cars to be tested on the road. The European Union is showing a more cautious attitude. It has appointed a group of experts in the field of artificial intelligence with the aim of producing guidelines (Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI) in which the requirements that artificial intelligence must possess in order to be considered reliable are defined. These guidelines were then converted into a checklist (Assessment List for Trustworthy AI) that can be used by developers and distributors as a self-assessment tool. In Italy, a reference regulatory framework has been defined that establishes where and when driverless vehicles will be tested and which smart services to be adopted in the road sector. The driverless system is already widely used in subways. Examples are the metros in Paris, Hong Kong, Copenhagen, Lille, Milan, Brescia, and Rome. The driver is not needed as the Integral Automation System is able to operate the vehicle, route it on the track, force start/stop, regulate speed, manage the opening/closing of platform doors and identify obstacles and states of emergency. The vehicle also has the ability to communicate in real time with the control center, which is in charge of managing the line. There are various benefits associated with driverless metros: • flexibility: they can modify the rhythm and intensity of the service during the day, • safety: the possibility of human error is zero, • energy saving: thanks to the complete automation, they are able to work more efficiently. Currently, self-driving trains are also being tested in the suburban area, both for the transport of goods and passengers. Some technologies take advantage of satellite systems and seek to integrate satellite technologies with the ERTMS platform. For

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Fig. 1.3 Left: Navya, self-driving bus (Il Sole 24 ore, 2021); right: Next future modules, modular public transport (Leds Padova, 2021)

example, in 2018 Hitachi Rail tested the first autonomous rail transport system in Australia with the aim of automating the freight transport of the mining operator Rio Tinto. It is equipped with satellite-type communication systems. In the context of public transport, there are about 130 examples of services performed with autonomous mobility. They use driverless electric buses, capable of covering the assigned routes in maximum safety (Il Sole 24 ore, 2021). These buses can carry 15 people, at a maximum speed of 25 km/h and are mainly used in restricted traffic areas with the aim of connecting bus, tram, and metro stops. On board there is an operator who intervenes in case of need and plays a surveillance role (Fig. 1.3). Self-driving ships are also being tested. In 2016, as part of the DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) project, the first self-driving military ship was built: the Sea Hunter. It is 40 m long and can sail unmanned for 30/90 days. In Norway, the first self-driving container ship of 120 TEU is tested at sea at the Vard plant (managed by Fincantieri). It should be ready to sail in 2022. Self-driving container ships would be beneficial for both businesses and consumers as operating costs would be greatly reduced. Finally, in the field of air transport, various experiments are underway regarding autonomous driving. The first driverless commercial vehicles will be for freight transport and will fly over sparsely populated areas. It takes decades for autonomous driving to be applied to larger vehicles.

1.3 Rail Transport The fundamental characteristic of rail transport lies in the constraint of the trajectory that the road imposes on the vehicle: rail transport is indeed a guided transport. The driving function is not performed by the driver, as in free-driving vehicles, but from the street. The guide constraint allows the use of electricity for traction, since through the electrification of the route it is possible to transfer the traction energy on board when it is required. The high speed and the constraint of the trajectory impose an adjustment of the gear not based on the visibility of the space to be covered but on signaling systems that provide information on the state of the road and on the speed

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to be kept to ensure safe travel. The track is, therefore, equipped with technological systems that perform the functions of transferring information for command, control, and regulation of travel. The railway system is configured as a network in which the different lines are connected to each other at nodal points.

1.3.1 Rail Infrastructures: Linear Infrastructures The main linear infrastructure of the railway transport systems is constituted by the ironed way, whose superstructure is made up of the ballast and the armament (set of sleepers, attachments, and rails). It consists of the ballast, the sleepers, and the anchoring members of the rails to the sleepers. The superstructure has the task of dividing the loads concentrated on the rails into loads distributed on the ground so that the specific stresses are compatible with the resistance limits of the materials involved; moreover, it must perform the driving function of the vehicle in relation to the trajectory to be traveled. The street is also home to technological systems distributed along the route, which perform functions connected with traffic and which are essentially: the transmission of communication between ground and train, signaling (track circuits), etc. The ballast should be able to absorb the loads, static and dynamic, without permanent deformation; therefore, it must be equipped with an appropriate degree of elasticity.

1.3.2 Rail Infrastructures: Terminals/Stations Railway stations are installations in which the essential operations for carrying out the transport service are collected. The functions performed can be grouped in relation to different classification criteria: • in relation to the direction: connection between different directions; • in relation to movement: transit, stop, composition, breakdown, sorting of convoys; • in relation to circulation: precedence and intersections between trains; • in relation to the service: passenger boarding and alighting, loading and unloading of goods; • in relation to the exercise: cleaning, storage, supplies, maintenance. According to the effects of the movement and the connections between the directions, there are: • transit stations on the line; • crossroads between two lines; • crossing stations between two or more lines. In relation to traffic: precedence and intersections between trains.

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In relation to the shape of the station plan, there are also passing stations and head stations.

1.3.3 Rail Technologies In the next few years, new transport systems will be developed, the impact of which is not known as significant applications of these systems do not yet exist and it is necessary to provide countries with adequate infrastructures. One of the most promising hypotheses is the Hyperloop system (Fig. 1.4), characterized by speeds exceeding 1000 km/h. Such technology would be required for medium-range travel (Majchrzak et al., 2018). The technological basis is a combination of several innovations: magnetic propulsion and support systems that push pressurised capsules without friction into a watertight, very low pressure tube to greatly reduce aerodynamic drag. Hyperloop implementations have been announced in California and France (Ninja Marketing, 2021) but to date there are no concrete applications and nothing is yet known about the energy and functional performance of this system, nor is its costs known. In 2013, Space X and Tesla were the first to conceive and elaborate the conceptual model of the Hyperloop and today they suggest that in the next few years there will be the first implementations of this technology. Additionally, in 2020 the US Department of Transportation published a regulatory framework for the implementation of Hyperloop.

1.4 Air Transport The “deregulation”, adopted in the USA in 1978 with the Deregulation Act and then in Europe with the Aviation Liberalization Package, created the conditions for the free market allowing companies to adapt their offer not only in relation to demand, but also in competitive terms with respect to other companies and other modes of

Fig. 1.4 Left: the section of the Hyperloop model (Hyperloop Manchester, 2021); right: Virgin Hyperloop test track in the Nevada desert (BBC, 2021)

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transport. Benefits for users in terms of reduced rates increased frequencies and services. Disadvantages in terms of reduction of safety factors and failure to protect routes with low demand, a problem linked to the fact that in competitive market, the logic of increasing profits is followed with the reduction or elimination of unprofitable services.

1.4.1 Air Transport: Linear Infrastructures The airways are not identifiable as infrastructures as although they constitute a constraint for the path of the aircraft, they do not physically exist. From the moment of take-off to landing of the aircraft, a linear part of the land (runway-physical infrastructure) is distinguished and the airway that is not physically identifiable. The airway is identified by two points (called waypoints) that take into account the end of the line segment that identifies it. The crew informs the control tower of their transit on waypoints, also called reference points or reporting points. Airways are regions of space between two parallel vertical planes 10–20 nautical miles apart (1 nautical mile = 1.852 m). Their width depends on the accuracy of the radio navigation systems and is about 20 km. Each single route has a height extension of about 1000 ft (1 ft foot—0.3048 m).

1.4.2 Air Transport: Terminals/Airports Airports can be classified according to traffic, i.e., primary airports (more than 5 million passengers annually) and regional airports (less than 5 million passengers annually). Another element of classification is the airport traffic, i.e., light (15/20 movements/h); medium (16–25/20–35 movements/h); and heavy (26/36 movements/h). The number of movements per hour coincides with the number of take-off and landing operations.

1.4.3 Air Technologies Another sector that could revolutionize the world of transport is that of drones. For example, the Italian company FlyingBasket (2021) uses multirotor drones to transport heavy goods up to 100 kg in areas inaccessible with traditional means of transport. There are also drones capable of carrying people (up to six), particularly useful for short trips such as those in congested urban areas and connections between airports/stations and tourist resorts. Some companies already offer these services but at very high costs (Walulik-ITF, 2021) ones have the potential to be able to increase the capacity of urban mobility systems with less impacts than helicopters, especially

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Fig. 1.5 Left: example of a drone for passenger transport (Rol and Berger, 2021); right: example of a cargo Drone (Rol and Berger, 2021)

in terms of noise pollution. Today there are several problems that remain unsolved: the energy spent on flight is greater than that spent on rolling, the capacity and weight of batteries, and the regulation of airspace. It is not possible to know right now if this technology will remain a niche or will succeed in emerging and comparing itself with the other existing ones (Fig. 1.5).

1.5 Maritime Transport The maritime system is the preferred form of transport especially in the international trade of goods, as it is the cheapest transport system. It is suitable for transferring large quantities of goods at low unit cost, of not high commercial value or perishable, for which it is preferable to use other transport systems. Cruise ships perform a tourist function rather than a stable link. Ferries and hydrofoils usually connect the islands with the mainland on short or very short routes. Passenger transport is small and marginal compared to freight transport, which influences the market much more both in terms of the characteristics of the ships and in terms of port infrastructures. Water transport differs depending on whether it is navigation on inland waters (lakes, rivers, canals) or in the sea, both in terms of navigation methods and the type of means used, as the environmental conditions (seabed, motorbike wavy, etc.) are different in the two cases. The maritime transport system is characterized by the length of the journeys made (or routes). We talk about transport on long routes, when using ocean routes; medium-range routes are those of medium length, for example maritime routes within the Mediterranean. Cabotage, or short route, represents a type of navigation along the coast in order to connect places mostly belonging to the same nation. Short-distance transports can perform a “feeder” function, i.e., they provide for the redistribution on short or medium-short routes of the goods unloaded from transoceanic ships. “Feeder” services are also considered to be those carried out for passengers on short routes connecting the mainland and the smaller islands or between several islands.

1.6 Tourism: Evolution and the Concept

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1.5.1 Maritime Transport: Linear Infrastructures/Routes Routes define the path (the way); the terminals are represented by the port structures. The routes are not comparable to physical infrastructures (see airways for air transport). The characteristics of the route are different depending on whether we consider a sea route or an internal channel and therefore we distinguish between navigation at sea and inland navigation. A separate case is represented by the artificial sea canals (Panama, Suez) which are crucial nodes of the maritime transport system. They are constrained in terms of draft (as the depth of the artificial canals is not very high, requiring periodic maintenance works against the deposit of earthy material at the bottom).

1.5.2 Maritime Transport: Terminals/Ports The port represents an interchange node between a land transport system and a maritime or waterway transport system. To make this system efficient, it cannot be conceived in isolation from the context in which it is inserted, but must be included in a wider transport system that includes both interactions with other port systems and interactions with land transport systems. Rail and/or road connections are essential to ensure the specific function of the port in terms of continuity of transport and connection with the hinterland. Ports can be classified into: • • • • • • •

Freight terminal (freight village) Passengers terminal Containers terminal Cruise Shipbuilding Petrol provision Fishing.

1.6 Tourism: Evolution and the Concept The movement of people for recreational purposes is certainly not a new phenomenon. It has been there since time immemorial, and the last couple of centuries recorded its remarkable expansion, which eventually paved the way for the rise of a major economic sector known as tourism. Currently, it is a truly global economic sector with a range of benefits and consequences on the economy, society, culture, and environment. Movement, being the fundamental activity of tourism, has been leveraged by the continuous progress in the mobility of the people backed by the regular advancements in transport and related technologies. Together with its growth into a leading economic sector, the scope and dimensions of tourism expanded

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Table 1.3 Impacts of Covid-19 on tourism in 2020 (in comparison with 2019) • International tourist arrivals plunged by 73% in 2020, i.e., 1 billion fewer international arrivals were recorded • Loss of USD 1.1 trillion in export revenues from tourism, a decline of 63% in real terms • The drop represents 42% of the total decline in international trade recorded in 2020 • The COVID-19 pandemic caused an economic loss of some USD 2.0 trillion measured in tourism direct gross domestic product (TDGDP), a decline of over 50% in nominal terms • As many as 100 million direct tourism jobs were estimated to be at risk Source UNWTO (2021b)

greatly. Currently, along with leisure tourism, business tourism, a form of tourism that involves the movement of people for work/business/profession-related purposes, is also a major segment in the realm of international tourism. The socio-economic significance of tourism is one of the cardinal reasons for tourism’s development, and a sort of hyper-competition prevails among countries in attracting more tourists to their destinations. More and more countries are now interested in developing and promoting tourism and making utmost efforts to attract the maximum number of tourists. Billions of people are involved, and trillions of dollars are now generated as part of tourism. According to the UN World Tourism Organisation, the economic contribution of tourism to the global economy in the pre-pandemic period (2019) amounted to USD 3.5 trillion, which is 4% of world GDP (UNWTO, 2021a). During the same period, the export earnings by the visit of 1.5 billion tourists in the realm of international tourism were USD 1.7 trillion, which is 6.8% of world exports. The magnitude of domestic tourism and its contributions is much more than that of international tourism. Tourism is highly vulnerable to crises of varied sorts, and, in 2020–2021, the COVID-19 pandemic caused unprecedented disruption to tourism, resulting in a catastrophic effect on tourism (Table 1.3). Though the term Tourism began in use in the nineteenth century, the written history epitomizes glaring examples of the existence of travel that can be equated with tourism in different locations in the world. Historical evidence tells about the existence of travel out of curiosity to see other world and for leisure in the Egyptian, Greek, and Eastern Mediterranean Empires as well. The Phoenicians took voyages not only for trade-related reasons but also moved out of curiosity. During those days, the privileged groups of the population cultivated the first journeys for pleasure. The era of Romans gave much impetus for travel as they could establish a good transport network and different forms of leisure tourism existed during then as well. For instance, Goeldner and Ritvhie (2006: 40) state that “Roman tourists went about sightseeing much as we do today. They used guidebooks, employed guides, left graffiti everywhere, and bought souvenirs. The examples are diverse and often amusing”. Religion, pilgrimage, knowledge seeking, and trade became the prime motivations for travel to foreign lands. Later, for some centuries, up to the 14th, the progress in tourism was sluggish. Still, the revolutionary changes that happened in the world in the second half of the last millennium became instrumental in the evolution of modern tourism.

1.6 Tourism: Evolution and the Concept

17

The evolution of scientific concepts resulted in advancements in many spheres of human life in the world. Travel was no exception to it. A form of resurgence in tourism called the ‘Grand Tour’ occurred in Europe for a few centuries during then. As part of Grand tourism that was there from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, the Aristocratic young men, particularly, engaged in travel for a couple of years of time or so within Europe, having Italy as the ultimate destination with an epicenter of Rome. The industrial revolution that occurred in Europe contributed a significant share to the progress of travel and tourism. The emergence of paid holidays, steam engines, rail services, and other better transport technologies gave a fillip to tourism. The venture of the first organized tour operation by Thomas Cook in 1841 marked the beginning of the tour operation business in tourism which experienced much dynamism in the decades that followed, and tour operation took center stage in the process of tourism later. The dawn of the twentieth century saw the rise of aviation by the experimental flight of a ‘heavier-than-air aircraft’ by the Wright brothers in 1903. Aviation experienced rapid developments within decades and became part and parcel of international tourism later. Although World Wars led to sluggishness in the growth of tourism, transport systems advanced as part of the experiments and developments that occurred during then as part of the war-related activities, and that eventually helped tourism to grow once the wars were over. The trained pilots and engineers, aircrafts used for war purposes, infrastructure established, and the transport technologies developed during wars became useful for commercial air transportation after the wars, and tourism also benefited. The better social and economic circumstances that emerged after the Second World War gave a conducive environment for tourists to make international trips more smoothly. The 1960s and 1970s were marked for Charter tourism in Europe. The rise of air transport side-lined the significance of passenger shipping services, and later, some of the ships were converted into cruise ships, and thus cruise tourism got emerged. Also, the importance of rail services registered a decline and sooner it, as the prime mode of transport, got restricted to some countries. The advent of Deregulation, which fostered privatization in air transportation, first by the USA in 1978, led to dramatic changes in commercial air transport services, which altogether made air transport services more affordable for all sorts of travelers. Moreover, almost in the same period, wide-body aircraft were used in commercial air transportation and greatly augmented long-haul tourism. Furthermore, the advancements in information and communication technology (ICT), either directly or indirectly, gave the impetus for tourism to progress further. Business tourism, particularly, got a fillip by the spread of globalization. Stunning progress was visible in the number of tourist arrivals in the second half of the twentieth century. In 1950, when modern tourism was taken off as a significant economic force, the number of international tourist arrivals was merely 25.3 million. When it turned 2000, within five decades of duration, the number of tourist arrivals increased to 674 million; and by 2016, the figures had gone up to 1,235 million (UNWTO, 2018). Correspondingly, tourism’s socio-economic contributions also multiplied in the same period as international tourism receipts earned by destinations worldwide surged from US$2

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billion in 1950 to US$495 billion in 2000 and US$1,220 billion in 2016 (UNWTO, 2018). Thus, tourism became a major socio-economic force by the beginning of the new millennium. Currently, almost all sections of society across the world now take part in tourism activities, which was restricted to the ‘Rich and Aristocratic’ for several centuries. In Table 1.4, the major milestones in the history of tourism are reported. Tourism is conceptualized and defined in different ways. Being a multi-faceted activity, choosing a universally accepted definition is rather difficult. While travel has been the term used to represent the movement of people to other places out of curiosity, the term tourism started to represent the commercial version of it a couple of centuries. Social, managerial, and statistical aspects are given more significance when it is conceptualized lately. Essentially, tourism represents the movement of people from their usual environment to a distant place for the purpose of visiting, which indicates the spatial aspect of tourism. Earlier, Mathieson and Wall (1982: 1) conceptualized tourism as “The temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work and residence, the activities undertaken during the stay in those destinations, and the facilities created to cater for their needs”. The definition indicates the nature of the movement of the people. Also, it hints at the business aspects of tourism for the provision of tourism services and products as per the requirements of the tourists while they are on their journey until they return to the origin pace. As part of the movement, social interactions take place between the tourists and the host communities. For instance, Goeldner and Ritvhie (2006: 6) define tourism as “the processes, activities, and outcomes arising from the relationships and the interactions among tourists, tourism suppliers, host governments, host communities, and surrounding environments that are involved in the attracting and hosting of visitors”. UNWTO (Glossary of Tourism Terms) also point out that tourism is “a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes”. The emphasis of the definition is on the place of visit, which has to be other than the common place of work and residence of the tourist. Earlier, World Tourism Oraganisation (WTO) defined tourism as “the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes” (WTO, 1995). From a statistical perspective, the minimum and maximum duration of the visit (24 h and one year consecutively), the non-remunerative character of the visit, and the purposes of the visit are also specified by World Tourism Organisation. The classified list of purposes of travel as part of tourism includes leisure, recreation, and holidays; VFR (visiting friends and relatives); business and professional (e.g., travel as part of meetings, incentives, conventions, and events of other types); health treatment, religion/pilgrimages; and other considerable types like Aircraft and ship crews on public carriers, transit, and other or unknown activities (WTO & UNSTAT, 1994). It can be summarized that tourism represents a short-term movement of people from their usual environment to a distant place for the purpose of visiting and engaging in activities that are non-remunerative in nature. The tourist has to stay

1.6 Tourism: Evolution and the Concept

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Table 1.4 Major milestones in the history of tourism 4000BC

Invention of money by Sumerians (Babylonia)

1944

Chicago Convention and Formation of ICAO

5–15th cent. AD

Dark Era of tourism

1947

International Union of Official Travel Organizations (IUOTO) was formed

1763–1773

Renaissance stage of tourism

1950

Vladimir Raitz established mass charter air movement

1820

Introduction of regular steamboat services

1950s

Jet engine flights, including Boeing 707 passenger aircraft introduced into commercial transportation

1830

First Passenger train service begins, between Manchester and Liverpool

1967

The United Nations, following an IUOTO initiative, declares 1967 International Tourist Year (ITY), with the slogan Tourism, Passport to Peace

1840

The first steamship is built for leisure cruises by Cunard

1969

Wide-Body aircraft, Boeing 747 Jumbo jet introduced, capable of seating 500 passengers

1841

Thomas Cook organized the first modern tour

1970

On 27 September, the IUOTO Special General Assembly meeting in Mexico City adopts the Statutes of the World Tourism Organization (WTO)

1867

Thomas Cook introduced hotel 1975 voucher

WTO began its legal existence

1872

Thomas Cook first organized ‘the round the world tour’

Deregulation of Air transportation began in the USA

1873

‘Circular Note’ was introduced 1980 by Thomas cook

From 1980 onwards, September 27 day is celebrated as “World Tourism Day”

1988–1989

The Savoy, Claridges, and Carlton hotels were opened in London

2002

2002 is declared International Year of Ecotourism

1903

Airplane’s first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina by the Wright brothers

2003

WTO into a United Nations specialized body

1908

Automobile entered the travel scene in the USA when Henry Ford introduced his famous model T

2005

Introduction of the Airbus A380, capable of carrying up to 800 passengers

1920s

Chartered flight appeared in tourism

2020

Tourism experienced the worst crisis in its history due to COVID-19 pandemic. International tourist arrivals were declined by 73%

1978

(continued)

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Table 1.4 (continued) 1840

The first steamship is built for leisure cruises by Cunard

in the destination visited for at least 24 h, and the stay should not exceed one year consecutively. Being a social process, the movement involves interactions between the visiting community and the host communities, which involve industry stakeholders, the local community, and other relevant stakeholders. The phenomenon arises out of such movements, and the corresponding social and managerial activities are referred to as tourism. A tourist is basically a visitor and considering the duration of the time spent in the destination; the visitors are categorized into two as excursionists (day visitors) and tourists. If the visitor leaves the destination within 24 h of duration, he/she shall be termed an excursionist. In order to consider a visitor a tourist, at least one night’s stay is needed at the destination visited. That means all the visitors are not considered tourists while measuring the tourism demand. Some tourists visit the destinations within the country of origin or residence, and the travel does not involve the crossing of borders of the country. Tourism emerges out of the movement of the people to visit the destinations that are located within the boundaries of a country is categorized as Domestic tourism. On the other hand, international tourism involves the movement of people to foreign countries. While in domestic tourism, the origin and destination countries are the same, in international tourism, both are different countries. Inbound tourism and outbound tourism are part of international tourism. While the former involves the tourism activities by the visit of people from foreign countries, outbound tourism refers to the activities of a visitor who leaves his country of residence for a foreign country. The distinction here is usually a comparative one, with reference to the country of residence. The same tourist can be considered an inbound tourist in comparison with a person residing in the visiting country and an outbound tourist when comparing him/her with a resident of his own country while leaving to visit a foreign country. When tourism occurs within a region, it is referred to as intra-regional tourism. i.e., the origin and destination countries are located within a region. The region can be a continent, a distinguishable part of a continent, or any other region of reference. Inter-regional tourism involves the movement of tourists from a country located in one region to another country that belongs to another region of reference.

1.7 Tourism: One of the Largest Economic Sectors According to United Nations World Tourism Organisation, “t[T]ourism is one of the world’s major economic sectors” in the world (www.unwto.org). There are certain apprehensions in considering tourism as an industry as the nature of this sector does

1.7 Tourism: One of the Largest Economic Sectors

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not fit into the conceptual framework of an industry which tells about the need of similarity of the units involved and the products offered. Yet, tourism is often remarked on as an industry in various contexts, and it involves different sub-industries such as Destinations and Attractions; Government organizations; Intermediaries; Transportation; Accommodation/Hospitality; Entertainment and Recreation, Shopping; Hospitality; and Infrastructure (Dileep & Kurien, 2021). These are fundamental components of the tourism sector. According to Goeldner and Ritchie (2006: 6), “Tourism is a composite of activities, services, and industries that deliver a travel experience: transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking establishments, shops, entertainment, activity facilities, and other hospitality services available for individuals or groups that are traveling away from home. It encompasses all providers of visitor and visitor-related services”. A tourist, from the commencement of the journey till reaches back to the origin place, after the visit to the destination, will have several needs and wants. A wide range of businesses are there which function to satisfy those needs and wants of the tourism while on the trip. A value chain framework suggested by DEVCO and UNWTO (Sustainable Tourism for Development Guidebook, 2013) identifies the following components within the tourism sector. • • • • • • • •

Transportation Accommodation Travel organization and booking Food and beverage Handicraft (Souvenirs) Tourism assets in destination Leisure, excursions, and tours Support services.

Transportation is an essential element of the tourism sector, and it represents myriad transport forms that can be classified based on the medium of transportation, such as land-based, water-based, and air-based. The prime purpose of tourism transportation is to ensure smooth, safe, and comfortable access to the destinations and various tourist sites. It generally involves airlines, rail services, car rentals, bus/coaches service providers, taxi companies, river/ferries, and informal transport services. Some transport forms like Cruises have more leisure purposes than transporting the tourists to destinations. Accommodation is also a composite sector that may have elements like hotels, resorts, guest houses, and apartments. Ensuring a comfortable, convenient, and safe stay is the prime responsibility of the sector. Hospitality is another term used interchangeably in this context, though it is a broader concept that includes more sectors. The travel organization and booking sector involves travel agents, tour operators, internet and call centers, and other intermediaries. Many such businesses act as intermediaries and have a key role in distributing travel and tourism products more conveniently and easily to the customers. While on the trip away from the residence until it returns, tourists need food of different types. Some businesses offer food products, and the availability of quality culinary services does matter in tourism. A range of food serving businesses is there in the parlance of tourism. Restaurants and

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Bars, nightclubs, fast food outlets, itinerant food shops, kiosks, and food souvenirs are the common elements involved in the Food and Beverage sector. Tourists always prefer to buy some items from the place visited that can offer memories of their visit. The souvenir sector provides a variety of products that can be kept as a reminder of a place visited. The handicraft sector is part of the souvenir sector and consists of handicraft shops, craftsmen, and handicraft workshops. Tourism assets in destination involve cultural assets like archaeology communities, museums, tourism attractions, and intangible cultural assets. The leisure, excursions, and tours category is a diverse one that may comprise shows, tourist guides, organizations, tourism packages, wellness, spas, etc. Information centers, grocery/retail shops, laundry, security and bank services, and internet cafes are the major elements of Support Services in the tourism sector. UNWTO highlights that the tourism sector has been experiencing continued expansion and diversification over some decades, and it is being remarked as one of the largest and fastest-growing economic sectors in the world. Moreover, the tourism sector (both domestic and international tourism together) is a major contributor to the global GDP and many economies worldwide. Furthermore, around 80% of tourism enterprises are micro, small, and medium sized enterprises (MSMEs) (UNWTO, 2021b). Tourism is a sector with complex linkages with other sectors. Having multiple sectors within and spread over different geographical regions, efficient coordination is important in tourism management. The specialty of the tourism sector is that the components of the sector are not located in one region. While some are located in the tourism market region, from where the tourists start their journey, some others are located in the place where the tourists would like to visit, which is usually far away from the origin place. Outbound tour operators and travel agents are situated in the tourist-origin region when you view tourism from a spatial context. While traveling to reach the destination using an airline, the airline’s presence is more in the space between the origin and destination locations. Hotels are located in the destination. Leaper’s Model of Tourism System reveals this spatial distribution of tourism sectors (Leiper, 1979). According to the model, tourism can be considered a system that functions in an open environment. Elements of it like geographical elements, the tourism industry, and the tourist are closely interconnected and interdependent. Geographical elements involve three distinct regions in which tourism activities take place. The first region is the tourist generating region (TGR), from where the tourist commences their journey to visit the destination. The tourist takes a long journey through a region called the transit route region (TRR) and reaches another region, called the tourist destination region (TDR), the intended area of visit located far away from the origin region. Thus, the industry is fragmented to locate in different regions, but most of them are situated in the destination region. Tourist is omnipresent in the system, and he/she is the most important element in the system as their absence can cause the system non-functional. Each sector has backward linkages with other sectors within the economy as well. The linkages are more comparatively, and the concept of the multiplier effect is much more significant in the case of tourism. The multiplier effect indicates the number of economic benefits generated by the extra expenditure made by the tourists in various tourism industries. The amount spent by

1.8 Transportation Systems and Tourism: The Intricate Relationship

23

the tourists makes different rounds of expenditures within an economy as it passes through many other sectors in the economy. Most of the elements of the tourism sector have service characteristics. The products offered to the tourists are featured with intangibility. As a result, the product cannot be directly seen, tasted, or felt before its purchase and consumption. Since predemonstration of the products is hardly possible, the marketers would face increased difficulty in convincing the buyer about the product. Also, many of the products are perishable, making it difficult to store them for future sale. Moreover, the consumer is part of the production system as the product generates only when the tourist reaches the industry’s location. The production and consumption take place simultaneously. The tourist has to travel some distance and reach the destination to experience tourism. The tourist actually gets an experience as part of the visit from the site visited.

1.8 Transportation Systems and Tourism: The Intricate Relationship Tourism and transportation share a symbiotic relationship as both benefit greatly from the other sector’s existence and association (Dileep & Kurien, 2021). Throughout the history of tourism, the dependence on transportation is evident, and the advent of transport technologies at different occasions spurred tourism’s progress to new heights. Tourism, as stated before, is all about the movement of people from the usual place of residence and work to a distance place to visit and the social and managerial activities emerge as part of the same. The movement is obviously associated with transportation, and the ultimate objective of transportation “is to overcome space, which is shaped by a variety of human and physical constraints such as distance, time, administrative divisions and topography” (Rodrigue et al., 2006). While in tourism, the tourists engage in the process of overcoming space and visiting tourist attractions using different transport systems. Moreover, transport systems or their elements, at times, become part of the recreational experience of tourists as well. For tourist destinations, transport systems turn out to be crucial in attracting tourists, ensuring tourist satisfaction, and in using it as a marketing tool. The quality of the transport system provided in the destination is a vital determinant of the destination’s success. For a tourist, choosing transport systems is based on multiple factors, and the quality of transport systems and the associated aspects have great influence on tourists’ transport buying behavior. On the other hand, the development of tourism too benefits the growth of transport. For instance, when a destination is getting developed, the transport infrastructure will also be part of the development plans. Moreover, the level of transport services also will get enhanced. Airports, for example, will try to expand their business operations, increase services, and enhance the quality of services. Along with the increase in the accessibility of the destinations, the route network also will expand, and the

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number and frequency of transport services will increase. The increasing popularity of tourist destinations will directly result in a hike in transport demand as well. Moreover, diversification of transport systems will take place once tourism progresses in destinations. Innovations in transport offerings can also take place. The changes in transportation take place not only in destinations but, to some extent, in the transit route region and tourist-origin region as well. Various dimensions of the interrelationship existing between tourism and transportation systems will be discussed in the following chapters in detail.

1.9 Conclusion In this chapter, a description of what is meant by a transportation system is provided. Indeed, it can be defined as the combination of elements and their interactions, which produce the demand for travel within a given area and the supply of transportation services to satisfy this demand. Examples of infrastructures, services, and technologies are described supporting the tourism demand market. Travel is inherent in tourism, and transportation is fundamental in the process of tourism. Both share a symbiotic relationship. The following chapters will show the link between the transportation systems introduced in this chapter and the role played by them in the progress of tourism.

References Anas, S. (2018). Direzione Operation e Coordinamento Territoriale Infrastruttura Tecnologica e Impianti: SMART ROAD “La strada all’avanguardia che corre con il progresso”. Rome: ANAS. BBC.com: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-54838982, ultimo accesso aprile 2021a. Cascetta, E. (2009). Transportation systems engineering: Models and applications. Heidelberg; Springer. Cascetta, E., Carteni, A., & DiFrancesco, L. (2021). Do autonomous vehicles drive like humans? A turing test approach and an application to SAE automation Level 2 cars. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 134, 103499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2021.103499. Culpan, R. (1987). International tourism model for developing economies. Annals of Tourism Research, 14, 541–552. Dileep, M.R., & Kurien, A. (2021). Air transport and tourism: Interrelationship, strategies and practices. London: Routledge. Energy Today. (2021). https://www.vehicle-2-grid.eu/en/ Etf Trends. (2021). https://www.etftrends.com/ Flying Basket: https://flyingbasket.com/it/flying-basket-droni-per-trasporto-carichi-pesanti/, ultimo accesso aprile 2021. Goeldner, R.C., & Ritvhie, J.R.B. (2006). Tourism principles, practices, philosophies. New Delhi: Wiley. Gutiérrez, A., & Miravet, D. (2016). The determinants of tourist use of public transport at the destination. Sustainability, 8(9), 908. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090908 Hyperloop Manchester: https://www.hyperloopmanchester.com/, ultimo accesso gennaio 2021.

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Il Sole 24 ore, https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/, ultimo accesso febbraio 2021. Leds Padova: https://www.ledspadova.eu/event/next-future-transportation/, ultimo accesso febbraio 2021. Leiper, N. (1979). The framework of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research (October–December), 390–407. Lohmann, G., & Duval, D.T., (2013). Critical aspects of the tourism-transport relationship. Oxford, UK: Goodfellow Publishers. Lynam, D.A., & Lawson, S.D. (2005). Potential for risk reductions on British inter-urban major roads. Traffic Engineering and Control, 46(10). Majchrzak, A., Griffith, T. L., Reetz, D. K., & Alexy, O. (2018). Catalyst organizations as a new organization design for innovation: The case of hyperloop transportation technologies. Academy of Management Discoveries, 4(4), 472–496. Mathieson, A., & Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, physical, and social impacts. London: Longman. Ninja Marketing: https://www.ninjamarketing.it/2018/04/16/pista-hyperloop-tolosa-francia/, ultimo accesso aprile 2021. OECD. (1990). Integrated traffic safety management in urban areas. Paris: OECD. OECD. (1999). Safety strategies for rural roads. Paris: OECD. Papageorgiou, M., Mountakis, K.S., Karafyllis, & Pamichail, I. (2019). Lane-free artificial-fluid concept for vehicular traffic. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.11642 Repubblica: https://www.repubblica.it/scienze/2018/10/22/news/musk_hyperloop_primo_tunnel_ pronto_corse_gratis_a_dicembre_-209651889/, ultimo accesso aprile 2021b. Rispoli, F. (2018). The rise of satellite technology appeal for train control systems. IRSE Australasia 2018. Rodrigue, J.P. (2020). The geography of transport systems. New York: Routledge. Rodrigue, J-P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2006). The geography of transport systems. Oxon, UK: Routledge. Rol, & berger: https://www.rolandberger.com/en/Insights/Publications/, ultimo accesso gennaio 2021. SAE. (2016). Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to driving automation systems for on-road motor vehicles (Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice: Superseding J3016 January 2014), SAE International, September 2016. Sustainable Tourism for Development Guidebook. (2013). Development and cooperation European Aid and United Nations World Tourism Organisation. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. UNWTO Glossary of Tourism Terms, data available online at https://www.unwto.org/glossary-tou rism-terms UNWTO. (2018). Tourism Highlights 2017, data available online at https://doi.org/10.18111/978 9284419029 UNWTO. (2021a). International Tourism Highlights 2020, data available online at https://doi.org/ 10.18111/9789284422456 UNWTO. (2021b). The economic contribution of tourism and impact of Covid-19, data available online at https://doi.org/10.18111/9789284423200 Walulik, J.-ITF. (2021). Ready for take off? Integrating drones into the transport system, ITF research reports. Paris: OECD Publishing. WTO and UNSTAT. (1994). Recommendations on tourism Statistics, WTO, Madrid and UN, New York. WTO. (1995). Tourism to the year 2000 and beyond : Volume I. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation. www.unwto.org. https://www.unwto.org/tourism-and-covid-19-unprecedented-economic-impacts

Chapter 2

Tourism Transportation

2.1 Introduction Transportation remains one of the most significant elements in the Tourism system and is all-pervasive in the geographical constituents of it. The transportation system forms a network in every site connecting its nook and corner, linking its attractions, industries, gateways, and connecting transportation nodes with one another. The vehicles that facilitate the transportation of tourists help them travel from their place of origin to their location of interest. The transportation network in a place that connects people by transporting them from one place to another looks like the cardiovascular system of the human body that creates a network to carry blood throughout the body. Akin to blood in the Cardiovascular system, the presence of tourists is inevitable in the functioning of all the components of the system. And, the route network and vehicles, together, form the basic structure required for the proper functioning of the system. On looking at the history of the evolution of Tourism, it is evident that each developmental stride in transportation has led to a spur in the growth of Tourism, with different modes of transport having varying roles to play on varying occasions. While tourism’s dependency is discussed at length, the way transportation has benefited from tourism is rarely reviewed. In certain cases, transportation development also seems to be dependent on tourism, and in some regions, transportation demand seems to be directly proportional to tourist traffic variations and patterns. Tourism development certainly has positive effects on transportation. Despite tourism and transportation being closely related, the analysis of its various aspects and interactions between them is rarely explored in Literature (Page, 1999). According to Hall (1999), there are certain constraints in exploring the relationship between tourism and transportation, and they include: (1) multiplicity and heterogeneity of tourism transportation as it encompasses diverse modes, spatial situations, and ownership patterns; (2) varying dependence of tourism on transportation as there can be exclusive transport for tourism, partly-used transport services, occasionally used services, and never used transport services; and (3) explicit use and anonymous use transport

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_2

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forms in the realm of tourism. Although the constraints are intact, an attempt has been made to explore the inextricable link between tourism and transportation in the following chapters, and an overview is given below.

2.2 Tourism Transportation The evolution of modern tourism owes much to the advancements in transportation as a mode of mobility. Transport could play a wide range of roles in the development of modern tourism. Historically, transportation has been deemed inevitable as an element in the Tourism system. The spatial–temporal movement represents the most essential components of the tourist activity, in the absence of which there can be no tourism. According to Tan and Ismail (2020), the transport-related technological advancements occurred at regular intervals, and corresponding dynamism emerged in every mode of transportation, making the transportation system more accessible and affordable for tourists. The technological advancements at every stage enabled transport to be safer, more comfortable, faster, and more efficient. Overall, transportation was transforming, and the commercial aspects of transportation too became more tourist-friendly. As a consequence, transportation affordability got enhanced at every stage in the evolution of transportation. In addition, it enabled more sections of the society to make use of transport services to facilitate leisure travel. In Table 2.1, the shares of transport modes chosen by tourists visiting foreign countries are reported for the last two decades. The trend is shown in Fig. 2.1. The changes in transport technology and the consequent dynamism also led to the reduction of economic distance. In this regard, Celata (2007) opined that tourism has been historically associated with progression of the transport system and reduction of economic distances. The affordability aspect is linked to the relative reduction in the cost of travel from place to place. This gained increased significance after the Second World War when the so-called modern tourism started to evolve into a major socio-economic activity at a global level. For instance, Tan and Ismail (2020: 1) state that “…transportation modes are getting cheaper and accessible due to the advancement of development in transportation such as the introduction of numerous Table 2.1 Share (%) of the transport modes used by tourists visiting foreign countries over the last two decades Transport mode

2000

2005

2010

2015

2019

Air

43

45

51

54

59

Road

42

43

41

39

35

Rail

7

5

2

2

1

Water

8

7

6

5

5

Source Tourism Highlights of World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) of various years

2.2 Tourism Transportation

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International Tourist Arrivals Share of Transport use 70

Air Transport

60 50 Road Transport

40 30 20

Water Transport

10 0 2000

2005

2010

2015

Rail Transport 2019

Years: 2020-2019

Fig. 2.1 Transport modes used by tourists visiting foreign countries from 2000–2019

budget airlines and cruises. Thus, these improvements have given more people to have the opportunity to travel more frequently than ever before”. There exists an inherent and intricate relationship between tourism and transportation. The Prime significance of transportation lies in the features of tourism such as ‘inseparability’ and ‘fragmentation of the industry’. In order to consume the products of tourism, the consumer has to travel to the location where the attractions and tourism industry are located. From a managerial perspective, a tourist is indispensable in the production process, and if a tourist does not reach, the tourism products do not generate. Production of tourism service and the consumption of that service take place simultaneously. In this context, transportation system essentially provides transportation services at competitive costs through necessary coordination of the movement of people and/or goods, utilization of suitable vehicles, and infrastructure ˙ 2018). Even the industry elements are located in to consume tourism products (Zak, different geographical regions in the tourism system. While a hotel is seen placed in one location, the tourist attraction may be in another location. The tourist is from a faraway place. Transportation connects all these elements. Tourism transportation is an amalgam of varied elements. Some are the vehicles that carry tourists from place to place. Transport infrastructures that are essential for the movement also happen to be a part of it. The operations, management, and services are also present in tourism transportation. Recreational transport services complement the attractiveness of tourism transportation. Touristic routes also have similar significance. “Transport for the purposes of tourism can be expressed as a series of modes operating across vast networks consisting of points (or nodes) and routes (or vectors)” (Lohmann & Duval, 2011: 3). The above definitions highlight the inevitability of the transportation network and the modes of Transport needed for the movement. Prideaux (2000: 56) defined tourism transport as “the operation of, and interaction between, transport modes, ways and terminals that support tourism resorts in terms of passenger and freight flows into

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and out of destinations, the provision of transport services within the destination, and the provision of connecting transport modes in the tourism generating region”. The services offered as a part of transportation are emphasized in it. The quality of the operations and services is indeed essential in forming the experience of tourists. Lumsdon (2006) opined that transport for tourism refers to all trips from the origin place of the tourist to the destination undertaken for tourism purposes using different modes of travel. Moreover, all sorts of trips made inside the tourist destination and the return trips are included in the transport for tourism. Considering tourism as a ‘means to an end’, transport plays different roles, which include (Prideaux, 2000; Tan & Ismail, 2020): • Provision of transportation services from the place of origin to further movement as a part of tourism activities. • Providing safe, comfortable, competitively priced, and fast transport services. • Providing transport services within the destination. • Providing freight services to Tourist destinations. According to Prideaux (2000), transport systems, in addition to the prime purpose of connecting tourist-origin places to destinations, have other significant tasks, such as: • • • •

Transport from the tourists’ home to the terminal. Transport services that are fast, safe, comfortable, and competitively priced. Transport within the destination. Transport freight into the tourism destination.

Although the role of transportation was traditionally focused more on connecting the elements of the tourism system, newer dimensions have been pointed out along with the increase in the intriguing bondage between transport and tourism. Traditionally, transport is considered as an essential link between tourist origin and destination, and thus the role of transport is highlighted as a ‘means to an end’. Hall (1999) pointed out that instead of seeing its intrinsic role in the tourism experience as a tourist experience in its own right, tourism transport has commonly been seen just as a ‘means to an end’. At a later point, Page also came out with a similar opinion and it stated thus: “Transport provides the essential link between the tourist origin and destination areas. Transport can also form the focal point for tourist activity in the case of cruising and holidays, which contain a significant component of travel. Yet, the mode of transport forms a context and controlled environment for tourist’s movement between destination and attractions, often through the medium of a “tour” and mode of transport tourists choose can often form an integral part of their journeys and experience” (Page, 1999: 220). This indicates the critical role of transport as an experience provider in which transport itself becomes a recreational activity or a major element in providing recreation to tourists. Therefore, distinct perspectives can be identified in the case of the relation between tourism and transportation. Transportation is an inevitable and pervasive constituent of the tourism system. It is a pervasive and vital function in the process of tourism. From the commencement

2.3 Transport as a ‘Means to End’ and ‘Focal Element of Tourism Product’

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of the tourist’s journey from the place of origin to his return from the visit, it has a definite, identifiable effect on a tourist’s experience.

2.3 Transport as a ‘Means to End’ and ‘Focal Element of Tourism Product’ Regarding tourists/tourism, the purpose of Transportation is viewed from two contradicting perspectives—while the first view views Transportation as a means to an end without an intrinsic value, the second view views Transportation as a focal aspect of tourism products with intrinsic value (Lumsdon & Page, 2004). Seetaram (2016) conceptualizes these perspectives in the following manner. • Transportation as a ‘means to an end’ In this case, Transportation is an enabler for the tourist and without an intrinsic value of its own. In this perspective, transportation demand is derived from the demand for products that destinations offer (Seetaram, 2016). • Transportation as a focal element of tourism product The transport itself acts as the most critical/focal component of tourism which possesses intrinsic values for the tourists, and the utility is obtained from the travel itself, which contradicts the concept of derived demand of Transportation due to tourism (Seetaram, 2016). Lumsdon and Page (2004) distinguished between the roles of “transport for tourism” and “transport as tourism” which happen to be the two ends of a continuum. The first one is indicative of Transportation from origin to destination and within the destination, in order to access the tourist attractions while the next one is about the use of transport, which is the central context of the tourist experience. These terms are further modified as ‘tourist transport’ to represent the ‘transport for tourism’ and as ‘transport tourism’ which is indicative of the term ‘transport as tourism’. Examples of transport tourism include cruises (sea, river, or lake), coach tours, railway journeys, sailing, canoeing/kayaking, cycling, scenic car trails, scenic flights, and different forms of walking for pleasure, such as hiking, trekking, and strolling (Lumsdon & Page, 2004; Page, 1999). Transport tourism experience involves the role of transport as the principal product of tourism and a tourist attraction. Lohmann and Duval (2014) specified three parallels between transport and tourism: regulatory synergies, objective function, and shared emphasis on sustainability. Concerning regulatory synergies, tourism and transport share some of the regulatory spaces commonly, and the regulation on the one in certain areas has a direct impact on the other as well. For instance, transport regulations associated with safety and environmental aspects have a similar effect on tourism as well. For example, a regulation concerning the reduction in carbon emissions directly impacts tourism in which transport emissions have the largest share. About the feature of an objective function, although there may be differing end results, some of the functions

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of tourism and transport are of the same nature and provide the same effects to the consumers. For instance, Lohmann and Duval (2014) state that tourism and transport constitute personal mobility. While tourism functions to provide experiences and value, the transport sector involved in tourism too provides the same. Furthermore, both sectors intend to increase market share by selling their product offerings. Finally, the shared emphasis on sustainability is a common agenda of both sectors, and the sectors set some targets to minimize the negative impacts and adhere to the sustainable development principles.

2.4 Transport Modes and Tourism It is common knowledge that different types of transport having differing influences exist in tourism. The dependence of tourism on transportation is visible in the history of tourism, and various transport forms have catalyzed the growth of tourism on different occasions. For instance, rail transport played a critical role in the development of tourism in the nineteenth century. Automobiles began their influence in the second decade of the twentieth century. Air transport played an incredible role in raising tourism into a modern social process in the post-Second World War era. Yet, land transport forms remained strong in domestic and international tourism. While sea transportation became insignificant in international transportation, a modified version emerged, called cruise tourism, a fast-growing global tourism segment. Kolupaev et al. (2018) pointed out that the usage of different kinds of transport can also change. Therefore, it can be stated that tourism evolution has witnessed the incredible contribution from various transport forms at different periods in history. The influence of transportation improvements on tourism may vary, depending on the role of the link to the destination. For instance, inter-regional accessibility is enhanced by introducing inter-regional high-speed rail services (Truong & Shimizu, 2017). Each mode of transport holds importance in contemporary tourism, and the importance may vary from one mode of transportation to another. Currently, the following transport forms are significant in tourism. • Road transport in tourism – Self-drive (cars and motorcycles) • private • rental – – – –

Recreational Vehicles (RVs) Public transport Taxi services Coaches

2.4 Transport Modes and Tourism

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• Rail transport – Scheduled rail services – Luxury/tourist trains – Recreational rail services/products. Road transport forms the most essential constituent of many tourist destinations. Roads and the route network act as the inevitable ingredient in a destination, and it connects it with other cities, attractions within a destination, other destinations, and even other transport forms. Road transport is also essential in ensuring intermodal transport services, which is becoming important in terms of accessibility and efficiency in transportation. Self-drive tourism is a segment of tourism that depends on road-based transportation. Tourists may use a variety of vehicles in self-drive tourism. However, it is dominated by automobiles/cars. Private cars and car rental services are used. The rise of car rental services and their expansion into more regions in the world certainly complemented the growth of drive tourism worldwide. Rural tourism development depends mainly on drive tourism. Motorcycles are also used extensively by the more adventurous category of the population with the desire for a long drive. In drive tourism, the route and the landscapes are vital in attracting tourists. Coach tours are famous all over the world. Organized coach tourism is important for a destination to sustain the demand well throughout the period and reduce seasonality’s effects. The hotel sector has a strong linkage with the coach tourism sector as coach tourism prefers serviced accommodation more. On the other hand, other accommodation sectors also attract drive tourists. Regular bus services and the public transport options using buses also have a role in tourism. In the urban context, bus services hold prime relevance, whereas in rural areas, the scope for public transport is less, and therefore, the tourism sector is less connected to regular bus services. Recreational vehicles are also part of drive tourism. Different RVs are used like Caravan, Camper trailers, Tent trailers, Motorhomes, and Fifth wheelers. These usually provide accommodation options as well, and thus tourists have ultimate freedom of traveling in them. The advantages and disadvantages of major modes of transport are listed in Table 2.2. Rail transport is considered a highly environment-friendly mode of transport. There are tourist-specific schemes like Eurail pass to attract tourists to use rail services in some regions and to promote tourism. Dependence on railways on international journeys is more in Europe. Some countries initiated special tourist trains, which may also promote organized package tours. Rail transport carries passengers in large numbers to different destinations faster, and the travelers feel relaxed while reaching the destination compared to other forms of land transport. Though rail transport is cost-efficient and eco-friendly, it provides less privacy. It needs the assistance of different modes like bus or car to access every tourist site in the destination as rail cannot move to all locations. Rail tourism seems to have recreational significance as well. Vintage trains, rail museums, heritage rail routes, etc., provide immense scope for tourism. Dann et al. (1994) pointed out that the popularity of train

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Table 2.2 Major tourism transport modes: advantages and disadvantages Advantages/determinants

Disadvantages

Coaches Continuous sightseeing Scope for a conducive social environment On-board recreation possibility The convenience of scheduling, start, stop, etc. Easiness of luggage handling Guide/courier interpretation is more convenient Highly economical Relatively more sustainable High safety level Parking issues are not there for tourists

Cannot engage in long-haul travel Tiring journey, compared to train and air transport The comfort of every seat may not be the same Uncomfortable for sleeping and long journeys Travel is relatively less relaxing Un-sociable co-passengers can be disturbing Freedom of mobility is less Long journeys can be boring

Automobile/Car Highest independence and freedom of mobility Highest privacy High comfort level for short-haul trips Easiness of luggage carrying and handling Convenience in terms of trip planning, start, stop, etc. More economical than air transport, etc. En route sightseeing is possible Relatively faster journey

Very unsustainable mode of transport No scope for onboard recreation and interpretation Lower safety records More expensive compared to coaches and trains Long journeys can be exhaustive Breakdowns can be disruptive Issues of congestion and parking

Motorcycle High level of independence and freedom of mobility Experience adventurous trips Suitable for short-haul trips Trip planning, start and stop freedom Highly economical En route sightseeing is possible Congestion and parking issues are not concerns

Lack of social environment while moving Tiring and exhausting journey Possible only when the climate is favorable Poor safety records Luggage carrying and handling limitations Speed can enhance the risk No scope for interpretation or guide services

Rail transport Relaxing and comfortable journey Washroom/toilet facilities Scope for on-board refreshments Lowest rates for travel Highly sustainable mode of transport with the largest carrying capacity Fast travel Good outside view Suitable for short and medium-haul journeys. Long journeys are also possible Freedom of using gadgets, talking, etc. Hassle and risk-free journey

Inflexible and less convenient to schedule the trip Slower than air transport Lowest freedom of movement Limited scope for the social environment Luggage handling inconvenience Tourists have to depend on other transport also for completing their journey No scope for guide/courier interpretation Lack of door-to-door services Un-sociable co-passengers can be disturbing (continued)

2.4 Transport Modes and Tourism

35

Table 2.2 (continued) Advantages/determinants

Disadvantages

Air Transport Fastest journeys Comfortable journey On board entertainment options Refreshments services available on-board High-safety records Free from physical barriers en route, for journeys Ideal for long-haul journeys Relatively large carrying capacity Personal assistance during journey

Highly expensive Time wastage before departure and after arrival Luggage storage and handling concerns Unsustainable form of transport Inflexible itinerary, and lack of control and freedom of the journey, especially of scheduled airlines No scope for a social environment Jet lags and tiredness

Water transportation Relaxing journey Recreational/leisure perspective is there Journey over water bodies is pleasurable Relatively cheaper, like compared to air transport Better safety records than some other transport forms

Slow transport form Not suited for long journeys, except for cruises Luggage concerns can be there in some water transport forms Fixed itinerary and lack of control and freedom on the journey

travel concerning heritage tourism can be due to various motivations for traveling on railways, from voyeurism to nostalgia. In it, transportation is not a derived demand. Two forms of transport have had increasing significance in tourism: air travel and the private car (Becken, 2002). When it comes to air transport, both scheduled and non-scheduled services have almost equal importance. The following elements of air transport are crucial in tourism. • Civil aviation – Scheduled services – Non-scheduled services • General aviation/Recreational aviation services. The dependence of international tourists on air transport to visit other destinations is immense. Nowadays, more and more leisure tourists depend on scheduled services for their trips. Business travelers often use the services of scheduled airlines. The emergence of low-cost and hybrid carriers stimulated the tourism demand greatly, and domestic and regional tourism benefited more. Charter tourism has been prominent since the end of the Second World War, primarily in Europe. Many large-scale tour operators still use charter services for long-haul holidays. Recreational use of aircraft is also there. Some of the destinations use different types of small aircraft, balloons, gliders, etc., to diversify the attractions and increase their attractiveness. The share of air transport in tourism has been growing remarkably since the 1950s. Currently,

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air transport alone carries more than half of the total international tourists to foreign destinations. The significance of water transport in tourism has been decreasing. The passenger ship service is no more relevant, and tourists do not depend on ship services to reach their destinations, except for a small share of tourists. On the other hand, ships have been converted into resort-like cruises, and cruise tourism involves a long holiday on a cruise ship and visiting multiple destinations before returning. The life on-board matters in the entire journey, and the tourism experience focuses more on that than the excursions made in the visiting ports. Other water transport forms like Boats, Ferries, etc. are also significant in tourism, though the share of water transport is much less compared to other modes of transport. Alternative transport forms are now being promoted in the destinations, mainly to comply with the sustainability principles.

2.5 Tourism Demand and Transportation Demand Tourism demand is interpreted in different ways according to the perspectives of the subject, and it is simply defined as the number of people, who travel or wish to travel and use tourist facilities and services at destinations that are away from their places of work or residence (Cooper et al., 2010). The influence of transport on tourism demand is usually indicated using the number of tourists or the trips taken by the visiting population to destinations. The role of transport on tourism demand is usually conceptualized using the above context, and according to Rehman Khan et al. (2017), “…transportation sector is highly connected with the international tourism demand, as it provides logistics support to the tourists to reach their specified destinations…air transportation, railways transportation, openness to trade, and travel and transport services significantly associated with the inbound and outbound tourism index in a panel of selected countries”. It is also opined that tourism demand is influenced by transportation infrastructure, which subsequently influences the relative prices of the goods, the distance to the destination places, etc. (Khadaroo & Seetanah, 2007). From that perspective, whether domestic or international, tourism demand depends on various types of transport and the infrastructure required for providing smooth, safe, fast, convenient, and efficient transportation for people, mainly tourists. Different types of vehicles can have different impacts on tourism demand. For instance, rail transport significantly impacts tourism in some locations, whereas air transport significantly impacts international tourism, particularly longhaul tourism. Some tourist destinations, like popular island tourism destinations, solely depend on air transportation to maintain the tourism demand over there. On the other hand, rural tourism destinations may rely more on automobiles for their tourism. Generally, the rise in transport services and the increase in accessibility of the destinations enhance tourism demand. While discussing tourism demand, the cost factor comes at the forefront of deliberations. Tourism is a highly discretionary product which makes cost an important

2.5 Tourism Demand and Transportation Demand

37

determinant. The cost of transportation also plays an important role in determining the tourism demand, particularly since transport cost is among the largest shares of overall tourist expenditures. The dependence of tourism demand on transportation costs seems more relevant in the case of international tourism, and according to Divisekera (2016: 1192) “the level of international tourism demand is determined by both the cost of tourism goods and services at a given destination and the cost of international transportation. The higher the cost of international transportation, the smaller is the amount (of value) of tourism goods and services that can be consumed and vice versa”. “The continuous decrease in relative travel costs and distances dramatically increases demands for recreational travel” (Tóth & Dávid, 2010: 668). At the same time, the significance of transportation is not just limited to transporting people from place to place, but also has a recreational aspect to it. Therefore, transport can also act as a kind of attraction that has the ability to drag tourists from other parts of the world. Tourism demand is thus influenced by transportation from that perspective as well. In the case of Drive tourism, transport is a major experience, and the route and the scenery along the route have ‘pull’ capacity. On the other hand, the demand for tourism also affects the demand for transportation. Transportation demand indicates the amount of mobility and accessibility the passengers would consume under various conditions (Litman, 2021). Tourism can have a direct impact on transportation demand. There can be an increase in transport services as a result of the increase in tourist arrivals to a destination. Lohmann and Duval state that “… the demand for tourism and the variables that determine such demand will have a consequential flow-on effect for the demand for that mode of transport which may rely on tourist flows to be profitable. When economic conditions, such as those witnessed in 2009, effectively curtail demand for, in this case, international travel (which comparatively may be more expensive than domestic options), the effect on the primary mode of international travel (air) was affected deeply” (Lohmann & Duval, 2013: 24). Tourism in a destination has the ‘pull capacity’, which tempts people to move to that destination, proving the point that transport demand can be derived from tourism demand. According to Tóth and Dávid (2010: 668), “…the spatial distribution of tourist destinations induces demand in the transport system to overcome distances between the home location and the destination to be accessed. Rather, the accessibility of given locations determines the travel decisions of individuals and households, resulting in changes in the land-use subsystem”. Tourism-related transportation cannot exist alone and, though exclusive transport services are provided to tourists, it is part of the general transportation.

2.5.1 Tourism Transportation: Derived Demand? Considering the nature of increase in the transportation demand due to tourism, it is often remarked that transportation demand is more of a derived Demand. Lumsdon (2006) opines that traditionally, tourism trips have been modeled as a derived demand

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which reveals that the stimulus for the trip is related to the attractiveness of a destination and eventually to the transportation into the destination. There is a viewpoint that transportation exists only when there is a demand for the movement of people or goods, and therefore, demand for transportation is derived from demand for tourism as well. Derived Demand is all about the Demand generated by the dependency on the Demand of other products. It can be implied that the products that come under Derived Demand are intermediaries used to make the final product or deliver the service (Bhasin, 2020). Coyle et al. (2003) also argue that, in general, the demand for transportation is a form of Derived Demand, as transporting a product from one place depends on the existence of Demand to consume or use that product in the other place. In the case of tourism, the transport demand of a tourist destination also depends on the Demand for tourism, which reiterates the symbiotic relationship that exists between tourism and transportation. Two types of Derived Demand are relevant in the parlance of transportation linked to tourism. They, according to transport geography.org, are (The Geography of Transport Systems/www.transportgeogra phy.org): • Direct Derived Demand. According to Rodrigue et al. (2006)‚ Direct Derived Demand denotes the transport of people or goods derived directly from the outcome of economic activities, without which they would not take place. For instance, tourism is an economic activity with immense potential to cause Derived Demand for transportation. Tourism services and attractions in the destination and the travel propensity in tourism source markets derive from transportation demand. Here, transportation is derived directly from the functions of production and consumption. • Indirect Derived Demand. The demand for transportation is generated in another location due to the movements associated with economic activity in one place. Indirect Demand points to the transport generated by the requirements of other movements. While tourism causes Direct Demand in transportation for the movement of people from origin to destination etc., indirect transportation Demand is generated at different levels in the industry. Transportation within tourist destinations leads to transportation in the tourist-origin place as well. The movement of personnel working in the industries, movement of fuel to the tourist places, transportation of food supplies, etc., occur due to the tourism demand in a destination. Moreover, tourist movements also lead to the generation of transport demand in allied sectors. As tourism has seasonality, the derived Demand for transportation may also vary, which may be difficult to reconcile with the necessary supply. While the services provided by the transportation systems can determine the nature and extent of transport demand, the transport demand can also affect the nature and quality of the infrastructure supplied (Tóth & Dávid, 2010). Though the above aspect is associated with the transport demand and tourism demand relationship, contradictory opinion has also been voiced. When travel for exploration takes place in which the tourist engages in an uni-directional journey, the transport demand is not derived from the

2.5 Tourism Demand and Transportation Demand

39

tourism demand or the push factors existing in the destination. On the other hand, many tourists wish to move with a kind of ‘wanderlust’, and the destination and tourism become ancillary to travel. This is what Mohktarian and Salomon (2001) pointed out. They argue that transport demand cannot be termed derived Demand always. In some cases, where the destination is ancillary to the travel, the role of tourism demand in generating transport demand is limited. They state that in the case of undirected travel, out of the intrinsic human desire to travel, the destination is somewhat ancillary to travel, and the Demand is the result of the travel, instead of the activities that generate transport demand. Transportation demand management (TDM) is suggested in cases when the transportation turns unsustainable and causes consequences beyond a certain proportion. It can be used to maximize the efficiency of the urban transport system by discouraging excess private vehicle use and promoting more efficient, healthy, and ecofriendly modes of transport, in general public transport and non-motorized transport (Broaddus et al., 2009: 1). Examples of TDM measures are listed in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 Examples of TDM measures Enhance Transport/Mobility Options

Public transit improvements Walking and cycling improvements Shared bicycle services Mobility management marketing programs Rideshare/commute trip reduction programs Car sharing services High-occupancy vehicle (HOV) priority lanes Flextime/telecommuting Taxi service improvements Guaranteed ride home program

Economic Measures

Congestion pricing Distance-based fees Commuter financial incentives Parking regulations and pricing Fuel tax increases Transit encouragement

Smart Growth and Land Use Policies

Smart growth Transit-oriented/Location-efficient development Parking management Car-free planning Transport planning reforms Traffic calming

Other Programs

School/campus/freight/tourist transport management

Source Broaddus et al. (2009: 1)

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2.6 Tourism Transportation and the Role of Policies Policies have a role to play in tourism transportation, as policies on either of them can have an impact on the other. Tourism policy usually has transportation as major part of it. According to Rehman Khan et al. (2017), the policies formulated have to aim at accomplishing the desired results including building a solid tourism infrastructure, strengthening the transportation modes, liberalizing international trade policies, and facilitating the travel and transport services to gain benefits from international tourism by increasing the tourist arrivals and the length of stay in a leisure destination. In order to promote tourism, governments retain the financial or operational interest in providing transport services for tourists or non-tourists, even after the deregulation of transportation across the world (Aguiló et al., 2012). Among the list of policies given in Table 2.4, economic regulations are the most important ones for tourists, and pricing policies are the ones that most affect them. Pricing is indeed an essential issue in infrastructure regulation, linked both to transport policies and to the remuneration of investments but highly dependent on the different modes of transportation. Transport policies are mandatory for better safety and security measures; for controlling the unhealthy competition and unfair pricing practices; for ensuring measures to use resources sustainably; and for following measures to protect nature, fragile ecosystems, and the local players by restricting foreign investment. In tourist destinations, the focus areas of transport policy can include the subsidization in the provision of transport, like public transport; for ensuring the tourists’ safety and security, and strict provisions for managing the externalities from affecting the demand and supply (Lohmann & Duval, 2013). Such measures can support tourism as well. For instance, safety and security during travel are major concerns of tourists which need to be addressed by the destination authorities. Environmental considerations are critical in ensuring the sustainability of a destination and to provide a quality tourist experience. Restrictive policies can dampen tourist flows as well. For instance, Zhang and Findlay (2014) pointed out that restrictive air transport policies have impacted the passenger traffic between city pairs and tourist flows between nations, and increased air transport liberalization can help mold a more robust tourism industry. Some transport forms need restrictions and policies to be taken considering the above factors. For instance, increasing automobile/drive tourism can be more harmful from an environmental perspective, and utmost efforts are needed to restrict car usage Table 2.4 Transport regulations Economic regulations

Safety regulations

Investments in transportation infrastructure Control of routes, ports of entry, pricing, and scheduling Levels of ownership and competition

Safety and operation regulations Transportation of hazardous materials Labor regulations Safety and security regulations Pollutant emissions

Source Adapted from Rodrigue (2020)

Environmental regulations

2.7 Recreational Role of Transport

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in fragile tourist places. Measures have to be taken to promote large vehicles that can carry more people and use alternative modes of transportation. Environmental policies are usually part and parcel of transport policies at different levels. Aguiló et al. (2012) noted that while considering the environmental aspects and sustainability concerns, there is a growing thought to not to plan for higher levels of car-borne tourism at destinations in the wake of the increasing requirement for highways and ancillary infrastructure, traffic/congestion, and carbon emissions which altogether affect both tourists and residents. “Possible economic instruments include the application of pricing mechanisms, like corrective taxes or negotiable permit systems, aimed at making vehicle users acknowledge all the costs derived from a vehicle’s use, in addition to those accepted as being theirs” (Aguiló et al., 2012). Liberal tourism policies can enhance transportation as well. For instance, the easing of VISA formalities and liberal conditions can increase the influx of tourists into the destinations, which directly and indirectly benefits the transport sector and increases demand. As part of destination developments, authorities should go for transport development policies as well. Altogether, tourism and transport policies have positive as well as restrictive influence on each other.

2.7 Recreational Role of Transport The transportation system or its element can sometimes be a destination in itself. In some other cases, transportation can have recreational values that form an attraction or a significant tourist attraction element. Therefore, some forms of transportation are considered more recreational, and the recreational transport experience is significant in the tourism experience. A range of recreational aspects of tourism transportation can be identified. For instance, Halsall (1982) believes that the recreational function associated with transportation can be identified in the visit to transport museums, rallies, and excursions as well. Some destinations have recreational transport forms that can also be attractions for tourists. An industrial railway heritage attraction, for example, is a form of Industrial heritage attraction (Bhati et al., 2014). Railways have built heritage of stations and other structures as well. Some rail routes are known for enticing experiences. Of them, some can be heritage-related while some others can be through landscapes. Exclusive luxury tourist trains are also present in the international tourism market. Cycling can be promoted in destinations as recreational tourism attractions. More and more destinations are now adding cycling tourism into the spectrum of their attractions. Air transport involves a range of recreational options. Aircraft of different kinds like helicopters, seaplanes, and hot air balloons are used for recreational purposes within destinations. Paragliding, hang gliding, air safari, etc., are recreational tourism activities that a destination can offer to enhance its attractiveness and elevate their touristic experience. Cruise tourism and Space Tourism are examples of recreational transport as well. Both provide a tourist experience while being on board itself. A variety of water-borne vehicles contribute to fantastic tourist experiences.

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Houseboats, boats, ferries, etc., are also prime for tourism. A detailed discussion on recreational transport in the parlance of tourism is given in Chap. 9.

2.8 Transportation as Experience Tourism is considered more like a part of the service sector with products featured with intangibility. The consumption of tourism products offers more in terms of experience than in terms of the possession of a physical product. While transportation takes up the role of attractions or tourism products, transportation itself provides the prime experience of what a common tourism product offers. All recreational forms of transportation can provide a touristic experience. In drive tourism, the drive is the prime experience provider. Similarly, the cruise ride and the engagement of various activities on board constitute the cardinal experience of Tourism associated with cruise tourism. Therefore, despite transport in general being a contributor to tourist experience, some forms of transport offer the actual tourist experience as that offered by other tourism sectors/products. The rate of the experience enhances with the increase in attractiveness of the transport form.

2.8.1 ‘Travelling Landscape’ The transport route and its tourism significance recognize the term ‘travelling landscape’. With regard to this, Peeters et al. (2018) point out that a touristic route and the travel through it provides the opportunity to enjoy the view of landscapes along the route. Moreover, it also hints at the multitude of geographical spaces which are felt like moving landscapes while viewing them from the mode of a moving landscape. McGrath et al. (2020: 322) clarify the concept of Travelling Landscape as “At its most simple, where the viewer to remain stationary, he or she would be presented with different landscapes as the river ebbs, flows and shifts over time. The Landscape of the river is mobile, never static”.

2.9 Tourism Promotion Role of Transport Transportation is an element of marketing tool used by destinations for promotions. Transport infrastructure and features are essential to make a positive image for the destination. Nowadays, many alternative transport forms are also used as marketing tools. There are glaring attempts on the part of rural tourism destinations to improve their car-free accessibility (Holding, 2001). From a transportation perspective, a destination’s connectivity and strategic geographic location are always crucial for the destination to market in the international realm of tourism. Some of the cities

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are transport hubs, and they have the advantages of getting both leisure and business tourists. Cities like Dubai, Singapore, Hong Kong, London, etc., market well with the transport-related locational advantage as well. Locational disadvantages can be a limitation for destinations in marketing at the international level. On the other hand, destinations located in regions where major tourism source markets are connected have specific advantages for international tourism. Accessibility of the destination is undoubtedly a determining factor in the destination’s competitiveness. Usually, a poor transport system is considered a weakness of the destinations. Quality of transport services also matters in terms of marketing. Therefore, transportation is an essential part of the destination image. Even the stories and narratives of transport experience can be used for marketing. According to Wong et al. (2015), transportation, or the sensation of being transported, is a tool that can be used to influence the beliefs and thought processes of people. The narrative techniques used to convey an experience contribute to the composition of an image. According to Hende van den et al. (2008), the use of narrative transport by visitors has impacted subsequent affective and evaluative judgments. Therefore, tourists’ experiences can make narratives about the places visited, and the transportation effect may be a key variable in influencing image formation. Kolupaev et al. (2018) argue that means of transportation can be objects of tourist interest themselves, and those can complement the image of the destination, turning into their symbols themselves. They cited examples as double-decker buses and cabs of London, Yellow taxicabs of New York, Jeepers of Male, Colombo tuk-tuks, Mumbai rickshaws, and the fastest trains of Tokyo to substantiate their view point. Transport modes also take up the responsibility of tourism promotion. Airlines, for instance, undertake destination promotion activities as well. The inflight magazines airlines can include attractive features on destinations. Airports and other transport terminals may try to have advertisements for attractions of the destinations in which they are situated. Tourism information centers located within the terminals also attempt to promote tourism destinations.

2.10 Social Significance Transportation has much social significance, and tourism transportation not only benefits the tourist destination or the tourists visiting the place. Transportation contributes to economic growth, consequently leading to increased tourist flow. The entire society directly or indirectly benefits from the improvements in transportation, whether it is for tourism purposes or for a general form of transportation. The expenditure made by tourists on a transport form creates multiple rounds of expenditures into the local economy when the transport service is from the local society itself. The benefit of transportation for trade and businesses is noteworthy. The infrastructure developed for tourism purposes is also common to the people of the place. Moreover, the tourism transport sector generates employment opportunities of varied kinds, directly and indirectly. Therefore, tourism transportation has

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much social significance, though the primary target group of their functioning may be tourists.

2.11 Mobility Enhancement Tourism transportation becomes a catalyst in the enhancement of the mobility of people. Mobility primarily represents the ease of physical movement of people. Various factors determine mobility. Availability of transport services and infrastructure can enhance mobility. The frequency of transport services has a contribution to people’s travel tendency. Speed and comfort are specific parameters in the sphere of mobility. There have to be different modes of transport available for people to move. Tourism transportation and the policies for promoting tourism and transportation stimulate the travel propensity of people and create the required infrastructure for people to be mobile. Litman (2021) states that mobility represents physical movement, measured by trips, distance, and speed. Accessibility and mobility are directly proportional to each other. As tourism increases, accessibility also increases, which leads to increased mobility. As mobility increases, more attractions/destinations can be reached, along with the increase in accessibility. The dependency of tourism is high on mobility systems. On the other hand, transportation development turns out to be part of tourism development as well and is always part of the tourism development agenda.

2.12 Transportation: Experience Enhancer The role of transport in the overall tourism experience is much more than what was actually thought of. Quality transport services certainly contribute much to the overall tourist experience. The infrastructure also plays a role in this. Good roads, worldclass airports, etc., are essential for tourists to have a good time as a part of their journey. In drive tourism, the roads, facilities, and services along the route, the natural features en route, etc., add to the experience of the drive and tourism. According to Page and Lumsdon (2004), the transportation system impacts the tourism experience, which explains how people travel and why they choose different forms of holiday, destination, and transport. Concerning the tourist experience while traveling in any mode of transport, a tourist would like to have a view outside, and “The tourist glance is not a passive act: as we demonstrated, glancing is, in fact, active and includes the bodily choreography of movements on board of the vehicle, necessary for acquiring the best bodily position for executing the glance. It also involves making constant choices of what and when to view and how to interpret it” (Rhoden & Kaaristo, 2020: 315). Route-related experiences are linked to the surroundings through which the mode of transport travels. Furthermore, the person working in the transport sector also has to provide quality services.

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Transportation has a pivotal role in the tourist satisfaction as well. The ‘ease of getting around the city’ and ‘accessibility of the city’ are also identified as two critical factors in urban destination satisfaction (Thompson & Schofield, 2007; Bakucz, 2002). According to Qu and Li (1997), variety of choices, convenience, cleanliness, comfort and efficiency, and cost are significant transportation-related factors associated with destination satisfaction.

2.13 ‘Transport’s Role as a Facilitator of Tourist-Host Interaction’ Transport can act as a facilitator of tourist-host interaction as it brings people from far away to an area where there are different types of interactions between tourists and host communities. According to Hall (1999), transport has the potential to play the role of a gatekeeper for cultural contact, constraining or encouraging touristhost interaction. Interactions between tourists and local communities and cultural exchange are part of the tourism process. Tourism is often referred to as a social process that takes shape with the assistance of transportation. Destinations also have local transportation options that reflect the culture and lifestyle of the region’s people. Tourists, by using local transport forms, get into a cultural contact with the transport styles and the associated social aspects of the people of the society. Jeepies of Male, tuk-tuks that are seen in Colombo, Mumbai rickshaws, etc., are telling about the lifestyle of various sections of their community. Learning about the culture of the people of strange places is always a motivation for tourists to engage in tourism. This is more relevant for tourism in rural areas. For travel within the destination, there can be some strategic occasions through which better tourist-host interactions can be made possible.

2.14 Tourism Development Role Transportation systems have an inevitable role to play in developing a destination enough for tourism to thrive there. The evolution and development of tourism at the international level depend greatly on transportation as well, and the role played by transportation in each stage of the growth of tourism can be found invaluable. Kolupaev et al. (2018) are of the opinion that the Aviation sector cause a severe impact on the development of tourist services; it is also important to note that the influence is increasing every year. Seetanah and Khadaroo (2009), based on a study on Mauritius, are of the opinion that the transportation sector significantly increases the tourist traffic into a country which can influence the transport policy agenda. The type of transport that made strides in tourism development may have differences in different regions in the world. In some areas, rail travel might have

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contributed to raising tourism to the next level. On the other hand, road transport might have more role in some other areas. For instance, a study by Guirao and Campa (2015) reveals that high-speed rail significantly impacts tourism development in Spain. Air transport, in general, has a significant role in the development of mass tourism, be it anywhere. International tourism demand and growth depend critically on air transportation. Air transport can also have a significant role in a destination’s evolution. For instance, Kolupaev et al. (2018) noted that air transport plays an important role in the development of mass tourism in Russia; from 2000 to 2016, the share of tourists using air transport went up from 43 to 52%. Cruise tourism also plays a role in some regions, like the Caribbean islands. Along with the increase in accessibility and transport connectivity, destinations with the required attractions would get an increased inflow of tourists and invigorate the economy to develop further while benefiting society in myriad ways. Moreover, regional development will also take place with tourism’s growth.

2.15 Transportation for First and Last Impression In the entire process of tourism, transportation stays all-pervasive. The role of transportation starts from the moment the journey is commenced, it continues and ends with the return to the place of origin. Good transportation experience should be present throughout the trip. In a destination, when a tourist arrives for a visit, the consumption of tourism products begins with the travel, and then and there, the first impression of the destination and the journey starts. The people involved in service delivery are also important. For instance, a driver of a local small-scale transport service provider can act as a cultural ambassador as well. According to Tan and Ismail (2020), transportation is the first manifestation of tourism consumption which can cause psychological impacts on tourists. A good impression then has significance, and it may also influence the consumption of the rest of the products and the image of the destination. The destination has to ensure that everyone involved in delivering tourism products and services offer quality services. Transportation has a role even in departure, and the experience tourists get in that occasion is also a matter of great importance. First and last impressions have obvious implications in the case of tourism; in making the destination image, tourist experience, and in the formation of memories of the tourist.

2.16 Conclusion An attempt has been made in this chapter to unravel the intricate relationship existing between transportation and tourism. The role of transportation should not be viewed as limited to its prescribed role as a ‘means to end’ by providing the transport services to access destinations and attractions but rather, it needs to be considered from the

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role of it as the ‘focal element of tourism product’. The latter aspect of the transporttourism relationship is important in enhancing the tourist experience and tourist attractiveness of the destinations. Each transport mode has its own relevance in the parlance of tourism yet the relevance of air transport is growing fast. The role of transport in tourism demand is critical for the destinations which make them enhance the transport infrastructure to have better access and accessibility. Favorable tourism policies complement the growth of transportation and vice versa. Tourist destinations need the backing of favorable transport policies to enable them to compete in the global tourism market. Some elements of transportation systems can be used for recreational purposes and they are increasingly used by destinations to attract more and more tourists. As transportation experience is vital in the overall tourist experience, the transportation systems have to enhance the service quality and diversify the features to provide an exciting travel experience for the tourists. Transportation has a versatile role in the destination promotion, equitable distribution of socio-economic benefits of tourism, increased mobility of the people, development of tourism, and the like. To conclude, destinations and the transportation sector have to collaborate and work together to provide a delightful tourism experience for the visitors.

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Chapter 3

Destination and Transport Geography

3.1 Introduction Transportation is integral to tourism, as it makes destinations accessible to tourists. While accessibility is critical to a destination for its competitive survival, the significance of tourism transportation in a destination is not just limited to ensuring access to destinations or attractions located within the destination. Tourism can be interpreted from transportation and geographical perspectives as well. Tourism is a sort of voluntary short-term movement of people through time and space, either between places that are home to them and destinations or within destinations (Coles et al., 2004). The experience of transportation associated with visiting a destination contributes a share in the overall tourist experience, and exciting transport services can augment the experience much more along with offering good and lasting memories of the visit. Destinations have to consider transport as a part of developmental priorities, and the consequences of tourism transportation need to be assessed scientifically before the development itself. The aspects of sustainability are in wide discussion, and destinations are being urged to promote mass transport forms and limit more polluting transport options like automobiles. Alternative transport forms are also suggested to prioritize sustainability. Although several attempts have been made to promote alternative transport forms in destinations, comprehensive and successful models of the same are rare. The spatial aspect of the destination and spatial interactions are highly significant in the case of tourist movements. Destinations are vital in ensuring spatial interactions, and transportation is crucial in providing quality spatial interactions. To ensure sustainable tourism in developing nations, it is primary to understand various aspects of the relationship between transportation and destinations and their geographical dimensions. The following sections provide a detailed discussion on the role of transportation in a destination and the geographical dimensions of the inevitable and critical relationship between the two.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_3

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3.2 Destination Tourist destinations which consist of a wide variety of facilities, services, products, and attractions are the ultimate reason for the tourists to engage in travel. Lohmann and Pearce (2010) believe that from a geographical perspective, destinations are the places that constitute the object of the trip, where all or a major part of the visit is played out. This geographic location has two critical aspects. One is that a variety of facilities, services, and products are available in the place, which causes the tourists to visit that location and to gain the experience associated with the visit. Secondly, this geographic location is at a distance considerably far from where the tourists start their journey to reach their destination. As two locations are inevitably seen, along with a region through which the tourists undertake the journey, the tourists have to utilize the transportation system’s services. In Table 3.1, the top ten destinations chosen by tourists before COVID-19 are reported. While defining destination, Pearce (1989) pointed out the significance of a set of products and services available in a location that can draw visitors from other locations. Destination, as a geographic location, is the space in which different businesses are situated that offer products and services per the visiting population’s requirements. On the other hand, Murphy et al. (2000) emphasized the total experience that a tourist can gain from the combination of products and experience opportunities that are available in a destination. Here, the tourist gains experience from the consumption of the products that are offered at the destination. The word destination is derived from the Latin word ‘destinatio’ which means “a place set for the end of a journey” (Ivanovic & Baldigara, 2007). Dileep (2018) conceptualized tourism as a geographic location that attracts tourists for visits to spend a significant amount of time. Also, attractions are at the center of the attractiveness of the destination. The destination is often marked as a geographical concept that is primarily defined by visitors from outside the location, although many places seek to make themselves destinations for visitors to be able to benefit economically from tourism (Cooper & Table 3.1 Top ten destinations (pre-pandemic status-2019) Destination countries

Destination regions, and the share of tourist arrivals

Top destinations in terms of receipts

France Spain United States of America China Italy Turkey Mexico Thailand Germany United Kingdom

Europe (51%) Asia and the Pacific (25%) Americas (15%) Africa (5%) Middle East (4%)

United States of America Spain France Thailand United Kingdom Italy Japan Australia Germany Macao (China)

Source UNWTO (2020) International Tourism Highlights. https://doi.org/10.18111/978928442 2456

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Hall, 2008). This view also reiterates the spatial significance of the destination and the need for the movement of tourists. According to Inskeep and Kallenberger (1992), destination is a specific, broad, or narrow spatial unity that encompasses tourist facilities, and tourist traffic takes place in it. Moreover, several tourist centers are located in a destination. According to Laws (1995), attributes of destination attractiveness are of two categories: primary and secondary characteristics: Primary encompasses innate factors such as climate, natural resources, cultural features, and historical architecture. The latter consists of the features that are developed particularly for tourists, such as hospitality services, transport, activities, and entertainment. Transportation is not only imminent for the tourist to reach the destination and return; it is required even after reaching the destination to enable movement so as to consume the available products and services within the destination. Therefore, transportation is a pervasive and critical function in tourism destination regions. Transportation systems provide the essential links between the tourism industry in the destinations and tourists in different parts of the world. A destination attempts to market internationally, having the attractiveness as the base for competing. According to Mayo and Jarvis (1981: 22), destination attractiveness is “the perceived ability of the destination to deliver individual benefits.” Tourists are challenged by the ‘pull’ of a destination that constitutes the elements of attractiveness. Attributes of destination attractiveness involve the entire range of facilities and services offered at the destination, together with all sociocultural and environmental resources, and public goods (Buhalis, 2000). Among the facilities and services offered, those related to smooth transport and connectivity have great significance. According to Dileep (2018), to become popular, a destination must ensure that it is accessible, and offers services and amenities that the tourists demand. Also, accessibility, a complex term intertwined by geography, transportation, and the required infrastructure, is a critical element in the 7A’s spectrum of a destination that consists of attractions, accessibility, accommodation, amenities, ancillary services, activities, and awareness. Transportation to a destination essentially provides mobility, accessibility, and connectivity (Le-Klähn & Hall, 2015). McKercher (1998) argues that access tends to influence the type of visitors who visit a destination. In this modern era of tourism, air access is vital to the success or development of a destination (Poon, 1993). A study by Prideaux (1998) suggested that Resort Development Spectrum (RDS) identifies the critical role of transport in developing resorts and destinations in different phases. Local transportation is also considered an attribute to measure destination image and satisfaction, which is greatly influenced by intra-destination transport (Avgoustis & Achana, 2002). Destination choice is also affected by the perceptions of the availability and quality of transport (Thompson & Schofield, 2007). Destination attributes associated with transport mainly include the infrastructure and its features, like the roads, parking facilities, public transit availability, etc. Tourists expect uninterrupted movement. The quality and performance of transportation systems are featured with integration, reliability, safety, information-based variety of transport forms, an adequate level of transportation system management, etc. Earlier, Kaul (1985: 496) opined that

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“transport plays an important role in the successful creation and development of new attractions as well as the healthy growth of existing ones. Provision of suitable transport has transformed dead centres of tourist interest into active and prosperous places attracting multitudes of people”. Destinations may also use the transport infrastructure as a matter of prestige before international visitors. In an attempt to do the above, there is a chance that some of the destinations attempt to showcase their prestige through establishing quality infrastructure along specific tourist itineraries, ensuring foreign tourists use the same in a possible manner to avoid confrontation by any likely negative images of the local society and environment (Hall, 1981, 1991).

3.3 The Geography of Tourism Transportation Geographically, tourism transportation has much significance as it causes the formation of a complex spatial system consisting of the facilities, buildings, and route networks placed in space. It gives an interdisciplinary approach to looking at tourism transportation as a spatial system to analyze and evaluate it from varied perspectives. The elements in the system are interconnected with the route networks, and there exists a relationship between the elements and locations, which are critical in the success of a tourism destination. Further, to enhance the spatial relationship, the geographical elements connected with transportation are also linked with tourisminduced economic activities. Attractions situated in different locations are connected with the support of the transport system. The transport geography of a destination involves various elements, of which the following are of great influence. • • • • • • • •

Nature and its resources Ecological fragility Transport route network Transport infrastructure Population distribution Historical significance Topographical features Location and distance.

Natural resources form the base for tourist attractions in a destination, and those attractions become the prime reason behind the movement of tourists within the destination and the arrival of them from other places in the world. Attractions are situated at different locations, and the route network must also link those locations. Moreover, transportation systems also make use of the natural resources and other elements of nature. Transport-related environmental aspects have increasing significance in a destination, and their role in climate change and global warming is a matter of concern. The effect of transport pollution is a major environmental issue, and destinations are in dire need of putting the necessary solutions in place with the objective of reducing the effects. Route network, which is described in detail in the

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Table 3.2 Absolute and relative barriers associated with physical constraints Absolute barriers These are the topographical or hydrographical factors that can prevent the movement entirely, and are to be bypassed or overcome by creating infrastructure. A river is an example where a bridge can be constructed to overcome the movement barrier Relative barriers These can force a degree of friction on a movement. These can influence the speed of transportation mostly, as in the case of land transportation, where a valley comes in between a route that can affect the movement Source Rodrigue et al. (2006)

following sections, forms the ‘nervous system’ of movement of tourists within the destination and the connectivity with the external world. The route network is complemented by the transport infrastructure of varied types, like terminals, bridges, roads, and refueling stations. These are also built on land, and an efficient land use pattern is essential in ensuring quality transportation and minimizing socio-environmental consequences of the developments. Population distribution also affects the nature of tourist movements, the nature of route networks, ecological imbalances, spatial interactions, and the like. Local people, in unison, become important stakeholders in the tourism and have a significant role in ensuring sustainable tourism progress along with good tourist-host interactions. The historical significance of transportation is the base for the progress and development of transport. Some destinations have unique transport systems that have emerged from the traditional transportation systems. Table 3.2 summaries the barriers associated with physical constraints. Topographical features have extreme significance in transportation. The nature of the route network is affected by the topographical features of a destination. In locations with water bodies, water transport has much significance. Every destination cannot have rail transportation due to the topography of the place. Air transport is fundamental in some destinations, like islands. The locational advantage of destinations is always a competitive factor for them. European destinations have a lot of locational advantages as all European countries are good source markets for tourism. Tourists from those countries do not have to travel long distances to engage in leisure tourism in the destinations within the region. Locational and distance advantages also provide cost and time, which significantly contribute directly to tourism. These aspects are discussed further in the following sections of this chapter.

3.3.1 Tourism Transport: A ‘Force of Concentration’? Transportation is often looked upon as a force of dispersion, but in some instances, transportation acts as a force of concentration (Rodrigue et al., 2006). A tourist attraction is an example where transportation acts as a force of concentration. In the

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case of mass tourist attractions, the central locations emerge in a dispersed setting. The movement from different areas shall concentrate on the tourist attraction sites. It can be argued that a centripetal force favors the convergence of activities in a cluster, like a tourist attraction, due to its accessibility in the broader transport network. Similarly, major tourist destinations can be seen flocking with the concentration of tourists visiting from the nook and corner of the world, and the transportation system and the network that connects with the world enable the concentration of tourist flow into such mass tourism destinations. Cities like Dubai, Singapore, New York, London, Sydney, etc. can also show similar kinds of transportation effects as they attract large numbers of tourists from around the world. Within the destination also, the concentration effect can be seen in significant attraction sites and in places of intermodal transport centers. Yet, the transportation, while considering the movement of tourists to and from origin and destination, can ensure the force of the dispersion aspect of transportation.

3.4 Spatial Interactions Spatial interaction is associated with the movement of any items from one location to another. In tourism, diverse spatial interactions occur, of which the movement of tourists from one place to another forms the core of it. According to Rodrigue et al. (2006: 213), spatial interaction is “a realized movement of people, freight or information between an origin and a destination. It is a transport demand/supply relationship expressed over geographical space. Spatial interactions cover various movements such as journeys to work, migrations, tourism, the usage of public facilities, the transmission of information or capital, the market areas of retailing activities, international trade, and freight distribution”. Origin-destination (OD) spatial interaction is the most prominent in tourism (Marrocu & Paci, 2013). Jean-Paul Rodrigue believes that spatial interaction denotes a transport demand/supply relationship occurring over geographical space and is a realized flow of passengers or freight between an origin and destination location (Rodrigue/transportgeography.org). Apart from the OD spatial interactions and the corresponding tourist flows, destinations enable different types of spatial interactions, which describe the movements of tourists to attractions, accommodations, other destinations, and the like. According to Kelly and Nankervis (2009), destination-related spatial interactions are intertwined with elements such as ‘complementarity’, ‘transferability’, and ‘intervening opportunity. Let us examine the terms in detail.

3.4.1 Complementarity Complementarity leads to the generation of spatial interaction. The demand for pleasure by the people in one location is met by the supply of tourism products by different

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industries situated in another location, which is the destination. The demand needs to be complemented by the supply and vice versa (Rodrigue et al., 2006). A supply in the destination has to be supplemented by the demand in the source markets of tourists. Equilibrium between demand and supply in transportation is important. Tourism markets are the sources of tourists having travel propensity and are situated at a significant distance from the destinations. The destinations need the demand existing in the tourism markets, and at the same time, the destinations need to be supported with the required transport infrastructure. Destination and origin market relationships need to be fostered through necessary marketing efforts.

3.4.2 Transferability Transferability represents the means of conducting the movement by the consumer, the tourist, from one location to the destination by using the services of various modes of transport. The tourists’ mobility must be supported by transport infrastructure and the means to reach the destination. Destinations need to be accessible in an efficient manner. Transferability is crucial for destinations that are to be accessed by different modes of transportation. According to Kelly and Nankervis (2009: 25), “…. transferability-the means by which interaction may be conducted-relates primarily to cost, a reflection of the time and effort required to access one location from another. In general, there is a positive correlation between cost and distance; that is, the greater the distance, the higher the cost, a circumstance sometimes described as the friction of distance”. The destination and origin have to be linked, and the cost of being transferred to the destination and vice versa need not be higher than the benefits of reaching the destination. That is, the cost and time factors have to be overcome by the benefits the tourists can get by the visit to the destination.

3.4.3 Intervening Opportunity Intervening opportunities can be there, which have the potential to attract tourists to visit an alternative destination (Rodrigue et al., 2006). A similar destination at the same distance can harm the hopes of spatial interaction of a particular destination. An alternative destination with similar attractiveness can negatively affect the intention of a destination to have an excellent spatial interaction between it and the tourist-origin place. Therefore, destinations must identify possible intervening opportunities and ensure uniqueness to ‘pull’ the tourists to visit them. Quality transport services and infrastructure are inevitable for destinations to enhance the potential of destinations to attract more tourists.

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3.5 Space, Time, and Cost Relationship In order to learn more about the transport geography of tourist destinations, it is crucial to understand the relationships among different associated factors like space, time, cost, and distance. Though the distance is a critical factor in destination accessibility, time and cost in accessing it are also equally important. The time required to overcome a certain amount of space is a factor in the success of destinations. The time cost may vary with respect to concerns over the value of time (Pagliara et al., 2015). Therefore, it is important to have transportation-associated space-time convergence, the decline in travel time between similar locations, along with the evolution of the destination, and it can be achieved through the enhancement of transport infrastructure, connectivity, linkage, technology, etc. If you analyze the progress of tourism over the last couple of centuries, the tremendous improvement in the space-time relationship can be identified. Space-time convergence, an indicator of space-time relationship, underscores the changing relationship between space and time. According to Rodrigue et al. (2006), speed, economies of scale, expansion of transport infrastructures, and efficiency of transport terminals are crucial elements in the space-time relationship. Speed of movement is extremely important. At the global level, speed has been increasing consistently, particularly by the improvements in transport technology. To remain competitive in international tourism, destinations have to ensure that the speed of transportation is at par with that in the advanced regions of the world. Economies of scale can be attained by quality public transport that can carry maximum people at minimum cost. Transport infrastructure will indeed expand along with the evolution of the destination, but a planned, comprehensive, and integrated approach will enable the destination to compete better. Terminals are key in transportation. The efficiency of the terminals needs to be improved. Monetary aspects of distance are another critical factor. It varies from destination to destination. Even if destinations are located at an equal distance from the origin region, the monetary costs can vary. According to Truong and Shimizu (2017), travel costs consist of the actual amount of money they spend on the transportation service and the cost of their travel time. While distance is a static factor, time in accessing the destination can vary according to the level of transport options. For example, air transport availability can reduce the time needed to access a destination compared to a destination with poor air connectivity. Though the distance is the same to cover different tourist attractions within destinations in two countries, the transport infrastructure conditions and a range of other factors can cause a difference in time in accessing the attractions within the destination. Space-time divergence is an issue in many destinations. Some of the destinations in undeveloped and developing countries face the problem of space-time divergence. Moreover, as we notice in the established tourist destinations in the developed regions, ‘over tourism’ is causing issues in the space-time convergence. Traffic congestion is explicit in many of the major established mass tourism destinations. This has created annoyance to the local community as well.

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3.6 Tourism Transportation and Geographical Concerns As critical as transportation efficiency for a destination, certain geographical factors can challenge tourism transportation. The possible geographical issues in tourism transportation can be related to: • • • • • • • •

Location Physical constraints Friction of Distance Friction of Space Time-space divergence Intermodality issues Quality of transport Scale of transportation.

3.6.1 Locational Disadvantages A destination with a locational disadvantage has more concerns in attracting tourists from other countries. Location advantage is associated with the proximity of the destination to tourism markets. When the major tourism source markets are nearby, the destination gets better opportunities for the inflow of tourists, and the transportation advantage will be good. Some of the European countries are major source markets and the destination countries over there also face the advantage of tourist transportation. Also, the location of major nodes in the international transport network is a matter of concern. If the destination has nodes well connected with the global transport networks, it will give an advantage for tourism transportation. Destinations in the Far East have a strategic location advantage as some important source markets like China, Australia, etc. are not far from them. Singapore, as a destination, also has a strategic locational advantage. On the other hand, the locational disadvantage is an issue for many tourism destinations. Route network hindrances due to the location of the destination, like the presence of water bodies, mountains, etc., can disrupt the ability of the route network to have continuous or smooth transport service.

3.6.2 Physical Constraints According to Rodrigue et al. (2006), physical constraints for tourism transportation, such as topography, hydrography, and climate, can be there. • Topography • Hydrography • Climate.

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Tourist destinations with limited physical constraints can have fewer transportation and accessibility issues. However, the topographical features within the destination can impede the scope of transportation. Though water transportation can complement tourism, some impeding elements can be seen in some locations. Climaterelated factors can negatively affect water, air, and land transportation and subsequently affect the movement of tourists. Absolute and relative barriers associated with physical constraints are furnished in Table 3.2.

3.6.3 Friction of Distance The friction of distance, which is a function of cost and access difficulties, is another major factor that can cause issues to tourism transportation. Usually, cost and distance are positively correlated as the increase in one can also lead to a hike in the other. The cost is not just the amount spent for being transported; other aspects like physical effort, energy, time, and/or the expenditure of other resources can also be factors associated with the cost element of friction of distance. The distance to cover to reach the destination and the difficulty in terms of energy, efforts, and resources required to complete the journey are related to the friction of distance. Transport costs usually increase along with the increase in distance. As cost is a major determinant in tourist decision-making, the friction of distance is a significant concern of the destinations. Therefore, it is important to have solutions to overcome the distance-related hindrances and lower the friction of distance. The lower the friction of distance, the greater the scope for tourist inflow into the destinations.

3.6.4 Friction of Space The friction of space is another term similarly applicable. Smooth transportation can be affected by various factors associated with space and spatial patterns of the destination. Space-related factors can affect tourism transportation, which can even dampen the tourism demand. For example, a destination with relatively higher congestion along the routes can affect transportation, and eventually, it can reduce the attractiveness of the destination as well. Congestion can delay movement and increase the time and cost to reach the attractions. A tourist will lose his/her precious time to enjoy the destination by being delayed, and the expenditure may be high due to the extra expenditure due to delays. In addition, delay can lead to the cost associated with fuel consumption, refreshments, etc. Route difficulties constitute another spatial factor that has an influence on tourism transportation. The capacity of transportation systems is also a matter of concern. Route network-related issues are common, and it may include network inconveniences, non-linearity due to topographical factors, etc. Node inconveniences and node linkage difficulties are common in tourist destinations that contribute to the friction of space associated with tourism transportation.

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3.6.5 Time-Space Divergence Two destinations located at equal distances from a tourism market can have different time requirements to reach. The journey time can vary. Journey time increases to cover the space due to multiple factors, including congestion, speed limitations, etc. Time-space divergence refers to the hike in travel time between geographical locations due to different mobility barriers. It is an issue in many destinations. Some destinations in undeveloped and developing countries have this issue more than those in developed regions. On the other hand, the effect of the space-time divergence can be reduced by having efficient transportation, communication, and related technological and social innovations. The quality of the transportation system and the associated infrastructure can reduce the time-space divergence substantially. In contrast, space-time convergence points to the decline in travel time between locations. Intermodality issues are also a matter of concern. Intermodal/multimodal transportation is the need of the hour. Destinations have to offer a quality intermodal transport system to enable the quality accessibility of the destination. Inadequate or lack of quality intermodal linkages can dampen the scope of destination in competing hard at the international tourism market. Quality and scale of transportation are important parameters for destinations. International destinations need local, regional, national, or international networks to attract tourists from all over the world. It is ideal to have the scale of transportation directly covering several regions in the world. Established mass tourism destinations may have a global scale of operations.

3.7 Intermodal/Multimodal Transportation and Tourism Intermodality, the ability to integrate two or more modes of transport, is key to successful transportation management. Dwyer and Kim (2003) are of the view that ease of access can be enhanced by developing a close relationship with the tourism distribution channel and intermodal linkages among the various forms of transport systems. In a multimodal transport system, two or more modes of transportation are integrated well to ensure a smooth and fast flow of people and freight from one location to another. Usually, international transportation involves multiple modes of transport. Therefore, the efficiency of intermodal transportation depends on the successful integration of two or more modes of transport. Leading tourist destinations in the world usually have efficient intermodal transportation systems to provide smooth, convenient, comfortable, and fast transport services to the tourists who arrive from far and wide. In Fig. 3.1, an example is reported. For a destination, intermodal transportation can facilitate international tourism, increase access and accessibility, offer convenient transport options, ensure increased cost efficiency, provide a better tourist transport experience, and enable tourists to save time which can help them in spending more time in the destination. The

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Fig. 3.1 Three modes of Transport Rio de Janeiro: Flight to São Paulo, a boat going to Niterói, and the famous bridge linking Rio and Niterói for road transport. Courtesy Joao Carlos Medau, available in Wikimedia commons, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php? curid=24228490

following, according to Lohmann and Duval (2013), are the different forms of intermodal connections. • Physical: A terminal that links different modes of transport with efficient transport services to the terminal and the destination. • Fare: Single for using two or more modes of transport services. • Operational: Integrated transport schedules for using more than one transport form can minimize the connecting time and efficiently coordinate the journey. • Institutional: Single transport provider provides integrated services of multiple types. Multimodal transport used interchangeably with intermodal transportation represents the combination of different transport modes to provide an efficient, flexible, economical, and resilient platform for freight and passenger transportation. By having a multimodal transport system, a tourist can use several means of transport to access the destination, visit attractions, and engage in intra-destinations travel so that the tourist can reach the places most conveniently and comfortably and gain a good travel experience. Therefore, destinations must ensure an efficient multimodal system to remain competitive in the global tourism market.

3.8 Conclusion Geographical aspects are vital in tourism as the phenomenon of tourism evolves out of spatial movements. It enables spatial interactions, and different types of geographical

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elements have critical and varying effects on tourism. Natural resources are usually at the heart of destinations; those attractions are at the center of the ‘pull factors’ of destinations in dragging tourists to visit them. Within destinations, transportation acts as a force of concentration by bringing tourists from different source markets to them. Spatial interaction in tourism is a result of transport demand/supply relationships occurring over geographical space. It is a realized flow of passengers or freight between a tourist-origin place and a destination location. Spatial interaction has to be supported by complementarity, which denotes that the demand for pleasure by the people in one place is met by the supply of tourism products by different industries situated in another location, the destination. Space, time, and cost are critical elements in the success of destinations. Distance comes into play in this context, and the increase in distance leads to the rise in the cost of travel which can affect the travel propensity of tourists. Therefore, the geographical location of the destinations is a significant factor in tourism. Destinations have to devise strategies to overcome the locational disadvantages, physical constraints, and the effects of the ‘friction of distance.’ It is always critical for destinations to ensure multimodal transportation in order to provide an efficient transportation system for tourist destinations to remain competitive in the global tourism market.

References Avgoustis, S.H., & Achana, F. (2002). Designing a sustainable city tourism development model using an Importance Performance (IP) analysis. Paper presented at: City Tourism 2002: Proceedings of European Cities Tourism’s International Conference in Vienna, Austria, pp. 139–149. Buhalis, D., (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism Management, 21(1), 97–116. Coles, T., Duval, D., & Hall, C.M. (2004). Tourism, mobility and global communities: New approaches to theorising tourism and tourist spaces. In: W. Theobold (Ed.), Global tourism. Oxford: Heinemann. pp. 463–481. Cooper, C., & Hall, C.M. (2008). Contemporary tourism-an international approach. Oxford: Butterworth-Heineman. Dileep, M.R. (2018). Tourism: Concepts, theory and practise. New Delhi: IK International. Dwyer, L., & Kim, C. (2003). Destination competitiveness: Determinants and indicators. Current Issues in Tourism, 6(5), 369–414. Hall, C.M. (1991).Tourism in Australia: Impacts, planning and development. Melbourne: Longman Hall, D.R. (1981). A geographical approach to propaganda. In: A.D. Burnett & P.J. Taylor. (Eds.), Political studies from spatial perspectives. Chichester and New York: Wiley, pp. 313–330. Inskeep, E., & Kallenberger, M. (1992). An integrated approach to resort development—Six case studies. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. Ivanovic, Z., & Baldigara, T. (2007). Logistics process in a tourism destination. Tourism and Hospitality Management, 13(3), 595–606. Kaul, R.N. (1985). Dynamics of tourism: A trilogy. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Kelly, I., & Nankervis, T. (2009). Visitor destinations. Milton, Australia: Wiley. Laws, E. (1995). Tourism destination management: Issues, analysis, and policies. New York, NY: Routledge. Le-Klähn, D.T., & Hall, C.M. (2015). Tourist use of public transport at destinations—A review. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(8), 785–803.

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Lohmann, G., & Pearce, G.D. (2010). Conceptualizing and operationalizing nodal tourism functions, Journal of Transport Geography, 18(2), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.05.003 Lohmann, G., & Duval, D.T. (2013). Critical aspects of the tourism-transport relationship. Oxford, UK: Goodfellow Publishers. Marrocu, E., & Paci, R. (2013). Different tourists to different destinations. Evidence from spatial interaction models. Tourism Management, 39, 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012. 10.009. Mayo, E.J., & Jarvis, L.P. (1981) The psychology of leisure travel: Effective marketing and selling of travel service. Boston, MA: CBI Publishing. Mckercher, B. (1998). The effect of market access on destination choice. Journal of Travel Research, 37(1), 39–47. Murphy, P., Pritchard, M.P., & Smith, B. (2000). The destination product and its impact on traveller perceptions. Tourism Management, 21(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0261-5177(99)000 80-1 Pagliara, F., La Pietra, A., Gomez, J., & Vassallo, J.M. (2015). High speed rail and the tourism market: Evidence from the Madrid case study. Transport Policy, 37, 187–194. Pearce, D. (1989). Tourist development. New York: Wiley Poon, A. (1993). Tourism, technology and competitive strategies. Oxford: CAB International. Prideaux, B.R. (1998). The resort development spectrum: An examination of the role of the market in resort development. In: B. Faulkner, C. Tidswell, & D. Weaver (Eds.), Progress in tourism and hospitality research: Proceedings of the eighth Australian tourism and hospitality research conference. Canberra: Bureau of Tourism Research, pp. 670–690. Rodrigue, J.-P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2006). The geography of transport systems. Oxon, UK: Routledge. Rodrigue, J.-P. www.transportgeography.org, A.18—Spatial interactions and the gravity model, retrieved from https://transportgeography.org/contents/methods/spatial-interactions-gra vity-model/ Thompson, K., & Schofield, P. (2007). An investigation of the relationship between public transport performance and destination satisfaction. Journal of Transport Geography, 15, 136–144. Truong, V.N., & Shimizu, T. (2017). The effect of transportation on tourism promotion: Literature review on application of the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) Model. Transportation Research Procedia (World Conference on Transport Research—WCTR 2016 Shanghai), 25, 3096–3115.

Chapter 4

Accessibility of Destinations

4.1 Introduction Accessibility needs to be among the prime priorities of a destination. It is central to the spatial interactions that occur as part of people’s movement for the purpose of visiting. According to Van der Berg et al. (1995), external accessibility as well as internal accessibility is critical to the attractiveness of tourist products. A destination’s access and accessibility are not limited to reaching the destination from tourist-origin places. Instead, it has multiple dimensions. Every tourist attraction within a destination also needs access. Moreover, accessing accommodation and other tourism industries is also important. Geographical fragmentation is a feature of the tourism industry. Some industries are located in the heart of the city, and some, far off. The significance of accessibility is linked to tourist preferences as well as tourist experiences. UNWTO, from an Accessible tourism perspective, reiterates that “Accessibility for all to tourism facilities, products, and services should be a central part of any responsible and sustainable tourism policy” UNWTO, https:// www.unwto.org/accessibility. Accessibility is conceptualized from varied perspectives. For instance, Medlik (2003) opines that accessibility is a function of distance from the place of origin of tourists and the external transport that enables access to the destination, and accessibility is measured by using the distance travelled, and the time taken or the cost involved. Furthermore, from a sociological perspective, accessibility needs to be a commitment of the destination, not just for the people of capabilities but for all those who wish to participate in the tourism process. Yet, accessibility has more aspects to discuss and the following discussion will unravel the varied nuances of accessibility concerning a tourist destination.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_4

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4.2 Accessibility Accessibility, a measure of a place’s capability to reach or a tourist’s capability to reach different places (Rodrigue et al., 2006), is critical for a destination. According to Ritchie and Crouch (2003), accessibility can be a key determinant of destination competitiveness. It is conceptualized as “a function of distance from centers of population, which constitute tourist markets, and of external transport, which enables a destination to be reached” (Medlik, 2003: 4). Accessibility is viewed from different perspectives. A few of them, as per Litman (2021) include the following. For transport planners, the focus of accessibility is usually on mobility in terms of vehicle travel. Transport planners generally focus on mobility, particularly vehicle travel. The relative ease of reaching a particular location or area is a matter of concern regarding accessibility associated with geography and urban economics. While land use planners tend to focus on geographic accessibility in terms of distance, social service planners think of accessibility in terms of facilities and services for specific groups, like the physically disabled and the like (Litman, 2021). The transport infrastructure is integral in ensuring the accessibility of the destination. There have to be quality roads, terminals, etc. that connect an efficient route network. The locational advantage is also significant for a destination to be accessible well. The overall speed of transportation is also a matter of concern. Speed varies from place to place for multiple reasons, like congestion, road conditions, nature of the terrain, quality of vehicles, and the like. Moreover, intermodal transportation and diversity of transport services are also significant for a destination to claim good accessibility. Congestion is a crucial impediment to accessibility. Some places have well-developed road transport infrastructure, yet traffic congestion can reduce the speed of movement and efficiency of the transport system. Accessibility of a destination cannot be constrained to the elements of transportation; instead, there are other elements to be taken into consideration. Land use and the way the attractions and amenities are located can have a role to play in the accessibility of a tourist destination. Factors that influence the accessibility of destinations are given in Table 4.1. Geurs and Wee (2004) suggested the following larger dimensions of consideration with regard to the accessibility of a destination. • The land-use system: The nature and quality of spatial distribution of activities and opportunities. • The transportation component: The quality of transport systems and the travel time and cost. • The temporal component: Mainly the time constraints with regard to transportation for engaging in tourism activities. • The individual component: The needs, abilities, and opportunities associated with the demand side. Planned and well-distributed destination elements shall have good accessibility. Scientific and efficient transport planning and good land use planning are prerequisites for good accessibility. Moreover, the time factor is highly relevant as the

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Table 4.1 Factors affecting accessibility • • • • • • • • • • •

Transport demand Speed, convenience, and affordability Quality of transport system and its diversity Roadway network connectivity and the consequent directness of travel between destinations Transport network connectivity in terms of integration among transport modes Geographic proximity Mobility substitutes (possible substitutes for physical travel) Availability of mobility information accessible for users Relative affordability Transport system management, in order to provide higher value trips and more efficient modes Inaccessibility: The significance of inaccessibility and isolation in the appropriate cases

Source Adapted from Litman (2021)

tourists have to reach the locations in the fastest manner. Diverse transport modes are inevitable for destinations to claim international repute and should have speed, comfort for the journey, high safety standards, and affordability. A vast network with a good density of link and route connections and integration of diverse transport modes within the system also matters in good accessibility of destinations. Hurdles like road congestion can curtail the speed factor. Tourists’ needs, abilities, and opportunities also have a role to play. The transport systems should be able to be used by the tourists, which indicates toward the affordability aspect of accessibility as well. Tourists’ ability to use services and opportunities in the destination needs consideration in the accessibility. Transport systems need to be accessible for different sections of society, not just for some groups of people. For a destination, as part of the planning, it is important to assess the needs and interests of the tourists and other stakeholders. Assessing transport demand and long-term forecasting are also equally significant. Tourists need information regarding their movement; therefore, the required information provision strategies are inevitable as part of the transportation systems. Signage, information counters, digital information sources, etc. are needed. Land use planning is a base for accessibility enhancement for a destination. Topography, location of attractions, zones for industries, other facilities, and services are elements of land use plans, and the linkage of them through transportation needs to be done diligently. As part of enhancing accessibility, some of the ideal strategies can be the reduction of distance-through speed enhancement, direct connectivity, and ensuring that the transport infrastructure make use of more efficient transport forms (Truong & Shimizu, 2017). Transport diversity and efficiency are critical for good accessibility. Destinations can always think of network expansion and increased connectivity with the external world. Speed limiting factors like congestion, parking issues, fuel cost, etc. have to be taken care of well to increase the accessibility of tourist destinations.

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4.3 Access and Accessibility Differences Access and accessibility are used in different contexts. According to Rodrigue et al. (2006), access differs from accessibility in the context of usage of the term. According to the “m[M]any transport systems have universal access; no specific user can have a competitive advantage over others since access is the same for anyone…. access is uniform wherever one is located regarding the transport system as long as there is a possibility to enter or to exit. On the other hand, accessibility varies according to one’s location within the transport system. Access is thus uniform while accessibility is not; the latter is a relative concept” (Rodrigue et al., 2006: 4). Even if a destination has good access by having good connectivity with other places, accessibility may not be so, as accessibility has multiple dimensions and diverse elements contribute to it. Accessibility will be good only if all the aspects/elements of it are equally good. For example, Muscat and Dubai are two cities located in the GCC region that have well-developed transport infrastructure. Access is equal for both the cities as the transport systems over there can be accessed by anyone seeking it. But accessibility varies. Dubai is more strategically located with wider connectivity with other regions worldwide through all modes of transport. A list of factors affecting accessibility is given in Table 4.1. A range of factors is used while measuring accessibility, including transport network, generated traffic, congestion, parking, environmental impacts, mobility diversity, service quality, safety, nodes, integration of transportation, and the like.

4.4 Mobility and Destinations Tourist mobility, travel, and visit, together with the consumption of tourism products/services, are interrelated in a complex geographical setting of a destination. The increasing mobility of people is one of the reasons behind the consistent progress of tourism as well. Mobility increase and transport development are interrelated, and share a symbiotic relationship. Transportation is also concerned with mobility, which is a geographical endeavor since it deals with space for a cost (Rodrigue et al., 2006). According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, mobility represents the quality or state of being mobile or movable and the ability or capacity to move (www.mer riam-webster.com). Similarly, Litman (2021) defines mobility as the ease of physical movement, which coincides further with the availability, frequency, speed, comfort, etc. of various transport modes. The increasing speed, efficiency, capacity, comfort, intermodality, widening of networks, and reducing travel cost generate a virtual shrinking of the world in terms of accessibility. This also influences mobility. A destination can take measures to enhance mobility by making use of transport-related technological advancements, facilitating economic progress, increasing accessibility, ensuring spatial expansion of transport infrastructure, enhancing the capacity consistently, improving the efficiency

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and speed of vehicles, and increasing the global trade and tourism. Destinations have to ensure mobility and access within them and attractions/tourist sites. Increased mobility concerning a destination can ensure more travel within the destination and visits to more attractions which have directly increased economic benefits, and expenditure by the tourists can be increased within the destination. Moreover, a higher level of mobility may also directly contribute increased share in the overall tourism experience. Affordable mobility to the largest possible segment of the population is usually a focus of the public transport system.

4.5 Transport Cost and Rates Transport cost is all about the payment that a transport provider has to make in order to provide transportation services. Rate of transportation service is the amount the customer has to pay for using the service of a transportation provider. The real transport costs and rates may not always be matching. Transport cost has a significant influence on the demand of long-haul tourism demand and a factor in destination selection as well (Crouch, 1994). Competitive transport rates are important for the destinations in attracting more tourists. Rising cost of transportation is a matter of concern for destinations. The factors that determine transport cost of a particular mode of transport may include several factors, like distance, availability of space and geographical conditions, vehicle used, economic and political environments, transport infrastructure, fuel cost, competition and industry dynamism, economies of scale, demand, and taxes and fees.

4.6 Elements of Tourism Transport Network A tourist destination transportation system needs a network consisting of a set of multiple transportation systems homogenized to create an efficient network of transportation (Haxton & Dupeyras, 2014). Transport networks are composed of a set of linkages derived from transport infrastructures. The network represents “the framework of routes within a system of locations, identified as nodes. A route is a link between two nodes that are part of a larger network that can refer to tangible routes such as roads and rails, or less tangible routes such as air and sea corridors” (Rodrigue & Ducruet, www.transportgeography.org). A fully functional and prepared array of infrastructure such as road networks and connectivity, terminals as well as other related infrastructure deemed necessary for the operation of the transport network are at the heart of the network (Jais & Marzuki, 2019). The route network and terminals ensure access to destinations and thus enable tourism to occur. Other features of a good network can include:

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• • • • •

4 Accessibility of Destinations

Quality infrastructure that can enable smooth, safe, and secure transportation Access to other areas Potential to move at the desired or most convenient moment. Convenient and desired modes of conveyance are available Equidistant nodes.

Network for tourism consists of links of highways, railways, air routes, etc., and nodes—terminals or interchanges—that are interconnected. The number of links to each node determines the accessibility (Lohmann, 2006). Nodes with access to the route network represent the geographic locations/space/facilities. Nodes can be the points of origin of tourist travel, the end of the trip (in the destination), or the transfer/transit points. Routes act as the links between nodes, and a combination of links/routes and nodes form the structure of a network. Flow represents the traffic movement along the links. A network is an inevitable component of a destination used to ensure accessibility. Hubs and gateways are nodes other than the origin and destination that are important in the tourism transportation network. The level and quality of the network and its elements are important in ensuring the quality accessibility to destinations. For an international destination, the networks at different levels can be seen as follows. • • • •

Global network Regional network National network Local network.

Some of the destinations, particularly the major urban tourism destinations, have global networks—the connectivity spans a global level. Nodes and links can be seen at international locations as well. Major cities in the world can have the advantage of being part of global networks. On the other hand, a regional network also spans locations in different countries within a region. For instance, in the Middle East regions, a good regional road network is present among GCC countries. Indeed, a good national network is essential for tourism. Domestic tourism, which has a major share in tourist arrivals, also requires a good national transport network. The local network functions at the destination level. “Critically, it is important that local networks are integrated into regional and international networks in order to maximize visitor flows into a destination” (Lohmann & Duval, 2011: 3). Some important components of tourism transportation network are described below.

4.6.1 Gateway A gateway is a critical location in a tourism transport network. It has multiple functions other than linking it with other networks and nodes/routes and acting as the entry and exit points. Pearce (1995) pointed out that in the parlance of tourism, gateways are points of entry/exit for tourists en route to a destination and also major destinations.

4.6 Elements of Tourism Transport Network

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The current socio-economic and political circumstances indeed induce gateways to utilize the potential of tourism as well. From a functional perspective, gateways offer accessibility to an extensive circulation system of freight and passengers and generally command the entry to and the exit from its catchment region (Rodrigue, et al., 2006). “The word “gateway” gives a fairly clear image of the unique positional characteristic of a gateway city. It is an entrance into (and necessarily an exit out of) some area. The entrance tends to be narrow and will probably be used by anyone wishing to enter or leave the tributary area ‘behind’” (Burghardt, 1971: 26). In the case of a tourist destination, the function of entry and exit of passengers and tourists is more significant. The gateways offer entry and exit into or out of a national or regional system (Pearce, 2001). In total, gateways ensure the entry and exit of passengers and freight into or out of the destination’s network and also link other nodes within a national or regional network, along with linking one network to another (Burghardt, 1971). According to Van klink and van der Berg (1998: 8), gateways can be in “an excellent position to stimulate intermodal transport.” Usually, gateways are situated in a strategic location so as to have a convenient link with other networks, nodes, and routes. The physical location is the prime reason for accumulating traffic in one place. Many cities that have been gateways for a long time recognized the potential and made them become leading tourist destinations by enhancing their image and taking advantage of increasing visitor interest in urban experiences (Warren & Taylor, 2003). Examples of gateways include international airports, seaports, and border crossing points. Gateway city represents the urban center through which the travellers can enter or exit a destination country. Centrality, intermediacy, and proximity (O’Connor, 1995) are important when assessing the significance of gateways from a tourism perspective. While centrality deals with the state of being central, the intermediacy of gateways deals with the gateway’s location between the major origins and the destinations. It is ideal to have the gateway in a central area of a destination country so that tourists can have equal distance to move to different attractions located at different parts of the destination. The intermediacy aspect helps get the tourists as the gateway location is between major tourist-source markets and destinations. This will help the spot have more tourists, and the stopover tourists/transit tourists will find it easier to access the destination due to the intermediacy of the gateways. “Many gateways also have a significant centrality component as they represent industrial zones and large urban agglomerations” (Rodrigue, 2020). The proximity of the gateway to the tourist attractions is also essential. Having the proximity, tourists can easily access the attractions within the destinations. Considering the above discussion, a gateway in relation to tourism can have multiple roles such as entry/exit points, points of emigration, safety, and security checks, intermediary points for rest, relaxation, and refreshments, first and last impression points, interpretation point, tourism marketing location, and a location for visitor behavior modification. In addition, gateway also act as a source market of tourists for other tourist places in the region, and it itself acts as a tourist destination when tourists would like to visit and spend a significant amount of time within the gateway. Gateways can be considered from a domestic tourism perspective as

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well. Based on Lundgren’s model, as presented by Pearce (1995) and interpreted by Lohmann (2006), the following types of gateways concerning tourism can be identified. • A centrally located metropolitan destination is linked to a peripheral rural destination. A gateway can also act as a destination. Tourists may also emerge from that place, and the flow is within the gateway and between the places. • A regional destination gateway is linked to a peripheral rural destination. • A regional destination gateway is linked to a satellite town. Here, the satellite town can also be the origin point, despite acting as the destination. • A centrally located metropolitan destination is linked to a satellite town. Same as the above, but both the locations act as origin as well. • Two regional destination gateways have a high volume of reciprocal traffic and function. Both regions are not origin points of tourists. • One centrally located metropolitan destination is linked to a regional destination gateway with a high volume of reciprocal traffic. The former may act as the origin location as well. • Two centrally located metropolitan destinations have a high volume of reciprocal traffic. Both may have an origin as well as destination functions.

4.6.2 Hubs Hub is an important node in a transport network, and the flow of passengers/freight is routed through hubs. According to O’Kelly and Miller (1994), Hub is a centrally located point through which the flow of passengers passes so as to integrate a set of origin-destination points. The flow of tourists from different regions is rooted in one or more hubs. It is impossible to have direct routes from every location in the world to a destination, and it is in this context that the hubs become relevant. Another definition says that “hubs are special nodes that are part of a network, located in such a way as to facilitate connectivity between interacting places” (O’Kelly, 1998: 171). For example, in air transportation, large airports located at strategic locations in the international air route system act as hubs for airlines to distribute the traffic to airports situated at different geographic locations. Airlines usually follow the ‘Hub & Spoke’ system strategy to manage the traffic to other locations and the aircraft for the efficient and smooth transportation of passengers and cargo. An example of London Heathrew in shown in Fig. 4.1.

4.6.3 Route The route represents the linking ways among the nodes. It can include roads, railways, airways, and the like. Tourism also have prominent routes which have some features that can give tourists the experience of travelling or driving along with them.

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Fig. 4.1 London Heathrow: A Hub Airport a view of Terminal 1. Courtesy Brendan & Ruth McCartney, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=106084097

According to Mariot, three types of tourist routes can be seen: an access route, a return route, and a recreational route (reported in Lohmann, 2006). While the access route connects the places, the recreational route has special significance in tourism from a leisure perspective. In order to promote drive tourism, destinations take special care to have recreational routes as well. Stopovers act either as waypoints between destinations or as secondary destinations on longer circuits (Pearce and Elliott, 1983). Stopovers are present in between the origin location and the destination. Origin in tourism literature represents the markets or source regions of tourists from where the tourists start their journey. It is used to indicate the waypoints between destinations or function as secondary destinations on longer circuits (Pearce, 1981). The places with touristic significance that are strategically located between major tourist-source markets and destinations have the advantage of having more stopover tourism. Table 4.2 describes the world’s busiest air routes.

4.7 Tourist Movement Patterns Tourist movement patterns are important when planning transportation development and destination management. Transportation pattern shows the flow of passengers and freight within a region. According to Lew and McKercher (2006), it is important to analyze the intra-destination movements which can assist in transport planning, product development, and impact management. Understanding the tourist movement patterns and transportation pattern is important in dealing with land-use planning. These are related to the spatial distribution of the people and freight and the facilities and services associated with transportation. Moreover, destination managers

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Table 4.2 World’s busiest air routes (July 2022) International air routes

Domestic air routes

Rank

City pairs

City codes

City pairs

City codes

1

Cairo—Jeddah

CAI-JED

Jeju International—Seoul Gimpo

CJU-GMP

2

Dubai—Riyadh

DXB-RUH

Hanoi—Ho Chi Minh City HAN-SGN

3

Kuala Lumpur—Singapore KUL-SIN Changi

Sapporo New Chitose—Tokyo Haneda

CTS-HND

4

New York JFK—London Heathrow

JFK-LHR

Fukuoka—Tokyo Haneda

FUK-HND

5

Antalya—Moscow Vnukovo

AYT-VKO

Melbourne—Sydney

MEL-SYD

6

Dubai—Jeddah

DXB-JED

Da Nang—Hanoi

DAD-HAN

7

Mumbai—Dubai

BOM-DXB

Tokyo Haneda—Okinawa Naha

HND-OKA

8

Hong Kong—Taipei

HKG-TPE

Beijing—Shanghai Hongqiao

PEK-SHA

9

Duesseldorf—Palma

DUS-PMI

Jeddah—Riyadh

JED-RUH

10

Cairo—Riyadh

CAI-RUH

Jakarta—Denpasar-Bali

CGK-DPS

Source Official Airline Guide (OAG), Retrieved from https://www.oag.com/busiest-routes-rig ht-now

should have detailed knowledge of the tourist movement patterns to take measures to minimize congestion, arrange parking space, ensure tourist facilities and services, devise and implement visitor management practices, and the like. Different tourism movement patterns can be seen. Oppermann (1995) identifies the following types of tourist flow patterns. • Single Destination Tourists visit the destination and return • Base Camp In this category, tourists ultimately visit a single destination, and they make trips to a few other places around the destination visited. After the visit, the tourist returns to the origin place. • Destination area loop The tourist travels a long distance to reach one destination and from there takes a circle trip to move multiple destinations and finally returns to the origin place via the first destination visited. • Full loop pattern The tourist starts a journey from the origin, moves to other destinations one by one, and reaches back to the origin place from the final destination visited. The route pattern makes a circular shape.

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• Open jaw loop It’s also like the full loop pattern, but the first and last return trips are long-haul, making the overall trip route pattern an imperfect circle shape, and the first and the last destinations can be in different countries. • Multiple destination areas loop As in the case of a round-the-world trip, “the tourist visits completely different regions and travels to a number of places within each region” (Oppermann, 1995: 58). Different other trip patterns, like destination area loop and open jaw loop, may occur within this trip pattern. • Stopover pattern The tourist moves to a final destination and makes stopovers in between, and returns to the origin in the same route. Lue et al.’s (1993) model of alternative spatial patterns of leisure trips identifies five spatial patterns of tourist movements such as single destination, en route, base camp, regional tour, and trip-chaining. In a single destination type, the tourist moves straight from the origin to the destination and returns to the origin. In the route pattern, the tourist moves to multiple locations while on a trip to the final destination. He/she deviates from the main route before reaching the final destination to multiple sites and returns to the main route, and finally reaches the destination. In the base camp category, the tourist moves straight to the final destination; from there, he takes trips to other tourist sites and returns to the base destination. The return to the origin place is also from the base destination. In the regional tour pattern, the tourist visits multiple locations as a series of tourist sites before returning to the origin place. The flow doesn’t have a particular flow direction. Finally, in the trip-chaining pattern, the tourist visits multiple tourist sites, and the pattern of the visit is one by one, moving from one location to the next and from there to the next. In all of the above patterns, a specific focus destination is there though multiple sites are being visited. These patterns are helpful for the transport and destination planners to devise strategies as part of transport infrastructure planning and the required facilities and services in the nodes and along routes. Land use patterns can also be understood by transportation patterns.

4.8 Destination Transport Development Transportation development and efficient management are critical for a destination to remain successful. A destination needs to realize that an inefficient transport system can dampen the scope of tourism in a destination. Tourists have multiple options, and alternative destinations are available now for them to choose from according to their needs and interests. Prideaux (2000) opined that inhibiting the ability and willingness of tourists to travel to preferred destinations by inefficiencies in the transportation system can lead to some likelihood of seeking alternative destinations. An efficient and convenient transportation system within a destination can eventually help in

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higher tourist expenditure, better destination image, more tourist arrivals, effective management of visitors, and reduced traffic congestion and crowding (Gutiérrez & Miravet 2016). Better mobility and accessibility may not only enhance tourist expenditure as they can visit more attractions and facilities (Marlina and Natalia 2017), but also increase the number of attractions tourists can visit since time-saving is better with an efficient transport system. On the other hand, a poor transport system also causes excessive travel, which has multiple consequences. For instance, a lack of information on the route system can lead the tourists to waste time seeking the best route and also cause them to take the wrong routes to attractions. Consequently, tourists may travel excess and cause more pollution and wastage of time. Almobaideen et al. (2017) point out that the difficulties and complications in the transportation networks and inept route-finding solutions can lead to excessive travel in large quantities. The transportation-related experience factor and its significance in tourist experience are already stated, and the destination needs to provide a quality transport system that can offer a good transportation experience. In addition, providing an exciting transport system can greatly enhance the tourist experience. Therefore, a destination development plan should always have transportation as an integral part. According to Prideaux (2000), the elements of transport for consideration in future tourism development plans should consider the following aspects: • The distance from origin to destination influences the mode of transport used to travel to the destination. • The factors influencing the significance of transport access costs in destination selection decisions are fare costs, travel time, and the distance travelled. • The more the distance, the greater the travel cost, which hikes the holiday cost • The hidden costs associated with travel may alter transport choices. • In long distances, particularly, access to international airports is vital in developing global markets. • Prospective destinations have to identify and invest in appropriate transport infrastructure. Assessing tourists’ transportation needs and interests is also important for a destination while developing. Demand forecasting forms the base of development. Every destination cannot have similar transport options. The local geographical conditions, ecological sensitiveness, sociocultural factors, traditional transport systems, rising environmental concerns, financial status, etc. need to be a part of the considerations about transport development. There is increasing consideration for disabled-friendly transport services in the destination. Moreover, the social aspect of provision of transport for tourists from every strata of society should be ensured in every destination. Affordability may be provided for people from all walks of life. Transport policies, therefore, should include not only environmental considerations but social aspects as well. Encouraging public transport is important, particularly with a focus on reduction in carbon emissions. Intermodal

4.8 Destination Transport Development

77

Table 4.3 Postulates in the role of transport in tourism development • One: The evolution of tourism is highly correlated with advancements in the means of transport • Two: The tourism process needs transport and other facilities suitable for it • Three: Transport facilities are critical for tourism and operate both as an expanding, and a delimiting factor for traffic flows. The quality of transport services offered also affects the type of tourist flow • Four: The planned development, maintenance, and operation of transport facilities based on a comprehensive transport policy are critical to the transport system’s success in contributing to tourism’s growth • Five: Transport prices affect the elasticity of traffic demand, and diversification of price structure and competition has led to a price reduction and quality improvements • Six: The integration of domestic and international transport systems and parallel coordination with other countries eases the tourist flow and encourages domestic and international tourism • Seven: Technological advancements in transport cause a profound influence on the means and patterns of transportation, with the result that a more efficient, faster, and safer transport system, beneficial to the growth and expansion of tourism, would emerge and evolve • Eight: The evolution of the accommodation sector must maintain comparative growth to meet the increasing and diverse demands of tourism and transport expansion • Nine: The consistent integration of advanced transport technologies and development of facilities along with adopting modern marketing techniques would have a pervasive impact on the continued growth of future world tourism Source Modified from Kaul (1985)

and multimodal transport systems are vital in ensuring efficient transport systems within destinations, and developers have to integrate diverse modes of transport services for smooth and fast tourist transport. Linkages with tourist attractions and industries, cost factors, safety and security aspects, etc. are also to be focused upon while developing and managing destination transport systems. Kaul (1985) defines the nine postulates related to the role of transport in tourism development (see Table 4.3). Nowadays, there is scope for more convenient and economical transport options within the destinations, like economic taxi services. These have helped the tourists use taxi systems more confidently, visiting more attractions and spending more money in the destination. A similar opinion is given by Park et al. (2021), which say that car services like Uber positively impact tourist expenditures. On the other hand, seasonality is a factor that negatively affects transportation services in tourist destinations. Seasonality augments demand fluctuations, and that can affect the demand badly. Peeters et al. (2004) identify the following factors to consider concerning seasonality and tourist transportation services. • Infrastructure capacity problems during peak seasons. • Higher transport cost due to lower utilization of the transport capacity • High land use due to large parking lots and additional infrastructure for peak seasons. • Traffic safety and air quality problems during seasons.

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Another critical dimension of transportation is associated with the image factor. Transportation is an essential element of the destination image that plays a role in destination marketing. It, usually a part of the destination image held by tourists, turns out to be a representation of tourism destination image as well (e.g., worldclass airports, high-speed trains) (Zhang et al., 2021). Transportation has a significant role in both perceived destination image and projected destination image. Quality and exciting transportation systems can be used as part of branding, positioning, and differentiating the destination as a product while marketing at the international level. According to Lai et al. (2018), transportation contributes to destination brand image. While considering destination image, Hosany et al. (2007) pointed out that a destination involves a bundle of tangible and intangible elements and can potentially be seen as a product or perceived as a brand. Transport infrastructure and the vehicles used can be used in marketing communication. For instance, a high class airport or its features can be part of the marketing strategies as well. A recreational tourist transport or a high-speed train service can always be used for marketing. Postulates in the role of transport in tourism development are shown in Table 4.3.

4.9 Transport-Related Conflicts One primary factor that needs to be considered while developing destination transportation focusing on tourists is that there should be no tourist-host community conflicts. When the transportation development is focused on tourists, there can be issues from the local community’s side regarding accessibility, affordability, and convenience. Ensuring quality tourist services can also enhance transportation costs, which can cause problems in the host community. The local community can face inconvenience, time waste, road congestion, parking issues, etc. According to Hall (2009), transport demand in association with tourism destinations consists of three distinct groups of transport users competing for transport services, access, and transport-related space. They are: • The host community: Local people who do not depend on tourism • People working in the tourism industry may belong to the destination area or from outside. Their transport needs may or may not be during usual public transport hours. • Tourists: They may require both public as well as specialized transport. In urban tourist areas, the consequences of urban transport, such as overcrowding and congestion, make it difficult for urban tourists to enjoy what the city destination has to offer (Zheng et al., 2020). On the other hand, the residents consequently face transportation inconveniences. The inequality in transport use between the tourist and the host community is a matter of concern. Hall (1999) opined that tourism transport

4.10 Accessibility for All

79

becomes a face of inequality in destinations, and economic inequalities between tourists and the ‘host’ population may be shown in contrast, like in the case of airconditioned tourist transport and local para-transit modes. Therefore, the notion of inequality, unattainability, relative deprivation, and/or demonstration effects come to the forefront of tourism transportation. Increasing congestion is a major cause of worry in many destinations, and ‘over tourism’-related issues are being discussed in many urban tourist destinations. Transport-related accidents or similar incidents can undermine tourist and industry confidence. Environmental issues like pollution, excessive land use for transport infrastructure, and carbon emissions are also severe matters in tourism transport development. UNWTO recommendations for ensuring accessibility for the disabled category are provided in Table 4.4.

4.10 Accessibility for All There has been a growing concern about the accessibility of physically challenged people and their ability to participate in tourism. The agenda of promoting accessible tourism has been there in international tourism since the mid-1990s (Sen & Mayfield, 2004). The concept of accessible tourism is based on this aspect. Tourists are facing issues pertaining to the access to information availability, trip arrangement, access to transport, ground transportation, line-haul transportation, the target of the trip (scenery, museum, etc.), accommodation, access to refreshment centers, functional care, and medical access (Cavinato & Cuckovicht, 1992). “The number of accessibility problems is legion, and visitors may be affected in every part of the route, either in terms of access to information, local transport, accommodation, visits, and/or participation in cultural or sporting events, whether as spectators or participants” (UNWTO, 2013). Accessible tourism aims to have completely barrierfree destinations, activities, and events with every possible disability-friendly facility and service along with quality staff and services. Moreover, physically challenged people should not feel a shortage of information and booking facilities and services. However, a necessary mechanism needs to be ensured, like reservations, signage on accessible facilities, information about special facilities arranged for them, and the similar.

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Table 4.4 UNWTO recommendations for accessibility for all UNWTO, as part of the promotion of accessible tourism, urges tourism destinations worldwide to take care of every aspect given below Tourism destination management • Management should consider ensuring the disabled-friendly accessible facilities and services throughout the destination Tourism information and advertising (preparation, information, and booking) • Ensure efficient system for information provision using various information dissemination tools, about the accessibility facilities and services arranged Urban and architectural environments: Ensure that the following are in place • Parking areas suitable for persons with reduced mobility • Communication: Ensure that all types of physically challenged people get the required information at ease • Signage: There should be proper marking, signage, proximity, etc. suitable for all physically challenged people • Horizontal movement: Proper facilities for moving around, with accessible corridors and passageways • Vertical movement: Ensure proper elevators, ramps, and platform lifts • Public hygiene facilities: Install accessible toilet stalls, washbasins, etc • Prices: Ensure that the prices of disabled-friendly facilities and services are the same as that of other tourists Modes of transport: Arrange suitably: • Vehicles • Stations, passenger terminals, and related facilities • Major thoroughfares: Ensure rest stops at regular intervals Accommodation, food service establishments, and conference facilities Cultural activities: Make sure the following have disabled-friendly facilities also • Museums and other buildings of tourism interest • Theatres and cinemas Other tourism activities and events: Ensure that physically challenged people can also take part in: • Excursions to surrounding areas • Sports • Green spaces and natural environments • Beaches Train the staff to provide quality accessible tourism services Source UNWTO (2013)

4.11 Conclusion Accessibility, a function of distance from the place of origin of tourists and the external transport that enables access to the destination, is a critical determinant in the success of destinations. While access denotes the connectivity of the destination with the tourist-source markets, accessibility is a more comprehensive term involving different aspects of transportation. Transport costs and rates influence

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tourists in their decision-making to visit places. Therefore, destinations can collaborate with the transport sector not only to offer an efficient transport system but also to ensure affordability of access. Tourist destination needs an efficient transport network consisting of a set of multiple transportation systems homogenized to create an efficient network of transportation. A good route network will have good linkages among the nodes by way of having routes, with intermodality at the heart of the transportation system. Gateways are essential for destinations, not only for offering connectivity for the destinations with other places in the world; they themselves act as tourist destinations and tourist-source markets. Hub cities too have a critical role in ensuring an efficient and smooth flow of tourists. Though destinations need to develop an efficient transportation system, it is also equally vital for them to ensure accessibility since transportation has the largest share of carbon emissions from tourism.

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Truong, V.N., & Shimizu, T. (2017). The effect of transportation on tourism promotion: Literature review on application of the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) Model. Transportation Research Procedia (World Conference on Transport Research—WCTR 2016 Shanghai), 25, 3096–3115. UNWTO. (2013). Recommendations on accessible tourism, retrieved from https://doi.org/10.18111/ 9789284415984. Sunday, June 5, 2022. UNWTO, https://www.unwto.org/accessibility Van der Berg, L., van der Borg, J., & van der Meer, J. (1995). Urban tourism: Performance and strategies in Eight European cities. Aldershot: Ashgate. Van Klink, H.A., & van den Berg, G.C. (1998). Gateways and intermodalism. Journal of Transport Geography, 6(1), 1–9. Warren, J.A.N., & Taylor, C.N. (2003). Developing urban tourism in New Zealand. Wellington: Centre for Research, Evaluation and Social Assessment. Zhang, D., Qi, H., & Qi, N. (2021). Transportation image: Place-based vehicles for destination branding, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm. 2020.100541 Zheng, W., Liao, Z., & Lin, Z. (2020). Navigating through the complex transport system: A heuristic approach for city tourism recommendation. Tourism Management, 81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2020.104162

Chapter 5

Public Transport and Urban-Rural Tourism

5.1 Introduction The transport sector occupies an important place in a tourism system and is one of the most critical components of the tourism infrastructure. Of late, public transportation has increased significantly in the parlance of tourism. In a destination, public transport services are developed to provide access and accessibility to and within destinations and can be used by tourists and locals alike. A quality public transport system is inevitable in modern societies, and the need for efficient public transportation is increasing day by day. Tourism development plans consist of public transport elements as integral components, and destinations attempt to collaborate better with the public transport sector to ensure quality transport infrastructure and services. In fact, destinations are now trying to enhance the level of public transport services to attract more tourists and reduce the negative impacts of transportation to a great level. While transportation is highly blamed for environmental issues, particularly associated with carbon emissions, public transportation, in particular, can reduce environmental problems. As public transport services can transport more people using less number of vehicles, car-based and non-public transportation leads to the use of a significantly higher number of vehicles with excessive carbon emissions and land usage. Therefore, promoting public transport becomes indispensable for the destinations to develop and get promoted among the tourists. Moreover, quality public transport infrastructure and services enhance the attractiveness of tourist destinations.

5.2 Public Transport Of late, public transport is being given increased significance, particularly in the wake of the challenge of carbon emissions and climate change. It is defined as “…the use of shared, and often state-operated or contracted, bus, ferry, tram, and train transport available for use by the general public-including tourists-to move around an area, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_5

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excluding transport on city tour buses” (ITIC, 2016). Public transport is usually a mass transport mode of varying capacities. Some, like rail transport, provide transport service for a large number of people, while transport modes like buses can carry on an average of 50 passengers at a time. Any transport mode that the public of any kind can use can be considered under the term public transport. It includes every multipleoccupancy vehicle service intended to carry passengers and freight on routes at various levels for fixed rate. It can be privately or publicly owned, providing general or special service to the public, and usually charge set fares and run on fixed routes. The following description can give further clarity to the term public transport. Public transport has traditionally been defined as any mode of transport available for hire and reward; in other words, any form available for use by the general public. Public transport includes not only bus and rail but also taxis, as well as air and sea services….. In practice, the term public transport (transit in the United States) has tended to refer to land-based passenger transport and bus and rail services, in particular. (Preston, 2020: 113)

Though the above definition focuses more on land transportation, some other definitions include all sorts of shared transportation, including air transportation and inland water transportation, coming under the purview of public transport. Privateowned public transport services are also not uncommon. Many destinations also have public transport services owned and operated by the private sector. Air transportation, for instance, has primarily private ownership, progressed well since the deregulation. As indicated, public transport services are for people from many walks of life and any social strata. Social considerations are always a focus of public transportation. Figure 5.1 reports an example of public transport vehicle in New York city. Public transport is a great contributor to internal accessibility within urban tourism destinations. The quality of the public transport does matter in tourism. Places with good quality public transport services have the relevance of it in tourism as well. An efficient public transport system is inevitable to promote the use of public transport services by tourists in destinations. Guiver et al. (2007) point out that scheduled bus services are important to reduce car use by enabling tourists without cars to reach such destination areas and contributing to local economies. Improved public transport systems, mainly bus services, can increase attractiveness and be marketed among some targeted segments. Tourists seek comfortable and efficient public transport services, and the absence of that will prompt them to depend on private carriers and self-drive transport modes for a visit to their destinations. Therefore, in order to promote public transport in the parlance of tourism, it is of paramount importance to ensure the quality of public transport services. While public transportation has increased its presence in the origin-destination (OD) travel, air transport dominates in the international sector. Thrane (2015: 119) argues that an increase in “… travel distance in kilometres entails a gradual increase in the preferred propensity for air transportation over car or public transportation”. In addition to the OD transportation, there is a growing demand for public transport use in intra-destination travel as well, in an effective way.

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Fig. 5.1 New York Fifth Avenue public transport vehicle [New York Fifth Avenue Coach Co. was a famous public transport company operated services between 1885 and 1960]. Courtesy Wikipedia commons

5.3 Public Transport Systems: Elements and Essential Conditions A successful public transport system is inevitable in destinations. The efficiency of the public transport systems should reflect in accessibility for both the tourists and local people, and the users of the system should be able to gain a good traveling experience. According to Gronau and Kagermeier (2007), the relevant aspects of successful transport services in tourist destinations include quality of the public transport service; constraints on private cars in order to increase public transport use; symbiotic cooperation between leisure facilities and transport providers; and long-term effects of transport implementation (e.g., implementation of alternative transportation). The primary conditions for successful public transport services in tourist destinations also include the transparency and quality of the public transport service. The system must identify the target market groups to develop the required infrastructure. Moreover, the public transport system must also ensure ‘soft’ attributes of transport quality (Harrison et al., 1998), and it may include customer service, information provision, and product distribution and access. Table 5.1 shows the essential elements of a good traffic management system. Further, the following constitute the elements and conditions of a quality public transport system.

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Table 5.1 Elements of good traffic management system

Regulatory Techniques • One Way Street • Reversible Streets • Reversible Lanes • Turning Movement Restrictions • Closing Streets

Traffic Control Devices • Traffic Signs • Traffic Signals • Road Surface Markings • Computerized Signal Control Device • Traffic Cone and Drums • Speed Breakers

Demand Management Techniques • Parking Restriction • Parking Pricing • Off street Parking and Pay Area • On street Parking Meters • Park and Ride Systems

Self-enforcing Techniques • Central Divider • Railing • Parabolic Dividers • Channelizers • Parking Notches • Sleeping Policeman

Traffic Segregation Techniques • Vehicle-vehicle Segregation • Pedestrian-vehicle Segregation • Time Segregation

Bus Priority Techniques • Bus Priority Maneuvers • Bus Lanes • Bus Priority Signal System

Source Overstay Tonight, data retrieved from https://www.overst aytonight.com/transport-system/

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Multiple transport modes Intermodal services with good integration among different transport systems Favorable and progressive rules and regulations Effective alternative transport modes and the required facilities Adequate information provision services and signage Quality transport infrastructure and facilities Good quality transport terminals with options for intermodal services Competitive price system Accessibility for every section of the society, including tourists Efficient road traffic control tools and management system Good frequency of services and geographical coverage Quality human resource and service delivery standards System for modification of consumer behavior to adopt sustainability practices Standardized safety and security measures Wide distribution and efficient route network Quality and diversity of vehicles Speed, comfort, convenience, and luggage-carrying options Regular technological advancements and efficient use of IT Good image and marketing efforts at various levels Efficient management system for planning, policymaking, operations, marketing, etc.

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• Efficiency in managing the supply according to demand fluctuations and seasonality • Tourist routes/recreational routes with the required facilities and services along the route.

5.4 Advantages of Public Transport The advantages of public transport in tourism are many and can be mainly classified under two headings, such as the advantages for the tourist and for the destination and the society at large. The benefits of using public transport for the tourists include drive-free movement and the enjoyment of the ride; relaxation; enjoyment of the places at the lowest rates; hassle of parking, etc.; getting the sense of social life in the destination; the flexibility to alter the itinerary; etc. On the other hand, the destination and the society at large have various reasons to promote public transport for tourism. Car-based tourist trips to the destinations can cause noise, visual intrusion, air pollution, land take for roads and parking, danger, and disruption that also impede walking and cycling (Reeves, 2006). The major advantages of public transport use in the destination are the following. • • • • • • • • • • • •

Lesser carbon emissions and increased fuel efficiency Reduction of vehicles on the road and minimizing road congestion Efficient land use, mainly by limiting parking space, etc. Local people can use tourism transportation as well Better destination image through quality public transportation Provision of good travel experience through quality transportation Increased tourist use causes further investments in public transportation Increased local entrepreneurship/employment opportunities in transport businesses Make public transport more economically viable Increased accessibility and affordability Reduced inequality in transport use and mobility Support for physically challenged travelers.

Public transport also shares a role in forming the destination image. A study by Loi et al. (2017) on destination image, public transport, and revisit intention reveals that the quality of tourist shuttle services, an element of public transportation in the destination, positively correlates with destination satisfaction and image. Also, those are connected to tourists’ intention to revisit the destination. Thus, it can be mentioned that public transport or its elements and the experience with the use of such, directly or indirectly, contribute to the destination image, tourist experience, and the intentions of tourists to revisit the destination.

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5.5 Ecological Significance of Public Transport Public transport service usually has shared transport services. Large vehicles are usually used for public transportation. Bus services are the most common element. In some countries, rail transportation is also highly relevant. When large vehicles are used, more people are carried by a single vehicle. Therefore, the number of vehicles needed for mass transportation is much less compared to small vehicles like cars. Cars are nowadays considered a highly unsustainable form of transport modes. The number of cars required for transporting the same number of people by bus or train is much more. Consequently, more cars and more space are needed for the same number of travelers. More parking space is also required. Traffic congestion is a common issue, and car usage increases the congestion rate. Furthermore, the carbon emissions are too high when more vehicles are used. According to Irish Tourist Industry Confederation (ITIC, 2016), public transport has fewer greenhouse gases and noise/vibration, greater fuel efficiency, less social impacts, and encourages connectivity within and between communities and services. More significant consumer savings are provided by high-quality public transport, compared to the incremental costs of such services. Considering the negative aspects of car and similar small vehicle based transportation, public transport services are considered more environment-friendly. There is a global urge to promote public transport services, considering the sustainability principles. In the realm of tourism, the current trend is to develop and promote public transportation, in addition to promoting alternative transport forms..

5.6 Limitations and Barriers to Public Transport Even if public transport is a cheaper option with some advantages which provides good access to many destinations and attractions, private transportation is still growing remarkably. According to Le-Klähn et al. (2014), the factors that often discourage public transport use include inconvenience and restrictions, deficiency of information, disadvantages of public transport, and personal preferences. Inconvenience regarding the timing of the bus services is also a concern. Tourists have limited time to spend in a destination, and the slow pace of public transport services can be an issue. Other factors may include personal preferences and preference for convenience and comfort. The following are the significant limitations/barriers of public transport in tourism. • • • • • •

Total time to reach the destination, and the possibility of delays Time lag for connection transport services Inadequate public transport options Crowding in public transports Language barriers Lack of awareness of transport options

5.7 Transport Policy for Public Transport

• • • • • • •

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Number of changes required to reach the destination Lack of comfort and sub-standard facilities and services Quality of vehicles Distance of terminals from the destinations Luggage handling difficulty Lack of freedom and independence Personal preferences for automobile, bicycle use, etc.

5.7 Transport Policy for Public Transport Public transport is the need of the hour, not only for the destinations but also the entire society, as the need for carbon emission reduction is a global priority now. Other environmental impacts of transportation also need to be restrained. On the other hand, the development of transportation systems is also essential. Effective policy intervention is required in this problem of development and sustainability. The policy is about formulating a set of constructs and propositions that are established to attain particular objectives associated with socio-economic development and the functioning and performance of the transportation system (Rodrigue et al., 2006). In many a case, public transport development is seen primarily in the urban areas, whereas the rural areas face a dearth of sufficient transportation facilities and services. Public transportation development is a requirement for a quality national transportation system, irrespective of the nature of the place, whether it is an urban or a rural area. From a holistic perspective, policy intervention is required to adhere to sustainability principles to ensure the provision of public transport to rural destination areas, which can help reduce the need to use a car (Guiver et al., 2007). Tourism needs policies pertaining to the transportation of different kinds. Development and sustainability principles need to go hand in hand. Transportation policies favoring tourism is an essential requirement. At the same time, those policies should not hamper the scope of the destination in attempting sustainability. Policies on land use for developing the transport infrastructure are also a need. Destination managers must urge the visitors to use public transport, which also needs policy assistance. Some suggestions indicate that travel behavior can be changed to use public transport more by creating parking restrictions and road charging (Cullinane et al., 1996). A range of aspects needs to be considered regarding transportation policy, especially from a tourism point of view. The following are some major focus areas of transportation policy associated with tourism. • Land use pattern for transport infrastructure development • Promotion of intermodal transportation and enhancing intra-destination connectivity. • Use of alternative energy/fuel for vehicles • Promotion of alternative modes of transportation • Setting up of facilities for walking, cycling, etc. • Investment in new technologies for reducing carbon emissions

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• Tourist behavior modification to use public transport • Equitability in terms of accessibility and use of transport by every section of the society • Ensuring facilities for disabled friendly people • Integration of transport with tourism development plans and activities • Initiatives and measures to discourage private vehicle use • Promotion of public transport in rural areas as well.

5.8 Urban Public Transport and Tourism As of now, public transport services, from a tourism point of view, are more significant in urban destinations. Albalate and Bel (2010) argued that tourists to urban areas prefer not to use cars so as to avoid the combination of costs and other issues that may arise from driving. Public transport also possesses perceived attractiveness and can have a share in the visitor experience in an urban environment. Tourism literature includes some references to the importance of public transportation in the context of destination, particularly in urban areas. According to Echtner and Ritchie (1991), the destination image includes functional characteristics, which also encompasses public transportation infrastructures. Jansen-Verbeke (1986) attempted to classify different products according to their ability to attract visitors to a city and in the same, public transport was considered a necessary provision. Vetter (1985) listed public transport as one of ten aspects making cities attractive to visitors. Kinsella and Caulfield (2011) identified an improved public transport network as critical for Dublin to become an attractive tourist destination. Mistilis (1999) highlighted the importance of public infrastructure in urban tourism by stating that the future of tourism in a particular city depends on the maintenance of several items on the supply side of tourism and in which public transport infrastructure is important. Cheuk et al. (2010) identified public transport provision as a requirement for tourism development. They emphasized the importance of highlighting the need to minimize impacts on the environment. In a study conducted by Avgoustis and Achana (2002) to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the different tourist features of Indianapolis, USA, it was identified that the availability of local transportation services is fourth in terms of importance in measuring destination satisfaction. Transportation services were considered to have an ‘above average’ ability to influence destination choice. Thompson and Schofield (2007) found that 75% of tourists arriving in Manchester, England, were considered captive public transport users. Public transport was considered a determining factor in choosing host cities for large sporting events that could also drag a large number of visiting population. In general, the literature review has identified the underlying need for public transport to contribute to tourism development. The urban public transport system plays multiple roles. From a transport perspective, urban destinations may also act as points of entry or gateways. The gateway role is relevant when the destination airport is international with connectivity to many

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foreign countries. The urban transport system with a gateway itself acts as a destination for city tourists when the city has adequate tourism attractions. The urban tourism product usually consists of diverse goods and services, of which transport is a major component and can contribute well to the visitor experience (Thompson & Schofield, 2007). Usually, cities have diverse man-made attractions, of which some are heritage buildings. Accommodation and other tourism industry elements will be there in the destinations, making the urban area suitable for a destination. Every tourism industry element shall be connected well by the route network. Figure 5.2 reports an example of airport shuttle service bus. Moreover, urban transport systems would have links with other route systems within the country/region. Tourists can move to different destinations using those links. The links encompass both touristic and common routes, depending upon the purpose and the geographical features along the route. The urban areas are tourism markets as many residents of the region may travel from there to other destinations. Urban tourists may focus more on destinations with indigenous cultural features and countryside. City centers form a good source market for rural tourism destinations nearby. The urban transport system may also have good integration among different modes of transport. Multimodal tourist transportation can be a feature of the urban transport system. Moreover, the urban transport system is featured with frequency as well as diversity. The number of services, particularly due to the high transport demand, is a feature of the urban transport system. Compared

Fig. 5.2 Airport shuttle service bus (Eindhoven, the Netherlands). Courtesy Jan Oosterhuis/Wikimedia commons

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to rural areas, urban centers have much more connectivity which help tourists to use public transport set. • Rail systems – – – –

Metro rail system Long route rail services High-speed rail services Transit rail system. (tram rail system and commuter rail system)

• Bus system. – – – –

Shuttle system Intercity services Commuter services Airport services

• Para-transit system • Taxi system

5.9 Public Transportation in Rural Tourism Destinations Public transport (PT) use in rural tourism is much less compared to that in urban areas. On the other hand, car dependency is high in rural destinations. Guiver and Lumsdon (2006) stated that the modal shift from private to public transport is often not easy in rural areas, where parking and congestion problems are limited and thinly stretched public transport networks do not offer many advantages over the flexibility of the car. Inadequacy of public transport service is one of the primary factors of less public transport use in rural tourist destinations. In addition, rural tourist attractions may be located in different regions within a destination, and transport options may not be available for every tourist attraction. The wider the spatial distribution of the destinations/attractions, the lesser the chance for efficient transport services to all the locations. Le-Klähn and Hall pointed out that “t[T]here are differences in the level of PT use by visitors between rural and urban destinations. PT tends not to be attractive for visitors in remote areas, whereas the situation is more promising in urban areas, although there is no indication that city visitors are more aware of their environmental impacts or that they show particular preferences for PT” (Le-Klähn & Hall, 2015: 13). The frequency of services shall be less, which may also affect tourists from depending on public transport services in the rural tourism destinations. The level and quality of public transport options will also be less compared to the urban destinations. Seasonality may affect rural transportation more. According to Lohmann and Duval (2014), the factors that affect sustainable transport options in rural settings include:

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• The recreational tourists may have to carry bulky items and equipment required to engage in recreational activities. • Some of the rural destinations are spatially dispersed and with limited public transport connectivity. • Seasonality is a common feature in rural tourism destinations. Establishing adequate quality transport services in rural destinations can encourage tourists to opt for public transport services. Moreover, alternative transport options can also be introduced into tourism in the countryside. Offering attractive transport options and recreational routes can help tourists use public transport services in rural tourism destinations better. Enhancing the quality of vehicles and services is important in ensuring public transport use in rural tourism destinations. Rural destinations also need to operate public transport successfully, and the critical success factors for rural tourism transport include establishing a strong partnership between tourism and transport service providers; offering viable alternatives that are easy to access and understand and enjoyable to use; integrating both for connecting routes and ticketing; and ensuring financial sustainability (Lohmann & Duval, 2014).

5.10 Strategies for Promoting Public Transport in Tourism In this modern era, it is inevitable for the destinations to promote public transport use among the tourists. Destinations usually engage in multiple strategies to promote public transport usage. In addition to establishing quality public transport systems, destinations also engage in strategies to induce tourists to use public transport services. Recreational public transport options always attract tourists. In this context, Eaton and Holding (1996) noted that novelty vehicles such as steam trains and vintage buses could also be used to attract car users onto public transport to enhance the intrinsic quality of the travel. Based on various sources and references, Le-Klähn and Hall (2015) listed the following strategies to promote public transport use in tourism. • Service enhancement consists of improving public transport service, high network connection, higher frequency of services, improving the image, interior and exterior design, good landscape view, arranging public transport and bike combination, and a good level of branding. • Pricing: This strategy may consist of multimodal tickets, off-peak prices, group discounts, and the offer of attractive packages and incentives for those who arrive without a car. • Promotion: Provision of tourism industry information, distribution of brochures and leaflets at stations, provision of real-time information, and incorporation of public transport information on an electronic tourist guide. Of late, many destinations are in a competition to arrange public transport systems of high level. Major urban tourist destinations place exciting transport options to

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provide a quality travel experience for the tourists and other visitors. Kelly et al. (2007) identified the following strategies as essential for modern tourist destinations to promote public transport use among tourists. • • • • • • •

Provision of dedicated transit lanes for public transport High-speed train services Affordable rates Frequent transit services Ensuring convenient, attractive transit-access points Ensuring convenient connections to other transport modes High parking fees within the destination area for private vehicles.

5.11 Public Transport Users and the Motivations Studies in motivation associated with public transport use by tourists are rather rare. Tourists seek public transport due to multiple reasons. Lumsdon (2006) classifies public transport users into two such “sightseers” and “activity seekers.“ The sightseers prefer scenic rides, and form the majority. Other reasons for public transport use may include ‘avoiding parking fees,’ ‘avoiding driving in unfamiliar places’, and ‘social contact with others. The second category prefers bus services and would like to participate in activities like cycling, surfing, etc. Guiver et al. (2007) point out that the desire for walking and environmental concerns are some of the major reasons for public transport use in rural tourist sites. Public transport use by tourists may be more when the transport system is of good quality. Moreover, the level of connectivity, frequency of services, locational advantages of terminals, diversity in transport modes and services, etc., are essential for tourists to use public transport. The following are some major factors that induce tourists to use public transportation while visiting destinations: • • • • • • • • • •

The efficiency of the public transport The flexibility of itinerary and movement Economic reasons Learn the local cultural vibrancy Convenience of movement Spend more on visit Slow travel Enjoy the scenery Avoid the risk of driving and enjoy hassle-free movement Sustainability concerns.

Public transport is cheaper as the operator uses mass transport modes. Moreover, tourists need not spend money on parking, toll fees, etc. Traveling in public transport would undoubtedly help the tourists to understand the nuances of the society and their culture. The local travelers would behave and demonstrate their culture while being transported. Tourists get an ideal opportunity to interact and/or observe the

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social and cultural behaviors of the local people. In the urban transport system, regular services with intermodal transport options can also be there, which enables the tourists to have good connectivity for visiting the destination at their convenience. Flexibility in travel plans is a feature of public transport-based trips. The travel plans can be changed as per the need, convenience, and arising situations. Also, tourists do not need to wait for their fellow tourists’ convenience. Comparative freedom of movement is there. As public transport is cheaper, the tourists can spend more money on visiting more places and engaging in other activities. Public transport is an ideal option for backpackers and slow tourists. This helps them enjoy the destination better. Public transport, like buses, enables the tourists to have a good outside view. If the route has good scenery along the route, it will help them enjoy it further. Driving on strange terrains and routes necessitates a lot of attention. Tourists can relax while traveling and the risk of driving is also absent. A tourist depending on public transport need not bother about such aspects, enabling them to have a hassle-free movement. Increased environmental consideration is there among the tourists, and those with high regard for the environment prefer public transport to destinations.

5.11.1 Buying Behavior and Satisfaction Tourists’ decision to opt for public transport is a rather complex task, particularly since the tourists’ awareness about the services and the associated quality of public transportation in the destination is less. Moreover, deciding to use public transport involves risk and opportunity costs. Akin to the decision-making process while buying many other products, a tourist also passes through different stages before deciding to use public transport. Once the urge to travel to a destination is finalized, the tourist requires information about the public transportation in the destination region. As the tourist feels strangeness, the need for information is critical in making a decision. According to Thompson (2003), overseas visitors have varied information needs about public transport to their destinations. Usually, factors such as travel distance, age, group size, length of stay, etc. influence tourists’ decision to use the mode of transport (Thrane, 2015). Concerning public transport, the factors affecting the buying decision regarding public transport include route coverage, journey time, carrying a heavy load, waiting time, frequency, reliability, cost, convenient timetabling, convenient access to bus stop/station, and personal safety on board (Lex Service PLC, 1998). These factors may have varied influences on the tourists. Distance, transport availability, and supply factors also affect the decision-making of tourists. Although public transport provides cheaper transport options, the cost of travel to alternative destinations with similar attractiveness and transport options also influences the final destination choice of the tourists (Martin & Witt, 1988). The nature of tourism and the type of tourist also influence the selection of public transport for visiting. For instance, backpackers, slow tourists, and other explorers have a high propensity for using public transport services. The

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decision is also influenced by the comfort level, speed, access to all attractions, ease of getting the service, etc. The most significant variables that can differentiate users of public transport from a non-user are the length of stay, the purpose of the trip, age group, frequency of public transport use, and valid driving license ownership (Le-Klähn et al., 2014). Public transport users may require more time for the visit. Age is a factor since some aged tourists will go for packaged tourism using coaches, etc. Some of those with valid licenses to drive in the destination may also go for drive tourism. The frequency of services is also a consideration for public transport users. The need for customer-centered service delivery systems may be an important factor in influencing the tourists’ use of local transport services (Page, 1999). According to a study by Le-Klähn et al. (2015), among the factors that influence tourists’ choice of public transport as the main mode, educational level, travel partner, and motivations for visiting the destination are essential. The summary of the findings goes like this: “Public transport at an urban destination is more likely to be used by well educated, first time visitors, who are also price-conscious. Travel partner and motivations also affect mode choice. The decision to travel beyond the city is influenced by visitors’ country of residence, length of stay, number of previous trips, perception of ease of travel, and local attractions” (Le-Klähn et al. 2015: 1). Destination satisfaction is defined by Cole and Scott (2004: 81) as “the aggregate feelings that one derives as a result of visiting a tourist attraction”. A tourist gets satisfaction from the visit to a destination, and it depends on a wide variety of factors. Transportation availability and performance are salient factors that tourists’ destination satisfaction and choice (Thompson & Schofield, 2007). In international tourism, convenient transportation and the quality of local transport can certainly influence the overall visitor experience, overall satisfaction, and loyalty, along with customer retention for a longer term (Chen & Gursoy, 2001; Karen & Peter, 2007). The frequency of services enables the tourist to go for the ideal travel timing according to his convenience: the speed, comfort, and service quality of the personnel matter in the tourists’ satisfaction. According to Law (2002), the quality of local transportation can affect the inbound tourists’ destination satisfaction and perception. Furthermore, the ease of accessing places at the destination can affect the tourists’ experience (Haywood & Muller, 1988). In order to have good access to tourist sites within the destination, public transportation has to be well distributed throughout the destination. According to Thrasher et al. (2000), well-designed public transport options and infrastructure can offer tourists an experience in a more tactile and engaging manner. On the other hand, delays in services by public transport operators can negatively affect tourist satisfaction. Other public transport-related factors influencing tourist satisfaction include ‘ease of use’ and internal accessibility (within the destination). Tourist satisfaction is critical in the case of tourism as word of mouth has high significance among potential tourists.

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5.12 Conclusion The world demands an increased and more efficient public transport system in the wake of growing concerns over carbon emissions. The tourism sector also joins the move to increase the level of public transportation using more efficient transport modes. Increasingly, tourism plans include public transport elements as integral components, and destinations attempt to collaborate better with the public transport sector to ensure quality transport infrastructure and services. As public transport services can transport more people using less number of vehicles, promoting public transport becomes indispensable for the destinations to develop and promote among tourists. Moreover, quality public transport infrastructure and services enhance the attractiveness of tourist destinations. Therefore, at the national and regional levels, governments have to take policies to promote public transport in tourism and augment the tourism infrastructures and measures accordingly. Usually, rural destinations face limitations of having adequate public transport systems, which is a critical aspect the destinations have to consider and make efforts to increase public transport.

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Haywood, K.M., & Muller, T.E. (1988). The urban tourist experience: Evaluating satisfaction. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 12(2), 453–459. ITIC. (2016). Public Transport and tourism in Ireland. CHL Consulting Co. Ltd. Dublin:Tourist Industry Confederation. Jansen-Verbeke, M. (1986). Inner city tourism, resources, tourists, and promoters. Annals of Tourism Research, 13, 79–100. Karen, T., & Peter, S. (2007). An investigation of the relationship between public transport performance and destination satisfaction. Journal of Transport Geography, 15(2), 136–144. Kelly, J., Haider, W., & Williams, P.W. (2007). A behavioral assessment of tourism transportation options for reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gases. Journal of Travel Research, 45, 297309. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287506292700 Kinsella, J., & Caulfield, B. (2011). An examination of the quality and ease of use of public transport in Dublin from a newcomer’s perspective. Assistant to the Editor, 14(1), 69. Law, C.M. (2002). Urban tourism: The visitor economy and the growth of large cities (2nd ed.). London, UK: Continuum. Le-Klähn, D.‚ & Hall, C. (2015). Tourist use of public transport at destinations–a review. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(8), 785–803. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2014.948812 Le-Klähn, D-T., Gerike, R., & Hall, M.C. (2014). Visitor users vs. non-users of public transport: The case of Munich, Germany. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 3, 152–161. Le-Klähn, D-T., Roosen, J., Gerike, R., & Hall, M.C. (2015). Factors affecting tourists’ public transport use and areas visited at destinations. Tourism Geographies, 17(5). https://doi.org/10. 1080/14616688.2015.1084527 Lex Service PLC. (1998). Lex report on motoring: Driving for the future. Bourne End: Lex Service PLC. Lohmann, G., & Duval, T.D. (2014). Destination morphology: A new framework to understand tourism–transport issues? Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 3(3), 133–136. Loi, L. T. L., So, L. S. A., Lo, S., & Nang Fong, L. (2017). Does the quality of tourist shuttles influence revisit intention through destination image and satisfaction? The case of Macao. Journal of Hospitality and Toursim Management, Vol. 32, 115–123. Lumsdon, L.M. (2006). Factors affecting the design of tourism bus services. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(3), 748–766. Martin, C.A., & Witt, S.F. (1988). Substitute prices in models of tourism demand. Annals of Tourism Research, 15(2), 255–268. Mistilis, N. (1999). Public infrastructure development for tourism in Australia: A critical issue. Journal of Tourism Studies, 10(1), 40–50. Page, S.J. (1999). Transport and tourism. Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman. Preston, J. (2020). Public transport. International Encyclopaedia of Human Geography, 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-102295-5.10325-7 Reeves, R. (2006) Tackling Traffic: Sustainable leisure transport in National Parks—An overview of National Park Authority involvement, Council for National Parks. Rodrigue, J-P., Comtois, C., & Slack, B. (2006). The geography of transport systems. Oxon, UK: Routledge. Thompson, J.K. (2003). Urban transport networks and overseas visitors: analysis of the factors affecting usage and the implications for destination management, unpublished PhD thesis submitted to School of Leisure, Hospitality and Food Management Research Institute for the Built and Human Environment-University of Salford, UK. Thompson, K., & Schofield, P. (2007). An investigation of the relationship between public transport performance and destination satisfaction, Journal of Transport Geography, 15(2), 136–144. Thrane, C. (2015). Examining tourists’ long-distance transportation mode choices using a Multinomial Logit regression model, Tourism Management Perspectives, 15, 115–121. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tmp.2014.10.004

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Chapter 6

Coach Tourism

6.1 Introduction Road transport is the most inevitable form of transportation in the sphere of tourism, and other modes of transport certainly need road transport in varying degrees to ensure accessibility to destinations and tourist attractions. Different types of vehicles are in use on roads, and of them, cars and buses/coaches are the most prominent in tourism. Car-based tourism has been growing, and drive tourism is gaining increasing significance. However, it has been pointed out not to promote car-based tourism further considering the non-sustainability aspects. In contrast, bus-based transportation is opined to be more suitable for tourism. There are regular bus services, which form the basic transport services everywhere in the world. In addition to the public bus services, private services are also significant. Regarding tourism, coaches are considered the ideal transport mode, especially in this era of sustainability concerns. It is important to note that road and rail travel enables tourists to experience landscapes and ‘virtual otherness’ while traveling (Larsen, 2001). World over, destinations are being urged to promote coach-based tourism instead of automobile/car/drive tourism as coaches can reduce the carbon emissions substantially, and the need for space for parking, etc. can be minimized considering the number of tourists visiting a destination. A bus tour can replace several cars into a destination. A report by VisitEngland, in association with the Coach Tourism Council, states “Coaches are one of the cleanest forms of transport and can reduce congestion. A coach carrying 50 passengers takes the place of more than 20 cars, freeing up space in car parks. Their passengers help the local economy too, with domestic visitors on organized coach tours (day trips and overnight stays) spending £1.4 billion” (VisitEngland, 2014: 2). Coach tourism encompasses not only packaged tourism but also the use of coaches by the tourists for accessing and visiting tourist locations and attractions. Coach tours have been there throughout the last century with remarkable strides in the 1920s in Europe, particularly on domestic tourism in Britain and then from the 1930s onwards on an international front in Europe (Walton, 2011). Since then, history revealed

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_6

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a chequered past, and the emergence of air travel resulted in air transport-based long-haul tourism, a major segment in the sphere of international tourism. Currently, coach tourism is a critical holiday choice for first-time visitors; who consider the value, ease, and security of new and emerging markets (ITIC, 2015). Moreover, coach tourism is a substantial market segment in the overall tourism of most destinations the world over. Therefore, it is considered a growth market, with opportunities for innovation and higher profit margins, along with the potential for diversification by having theme-based tours and special interest tours along with the scope for tours that offer greater opportunities for independent exploration (ITIC, 2015).

6.2 Coach Tourism: The Concept Coach tourism essentially involves the coach as the prime mode of transportation for visiting destinations and to enjoy the touristic activities as part of the journey. As Failte Ireland (2012) noted, a coach tour represents a holiday or outing on which people travel from place to place by coach. A coach used interchangeably with the bus is the vehicle used for transporting people or hired to transport the tour participants from one place to another along a pre-set itinerary. Another point to note is that coach tourism is a multi-destination activity with high mobility tendency. A coach tour usually covers several tourist attractions, and it can be a multi-destination trip as well. Lue et al. (1993) opine that a coach tour is an effective means for the tourists to visit the largest number of sites on a particular trip and have high mobility along with the possibility for rapid changes in the places to visit. It tells about the nature of flexibility of coach tour itineraries as well. Itineraries can have changes in the case of coach tours, according to the convenience and interests of the group. Enoch (1996: 601) also pointed out that coach tours, akin to package tours, are “an effective way of visiting the largest number of sites on a given trip duration, travelling in relative safety to faraway countries with strange cultures, unreliable transportation, and doubtful standards of hygiene.“ This definition also indicates the significance of coach tourism that takes place in places with different cultures. Safety is a common feature of coach tourism, and coach tourists can relax and enjoy the trip even if they visit destinations with fewer safety records and poorer transportation services and facilities. Table 6.1 reports some statistics in UK. Coach tours are often denoted as package tourism, though it is not always so, as other forms of tourism also come under the purview of it. Becken (2005: 24) define coach tourism as “…a form of package tourism, whereby tour operators (or wholesalers) bundle transport, accommodation and other components into a product that is then sold to tourists mostly through travel agents”. In such cases, coach tours include diverse attractions, and variety is a feature of coach tourism in general. A scheduled itinerary leads the tour. As a form of packaged tours, Coach tours are easy to organize for an affinity group particularly, and the timings of the trip and places to stops and door-to-door services can be planned efficiently. Senior tourists form

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Table 6.1 Highlights of UK Coach tourism statistics (2019) • Coaches transported around 38,000 passengers on local sightseeing tours • There were 23 million visits to tourist attractions and locations by coach in 2019 • Tours commence every 20 minutes in the peak season with a hop-on-hop-off service that enables tourists to visit a wide range of attractions • The coach sector ensured 346 coach trips for cruises that arrived at the local port, carrying nearly 14,000 people into the local area, that spending around £140,000 as part of the visit • Executed 200 tours around the UK and Ireland, carrying just over 4,700 visitors • Average stay duration of five days, coach tours contribute considerable income to the domestic tourism economy • One coach can keep a number of cars off the road • In total, around 2,500 coach operators are there in the UK, employing 42,000 people • 80% of the coach industry’s income is from tourism-related engagement Source CPT (2021)

a substantially large segment of the coach tourism market. According to Baloglu and Shoemaker (2001), coach tourism enables tourists, particularly senior tourists, to socialize with others and enjoy safety and cost savings. Coach tours provide better scope for socializing and are more economical, particularly when packaged. Another term used in the parlance of bus-based holidays is Charter coach tourism which encompasses coach tours that “are escorted, hosted or even independent tours arranged for groups by hiring motor coaches for a period ranging from hours to multiple days for the purpose of visiting” (Dileep, 2019: 167).

6.2.1 The Nature and the Experience Provided The coach industry is somewhat capital intensive and predominantly has service sector characteristics. It faces seasonality and geographical fragmentation. Traditionally, coach tourism was dominated by older tourists who sought safety, enjoyment, and social interaction in the company of other tourists (Baloglu & Shoemaker, 2001). The retired population has the largest share in the coach tourism market, and 48% of those taking overnight trips on organized coach tours are above 65 years old (VisitEngland/Great Britain Tourism Survey, reported in VisitEngland, 2014). A survey of a sample of coach tourists reveals that the main motivations of their partaking in coach tourism include ‘to relax’, ‘to seek new experiences, ‘to escape from everyday life’, ‘to learn’, ‘to switch off’, and ‘to reflect’ (Cowhey et al., 2012). As mentioned elsewhere in this chapter, the coach tourism sector is dominated by SMEs at the local level. SMEs in the coach tourism sector can be flexible in meeting individual consumer demands and changing product input or schedules. Also, they can be closer to potential customers (Gauf & Hughes, 1998). Gauf and Hughes

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(1998) point out that the coach tourism sector is stratified and split geographically with differing consumer requirements and behavior between regions. Coach tours can give different experiences to different sets of people. For instance, Tucker (2005) states the below after a study on different groups of tourists on coaches to New Zealand. “For the young tour group in this research, the tour was an opportunity to enhance the self through meeting new people, socializing, having fun, and possibly having sexual relationship(s). The social experiences had within the tour group appeared to outweigh the importance of the toured place…..The fact that such activities only took place as the coach drove past ‘boring’ stretches of landscape, however, showed that even these ‘non-places’ were still highly formative places in that they allowed space and time for focus to be turned inside the coach and onto everyday activities. Rather than the focus being on difference of landscape or people, New Zealand marked a symbolic space in which to enact new social and self-producing performances” (Tucker, 2005: 279). Table 6.2 presents the common characteristics of coach tourists who visit Ireleand destinations. Edensor and Holloway (2008) argue that the coach tourism experience is more complex, with various factors including the destination, itinerary, the vehicle, the route, and other people impacting tour rhythms, and framed by rhythms of everyday life. For example, while on a moving vehicle like a coach, when it is on the move, the tourist gets free time “…to engage more with the landscapes through which the vehicle is traveling, leading to happiness, excitement, relaxation, and calm as the passive transport tourist is able to focus their full attention on the views, mobility, socializing and the supporting products” (Rhoden & Kaaristo, 2020: 316). Holloway (1981) categorizes the interactions onboard in a coach into two such as interactions Table 6.2 Characteristics of coach tourism visitors • Based on Fáilte Ireland, a report by the Irish Tourism Industry Confederation reveals the following characteristics of coach tourism in Ireland • Market segments: First-time visitors from long-haul markets constitute a dominant segment among the overseas coach tourists to Ireland. The majority travel as part of a couple or another adult group • Age: The majority are older than the general holiday market as only less than a third are aged 44 years or less. Yet, the proportion that has retirement age or over is less than usually projected • Length of Stay: The average length of stay is 7.5/8.2 nights • Regional distribution: Though the capital city is the most visited place, these tours have an important role in the distribution of tourism throughout the country • Accommodation Type: Vast majority stayed in hotels. A minor share spent their nights in guesthouses/B&Bs • Activities: The main activity includes visits to historical and cultural attractions. National parks, forests, and gardens are also popular, and a small share of them visit an event or festival during their visit Source Fáilte Ireland/ITIC (2015)

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among the participants, including the fellow tourists, driver, and guide, and the interaction between the participants and their incidental contacts en route. According to United Motor Coach Association (UMA), coach tourism provides a better experience for the following reasons. • Tourists can be free of the hassles of traffic, roadmaps, parking, backseat drivers, and distractions and responsibilities. Thus, the tourists can enjoy the travel as the driving is taken care of by a professional driver. • Ideal to have a view of the landscapes throughout the route. • The coaches have stylish and comfortable recliner seats that enable the passengers to relax and sleep. • Coaches provide an ideal opportunity to socialize with friends and fellow travellers. • Passengers have the freedom to enjoy movies or any other videos while moving. • Coach tours are economical, and in most cases, each tourist’s share of the trip cost will be far less than other modes of public transportation and even less than private autos. • The convenience of stops and door-to-door service. • Modern coaches are more fuel efficient and environmental friendly than private cars when considering the number of passengers they can carry. • Motor coaches are known for safety, and as per the records, they are much safer in terms of fatal accidents than cars. • Motor coaches can provide delighting experience.

6.3 Significance of Coach Tourism Coach tourism is a significant segment of global tourism. Despite having a considerable share in international tourism, coach tourism is seen as having a larger share in domestic tourism in many locations. Almost all destinations in the world get a share of coach tourism as coaches form a prominent mode of transport in tourism. Coaching tourism has increased relevance in some areas, as in many European destinations. For instance, according to the International Road Transport Union, coach tourism plays a vital role in the European Union economy as it accounts for up to 2% of national GDP and provides employment opportunities for 0.4 to 0.8% of the working population. Furthermore, one employment opportunity in a coach creates three jobs in the tourism sector, be it tour operators, guides, or specialized travel agents (IRU-www.iru.org). Coach tourism in Ireland is a significant market segment and consumes more tourism products and services than most other segments (ITIC, 2015). An estimate says that in Ireland in 2013, over 366,000 overseas tourists enjoyed coach tour holidays which amount to 12% of the inbound tourists (ITIC, 2015). Some of the significant factors identified by the Coach Tourism Sectoral Study in Ireland by Failte Ireland (2012) include the following.

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• Coach tourism has the maximum regional distribution of trips and the corresponding distribution of economic benefits into the nook and corner of the country/region. • Coach tourism helps hotels to have reasonable occupancy rates. • The sustainability of SMEs throughout the year is supported by coach tourism as it can reduce the effects of seasonality. • Coach tours take care of the aged tourists as well. A number of studies highlight coach tourism’s socio-economic importance. A study by Simmonds (1999) in the UK found that non-scheduled coach travel is a substantial industry having significant economic contribution into the destination.; a major employer in certain destinations, particularly is facilitating the sustenance of some of Britain’s traditional resorts; a fragmented sector with a good share of small firms; and coach operators, tour operators, and private group organizers have a major role in decisions regarding this business which poses limitations on the response to conditions at destinations. The significance of coach tourism is highlighted by Michael O’Regan as given below. “Even with the development of airborne package tours, coach travel has continued to be an important component of package tourism and has developed strong links to tourism-related companies and destinations. From pairing with airlines to organize transfers and acting with attractions to build access areas to working with destination marketing organizations, accommodation providers, food service organizations, shopping malls, cultural sites, and tour guides, motor coach tourism retains maneuverability and flexibility by taking people where they want to go at a relatively low cost” (O’Regan, 2018). The socio-ecological significance of coach tourism is also an important matter of discussion. There, coaches are considered a much more environment-friendly mode of transport; thus, coach tourism can greatly reduce environmental pollution and carbon emissions compared to car-based tourism. In that context, the significance of coach sector is highlighted in the following way—“Coach travel is an inclusive, sustainable, environmentally friendly travel option that reduces air pollution, carbon emissions and road congestion…. coach tourism contributes a huge £14 billion each year to the economy, delivering vital footfall to attractions across the UK and carrying spectators to concerts, festivals and sporting events” (CPT, 2021). As coach tourism covers a broader area in a region than rail, cruise, or air-based tourism types, it can claim the more extensive geographic distribution of tourism and the corresponding socio-economic benefits spread into more areas within a region or country. Domestic tourists on coaches, particularly, reach more locations, thus ensuring better geographic distribution of tourism. In many destinations, the hotel sector particularly survives with the support of coach tourism. Coach tourists prefer hotels more than any other mode of accommodation. Moreover, the small and medium sector greatly benefits from coach tourists’ visits as coach tourists spend a considerable share of money on the local businesses. Table 6.3 includes the visitor arrival and expenditure statistics of coach tourism in Great Britain.

6.3 Significance of Coach Tourism Table 6.3 Visitor arrival and expenditure figures of coach tourism in Great Britain

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• Number of domestic tourists using organized coach tours—2.4 million • Number of overnight stays by domestic tourists who used organized coach tours—8.6 million • Expenditure made by domestic tourists who used organized coach tours: £617 million • Overall expenditure, including the tourists who used regular coach services: £1.4 billion • Number of days visitors using organized coach tour services:18 million • Expenditure made by day visitors who use organized coach tour services: £766 million • Number of day visitors who use regular coach services: 136 million • Expenditure made by day visitors who use regular coach services: £4bn Source VisitEngland/Great Britain surveys, reported in VisitEngland (2014)

Tourism literature shows the differing opinion on the expenditure made by coach tourists. Some studies point out that coach tourists’ contribution to the economy by way of their expenditure is more than that of many other types of tourists. For example, according to International Road Transport Union, the expenditure by coach tourists is 40% more than that by a typical tourist, and the expenditure is mostly on food, souvenirs, and entertainment. Moreover, 68% of all coach tourists stay in hotels, which is more than those traveling by any other means of transport. (IRUwww.iru.org). The expenditure made tourists pass through various sectors by having multiple rounds of secondary spending within the economy of a destination. The extra expenditure made by tourists will have a ‘multiplier effect’ within the local economy as the frontline tourism establishments which receive the expenditure made by the tourist make further rounds of expenditures in an economy, creating different rounds of expenditures. On the other hand, some other studies point out that coach tourists mostly spend their time in an isolated environment with limited interaction with society. The expenditure by tourists directly on the local economy is less comparatively. Whatever the contribution proportion, coach tourism has a significant economic contribution to the destination. Coach tourism thus has the following significance as a major tourism segment, be it anywhere. • Coach tourism is a common element with a significant share in most tourist destinations globally. • The sectors within tourist destinations that are directly and indirectly linked to tourism have economic benefits from coach tourism. • Tourism segments using other modes of transport like cruise, air, and rail may also have to use coach tourism elements as part of the itinerary to visit places and attractions.

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• Coaches have a recreational aspect since coach journeys can provide entertainment options and mesmerizing scenic rides and landscape views. • Coach tourism has higher geographical distribution in a region or a country, and thus the socio-economic benefits are distributed on a broader region. • Some tourism subsectors, like hotels, have increased dependency on coach tourism for their competitive survival. • Small and medium sectors in an economy can reduce the seasonality effect better by effectively having coach tourism over there. • Coach tourism is a more environment-friendly form of tourism and thus has a low share of carbon emissions and damage to ecological features.

6.4 Coach Tourism Typology Coach tourism encompasses multiple types of tourism activities. Packaged coach tourism is at the forefront of the coach tourism segment. The packaged coach tour is usually coordinated by tour operators or wholesalers who combine transport, accommodation, and other components to be sold to tourists, mostly through travel agents (Becken, 2005). Most of the packaged coach tours are escorted tours. The escort may be a tour manager, leader, guide, or courier. Coach tourists also use “the value and convenience of escorted tours to be combined with the opportunity for independent exploration of destinations, by free time within the programme or by the option to add additional days before or after the tour” (ITIC, 2015: 17). Though coach holidays typically symbolize the packaged form of holidaying using coach as the medium of travel and the visit and dynamism emerges as part of the entire journey, it includes tourist visiting sites using regular coach services as well. That is, the non-packaged form of tourism is also part of it. Moreover, though technically, tourism takes place only when a minimum duration of one full day is spent in the destination visited, coach tourism statistics mostly include day visits (usually shown separately). Therefore, the literature on coach tourism typology is essentially seen encompassing the day trips as well. Let us see some of the classifications seen in tourism literature. Failte Ireland (2012) identifies the following two categories of coach tours in the context of Ireland, in which coach tourism is a major category. • Touring holidays: It includes those coach trips that are availed by foreign tourists and are organized by tour operators who package the tour elements. • Day and overnight trips: These are organized for one or two days, from urban centers, and cover several popular destinations. On the other hand, the Irish Tourism Industry Confederation report (ITIC, 2015) identifies the following coach tour types.

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• Inbound tours and trips – Escorted coach tour holidays • Coach tourists handled by incoming tour operators: • Coach tourists handled by overseas tour operators: – Day coach trips • Day leisure trips: • Cruise passenger excursions. • Conference and incentive tourists • Domestic tours and trips – Coach tours – Day trips In the above, domestic and international coach tourism are classified separately. International tourism involves relatively more categories, categorized under two broad types such as escorted coach tour holidays and day coach holidays. According to Chui-Hua Liu (2020), the types of coach tours can be a short escape, day excursions, extended coach holidays, and long-distance coaching. In the case of extended coach holidays and long-distance coaching, the number of nights spent by tourists shall be more which is a common feature of coach tourism. Dileep (2019) identifies the common types of coach tours as sightseeing/scenic tours (a trip through beautiful landscapes), affinity group holidays (organized trips for affinity groups), city tours (both organized and non-organized trips in urban scapes), sports tours (either to participate or to witness sports activities), attraction visits (by various types of people within attractions using the bus), religious tours (both organized and nonorganized trips in religious places), domestic holidays (by the citizens of the visiting country), short breaks (short duration trips for leisure), inbound and outbound tours (international tours using coaches), study/industrial tours, niche tours (by groups with specific common interests), and shopping tours. Earlier, Holloway (1981) attempted to have a different classification of coach tours which includes ‘open excursion’ and ‘closed excursion’, and he distinguishes those two types of trips in the following way. “Open excursions may be described as those which are publicly promoted and available to any member of the public, while closed excursions cater either for private groups or for groups of holidaymakers traveling together on a package holiday arrangement” (Holloway, 1981: 382). The latter category is usually called affinity tour, which involves members from an already organized group. That leads to a significant commitment and a good social environment created during the trip. Therefore, it can be summed up that coach tourism is an amalgam of holidays/tours involving domestic and international visits irrespective of the duration of trips.

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6.5 Facilities and Services Modern coaches are more luxurious nowadays and capable of providing a delightful experience. It is highlighted that “Modern coaches now resemble airplane cabins more than buses, with the added benefit of being able to watch the scenery through large panoramic windows.” (ITIC, 2015: 17). In addition to the scope of views, coaches are a safer, comfortable, and reliable form of transport. Packaged coach tours can be both very cost-effective and gain a memorable experience. Considering the scope for viewing the landscape, touristic vehicles, such as coaches, are also called “vision machines” (Larsen, 2001). The modern coaches may provide clubstyle seating with extra space between seats for leg comfort. The interior of modern coaches is comfortable, ambient, and perfectly suited for even longer distance trips. Air conditioning is a common feature of coaches. The seats are wider than before and have adequate space between seats. Coaches offer extra leg room as a specialty for a comfortable journey. Some modern coaches provide sleeping comfort and adjustable seat to the side and backward. Internet connectivity is provided on board the coaches. WiFi services are standard in coaches now. Tourists can enjoy the audio or videos through the centrally controlled recreation systems. Flat video screens are provided in many modern coaches in the front and middle of the coach. Personal headphones are also provided. Fridges are there in some of the coaches. Hot and cold water are offered. Some of the coaches provide snacks as part of their hospitality to the tour participants. Coaches have foldable tables with cup holders or to lay down valuables or food that every passenger can use. These are pretty similar to the facilities offered on flights. Electronic-charging sockets are common in coaches. Charging points are provided at every seat so as to enable the passenger to charge their gadgets while moving. Toilets and washing facilities are also common nowadays. In order to provide services for the disabled category of the population, special facilities are equipped with coaches. Wheelchairaccessible coaches are there now. Some of the coaches enable a real-time coach tracker facility as well.

6.6 Attributes and Features of Coach Tourism Coach tourism has a range of advantages to claim. Dileep (2019) identified some factors influencing tourists to opt for coaches for their trip. They include the availability of courier/guide services, economical, comfortable group size, continuous sightseeing, better social environment, inter-personal relationships, onboard recreational activities, door-to-door travel, easy and quick to organize, convenient stops, easiness of baggage handling, and the like. Many destinations prefer to have coach tourism in order to have a more sustainable form of tourism transportation in the destination and to bring in maximum economic contributions in terms of employment generation, entrepreneurship development, tourist receipts, and to make the

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tourism sector dynamic with diverse tourism attractions. Some of the features of coach tourism are introduced below.

6.6.1 Coach Tourism and Safety Safety is often a highlighted feature of coach tourism. Safety level is better for coach tourism, and International Road Transport Union (IRU), together with the European Travel Agents’ and Tour Operators’ Associations (ECTAA) and the European Tourism Association (ETOA) point out that “Safety is paramount to coach tourism— something which is reinforced by the sector’s high safety record and the fact that buses and coaches are the safest mode of transport in the EU. According to Eurostat figures, fatalities resulting from traffic accidents involving buses and coaches have halved since 2006, showing the sector’s continuous improvement in and commitment to road safety” (IRU, 2018). To be specific, it has been reported that coaches are seven times safer than car when it comes to travel (CPT, reported in VisitEngland, 2014). High safety records make coach tourism a more enjoyable form of tourism.

6.6.2 Comfortable, Relaxing, and Enjoyable Trip Coach tours provide a better tour experience, and the passengers can sit back and relax as a professional driver takes care of driving. While the coach is moving, tourists can indulge in continuous sightseeing and socialize with other passengers. Modern coaches are much more comfortable and stylish than their old counterparts making them all the more convenient. Coaches offer a range of facilities and services on board, including entrainment systems, WiFi facilities, etc. Wider seats with better sleeping options and comfortable leg room are also used as marketing tools. Moreover, the coach tour can create a good social environment within the tour, with good interrelationships among the tour participants being generated. Furthermore, it can help in making new friends as well. On-board recreational activities are also possible, which can enhance the overall tourist experience.

6.6.3 The Best Outside View Enroute Coach travel lets the tourist sit back and enjoy the views along the route. Coaches offer the scope for continuous sightseeing, and the trip has the ability to be mesmerizing owing to the travel being through scenic routes. Also, the sight can give ample clues to the tourists about the local culture and day-to-day life of the people living in the suburban and rural areas. The view from coaches prove to be much better than that from a car or rail, and the modern coaches offer large window glasses to

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enable panoramic views. A passenger hardly misses passing scenery in a coach, and passengers have the advantage of the elevated seat above hedges and vehicles, which lets the passenger have the best view on a road journey.

6.6.4 Sustainable Mode of Travel As stated earlier, coaches are considered a more sustainable form of transport in the parlance of tourism. Coaches are treated as one of the cleanest and most carbonefficient travel modes. The amount of carbon emissions from coaches are much lesser. Coaches are “six times less polluting than an aircraft, four times cleaner than a car, and twice as clean as a train” (CPT, reported in VisitEngland, 2014). Moreover, due to the growing concern in the increase in the number of cars in destinations, an agenda of promoting coaches is prevalent in many destinations.

6.6.5 Congestion Reliever Congestion is a growing concern on roads of tourist destinations. Congestion increases along with the rise in the number of cars. The use of public transport and coaches can be a reliever in the face of this problem. If more tourists and passengers use bus services, the number of cars can be significantly reduced. Considering the occupancy rate of coaches and cars in Europe, a coach can replace up to 30 cars, on an average. Coaches thus have a significant effect in reducing the congestion on roads.

6.6.6 Free of Parking Stress Destinations nowadays face the growing stress of parking. Along with the increase in the number of vehicles, the requirement for parking spaces has also risen. Moreover, the expansion of parking spaces lead to increased environmental issues as well. Furthermore, when a tourist engages in drive tourism, using a car, he/she has to find out suitable parking space to park the vehicle safely, and for that he/she has to search for suitable parking space and at times, getting a parking lot may not be that easy. While on a coach tour, the tourists are free from the hassle of parking. Coach drivers can drop the tourist at the right location and pick them up from the same location once the tourists complete their visit.

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6.6.7 Easiness of Luggage Handling Coaches have ample space for luggage storage. Overhead hand baggage space as well as dedicated space for luggage storage is present which keep the passengers stress free from the hassle of luggage storage. Also, as the journey is entirely using a coach, there is no hassle of frequent loading and unloading of luggage in different transport modes during the journey. Moreover, the issue of baggage check for each entry into the terminal as part of the air transport journey is also not there when travelling in coaches.

6.6.8 Value for Money Coach tours are much more economical when compared to other forms of tours. Buses and coaches offer affordable, reliable, and flexible transport services to all, regardless of their financial means, etc. Coach package tours give additional benefits of packaged tourism and the economic advantages of travelling by coach. If the tourist uses public transport services, the cost would be cheaper. The cheaper transport rates would help the tourists spend more on other tourism products and services in the destinations, which would also help the local society.

6.6.9 Convenience and Flexibility Convenience is a feature of coach tourism. Convenience in terms of stops, pickup, drop, and door-to-door travel service always attract tourists and compel them to prefer coaches for their trips. The coach operators usually arrange convenient pickup locations. Also, the stops along the route can be finalized per the passengers’ interests and needs. The itinerary scheduled is also alterable according to the needs and interests of the group. Relaxing itineraries would help to have a better regional focus, to have free time and late starts, and even two-day stopovers as per the needs/interests emerging. Moreover, tourists need not bother about the routes, maps, searching for parking, etc., which enables them to make most of their time and partake in leisure activities.

6.6.10 Coach Tourism—An ‘Environmental Bubble’? In fact, packaged coach tourism is known for their limited social interaction with the local community. The group arrives in a coach, and the members already have a social environment generated as a part of their journey, stay in a hotel, and visit the

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intended attractions. The guide or the courier will explain the details. They may make some of the purchases from the locality of the visit and return from there to move to another location. The scope and interest in interacting with the local community are usually less. According to Tucker (2005) Coach Tours, akin to cruise tourism, offers an insulated environment. Therefore, coach tourism is often remarked to take place in a so-called environmental bubble. It represents an imaginary bubble that develops a comfortable microenvironment, insulating tourists from unfamiliarities of the local environment at the visited sites (Urry & Larsen, 2011). According to Holloway, “The coach excursion transports its passengers in a closed environment that tends to limit their contact with the indigenous population. This separation becomes still more marked where international travelers are together with others of their own culture” (Holloway, 1981: 381). But the trend is changing as people are now more interested in experiential tourism, which makes the visit more intense and makes tourists involved in the local features and activities.

6.7 Coach Tourism—A Comparison Coach tourism is considered to be a good option for destinations. The socio-economic contribution of coach tourism is commendable. Compared to some other forms of tourism like cruises, coaches are socio-economically better for a destination. Coaches are a more sustainable form of transport compared to air and other road-based transport modes. Environmental damage can be reduced substantially by having more coach tourism instead of self-drive or car-based tourism. Less parking space requirements, noise pollution, carbon emissions, etc. make coach tourism more suitable. Parking is more manageable, as opposed to cars since space needed for parking cars would be more considering the number of people being transported. Scope for increased spending by bus passengers can be equal, and in some cases, exceed that of car users. Rail tours are also environment-friendly, yet rail tours are limited to certain locations where rail services are possible. Compared to that, coach tourism can be universal. Almost all regions in the world can have coach tourism. Tourists get a range of advantages by being part of coach tours, as discussed above. The factors like the scope for best outside view, economic advantages, comfort level, ease in access and baggage handling, continuous guide services, onboard recreation, flexibility, and single mode of transport throughout the journey make coach tours more useful for tourists, compared to other modes of transport. Air transport and water transport forms need road transport services as well for the operation and management of tours. Coach tours can be done independently, without the support of other modes of transport.

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6.8 Coach Tourism Players Organized coach tourism involves coach service providers and tour operators mainly. Tour operators can be inbound handlers, overseas operators, and domestic tour operators. Some tour operators have their own fleet to manage the tours, while others may hire the services of coach operators to conduct the package tours. According to VisitEngland (2014), the following three types of coach travel service providers can be seen in the coach tourism sector in Great Britain. • Transport providers: Regular service providers, the services of whom are used by commuters and leisure travellers who use the services for going by train or car. • Private hire: They are contracted by some coach tour companies to avail services for trips of various kinds. • Tour operators: They organize most day trips and short breaks (usually packaged offerings) to destinations/sites. The tourists make use of the services of public transport agencies as well. Regular transport operators are present whose services can be utilized by the tourists to access the destinations and attractions. Public coach/bus services are common in urban regions particularly. The semi-urban and rural areas also have similar kinds of public transport services that tourists can use. In rural destinations, the convenience and comfort of public transport may be less, which limits its use by tourists from outside. Non-regular service providers are also present in tourist destinations depending on the demand and local conditions. Tourists also use their services. Some of the remote religious tourist centers, for example, have such kind of transport service providers. Those types of service providers are predominantly small-scale operators. In a study on coach operators focusing on Germany, Gauf and Hughes (1998: 333) reveal that “The coach tourism market was dominated by small operators and their particular expertise and advantages were sufficient to fend off the threat of a large organization moving into their sphere of operation. They were small firms with several related business activities, and in most cases, carrier and tour operator were the same firm. Being relatively small, local operators were well placed to respond to consumer requirements with the flexibility they required”. Private hire services are common across the world. Tour operators of varied kinds use their services to organize package tours.

6.9 Escort, Courier, Guide and Driver As stated before, coach tours are mostly escorted holidays. The escort can be a tour manager, leader, guide, or courier. The presence and the active involvement of an escort enhances the tour experience significantly (Wang et al., 2000). While a guide has a more interpretative role along with leading the tour, the tour manager or leader may focus more on the organizing and leading of the tour along with the limited

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role of interpretation. An escort not only needs to lead and interpret but has to play multiple roles. Along with coordination, the tour must be enjoyable, and the escort must take an active role. Efficient coordination is required, and communication needs to be interactive. While the tourists require assistance from the local place visited, the escort has to act accordingly to assist the tourists. The boring hours need to be made live, and the escort has to play a critical role in creating a conducive social environment throughout the journey. Moreover, there can be complaints from the side of the tourists which need to be handled efficiently. Therefore, the escort may have to take up the role of the concierge as well as the adviser. In the parlance of tourism, the term “courier” is often used to describe any leader of a group of tourists, but more correctly, the term refers to one whose responsibilities are mainly those of shepherding and marshaling tourists and seeing to their needs during a tour. The courier may also be known as a “tour escort,” “tour leader,” or even “tour manager” (Holloway, 1981: 380). In coach tourism, the driver too has an important role. According to Liu (2020), coach drivers constitute the soul of the coach tourism industry, and Liu et al. (2019) point out that the prime significance of coach drivers is associated with the safety of coach tour travelers. However, coach drivers have diverse roles compared to other drivers of buses/coaches. In a study on the job stress of coach drivers in Taiwan, Chui-Hua Liu (2020), based on various sources, identified the following features of a coach tourism driver that makes him different from a regular bus driver. • To drive and serve tourists throughout the trip, mostly on long-distance coach holidays. • To do chores, ensure safety, and please tourists. • To associate with a tour guide or tour manager throughout the journey. • To be away from home, office, and associates. • To be vigilant throughout the tour, with the responsibility of directing the journey most of the time. • To engage in transporting tasks at the maximum level during seasons. Driver couriers are also present in addition to normal coach drivers. They take up the couriers’ role along with the driving tasks. According to Holloway (1981), compared to a guide, a driver courier plays a different role, and since he/she has less of an information-giving role, the commentaries are usually briefer along with certain activities that can entertain the tourists and use different means to occupy the tourists’ attention. All the players in the tour have to perform their tasks well to make the tour a success. The relationship among the personnel within the tour program also needs to be cordial and complementary to each other. For instance, the guide and the driver need to build a good relationship and engage in a healthy interaction. The guide or the escort has to get cooperation from the driver as well to provide a quality tour. Therefore, developing a quality professional relationship is inevitable for the drivers and tour guides in the tourism industry.

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6.10 Conclusion Coach tourism is a significant tourism segment and is considered a more sustainable form of transportation. It encompasses not only packaged tourism but also the use of coaches by the tourists for accessing and visiting tourist locations and attractions. Though air transportation and car-based drive tourism are increasing their significance in tourism, coach tourism still retains its importance as an ideal holiday choice for first-time visitors; who consider the value, ease, and security. Although in varied forms, the presence of coaches is there in almost every destination worldwide. The potential for its diversification is in theme-based tourism, special interest tourism, etc. Furthermore, coach tourism has several advantages compared to other modes of transport. It has good safety records and provides comfortable and relaxing journeys. While it is a more sustainable mode of transportation, it helps the destination to get relieved from the issues of allocating more parking zones and increasing the menace of road congestion due to the rising number of cars. The flexibility of transportation makes it an ideal holiday transport choice and offers a highly cost-effective journey. The presence of the tour leader/guide enables the journey to be more interesting.

References Baloglu, S., & Shoemaker, S. (2001) Prediction of senior travelers’ motor coach use from demographic, psychological, and psychographic characteristics. Journal of Travel Research, 40, 12–18. Becken, S., (2005), Towards Sustainable Tourism Transport: An Analysis of Coach Tourism in New Zealand. Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment, 7(1), 23–42. Cowhey, A., O’Leary, S., & O’Connor, N. (2012). The motivations of international coach tourists to visit the Shannon Region (Ireland). International Hospitality and Tourism Student Journal, 4(4), 385–398. CPT. (2021). Backing Britain’s coaches—A coach strategy for Britain, date retrieved from https:// www.cpt-uk.org/news/backing-britain-s-coaches-a-coach-strategy-for-britain/. Dileep, M.R. (2019). Tourism, transport and travel management. London: Routledge. Edensor, T., & Holloway, J. (2008). Rythmanalysing the coach tour: The Ring of Kerry, Ireland. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 33, 483–501. Enoch, Y. (1996). Contents of tour packages. A cross-cultural comparison. Annals of Tourism Management, 23(3), 599–616. Failte Ireland. (2012). Coach tourism: A sectoral study, data retrieved from https://www.failte ireland.ie/FailteIreland/media/WebsiteStructure/Documents/3_Research_Insights/1_Sectoral_S urveysReports/Coach-Tourism-Sectoral-Study.pdf?ext=.pdf. Gauf, D., & Hughes, H. (1998). Diversification and German tour operators: The case of TUI and coach tourism. Tourism Economics, 4(4), 325–327. Holloway, J.C. (1981). The guided tour: A sociological approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(3), 377–402. IRU. (2018). Safety comes first for coach tourism, retrieved from https://www.iru.org/resources/ newsroom/safety-comes-first-coach-tourism.

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IRU-International Road Transport Union. Buses and coaches in tourism, travel and the economy, data retrieved from https://www.iru.org/sites/default/files/2016-06/Factsheet_-_tourism_travel_ economy.pdf. ITIC-Irish Tourism Industry Confederation. (2015). A review of coach tourism in Ireland. ITIC, CHL, ITOA & CTTC, data retrieved from http://www.itoa-ireland.com/wp-content/uploads/ ITIC-A-Review-of-Coach-Tourism-in-Ireland-Report-March-20151.pdf. Larsen, J. (2001). Tourism mobilities and the travel glance: Experiences of being on the move. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 1(2), 80–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/150222 501317244010. Liu, C.H., Mo, K.O., Lee, Y.C. (2019). Managing job stress of Taiwanese coach driver-the revelation of the cognitive coping strategy. Journal of Development Prospect, 26, 93–122. Liu, C.-H. (2020). Strategies of managing coach driver job stress for sustainable coach tourism industry—The use of DANP-V model. Sustainability, 12(9), 3690. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1 2093690. Lue, C.C., Crompton, J.L., & Fesenmaier, D.R. (1993). Conceptualisation ofmultidestination pleasure trips. Annals of Tourism Research, 3, 20, 289–301. O’Regan, M. (2018). Motor coach tourism. In Jafar Jafari, and Honggen Xiao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of tourism. New York: Springer. Rhoden, S., & Kaaristo, M. (2020). Mobile landscapes and transport tourism: The visual experience of mobility during cruises and coach tours. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 14(3), 307–319. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-01-20200036. Simmonds, D. (1999). The role of the coach in the economy, data retrieved from https://www.dav idsimmonds.com/the-role-of-the-coach-in-the-econom. Tucker, H. (2005). Narratives of place and self: differing experiences of package coach tours in New Zealand. Tourist Studies, 5(3), 267–282. UMA-United Motor Coach Association, data retrieved from https://uma.org/advantage-of-motorc oach-travel/. Urry, J., & Larsen, J. (2011). A review of: ‘The Tourist Gaze 3.0’. Sage: London. VisitEngland. (2014). Welcoming coaches and groups, visit England and Coach Tourism Council, data retrieved from https://www.visitbritain.org/sites/default/files/vb-corporate/Documents-Lib rary/documents/England-documents/guidance_coach_prospectus.pdf. Walton, J.K. (2011). The origins of the modern package tour? British motor-coach tours in Europe, 1930–70. The Journal of Transport History, 32(2), 145–163. Wang, K.C., Hsieh, A.T., & Huan, T.C. (2000). Critical service features in group package tour: An exploratory research. Tourism Management, 21, 177–189.

Chapter 7

Drive Tourism

7.1 Introduction Travel has been a euphoric recreational activity of people for centuries. When it takes place with the freedom of movement, its experience is greatly enhanced. Some people prefer to enjoy the experience of movement by driving a vehicle to visit places and this preference has led to the rise of Drive Tourism, often used interchangeably with the term self-drive tourism. As the name indicates, drive tourism encompasses travel by tourists who essentially drive along a touristic route to a destination or multiple destinations with the purpose of visit. The vehicle used for travel can be any motorized vehicle with the mainly user vehicles being a car, motorcycle, or different types of RVs. Drive tourism has been growing and is poised for further growth as the ownership and usage of automobiles are increasing remarkably. Even the emerging markets and developing countries in the world are recording exponential growth in the automobile sector, and all that directly or indirectly facilitates the development of drive tourism significantly. Self-drive tourism has been considered one of the most important market segments for decades. The concept of driving tourism evolved from the 1920s to 1930s Sunday Drive in the United States (Arlt, 2013). The rise in private automobile ownership after the Second World War also contributed to the rise of self-drive tourism as a popular tourism activity (Prideaux & Carson, 2011). Drive tourism is currently a major market segment in tourism, and it is an effective form of leisure travel in developed countries (Yi et al., 2013). For instance, in the USA, the self-drive market is one of the largest tourism markets (Shani & Uriely, 2012).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_7

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7.2 Drive Tourism Drive tourism, also known as self-drive tourism, is gaining popularity. The COVID19 pandemic, the worst crisis in the history of tourism, substantially drove down tourism growth in the wake of COVID-19 protocols, like social distancing. The domestic tourism sector is increasingly witnessing the progress of drive tourism to the next level. Driving is an enthusing recreational activity for a good share of the population with a high travel propensity. The blend of desire in driving with leisure propensity leads to drive tourism. Though the motivations behind drive tourism are diverse, it is noted that the desire to capture a sense of liberty or independence is common among those involved in drive tourism (Hardy, 2003). Drive tourism represents the use of a road-based vehicle to reach destination/s while enjoying the desire to drive along a specific route of some touristic significance. The drive is a prime recreational activity. It’s about the “use of private or rented automobiles for leisure and pleasure purposes, not for commuting or errands” (Yang, 2019). ‘Driving for pleasure’ has been a recreational activity (Moss & McPhee, 2006) for a long time, and certain destinations arrange specific routes to attract self-drive tourists. Olsen (2002) describes drive tourism as travelling away from the usual place of residence for at least a night, on holidays, or visiting friends and relatives on their own, with a rented or borrowed vehicle as the primary mode of transport. A similar concept is given prominence by Business Queensland as it says that “Queensland’s drive tourism market consists of visitors who travel for leisure and use a vehicle to reach their destination. This includes both day trips and overnight trips to 1 or more destinations” (Business Queensland—www.business.qld.gov.au). Earlier, the term drive tourism was used to represent the use of cars/automobiles for leisure purposes. For instance, drive tourism was conceptualized as ‘tourism that centers on travelling from an origin point to a destination by a car that is either privately owned or rented, and engaging in tourism-related activities during the journey’ (Prideaux et al., 2001: 210). But, drive tourism includes not only the use of cars/automobiles but other motorized vehicles that are also considered in the realm of drive tourism. For instance, Carson and Schmallegger‚ (2011) argue that a significant shift in the global self-drive market is associated with the change of car as a form of least-cost transport toward the use of a variety of self-driven vehicles that can enhance the tourism experience. Also, Prideaux and Carson (2011: 3) opine that drive tourism is “travel by any form of mechanically powered, passenger-carrying road transport”. Though such a remark exists, every kind of passenger choosing road transport modes is not included in drive tourism. Sykes and Kelly (2016) make it a point that drive tourism excludes coaches and bicycles. Therefore, the vehicles in drive tourism include cars and motorcycles/bikes primarily. However, a few other forms of road transport vehicles based on drive tourism can also be seen in drive tourism literature. Figure 7.1 reports a tourist car in Akagera (Rwanda). Drive tourists may travel hundreds of kilometers at length, and the duration of these trips can vary from short breaks to months (McHugh & Mings, 1992). There is no specificity regarding the distance to travel to be a drive tourist. Also, the minimum or

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Fig. 7.1 A Tourist car in Akagera National Park (Rwanda) Courtesy Alex shema/Wikimedia Commons

maximum length of the holidaying period is not specified, except for the conditions specified in the definition of tourism. Although drive tourism is a global activity, it is more predominant among domestic tourism, and according to Hennessey et al. (2008), self-drive tourism may have a share of up to 85% of domestic person-trips. As drive tourism is essentially a leisure activity, business tourism does not come under the purview of drive tourism. Moreover, bus or coach tourism or group package tourism is not part of drive tourism.

7.3 Drive Tourism Features Drive tourism is unique, especially since it involves a desire to drive, which is a major element of that tourism segment. Other forms of tourism may not have this aspect, and that makes drive tourism distinct from the other forms of tourism. Also, it has been noted that drive tourists’ journey is to a particular destination or to multiple destinations and return is to the origin point after the completion of the visit. The high level of flexibility and the desire to drive makes the drive tourists alter the anticipated itinerary and visit multiple locations. The same opinion is given by Shih (2006), who says that drive tourism is featured with its nature of multiple destinations, especially since self-driving tourists create their own itineraries to move. This liberty of movement is another exciting feature of drive tourism, which cannot be seen in packaged forms of tourism. Also, Prideaux and Carson (2003) make further clarification on this aspect of drive tourism by highlighting the following specialties of drive tourism:

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• Drive tourism gives the tourists a kind of individuality of their own and is devoid of rigidity compared to the conformity of a package holiday. • The tourists have the freedom to make and change their itinerary. • It may or may not be confined by location, activity selection, or timetables. • Drive tourists possess a greater selection of localities. • Drive tourists can decide on the time allocated to specific activities and select and substitute attractions. The above specifies the liberty and independence of drive tourists to choose their own itinerary and to make modifications as and when they feel so. Butler and Hannam’s (2012) opinion on the nature of drive tourism that cars, motorcycles, and bicycles created the platforms for highly fluid, boundless, and nomadic travels via the notion of automobility reiterate the nature of liberty and independence that the drive tourists can enjoy. Moreover, the duration of the visit and the time that can be spent on each touristic activity can be decided by the tourists themselves. In a study by He et al. (2010) on self-driving tourism in the city of Kunming (China), the following features are identified in the case of self-drive tourism: • The main purpose of self-driving tourism is recreation and self-driving trips on weekends are more common. • The majority of the self-driving tourists may travel on an average of 300-500 km around the city. • Individual values and lifestyles influence buying decisions of self-drive tourists. • Self-drive tourists are discouraged by issues associated with traffic, safety, and lack of sufficient information. • The main market segment consists of young or middle-aged with income above the intermediate level of all sorts of occupations. While recreation is at the heart of drive tourism, the availability of free time can be a major determinant. Weekend travels are more, with the intention to refresh him/herself, and desire/passion can be the mainstay in the decision. While personal interest is the prime factor, lifestyle can be a major determinant that can shape drive tourism greatly. The involvement of the tourism industry is less in this as tourism intermediaries have a lesser role in the journey of drive tourists. Moreover, the accommodation preferences vary widely, and some may not opt for classified hospitality units. Instead, they may prefer to stay in non-serviced or small-scale accommodation centers. Though drive tourism is a popular form of tourism, there are risk factors, and safety is noted as a deterrent to drive tourism. Furthermore, the growing concern about climate change and global warming imposes the tourism developers to make restrictions to drive tourism. As a consequence, drive tourism most certainly has many environmental problems that are later introduced in this chapter.

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7.4 Types of Drive Tourism Though drive tourism has been conceptualized as a form of tourism having selfdriving of automobiles/cars, which form the core of the tourism experience, an evolution took place, and the corresponding dynamism emerged, resulting in multiple forms of drive tourism at the national as well as international levels. Prideaux (2001), who contributed significantly to the literature on drive tourism, also opined that there are several types of Drive tourism in the global market. In one of the articles, it is mentioned that there are two prominent categories of self-drive tourism segments as self-drive vacation market and the visiting friends and relatives (VFR) drive market (Prideaux & Carson, 2003). Enjoying a vacation with a self-drive option is indeed a major form, and it is popular among drive tourism enthusiasts. VFR is also a listed tourism category; when it is self-drive, it can be more recreational for many. They also stated that drive tourism could be categorized using different factors as follows (Prideaux & Carson, 2003). • • • • • • •

The activities engaged by tourists The nature of the itinerary (structured or unstructured) followed The type of vehicle used Type of accommodation used Duration of the holiday and the length of journey Type of attractions visited The age group of tourists.

Based on the vehicles used, drive tourism can essentially have car/automobile drive tourism, four-wheeled (4WD) drive tourism, motorcycle drive tourism, and recreational vehicle (RV) drive tourism. Special interest drive tourists can also be seen depending upon the nature of the desire for the visit. Organized drive tourists can have a structured itinerary and visit places as per the pre-set plans. Loosely organized drive tourists are more in number, and unorganized drive tourists have the possibility of being there in significant quantity. Based on the route and the remoteness of the visiting location, conventional drive routes and off-beat routes for tourists can be found. Some prefer off-beat destinations and have a ride through scenic/strange routes. Based on the accommodation preferences, self-drive tourists are classified as (Hardy, 2006): • • • • • •

Dedicated tenters Convenience tenters B&Bers Dedicated hoteliers Large scale RVers Smaller scale RVers.

Domestic drive tourism and overseas drive tourism can also be seen. Those who travel for the purpose of visiting friends and relatives are referred to as self-drive

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VFR (SDV-FR) tourists, and those who may prefer commercial lodging establishments can be categorized as (SDV-lodging) tourists (Yi et al., 2013). Considering the duration of the journey, there are short break drives (1–3 nights), short tours (4 to 7 nights), big tours (8–21 nights), and grand tours (more than 21 days) tourism varieties (Tourism Queensland-reported in Yi et al., 2013). Another way of segmenting selfdrive tourism markets is based on the accommodation used, such as the self-drive vacation staying at commercial lodging facilities (SDV-lodging) and the self-drive holiday staying at a friend’s or relative’s accommodation (SDV-FR) (Yi et al., 2013).

7.5 Advantages of Drive Tourism Having the freedom to move, drive tourism gives immense flexibility in the pattern and schedule of visits. The itinerary can be altered according to the emerging circumstances or interests. Some tourists make changes in the visit plan after gathering information from the local people in the places visited. Depending upon the availability of time, etc., drive tourists can extend their stay in one place or move to another location and stay over there. Drive tourism is featured with ‘freedom of mobility’ (Sager, 2006), and that is an attraction for many travel enthusiasts. Drive tourism promotes a ‘dynamic culture of individualism’ while travelling (Jacobsen, 2004: 7). According to Larsen (2001: 81), in addition to the role of transporting tourists, vehicles also act as machines for ‘mobile sightseeing’ and play a role in the tourist experience. Drive tourism is more prevalent in developed regions as the car ownership rate is higher. The overall pace of the journey can also be decided by the tourist. ‘Slow tourism’ is often linked to drive tourism also, as self-driven slow tourism is gaining more importance. Slow tourism is more beneficial for the local society as the tourists stay longer and spend more on local products and services. Tourists can also use rented vehicles, and the affordability and access to rental cars have increased remarkably over the last few decades. Car rentals are nowadays a common practice, usually focusing on cities. Tourists can also hire cars after flying to a city or tourist destination. Having route as a critical determinant of drive tourism, the socio-economic benefits of drive tourism can be there along the route as well, which helps in the better geographic distribution of economic benefits. Moreover, having the tendency of accommodation in non-classified centers, the benefits for the local community can be more. Mostly, non-serviced accommodation establishments are small and medium establishments that have significant local ownership. According to Business Queensland (2022), drive tourism generates a number of benefits to the local economy, including: • • • • • •

Increased profits Employment growth Opportunities for new business start-up More demand for new products and services Opportunities for business collaboration Addressing skills shortages by tapping into the skills of temporary visitors.

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In addition to the flexibility, independence, and better socio-economic benefits, drive tourism is also more affordable to people compared to other forms of tourism that need expensive transportation. Using non-expensive transport modes can help the tourists make the trip more cost-effective and spend more on various products and services available in the destination market. A single trip can benefit multiple destinations as drive tourism is featured with visits to multiple destinations by the tourists. Having a vehicle to move throughout the journey, drive tourists can easily carry the luggage and equipment needed for other recreational activities in the destinations being visited. Prideaux and McClymont (2007) are of the view that time and place barriers are limited for drive tourists, and they can carry much of their own equipment and necessities and have the opportunity to enjoy camping, adventure, photography, and picnics well. This is an advantage for drive tourists, especially those using cars and RVs.

7.6 Significance of Route in Drive Tourism The route is a key component of drive tourism. The driving experience is critical in the drive tourism experience, and the route the tourist drives in is key in ensuring a good driving experience. Jacobsen (2001) argues that the tour route can be considered as something that can give a wanderlust experience while travelling. The tourist movement makes some transport routes increasingly significant. For instance, as Kolupaev et al. (2018) pointed out, several tourist routes are based on transport routes, like in case of London to Paris, Paris to Istanbul, Moscow to Beijing, and London to New York. In the context of drive tourism, destinations should focus on “….identifiable routes on roads that are promoted by organizations using maps, signs, brochures or audio material, which may be linear or circular, and pass or provide access to key attributes of the area…[which].. vary in length, configuration, route quality and environmental context” (Hardy et al., 2005: 6). This indicates the elements that are inevitable along with the route. Signboards and other information that can assist a tourist while driving are essential on routes. Local businesses that can facilitate tourism by providing various products and services to the driving tourists as per their needs and interests are also to be there beside the routes. Routes to destinations do not just play a role in linking the destination with the rest of the world; its worthiness is connected to the experience of driving, the esthetic value, facilities, and tourist focussed businesses along the route, etc. Denstadli and Jacobsen (2011: 781) are of the view that “while destinations habitually have been understood as places to travel to and stay in, tourism routes are areas that people travel through, even though a proportion of the travellers might choose to stay for a night or more along the route”. Long routes certainly need options for stay as well. A drive tourist shall choose a destination not only considering the features and attractions of the destination; a route also turns out to be a major influence factor. It is ideal to have good environmental conditions along with road conditions suitable for long

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journeys. The landscape and the continuous scenery add value to the route. Sociocultural features present throughout the route can also enhance the attractiveness depending upon the degree of uniqueness. The route becomes more attractive when the uniqueness of the route is there. Some of the destinations arrange themed routes which can be attractive for the drive tourists. There is a scope for the destinations to develop drive tourism roads into themed touring routes (Shih, 2006). Themed routes with a focus on adventure, culture, heritage, wildlife/forest, valleys, mountains, etc. can be there. “Tourism themed routes are a mix of marketing and development initiatives that create corridor-style drive experiences for the drive market” (Olsen, 2003: 334). According to Sivijs (2003), developing themed routes can enable the destination to: increase the number of tourists and the tourist expenditure along the routes; maximize driver confidence to use alternative routes and improve road efficiency and safety; and raise awareness among road travellers on the heritage and cultural assets that are there along such corridors. The national or state routes can also be converted into theme routes with a focus on tourism. Routes of local, cultural, social, or environmental significance can also be made use of in the parlance of tourism. According to Olsen (2003), such routes should be more than routes with signages along the road to promote among tourists, and “….they should be part of an integrated visitor information network which starts with maps and brochures, flows through road signage and interpretation to attractions and experiences on the ground” (p. 335).

7.7 Determinants of Drive Tourism Unlike other forms of tourism, the route through which the tourists access the destination has much more significance in drive tourism. The route and its quality are the prime determinants of drive tourism. In addition to being a driving factor, the nature, and quality of the route and its conditions can lead to route loyalty as well. The scenic attractions along the route are critical in attracting more tourists to have a drive. Theme-based routes can be something that can enhance the attractiveness of the destinations. In addition to having a route in good condition, roadside facilities and services are important, particularly since the route is long by hundreds of kilometers. According to Denstadli and Jacobsen (2011), roadside amenities are vital in achieving overall satisfaction and loyalty among motor tourists. Moreover, according to Qiu et al. (2018), appropriate superstructure, like accommodation and vehicle repair centers, can contribute to creating memorable self-drive tourism experiences. Route decision by tourists is dependent not only on the connected and convenient roads among destinations but also on the complementarity of available resources and attractions (Shih, 2006). Thus, it can be stated that the route, along with the roadside facilities, services, scenic view, information provisions, signage, tourist attractions along the route, etc. constitute a critical determinant in the attractiveness of drive tourism. According to a study by Qiu et al. (2018), the primary attributes of drive tourism are summarized under two factors: ‘driving conditions’ and ‘destination

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characteristics’. The former consists of the tangible and intangible aspects associated with driving convenience and pleasure, with traffic safety and sufficient parking being some of them. The tourism-related superstructure and services provided by the destinations of a driving tour, like accommodation scenario, variety of activities, and hospitality of the host population, constitute major factors linked to ‘destination characteristics’. Safety and security conditions constitute another significant determinant of drive tourism. The possibility of car and motorcycle accidents are more than that of coach and rail services. Moreover, destinations need to ensure necessary arrangements for ensuring safe drive and to offer security to the tourists and the industry. The destinations should have diverse tourist attractions and scope for activities as well. As drive tourists prefer to consume indigenous products and services, the destination has to ensure small and medium establishments that offer various products to the tourists. Cost and price of products are also determining factors. Environmental quality, cultural varieties, attractions’ uniqueness, etc. act as determinants with varying rates of significance. Distance to cover and overall attractiveness of the destination/s too have considerable influence in the selection of drive tourism. Reliable and responsive services, the hospitality and friendliness of the host society, and the positive attitude of the local people too contribute to the attractiveness of the destination. Ensuring traffic regulations en route is critical for a safe and enjoyable ride. All the tourism demand-related determinants, like the economic, social, demographic, and technological factors too, act as determinants of drive tourism demand.

7.8 Drive Tourism Supply Drive tourism supply side consists of a wide range of organizations that are geographically spread across a wider region (into the route as well). Businesses of varied kinds function at different locations to cater to the requirements of the visiting tourists. The stakeholders of drive tourism usually include almost all the stakeholders of other forms of tourism. Yet, some stakeholders specific to drive tourism may include drive tourism maps, automobile associations, and accommodation targeting the drive tourists (Scott, 2002). Drive tourism infrastructure consists of not only the road and vehicle stations, it may also include service areas, information centers, sign-posting, caravan sites, culture and heritage attractions, museums, hotels, restaurants, and the similar. Road infrastructure, tourism attractions, and lodging facilities are essential elements in the drive tourism of a destination (Pennington-Gray, 2003). The following are the essential elements of drive tourism. • • • •

Route with good road conditions to travel. Necessary infrastructure and superstructure along the route and in the destination. Accommodation units along the route and within the destination. Roadside services, refreshment centers, and retails.

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• Sufficient amount of parking facilities • Information provision through dedicated centers, signage, brochures, and digital sources. • Attractions en route and in the destination • Facilities for vehicle repair/maintenance. • Refueling facilities/services • Traffic regulatory services

7.9 Drive Tourism Demand and Motivation Though drive tourism is eventually a result of the interest in self-drive through a route and engages in tourism activities in one or more destinations, the consumers in drive tourism cannot be considered homogenous. Olsen (2003) makes it a point that drive tourism market is a heterogeneous market as multiple groups of consumers can be categorized into different market segments based on different bases. Drive tourism is dominated by the domestic sector. Domestic tourists have increased affordability and convenience to drive to destinations. In the domestic sector, a study by Prideaux (2011) among the senior tourists revealed that approximately 62% used cars, and only 25% depended on public transportation. Therefore, car users are dominating the drive tourism sector. In some regions, like in Australia, a good majority of drive tourism travellers use 4WD vehicles (Taylor & Prideaux, 2014). Adults of all age involve in drive tourism, yet those just above the middle age and above dominate in the sector. According to Tourism and Events Queensland—wayfound (2017), the consumers of drive tourism have the following features. • • • •

Seek independence and the freedom to explore and experience new places Seek to experience the scenery and the natural environment Usually travel with unstructured itinerary—their plans change on route The recommendations of locals or other travellers influence the decisions on places and attractions to visit.

As stated before, the desire to experience freedom and enjoy independence is at the core of drive tourism as drive tourists are usually involved in driving by this intense desire. While enjoying the freedom of movement, the drive tourists also aim to experience the features of new places. Landscape, besides the route to the destinations, always enthuses the drive tourists, and they seek to experience the scenery while driving. Scenic byways are considered a hybrid of scenic destinations. Travel routes are indeed significant in self-drive tourism and motivate tourists to choose those routes and the connected destinations. (Qiu et al., 2018). In the case of theme routes, the desire for scenery connected to that particular theme would be of interest to the drive tourists. A study by Denstadli and Jacobsen (2011: 787) points out that “…motor tourists pursue two main types of motivation when taking such tourism routes: (i) the desire

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131

for observing attractive sceneries, and (ii) the desire for taking part in specific nonsightseeing activities along the route”. This reiterates the interest of drive tourists in the scenery along the route to the destinations, and the desire to experience has undoubtedly played the role of a major determinant in the drive tourist motivation. Drive for pleasure has been the motivating factor since the beginning of self-drive tourism (Hallo & Manning, 2009). According to Yang (2019), there are many internal and external motivations that prompt people to choose the self-drive trip. Internal motivations impact the type of tourism activities, and the ‘push’ factors urge the tourists to select the types of tourism activity they want. The external elements, like distance, road conditions, outdoor activities, and accommodation, motivate them to plan their tour and itinerary. For the self-drive VFR tourists, the primary motivation is meeting friends and relatives, and therefore, external factors have less influence on their decisions/behaviors (Yi et al., 2013). Exploring the remoteness and adventurous ride through desert tracks, searching and capturing the feel of nature, testing the capabilities of the vehicle, and the skill of driving through difficult terrains (Explorer type of consumers) are found to be the significant motivational factors in the 4WD drive tourism into the forests (Taylor & Prideaux, 2008). In the explorer category, Schmallegger (2007) identified experiencing the vibes of nature, experiencing a sense of isolation and something different from the usual environment, and the urge to learn the nuances of the visiting place as the major high-level motivations. Some of the general motivations of selfdrive tourism include a short break to escape from boredom, work-related stress reliever, escape from the place of residence and work, and experience nature or something different (Yiamjanya, 2016). Based on the above discussion, the following motivations can be the major motivations. • • • • • • • • • • •

Experience freedom and enjoy the independence The desire for a long drive Drive for pleasure and relaxation Drive to test the personal driving skills and capabilities of the vehicle Escape the mundane environment Being away from the home environment Experience the scenery and landscape Seek the socio-geographic features of other locations Engage in diverse activities Visit friends and relatives Experience the isolation by engaging in self-driving, etc.

While some self-driving tourists stop at a different location per their need, others make origin to destination journeys with short breaks in between. Some others may make the entire trip on each side of the tour without a stop between the origin and destination or while returning (Olsen, 2002). Tourism Queensland and BDA Marketing Planning (reported in Yi et al., 2013) classified drive markets into four based on the duration of stay, and accordingly, short break, short tour, big tour, and grand tour categories can be seen. Another way of segmenting self-drive tourism markets is based on the accommodation used, such as the self-drive vacation staying

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at commercial lodging facilities (SDV-lodging) and the self-drive vacation staying at a friend’s or relative’s accommodation (SDV-FR) (Yi et al., 2013). Vehicle-based segmentation is also possible, which is already discussed earlier.

7.10 Drive Tourism Decision and Satisfaction Drive tourist decision-making also has some differences. Concerning drive tourism, one of the primary intentions of the travel is the drive through the route and, therefore, the factors associated with the route, drive, distance, etc. would also have an influence on travel decisions. Availability of time, distance to travel, travel costs, number of places that can be visited, etc. influence the buying behavior of drive tourists. Attractions en route, facilities and services available along the route, distance and road conditions, attractions and activities in the destination, safety and security, travel cost, etc. strongly influence a trip by a drive tourist. Tourist satisfaction has much to do with the pre-perception and actual services received during the visit based on the assessment of various tourism attributes (Qiu et al., 2018). Moreover, for self-drive tourism, overall satisfaction is not easy to pinpoint because it can be determined by internal factors (e.g., tourist experience and perceived attractiveness) influenced by many separate destinations and external factors (e.g., traffic condition and local climate) that are beyond the control of service providers. In a study by Wu et al. (2018), the factors that influence Chinese self-drive tourists’ satisfaction in overseas travel experiences include the scenery, road facilities, travelrelated facilities, connection services, on-site activities, local community hospitality, weather, air quality, and costs. Similarly, the study by Denstadli and Jacobsen (2011: 780) also specifies the significance of route-related factors in tourist satisfaction and the finding is as follows: “… roadside facilities play a crucial role in achieving overall satisfaction and loyalty among motor tourists, and that route managers should improve the quality of these and related infrastructure facilities and services. …..it is important to consider the motorists’ desire to experience beautiful sceneries to increase overall route satisfaction”. The superstructure in the destinations does also have a role. The quality of facilities and services provided has great significance in customer satisfaction. The time taken to reach the destination is also a matter of concern. Different reasons can be there that can delay the reaching of the destination. Such factors can be deterrents to tourist satisfaction. Some of such factors include: • • • • • • • •

Poor signage and information provisions The density of towns en route Rate of traffic flow and congestion Speed limits and the number of speed barriers Frequency of traffic junctions Poor road conditions Width of roads Passage through city-centers

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As self-drive VFR visitors have strong motivation to meet friends and relatives without lodging expenditure, external factors have less influence on their decisions/behaviors (Yi et al., 2013). Long-distance drive; extensive daily drive; road congestion, poor parking facilities; absence of services along the route; bad weather conditions; inadequate/poor quality infrastructure, activities, and superstructure; absence of good scenery/view along the route, etc. can adversely affect the satisfaction level of drive tourists.

7.11 Unsustainability Aspects of Drive Tourism Though drive tourism has been growing at a remarkable rate, the unsustainability aspects of drive tourism have been a significant concern, and there are differing viewpoints on the promotion of drive tourism. Car and other forms of vehicles for individual use are considered unsustainable due to the reason of carbon emissions. Moreover, the parking space needed is also a matter of concern. There has been a demand at the international level not to promote car-based tourism greatly but rather to promote large vehicles that can carry more people in the parlance of tourism. It is paramount to use energy-efficient vehicles and alternative energy sources for transport. This aspect reflects in the electrification of drive tourism routes and emphasizes energy efficiency and the use of alternative/renewable energy sources (Alan et al., 2016). Green drive tourism is emerging, and the infrastructure is being modified so that the travel may be more eco-friendly and alternative energy use is promoted.

7.12 Conclusion Drive tourism, despite facing criticism for its environmental consequences, is growing at a remarkable rate. The growth is also seen not just in the developed regions but also in the emerging markets and developing countries in the world. The unique features of drive tourism enable it to remain a major tourism segment in almost every region in the world. The flexibility of scheduling the journey, the freedom that can be enjoyed while moving, the scope for visiting multiple destinations, etc. make it preferable for those who would like to drive and engage in diverse tourism activities. Drive tourists have ‘allocentric’ characteristics. The route of the travel is important, and furthermore, the destinations have to ensure adequate facilities and services required to drive tourism along the route. A ride on a scenic route usually gives a memorable experience.

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Chapter 8

Drive Tourism: Cars, Motorcycles and RVs

8.1 Drive Automobile/Car Tourism Drive tourism is coined interchangeably for self-drive car tourism as well. Indeed, drive tourism is dominated by automobile/car drive tourism. Earlier, Prideaux (2001) noted that the drive tourists travel from the origin point to the destination by car, which can be either owned or rented. Although due to the rising environmental concerns, there are reservations against the promotion of car drive tourism, it is still increasing tremendously. Weston and Davies (2007) noted that in many Western tourist destinations, private car use might dominate despite regulations to limit private automobile use in destinations. The comfort of a car as an independent vehicle, the desire for self-driving, and the mobility freedom enjoyed in multi-destination visits are the prime reasons for drive car tourism. By using cars, independent tourists get the sense of individual achievements since such tourists are empowered with the opportunity to gain feelings of intimacy, escapism, freedom, anonymity, and solitude (Butler & Hannam, 2012). The motivation of escapism can be seen in drive tourism significantly. Ideally, cars allow them to avoid the monotony they undergo in the usual place of work and residence. The intimacy is generated due to the desire to drive and experience the scenery/view along the route, and by involving in touristic activities in the destination. While using car for long drives, and to visit multiple destinations, the role of the car turns manifold. The tourism experience starts in the car, and eventually, the trip becomes as significant as the destination (Yiamjanya, 2016). It becomes a space for relaxation, experiencing the pleasure of travel and outside view, storage of personal belongings, experiencing independence while moving, and the like. A study by Butler and Hannam on independent tourists’ use of automobiles in Norway found that “the personal modes of transport were intrinsic features of the journeys undertaken and that they offered alternative sensory experiences in contrast to public transport. Moreover, for many independent tourists, autonomous journeys were considerably more important than the destinations they visited” (Butler & Hannam, 2012: 285). Hannam et al. (2006) opine that vehicles like cars can provide opportunities to attain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_8

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Table 8.1 Means of transport for tourism trips made by European Union residents (2015) Mode of transport used

Outbound and domestic trips (%)

Outbound trips

Car use share. Top 7 countries (%)

Bus

6

6

Slovenia (84)

Cars/Motor Vehicle

65

31

Portugal (80)

Railways

11

4

Czech Republic (79)

Air

16

53

Spain (77)

Water transport

2

5

Bulgaria (75)

Others

1

1

Hungary and France (74)

Source Eurostat, Available online at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/ ddn-20170630-1

Fig. 8.1 Means of transport for tourism trips made by European Union Residents. Source Eurostat, Available online at https://ec.europa. eu/eurostat/web/products-eur ostat-news/-/ddn-201706 30-1

Water transport 2%

Others Bus 1% 6%

Air 16%

Railways 11%

Cars/Motor Vehicle 65%

unique or more profound experiences via ‘sensescapes’. During self-drive, the tourist can stop and enjoy the scenery as and when they like. The convenience of stopping, starting, and ending the journey makes the car dear to the traveling population. Moreover, the car becomes a private zone for leisure time with groups of familiar persons. (Yiamjanya, 2016). Table 8.1 shows the types of transport modes used by the European Union residents. It is graphically represented in Fig. 8.1 as well.

8.2 Car Tourism Spaces According to Lisowski (2003), geographical space can be divided into several subtypes, one of which is tourism space. The principal elements of tourism space are the

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natural and cultural heritage (tangible and intangible), assuming the form of tourist attractions, drawing visitors to a given destination. Infrastructure facilitates taking advantage of the heritage value and making tourist destinations more attractive. Car tourism space can be considered a space where the tourists’ purpose is to take advantage of tourism assets and products associated with cars, enabling the tourists to learn about the history and the latest models of cars, participate in car events, and enjoy driving experiences. Therefore, a component of the car tourism space is tourism infrastructure. Generally, the car tourism spaces can be classified as cognitive urban tourism spaces (e.g., car museums), as well as activity, special interest (e.g., race tracks), and business-oriented spaces (e.g., car factories or business meeting spaces at visitor centers or car museums), according to the typology presented by Włodarczyk (2009). That is because they are destinations of cognitive trips, active, and qualified tourism (e.g., offering car races and driving experiences), or business trips (e.g., meetings at car factories or car visitor centers). Car tourism space can be divided into the following subspaces (Cudny, 2018): • Multifunctional visitor centers: The visitors to these spaces get an opportunity to understand the car manufacturing process, the trade-offer of a given manufacturer, the technological and sporting achievements, and the history of a brand or brands. Newly bought cars can be collected straight from the factory. Tourism facilities and services are offered in these spaces, and car companies use them mainly to promote their products. • Visitor centers: Though these are similar to multifunctional visitor centers, they are smaller centers with limited tourist services. • Museums and car exhibitions: Rather smaller in size, these spaces include car museums or museums of technology. They may have exhibitions of automotive design and collection of private or corporate cars of one or more brands. • Race tracks: These consist of race tracks (for sports car competitions) and tracks for mastering driving techniques. Supplementary attractions, like museums, and tourism facilities and services, are also seen as part of tracks often. Creating brand parks or centers, as well as showrooms, is a strategy often used by different large companies. It is a common modern tool of marketing communication with potential customers. Multifunctional visitor centers entail several attractions and offer car buyers and fans various services. Spaces of this kind provide an opportunity to visit the production line in the factory and see an exhibition of modern and historical models of cars produced by a given manufacturer. The offer is supplemented with commercial, gastronomic, and accommodation services. It is also possible to enjoy so-called driving experiences in many such spaces. This service involves renting a car of a given make, which the user may drive on public roads or in a specially designated area (e.g., off-road) for an allocated time. The activity of multifunctional visitor centers focuses on presenting technology, history, and the current range of models a given manufacturer provides. Centers of this type cover considerable areas, up to several dozen hectares. Because many visitors are tourists, these are examples of tourism spaces performing multiple functions (cognitive, commercial, recreational, and accommodation).

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The location of car manufacturing forms the core of this tourism product, and most car tourism spaces have additional tourist attractions and services. Seeing the car production process is a prime attraction for visitors. Many examples, like the Autostadt complex in Wolfsburg (Germany) and the BMW Welt in Munich, can be seen. Porsche Museum and the Lamborghini Museum in Sant’Agata Bolognese (Italy) are some of the popular car museum centers. Tourists can visit the factory sites and museums. Some of the centers offer cultural and entertainment events as well. Different types of recreational facilities are also provided to attract more tourists. Visitors can have a driving experience also from the car tourism spaces. Most of the larger centers provide accommodation services also. Special gastronomic centers and additional attractions for families with children add tourism value to the car tourism centers.

8.3 Consumers and Buying Behavior Certainly, the motivations of drive tourists primarily revolve around the perceived ability of cars to offer freedom, control, and unpredictability (Lumsdon, 2006). These tourists, as stated in the drive tourism chapter, seek independence and the freedom of traveling, and are interested in seeking new experiences. Driving is the core of their activity, and the experience gets enhanced when the tourist is able to enjoy the scenery and heritage along the route. According to Holyoak et al. (2009), there is a shift in the drive tourism market, from using vehicles for reaching the destination to using the vehicle for enjoyment as part of the trip. According to Taylor and Prideaux (2014), the 4WD drive tourism market consists of ‘explorers’, who are interested in infrequent and extended trips; ‘activity seekers’, who prefer to have recreational activities in a significant manner; and ‘adventure-thrill seekers’ who undertake more frequent and short excursions. In Fig. 8.2, an example from the past related to cars for tourists is reported. Along with the desire to drive, tourists anticipate the independence they can enjoy as part of the trip. The tourists can decide the itinerary, and control of the route, drive, visit, and other activities are vested with the tourist. As discussed in the chapter on drive tourism, a range of motivating factors can also be identified in drive car tourism. A drive car tourist may also have more than one or a complex set of motivations behind the decision to go for a drive tour. A study by Taylor and Prideaux (2014) in the 4WD drive tourism sector identified the following main ‘push factors’ associated with self-drive tourism: • Psychological: The factors include the scope for ‘getting away from it all’, selfdiscovery, socializing, making friends, and facing challenges. • Thrill-seeking: Seek adventure-based experiences in order to make use of the skills. • Activity driven: The desire to use the 4WD vehicle to reach locations where favored activities can be undertaken.

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Fig. 8.2 Car tourists in front of Old Faithful Inn/Yellowstone National Park (Year 1922) Source National Park Service (USA) Historic Photograph Collection/retrieved from https://commons.wik imedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4867289

Escaping routine life; leisure; exploration; the desire to drive long routes to visit friends and relatives; testing personal skills, like driving skills; and engaging in adventurous activities, etc., are some of the significant reasons for engaging in drive car tourism. Though they differ from other types of tourism, potential drive car tourists are influenced by both push and pull factors. The decision-making of drive tourists is influenced by multiple factors. According to Woodside and King (2001), the factors that influence decision-making include the age group, nationality, available days, availability of relatives or friends in the destination, word-of-mouth information, planning type, and the type of vehicle that is used. According to the opinion of Becken and Wilson (2007), attractions, transport, the travel route taken, accommodation, and related infrastructure are the factors that influence the selection with regard to drive car tourism. Some of the demographic factors like age have a significant effect on tourists’ decisions, in general. That can be applicable in some cases in drive tourism as well. The ‘push factors’, like the attractions, the features of the route and the associated facilities, availability of accommodation varieties, and the facilities and services at the destination, may have an influence on drive tourists’ decisions and selection of drive car tourists. The vehicle used for travel is also an inducing factor. Their availability of them certainly influences VFR tourists in the destination. Plans leading to drive tourism by the tourists may have differences. Many tend to be proceeding with their journey without a planned itinerary and specifications in the drive tourism category. A study on 4WD independent tourists by Taylor and Prideaux (2014) found that those tourists, particularly on single-vehicle trips, usually have a

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less formal itinerary and give more importance to obtaining desired experiences and undertaking preferred activities as part of the trip. Yiamjanya (2016) also revealed that drive tourists mostly have loose plans, especially with friends. Hyde (2004) identified three distinct categories in the case of planning and decision-making, such as: ‘core decisions’, ‘loose plans’, and ‘unplanned behaviour’. According to him, a majority had a planned approach, finalized their route in advance as a written ‘schedule’, and booked their car, accommodation, and attraction tickets online or offline upon confirming their touring route. Another good share of the tourists planned ‘loosely’, which indicates that they booked the basic transportation or accommodation for the initial few days and roughly planned the destinations that they might visit in advance. Only a few tourists had ‘no plans’ before traveling, and the plans are finalized after arriving at their destination. On the other hand, in the driving tourism category, as stated in the drive tourism chapter, many plan the places to visit and where to stay while driving along the route. Also, some drive tourists finalize the places to visit and stay as per the information they receive from the host community, etc., after reaching the first destination. Becken and Wilson (2007) are also of the opinion that the planned itinerary was there with many tourists, and ‘word of mouth’ and previous experience influenced their decision. The features of the route influence route selection and pre-tour booking tendency for the entire journey is rare, rather booking takes place while en route. Information sources for drive tourists mainly include word of mouth, visitor centers, travel maps, and travel brochures. In the case of senior drive tourism, word of mouth was found to be an important information source for travel (Prideaux et al., 2001). Internet using mobile devices, social media, and technology solutions like GPS and Google Map is used extensively by drive car tourists (Yiamjanya, 2016). In this era of the digital world, eWOM is highly significant. The eWOM platforms can mainly include social media and other online platforms. Social media users primarily interact with people they already know, and the other online platforms take the opinion of anonymous users and consumer review sites, blogs, and shopping websites (Sen & Lerman, 2007). A study on visitor spending and tourism transport by Downward and Lumsdon (2004) suggests a difference in the pattern of visitor spending between drive car tourists and tourists who use public transport services. The drive car tourists tend to spend higher amounts. Car-borne visitors stay longer in the place visited, which can lead to increased income for the local community. The expenditure level varies according to group size and duration of a day visit (Downward & Lumsdon, 2004). The expenditure pattern is not much different from other types of tourists, as the highest spending is on transportation, followed by accommodation and activities (Hardy, 2006). The trip is the most important activity in the tour; therefore, reaching the destination is a major expenditure item. Along the route, the drive tourist may stop at attractive viewpoints, gas stations/refueling places, toll places, souvenir shopping locations, and the like (Yiamjanya, 2016). The preference for accommodation is not in classified centers; it can be in different types, including non-serviced accommodation centers. Ward (1987) is of the opinion that the drive tourists go for a variety of accommodation, which can be in private

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accommodation, in rented or owned property, hotels, motels, guest houses, and also go for camping and caravanning sites. The time required to travel and the distance to cover, etc., have significance for a drive tourist. The road conditions, signage and information, stop points, and attractiveness of the route greatly influence the tourist experience of drive tourism and the corresponding satisfaction level (Yiamjanya, 2016). Drive car tourism is not accessible to all, and there is a chance of car-related social exclusion. Such a situation can arise when some people “….cannot afford or who do not have access to personal motorised transport and who are thus virtually excluded from these recreational activities and areas” (Hall, 2004: 317).

8.4 Car Rental Market Car rentals have greatly contributed to the progress of drive car tourism. It offers the freedom of driving a car in any location in the world. The car rental tourism market is a major segment of the international drive tourism market. According to a report, the “Tourism Vehicle Rental Market was valued at USD 57.93 billion in 2020 and is expected to reach USD 58.47 billion by 2026 registering a CAGR of around 8.58% during the forecast period (2021–2026)” (Mordor Intelligence.com). Car rental offers temporary ownership of a car for a specific period of time. The traveler has to make payment for using the car. Drive car tourism could gain prominence in long-haul destinations mainly due to the services of car rental companies. One can book a rental car from anywhere in the world, and as soon as the traveler reaches the destination, the car will be ready for use. The car rental companies attempt to offer comfort, quality of life, freedom of moment, affordability, and low cost of traveling. These firms used to provide economy cars, executive cars, luxury cars, Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs), and Multi Utility Vehicles (MUVs). More varieties are there, and a list of car offers Avis is given in Table 8.2. The type of cars offered may have some differences from company to company. Oligopoly is a feature in the international car rental market. Enterprise, Dollar, Hertz, Avis, Europcar, Mobility Group, Sixt SE, and Budget are some of the major international car rental firms.

8.5 Drive Car Tourism: Contributing Factors and Advantages Automobile tourism has been there since the 1920s, and it gained prominence along with the decline in rail travel. The advantages of the car as an independent vehicle to move, experience the journey and the attractions, carrying luggage, and affordability certainly contributed to the evolution of car-based tourism significantly in the history of tourism. According to Hardy and Simic (2006), concerning self-drive tourism, “increased car ownership, retiring baby boomers, the development of larger and

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Table 8.2 AVIS car rentals Types of cars offered and examples of car models) COMPACT (Kia Soul or similar) CONVERTIBLE (Ford Mustang Convertible or similar) ECONOMY (Ford Fiesta or similar) FULL-SIZE (Toyota Camry or similar) FULL-SIZE ELITE SUV ELECTRIC (Kia Niro EV or similar) FULL-SIZE HYBRID (Toyota Prius Hybrid or similar) FULL-SIZE PICKUP TRUCK (RAM Rebel or similar) FULL-SIZE SUV (Chevrolet Tahoe or similar) INTERMEDIATE (Toyota Corolla or similar) INTERMEDIATE SUV (Mazda CX-5 or similar) LUXURY (Chrysler 300 or similar) LUXURY ELITE ELECTRIC (Tesla Model 3 or similar) MIDSIZE PICKUP TRUCK (Toyota Tacoma or similar) MINIVAN (Chrysler Voyager or similar) PASSENGER VAN (Ford Transit 12-Passenger Van RWD or similar)

PREMIUM (Volkswagen Passat or similar) PREMIUM ELITE SUV (GMC Yukon Denali or similar) PREMIUM SUV (Ford Expedition or similar) SIGNATURE SERIES (Chevrolet Corvette Coupe, Cadillac Escalade, or similar) STANDARD (Volkswagen Jetta or similar) STANDARD ELITE COUPE (Dodge Challenger R/T or similar) STANDARD ELITE SUV (Nissan Pathfinder or similar) STANDARD RECREATIONAL VEHICLE (Jeep Wrangler 4-Door or similar) STANDARD SUV (Ford Edge or similar) TANDARD SPORT (Ford Mustang Coupe or similar) 15-PASSENGER VAN (Chevrolet Express 15-Passenger Van or similar)

Source www.avis.com, data retrieved from https://www.avis.com/en/cars/vehicles/us

more powerful vehicles, and preferences for domestic travel post-September 11th have arguably facilitated the growth of this market”. The affordability of car increased remarkably over the years across the world. Car ownership in developing countries too, has increased incredibly. Tourism in the rural areas is particularly attracting drive tourists mainly due to transportation-related reasons. The availability of public transport and accessibility can be less in rural areas. Moreover, the attractions may be scattered geographically, which is a reason for increased car use in rural areas. In addition to the common advantages of the car as a vehicle for movement in tourism, the following reasons contribute to the increase of drive car tourism in the rural areas. • • • • • • • •

Geographically scattered tourism attractions Limited public transport options Quality concerns related to transporting services Lack of diverse transport options Fragmentation of the tourism industry Lack of investment and financial resources Inconsistent demand patterns Insufficient policy intervention and incomprehensive planning.

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The car gives multiple advantages as a mode of transport for tourism purposes. Those factors certainly add up to the list of reasons for the increase in drive car tourism. According to Hall (2004: 316), “…, the motor car can appear to be one of the cheapest and most convenient and flexible means of gaining ready access to multiple locations over a significant distance in a relatively short time and at a time of the traveller’s choosing”. Three factors are of highlight here. First, a car is a cheaper mode of transport, particularly in relation to air transport. The convenience of start and stops are certainly advantages. Flexibility in terms of movement, visiting places, and altering itineraries is a significant advantage of cars. The tourist can easily visit multiple destinations on one trip. It is time-saving as well as tourists need not wait for the schedules of transport service providers. Taplin and Qiu (1997) also pointed out the advantage of flexibility in time and itinerary choice in drive car tourism. For a ‘flashpacker’, car is an ideal mode of transport. For instance, Kolupaev et al. (2018) argue that the intensive usage of automobile transportation gave way to the rise and wide popularity of the ‘flashpacker’, which indicates the ease of handling luggage. According to Cambridge Dictionary (dictionary.cambridge.org), a flashpacker is “someone who travels to different places on holiday in a similar way to a backpacker, but has more money to spend on hotels, meals, transport, etc.: A flashpacker is an independent traveller with money to spend”. Here, mobility freedom and ease in the handling of luggage are important when a car is used to visit multiple destinations. It is an advantage that cars provide easiness and convenience in experiencing the nuances of the local culture. For short distances, automobile transportation comes forward regarding other modes of transportation. Oter (2007) opines that car-based trip makes it easy to see local culture and nations. It presents great flexibility in contrast to other modes of transportation. Time and distance contribute to the tourist decisions to use car. If the distance is convenient for a car to drive, the availability of free time contributes greatly to the use of the car. Therefore, for shorter distance journeys, the car is a suitable option for drive-enthusiasts. The car also offers the space for the tourist to plan the trip while driving (Yiamjanya, 2016). Considering the above, the following advantages can be identified as the advantages of drive car tourism. • • • • • • • • • • •

The convenience of start and stops Relatively (compared to air transport, etc.) more economical The flexibility of the itinerary of the visit Freedom and independence while traveling Ease in visiting multiple destinations Time-saving by not waiting for schedules of other modes of transport Freedom to choose the route, places to see, etc. Freedom in carrying luggage of choice, and the easiness in its handling Satisfaction of the desire to driving Experience the en route attractions and scenery Ideal for short-haul destinations.

The advantages of cars certainly motivate a good share of the population to seek self-drive tourism. For such tourists, car-based drive tourism has the edge over other

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modes of transport. For instance, according to Larsen (2001), the differences between trains and cars are following. • A car is a freedom-enhancing mobility machine. • The car offers a flexible mobile tourism experience spatially and temporally. • Cars offer scope for roaming and off-beaten tracks. Trains have fixed schedules and travel on specific routes only. Cars can be used in more geographical areas, and the schedule of the travel can be fixed by the traveler. Tourists can have continuous sightseeing, enjoy the scenery, and experience driving along a long route. Drive tourism has wider geographic dispersion and generates better socio-economic benefits. The most significant advantage of drive car tourism is the freedom, flexibility, and drive experience compared to coach and rail tourism.

8.6 Disadvantages and Sustainability Concerns Though car-based tourism is increasing reasonably, there are disadvantages and sustainability concerns. According to Hall (2004: 315), “The relationship between leisure and the motor car is axiomatic and problematic. The motor car literally provides the vehicle for more and different recreation and tourism activities while causing likely irrevocable local and global damage in the process. This paradox is articulated in the fact that road transport and specifically the motor car, is the least suitable form of transport in terms of its impact on the natural and built environment and social equity” (Hall, 2004: 315). Automobile disadvantages include an increased rate of accidents, relatively higher pollution level per passenger, causes of traffic congestion, etc. Road congestion is a major issue due to excessive automobile tourism in some destinations. Congestion causes inconvenience for not only the tourists but also the local people. The parking issue is another important concern. More land use is needed for parking which is also against the environmental conservation principles. Furthermore, infrastructure for car tourism leads to visual pollution as well. There are many attempts to restrain car-based tourism in destinations considering the unsustainable features of automobile tourism. Rodrigue et al. (2006) argued that the car is a highly flexible and ubiquitous mode of transportation, the major constraints such as low capacity and high levels of space and energy consumption create issues. While public transport forms like bus and train are more limited in spatial coverage and enable movements of people in large numbers, they are more ideal for destinations that aim at sustainable tourism development. Dickinson et al. (2004) suggest the following anti-sustainability aspects of car tourism for many rural areas: • • • • •

Congestion at key sites (honey pots). Pollution in small towns and villages where congestion occurs. Aesthetic pollution from unsightly car parking provisions in beautiful locations. Land consumption to car parking and associated infrastructure. Damage to the environment for parking, etc.

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• The impacts and challenges for the local community in the wake of a sudden influx of tourists are difficult to manage, control, or restrict.

8.7 Motorcycle Tourism Motorcycle tourism, a form of recreational activity, is an interesting segment of drive tourism. The urge to ride a motorcycle has been there for long and the combination of both resulted in the rise of motorcycling tourism. It is often referred to as Niche tourism, in which the participants have a strong desire and motivation to drive through routes of varied kinds (Frash Jr. & Blose, 2019). It is one of the most economical forms of tourism as the transportation cost, which is a major share of the overall expenditure by a tourist, is much lower than many other forms of tourism. The ride on a motorcycle, with a roaring sound, the road with landscapes and sceneries along, and the romance with nature’s features make motorcycle tourism memorable. The trip through the routes is most enticing, and the tourist also seeks to experience attractions, stay, and interact with the host community. Motorcycling tourism to the countryside and other rural areas is more prominent. This tourism category now involves more recreational activities other than the recreational drive. Motorcycle tourists can move to countries, small towns, wild fields, aboriginal areas, and national parks. Moreover, it can combine with different types of recreations, camping, and fishing and be attracted by the image of freedom (Wu, et al., 2019). The tourists in this category are highly involved consumers with a significant commitment that can span a lifetime (Frash Jr. & Blose, 2019). According to Ramoa et al. (2020), the motorcycle offers an experience as exciting as the destination, by which the journey can be considered a destination on the move. Certainly, motorcycle tourism has more socio-economic significance, and the interaction between tourists and the local community is more compared to automobile, coach, or rail tourism. Sykes and Kelly argue that majority of motorcycling tourists’ have “… respect for people and place, mutual reciprocity, and that relationship evolves to place, people, loyalty and repeat visitation, based on memories of past interactions with people at that place” (2014: 96). Frash Jr. et al. (2018), as part of a study on motorcycling tourism, revealed that motorcycle tourists prefer ride through enjoyable routes instead of the destination visited and scenery, safety, and interesting stop points are critical in the selecting the route. Lodging facilities that are either very near food service outlets or provide food and beverage on-site are preferred. Motorcycling tourism is more adventurous as well. Walker (2010) is of the opinion that motorcycling tourists require a more enhanced skill set and can be dangerous too. The severity of risk factors increases with the nature of the route. Some roads are more dangerous, and road conditions are also important for the tourist to experience the ride and remain safe. On the other hand, the nature of the route adds to the experience. For instance, Cater (2017) indicated that for motorcycle tourism, it is ideal to have good condition winding roads, scenic stopping points, parking, and places to meet other bikers; accommodation necessitates secure parking and proximity to restaurants, be

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easy to find and helpful hosts. A good motorcycle tourism experience shall remain a memorable experience, especially when the ride is exciting in terms of the nature of the road and the landscape around. According to Broughton (2008), a motorcycle tourist expects a ‘challenge-based enjoyment’, which, in turn, can lead to a state of euphoria. In addition to good road conditions and an enticing route, good weather conditions are also imminent for a memorable tourism experience. Concerning the motivation for travel, though motorcycle tourists have a personal and an interpersonal social component in their motivation, personal escape from daily life is more significant than interpersonal-escape items. Moreover, they experience the state of flow while riding, and such tourists mostly have the composite explorer image (Frash Jr et al., 2018). The study by Ramoa et al. (2021) reveals that motorcycle tourists decided the drive tourism based on the factors linked to their experience of pleasure and freedom to travel. The emotional aspect has the highest significance in motorcycle tourism. In general, the factors of more significance include the possibility of experiencing new cultures, mental relaxation, search for adventure, the possibility of making new friends, the chance to visit, travel economically, etc. In adventure motorcycling, engaging with nature, the quest for adrenaline-rush activities, enjoying friendship through sharing activities, and the fulfillment by overcoming challenges to reach difficult goals are the prime motivations (Austen-Smith & Banks, 2000). Therefore, motorcycle tourists, in general, have both mental and physical urges, along with socio-economic reasons to take part in travel. Boundaries, negative perceptions, and a lack of understanding of travel behavior are some barriers for bike tourists (Sykes & Kelly, 2016). Safety issues, adverse climate/weather conditions, poor road conditions, lack of facilities and service en route, etc., can deter Motorcycle tourism.

8.8 Self-Drive RV Tourism Although self-drive RV tourism has been there for several decades, it is in vogue, especially since the social media influence on travel decision-making has become significant. The interest in RV tourism is mainly due to the desire for drive tourism along with the stay in the vehicle, which makes it more convenient for those interested groups of travelers. International Trade Administration report (ITA, 2016: 15) conceptualizes a Recreation Vehicle (RV) as “a temporary living quarter for travel, recreation, camping, and seasonal use. RVs may have their own motor power (motorhomes), be mounted (truck campers), or be towed by another vehicle (travel trailers, fifth wheel trailers, folding camping trailers). Sports utility RVs, which contain a built-in garage for hauling cycles, ATVs, or sports equipment, are available in both motorhomes and towable RVs”. In RV tourism, a subset of self-drive tourism, travelers take a camper trailer, van conversion, fifth-wheel, slide-on camper, caravan, or motorhome on a trip with them and use the vehicle for accommodation (Hardy & Gretzel, 2011). The use of the vehicle for accommodation makes it distinct from other forms of drive tourism. The following vehicles are used in RV tourism.

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Fig. 8.3 Motorhome park in Pont-à-Mousson (France). Courtesy Wikipedia Commons

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Caravan Pop-top caravan Camper trailer Tent trailer Travel Trailer Fold-Down Camping Trailer Van conversion Motorhome Campervan Slide-on camper Truck camper Chopped Van (Chassis Mount) Fifth wheeler.

Figure 8.3 shows an example of caravans. RV tours are longer in nature, and the tourists are motivated by the desire to be free from constraints such as time schedules and the need for advance reservations (Hardy & Gretzel, 2010). The prime focus of RV tourism has been to experience freedom and warmer climates and to enjoy flexibility in terms of travel style (Viallon, 2012). RV tourists have been identified as older people for a long time, but the recent trends tell about the hike in youngsters as well into the realm of RV tourism (Wu, 2015). According to Viallon (2012), senior RV tourists’ prime motivations include connecting with landscapes and relaxing in novel and comfortable settings (Viallon, 2012). On the other hand, Hardy and Gretzel (2011) identified seeking freedom, searching for warmer climates, and the flexibility of the travel style as the prime travel motivators. Wu and Pierce (2014) surface several push factors in RV tourism which include novelty seeking; enthusiasm to be in a foreign world; romance; self-development (learning through travel); ego-enhancement; self-incentives (e.g., long-haul trip every year); relaxation/escape; relationships; and special interests. The pull factors consist of the flexibility of RVs, drive tourism-specific attractions in the destinations; friendly hosts and the scope for interactions with locals and

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indigenous culture; and private RV-home away from home and western travel styles (Wu, & Pierce, 2014). In the case of international RV tourism, there can be safety concerns and constraints, like the safety concerns identified by Wu (2015) in a study on Chinese outbound RV tourists to Australia, and they are related to the unfamiliar vehicle, unfamiliar roads, unfamiliar driving rules, unfamiliar accommodation systems, and personal factors. With regard to the demand, RV tourism is dominated by senior tourists (Wu & Pearce, 2016). Within the senior segment of RV tourism different subgroups can be seen, like ‘full-timers’, and the others who spend the shorter duration in the destination visited. International and domestic tourists are also there. Planners, who have a planned schedule of movement, and non-planners, are also there. The travel is more to interior regions. RV camps are also a major trend in RV tourism.

8.9 Conclusion Drive tourism sector is not limited to cars; rather, it consists of using other vehicles like motorcycles, RVs, etc. Still, car-based tourism is dominating self-drive tourism. The route and the vehicle used are highly important in drive tourism. There are multiple reasons for the growth of self-drive tourism: including the vehicle used as a space for relaxation, experiencing the pleasure of travel and outside view, storage of personal belongings, experiencing independence while moving, and the like. The convenience of stopping, starting, and ending the journey, along with the role of the vehicle as a private zone, is significant in leisure tourism. The use of rental cars is also increasing. Motorcycle tourism is more adventurous and one of the most economical forms of tourism. RV tourism has been there for several decades, and the use of the vehicle for accommodation makes it distinct from other forms of drive tourism. Different types of vehicles are used, like a caravan, camper trailer, tent trailer, motorhome, and campervan. The autonomy in the travel and the advantages make drive tourism popular among ‘allocentric tourists’, particularly.

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Chapter 9

Bicycle Tourism

9.1 Introduction Cycling first developed in the late nineteenth century, and, during then, the bicycle was considered an independent means of transport for the upper class of the society. It became a prestigious means of independent transport for societal classes, and it continued up to the 1920s (Lamont, 2009). Bicycle tourism began when The Cyclists’ Touring Club was founded in the UK in 1878 (Tobin, 1974). However, the advent of automobiles changed the scenario, and when automobiles became affordable to both the middle and upper classes, the popularity of bicycles gradually declined in importance. Today, however, there is evidence that cycling is experiencing a rebirth in the form of an ideal tool for recreation, leisure, and tourism. Ritchie (1998) showed data suggesting a boom in bicycle sales in recent decades in the UK and New Zealand, while the Australian government sources showed an increase in cycling for leisure and recreation between 1997 and 2006. The development of infrastructures supporting leisure and recreational cycling and promoting tourism is becoming more common as planners and policymakers recognize the potential of cycling for economic revitalization, particularly in rural communities (Ritchie & Hall, 1999). In addition, Faulks et al. (2006) noted that Australia was experiencing an increasing number of organized cycling events that often brought significant economic benefits to host communities, such as the New South Wales Big Ride and the Great Victorian Bike Ride. An example of road cycling tourists is reported in Fig. 9.1. There are several initiatives aimed at promoting cycling holidays. Such initiatives usually involve building infrastructure in conjunction with marketing campaigns. For example, the National Cycle Network in the UK is an initiative of the UK sustainable transport charity, Sustrans. The vision of this project is to create a nationwide, highquality cycle network for commuters and leisure cyclists and to promote tourism (Sustrans, 2007). The National Cycle Network, Eurovelo is an initiative of the European Cyclists’ Federation aiming to create safe, high-quality cycle routes across the continent while minimizing interaction with motor vehicles. Although Eurovelo’s © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_9

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Fig. 9.1 Road cycling tourists: a view from Rottnest Island off the coast of Perth, Australia. Courtesy Loveperth.com.au, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid= 21529715

focus is on local commuting, tourism is also considered, as the route will ultimately allow cyclists to travel freely across the continent (European Cyclists’ Federation, 2007). Despite the increasing prevalence of supply initiatives and demand for cycle tourism products, there has been little discussion about the characteristics that distinguish bicycle tourists from other tourists, leading to questionable measurements about the size of the bicycle tourism market and potentially inaccurate statistical measurements about this form of tourism. Stimulating a debate on technical parameters that could be used to define bicycle tourism could contribute to a more accurate exploration of the market size, evaluation, and the benefits and impacts of bicycle tourism on the host communities. Pioneering work includes the one of Ritchie (1998), who defined a cycle tourist as a person moving away from his/her home town or country for a period of at least 24 h or one night for a holiday or trip. For whom the use of a bicycle as a transport mode during this time is an essential part of his/her holiday or trip, this holiday may be organized independently or may be part of a commercial tour and may include the use of transportation assistance services and any formal and/or informal accommodation. Bicycle tourism is usually considered a form of special interest tourism. Weiler and Hall (1992) referred to special interest tourism as when the traveler’s motivation and decision-making were primarily driven by a particular special interest, focusing on an activity/area and/or a destination and environment. The literature has

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developed a series of scales classifying special interest tourists according to their level of interest/involvement and distinguishing them from general interest (“place driven”) tourists (Brotherton & Himmetoglu, 1997). Such scales have been used, for example, for wine tourists (“wine lovers”, “wine enthusiasts”, “curious tourists”, etc.), ecotourists (“superficial ecotourists” vs. “deep ecotourists”), cultural tourists (“culturally attracted” vs. “culturally motivated”), or more generally expressed in the distinction between “serious leisure” vs. “casual leisure” or “sports holiday tourists” (participation in sport is the main purpose of the trip) vs. “holiday sports tourists” (participation in sport is not the main purpose of the trip or is a side effect) (Lamont, 2009). Sometimes authors have also used the level of knowledge to classify and distinguish the level of tourists’ engagement. Corresponding categories can also be applied to passive observers in an event context.

9.2 Conceptualizing Bicycle Tourism In preparing a paper on the potential development of cycle tourism in the UK, Lumsdon (2000) described cycle tourism as a range of cycling activities, with an emphasis on cycling as a fundamental component of a journey outside an individual’s immediate home region: recreational cycling activities ranging from a day or half-day excursion to a long-distance holiday. The fundamental element is that cycling is perceived by the visitor as an integral part of an outing or holiday, i.e., as a positive way to spend leisure time. One problem with Lumsdon’s definition is the application of the terms ‘recreation’ and ‘leisure’, as limiting the study of cycle tourism to leisure activities involving bicycles could be problematic. The Centre for the Promotion of Imports (CBI) defines it in similar lines, as “recreational visits away from home which involve leisure cycling as a fundamental and significant part of the trip. Bicycle holidays give travelers a feeling of independence and flexibility. Cyclists can decide when and how fast they want to bike” (CBI, 2022). Looking at the conceptual meaning of recreation, this definition would limit the analysis of cycle tourism to cycling activities undertaken for the purpose of mental and/or physical recreation. The distinction between participating in cycle tourism for recreational or leisure purposes depends on the motivation(s) of the individual. As will be explained later, cycle tourism can be recreational or leisure. Therefore, it might be too restrictive to define cycle tourism as a purely recreational phenomenon. The phrase “who uses a bicycle as a means of transport while on holiday” may be too broad to adequately capture this particular market. According to Simonsen and Jorgenson’s definition, a person who uses a rental bicycle to briefly explore the surroundings of a resort where he/she is staying could be considered a bicycle tourist. This is problematic as statistical measures can be over-inflated by including people who are more likely to be general interest tourists. Ritchie’s (1998) dissertation examined the travel behavior, motivations, demographics, and perceptions of cycle tourists in the South Island of New Zealand. The author proposed the following definition of independent (or “nomadic”) cycle

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tourists as a person who travels away from his/her home town or country for a period of at least 24 h or one night to take a holiday, and for whom the use of a bicycle as a means of transport during this time is an essential part of his/her holiday. This holiday may be independently organized or part of a commercial trip and may include the use of transportation assistance services and any type of formal and/or informal accommodation. Basically, bicycle tourism can involve watching or participating in a cycling event or participating in independent or organized cycle touring (Ritchie et al., 2010), and encourages trips away from an individual’s home region with the prime purpose of active or passive participation in cycling (Lamont, 2009). It is often remarked as a niche tourism segment that is facing exponential growth (Ritchie et al., 2010). It is a form of tourism in which recreational experience is at the core. Sustrans (1999a) states that cycling tourism is essentially a recreational visit, either over night or day visit, away from the home environment in which leisure cycling is fundamental and significant. Recreational cycling represents the cycling undertaken during the leisure time of a traveler’s trip within a day’s time (Ho et al., 2015). Bicycle tourism differs from recreational cycling. Recreational cycling can be part of bicycle tourism. In general, the features of bicycle tourism (Lamont, 2009; Lumsdon, 1996; Ho et al., 2015) can be summarized as given below. • Bicycle tourism is a form of recreation or leisure tourism • Cycling experience takes place away from the usual place of residence and work of the traveler • Single day to several days holidaying • Bicycle traveling is a non-competitive nature • The prime purpose involves cycling. Table 9.1 includes another classification of bicycle tourism

9.3 Determinants of Bicycle Tourism The quality of bicycle lanes has been thoroughly studied in several scientific papers around the world. As for the actual safety of cyclists on a given route, we should mention the following: According to Kaplan and Giacomo-Prato (2015), high traffic volume significantly increases the number of traffic accidents. Strauss et al. (2015) stated that traffic accidents are more likely to occur on major roads. Moreover, Pulugurtha and Thakur (2015) argued that higher speeds could lead to higher traffic accidents. Another critical factor affecting the actual level of road safety is the proportion of trucks or full-size buses that pose a major threat to cyclists. Some other research indicated that basic safety levels are also affected by on-street parking, grade, and presence of railroad tracks, the number of intersections, street lighting, and road width. Robartes and Chen (2018) concluded that roads with bike lanes or exclusive bike lanes ensured a higher level of safety than roads with shared or no bike infrastructure.

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Table 9.1 Bicycle tourism typology The following types of cycling tourism can be seen in the realm of cycle tourism • Road Cycling The cyclist ride fast on asphalted and sometimes paved roads • Mountain Biking The cyclist, prefers challenging trails in the forests or mountains, moves over rough terrains • Family Cycling These involve family cycling trips, for single to multiple days, and the distance and activities along the way are suitable for children • Touring/Expedition A relaxing trip for single to several days. Though physical activity is involved, these tourists are normally not interested in practising cycling as a sport • Cross Country Its a popular kind of mountain biking, and the cross-country mountain bikers prefer to cycle from one place to the next, tackling rough terrains • Trail Riding/Single Track Trail riding cyclists are similar to cross-country mountain bikers. But, they bike on very narrow trails called ‘single tracks’, which are often a bit more challenging than the broader trails • Gravel Bike These cyclists ride on all sorts of paths, like gravel, forest, and single track • All Mountain (Enduro) Mountainous areas with climbs and descents are preferred by all mountain bikers • Downhill Downhill bikers prefer to ride as fast as possible • Freeriding They, often like to do tricks and jumps, ride on very challenging paths that often do not seem like paths at all • Dirt Jumping Cyclists of this category challenge themselves with ramps and doing tricks while jumping. Moreover, they prefer short and often circular trails Source CBI. (2022). The European market potential for cycling tourism, Centre for the Promotion of Imports, retrieved from https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/tourism/cycling-tourism/europe

Second, regarding the perceived safety of cyclists, it is worth mentioning that cyclists feel safer on bike lanes and exclusive bike lanes. They also appreciate the adequate quality of the road surface, the low-speed level, and the absence of trucks or buses. In contrast, they do not feel safe when the number of intersections along a route increases, when their course constantly changes, such as when turning left, or when visibility conditions are poor. Lee and Huang (2014) identify the following attributes that are important on the supply side in a bicycle tourism destination. • Diversity of tourism resources: This may include climate/weather, aesthetic surroundings, natural/ecologic attractions, recreational options and activities, cultural heritage, etc.

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• The ease of accessibility, such as transport support services, alternative transport routes and bicycle routes, traffic flow and density, road surface and pavement quality, segregated bicycle facilities, diversity in terms of lengths and terrains, and parking facilities. • The availability of amenities: This may include space for rest, accommodation centers, food outlets, grocery and convenience stores, etc. • The availability of complementary services, like maps, directions and signages, visitor centers, and bicycle hire/repair services. Based on the literature, the most affecting factors are the following: Traffic flow, (b) speed, (c) proportion of trucks or full-sized buses, (d) on-street parking, (e) number of intersections, (f) slope, (g) rail tracks, (h) road or information signing and street lights, (i) change in course (e.g., left turns), (j) quality of pavement, (k) cycling infrastructures (cycle tracks, cycle lanes, shared space, offroad), (l) road width, (m) natural environment (water, green spaces, picturesque landscape, etc.), (n) accommodation, (o) urban areas and settlements, (p) landmarks, historical sites and monuments, and (q) additional services (refreshment points, WCs, bicycle parking sites, bicycle repair shops, cafes, restaurants, etc.). The most important factors affecting cycling tourists are reported in the following: Natural environment Cyclists are in touch with the natural environment, and as a result, they are affected more in relation to other road network users. A pleasant environment is more attractive for cyclists and positively impacts their psychology. The following elements are part of the natural environment: • • • • • •

Variety of scenic views Existence of lakes, rivers, and beaches Prevailing winds Existence of Fountains Untouched natural landscapes Biodiversity.

Built Environment The services/amenities provided in a specific region are important for cyclists as they prefer a wide range of options over short distances. The existence of an important pole of attractions also plays a vital role for them. The built environment can include: • • • • • •

Commerce, entertainment, and supply points Traditional settlements Historical routes, monuments, and sites Archaeological sites and museums Urban green spaces Industrial spaces (negative influence).

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Social Environment The cultural events and the existence of traditional activities in a region affect the decision of a cyclist to visit a region. The social environment is meant by: • Cultural Events: Cycling tourists prefer places where cultural events take place during all seasons of the year. • Traditional Activities and Agrotourism: Areas, where traditional and agrotourism activities are organized, are preferred by cycling tourists. Road network characteristics The structure-condition and efficiency of the road network is fundamental for cyclists. In addition, roads are important in terms of safety and energy consumption. The elements of road network characteristics must consist the following features: • Slope > 6%: It is one of the main parameters affecting the energy consumption of a cyclist. • The smoothness of the surface: It describes the quality of the surface. Cyclists prefer roads without puddles or off-road streets without mud. • Cycling paths/lanes: It describes the existence of segregated cycling paths or lanes or the ability for the coexistence of cars and bikes. • Traffic density/Speed: It describes the pressure and discomfort a cyclist feels due to traffic and speed. The calculation is based on road category. • Road width: Wider roads enhance the coexistence of cars and cyclists. • Traffic and information signing: Cyclists need to have access to information about cycling routes, nearby settlements, etc. • Modal share: It describes the share of freight transport concerning cars. • Public Transport: It describes the service area of public transport stations (only those which allow the transport of bikes).

9.4 The Bicycle Tourist The bicycle tourist takes up a journey for the purpose of holidays, recreation, pleasure, or sport, for a day or more, and engages in active cycling or is a spectator at a cycling event (South Australian Tourism Commission, 2005). He/she is essentially a leisure tourist who intends to visit the destination to spend time engaging in cycling activity as an active participant or by watching cycling tourism events. Cycling has to be an integral part of their holiday, and it can be independently organized while staying in formal (i.e., commercial accommodation) and/or informal accommodation (i.e., non-commercial accommodation) (Ritchie, 1999). The trip has to be to a place away from the usual place of residence and work. At some stage or other, during his or her holiday, the tourist uses bicycle as a mode of transportation, and for the tourist, cycling is an important part of the trip, and, importantly, the short trips to the ‘corner shop’, etc. cannot be considered for cycling tourism (Simonsen & Jorgenson, 1998).

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A study by Ritchie and Hall (1999) points out that cycling tourists are similar to ‘backpackers’. Cycling tourists prefer cheaper and more informal forms of accommodation and yet make a substantial contribution to regional economies. Moreover, the visit may be part of an organized trip or an independently managed journey. They spend more time in the destination visited due to the relaxed pace of travel. The contribution to the local economy is relatively better than other ‘enclave tourism’ types (Ritchie & Hall, 1999). In certain contexts, bicycle tourism can be considered slow tourism. For instance, when cycling tourists move to different locations within and between tourist destinations, they can be considered slow tourists whose movement is slow, interact with the local community, and engage with the culture in the places visited (Han et al., 2016). Ritchie and Hall (1999) are of the opinion that bicycle tourists can be considered special interest tourists, as they are less in number and high in value and visit out of specific interest. Moreover, the slow and relaxed pace of bicycle touring is an ideal option for equitable tourism in peripheral regions. Such cycling tourists prefer local, authentic food as well. The following features can be seen among the cycling tourists: • • • • • • • •

Cycling is the prime purpose for traveling Quality time engagement Slower movement and extended stay in the places visited Seeks authenticity, mainly in food, etc. Spends more on the local supply Engages in less polluting and carbon emission activities. A substantial share of the visitors prefer informal accommodation Better social interaction.

9.4.1 Bicycle Tourist Typology Despite having a special interest, bicycle tourists can engage in different types of holidays, short break holiday cyclists, longer holiday cyclists, event spectators, and participants (Ritchie et al., 2010). In addition, they can engage in different formats of visiting, ranging from self-independent and organized commercial cycling tours to active and passive participation in competitive cycling events (Lee et al., 2014). Earlier, Ritchie (1998), based on multiple sources, listed the following types of recreational cyclists and bicycle tourists. • Day touring: It involves home-based, mountain bikers, and day events types of market segments. They engage in half or full-day trips; families, adult groups, and younger mountain bikers are the major customers. • Cycle hirers: Causal and Holidaymakers are the major market segments. The trip is based for whole or part day, and both experienced and inexperienced cyclists are present. The tourist groups involve families, youth groups, and adult groups.

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• Pre-planned cycle touring: The trip can be undertaken independently or organized. The group-led tours are also there. Tourists mainly belong to the age group between 22–44 years. Couples, individuals, and families fall in this category. • DIY touring holidays: Do IT Yourself trips are arranged by the tourist him/herself. The age group of the tourists range from 15 to 44 years, and they involve couples as well adults and are more experienced with good knowledge. • Centered holidays: They are independently organized, from an accommodation base, and popular among mountain bikers and younger people. The cycling tourism characteristics can also be used to categorize cycling tourists. An example of cycling tourist classification based on the nature of tourism engagement by the cyclist is given in the following (Faulks et al., 2006; Ritchie, 1998; Hoyt & Lumsdon, 1993). • The mountain biker (undertakes half day/day trips. Participants are mainly families/adult groups) • The holiday cyclist • The experienced and inexperienced cyclist • The group-led cycle tourists (couples and adult groups) • The Participant/spectator in cycling events.

9.4.2 Bicycle Tourist Motivations Motivations in cycling tourism are related mainly to the physical as well as social aspects. Early studies identified several motivating factors of cycling tourism, including physical challenge, relaxation, escapism, and peace and quiet (Ritchie, 1998). These motivating factors are still prevalent in the contemporary bicycle tourism segment. In the international cycle tourism, tourists are interested primarily in meeting the physical challenge, stimulus seeking, and social escapism (Ritchie, 1998). Ritchie et al. (2010) are of the opinion that the motivations for cycling tourism include the urge to have adventure experiences, competence mastery, personal challenge, relaxation/escape, and social encounters. The following introduces those motivating factors. • Adventure experiences: The contributing factors may include travel for adventure, to gain an experience, to keep physically fit, to meet new people, for stimulation and excitement, and to see other parts of Australia/the world. • Competence mastery: The associated factors may include developing cycling skills, going for a challenging activity, and utilizing the bike/equipment. • Personal challenge: Bicycle tourism can be pursued as it is an impressive thing to do, to develop confidence in oneself. • Relaxation/escape: For relaxation, to experience peace and tranquillity, for a change from everyday life. • Social encounters: To share skills and knowledge and to be with friends and family.

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A study by Watthanaklang et al. (2016) identified a range of motivating factors which include self-development (mainly includes factors such as trying new things in life, and developing skills and learning abilities in adjusting to surroundings), contemplation (main factors are being on one’s own and riding bicycles being exciting and challenging), exploration (discovering new things in traveling, surveying routes in tourist attraction zones, and exploring various things in surroundings are the prime factors), physical challenge (main factors include exercising during trips, and developing body health to be stronger), stimulus seeking (main factor is taking a leave off work/duty for relaxation), and social interaction (the prime factor is interacting with local people). The motivations in mountain biking include physical exercise, contemplation, nature and place, speed and excitement, managing challenges, social relations and equipment, and appreciation (Skår et al., 2008).

9.5 Bicycle Tourism Experience and the Facilitating Factors According to Rissel and Garrard (2006), cycling influencing factors consist of individual factors (demographic, personal: motivation/initiation, and personal: maintenance factors), social/cultural/economic factors, and environmental factors (natural and built environments). The above factors have sub-factors listed under two categories, such as specific factors linked to recreation and those related to transport. While we discuss in detail the individual factors, in the sub-category of demographic factors—age, gender, health status, etc., are essential since they are linked to recreation. The recreational factors associated with motivation/initiation include health, fitness, other people, campaigns, events, information, skills, resources, challenge, social encouragement, support to address safety concerns, and time availability/priority. The transport-related specific factors may include cost, convenience, health, fitness, incentives, environmental concerns, support to address safety concerns, and time availability. In the next category, the personal maintenance factors associated with recreation encompassing fun, enjoyment, self-efficacy, achieving cycling goals, acquiring skills, experience, community links (e.g., cycling groups), and a sense of control over safety are relevant factors. Social/cultural/economic factors include recreation type of factors such as family/social ‘time together’, values (e.g., encouraging children to be active), and cost (relatively low, but requires bike and helmet). Among the natural environment category, easy access to pleasant surroundings and geography are critical factors linked to recreation. On the other hand, the built environment type encompasses cycling facilities (offroad paths), and amenities are significant. Both natural and man-made attractions are inevitable for providing quality tourism experience and to have touristic attractions. Landscape and scenic views are important. Maps can be both print as well as hard copy for reference. The map also should have locations of accommodation centers, toiles, shopping centers, details of terrains and surface of tracks, and key attraction locations. The routes for a variety of lengths can include circular or out and back day routes on quiet roads; overnight trails with stay facilities en route; longer routes

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with accommodation center availability; routes linking sites of attractions; and routes that connect towns or villages. Tour companies can offer guided tours, transport for gear and luggage, and support services, including organizing accommodation/food (Hunter Cycling Network, 2005/reported in Faulks et al., 2006). According to a study by Ritchie (1998), the scenery, overall road safety, quality of driving, and road congestion are the most important factors for cycling tourists. They have a direct link with the cycling tourist experience. Those factors are followed by the weather, signposting, and road quality. Bicycle tourism can be enhanced by adding various features (Han et al., 2016), including good landscape, ideal photo and selfie locations, climate/weather updates, and first aid services. Hunter Cycling Network (2005) identifies a range of factors that can facilitate Cycle Tourism experiences. Those factors are associated with attractions (built and natural attractions), information provision (maps and signage along routes), routes (variety of lengths and terrains), public transport (transport of bikes required), tour companies, availability of bicycle hire, cycle tourist-friendly accommodation, and secure storage of bikes and equipment along with parking facilities. According to Chang and Chang (2005), the prime environmental factors of Taiwan as a successful bicycle tourism destination include weather and climate, tourist attractions, scenery, and greenery, touring activity for cycling, nature of the terrain (challenging/flat), low flow of traffic, bike route length, signage and interpretation, pavement quality, bike path, route map, eateries/coffee shops, rest place, restroom, convenient store, stay facilities, safety, provision of racks and lockers, bicycle rentals, and friendly residents. One of the main problems associated with cycling experiences is the use of multi-use routes that are shared with other transport uses, causing congestion, speed of other modes of transportation, parking hazards, etc. (Dickinson & Robbins, 2009). Though perceived fear of traffic has been a significant deterrent, many destinations started to provide exclusive trails and networks for cycling tourists to overcome the issue of traffic due to motorized vehicles. According to a report of a study by the Park and Trails New York (2010, reported in Lee & Huang, 2014), the characteristics that influence the decision regarding a bicycle tourism destination comprise of the actual ride assessed by length, difficulty, and the nature of route; the support and services en route (e.g., availability of good maps, proper signage and directions, lodging and dining options); and nearby attractions including scenery, country side, cultural varieties, and uniqueness.

9.6 Cycling Tourism and the Environment Some researchers have identified ecotourism as an environmentally sustainable form of tourism, while others think it is not. Then the difference between environmental tourism, ecotourism, special interest tourism, and nature-oriented tourism is debated, and finally, whether sustainable tourism is ecotourism, or vice versa. Only if cycling tourism can definitively be included in a single category will it determine whether cycling tourism is one kind of tourism or another be of any relevance.

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This analysis will show that in its various forms, cycling tourism can be described as ecotourism, nature-oriented tourism, special interest tourism, and environmental tourism, which should all be seen as variations of sustainable tourism. However, none of the labels alone covers all cycling tourism. It has too wide varieties and forms. Cycling tourism, in the broad sense of the word, is therefore considered to be a new kind of tourism, best labeled as a green form of tourism. Green tourism is in itself not necessarily sustainable, but the degree of sustainability is investigated. The analysis of the impact of cycling tourism on the environment will not include evaluations of the impact on nature and the environment of construction. For example, it is impossible to isolate the impact of cycling tourists from the impact of the local inhabitants when looking at building and maintaining cycling paths, etc. There are simply no figures available on who uses which paths and how much. The environment has become a key selling point for the tourist industry in Europe. The development around the Mediterranean has shown that a country that ignores its environmental issues will learn that it is the tourists and not the issues that vanish. Seen from a tourism angle, well-proven environmental friendliness, awareness, and responsibility will gain an increasingly more important role in determining demand when tourists choose a holiday destination. As a starting point, it is relevant to look at how and in which areas tourism influences the environment, including nature, local population, and resources. Seven types of effects that are linked to leisure and tourism can be identified: • • • • • • •

Pollution of the landscape Water pollution Air pollution Endangering plants Endangering (wild) animals Destruction of landscape Destruction of the landscape by development.

9.7 The Case of Bicycle Tourism in the Republic of Croatia The Republic of Croatia has an attractive and diverse natural environment, a rich cultural and historical heritage, a favorable climate, close to large markets, good traffic connections, and internal security. At the same time, there are also less frequented macadam roads and forest paths unencumbered by intense hiker demand. All of the above makes it possible for Croatia to develop its cycling tourism (Periša, 2020). According to data from the Ministry of Tourism and the specialized website of the cyclists’ organization Pedala, there are more than 15,000 km of cycle routes in the Republic of Croatia, most of which are in the Primorje—Gorski Kotar County (5,100 km), Istria County (4,869.35 km), Sibenik-Knin County (2,565 km), SplitDalmatia County (1,992 km), Lika-Senj County (1,500 km), and Medjimurje County (864 km) (Medjimurje Bike, 2020).

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The EuroVelo Route 8 (Mediterranean Route), EuroVelo Route 6 (Danube Route), EuroVelo Route 9 (Baltic-Adriatic or Amber Cycle Route), and EuroVelo Route 13 (Drava Route or Iron Curtain Trail) pass through Croatia, in the total length of 1,713 km (see Fig. 9.2). The EuroVelo Route 8 in Croatia passes through the regions of Istria, Kvarner, Lika, and Dalmatia all the way to the Montenegrin border. The EuroVelo Route 6 in Croatia passes through two counties—Osijek Baranja, and Vukovar-Srijem, following the course of the Drava and Danube rivers. The EuroVelo Route 9 in Croatia passes through Istria County, from the Slovenian border to the city of Pula. The EuroVelo Route 13 in Croatia passes through the Medjimurje, Varazdin, Koprivnica-Krizevci, Virovitica- Podravina, and Osijek-Baranja counties, following the course of the Drava river and the border with Hungary. The main national cycle routes (marked with a D), with a total length of 2,903.2 km, are the D1 Drava Route, D2 Sava Route, D3 Dinar Route, D4 Adriatic Route, D5 Moslavina and North Slavonia Route, D6 Zagorje Karolina Route, D7 Adriatic, Plitvice, Lonjsko Polje, Balaton Route, D8 Adriatic-Drava Route, D9 Neretva—Slavonia Route and D10 Adriatic IslandsRoute (Fig. 9.2) (Cycling Tourism, 2020). One hundred fourteen cycling events have been organized on the local, regional, and national levels from September 2019 until October 2020 (Cycling Tourism, 2020). Unfortunately, several cycling events that were supposed to take place from March 2020 were postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, one of the most famous bicycle races, the race through Croatia “CRO Race” did not take place.

Fig. 9.2 Corridors of the main national cycle routes (in Black) and EuroVelo Routes (marked with numbers). Source edited in accordance with (Klari´c et al. 2015)

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According to the research conducted in 2014 and published in 2015 that covered 206 persons, the Croatian cycle tourist has the following characteristics: men are the dominant group (83% of respondents), the average age of male and female cyclists is between 31 and 40 (45% of respondents), 55.28% of respondents have a secondary school degree, while 42.21% of respondents have a university degree, 88.44% cycle on a daily basis, 41.71% cycle three to five times per week, 50.75% have been actively cycling for more than five years, 99.5% of respondents own a bicycle, while 72.22% own a more expensive bicycle, such as a mountain bike (MTB), good purchasing power (40% of respondents are willing to spend more than 1,300 euros on cycling activities and services during their vacation), 77.67% of respondents have a stay extending beyond 5 days, 48% of respondents always, and 31% of respondents sometimes use their own bicycle while on vacation, for 35.70% of respondents, cycling services, and contents are always an important determinant for the choice of destination, while for 33.1% of respondents, it is never important, accessibility of a tourist landmark by bike is important to 72% of respondents, while a supply of special facilities for cyclists is important to 55% of respondents, organized bicycle races and tours are important to 52, 81% of respondents view the availability of information as a key determinant of success and attractiveness of a cycling destination, the accommodation choice criteria are an essential service at the destination of the stay for 48.74% respondents, while the accommodation price is important to 43.22% of respondents. They also favor a specialized cyclist hotel and an offer of contents and services such as indoor and outdoor bicycle parking space, bicycle service, cycling clothes wash, rent-a-bike service, short-distance transfer, and professional guide service (88% of respondents). Table 9.2 displays the cycling practice of the Croatian cycle tourist in relation to the social component. The research of the attitudes and consumptionof tourists in Croatia conducted from May 2019 until March 2020 has shown that the reasons for visiting Croatia are sports and recreation for 19.5% of guests (Maruši´c et al., 2018). 5% of tourists stated cycling as an activity during their stay in Croatia, while 67% of tourists said they had a medium degree of satisfaction with the offer of cycle paths and routes at their tourist destination. The results of the research on cycling as an activity, satisfaction Table 9.2 Type of bicycle use at the destination in relation to the social component Cycle alone (%) Cycle in a group Organized cycling Combination (%) (%) (%) 12.5

12.5

50.00

Always use their 22.11 own bicycle when on vacation

33.68

0

44.21

Sometimes use 24.59 their own bicycle when on vacation

37.70

0

37.70

7.69

53.85

15.38

23.08

Travel by bicycle

Rent a bicycle

25.00

Source Kovaˇci´c (2015)

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with the offer of cycle paths at the tourist destination and satisfaction with the offer of cycle paths at the tourist destination in relation to the type of accommodation are displayed in Tables 9.3 and 9.4 (Maruši´c et al., 2018). According to the research on the tourist attitudes and spending in Croatia from May 2019 until March 2020, the share of tourists who cycled on designated cycle paths during their stay at the tourist destination by country of origin is Croatia 7%, Germany 5.9%, Slovenia 8.8%, Austria 4,6%, Poland 6.4%, Italy 3.7%, the Czech Republic 0.2%, the United Kingdom 2%, Hungary 2.6%, four Scandinavian countries 4%, the Netherlands 3%, Slovakia 5%, France 4.8%, Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.6%, USA 1.4%, Switzerland 5.5%, Belgium 4.9%, Serbia 5.4%, China 0%, and South Korea 0.2% (Maruši´c et al., 2020). Degree of tourist satisfaction with the offer of designated cycle paths (as an element of the tourist offer of the destination) by country of origin is Croatia (low), Germany (high), Slovenia (medium), Austria (high), Poland (high), Italy (medium), Czech Republic (medium), United Kingdom (high), Hungary (medium), four Scandinavian countries (medium), the Netherlands (high), Slovakia (medium), France (low), Bosnia and Herzegovina (very low), USA (medium), Switzerland (medium), Belgium (medium), Serbia (medium), China (very low), and South Korea (very low). Table 9.3 Results of the research on cycling as an activity and the offer of cycle paths Persons aged under 29

Persons aged 30 to 49

Persons aged 50 and above

Cycling activity during a stay at the tourist destination according to tourist age (%)

9.5

13

14.0

Degree of satisfaction with the offer of cycle paths at the tourist destinations

Low

Low

Medium

Source Maruši´c et al. (2018)

Table 9.4 Results of the research on the types of accommodation and the offer of cycle paths Hotels

Camps

Private Accommodation

Cycling activity during a stay at the tourist destination according to tourist accommodation type (%)

7.6

23.8

9.7

Degree of satisfaction with the offer of cycle paths at the tourist destination according to tourist accommodation type

Low

Low

Low

Source Maruši´c et al. (2018)

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In order to obtain insight in the degree of development of cycling tourism in specific regions of Croatia, the cycling routes/paths and the number of accommodation establishments needed to be researched as the starting point for the development of cycling tourism. Research on cycling tourism in the Republic of Croatia has shown that there is a low level of satisfaction in relation to the offer of cycle paths/routes and a low share of guests (5%) that use cycling as an activity during their stay. Even though Croatia has more than 15,000 km of cycle routes and several EuroVelo routes passing through the country, while it also prides itself on a good climate, natural beauty, and various tourist attractions, this is obviously insufficient for the development of cycling tourism, a fact that was confirmed by the analysis of paths/routes and accommodation establishments in the four observed counties (Sibenik-Knin, Osijek-Baranja, Medjimurje, and Istria). Taking into account all four analyzed counties, the analysis has shown that the weighted average number of accommodation establishments per route/path is 0.90 establishments, which means that, on average, there is less than one establishment per path/route. Furthermore, it has also shown that the weighted average number of accommodation establishments per 100 km of cycle path is 2.80 establishments, i.e., there is, on average, one accommodation establishment per 35.71 km, while the weighted average route length is 32.26 km for all the observed counties together. It can therefore be concluded that Croatia needs to invest in developing its cycling tourism in relation to the length of routes/paths, as well as the number of accommodation and other service establishments intended for cycle tourists.

9.8 Conclusion Bicycle tourism is gaining increasing significance now. Certainly, the states are developing bicycle tourism vigorously, considering its economic, social, and environmental values (Lee & Huang, 2014). Moreover, as part of sustainable tourism initiatives, bicycle tourism has gained a prominent place both in the recreational spectrum as well as in the transport policies, particularly in many regions within Europe. Bicycle tourism is considered a niche tourism segment with good growth potential (Lee & Huang, 2014). Several factors contribute to the growth of cycle tourism. One reason is that the demand for activities and outdoor recreation is increasing (Luhrman, 1997). More number of tourists would like to have active participation as part of leisure tourism (Schieven, 1988). Another visible change is a shift in travel motivation toward the environment and society (Ritchie & Hall, 1999). This also directly or indirectly facilitates cycling tourism. Increasing consciousness of health, fitness, and environmental friendliness (Gannon, 1994) greatly complements this type of tourism. The recent trend is to increase the supply in the bicycle tourism sector by the destinations. More and more destinations are developing cycle tourism vigorously. From a sustainability perspective, it is good to promote cycling tourism compared to other forms of tourism involving motorized transport.

References

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References Brotherton, B., & Himmetoglu, B. (1997). Beyond destinations: Special interest tourism. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 8(3), 11–30. CBI. (2022). The European market potential for cycling tourism, Centre for the Promotion of Imports, retrieved from https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/tourism/cycling-tourism/europe Chang, H.-L., & Chang, H.-W. (2005). Comparison between the differences of recreational cyclists in national scenic bikeway and local bike lane. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 6, 2178–2193. Cycling Tourism. (2020). Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia, Coordinating Authority for the Development of Cycling Tourism. Available from Internet: https://cikloturizam.hr/ Dickinson, J. E., & Robbins, D. (2009). “Other people, other times and special places”: A social representations perspective of cycling in a tourism destination. Tourism and Hospitality, Planning and Development, 6(1), 69–85. European Cyclists Federation. (2007). Eurovelo: The European cycle route network, retrieved 17th September, 2007, from http://www.ecf.com/954_1 Faulks, P., Ritchie, B.W., & Fluker, M. (2006). Cycle tourism in Australia: An investigation into its size and scope, Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism, retrieved 3 March, 2006, from http://www.bikesa.asn.au/cycletourism/pdf/CRC%20Report%201.pdf Gannon, A. (1994). Rural tourism as a factor in rural community economic development for economies in transition. In B. Bramweil & B. Lane (Eds.), Rural tourism and sustainable rural development. Clevedon: Channel View Publications, pp. 51–60. Han, H., Meng, B., & Kim, W. (2016). Emerging bicycle tourism and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2016.1202955 Ho, C., Liao, T., Huang, S., & Chen, H. (2015). Beyond environmental concerns: Using meansend chains to explore the personal psychological values and motivations of leisure/recreational cyclists. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 23(2), 234–254. Hoyt, S., & Lumsdon, L. (1993). Cycle opportunities. Manchester: Simon Holt Marketing. Hunter Cycling Network. (2005, September). Cycle tourism in the hunter region (Report prepared by Arup Consultants). Millers Point. Kaplan, S., & Giacomo-Prato, C.A. (2015). Spatial analysis of land use and network effetcs on frequency and severity of cyclist-motorist crashes in the Copenhagen region. Traffic Injury Prevention, 16, 724–731. Klari´c, Z.‚ Kos, G.‚ Kreši´c, D.‚ & Miliˇcevi´c, D. (2015). Cycling Tourism Development Action Plan‚ 56p. Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia. Available from Internet: https://mint.gov.hr/UserDo csImages/arhiva/151014_AP_ciklotuirizam.pdf. Kovaˇci´c, N. (2015). Profiling bicycle tourists: A case of Croatia. Tourism and Hospitality Management‚ 21 (2)‚ 159–177. Lamont, M. J. (2009). Reinventing the wheel: A definitional discussion of bicycle tourism. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 14(1), 5–23. Lee, C-F., Chen, P-T., & Huang, H-I. (2014). Attributes of destination attractiveness in Taiwanese bicycle tourism: The perspective of active experienced bicycle tourists. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 15(3), 275–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2014. 925726 Lee, C-F., & Huang, H-I. (2014). The attractiveness of Taiwan as a bicycle tourism destination: A supply-side approach. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(3), 273–299. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10941665.2012.739190. Luhrman, D. (1997). Newsfrom the World Tourism Organisation: Tourism industry sets new records. Geneva: World Tourism Organisation Press and Communications. Lumsdon, L. (1996). Cycle tourism in Britain. Insights (March). London: English Tourist Board, pp. 27–32. Lumsdon, L. (2000). Transport and tourism: Cycle tourism—A model for sustainable development? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8(5), 361–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580008667373

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ˇ Maruši´c, Z., Corak, S., Ivandi´c, N., Beroš, I., & Ambrušec, M. (2020). Summer Tomas 2019, Tourist attitudes and spending in Croatia. Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia. 268p. Available from Internet: http://www.iztzg.hr/files/file/RADOVI/KNJIGE/TOMAS-Hrvatska-2019.pdf ˇ Maruši´c, Z., Corak, S., & Sever, I. (2018). Summer Tomas 2017, Attitudes and expenditures of tourists in Croatia. Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia. 172p. Available from Internet: https://hrturizam.hr/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Tomas-Ljeto-2017-Stavovi-ipotrosnja-turista-u-Hrvatskoj.pdf. Medjimurje County. (2020). Available from Internet http://medjimurska-zupanija.hr/. Periša, J.T. (2020). Cycling tourism. Bachelor thesis, Undergraduate Professional Study Programme Traffic and Transport Polytechnic of Šibenik, Croatia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8(5), 361–377. Pulugurtha, S., & Thakur, V. (2015). Evaluating the effectiveness of on-street bicycle lane and assessing risk to bicyclists in Charlotte, North Carolina. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 76, 34–41 Rissel, C., & Garrard, J. (2006). Cycling for active transport and recreation in Australia: Status review and future directions. World Transport Policy & Practice, 13, 49–60. Ritchie, B.W. (1998). Bicycle tourism in the South Island of New Zealand: Planning and management issues. Tourism Management, 19(6), 567–582. Ritchie, B.W., & Hall, C.M. (1999). Bicycle tourism and regional development: A New Zealand case study. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 10(2), 89–112. Ritchie, B.W., Tkaczynski, A., & Faulks, P. (2010). Understanding the motivation and travel behavior of cycle tourists using involvement profiles. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 27(4), 409–425. Robartes, E., & Chen, T.D. (2018). Crash histories, safety perceptions, and attitudes among Virginia bicyclists. Journal of Safety Research, 67, 189–196. Schieven, A. (1988). A study of cycle tourists on Prince Edward Island. Unpublished Masters Thesis. Canada: Waterloo. Simonsen, P., & Jorgenson, B. (1998). Cycle tourism: An economic and environmental sustainable form of tourism? Reported in Lamont, 2009. Skår, M., Odden, A.‚ and Vistad, O. I. (2008). Motivation for mountain biking in Norway: Change and stability in latemodern outdoor recreation, Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian. Journal of Geography, 62 (1), 36–45 South Australian Tourism Commission. (2005). Reported in Lamont, 2009. Strauss, J., Miranda-Moreno, L.F., & Morency, P. (2015). Mapping cyclist activity and injury risk in a network combining smartphone GPS data and bicycle counts. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 83, 132–142. Sustrans. (2007). National cycle network, retrieved 17th September, 2007, from http://www.sus trans.org.uk/default.asp?sID¼1089735289781 Sustrans. (1999a). Cycle tourism information sheets, retrieved from http://www.sustrans.org.uk/ass ets/files/Info%20sheets/ff28.pdf Sustrans. (1999b). Cycle tourism. Bristol, UK: Author. Tobin, G. (1974). The bicycle boom of the 1890s: The development of private transportation and the birth of the modern tourist. Journal of Popular Culture, 8(Spring), 838–849. Watthanaklang, D., Vatanavongs, V., Vuttichai, C., & Jomnonkwa, S. (2016). Measuring the motivation to ride bicycles for tourism through a comparison of tourist attractions. Transport Policy, 52, 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.08.004 Weiler, B., & Hall, C.M. (1992). Introduction: What’s special about special interest tourism? In B. Weiler & M.C. Hall (Eds.), Special interest tourism. London: Belhaven Press, pp. 1–13.

Chapter 10

Rail Tourism

10.1 Introduction After the Second World War, with the development of the automotive industry and the possibility of door-to-door transport in road transport, the place of rail transport in transportation began to decline. In the following years, as the railways struggled to maintain and develop their position in the transportation sector, the railways of most countries were significantly affected by this situation. In 1964, the opening of the Tokyo-Osaka high-speed rail line was a ray of hope for the railways of other countries. With this important development, first in France, Italy, Germany, and then in countries such as Spain, England, South Korea, China, and Turkey, railway lines with speeds up to 300 km/h became widespread. With the introduction of high-speed trains, railways have gained an important role in passenger transportation. In this market, railways have become a preferred alternative to highways and airlines. On the other hand, parallel to this, the position of railways in freight transportation has started to improve. In addition, in some countries, especially the European Union, regulations have been fostered to create a perfect competitive environment within the sector in order to increase the business performance. In particular, state support is given to improve the existing infrastructure and to provide passenger transportation services that cannot be performed commercially, while freight transportation is generally organized as a commercial service area. Since the mid-nineteenth century, the advent of the railway system significantly changed the way cities were connected, thanks to its power of reducing travel between them. Some of the trains, such as the Orient Express, the Trans-Siberian, the Ghan, and the Blue Train, became iconic for their luxury and continued to hold their appeal in the international railway history (Murphy & Waxman, 2007; Gross & Klemmer, 2014; Browne, 2020). As a product, rail tourism should aim to enhance travel experiences, including nostalgia, historical awareness, and authenticity. Furthermore, in the adventure travel scene, it is necessary to implement services that meet travelers’ expectations (Prideaux, 1999; Conlin & Bird, 2014; Dang & von Arx, 2021; Giachino et al., © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_10

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2021). These expectations increase when there is an association with the word luxury (Thirumaran & Raghav, 2017; Manhas & Gupta, 2017). These factors, along with others such as sustainability, need to be implemented and promoted in the tourism product as they are mainly demanded by the new generations (Gilmore et al., 2007; Blancheton & Marchi, 2013; Bonadonna et al., 2017; Serhat & Uzuncan, 2020). The process of developing a rail tourism product should involve all stakeholders in the destination community (Carson & Pennings, 2017; Reeves et al., 2020; Beltramo et al., 2021). Most rail tourism initiatives have been developed thanks to public funding, although entrepreneurial initiatives need to be set up in the lifecycle of the long-term destinations (Carson et al., 2014; Eimermann et al., 2018). The development of tourism for economic diversification in regions that are not suitable for this sector requires fundamental changes in the previous ways of working, including new business approaches creation, capacity building, education and knowledge exchange, networking, and public-private interactions (Carson & Carson, 2011; Thompson et al., 2016; Carson et al., 2019).

10.2 Rail Companies and Stations Choice Increasing infrastructure investments, renewing and developing lines, signaling and electrification, and serving with smarter stations are factors that positively affect rail transport. Stations are important points where passengers get on and off to travel and where goods are loaded and unloaded. The characteristics defining the service level of the station are several such as security, cleanliness, waiting room, and proximity of the station to the center in the area it serves. The diversity of service items increases the attractiveness of the station and affects its potential clients. Today the strategies for improving railway transportation seem to focus on innovative station designs in addition to improving the existing environment. Railway architecture often seems to be more related to the urban texture compared to other modes of transportation. Terminals, such as airports, are generally far from urban areas, while train stations are located close to city centers. This difference in size allows the railway architecture to better integrate within the local environment because each station is located within and between other urban structures. The latter can be definitely considered as a major strategy in stations’ location choice.

10.3 The Station as an Attraction: The Station City Since its origin, the railway station has had a complicated relationship with the city, demanding periodical updates, particularly regarding spatial issues. With the aim of improving the liveability of station areas, current redevelopment projects are reconsidering them as transport ‘nodes’ and ‘places’ in the city. However, the interdisciplinary nature of the highly complex planning and design processes of

10.3 The Station as an Attraction: The Station City

173

station areas, which should contribute to enhance the performance of their spaces, have reinforced constraints and have set architecture to a marginal role in this context. It is thus necessary to understand how architecture can contribute to the improvement of the spatial performance of contemporary stations areas, supporting their current reconceptualization. When the architectural organizations of the station buildings are examined, it can be observed that passenger hall-toll booths, lodging, and pedestrian underpasses are used as basic elements. The land elevations and the connections with the surrounding texture reveal different settlement patterns within a certain common architectural language. Due to the fact that the railway itself is a border element, the need of connecting two separate sides of the city from time to time creates different architectural solutions. The interaction of the station buildings with the surrounding texture, as well as their own spatial organization, affects the organization of the urban space. With the construction of these buildings, a system connected with the centralrailway, consisting of structures such as schools and shops, which were built before or built later, has begun to be develop (see Fig. 10.1). It defines a station typology for small cities, divided into three simple categories: center, edge, and outer. Central stations are often old train stations that have been reused or expanded and are therefore already connected to the existing urban structure. On the other hand, edge stations are considered when the land is difficult to

Fig. 10.1 The main facade of the São Bento Railway Station, Porto, Portugal. Source HombreDHojalata, Wikipedia Commons, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid= 34956782)

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find due to the density and construction constraints in the city center. Planning at the edge of the urban center can offer further development potential for stations. On the other hand, the fact that the edge stations are close enough to the center to provide good connections for private cars, pedestrians, bicycles, and public transportation also facilitates access to the stations of this typology by different modes of transportation. Extra-urban stations are usually located several kilometers far from the city. The decision to plan a station outside the city is necessary to avoid environmental impacts with the objective of minimizing station-to-station travel times and, in some cases, noise or other issues affecting neighboring lands. It is a fact that stations outside the city can be easily accessed by a private vehicle, but this is not possible with other modes. Intermodality is a key factor in the growth of mobility, potentially significantly increasing the station-using audience.

10.4 Attributes of Rail Tourism There is a need for studies on the factors affecting the choice of transportation vehicle before people travel between cities. It is necessary to determine future variables that can be used in large-scale research on consumers’ travel behavior, or more specifically, the factors that affect the choice of transportation model. For this purpose, it is necessary to find answers to given questions. These questions should be: • What factors do people consider when choosing their means of transport before traveling for any purpose? • What is the relative importance of these factors? • At what level are the existing transportation alternatives preferable according to these factors? The level of development of a transport model and the rate at which it is preferred by travelers depend on a number of factors. Some of them are listed below. Speed of Transport Vehicle Significant progress has been made in terms of “speed” in countries that have realized the importance of railway transportation and focused on research and development studies to develop this transportation model. It is stated that with maglev [magnetic levitation] technology replacing the existing electric power, much faster trains will come into operation and these trains can replace road and air transportation, especially on short-distance routes. Security The main goal is to achieve zero death rate in transportation and zero damage in freight transportation. Today, in many developed countries, railways are the preferred transportation system due to the level of comfort and security they provide.

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Timeliness The way to gain the trust of the customers is closely related to the sensitivity to be shown especially on timeliness. The delivery of services at the scheduled time and the replacement in case of delay are among the issues planned to be realized throughout the European Union. It can be said that there should be an infrastructure of certain standards in order to ensure timeliness. Rails, locomotives, wagons, personnel, signaling, and terminals (stations) should be evaluated within this framework. Naturally, the way to be successful on time depends on other factors such as infrastructure, speed and technical equipment, accessibility, and qualified personnel. Conveniency Another basic factor that influences the transportation model of the travelers and accordingly the choice of transportation means is whether they are convenient or not. One of the factors that determines this aspect is represented by the changes in fuel prices. In times of crisis when fuel prices increase, the demand for rail transport increases. Some of those who travel with their private cars and those who choose air transport prefer to use the railways due to the increase in fuel prices. It is very important to determine the appropriate price for the railways to provide a competitive advantage w.r.t. alternative transportation modes and thus to enlarge the market. According to customer surveys, uncompetitive prices are one of the factors that negatively affect the competitiveness of railways in Europe. Flexibility Flexibility explains the freedom of movement that the transportation model can provide to the passenger during travel. Especially as the travel distance gets longer, the passenger being stuck in a certain seat reduces the quality of the trip. Trains are the best in terms of public transportation w.r.t other transport modes, with basic needs being met, using more space in sleeping cars or wide seats, watching outside, and breathing air. Sociability Railway transportation also has an advantage in terms of “social contact and communication”, as it provides the opportunity to meet new people during travel. In addition to meeting new people, there are groups that have a common interest in traveling by train and enjoy these trips (with old steam trains) for those who travel in groups, and these can create a significant demand. These groups come together through train clubs.

10.5 Attractiveness of Rail Tourism According to Tourist Models Tourism activities aim to increase their satisfaction levels and loyalty by providing unforgettable experiences to individuals. However, businesses now need to create

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their marketing strategies in this way, taking into account the concept of experiential tourism. This situation requires scientific research on experiential tourism. In accordance with the changing trend of traveling to a different place, experiencing different emotions or participating in a different activity, scientific studies on experiential tourism are needed. Transportation is a bridge connecting tourists to tourism regions, which are consumption points. With this approach, transportation is a main product for tourism. It is necessary to establish an integration between transportation modes in order to develop and operate transportation in tourism in a healthier way. In this direction, transportation links should be strengthened in order to spread tourism throughout the year in a country, to develop other types of tourism apart from coastal tourism and tourism activities in inner regions. The first trip between two cities connected by rail in the world started between Liverpool and Manchester on September 15, 1830. In 1840, 10 years later, the number of passengers traveling by rail during a three-day public holiday (Easter holiday) between these two cities reached fifteen thousands. The ability to move a large number of people from one city to another in a short time launched the initiatives to organize collective travel programs in 1841. When the number of passengers transported by rail in England reached 23 million in 1844, the need for state control of the network emerged. For this reason, in the same year, the inspections of the enterprises in terms of the safety and comfort of the passengers in railway transportation were determined by a special law. In 1854, the number of passengers carried by the network in England reached 79 million people. Considering that the total population at that time was only 18 million, the number of passengers carried in a year reached approximately five times the population of the country. The ability to transport large numbers of people from one place to another in a short time showed the need for the transition from individual tourism to mass tourism. Until that time, passenger traveling by sea between the ports became possible from the port to the inside and from the inside to the ports with the introduction of the railway (http://www.dtd.org.tr/blog/26/demiryolu-ve-turizm).

10.6 Trains as Hotels For Blancheton and Marchi (2013), the concept of luxury trains dates back to the 1980s when they emerged as a mix of rail tourism with discovery, history, and nostalgia. Luxury trains are not conceived as traditional means of transport, but as museums’ attraction, i.e., as an activity to take advantage of historic restaurants or places where to eat and sleep as part of novelty, nostalgia, and entertainment purposes. These trains include historical vehicles, itineraries, trips at low speed, luxury trips, etc. (Wikivoyage, 2019). A luxury train is not just a means to reach a destination, but a destination itself (Dogra & Karri, 2020). The Venice Simplon-Orient Express is a historic hotel on wheels (Fig. 10.2). The American James Blair Sherwood, a UK-based businessman, was the promoter of this railway project. The carriages for the Venice Simplon-Orient-Express were collected

10.6 Trains as Hotels

177

in 1977. These vintage trains are from the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. Then, on May 25, 1982, the first London Venice Orient Express became operational. The Kruger Shalati is a South African bridge train. The heritage site is in the Kruger National Park, Africa’s largest reserve. Trains passed through here almost 100 years ago, stopping overnight at the Selati Bridge. A large glass-walled train is now permanently stationed here, providing guests with an experience like that of the 1920s explorers. From one end of the bridge to the other, a pedestrian walkway connects. Platforms for boarding can be found in between connection points. The train has 31 rooms, including 24 carriage rooms and 7 Bridge House rooms. To create a spacious living space, the designers used the entire width of the train. The designers used the entire width of the train to create a spacious living space. They were able to squeeze in a double bed with a window view as well as a full bathroom with a rainforest shower and a free-standing bath. (Fig. 10.3). The Crowne Plaza at Historic Union Station is located in America’s first Union Station in Indianapolis and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. This one-of-a-kind hotel has 273 rooms, the most popular of which are the 26 authentic Pullman car rooms (Fig. 10.4). The 13 carriages are still on their original tracks, and each has two guest rooms named and decorated after famous nineteenth-century figures like Charlie Chaplin, Winston Churchill, Cole Porter, and Jean Harlow. Furthermore, each car has its own distinct blend of traditional and modern decor that depicts the life of its namesake. The hotel is still a working station, with trains running on a regular basis. The subtle vibrations of the trains as they trundle through the building enhance the atmosphere of staying at the hotel, where travelers can experience the authenticity of life in an active train station.

Fig. 10.2 Venice Simplon-Orient Express Suite. Source Venice Simplon-Orient Express— The World’s Most Iconic Train Journey. https://www.uniqhotels.com/media/hotels/28/12.jpg.730 x486_q85_box-0%2C0%2C2000%2C1333_crop_detail.jpg

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Fig. 10.3 Kruger Shalati Train Hotel Bedroom. Source Kruger Shalati—The Train on the Bridge in South Africa. https://www.uniqhotels.com/media/hotels/d5/8._kruger_shalati-africa_photograp hic-kyle_lewin-241.jpg.730x486_q85_box-0%2C0%2C2000%2C1333_crop_detail.jpg

Fig. 10.4 Crowne Plaza Hotel Indianapolis Downtown Pullman train car exterior. Source https://www.uniqhotels.com/media/hotels/77/6._pullman_train_car_exterior_conductor.jpg.730 x488_q85_box-0%2C0%2C1200%2C803_crop_detail.jpg

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10.7 Train Tour Packages Rail travel packages are pre-packaged itineraries for travelers of all ages and types, with seat selection, accommodation, and discounts on attractions being part of the package. Indian Railways has introduced a new tour package covering all major religious sites in Central India. IRCTC (Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation) promotes Shirdi and Jyotirlinga tours covering Mahakaleshwar and Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga in Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh), Dwarikadhish Mandir and Nageshwar Jyotirlinga in Dwarika, Somnath Jyotirlinga in Somnatha (Gujarat), and Shirdi Sai and Trimbakeshwar Jyotirlinga in Manmad in 11 days and 10 nights. The railways has put on track the “Swadesh Darshan Train”, having both AC and non-AC coaches, for the journey. See Fig. 10.5. Amtrak vacations combine the thrills of rail travel with all inclusive vacation packages for a unique travel experience across North America. Visit stunning cities, scenic landscapes, and spectacular national parks with options to depart from over 500 Amtrak stations nationwide. With hundreds of unique rail travel packages to choose from, there is something for everyone (www.amtrak.com), from cross country rail journey; national parks by rail; and overnight train to Southwest National Parks. One of the most beautiful train trips from Chicago to San Francisco. The California Zephyr travels from the beautiful city of Chicago to the coastal city of San Francisco in three days. With snow-capped Sierras, dazzling rivers, breath-taking canyons, and deserts and cityscapes, it’s sure to be on many travelers’ wish lists. Experienced travelers say the California Zephyr is one of the most beautiful train journeys in all of North America. Zephyr runs between Chicago and San Francisco, through the Nebraska Plains to Denver, over the Rocky Mountains to Salt Lake City, and through Reno and Sacramento to Emeryville/San Francisco. It connects to San Francisco and Oakland Stations via Thruway Bus Service in Emeryville, CA (Fig. 10.6). The Swiss Alps Bernina Express Rail Tour from Milan in Italy is another experience. Board a second-class carriage of the Red Bernina Train, a delight in the Swiss Alps, and travel on one of the most scenic rail routes in the world. Travel by bus from Milan to Tirano, then board the train for a breath-taking view of the UNESCO-listed Alps. Admiring the Swiss Alps on the way to St. Moritz via the Bernina Pass, then tourists can enjoy some free time to explore the chic mountain town before returning to Milan (www.viator.com/tours/Milan/Swiss-Alps-BerninaExpress-Rail-Tour-from-Milan/).

10.8 Train Digital Tourism Experience Digital technologies provide obvious cost savings in the construction and maintenance of railway infrastructure and rolling stock, as well as efficiency gains for railway operators in the operation of transportation services. Collaboration is required to fully exploit such efficiency gains, including data sharing, which necessitates the

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Fig. 10.5 The religious tour package offered by the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation. Source https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/irctc-offers-11-day-tour-packagefor-religious-places-check-details-here-latest-updates-shirdi-jyotirlinga-mahakaleshwar-omkare shwar-dwarikadhish-2022-07-06-789994

development of a data governance framework. However, digitalization has the potential to disrupt railways by transforming transportation into a multi-sided market mediated by digital platforms, in which railway operators are commoditized, competition from other modes of transportation increases, and infrastructure funding is jeopardized. An interesting initiative has been promoted by Trenitalia, the main rail operator in Italy, a subsidiary of Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane (Italian State Railways), which is the Italian state-owned railway holding company. VirtuItaly is the Train Digital Tourism Experience promoted by Trenitalia. VirtuItaly gives people the opportunity to live amazing experiences, from immersive and interactive digital exhibitions, to full digital ones. The objective is to identify a specific tourism sector, which aims to enhance cities’ cultural heritage, through innovative digital solutions.

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Fig. 10.6 The California Zephyr train promoted by Amtrak in USA. Source https://www.amtrak vacations.com/vacation-types/famous-routes/california-zephyr

Four are the steps for the tourists’ experience. In Step 1, tourists explore art remotely due to cutting-edge interactive technologies (Fig. 10.7). / In Step 2, tourists admire and immerse themselves in the Italian Renaissance masterpieces, directly from the waiting room of the train station (Fig. 10.8).

Fig. 10.7 Experience before the trip. Source https://www.centrica.it/2021/07/02/virtuitaly-winstrain-digital-tourism-experience-fs-innova-by-trenitalia

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Fig. 10.8 Experience in the station. Source https://www.centrica.it/2021/07/02/virtuitaly-winstrain-digital-tourism-experience-fs-innova-by-trenitalia/

Step 3 deals with living a journey dedicated to art with the aim of discovering collections of Italian Art Centrica cloud application (Fig. 10.9). In the final Step 4, the use of the UBILIA® App makes access to multimedia content and geo-referenced information of the city the tourist prefers (Fig. 10.10).

10.9 Investments in New Technologies for Rail Tourism Development: The High-Speed Rail Systems Significant innovation in transportation technology and continuous construction of high-speed rail (HSR) jointly trigger the “second railway age”. The tourism sector can benefit from the deployment of the HSR network, which, in turn, improves the transport accessibility of the cities served. The impacts of HSR on tourism have been proven in earlier research and include the following: the development of new tourist markets, an increase in tourists, occupancy rates, a long-term drop in overstays despite a short-term increase, and eventually, the growth of urban tourism. In spite of the fact that in-depth research indicates major variances in visitor behavior and consequences on the studied destinations, a typically beneficial influence is observed (Yin et al., 2019). In Spain, the authors Guirao and Soler (2009) evaluated the general impact of HSR on a small city like Toledo, and concluded that the HSR frequencies and accessibility to the HSR station should be reinforced to promote tourism. A study by Pagliara et al. (2015) on the probability of returning to Madrid and the probability of selecting HSR for visiting cities nearby came to the conclusion that, while HSR is

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Fig. 10.9 Experience on train. Source https://www.centrica.it/2021/07/02/virtuitaly-wins-train-dig ital-tourism-experience-fs-innova-by-trenitalia/

Fig. 10.10 Experience in the city. Source https://www.centrica.it/2021/07/02/virtuitaly-wins-traindigital-tourism-experience-fs-innova-by-trenitalia/

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not a factor in the decision to travel to Madrid, it has, on the other hand, a significant impact on the decision to visit nearby cities. In 47 Spanish regions, Campa et al. (2016) examined how tourism indicators, particularly the number of international and domestic visitors and revenue from foreign visitors, were affected by the new HSR lines. Low-value effects were found restricted to foreign visitors and arrivals. The authors Ortuño et al. (2016) examined the profile of HSR passengers traveling to Alicante as their destination in the Southeast of Spain and found that 15–20% of new trips were generated, particularly from Madrid’s major hub. The effects of HSR services on destination choice of first-time and repeat visitors arriving in the Costa Daurada, a developed seaside destination in Catalonia, using HSR services, were investigated by Saladié et al. (2016). Indeed, they observed high impacts. The presence of the Camp de Tarragona HSR station is responsible for over 25% of spending at the destination by first-time visitors and 12.9% of expenditure by repeat visitors. In their empirical analysis of the relationship between the availability of HSR services and the development of local tourism in Spain, Albalate et al. (2017) found that the benefits of HSR on visitor numbers, overnight stays, and/or hotel occupancy rates were primarily limited to larger cities. By identifying the tourist profiles and preferences between Alicante and Tarragona, Gutiérrez and Ortuño (2017) addressed the relationship between the high-speed train and coastal tourism. In the two locations, different tourist profiles were found. Visitors to Alicante were more likely to arrive in larger groups, stay longer, and be older than those who were more likely to travel to Tarragona. Masson and Petiot (2009) examined how HSR affected tourist demand and found that, in contrast to Perpignan, which is a small city with few historical sites in France, spatial competition could strengthen the agglomeration of tourists in more developed areas (Barcelona). Indeed, Barcelona is a major European city with an important architectural heritage as well as a wide variety of infrastructures and tourist facilities (parks, museums, etc.). As a result, it appears that Barcelona will be able to gain more from the HSR’s deployment concerning the development of the tourism industry with respect to Perpignan. Regarding France, Bazin et al. (2010) looked at the context in which a high-speed service could be connected to the growth of urban and business tourism in Rheims and came to the conclusion that only marginal profits were perceived because there were no policies promoted. Delaplace et al. looked at business tourism and found that while HSR can improve accessibility and the city’s image, local actors’ strategies needed to be strengthened. In Arras, Auray, Charleville-Mézières, and Saverne, by examining the parks of Disneyland Paris and Futuroscope, Delaplace et al. (2013) assessed how HSR could influence the choice of destination for tourism objectives. The findings indicated that Futuroscope had no effect and that Disneyland Paris had a direct positive influence. Delaplace et al. (2014) compared Paris and Rome in order to determine the probability of choosing and returning to visit these cities. The presence of HSR was not a significant factor when choosing both destinations. In contrast to the case study of Rome, the French TGV contributed to the choice of coming back to Paris.

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Pagliara et al. (2017) examined how HSR systems and tourism are interdependent by looking at 77 Italian municipalities. The number of Italian visitors and overnight stays showed a beneficial effect. Wang et al. (2010) looked at Taiwan’s HSR to demonstrate the positive influence of the high-speed rail transport on domestic tourism. Chen and Haynes (2012) observed 27 provinces and 4 municipalities of China evaluating the number of total overseas tourist arrivals, the numbers of foreign tourist arrivals, and the tourism revenue from oversea tourist arrivals. Significant impact on tourism outputs was found. The Chinese HSR network was examined by Wang et al. (2012), who concluded that a redistribution and transformation of the tourism market was required due to the growing market competition. Yan et al. (2014) examined the Wuhan-Guangzhou HSR impact on the domestic tourism of three Chinese provinces. In two provinces, there were significant positive effects, however in the third, there were minor effects. Chen and Haynes (2015) studied the effect of HSR on China’s international tourism. The study showed a low elasticity (0.057%) of the new HSR implementation, but a significant impact on the network elasticity (29%). Yin et al. (2019) examined the influence of HSR on tourism flows in 13 cities in China. The positive effect concerned larger cities and small cities connected to center cities. Hiramatsu (2016) evaluated the number of tourists arriving and their relationship to the HSR in Japan. The latter had an impact on visitors’ arrivals, particularly in the neighborhoods closer to the HSR stations.

10.10 Conclusion In this chapter, rail tourism is treated. The focus is on the changing concept of trains, which are no more conceived as just vehicles on tracks, but also, in some cases, real hotels on wheels. Scenic trains are now promoted to bring tourists to mountain scenery and sparkling lakes, letting them enjoy beautiful landscapes. Digitalization and the introduction of new technologies in rail systems have proven to have an impact on tourists’ choices of a given destination. Indeed some initiatives have been promoted to support tourists’ visits virtually on board of trains. Moreover, HSR can be chosen by some tourists’ categories due to the limited time available for their holidays and therefore speed plays a key role when traveling for vacation. Acknowledgements Authors would like to thank the students of the University of Naples Federico II Mr Antonio Conventi and Miss Maria Ciano for having contributed to the development of this chapter during their preparation of the Master degree dissertation on rail infrastructures and their aspects connected with resilience.

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Chapter 11

Water Transport and Tourism

11.1 Introduction Waterborne transport, which refers to the transportation of people or cargo via waterways, is a significant component of tourism. Water tourism represents the use of different types of sailing equipment and appliances for transportation and recreation purposes by visitors. Whether used to transport cargo or passengers, water transport is vital to the successful operations of tourism in many destinations. Water transport is one of the oldest types of transport and has been widely used throughout history. However, the rise of air transport as a major mode of transport at the international level eclipsed the significance of water transport, particularly maritime passenger transportation. Moreover, the geographical coverage of water transportation is also limited, as it cannot be depended on for transportation into every part of the world. Yet, maritime transport remains strong in cargo movement and in international trade. The high-carrying capacity of the ship is the prime reason for the importance of sea transportation for cargo and commerce. While being the cheaper mode of transport, it is considered the most suitable for transporting heavy and bulky consignments. On the other hand, inland waterways are still prominent in some parts of the world. Recreational use of water transport is gaining increasing significance in this era of modern tourism. Speed became a prime deterrent in the growth of maritime passenger transport as sea transportation is known for the lowest speed. Once passenger transportation using ships declined, the innovative use of the vessels for recreational transportation, known as cruise tourism, gained significance. As of now, cruise tourism is a fast-growing segment of international tourism. Moreover, the recreational use of vessels and luxury cruising gave a fresh lease of life to water transportation.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_11

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11.2 Water Transport and Tourism Water transport has several social and transportational advantages. According to Bowles, et al., “It is the laminar quality of water that makes various mobilities possible – but it also creates frictions, immobilities, and moorings … complicating the boundaries between moving and staying, scarcity and abundance, ‘nature’ and ‘culture’” (Bowles et al., 2019: 5–6). Maritime transportation was the most prominent mode of transport until the mid of twentieth century. Ships had been an important mode for carrying passengers and cargo for several centuries. Ships have several advantages, including the capacity to carry large volumes at the lowest rate. Rodrigue et al. (2006) identified four types of vessels in water transportation such as passenger vessels (ships, passenger ferries for relatively short-distance travel, and cruise ships); bulk carriers for transporting specific commodities, like liquid bulk and dry bulk vessels; general cargo ships including vessels carry non-bulk cargoes; and rollon/roll-off (RORO) vessels which can carry cars, trucks, etc. and used in deep-sea trade-related activities. Water transport is one of the cheapest modes of transport with very high capacity. For instance, the cost of moving by the ships is much less as they can carry large volumes with small energy consumption and limited manpower requirements. The capacity to carry heavy cargo and a large number of people make water transportation relevant in this modern era of transportation which is characterized by high speed and comfort. In some regions, water transportation still retains its significance even for passenger movement. For instance, maritime transport is still essential within the Mediterranean region. Ferries are important in the Scandinavian waters. Cross-channel traffic between the mainland and the British Isles is also significant (Peeters et al., 2004). Passengers use water transport for recreation as well as for commuting. Recreational use of water transport is gaining more and more significance now. Water has been a significant element in tourism since the beginning of modern tourism. It has been a part of tourism in the form of attractions, a medium for activities, a resource for tourists’ survival, and a medium for transportation. Water is a dynamic and mobile component in a set of relations and interactions between humans and nonhumans (Gibbs, 2013), which makes tourism successful. Water tourism represents the use of different types of sailing equipment and appliances for both transportation as well as recreational purposes, by the tourists. From the perspective of tourism, “Water’s omnipresence in tourism allows for a multitude of activities to take place on, in or near lakes, rivers, estuaries, reservoirs, canals, seas, and oceans. In short, water is one of the central resources in tourism: we consume it; we snowboard, skate and ski in its frozen form, raft on rapids, sail on seas, cruise on canals; we submerge ourselves in it to swim, snorkel and scuba dive” (Rhoden & Kaaristo, 2020: 1). According to Armstrong and Williams (2005), steamboats were the pioneers in promoting modern leisure tourism as it advanced prior to the revolution that happened in railways. Prior to the advent of steamboat, transport on river estuaries and the open sea was not comfortable, it depended on wind and tides, and the speed was much less. Steamboats brought the reliability of water transportation, and the use of steamboats

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contributed in the growth of excursions, day trips, and the stimulus to the development of resorts. The following factors, according to Kizielewicz (2013) contribute in the segmentation of marine tourism customers. • • • • •

Buying behavior of people traveling by sea is facing a shift from passive to active. Ferry carriers engage in competition. Ferry service is a major factor in ensuring the demand for marine travel. The popularity of ferry travel among various groups of tourists is on the increase. Information and communication technology and social media provide opportunities to organize joint expeditions, including marine cruises, by groups with various interests.

A range of vehicles are used in the realm of water transportation related to tourism. Some of them are used as a transportation mode. Some others are used mainly for recreational activities. Some have both transportation as well as recreational significance. For instance, a large boat can be used for transportation as well as for cruising. Ships that can cross large bodies of water and can transport both vehicles and passengers, at the same time (Lohmann & Duval, 2013). Considering the variety of vehicles used in water transportation, the following can be identified as having significance in the current water transportation activities. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Ships/ocean liners Passenger boats Hydrofoils Water trams Yachts Personal barge Sailing boats Kayaks Rowing boats Powerboats Motor boats Mouseboats Canoes Barge.

11.3 River Transport Rivers can be used as a source of water, a medium for water transport, and a water tourism destination. Rivers, natural waterways, had been a major medium for transportation of people and freight for several centuries. Even now, river-based transportation is prevalent in some locations. Historically, rivers have had a lot of significance in terms of civilizations, trade, and the formation of urban scapes. Rivers are one of the most important factors that have dictated where major cities are located today. Many of the cities across the world are situated near rivers, which had so much

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significance in the evolution of those modern cities. Currently, rivers, as a medium of transportation, are used not only for transporting people and cargo but also for recreational purposes. Of late, public transportation via rivers and boats is a trend in many locations as road transport face increased congestion. The following are used in river transportation. • • • • •

Boat Water bus Water taxi Micro cruise Cruise ship.

11.3.1 Roles of River in Tourism The roles of a river in tourism are varied. Prideaux et al. (2009) identified the following direct and indirect roles. • Direct roles – – – –

location for activities and tourist attractions transportation of people and cargo, including cargo barges and river cruising provision of recreational activities source of potable drinking water.

• Indirect roles – a major food source directly (e.g., fish) and indirectly (e.g., by supporting agriculture) – facilitating manufacturing activities – transport route – provision of hydroelectricity, etc. River-based tourism involves a range of activities. Some are independent tourism segments, whereas some others act as recreational options made available using the advantages of the river as a medium for doing activities. Indeed, the river is used for various recreational activities. Whitewater rafting, kayaking, etc. are some examples. Even scuba diving is possible. As a medium of transportation, the river has much significance in tourism. Primarily river enables the movement of people and cargo using different types of vehicles. Some of the transport forms on the river itself can be used as tourism segments. For instance, river cruising is a popular tourism type in some regions of the world. Some of the rivers have dams built across them, and the reservoir of the dams and the catchment area provides different types of recreational opportunities. Moreover, the river is a source of water for various tourism-related activities. Even in many locations, the river is a prime source of drinking water for the people, including tourists over there. The indirect role of the river is also important.

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Hydroelectric power stations are there which produce electricity. Another direct role of the river for tourism includes its role as a medium for doing tourist activities, like fishing tourism. Considering the above, the direct roles of a river in tourism include: • • • • • •

Medium for ‘transport tourism’, like a river cruise Location for special interest tourism, like fishing tourism Medium of transportation of tourists and cargo Location for recreational and adventurous tourism activities Act as an esthetic route, and provide beautiful landscape and scenery Source of water for various purposes associated with tourism, including for drinking.

Rivers are used for a wide variety of outdoor recreational activities, including kayaking, water biking, water motorsports, scuba diving, and iceboating. The following types of tourism types/recreational activities using water transport forms or vehicles are seen in many regions. • • • • • • • •

White water rafting Barging Kayaking Canoeing Iceboating River cycling House Boats River cruises and micro cruises.

The recreational water transport tourism opportunities are described further in the next chapter.

11.4 River Cruise Tourism The enchanting beauty of rivers always attracts nature lovers to indulge in leisure activities. Different types of recreational activities are possible of which transportrelated experiences are unique. Travel and recreational transport are used as tourist attractions by many destinations. “Generally speaking, a river cruise is a voyage that takes place on a river vessel for leisure purposes” (Tomej & Lund-Durlacher, 2020: 2). The beautiful landscape along the river and the beauty of the valleys along with the cultural and natural resources along the banks of the rivers make river cruise destinations attractive for tourists (Steinbach, 1995). The river cruise segment is growing at a remarkable rate, with Europe having the largest share in the global market. Although traditionally, the customer base consisted of the senior people, the younger generations are becoming increasingly interested in river cruising (Irena & Ivana, 2019). Approximately 1.64 million tourists took part in river cruise tourism in the European Union alone in 2018 (Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine, 2019). Some of the river-based journeys are captivating. For instance,

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Fig. 11.1 River cruise ships on the Danube in Budapest. Courtesy Jerome Strauss—Flickr: Ukrainian cruise boat on the Danube, Wikipedia Commmons, retrieved from https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=13334796

the river cruises on the Saône and Rhône rivers in France are famous for their trip along some of the most beautiful vineyards and landscapes in the French countryside (Erfurt-Cooper, 2009). They also opine that river cruises provide a range of unique experiences while traveling in a relaxing manner that is unique compared to other forms of travel, especially by the opportunity to see the exceptional scenery, experience local culture, and visit a range of heritage sites. Moreover, river cruises are combined with other modes of transport to have better travel experiences. Figure 11.1 an example of river cruise ships. Even in history, many centuries ago, river journeys were acclaimed well. For instance, Prideaux et al. point out, “The world’s great rivers have long intrigued travelers and even in ancient times provided the backdrop for travel. Herodotus, describing a journey to Egypt in 450 BC, writes that when the Nile overflows ‘the whole of Egypt becomes a sea, and only the towns stick out above the surface of the water. When this happens, people use boats right in the middle of the land and not just along the course of the river” (Prideaux et al., 2009: 14). River basins, valleys, and waterfalls are also tourist attractions in many locations. River cruising is an attraction for both domestic as well as international tourists, and its attractiveness increases when there are natural and cultural varieties along the route. Large and medium-range boats are commonly used in river cruising. In some locations, like on the Mississippi River, riverboat gambling has been happening and has much popularity (Timothy, 2009). Some of the river cruises are historically famous and still retain their magnanimity. For instance, Nile cruises. Cooper (2009) writes that “….historically the Nile cruise was the only way to visit the temples and tombs of the Pharonic and Graeco-Roman

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eras located along much of the river, and remains a popular means of visiting upper Egypt, with many advantages over other means of travel. Typical Nile cruisesare either three, four or seven nights…… currently over 225 boats operate on the Nile with a capacity of 12,300 rooms..” (Cooper, 2009: 88). In Europe, river tourism development has been there, mainly focusing on cruises of the major river systems with an emphasis on central Europe (Ely, 2003). In China, luxury cruise ships were introduced to some of the rivers in the 1980s, and currently, more than 100 cruise ships are providing cruise tours along the rivers (Arlt & Feng, 2009).

11.5 River Cruises and Sea Cruises: A Comparison There are some differences between river cruises and sea cruises. One prime distinction between a river cruise and a sea cruise is that while a sea cruise is with a large scale of tourists on board most of the time, the river cruise is with tourists who spend more time ashore at the pit point of stop (Nasir & Hanafiah, 2017). In the case of a sea cruise, the cruise ship itself is a destination with a wide variety of recreational activities on board, along with the required stay, food services, and facilities. While the river is the primary waterway for the river cruise, it may also pass through lakes, river estuaries, along a seacoast (partially), as long as these are directly linked to a river or a canal (Bosnic & Gasic, 2019). The land-based attractions/destinations have more significance in river cruises than in sea cruises, in which the cruising experience is more important. Sea cruises are large ships, and the size of the ships has got increased over the last few decades. The recent river cruise vessels are smaller in size compared to ocean liners and are built for navigating through narrow riverbeds and low water levels as well (Tomej & Lund-Durlacher, 2020). Tourists are mostly senior people and belong to the upmarket segment (Tomej & Lund-Durlacher, 2020). The prime differences between river cruises and sea cruises are summarized in Table 11.1.

11.6 Canal Tourism Canal tourism is a similar tourism segment. Many canals are transformed from commercial shipping waterways to tourism destinations (Tang & Jang, 2010). As part of making use of water bodies for tourism purposes, destinations worldwide are identifying the waterbodies available and the touristic potential for attracting tourists. Canals of different kinds are now well utilized in the parlance of tourism. Boats are used as part of canal tourism. Canal boat tourism consists of short-distance boating-based tours on small vessels and in smaller domestic markets (Mehran et al., 2020). Akin to river cruise tourism, canal tourism also provides the opportunity for the tourists to be with nature, relax, and enjoy the enchanting beauty of the water body and the sociocultural vibrancy of the location.

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Table 11.1 Some of the differences between ocean cruises and river cruises Sea cruises

River cruises

Source/reference

Flexibility for the itinerary of travel, within some operational limitations

Limited scope for itinerary making, either upstream or downstream

Adapted from Tomej and Lund-Durlacher (2020)

Less affected by weather changes Harsh weather changes can and have a scope for rerouting severely affect operation Other modes of transport, like road and rail based, have no product/marketing related significance

Land based links have more significance

Large corporations dominate the market

Except a few, smaller firms have a high stake in the market

Shore excursions may be sold as additional service, and therefore possibility of having independent service providers upon disembarkation of passengers is more, for selling on shore excursions

Shore excursions are part of the packages, mostly, and the scope for independent service providers is less

Tour plan is relatively less influenced by destination elements, rather the prime factor is the onboard experience

The tour plans show a multi-destination network pattern, influenced by land-based elements, like logistical, transport, and tourist attractions

Guedes and Rebelo (2021)

A wide range of on board facilities, services, and recreational options are offered

Limited on board services and facilities

Van Balen et al. (2014)

Focus is more onto the provision River cruises focus more onto local destination assets of onboard services and experiences with less attention on and off-board activities destinations

Cooper et al. (2018)

Limited scope for multimodal transportation, except for accessing the cruises

It includes a multimodal transport system to and within the destination

Lumsdon and Page (2004)

Accommodation is primarily given in cruise, on board

Off-board accommodation is offered mainly

With regard to boating tours over the canals, the destinations along the boat routes are also part of the itinerary. In addition, onshore excursions are part and parcel of canal tours. Canal tourism can be included in the framework of slow tourism, and it offers relaxing experiences. At the same time, the same can be considered an antidote to the fast pace of the contemporary technology-driven lifestyle (Fallon, 2012). Canal boat tourism may have different onshore experiences like cultural activities; have local cuisine, recreational activities like cycling, etc. According to Dickinson

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and Lumsdon (2010), the Canal tours provide the opportunity to interact, share the boat space, and have onshore experiences with fellow tourists to have deep and meaningful engagement. In the case of boating tourism, the experience of boating is deeply embedded in the creation and formation of the tourist experience (Rhoden & Kaaristo, 2020). Canal tourism has multiple dimensions and values to claim. It is often highlighted as an eco-friendly recreational activity in various countries where canals or rivers flow through the urban areas (Thurau et al, 2015; Mehran et al., 2020). The environmental issues of boating activity need not be disregarded, yet it is comparatively a dearer option taking into account it as a mass transport mode and less land use transport purposes, which is a menace associated with road transportation. As a canal-based boating itinerary involves multiple destinations, the tourists can experience the sociocultural vibrance of the region along with the natural features. According to Prideaux (2017), canal tourism is also being promoted with heritage values as well, where along with boating; onshore recreation, accommodation, festivals, gastronomy, and local markets are seen. Mehran et al. (2020) also have a similar opinion, and they stated that along with hedonic experiences like relaxation, fun, and engagement with nature without technology intervention, canal boat tourism provides opportunities to experience the heritage features of a place as well. The following are some of the popular places that are popular internationally for canal boat tourism (Mehran et al., 2020). • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Amsterdam (the Netherlands). Venice (Italy) Hamburg (Germany) Leeds and Birmingham (the UK) Disneyland Anaheim (California) Suzhou (China) Ottawa (Canada) Ghent (Belgium) Seville (Spain) Paris (France) Prague (Czech Republic) Dotonbori Osaka (Japan) Damnoen Saduak (Thailand).

11.7 Backwater Tourism The calm water bodies nowadays form an ideal location for tourism, and different types of tourism activities are taking place on such water bodies. Large lakes and similar water bodies jointly form the backwaters. Kerala, a beautiful stretch in the southwest corner of India, has been promoting backwater tourism as its USP for several decades. In that context, backwater is indicated as a combination of lakes, river stretches, and canals. The coconut lagoons and other agricultural lands on both sides of the said backwaters make an ideal environment for tourism. Houseboats,

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modified traditional boats that were used to carry freight, are now used for long rides on backwaters. Accommodation and food services are offered on board. The houseboat ride on backwaters is often remarked as an incredible experience.

11.8 Boating Tourism A boat is a small vessel used to transport passengers and cargo over water bodies of different kinds. Botas have been used traditionally for transporting people and cargo, and the tourism significance has gained much stimulus in the recent past. Boating activities provide a peculiar relationship with the water and the nature around, and the movement on water bodies of various kinds offers an enthusing experience. Boating tourism is a prominent category in some locations in the world, like the UK. Rhoden and Kaaristo (2020: 7) have attempted to look into the nuances of boating tourism from a holistic perspective and opine that “Boating tourism is enacted and experienced through liquidness. Manifesting itself in the agentive mobilities of the water and in the constantly changing, mobile assemblages of the water-boathumans, liquidness comes to being through the cooperation between the human and the material, facilitated by human practices”. These characteristics make the unpredictability associated with the boating tourism experience. In many locations, boats are prime transport modes available for the transportation of people and cargo. The role of boats in tourism is not limited to transporting tourists; boats are also used for leisure purposes. Leisure boating manifests into theme-based boating leisure experiences as well. According to Johns and Clarke (2001), theme-based boating include ‘nature’, ‘adventure’, ‘fun’, ‘otherness’, and ‘activity’ types. Two general categories of boating tourism are as follows. • Canal/river boating tourism, which takes place on inland water bodies • Sail boating (sailing) tourism happens on marine waters. The canal boating tourism is more interesting in the parlance of tourism. The river cruise and canal boating tourism types are already described above. In some locations, boating tourism is possible on seas as well. The boats with solar propulsion can be one way to implement and develop inland waterway transport and water tourism and recreation in a more sustainable manner (Łosiewicz & Kaup, 2014).

11.9 Water Tram Water trams are also in use in some regions of the world. They are usually used akin to water bus services. Though water trams perform public transport functions, they can be used for sightseeing and exploring the river’s tourist locations (Winter &

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Kulczyk, 2003). The tourism significance of the water tram is increasing. Muszy´nskaJeleszy´nska (2018) opined that the water tram is more than just a transport mode; it also acts as a tourist attraction and has an ecological, educational, and sociocultural significance.

11.10 Ferry Tourism Ferries are getting increased attention in tourism worldwide. According to Collins dictionary, “A ferry is a boat that transports passengers and sometimes also vehicles, usually across rivers or short stretches of sea” (www.collinsdictionary.com). Ferries have a unique advantage of linking isolated tourist destinations to the main cities. Considering the significance of ferries in remote areas, Baird (2009) points out that ferry services act as essential lifelines for the carriage of freight and passengers. Ferries are operated both on sea routes as well as in inland waterways. Therefore, they are also used for tourism purposes. Among the travel motivations, tourism is the major one for ferry travelers. Kizielewicz et al. (2017) states that although ferry transport mainly focuses on passengers traveling for business/employment-related reasons, the market segment represented by people traveling for leisure and recreation is also very strong. While on a river, the ferry provides a different experience by being mobile along a river which usually has beautiful and exceptional scenery and cultural features interspersed throughout the route. In the context of ferry tourism, McGrath et al. (2020: 322) argue that the ‘traveling landscape’ perspective of moving over a river “is negotiated by a ferry that moves, lifts, and shifts travelers from land to land across a tidal waterway”. From a tourism perspective, ferry tourist experience is complemented by the opportunity to have a space for meeting with others and interactions, deliberations, and the physical movement over a river from place to place (McGrath et al., 2020). A study by Kizielewicz et al. (2017) identified a number of demographic variables such as age, gender, education, occupation, and income that are some determining factors of ferry tourism. The better the education, the higher the chance for ferry use. River-based ferries are popular in many locations. For instance, they are popular in Europe, particularly in the Baltic, France, Italy, the Irish Sea, Spain, and the UK, and Oceania, particularly in Tasmania and across the Cook Strait (Lohmann & Duval, 2013). Different types of ferry, including double-ended, roll-on/roll-off (RORO), fast RoPax ferry, turntable ferry, pontoon ferry, cable ferry, and train ferry, are in use (Calstockferry.co.uk). The Double-ended Ferry does not need to turn around for return and mainly carries passengers. RORO ferries can carry large vehicles, and the fast RoPax ferry can similarly carry both passengers and cargo. Turntable ferry lets loading and unloading through the same side. A pontoon ferry is used for moving vehicles on a large water body, and a cable ferry is for short distances. Finally, train ferries can carry railway vehicles and with tracks usually. Though ferries can provide an incredible travel experience, certain concerns still hold ferries from being the

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primary mode of tourism transportation on water bodies of varied kinds. The speed, less frequency, limited schedules of services, cost, level of comfort, and possible disruptions are some concerns in the prospects of ferry tourism.

11.11 Cruise Tourism Cruise tourism involves tangible and intangible elements, which provide an exquisite experience of movement on board a luxury ship having resort-like amenities and facilities and the visit of destinations en route the journey until returns. The tangible elements include the vessel, ports, facilities on board as well as in the facilities and superstructure destinations visited, etc. The intangible features include the services provided on board and in the destinations/ports, the experience of visiting tourist attractions, and the like. The cruise itinerary is often used to indicate the ports involved in the entire journey and destinations visited en route. Technically, the itinerary represents the whole tour plan. The cruise tour commences from the base/home port and moves along a planned route. As part of the trip, the cruise ship anchors at different ports of call, and tourists go for shore excursions and other touristic activities. The experience of the trip is primarily generated from the onboard activities, and it is complemented by the experience at destinations. From that perspective, it has been pointed out that the prime destination in cruise tourism is the cruise ship itself. Key stakeholders in cruise tourism include the cruise lines, tourists, ports, employees, tour operators, and the respective government agencies. In addition to the cruise firms, the cruise tourism value chain comprises ports/destinations, transport companies, destination management companies, and ship chandlers/F&B suppliers. Tour operators engage in the operation of tours and shore excursions in the port destination. The impact of COVID 19 on cruise tourism is shown in Table 11.2. Some of the common characteristics of cruise tourism are listed in Tables 11.3 and 11.4. Cruise tourism is defined from different perspectives. According to Papathanassis and Beckmann (2011: 166), “Cruise tourism is a socio-economic system generated by the interaction between human, organizational and geographical entities, aimed Table 11.2 Impact of Corona pandemic on cruise tourism Passenger embarkations (millions)

Cruise-supported jobs (millions)

Total economic contribution (billions of USD)

2019

29.7M

1.17M

$154B

2020

5.8M (−81%)

576 K (−51%)

$63.4B (−59%)

Source CLIA (2022)

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Table 11.3 Differences between micro cruises and mega cruises Micro cruise (Floating B&B)

Mega cruise (Floating Resort)

Cruise capacity around 50

Passenger capacity is 1000 and more

Along with major destinations, it can go to small coastal towns, villages, small bays, and coves also

Trips are to ports of call that can accommodate large ships, and the popular destinations

Opportunity for more in-depth exposure to a coastal destinations

Shore excursions are less significant compared to on board experience and are usually for some hours

Seawater’s physical proximity due to the small size of the ship gives better experience of movement over water body

Large ships provide relatively less proximity to sea water for the tourists

Better interaction with natives of various routes Scope for having interaction with the natives (by way of having some staff/crew belong to of various routes is much less visiting places) Opportunity to experience firsthand the cultural Comparatively less opportunity to experience and destination features and attractions firsthand the cultural and destination features and attractions Relatively younger customer base

Tourists are relatively older

Higher intensity for onshore activities

Shore activities usually do not possess the intensity as in the case of micro cruises

Source Adapted from Pranic et al. (2013)

Table 11.4 Key characteristics of cruise tourism Some of the major characteristics of European cruise tourism include the following: • Major destinations: Mediterranean, Caribbean and Northern Europe • Nature of holiday: both main holiday and extra holiday • Type of tourism: organized mass tourism • Average length of stay: 9–10 days • Customers: well-to-do Europeans in their early fifties (average) • Lifestyle: hedonistic • Prime activities: leisure activities on board, sightseeing, shopping, and visiting attractions at the destination • Main source countries: UK, Germany, France, and Italy Source Modified from Peeters et al. (2004)

at producing maritime-transportation-enabled leisure experiences.” Here the socioeconomic significance of the cruise system is indicated. The complex interrelationship and interactions among the essential components of the cruise tourism system are part of the definition. Moreover, the definition specifies the leisure experience emanates from the movement of tourists on a ship on the sea. Peeters et al. (2004) also came up with a similar concept by pointing out that cruising, a combination of

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accommodation with transport, offers the experience of staying on a ship and moving over large distances over the oceans. The scope for seeing multiple destinations has been pointed out by Kester (2002), who opined that cruises offer an attractive, convenient, and hassle-free way to visit various destinations without changing accommodation. In addition to the advantage of the flexibility to adapt itineraries to demand, seasonality has a limited effect on cruise tourism as cruise schedules and itineraries can be modified (Kester, 2002). Cruise tourism is known to take place in tourist bubbles, and while on shore excursions also, tourists are just shifting from one bubble to another bubble (Jaakson, 2004). As a result, cruise tourism creates a partly insulated and inauthentic setting while visiting the destinations, and the interaction with the host community is poor. Cruises are classified in different ways. One classification, by Gibson (2006), identifies different types of cruises as luxury (highly expensive and high-quality service), premium (lesser expensive than luxury cruises and provide quality services and facilities), contemporary (modern ships with ultimate recreation options), niche/speciality (tourists with specific interests), and budget/value cruises. Other types like theme cruises, innovative cruises, casino cruises, coastal cruises, mini cruises, adventure cruises, and expedition cruises are also seen in the realm of international tourism (Dileep, 2019). It was by the 1960s that the concept of cruise tourism emerged as a noteworthy segment of international tourism. By the 1960s and 70s, the international transportation sector has witnessed a dramatic modal shift. “A real boom started in the 1960s when trans-ocean air flights forced the liners out of business. Such ships were later deployed as cruise ships” (Ritter & Schafer, 1998: 65). Air transportation started to occupy the center stage of international travel; consequently, ship-based transportation started to decline drastically. Even before that, the significance of railways had come down, particularly when automobiles began their widespread use. “Although water transport has lost some of its appeal for travelers, particularly during the 1970s when ocean liners were substituted by wide-body jets as the main long-haul transport of choice, currently cruise ships and, in a certain degree, new fast ferries technologies are the most popular means of transport used by tourist” (Lohmann & Duval, 2013: 14). These gave way to the scope of a luxurious voyage on oceans and seeing different destinations along the route using ships. In fact, the evolution of cruise tourism got a fillip by the television series Love Boat, launched in 1977 and being telecasted in many countries (Wood, 2000). During the 1970s, North American travelers made luxurious cruise holidays to Caribbean islands, and by the 1990s, the trend of cruise tourism began in the UK and rest of Europe and Asia, and the Pacific (Kester, 2002). Cruise tourism thus emerged through the transformation of vessels from a mere means of transport to a destination in itself. As part of the transformation, ships turned out to be a spatial entity in which allinclusive tourism activities occur. The innovative form of spatial interaction takes place on board, and the space within the ship provides accommodation, recreation, entertainment, etc. along the voyage to other destinations as well. Cruise tourism sooner got expanded to other regions of the world, and since 2000, cruise tourism in Asia has been growing by having more cruises, ports of call, tourists, and the scale of

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cruise ports” (Lau & Yip, 2020). In fact, globalization also contributed to the massive expansion of cruise tourism, and according to Wood (2000: 352), “Globalization of the cruise sector has also led to increased internationalization of ownership and further concentration in this business, with a massive shakeout steadily reducing the number of players.” Cruise tourism thus turned out to be a fast-growing sector, poised for further growth in the years to come.

11.11.1 Cruise Ports Sea ports are critical points in cruise tourism that assume diverse roles than just the roles of terminals in a transportation system. A cruise tourist passes through multiple ports on a trip. Two types of ports have primary significance in cruise tourism. One is the cruise port from where the journey begins. The other one is the port of call on which the tourists will disembark for shore excursions etc. It is also the destination port. Yet, some other classifications of cruise ports are seen in tourism literature. According to Rodrigue and Notteboom (2013), the functional typology of cruise ports includes the following. • Destination cruise port: These ports are with good tourism potential around and are the sole destination. There can be good quality cultural or physical amenities so that the tourists can engage in recreational activities over there. There can be limited excursions possible outside the port area. E.g., Venice, Barcelona. • Gateway cruise port: This is not a destination, act as a technical stop point and a point of embarkation. Unlike the above, these do not have recreational amenities suitable for tourism and are intended to serve major tourist destinations. It has good inbound/outbound connections of different modes and acts as a kind of “corridor” to reach other inland attractions. • Balanced cruise port: This is a balance between the above two categories and has the features of a destination and a gateway port. There can be scope for excursions outside the port area. In this classification, the tourist starts the journey from the gateway cruise port. From there, the trip begins, and visit various destinations en route as per the prefixed itinerary. The ship anchors at destination ports and tourists are disembarked for shore excursions on the route. Based on the roles being played by the ports, Thompson Clarke Shipping (2006) identifies the following: • Ports of call or destination ports In this category, the time spent ranges from a few hours to one night. Tourists can visit local attractions. The basic facilities needed for cruise ships such as jetty, anchorage, etc. • Ports of embarkation/disembarkation or turnaround ports. These have similar facilities as in a port of call, services for pick up and drop off passengers/suppliers, accommodation provision as per the requirements, check-in

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and check-out services, and customs and emigration services. Refueling service for the next cruise also may be there. • Hub ports or base port This may have all facilities and services as in the above. In addition, these may host a branch of the cruise line and act as a home port for some of its ships. Destination port is also indicated as the port of call. The term destination is used since it is where the cruise tourist disembarks from the ship, and goes for sightseeing and engages in recreational activities off-board. Usually, multiple ports of call or destination ports are visited by cruise ships. For example, cruise trips may start from a hub port/base port/home port/turnaround port or a port of embarkation. A comparison in terms of facilities in Gateway Port and Destination Port is furnished in Table 11.5.

11.11.2 Port of Call As indicated above, ports of call represent the destination ports, and there will be several ports of call in one cruise holiday. It’s like a stopover destination and are the essential element in the cruise tour itinerary. The duration of a visit in a port of call may differ. It can vary from a few hours to a complete day. It is like an intermediate stop. Multiple ports of call are involved, so they are to be chosen diligently. In this regard, Rodrigue and Notteboom (2013: 35) pointed out that the “cruise industry sells itineraries, not destinations, underlining the core importance in the selection of a sequence of ports of call.” By stopping in the port of call, tourists get the opportunity to visit the shore and engage in tourism activities. Shore excursions are arranged from the ports of call. Also, the tourist gets shopping opportunities in the ports of call or the shopping centers located in the city where the ports of call are located. But, in the entire cruise tourism product, the significance of ports of call is less than that of onboard activities. Tourists primarily choose cruise holidays for the onboard experience, and destination visits complement the experience. While some studies point out that the ports of call have less significance than the onboard facilities and services, some other studies indicate that the destinations visits are also very significant. For instance, Lee and Ramdeen (2013) highlight that the itineraries considerably affect cruise occupancy rates, and the cruise lines have interesting itineraries that record higher occupancy rates. Moreover, new and large ships are the cruises with the most popular itineraries. The basic requirements required in a port of call, according to Santos et al. (2019: 6), include a cruise terminal or an alternative docking facility, docks of sufficient length and depth, scope for the turnaround of the ship, access at any point of time, luggage handling space, gangways, parking area, airlift, immigration and customs areas, information centers, and the availability of professional inbound/ground handlers. Table 11.6 includes the services and facilities seen in cruise ports. The following elements are part of an ideal port of call for inclusion in the cruise tour itineraries.

11.11 Cruise Tourism Table 11.5 Cruise port facilities

205 Gateway port and destination port comparison Gateway Port: Livorno (Italy)

Destination Port: Lisbon (Portugal)

Port Infrastructure A number of berths for cruise ships and ferries Multiple cruise terminals A ferry terminal Shore-side electric power supply plant

Deep access channel 1500 m of berth quay Terminal facilities spanned over a vast area, on multiple floors Long pier for multi-length ships Multiple cruise terminals Multiple recreational docks

Terminal features Waiting area Information center Check-in counters Security check Ticket booking offices Cash dispenser Internet Point and WiFi Parking facilities Shopping center F & B Centers, including a bar

Waiting area Info-tour Duty-free and souvenir shops Ship storage space Onsite equipment, like forklift, crane, etc Supplying services Automated gangway system Post office WiFi facility Wine shops

Transport services Bus service to airport City shuttle service Car rentals Taxi parking Chauffer service parking

Link to railway station Spacious bus parking area Large car as well as coach parking space Cars rental Shuttle bus to city center

Additional facilities Event and exhibition space and Terrace having a panoramic facilities view Tour operator counter Music concert auditorium Source Adapted from Santos et al. (2019)

• Infrastructures and equipment for cruise ship anchoring, refueling, loading/unloading of passengers/cargo, etc. • Emigration services and facilities, and passenger services. • Onshore tourism products/attractions and recreational activities and services • Shopping facilities and availability of souvenir items • Access to the city and tourist attractions and integrated with a route network. • Safety and security services • Availability of accommodation and F&B centers and services

206 Table 11.6 Cruise port services and facilities

11 Water Transport and Tourism Entrance and berth facilities • Maneuverability • Draught • Bollards and fenders • Berth dimensions • Anchorages Cruise ship and services • Ship piers and berth reservation activities • Fuel services • Fresh water services • Tugboats • Pilotage • Waste handling facilities/services • Shipping agencies • Efficient ship clearance • Stakeholder cooperation Passenger facilities and services • Tourist /passenger terminals • Separation of pier uses in ports • Pedestrian paths • Information services • Immigration services • Safety and security services • Availability of transport services, like coaches and taxis • Luggage storage facility • Shops and souvenir centers Source Adapted from Dr. Athanasios Pallis, Dr. JeanPaul Rodrigue, and Dr. Theo Notteboom, Cruise ports, retrieved from https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/con tents/part8/cruises-ports/

• Availability of tour guides and information and interpretation services • Transport services for sightseeing, etc. The number of ports of call has been increasing along with the growth of cruise tourism. More destinations are added to the itineraries. Once upon a time, cruise tourism was seen primarily in the world’s western hemisphere. By the beginning of this century itself, there were over 1800 worldwide ports of call for cruise ships, with a predominant concentration of ports of call in the Caribbean and the Bahamas (Berger, 2004). Now, the port of call network got expanded tremendously. Currently, among the total destinations, Asia and Australasia have 13 and 5% shares, respectively, and the Caribbean, Bahamas, and Bermuda destination ports share 44% (CLIA, 2022). Cruise lines opt for the routes considering different criteria. The destinations to include in the itinerary and the safe seaways are considered. Ritter and Schafer are of the opinion that “The open ocean is not a cruise area, except the trans-Atlantic link. En route destinations are categorized from popular, to historical, to adventurous or experimental” (Ritter & Schafer, 1998: 67). The preferences of the destinations and

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the itinerary of travel are up to the cruise line, depending upon the nature, marketing strategies, customer preferences as perceived by the cruise lines, etc.

11.11.3 Base/Home Port The base port is the one from where the trip begins the journey. It can be a hub port and also called a home port. A cruise hub port has to be well connected with an intermodal transport system. This has to be a strategic location. The base port has to be situated in a region with a good customer base. Most of the base ports are located in the world’s developed regions since those regions are good source markets for tourists as well. Moreover, the location has to be well connected. Tourists should have the ease of reaching the port. Having an international airport near the base port is suitable for the accessibility of the base port. It is like a gateway as the tour commences from that location, and the tourists move from the base port to have an experience on board and to visit multiple locations. A gateway usually acts as a market for tourists as well. This location also needs accommodation centers as well as many other tourism industries. Therefore, the selection of home ports by the cruise lines depends upon different factors. The factors such as quality and level of ports services, nature of the port, passenger services available and their costs, port infrastructure, tourist attractiveness and activities in the hinterland, port management aspects, availability of intermodal transportation, political-legal environments, and the facilities/amenities in the city or market proximity are critical in home port selection (Niavis & Vaggelas, 2016; EspinetRius et al., 2022).

11.11.4 Role of Ports in Cruise Tourism A cruise line can perform the task of shore activities with the assistance of ports only. It needs a wide range of dedicated infrastructures and services, like docking and anchorage facilities, terminals, and customs and immigration handling facilities from the side of ports (Gui & Russo, 2011). Moreover, port area infrastructure, airport access, taxi fleets, coach services, and high-quality shore excursions and shopping areas are essential for a cruise tour. Tourists can take part in cruise tourism through a port. The destination visits are possible after getting disembarked at ports of call. Inbound handlers need the assistance of ports to coordinate tours for cruise tourists. Shore excursions start from the ports of call. Like a gateway airport, a port is a space for immigration, customs, safety, and security checks. A port may have dutyfree shops, gift shops, refreshment centers, and the similar. Visiting tourists get the first, and the last impression of the destinations visited from the ports of call at the time of arrival and departure. Information about the tourist places, places of interest, local facilities, services, etc. must also be provided by the ports upon the arrival and

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disembarking tourists in the port. The following are the significant roles played by the ports in cruise tourism. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Entry and exit points for cruise trips The link between inland tourist attractions and cruise lines Infrastructure provider for the cruise to undertake the voyage A location for shopping Refreshment and relaxation point Experience provider Safety and security point Immigration and customs checkpoint Point of impressions and cultural exchange Concierge/information center Space for coordinating tours Terminal Space for intermodal transport services Gateway to the movement of tourists, passengers, and cargo.

11.11.5 Cruise Line A cruise line is a commercial organization that operates cruise holidays using ships exclusively designed for that purpose. Another definition says cruise lines “are passenger ships served for pleasure and leisure voyages” (Lau & Yip, 2020: 190). The focus of service is the provision of facilities and services on board to tourists, rather than just providing transportation services. Cruise lines maintain a fleet of ships designed for luxury cruise trips and prepare itineraries to market to the public. They sell all-inclusive packages mostly. The rates may vary according to the accommodation, onboard facilities, and the number of destinations covered. Along with the accommodation, cruise tourists can expect entertainment/recreation options, food, and the like. The pleasure journey is the ultimate product offer which has varied components indeed. They are also part of the tourism, hospitality, and travel industry. The nature of services matches that of the hospitality sector. The cruise line sector is featured with oligopoly. According to Rodrigue and Notteboom (2013: 41–42), “Cruise operators follow a supply push strategy as they aim at ‘creating’ demand simply by providing new capacity (ships) and marketing discounts to fill remaining cabins as the sailing date nears”. Mass-market cruise companies have been promoting cruises as resort destinations (Wood, 2000). The prime focus of differentiation and positioning strategies is the cruise ships and their features instead of the destinations included in the itinerary (Lee et al., 2014). Cruise operators have the freedom to modify itineraries. They usually try to have itineraries focusing on specific regional and cultural experiences, which can match the sailing time and the scope for selecting the ports of call. The revenue focus is mainly on the onboard services and cruise tourism-related expenses (Rodrigue & Notteboom, 2013). Akin to other business organizations, cruises are also business entities. In large

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cruise ships, several hundred employees are working on board. The cruise industry is a labor-intensive sector. According to Wood (2000: 353), “Cruise ships promise to pamper their guests, and this makes them very labor-intensive enterprises: one onboard employee for every two to three passengers on average.” Officers, staff, and crew constitute the general classification of personnel in a cruise (Wood, 2000). Captain, staff captain, hotel director, cruise director, executive housekeeper, executive chef, etc. are major categories of job positions in a cruise organization. Employees are there at different levels in functional departments.

11.11.6 Cruise Vessel Large ships are usually used in cruise tourism, though some exemptions exist. It is certainly a luxury vessel, exclusively designed for having a pleasure trip, combining various destinations along the route. According to Rodrigue and Notteboom (2013: 33), the cruise is a “ship represents in itself the destination, essentially acting as a floating resort (or a theme park) with all the related facilities (bars, restaurants, theaters, casinos, swimming pools, etc.)”. The accommodation facilities are fitted inside the ship. Moreover, large areas of public space are also there. Moreover, many sports and recreational amenities are made available onboard. These are arranged on different floors. These onboard facilities, attractions, activities, and recreational options are integral to the cruise ship. Along with the evolution of modern cruise ships, the size and capacity also got increased. The ship size has increased significantly since the beginning of cruise tourism (Lee et al., 2014). The incredible technological and scientific advancements resulted in the transformation of ships that could carry people and cargo from one location to another to modern resort-like luxurious vessels that can carry even more than 6000 passengers in one trip. Changes happened in every aspect of a cruise ship. The number of cruises has also increased tremendously since the 1960s, when cruise tourism began its race to become a growing segment in the realm of international tourism. Bowen et al. (2014) identified the following types of cruises since the evolution of the modern cruise sector after the end of the Second World War. • The 1960s and ‘70s: Classic ships. • The 1980s and ‘90s: Modern ships • The 2000s and ‘10s: Third-generation ships. New generation ships are large and have high capacity, along with a wider variety of facilities and services on board. There are cruise ships now that can carry more than 6000 tourists and as many as 2000 employees. According to Lee (2013), occupancy rates of cruises are directly influenced by the cruise size; as greater the size, the higher the occupancy rate. There are some advantages of large cruise ships. According to Lee et al. (2014), the following are the advantages:

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• The economy of scale helps to lower the fare. • Better opportunities for onboard sales. • More onboard recreational options can be given. One of the largest cruise ships in the world, Symphony of the Seas of Royal Caribbean, with 228,081 Gross Tonnage and can carry 6,680 passengers and 2,200 employees. Moreover, it has 18 decks, 22 restaurants, 24 pools, 2,759 cabins, and a park with over 20,000 tropical plants (CNN travel, 2018). Considering the magnanimity of vessels used for cruise tourism, different terminologies are cited in the tourism literature. For instance, the terms such as ‘Floating hotels’ (Hall & Braithwaite, 1990), ‘Floating resorts’ (Wood, 2000), and ‘Floating cities’ (Lee et al., 2014) are seen in the literature. The third-generation ships are absolute examples of floating resorts as tourists can have incredible leisure onboard while floating on the great oceans. The occupancy rate on a cruise is calculated based on a minimum number of people occupied in rooms. I.e., “An occupancy rate of 100% on a cruise ship is two passengers in all available guest staterooms” (Lee et al., 2014: 1077).

11.11.7 Cruise Tourist A cruise tourist, a hedonic traveler, engages in leisure while staying on board for multiple days and visits destinations as part of a voyage based on a pre-set itinerary. The accommodation, entertainment, and other activities are all done on board. During the trip, the tourist disembarks on different ports of call and may also engage in shore excursions. The experience of traveling and time spent on board form the core of the tourist experience. In 2019, almost 30 million cruise tourists were using the services of CLIA cruise lines (CLIA, 2022). Table 11.7 reports some cruise statistics. Traditionally cruise tourism is known for the aged/retired population. But the recent trends reveal the share of other age groups on the increase consistently. The cruise tourism sector now consists of more market segments, and larger mega-ships allow cruise lines increased appeal to a wide variety of people, from young student groups to couples on a honeymoon to families with kids to grandparents who travel with the grandchildren (Lee et al., 2014). In 1970, the number of cruise passengers Table 11.7 Cruise tourist statistics 2016

Passenger volume(K)

Average duration (days)

Average age (years)

25,155

7.2

46.7

2017

26,716

7.1

46.7

2018

28,515

7.0

46.7

2019

29,673

7.1

46.8

Source CLIA (2020)

11.11 Cruise Tourism

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was 500,000 (Cruise Lines International Association [CLIA], 2005). After the emergence in the 1960s, the cruise tourism sector recorded moderate growth in the 1970s and 1980s, increasing from half a million tourists in 1970 to 1.4 million in 1980 and 3.8 million in 1990. It flowed by its expansion into Europe, Asia, and Oceania in the 1990s, signaling remarkable growth (Brida & Zapata, 2010). Hritz and Cecil (2008: 170) noted the shift in cruise demand characteristics “At the dawn of the industry, cruise ship itineraries were lengthy, lasting a week or months; passengers were affluent, aged 60 or older, and well educated. However, the abundant supply of ships has led to mass market tourism and shorter three or four-day cruises for as little as $200”. As per the reports of CLIA, 50% of cruise tourists are of age 50 years or more. Approximately 35% of them are of 40 years or less. Regarding the origin of tourists, the largest share of them is from North America, followed by Western Europe. They are followed by Asia and Australia (NZ/Pacific). Among the visiting destinations, the largest share of the cruise tourists goes to the Caribbean, Bahamas, and Bermuda, which Asia and China follow. The central and Western Meditteranean region is the most popular region for cruise tourists. The following regions are Northern Europe, Eastern Mediterranean, Alaska, Australia/New Zealand/Pacific, and NA West Coast/Mexico/California/Pacific Coast regions (CLIA, 2020). Motivations for the cruise are many, and according to Petrick et al. (2007), loyalty, familiarity, and social influences are vital factors that lead tourists to make cruise decisions. Hung and Petrick (2011) are of the opinion that ‘escape/relaxation’ remains the prime motivation of cruise tourists while motivating factors such as ‘learning/discovery and thrill,’ ‘self-esteem/social recognition’, and ‘bonding’ also add to the list of motivations in cruise tourism. CLIA (2006) earlier found that the opportunity to relax and unwind, destinations included in the itinerary, and the price are highly affecting factors for cruise tourists. Jones (2011) is of the opinion that mental and physical relaxation, desire to discover new places and things, and escaping from the day-to-day hustle and bustle of life are significant factors influencing cruise tourism itineraries. He also opines that the desire just to want to go on a cruise is a significant motivator for first-time cruise tourists. Therefore, it is obvious that the opportunity for relaxation and to escape from the mundane daily life is the most critical motivations of cruise tourists, who are influenced by a range of other factors as well, like the curiosity to see/learn about other cultures, the luxurious leisure experience on board, etc. Brida and Risso (2010) opined that the destination revisits intentions of cruise tourists are driven by the number of hours spent outside the ship, age, gender, income level, and the first-time vs. repeat visitor status. There are differences in the motivation of first-time cruise tourists and repeaters. For cruise tourists, word of mouth, online information sources, and the comfort and accommodation of cruises are other significant influencing factors. Some of the cruise tourists also contact travel agents for information and booking. Papathanassis stated, “The current cruising demographics somewhat conflict with the stereotype of well-off silver-agers, repeating the same cruise, seeking routine (e.g., same dining table and same waiter) and valuing a formalized experience….Millennials are discovering cruise holidays as a complementary form of holiday, fogging the distinction between ‘cruisers’ and

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Table 11.8 Cruise tourism characteristics (age group wise) Duration of cruise holiday (% of the total tourists) Up to 3 Days

4–6 Days

7 Days

8–13 Days

14 Days

15–20 Days

21 or above

2018 (%)

11

27

40

15

4

2

1

2019 (%)

11

26

41

15

4

3

0

12 or less years

13–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

60–69

Above 70 years

2018 (%)

9

6

9

11

15

18

19

14

2019 (%)

9

6

9

11

14

18

19

14

Age group

Source CLIA (2020)

‘non-cruisers’ (i.e., hybrid cruisers)” (Papathanassis, 2017: 106). A study by Petrick (2003) revealed that quality and perceived value lead to satisfaction and behavioral intentions. He also pointed out that the quality of the service provided, the ease of purchasing the service, and the service’s happiness constitute major elements in the cruise passengers’ satisfaction (Petrick, 2003). Table 11.8 reprots some cruise statistics per age groups.

11.11.8 Who Gets the Benefits of Cruise Tourism? Economic benefits are mainly enjoyed by the cruise lines and ports and their regions. The cruise tour is sold as an all-inclusive package. Having a captive market on board, a good share of revenue can be earned from onboard services and associated transactions. Cruise tourism is usually an all-inclusive holiday; therefore, most of the expenditures required are part of the voyage are included in the price they bear for becoming a cruise tourist. In certain cases, the expenses for shore excursions, etc. may not be part of the price of the package cruise holiday. The expenditure by the tourist in any form generates economic benefits directly or indirectly. The amount the tourist spends directly or indirectly in the ports and hinterland generates positive economic effects for the destinations, in the form of foreign incomes, employment, taxes, duties, and the like (Dwyer & Forsyth, 1998). It has been pointed out that cruise passengers spend their money mostly on board, and only a marginal expenditure is made on destinations visited (Larsen et al., 2013). Therefore, the major share of economic benefits goes to the cruises and the home ports. According to Brida and Zapata “Cruise lines create economic impacts through vessel-related expenditure, crew expenditure and support expenditure including port charges such as navigation and berthing charges, pilotage charges, towage charges, bunkering, supplies of food and water, services such as waste disposal and passenger related expenditures, such as

11.11 Cruise Tourism

213

Table 11.9 Cost factors in cruise tourism Cruise tourism expenditures, as listed by Dwyer and Forsyth, includes: Passenger Expenditures • Air fares to/from base country • Internal travel • Add-on expenditure (accommodation, meals, shopping, and excursions) • Port expenditure (meals, excursions and travel, and shopping) Operator Expenditures • Port expenditures (government charges, port charges, and towage) • Provedoring (stores and provedoring, bunkering, purchase of services, waste disposal, water) • Crew expenditure (local crew, port expenditure by foreign crew) • Ship maintenance • Marketing in base country • Taxes (income tax, customs duties, departure taxes) Source Dwyer and Forsyth (1998)

security and baggage handling.” (Brida & Zapata, 2010: 336). Types of expenditures to be made by tourists as well as cruise operators are given in Table 11.9. Economic benefits to destinations are lesser compared to that of home ports. However, there are several facilities and services in which cruise tourism creates benefits. According to Brida and Zapata (2010), the sectors that gain benefit from cruise tourism include: • • • •

Transportation (taxis, buses). Tour operators (including guides). Attractions. Shops closer to the dock.

Other sectors related to tourism in the destinations like hotels, casinos, etc. may not see significant gains. Yet, there is a spillover effect on destinations wherever excursions/trips are there. The cruise tourists make expenditures for different services and products from onshore suppliers and multiplier effects generated from all cruiserelated activities (Pratt & Blake, 2009). According to Hall and Braithwaite (1990), cruise tourists may prefer to have additional activities like sightseeing and shopping than the regular ones. It has also been noted that the highest benefits are to those homeports for the cruise lines (Vaya´ et al., 2018). The reasons for more benefits for home towns of cruises include the following (Skrede & Tveteraas, 2019). • The ground operators belonging to the home towns of cruises supply the food, beverages, and other services to the cruises. • Some cruise passengers may stay in local hotels before embarkation and after disembarkation. Cruise tourism creates a range of indirect benefits as well. According to Dwyer and Forsyth (1998), the indirect benefits of cruise tourism are: • Additional expenditure leads to a hike in net foreign exchange earnings by the country (total expenditure minus direct leakages into imports).

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• The benefits linked to the generation of profits and taxes—the suppliers of the cruise operation and other firms individually affected could be making profits on their sales. • The additional expenditure from cruise tourism can result in unemployed resources, primarily labor, finding employment. The unemployability can thus be reduced. • The external benefits or costs generated depend on the activity that is generated by the expenditure. • Terms of trade effects constitute the fifth indirect benefit and cost. • Greater economy of scale can be there when additional cruise tourism is there, and the benefits will be enjoyed both by producers and consumers, along with the scope for a wide spread of the benefits. Cruise tourists enjoy the advantages and price benefits of a package tour and the immense scope for onboard recreational activities. Moreover, along the route, they can visit several tourist destinations. Along with relaxation, the cruise tourists can feel transported on a waterbody and be away from the hassles of road transportation, including the congestion, delays in reaching the attractions, etc. Furthermore, cruises usually provide quality services, and the tourists can expect reasonably good service delivery throughout the holiday.

11.11.9 Shore Excursions In addition to the luxury of cruising, shore excursion is indeed an attraction in cruise tourism. It represents the short tours organized for the cruise tourists while the cruise ship stops in ports as part of the itinerary. Usually, these excursions are for some hours, except when the tours may be for more than a day. The ports in which the cruises stop are usually ports of call. Concerning the shore excursions, Lester and Weeden (2004: 47) point out that “Cruise ships dock in a destination, the vessel is the accommodation, passengers need not venture ashore unless desired, and often time is limited with brief excursions. Passenger activities are usually carefully coordinated and controlled within distinct spatial areas”. Cruise lines may depend on ground handlers or inbound tour operators to arrange the shore excursions or sightseeing on the hinterland of the ports. The shore visits can be for more days in a few cases, especially when the cruising is to exhilarating locations. As part of the visit, the cruise tourists go for shopping in the hinterland. Usually, cruise tourists do not engage in shopping the same way as other types of tourists do. The shopping of souvenirs etc. may be done in the port area or while visiting the tourist attractions as part of shore excursions. The transport operators in port regions form good beneficiaries of the shore excursions by the cruise tourists. As part of cruise tourism, the most significant beneficiaries of offshore tourism are the onshore transport operators and providers of experiences for the tourists (Skrede & Tveteraas, 2019). Accommodation is not usually provided in tourist destinations,

11.11 Cruise Tourism

215

as cruise tourists stay on the ships. Tour guides are hired to interpret and lead the shore excursions in the destinations. Compared to the benefits of the home/base port areas, the socio-economic benefits of cruise tourism are limited as only limited time is spent on the destinations, and the cruise tourists use limited services.

11.11.10 Cruise Itinerary The cruise itinerary represents the travel plans in the packaged cruise holidays. The itinerary is crucial in attracting tourists. Though the real cruise tourism experience is from the onboard activities, the places to visit also have a critical role in cruise tourists’ buying behavior and decision-making. Rodrigue and Notteboom (2013) argue that cruise lines do not sell destinations but rather sell itineraries, which gives flexibility to cruise lines in selecting the ports of call within the critical operational considerations. In the case of itineraries, the demand for the type of itineraries may vary as first-time cruisers may prefer more intense itineraries. In contrast, experienced cruisers may go for more loose itineraries (Lingard, 2002). Therefore, the cruise planners need to balance the number of ports included in the itinerary and the duration that can be spent on board (Barron & Greenwood, 2006). Longer cruises would undoubtedly require more destinations to include in the itinerary. General facilities, cruise terminals, facilities available for the ships to stop, transport services in the destinations, tourist attractiveness, availability of tour guides, etc. would be some factors of consideration while designing an itinerary. Depending upon the type of cruise, the considerations may vary. Hedonic travelers prefer destinations where they can have pleasure well, whereas the adventure cruise itinerary may have different kinds of destinations. In a survey by Barron and Greenwood (2006) on various aspects of consideration for cruise planning, the diversity in terms of ports of call and attractions are found to be the most significant factors. Other considerations include climate, distance, port attributes, cruise length, fuel, and new ports. According to Rodrigue and Notteboom (2013), the factors that influence the itinerary design and vessel utilization strategies include: • • • • • • • • •

Seasonality/demand fluctuations the optimal duration of a cruise vacation The equilibrium between sailing time and shore time Availability of ‘must-see’ destinations Overall tourist satisfaction. Berthing capacity and nautical accessibility in ports The distance between ports of call Synchronization with air transfers. Inimitable experience of sailing on a wooden vessel.

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11.12 Conclusion Although the significance of passenger transportation using water-borne transport forms, they remain a prominent segment in tourism by way of their innovative use. Some segments of water transportation are growing at a remarkable rate. For instance, cruise tourism has been growing consistently over the last few decades, and it is poised to grow further. All sorts of water bodies are significant for tourism. Rivers, canals, lakes, seas, and oceans constitute ideal water-based tourism transportation platforms. Moreover, some exhilarating recreational transport activities are done on every water body. In the parlance of tourism, water bodies of different kinds are used as a source of water, a medium for water transport, and a water tourism destination. Therefore, the role of water bodies is varied and important from a tourism point of view. Destinations with suitable water bodies use the potential of water transportation to enhance their tourism attractiveness.

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Chapter 12

Recreational Transportation and Tourism

12.1 Introduction The roles of transportation have already been discussed in the previous chapters. The intricate relationship between tourism and transportation has multiple dimensions, and the role of transportation for recreation purposes is being increasingly noticed in the tourism literature. Modern tourism is featured with an increased presence of recreational transportation, which itself is getting diversified in terms of its contribution into the process of tourism. Recreational transportation can act as an experience enhancer in tourism. On the other hand, transportation itself takes place as a recreation process, as in the case of cruise tourism and vintage rail route holiday. A touristic route can enthuse a tourist, who has a passion for driving, to have a self-drive. In this context, routes cannot be only road based; even the water, as well as rail-based routes, can be an attraction for tourists to engage in tourism. Even public transport forms can be there which can be considered for recreational purposes. This chapter involves the recreational forms that are seen in tourist destinations and directly or indirectly connected to transportation.

12.2 Recreational Transportation In the mass tourism category, tourists who seek excitement from the place visited form the primary group of customers for recreational transportation. Moreover, large numbers of special interest tourists have increasingly been arriving for recreational transportation. Recreational transportation denotes the use of transport modes primarily for the purpose of recreation. For example, in the case of heli-tours, helicopters are used for leisure trips to see the scenery/landscape. Moreover, recreational transportation may also cover the movement of travelers using different transport modes to access places as well, provided the movement itself provides a recreational/tourism experience in an effective manner. In such cases, transportation forms © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_12

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the prime activity that satisfies the travel motivations. In drive tourism, the primary experience is from the movement along a scenic route. In the former case, recreational transportation involves the use of different transport vehicles for tourist activities. Some of those activities enable tourists to engage in physical activities while in the destination. Windsurfing can be an example of it. Moreover, there are special interest tourism transport activities as well can form different types of niche tourism. A large number of transport-related recreational activities are seen in destinations the world over, and that sector is experiencing innovation often. At times, activities alone can attract tourists. Among the activities provided, some are using transport vehicles or other forms of transport systems. Many marine recreational activities use different types of transport forms. Thus, tourism dimensions of recreational transportation can be of three broad categories. They are: • Transportation-based recreational activity • Leisure tourism transportation • Transport-linked tourism attractions, like heritage rail museum. Leisure tourism transportation provides a recreational experience while moving, which forms the prime tourism experience, and accessing destinations/attractions has relatively less significance. Cruise tourism is of this category by which the tourist enjoys the movement and stays on board to form the prime tourism experience. The cruise tourist visits destinations, which also add to the overall tourist experience. A drive tourist enjoys the ride through a scenic route more, and the visit to the destinations complements it. Indeed, recreational tourism transportation is an umbrella term having a wide variety of transport forms using diverse transport vehicles. The major components of recreational transportation, according to the International Trade Administration report (ITA, 2016), include recreational marine products, recreation vehicles (RVs), motorcycles, and miscellaneous vehicles. The miscellaneous vehicles primarily include all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), snowmobiles, and golf cars. Motorized recreational vehicles (MTVs) are increasingly used for recreational tourism now. According to Lawinsider.com, a motorized recreational vehicle denotes a “…Vehicle that is propelled or driven by an internal combustion engine, electric engine, or battery operated and that is used for recreational purposes, including but not limited to a snowmobile, go-cart, golf cart, trail bike, mini bike, Motor Assisted Bicycle or all-terrain Vehicle”. Non-motorized recreational transportation is also prevalent, which includes bicycles, roller blades/skates, skateboards, non-motorized scooters, etc. Water-based recreational transportation offers an enthralling experience. Marine recreational transportation, a segment of water-based recreational transportation, has increased importance. Apart from different cruises and boat safaris, a range of vehicles is used in marine recreational transportation. Some are motorized, while others depend on forces like the wind. Land-based recreational transport has multiple formats. Some are based on the road, some others take place in different geographical formats, like deserts, and some are rail-based. Air transport-based recreation forms

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are also widely seen in destinations. The following recreational transport types, based on the transportation medium, can be seen in the parlance of tourism. • Water-based recreational transportation – Recreational marine – Inland-water recreational transportation • Land-based recreational transportation – Road based – Off-beat – Rail based • Air based recreational transportation – Lighter-than-air aircraft based – Heavier-than-air aircraft based The above classification can have further divisions as well. Importance of recreational transportation can include some of the below: • • • • • • • •

Enhancing the attractiveness of destinations Provision of activities Encouraging experiential tourism and slow tourism Increased tourist-host interaction Better local community benefits Environmental considerations Boosting tourist experience Encourages active tourism.

Recreational transport-based activities certainly enhance the attractiveness of destinations. It expands the spectrum of the ‘pull factors,’ which can attract tourists to visit the destinations. Moreover, modern tourists seek activities, and transportation-based activities provide a thrilling experience for the tourists. Thus, recreational transportation contributes significantly to encouraging active tourism as well. This further contributes to experiential and slow tourism, which are considered more sustainable forms of tourism. While tourists engage more in activities, the benefits for the local community increase. The tourists are provided with multiple expenditure options that belong mostly on the small and medium scale, with more local entrepreneurship. Moreover, except in the case of tourism like cruises, recreational tourism usually provides opportunities for guest-host interactions and for learning the sociocultural nuances of the place visited. Though transportation is responsible for the largest share of carbon emissions from tourism, some forms of recreational vehicles are more ecofriendly, and there is a trend to promote alternative forms of transportation within destinations. The recreational transport experience complements the overall tourist experience, and the nature and level of the experience from recreational transport can be highly significant for a tourist in having ever-remembering memories of the visit. In Table 12.1, the recreational transport vehicles exported by USA are reported.

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Table 12.1 Recreational transport vehicles exported by the USA (through 2018) Countries importing the US vehicles 1

Canada

11

Singapore

21

Norway

2

Belgium

12

New Zealand

22

Hong Kong

3

Australia

13

Italy

23

Venezuela

4

Mexico

14

UAE

24

Columbia

5

Japan

15

Netherlands

25

South Africa

6

Germany

16

Taiwan

26

Bahamas

7

UK

17

Sweden

27

Thailand

8

China

18

Brazil

28

Vietnam

9

Spain

19

Korea

29

Saudi Arabia

10

France

20

Argentina

30

Malaysia

Source ITA (2016)

Many of the recreational transport forms are based on physical activities with some being sports items as well. Though relaxation, escape from routine, social motivations, etc. constitute the common motivators of tourists into recreational transportation, recreational transport tourism motivations vary from one type of transportation to another. According to Fluker and Turner (2000), the scope for adventure experiences, the natural environment, relaxation, and friendship are essential motivations in white-water rafting trips. Scuba diving motivations include mental, environmental, social, or self-actualization aspects, and the knowledge of diving and the marine environment, being with friends on diving trips, feelings of competence in the water, escape from daily life, and the embodied experience of diving (Cater, 2008). According to Wu and Pearce (2014), RV travelers’ motivations are seen at three levels, and the base-level motivations include escaping and relaxing, experiencing new things, and building interpersonal relationships; the middle-level motivations comprise of self-realization and closeness to the community and nature; and the outer-level motivations may include nostalgia, solitude, etc. Consolidating the motivations of tourists who engage in different recreational transportation is not easy. Moreover, studies in specific cases are rather rare. Specific motivations pertaining to separate modes of recreational transportation and market segments are discussed in most of the below-given cases of recreational transportation. Regarding transport-based recreational tourism focusing on physical activities, their development would contribute to the diversification and enhancement of the quality of tourism in the destination and facilitate the development of business along with the increase in investments, employment, etc. Diversification helps widen the target market segments, benefiting the marketing. In this context, Jaksic–Stojanovic et al. (2019) point out that “Except to the fact that sports tourism may significantly contribute to the solving of problems of seasonality, it may also significantly contribute to the improvement of diversity and quality of tourist offer, the increase of level of satisfaction of tourists, the increase of expenditure in destination itself etc.”

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The customer base primarily consists of youngsters, dominated by males (Mosisch & Arthington, 1998).

12.3 Water-Based Recreational Transportation The significance of water transportation in tourism is described in a previous chapter. Certainly, water-based recreational transportation is gaining increased significance in domestic and international tourism. Table 12.2 includes the major contributing factors in the increasing popularity of water-based adventure tourism. For many destinations, recreational water transportation forms the core competency as well. The studies on recreational sports in water bodies have been there for several decades, and, in the context of recreational carrying capacity, Jaakson (1970) identified the following three forms of recreational activities: • On-water activities: activities take place on the water surface, mainly the water transport activities. • Contact activities: activities like swimming and diving • Littoral activities: surrounding land-based activities, including picnics. Destinations utilize all the possible recreational transport forms to attract more tourists and provide a good visiting experience. Some regions make use of water recreational transportation aggressively. In Europe, recreational water transportation tourism is very significant, and it is with 68,000 km of coastline, 4,500 marinas with 1.75 million berths, and a total boat park of 6.3 million vessels (European Environment Agency, 2020). Coastal tourism, marine tourism, and inland water body Table 12.2 Rising popularity of water adventure tourism: contributing factors • The number of tourists who prefers active tourism and risky activities is increasing • The rise in disposable income is a general tourism growth facilitator • Advancements in water transport technologies and the corresponding rise in the safety of water adventure sports • The increasing availability of skilled personnel and trainers to assist, impart the technical know-how, etc. • New standards concerning the inspection and maintenance of equipment, operating instructions and standard operating procedures, guides and instructors, risk mitigation, and training on emergencies and rescue procedures are in place • Water adventure tourism also offers physical exertion along with quick thinking • Increased social media coverage and advertising • An increase in the number of water parks facilitates the growth of the water adventure tourism sector Source Future Market Insights, Water Adventure Tourism: Sector Overview & Outlook Overview, retrieved from https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/water-adventure-tourism-sector-ove rview-and-outlook

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tourism depend primarily on water-based recreational transportation, and the destinations promote a wide range of recreational activities in both marine environments as well as in inland water bodies. Various aspects of cruise tourism, river tourism, canal tourism, etc., the primary leisure transportation forms, are discussed in a previous chapter. Here, the recreational transport types are dealt with in detail.

12.4 Nautical Tourism Nautical tourism is considered a segment of coastal and marine tourism (Jennings, 2011). According to Lukovi´c (2012), nautical tourism is strongly connected with the sea and freshwater activities and may take place under some local concession. It is defined as a “sum of poly-functional activities and relations that are caused by the tourists-boaters’ stay within or out of the ports of nautical tourism, and by the use of vessels or other objects related to the nautical and tourist activities, for the purpose of recreation, sports, entertainment or other needs” (European Cruise Council, 2011). It consists of marine tourism such as sailing, yachting, cruising, and diving, portside developments, coastal water sports such as jet-skiing, boat shows, port trips, and marine heritage attractions (Lukovi´c, 2013). Some amount of seafaring skills may also be needed to be part of recreational nautical tourism. Seasonality can be a significant determinant in Nautical tourism. Spinelli and Benevolo (2021) are of the opinion that nautical tourism plays a significant role in economic development and in the social and environmental sustainability of coastal tourist destinations. A variety of vehicles is used in nautical tourism, and thus, the sector is an amalgam of different forms of water recreation. Dulˇci´c (2002) points out that nautical tourism includes the sailing on smaller boats; leisure cruises on larger vessels with a preset itinerary; sports of varied kinds in water bodies, like kayaking, rafting, windsurfing, fishing, snorkeling, etc.; and scientific research aquatic biology interpreted to tourists. Nautical tourism as an industry has been developing rapidly in scope and economic status and continues to do so.

12.5 Yachting Tourism Yachting tourism is yet to be defined well, and the literature lacks clarity on its distinction from similar terms like sailing tourism, nautical tourism, etc. It has been pointed out that terms such as nautical tourism, marine or marina tourism, and leisure or recreational boating are used interchangeably in the parlance of tourism literature (Yao et al., 2021). It is simply described as “the use of water vessels or boats for leisure purposes, including cruising, fishing, racing, or the practice of other nautical activities. Depending on the type of vessels, it could be classified into sailing and boat powering and, depending on the property, as chartered or private yachting” (AlcoverCasasnovas, 2016). This definition reveals that yachting tourism is a broad

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term encompassing a range of water-based tourism activities. Also, there is an argument for considering yachting tourism as a component of nautical tourism (Mikuli´c et al., 2015). They also opine that yachting tourism consists of tourism-motivated stay and sailing on smaller boats (sailing ships/motor yachts), and it, closely tied to sailing, takes place alongside the water and on the water. Generally, yachting tourism is interpreted as special interest tourism involving water vessels or boats for leisure purposes (Alcovercasasnovas, 2016). Engaging in coastal water sports like jet-skiing, boat shows, port tours, and marine heritage destinations is also part of yachting tourism (Lukovi´c, 2013). Multiple reasons can be found in people’s interest in yachting tourism. The study by Yao et al. (2021) identifies novelty and stimulation, sightseeing and leisure, sports and learning, social relationships, self-esteem and prestige, and self-realization as the motivations for Chinese yachting tourists. ‘Pull’ factors of yachting tourists include the sun, coastal conditions, safety, leisure activities, support services, hospitality services, and local sociocultural attractions (Gray et al., 2013). In all such tourism activities, the desire for escape from routine, fun, and independence-seeking is generally seen (Pyo, 2015). The study by Mikuli´c et al. (2015) reveals that the core marina services, primary destination attributes, the charter product, the marina supporting product, and the onshore destination experience constitute the fundamental dimensions of Yachting tourism.

12.6 Sailing Tourism Sailing tourism is also considered an element of nautical tourism. Sailing is a form of water recreation in which the sailboat is maneuvered by wind power, which has been there since ancient times when people used to cross the water bodies with the assistance of wind power. The practice of using wind to power the boats was constantly being improved to become modern sailboats used for sport and recreation. A boat with a sail is an enjoyable recreational transport form for a relaxed yet adventurous recreational ride over water bodies, including the seas. Its use as a sport, recreation, and adventure raises the scope of sailing tourism to higher levels. Sailing tourism is considered a relatively more eco-friendly form of water transport as the sailing boats make use of wind power and are important for the economy of many countries, specifically for regions with appropriate water bodies (Łapko et al., 2022). Sailing tourism is often cited as special interest tourism (SIT). In some regions, sailing tourism is an important sector within tourism, like Europe, and sailing tourists are important for tourism destinations as they are more high-value visitors with aboveaverage spending (Christensen et al., 2021). Sailing tourism in Scotland worth £130 million by 2017. It supports 2700 jobs along with a potential of a further increase of £36.9 million to a worth of £167.1 million over the next seven years (‘Sailing Tourism in Scotland’ report, reported in sailscotland.co.uk.). Weather is an important determining factor in sailing tourism as the movement depends greatly on the wind. In a study, Christensen et al. (2021) find out that weather, berth width and functionality,

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clean sanitary facilities, water and electricity connections for boats, clean marina grounds, access to hot and cold water, personal safety, and service attitudes of marina employees are significant factors affecting the satisfaction of sailing tourists.

12.6.1 Kayaking Kayaking is an active tourism opportunity on rivers. White-water kayaking is done in a small water vessel, like a canoe, with the aid of a paddle. A kayak has a doublebladed paddle, partially open with a top on the legs (Gurnani, www.traveltriangle. com). Sit-on-top kayaks and sit-inside kayaks are there. White-water kayaking is where the kayaks are ridden down rivers over waters of varying grades, and it is more adventuresome. In flat water kayaking, the kayaks used include sit-on-top, recreational, touring, inflatable, and pedaling kayaks. On the other hand, in whitewater kayaking, play boats, river runners, creek boats, old school, and inflatable (Duckies) are used (www.americankayak.org). River running boats enable navigation on the river very fast. The creek boats can move through tight passages, including small waterfalls, and the play boats enable aerobatics and surfing created by waves (Jon, 2012). Figure 12.1 shows an example of Kayaking. The availability of rivers is important in the promotion of kayaking tourism. A study by Cholewa (2020) revealed that the most important factor determining the demand for kayaking tourism is the purity of rivers. Atmospheric conditions, price of services, transport accessibility, natural values, gastronomic facilities, and accommodation are other essential factors influencing kayaking tourism. Among the pioneers of water adventure recreation, tourists, adventure experiences, love of nature, and enjoyment of having like-minded friends are important motivations. The beautiful streams and the advances in kayaking equipment are strong pulling factors concerning white-water kayaking (Wang & Wang, 2017).

Fig. 12.1 Kayaking. Courtesy Vastateparksstaff/Wikipedia Commons, https://commons.wikime dia.org/w/index.php?curid=57399170

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12.6.2 Canoeing Similar to kayaking, canoeing is also a trendy water sport, which is done using a narrow boat that can be moved ahead with the help of a single-bladed paddle to steer the canoe. Canoeing is ideal for exploring natural or cultural landscapes along a suitable water body, like a river or lake. Canoeing tourism emerged by the end of the nineteenth century and established itself in France before spreading to the rest of the parts (Sven & Manuel, 2019). The trend of canoeing started in the Alpine white water in the 1930s. Canoeing is also considered a racing sport. Though it involves some amount of adventure, canoeing can provide an experience while going to a distant place on the top of a canoe. In canoeing, the paddler will use a single-bladed paddle to move a slender, lightweight canoe with pointed ends and an open-top (Gurnani, www.traveltriangle.com).

12.6.3 River Cycling Cycling alongside the beautiful rivers and have a scenic ride with physical experience and great joy. Cycling itself is an incredible recreational activity, and many destinations promote it. According to Adam et al. (2020), many destinations now develop exclusive cycle routes, a common form of recreational infrastructure, to have a recreational ride; the travel through such routes generates a shared experience that modifies perceptions and the values attributed to the river. Developing cycle routes enhance attractiveness, and a cycle route and its itinerary are not a neutral element in the landscape as they have a visible effect on the relationship between territory, the river, and society (Adam et al., 2020)

12.6.4 Barging Holidays Barges, due to the slowness and lack of comfort, are indeed an unusual ingredient in leisure perspective, yet, the recent trends are in favor of it. Barges are traditional boats made of wood primarily with a flat bottom and used for transporting large volumes of cargo. These flat-bottomed vessels primarily transport cargo and are used as floating accommodation units, with fully air-conditioned modern cabins and other luxurious items for travel and stay while moving on rivers (Erfurt-Cooper, 2009). In fact, the traditional barges that were used to carry cargo are modified into the modern form of ‘houseboats’ that are used ideally as USPs of destinations. In the current format of leisure barge use, the necessary features of luxury have been integrated and successfully used for single-day to multi-day tours. ‘Hotel Barge’ is another terminology used in leisure to indicate modern bargebased vessels. Irene S. Levine (2018) point out that there is no conceptual clarity on

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the usage of the term hotel barge, but the so-called hotel barge can accommodate a maximum of 20 tourists and provide all-inclusive services with full board, open bar, and daily excursions. According to him, there are 17 vessels seen in European waterways currently. Of late, excursions of varied types are getting more and more popular. Nature lovers, sociocultural enthusiasts, pleasure seekers, and relaxation seekers are now part of barge-based leisure tourism. ‘Floating country Inn’ is another terminology used in this context and is defined as refurbished barges that were once used for commercial goods transportation (Brain, 2010). According to Brain (2010), the global demand for barging tours is increasing remarkably, and the current barge tours allow tourists to see the countryside while floating down these scenic waterways. Such tours are popular for providing an enriched travel experience, authenticity, fine dining, and total immersion into the local life of the destination while having a stress-free vacation with no need to pack and unpack. The varieties range from casual floating B&B to the ultra-deluxe palacelike barge vessels ready for holidaymakers. The difference between barging and river cruising in the European context is suggested by Alison Gardner as follows: European barging and river cruising are two very different experiences. Barges usually navigate human-built canals that have no current, covering 40 to 60 miles in a week. They move so slowly that passengers may literally step off the barge, walk or bike into town, and catch up with the barge again. Generally, barges are historic restorations accommodating 4 to 20 passengers which makes them ideal for families or groups of friends who want to occupy the entire vessel. The cuisine and local wines are usually of high quality, but entertainment is minimal.

House Boat is also a term used in a similar context. Houseboats, too, are part of a recent trend, and they are modified transportation boats with accommodation facilities. These can ply over rivers and lakes and have a long ride like a moving small resort accommodation facility.

12.6.5 Power Boats Power boats, also called motor boats, are used widely by destinations to give a thrilling experience for tourists. These boats are smaller in size and can move much faster than the motorized boats that carry a large number of passengers. The capacity of these boats ranges from one to six, and in the parlance of tourism, they are used for traveling on water bodies and taking part in duck hunting, fishing, swimming, skin diving, and water skiing (www.britannica.com). Powerboat offers an experience of the rush of adrenaline while moving over water surfaces, and the trips will get a better experience by the views around, especially when the water body has either natural wonders or architectural marvels around them. At times, these trips are arranged to private or lonely beaches as well, which can give an incredible experience. Other recreational activities are clubbed with some of the power boat tours. Snorkeling, swimming, fishing, etc. can be there when the tour is for a longer term.

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12.6.6 Iceboats Iceboats have been there for long in transportation during winter seasons. They were used to carry cargo in locations where extreme winter seasons exist. Iceboating is done on frozen waters of the river and local lakes during winter seasons in some locations in the world. It has been remarked that iceboating had its origins in the early seventeenth century in Holland (Summers, 1992). A modified sailboat that moves on thin blades or runners is there now. Further to its use for transportation, it is now considered as an exhilarating sports activity. Brittany LaValle (hiddenheritagecollections.org), in a blog post on Bellport, indicated that iceboating is part of the local tradition. In winter seasons, as soon as the ice freezes, there will be a large number of iceboats, and their riders will engage in recreational iceboating. Iceboating races are held in some parts of the world. Lately, it is getting increased in popularity in the USA and Canada. Some of the destinations arrange iceboating as a recreation activity.

12.6.7 Snowmobile A snowmobile is a small motorized vehicle that can move on snow and ice. It’s used as a recreation vehicle for one or two tourists for a ride on snow/ice. Snowmobiling is an exhilarating way to engage in recreation using a small motorized vehicle, suitable to move over snow and ice in the pristine backcountry regions filled with snow/ice. According to the International Trade Administration report (ITA, 2016), while considering the complete range of recreational transportation products, the snowmobile market has the most defined demand since these vehicles are used only in places with sufficient snow. The biggest markets include Canada, Finland, and Sweden. Snowmobile tourism operators are marketing a variety of snowmobile tours. There are guided tours as well. For example, Tourism Whistler (https://www.whi stler.com/activities/snowmobiling/) promotes the snowmobiling tours such as Family Snowmobile Tour, Scenic Snowmobile Tour (usually at a slower pace), Wilderness Snowmobile Tour, Fresh Tracks Snowmobile Tour, Mountain Explorer Snowmobile Tour, Fly and Ride Combo (Snowmobiling plus Ziplines), etc. A snowmobile tour is reported in Fig. 12.2. Climate change is causing impacts on snowmobile recreational activities in some locations. For instance, Scott et al. (2008) pointed out that as global warming is increasing, natural snow turns out to be a scarce resource that is affecting the snowmobile industry, and the winter seasons will get shrinked considerably. Also, snowmobiling takes place on natural snowfall due to the linear nature and long distances of snowmobile trails, which hints at the practical difficulty of the artificial method of the snow-making system.

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Fig. 12.2 Snowmobile tour at Yellowstone National Park. Courtesy Great Scott/Wikipedia Commons, retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=810084

12.6.8 Water Skiing Waterskiing, according to Encyclopedia Britannica (www.britannica.com), is a sort of movement over the surface of the water onboard a ski-like runner. The runner is towed by a motorboat that moves at a minimum speed of 24 km/hr (15 mph). This can be done in lakes, rivers, and sometimes oceans. For tourist destinations with suitable water bodies, this recreational activity is a major attraction for adventure lovers to make a splash on the watery. The participant can feel the thrill of the waters splashing across their face as they surf along the waters. For those who love the speed, fun, and excitement, water skiing is a good form of adventure activity on water bodies. As the speed of the boat increases, the skiing experience becomes more exhilarating.

12.6.9 Surf Crafts Indeed a wide variety of surf crafts are there to choose from, and all are capable of providing exhilarating experiences on water bodies. Table 12.3 shows the typology of surf craft seen in the recreational spectrum. Bodyboards, paddleboards, sailboards, surf skis, kayaks, wave skis, shortboards, longboards, fish/hybrids, soft boards, and kite surfing boards are some of the major among them. Tourist destinations ideally utilize the scope of water sports or recreational transport forms to provide a good tourist experience, particularly for those who prefer to have adrenalin-high experiences. Relaxation, fun, adventure, drive experience, engaging in sports, testing the

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Table 12.3 Surf craft typology Short board With thruster or quad fins, thin, light, and generally around 5–7 foot long

Longboard/Mal A large surfboard, typically 8–12 feet long, with a round nose

Fish/Hybrid Shorter, flatter and wider than a short board, and with a rounded profile and swallow tail

Stand-up paddleboard Users have to stand, and use a paddle to propel themselves

Paddleboard-racing mal It is a 10' 6'' paddleboard, propelled using the arms while lying flat or kneeling

Prone paddleboard It is of 12–20 feet in length, propelled using the upper body and hands in a kneeling or prone position

Body board It is a short, rectangular foam board, ridden in the prone position

Soft board Skim board It is highly incredibly buoyant, A shorter and thinner than a stable, and easy to ride surfboard, with no fins. User runs and jumps onto the board

Surf kayak It is with flat bottoms, hard rail, and three or four fins. Double-sided kayak paddles are there to propel

Surf Ski Traditional spec-ski and ocean ski are there, for long-distance paddling

Waveski Looks like a large surfboard with a seat, foot straps, and seat belt

Foil board (hydrofoil board) A surfboard with a hydrofoil extending below the board into the water, so that it can rise above water surface

Knee board Knee boarder is in kneeling stance, and can catch waves by paddling or kicking

Nipper board Looks like small racing mals with four straps. Used by children usually

Wind surfing/sail boarding It has a 2- to 3-m-long board, and is propelled by wind using an attached sail

Surf boat It is an oar-driven boat Used mainly for life saving missions

Kite surfing (or kite boarding) It combines elements of surfing, wakeboarding, snowboarding, and windsurfing

Source https://www.surfsportsforum.com/surfcraft-sports.html#:~:text=There%20are%20d ozens%20of%20varieties,hybrids%2C%20softboards%20and%20kitesurfing%20boards

skills, getting knowledge, sailing on a raft, and seeing the natural beauty around or heritage features are indeed incredible experiences. The urges and experiences of recreational transport can vary widely. Craft-based surfing activities allow tourists to remain closer to nature for a fantastic travel experience.

12.6.10 Windsurfing Windsurfing, also called ‘sailboarding’ and ‘boardsailing’, is an active sports cum leisure activity that combines the aspects of sailing and surfing. It is a wind-propelled water sport with a flexible triangle-shaped sail mounted on a board and is a delightful form of water sport. It involves a one-person craft for the movement. Currently, in

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addition to the recreational use of windsurfing, various competitions are organized to test the skill and mastery of windsurfing capability. Moreover, this is a sports item for competition in Olympics as well.

12.6.11 Personal Water Craft (PWC)/Jet Ski Personal watercraft, also called jet ski or wave runner, is adrenaline-fueling water transport recreation. It is designed for one person as a stand-up model and has high maneuverability. There are sit-down models in which up to four people can sit. It is a fast-moving one that can make sharp turns, low-radius circling, and rapid acceleration. The run-over water surface gives an exhilarating experience as if flying over the water. Destinations with suitable water bodies arrange PWCs as an important recreational transport option for the tourists. According to Joanna Burger (1998), the usage trend of PWC has increased. The PWCs can travel as fast as general motor boats in extremely shallow waters and can go to many locations that cannot be accessed by conventional motor boats. The extensive usage of PWCs has multiple impacts, including water pollution, noise disturbance to the living beings, and the disruption to the bird population in the water bodies. An example of jet ski kick off is shown in Fig. 12.3. On the other hand, PWC is not a difficult mode of transport to ride and launch, and featured with relatively lower costs and maintenance requirements. The major market segment comprises young males with experience in sports and powerful machines. The PWCs that can be seated up to 4 people attract a wider range of people, including

Fig. 12.3 A jet ski kick off. Courtesy Feras Nabil Battikh/ Wikipedia Commons, https://commons. wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33860164

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families (Whitfield & Roche, 2007). In some regions, clubs have many roles in the management and operations of PWCs.

12.6.12 White-Water Rafting White-water rafting is an exciting river-based recreational activity using modern Rafts made up of materials that can withstand water dynamics, maneuver in complicated water bodies, and provide safety. Of late, it has been promoted as a guided commercial activity, and kayak trips and river-boarding or river-sledding are also seen in many locations in the world (Buckley, 2009). However, it began in a commercial form in the late 1950s and has grown substantially to become a popular adventure tourism cum recreation activity (Jamal et al., 2019). Whitewater rafting satisfies the need of tourists to interact with nature and provides an energizing recreational experience. Moreover, the tourist experience is influenced by the rafting skill of the tourist and the level of challenge and playfulness of the rafting activity. It develops a positive mood and leads to tourist loyalty (Wu et al., 2011). Multiple motivations are there for the travelers and participants of white-water tourism. It’s a form of adventure recreation using a water transport vehicle, and the participants usually seek adventure, physical activity, thrill, and social objectives. Weber (2001) points out that rafting provides a sense of accomplishment and selffulfillment, along with a new experience while testing the limits of the participant’s strengths. Pomfret and Bramwell (2016) identified unique experience, enjoyment, socializing, natural environment, flow, and playfulness as the prime motivations in white-water rafting. A study by Fluker and Turner (2000) reveals that white-water tourists without prior rafting experience focus on the action of white-water rafting by attempting a new experience and trying adventure alternatives, along with having the willingness to take risks to achieve the aims. But those with prior experience are more relaxed, have more realistic expectations, and expect ancillary benefits like being with friends in a natural environment. Albayrak and Caber (2017) state that white-water rafting motivations include intellectual, social, competence/mastery, and stimulus/avoidance urges. According to Albayrak and Caber (2017), the market segments of white-water rafting tourists include the following: • • • •

Active vacationers Reluctant vacationers Moderate vacationers Challenge seeker vacationers.

The increasing popularity attracts more and more tourists, and destinations having suitable water bodies are increasingly arranging white-water rafting options to enhance their attractiveness. Non-motorized forms of water-moving recreational forms are also there. Kiteboarding/kite surfing is an example where the kite is used to harness the wind’s power and move around on a board. The term kite surfing is used for surfing in the

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water bodies, and kiteboarding can be used for surfing both on land as well as on water bodies, with the assistance of a kite. This is a younger recreational form using commercialized kites and surfboards, and attracts young people, especially young men and boys (Smits, 2018).

12.7 Lad-Based Recreational Transportation A wide variety of land-based recreational vehicles are used in tourism. Most landbased recreational transport services are relatively less risky than those in air and water transportation. Two distinct categories, road based and rail based, can be seen in association with leisure tourism. Considering the diversity, the following classification can be done in the land-based recreational movement linked to leisure tourism. • • • •

Road-based recreational transport Off-road recreational transport Rail-based recreational transport Transport-linked attractions (e.g., heritage railway stations, transport museums, etc.) • Vehicle-less recreational movement (e.g., movement over the recreational walking trail). Of the above, the last two are not direct transport forms and are used for recreation purposes. Still, those attractions are indirectly linked to transportation. For example, walking is a form of movement, which is the purpose of transportation. However, it can be connected to recreational movement when the destination provides it as an alternative transport option.

12.7.1 Hop-on Hop-off Tours In major tourist cities worldwide, hop-on-hop-off double-deck buses are very popular and part of the urban tourism system while playing a unique role in tourism over there (Yuo et al., 2022). This type of bus enables the tourist to get on and off as needed, and the opportunity is to have incredible sightseeing at an exciting pace of movement. Hop-on Hop-off bus trip usually has a circular trip, enabling tourists to get on and off at any predestined, must-see attractions en route. This helps cover more tourist sites in less time when multiple sights are visited in a single day. The hop-on hop-off bus ride in urban centers often reflects a familiar feature in a strange environment. Along with covering attractions, the trip would also focus on shopping opportunities, preferably in the souvenir sector. These are usually typically priced, similar to coach travel options. This gives the tourist a hassle-free movement by avoiding taxis etc. to see different places. The

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Fig. 12.4 Open loop New York hop-on hop-off tour bus. Courtesy Wikipedia Commons

availability of an interpreter or a guide can help to have a good amount of information about the areas visited. Some cities give regular hop-on hop-off services, and by purchasing a ticket, the tourist can have unlimited travel within the intended period of validity of the ticket. The view from the top of the bus is as if on a moving terrace. Figure 12.4 shows an example of an hop-on hop-off tour. The circular trips may also connect different nodes. Certainly, hop-on hop-off trips offer a distinguishable way of sightseeing that can greatly enhance the tourist experience. This service may not be possible in every location. Usually, these are seen in cities with distinguishable constructions and tourist attractions. Similar services are seen in tourist destinations as well, where heritage and natural attractions are there, with adequate space to have a circular trip. Hop-on, hop-off tours are considered the most efficient way for a time-sensitive tourist to fulfill their main objectives when visiting a city (Zhang et al., 2019). Indeed, mobile sightseeing is a splendid experience, which is remarked as “a visually cinematic” experience of moving landscape images (Larsen, 2001). Sometimes, these trips are theme based as well. Local conditions are suitable for a double-decker ride for this type of tourism ride.

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12.7.2 Recreation Vehicles (RVs) The term “recreation vehicle” generally applies to road vehicles equipped or designed for lodging and transportation (Green, 1978). RVs are “a complex amalgam of interlocking machines, social practices and ways of dwelling, not in a stationary home, but in a mobile, semi-privatized capsule” (Sheller & Urry, 2000). RV tourists constitute a group of highly mobile travelers primarily motivated by a desire to experience freedom and escape the mundane routine life (Hardy & Gretzel, 2011). “RV tourists’ intension for mobile life can also be treated as the intension for novelty experiences out of their familiar routine life” (Cheng, 2019). Decades ago, Green (1978) opined that Recreation vehicle (RV) preferences by income category suggest alternative modes of recreation travel and a vacation lifestyle which has considerable appeal. This ‘RV lifestyle’ is featured with a strong desire to experience the outdoors and socialize with other campers while retaining the comforts and conveniences of a familiar domicile. Recreation vehicle tourism usually occurs within countries and is generally confined to continental boundaries (Green, 1978). Senior people may use RVs for extended periods of time for long distances (Mcclymont et al., 2011). RV use is increasing the world over. In 2017, new registrations of RVs in Europe totaled 190,480 (www.privacyshield.com). Based on the statistics of the European Caravan Federation, in 2016, there were 567,000 RVs in the Netherlands, of which 462,000 were caravans and 105,000 were motorized caravans (www.privacyshield.com). Motorized caravans are popular, particularly among the Netherlands population aged 55 years and above. In Table 12.4 the number of RVs in some European countries is reported. Caravans also have a special place in leisure tourism. Caravans are highly popular in Europe, and just before the pandemic that shattered global tourism, the caravan sector recorded incredible growth. The report of the European Caravan Federation reveals the following. Caravanning holidays remain one of the most popular leisure activities of Europeans. In 2019 itself, more than 210,000 new motor caravans were sold. Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, and Austria registered record growth in terms Table 12.4 Number of RVs in use in some European countries (2013) (in 000s)

Total RVs

Trailers

Motorhomes

Europe

5,500

1,600

3,900

Germany

1,330

450

880

France

1,262

417

845

Great Britain

700

175

526

Netherland

547

85

462

Spain

360

30

330

Sweden

346

66

280

Italy

266

207

59

Source ITA (2016)

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of sales of caravans in 2019. The Netherlands, Denmark, and Finland also had seen remarkable growth in the sale of caravans (ecf, 2020).

12.7.3 Cycling Tourism Cycling is an important recreational activity, and tourism is witnessing an increasing significance of cycling tourism. Han et al. (2020) point out that cycling tourism could gain popularity worldwide for its high values in physical/mental health, social connections, entertainment, and sustainability aspects over recent years. The significance of cycling tourism is increasing every year, especially since the debate on climate change and the issue of carbon emissions is on the increase. Destinations seek alternative recreational transport forms, and cycling is considered one of the most suitable, irrespective of urban-rural differences. Further to its use as a transport mode, it is being used as a prominent recreational activity by destinations and industries within tourism. Resorts and hotels also ensure cycling facilities within their premises and for rides in the countryside. The details of cycling tourism are dealt with in a separate chapter in this book.

12.7.4 Golf Car/Golf Cart/LSV The golf car is increasingly used for various recreational purposes now. According to International Trade Administration’s report (ITA, 2016), a golf car represents a vehicle used to transport golfers, clubs, and bags on the golf course. Golf cars may be electric powered, or use gas for powering the engines. The terms such as golf car, golf cart, and LSV are used interchangeably in the context of golf. LSV stands for low-speed vehicle. Carts are technically not meant for self-propelling, making the fundamental difference between a golf cart and a golf car. Similar vehicles in the same terminology having higher capacity are in service now. Golf cars are actually meant for transporting the golfers through a golf course. Of late, golf carts are used outside the golf courses as part of leisure tourism. Selfpropelled golf cars are used in shopping malls, leisure attractions, heritage centers, etc. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the USA has identified three golf cart types (Brand, 2016), such as: • Fleet golf cart • Personal golf cart • Speed-modified golf cart. A fleet golf cart with a speed of less than 20 mph and used only within a golf course. The personal golf cart is also powered by either electric motors or internal combustion engines, and has a speed of less than 20 mph. They are used not only in golf courses

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but also in other locations. The speed-modified golf cart is considered LSV when the speed is 20 mph or greater and is modified with more parts. Nowadays, larger golf cars are in use in leisure tourism. Even city tours are promoted in the name of golf cars/carts. In heritage and natural attractions also, golf cars are used. Electric-powered cars are used as an alternative mode of transportation as well.

12.7.5 All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs)/Quad Bike All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) is an off-road-specific vehicle that can move over unpaved or rough terrain found in grasslands, mountain trails, coastal sands, deserts, etc. Light utility vehicles (LUV) and quad bike are other terms used in this context. It is a three/four-wheel motorized vehicle that moves on various types of unpaved terrain. It is with large low-pressure tires, seats designed to be straddled, handlebars for steering, and motorcycle-type engines (Rodgers & Adler, 2001). ATVs are used for different purposes. As part of tourism, ATVs are used as a recreational transport option. ATV use is common in coastal sand dunes and deserts. In desert-based tourist destinations, quad bikes are promoted among adventure-loving tourists.

12.7.6 Walking as Recreation and Walking Trails Though walking is not a movement of people using any mode of transportation, it is treated as one among the alternative mode of travel in the destinations while discussing the sustainability aspects. Indeed, walking is considered important for mental and physical health; it can be an ideal option for movement within ecologically sensitive tourist destinations. Suitable topographic conditions and climate constitute important aspects to consider while promoting walking as a recreational movement option. Furthermore, it is of paramount importance to have ideal walking trails to promote walking in tourist destinations. For instance, Davies et al. (2012: 79) describe the essential aspects of a walking trail in the following way. The term trail is used to refer to a long-distance route, say over 30 miles or 48 km, and will attract those who want to walk long distances and short-duration walkers. Archaeology, industrial history, wildlife, and other historical sites provide further points of interest for potential visitors to the trail. This falls within the remit of the regional planning frameworks seeking to encourage walking as a tourism activity, increasing social inclusion, and providing more opportunities for environmentally sustainable forms of recreation.

Destinations, particularly rural tourism destinations, are urged to provide walking trails as well as pathways for those who prefer to walk instead of using motorized transport modes. Therefore, it is essential to have suitable walking trails and walkways without the disturbances of other vehicles. Moreover, green walkways are preferred with good landscape or scenery around.

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241

12.7.7 Other Road-Based Recreation Vehicles in Use In order to enhance the spectrum of recreational opportunities and rides, destinations are interested in operating innovative and attractive road transport vehicles as well. The following are some examples. • Historical trams • Horse-drawn coaches and sleighs • Vintage buses and automobiles.

12.8 Rail-Based Recreational/Leisure Tourism Rail transport is considered an ideal mode of transport in tourism. Being one of the most eco-friendly modes of transport, there is a demand for enhancing rail-based transportation into and within tourism destinations. Rail services, rail transport infrastructure, and heritage aspects are promoted as part of tourism. A separate chapter on rail tourism is there in this book. The following types of recreational aspects of railways can be seen. • Luxury tourist trains (trains that are offered only for tourism purposes, and are part of package holidays) • Heritage trains (use of heritage trains/bogies for attracting tourists, and those are pulled by steam engines, etc. that can generate nostalgia of the past) • Heritage rail infrastructure, like railway stations, rail routes, etc. • Rail heritage museums • Toy trains • Mini-trains are used for short trips into heritage attractions, etc.

12.9 Air-Based Recreational Transport Activities Dileep and Kurien (2021), in their book on air transport and tourism interrelationship, identified the following aircraft-based recreational transport tourism activities. • Heli-tourism It’s an umbrella term that represents diverse tourism/recreational activities using helicopters. In addition to helicopter-based sightseeing as an attraction, the following are commonly seen in destinations. – Heli-fly fishing: Having a trip on helicopters to remote destinations and engaging in fishing activity. – Heli-picnicking: Engage in a picnic by reaching on a helicopter to a natural attraction. – Heli-wine tours: Combining heli-trip with wine tours

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– Heli-skiing: Recreational skiing after reaching the mountain on helicopters. – Heli-biking: Engage in biking to remote destinations by accessing them on helicopters. – Heli-mountaineering: Reaching mountain peaks and engaging in different kinds of trekking. • Seaplane: Using seaplanes for recreational flights over beautiful water bodies and adjacent landscapes. • Hot air ballooning tourism: Enjoy the quiet ride and the bird’s eye view of the scenery below. • Paragliding, Hang gliding and para motoring • Skydiving: Diving from a recreational aircraft and using a parachute to descend and land. • Air Safari: Explore scenic places and wildlife on a suitable aircraft. In addition to the above, cable-ways and funiculars are also used in the mountainous areas and the valleys, for sightseeing flights, etc.

12.10 Conclusion Destinations seek to have more recreational transportation activities to enhance the touristic appeal and to diversify the tourist attractions. More and more tourists are now interested in engaging in activities while visiting the destinations. Transportationbased recreational activity can provide an exhilarating experience to tourists. Destinations are interested in adding transportation-based recreation activities on the water, air, and land media of transportation. The segment of leisure tourism transportation, like cruise tourism and the leisure tourism holidays using luxury tourist trains, is also growing tremendously. Furthermore, transport-linked tourism attractions are increasingly being utilized to expand the tourism attractiveness of the destinations. Waterbased recreational transportation includes recreational marine as well as inlandwater recreational transportation activities. Most of them are adventurous activities as well. In the case of land-based recreational transportation, a variety of activities are there in road-based, off-beat, and rail-based transportation sectors. Air-based recreational transportation is there using both lighter-than-air aircraft and heavierthan-air aircraft. As active and experiential tourism have increased significance in international tourism, the scope for recreational transportation is also growing.

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Chapter 13

Air Transport and Tourism

13.1 Introduction Indeed, the majority of the tourists, more than fifty percent of those crossing borders each year, arrive at their destinations by air transport. According to United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO, 2012), the proportion is much higher in many parts of the world, including most long-haul and developing country destinations, especially small islands, and landlocked states. The dependence of tourism on air transport has been evolving steadily since the beginning of aviation in the early decades of the last century. The technological advancements in aviation during the World Wars led to the emergence of a mass transportation mode. The advent of jet engines greatly enhanced the air transport capabilities, which facilitated the establishment of commercial air transportation soon after the end of the Second World War. By that time, charter operations had advanced and turned out to be a cheaper alternative to scheduled passenger transportation, enabling leisure tourism to grow further. Sooner, wide-body aircraft with advanced jet engines were introduced into commercial transportation, which could benefit the tourism sector substantially. As a result, long-haul travel became easier, and long-haul tourism progressed tremendously, enabling tourism to expand into more regions worldwide. Within a short span of time, the number of international tourist destinations increased significantly. By the late 1970s, the trend of Deregulation began in the USA and later in other regions worldwide. The air transport sector recorded a sudden rise in dynamism which could result in dramatic changes. The number of airlines increased, and increasing competition facilitated the reduction of airfares and enhanced the quality of services. Increasing privatization and the establishment of Open Sky policies stimulated travel demand greatly, and the number of international tourist arrivals got a fillip. Toward the end of the last century, the new business models in air transportation, mainly the low-cost carriers (LCCs), suddenly started to play a key role in leisure tourism, especially in the short-haul markets. Soon, LCCs began to play an increasing role in the expansion of tourism into more regions and the growth of tourism at national, international, and regional levels. With an emphasis on package holidays, Charter © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_13

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tourism survived the challenges of the scheduled airlines and still maintains a significant share in the leisure tourism sector. The emergence of Hybrid carriers also stimulated tourism demand further. The progress of tourism in destinations acted as a catalyst in the increase of air traffic demand. Thus, both air transport and tourism share a mutually dependent and symbiotic relationship. The dependence of tourism on air transport is poised to increase further in the years to come, which will cause air transport to be the predominant sector in international tourism.

13.2 The Increasing Significance of Air Transport in Tourism Air transport has, for certain, become a part and parcel of modern tourism. The significance of air transport is increasing every year. No other mode of transport enables people to access far away regions as air transport does. In international tourism, the dominance of air transport was seen in the long-haul sector in the early years of its evolution. Distance is a concern in tourism, and the increase in the distance between the tourist origin place and the destination region enhances the need and demand for air transportation. Papatheodorou and Zenelis (2013) specify that the significance of air transport for tourism is proportional to the distance between the origin place and the destination city, as the majority of other forms of transport cannot support a long-haul transport service in a comfortable and time-saving way as possible by air transport. In addition to the speed of accessing the destination, air transport also provides the required comfort in moving to the destination. Moreover, air transport has its charm and the lure to attract people to fly over the sky. Though air transport has dominated only in the long-haul sector for a long time, the latest trends reveal that air transport is increasing its share in medium and short-haul tourism as well. The increasing affordability, convenience, rising economic standards of the people, the emergence of low-cost Carriers (LCCs) and Hybrid carriers, etc., contribute to the growing popularity of air transport in tourism. Of late, air transport has turned out to be the backbone of the tourism industry, and the reciprocal correlation between the two sectors is inseparable. This is more relevant in international tourism, and the bond is increasing along with the evolution of tourism to newer heights. More than half of the international tourist arrivals depend on the air transport sector to access destinations. While both sectors enjoy a symbiotic relationship, the advancements in each sector complement the evolution of each other. A crisis in the air transport sector adversely affects tourism and vice versa. For instance, the 9/11 terror attacks in the USA in 2001 had an immediate and substantial impact on worldwide air travel. They led to a quick and steep drop in international visitor arrivals in the USA and many other parts of the world (Baker, 2014). Similarly, in the very next year, on 12 October 2002, two bomb blasts devastated tourist resorts

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in Bali, Indonesia, leaving more than 200 people dead (www.socialstyrelsen.se), and it led to the sudden downfall of tourist arrivals into the region, causing a sudden decline of air transport demand as well. Air transport is an essential enabler to achieving tourism growth and expansion on a global scale. The absence of air transport connectivity will limit destinations from competing internationally. Air accessibility is inevitable for tourist destinations, except for a few ecologically sensitive niche tourist destinations. Moreover, tourism growth at a destination, country, and international level depends largely on air transport. Air transport can augment tourist arrivals, fostering the growth of tourism further. Likewise, tourism can expand geographically with the assistance of air transportation. Countries can expand tourism into more locations through air transport-related infrastructure development and by augmenting the supply. If you look at the growth of tourism after the Second World War, the role played by air transportation in the global expansion of tourism is visible. The eastern hemisphere of the world became easily accessible by establishing direct routes from many other major cities, and the use of wide-body aircraft had a catalytic role in the rise of mass tourism destinations in the east. Countries with tourism potential expanded their aviation infrastructure, particularly; newer airports were constructed along with the development of the existing ones. The emergence of tourism in faraway destinations with the help of air transportation gave way to the incredible progress of longhaul tourism. Moreover, many remote locations also started getting air connectivity, enabling them to utilize their potential to establish vibrant tourism economies.

13.2.1 Integrating the Markets and Industry Together No other business sector needs transport services to unite the market and industry as the tourism sector requires. Market Access is vital in tourism, especially since the source markets are geographically fragmented. Air transport integrates the tourism markets that are spread in different locations with the destinations. It ensures vital connectivity on a national, regional, and international scale. The inevitability of global connectivity is critical to the progress of tourism. For instance, Gunn and Var (2002) state that air transport is considered an ideal transport mode in international tourism, and travelers benefit from better transportation accessibility by having more accessible and more comfortable travel. The elements of the tourism system are geographically dispersed. Tourists, the consumers, are from different geographical regions. Most industries are located in the destination region, yet within the destination also, they are situated at different locations. Moreover, the location of tourist attractions can be different from that of accommodation centers. Traditionally, the significance of air transport is seen more in inter-regional and inter-continental travel. Currently, air transport, to a great extent, is the sole service provider to tourists on most of the inter-regional and inter-continental routes. The

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tourist movements between two developed continents, such as Europe and the Americas, primarily use air transportation. When oceans separate the regions, the probability of using air transport is high. Market-destination integration is there at a global level as well. At times, the tour itineraries are at an international level by covering several tourist destinations located on different continents. Such a kind of journeys are possible only with the help of air transport services, except in the case of cruises. There are cruise tour itineraries that span multiple continents. Speed, comfort, and convenience of air transport constitute the reasons for the highest preference for air transport by tourists for long-distance travel. Though land transport has a high stake in the intra-regional tourist movements, air transport also started to have increasing significance in those routes. The rise of new business models in air transport, like low-cost carriers (LCCs) and Hybrid carriers, paved the way for strengthening air transport in intra-regional transport. According to Fageda et al. (2017), the dominance of LCCs in intra-European routes has assisted the promotion of tourism within Europe as low-cost airlines can offer services at lower prices than network airlines. These new airlines are smart players enabling quality transport services at reduced rates and making air transport more affordable for the people, causing the rise in demand. While some of the services on board are compromised, LCCs provide the service of transporting people at a lower cost. Though LCCs have limited service features, the convenience and speed remain the same. Of late, Air transport is turning out to be significant in domestic tourism as well. Although road transport still retains the upper hand in domestic tourism, the role of air transport is growing. The emergence of LCCs and Hybrid carriers is a major contributor, particularly in the New and Emerging Markets. Asian markets like China, India, and Indonesia are recording the increasing presence of air transport in domestic tourism. The air transport sector is also growing incredibly in those countries. Domestic tourism is also significantly benefited by the presence of air transport services as it can play an essential role in linking domestic destinations (Prideaux & Whyte, 2014). Along with the growth of air transportation at a global level, the world, in effect, is getting shrunk, virtually. Places in any corner of the world are accessible by air travel. The time required to reach places is hardly some hours. However, once upon a time, it took days and weeks to travel from one corner of the world to another. Passenger ship services were prominent in international transportation for several centuries. However, air transport brought comfort and speed along with safety. This facilitated the growth of tourism greatly as tourists from any location in the world can reach any destination in any other corner of the world in less than a day, provided there is direct air connectivity. The lessening travel time causes the nearness of the destination for the tourists. Another aspect noticed in the parlance of international tourism is that air transportation could enable many destinations to rise up and compete in the global market. Bieger and Wittmer (2006) believe that air transport is the prime mode in many destinations, up to 100% in some destinations. Airlines, the organizations that organize air transport services, are instrumental in channelizing tourism demand into

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the destinations. Air transport enables most island destinations to manage the status of international destinations. Moreover, some remote destinations became popular by having air accessibility. Gareth James, former Secretary of European Travel and Tourism Action Group (ETAG) (James, 2012) wrote that “Without airlines some continents, many countries, regions, and islands would have remained inaccessible for most of us and even established destinations would have had far fewer tourists or in many cases no tourists at all” (James, 2012: 18). Bieger and Wittmer (2006) also pointed out that air transport, in addition to opening up of new destinations, becomes a reason for the emergence of new forms of tourism like long-haul tours. Long-haul tourism became prominent once air transport became a primary mode of transportation for international travel. Dileep and Kurien (2021) also noticed that new forms of tourism, like short-haul city tourism, stopover tourism, etc., are popular now due to the entry and establishment of LCCs and Hybrid carriers in the leisure tourism market. Further, adding air transport into a region can alter the tourist arrival patterns along with the rise in tourist arrivals from varied locations to destinations. Likewise, Khadaroo and Seetanah (2007) also argue that the provision of suitable transport could transform dead centers of tourist interests into active and economically dynamic places attracting people in large numbers. International tourism involves crossing borders of the country. While using land transport, a tourist may have to pass through some other countries as well before entering the final destination for a visit. On the other hand, air transportation enables a tourist to pass over other nations without entering them and reach the final destination hassle-free. Thus, the tourist can go directly to the destination country, and it gives tourists the advantage of escaping from obtaining multiple visas/travel permits and need not undergo emigration procedures of countries other than the destination.

13.2.2 Additional Roles of Air Transport in Tourism Air transport enhances the mobility of the people immensely. At times, air transport is the reason for the emergence of hypermobility, which indicates the widespread movement of a small number of people. For tourists, air transport is a mobility enhancer. Along with the common features of air transport such as speed and comfort for longdistance travel, the increasing affordability, rising income level, widening of the route network, increasing frequency of operation, etc., make it more convenient for tourist travel along with consequent mobility enhancement. Along with the introduction of air transport to a destination and its development, the destination gets further accessible to international communities. This can spur the trade and commerce potential in the region. Moreover, the overall productivity of the destination will be increased. Furthermore, air transport is an enabler of investment both in and out of countries and regions. More investments will flow into the destination, not only in tourism but also in other sectors. The role of air transport as a stimulator of investments, including foreign direct investment (FDI), becomes meaningful.

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The development in air transport certainly facilitates the growth of other transport sectors in the destination as well. The airport/s within the destination need linkages with the rest of the destination, and additional transport infrastructure and connectivity will be developed. Eventually, the transport services and efficiency of transport will be improved by the introduction/expansion of air transport to a destination. Moreover, air transport helps to improve the supply chain’s efficiency. Dileep and Kurien (2021) summarize the roles of air transport in tourism as follows. • • • • • • • • • • •

Evolution and development of tourism Rise of new destinations at the international level The emergence of new forms of tourism in a destination Ensuring direct link, which enables convenient and comfortable access to the destination. Reduces the distance by direct routes and the speed of the movement Instill and intensify tourism demand Some of the air transport elements act as attractions Air transport, particularly charter trips, facilitates the destinations in offsetting seasonality Influences the buying decision-making by the tourists Enhances tourist experience Marketing and promotion, etc., by the air transport industries, like airports, airlines, etc.

13.3 Critical Role of Airlines and Airports Airlines have a critical role in international tourism. Airlines are the ultimate transport provider and ensure a quality travel experience. According to Ivanova (2017), Airlines are the most influential players in the air transport sector, and it performs the core function of transportation from one point to another. As the primary link between the destinations and the markets, airlines provide very comfortable, fastest, and most convenient journeys for tourists. The increasing affordability of air transport ensures increasing access to tourist destinations. While looking at the air transport scenario in tourism, it can be seen that full-service carriers (FSCs), low-cost carriers (LCCs), and Hybrid carriers play separate roles. Full-service carriers, through the hub and spoke system, interlining and codeshare agreements, along with membership in airline alliances, ensure a wide network of routes which enable the destinations to get linked to the nuke and corner of the world. Business tourism is more related to full-service carriers. Of late, leisure tourists also increasingly depend on FSCs to access destinations. The experience of having a flight on FSCs is better for the travellers as they provide the highest comfort level and services among the different types of scheduled airlines. Moreover, FSCs also promote tourist destinations by way of including destination features and travelogues in the inflight magazines, etc. Furthermore, they operate package holidays to destinations.

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The provision of stopovers and transit opportunities as part of international journeys that involve connecting flights enables tourists to visit those cities where the transit arrangement is available. Cities are increasingly using stopover provisions to enhance the number of foreign visits. Stopover hub locations are also indicated as a type of ‘quasi-destinations,’ as they mainly possess the “services and facilities that have potential effects of attracting interest from stopovers to revisit the hub city as a future stayover visitor” (Tang et al., 2017). According to Dileep and Kurien (2021), the network carriers are preferred more in long-distance journeys due to the better comfort level, quality in-flight services and entertainment, convenience, and other benefits associated with alliances. LCCs began their race to make an impact in air transportation by the 1970s, and the deregulation process stimulated the rise of LCCs as a major player in the movement of people from place to place. By the 1990s, LCCs started to have a significant role in leisure tourism. Moreover, it began to take away a share of charter carriers, particularly in the shorthaul leisure tourism market. According to Castillo-Manzano et al. (2011), LCCs are proven instrumental in maintaining or enhancing visitor arrivals to destinations. European Low Fares Airline Association (ELFAA) summarizes the benefits of having LCCs in tourism in the following manner. • Progress in tourism activities, primarily due to secondary airports in destination countries. • Reduction in the effects of seasonality in the destinations. • Mid-week holiday travel increased due to the low off-peak fares provided by the LCCs (ELFAA, 2004). They enable better geographical distribution of tourism in a country and affect domestic, regional, and international tourism. Hybrid airlines provide better comfort levels and services than LCCs, and their potential in medium-haul destinations is high. It has already started attracting leisure tourists, and destinations are getting the benefits of having the services of hybrid airlines. Airports have a significant role in the development of tourism in destinations. They are an essential element of a destination’s transportation mix. According to Castillo-Manzano et al. (2011), more airlines join DMOs as marketing vehicles. Joint marketing relationships between airlines and destinations are there. Some promotional efforts are sponsored by the DMOs, whereas others are done on a mutually agreed basis. From the role of facilitators, airports are being transformed into experience-provider cum enhancers for a tourist. Airports are turned out to be inseparable from their destinations, particularly in the case of international tourist centers. Along with the progress of tourism in destinations, either new airports are built, or the existing ones are expanded to cater to the growing requirements of tourist movements. In many cases, airports and destination management organizations act together to promote tourism. Dileep and Kurien (2021) summarized the following roles of airports in promoting tourism in destinations.

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• The airport becomes an essential element in a destination’s ‘pull factors’ influencing tourists’ decision-making. • The airport is a location for the first and the last impression about a destination in the minds of the tourists. • Airports act as Gateways to tourist destinations, where entry and exit formalities can also be undertaken. • The point of safety and security measures. • On behalf of the destination, the airport acts as a point of information about the destination, thus assuming the role of a concierge. • Space for destination marketing by way of accommodating displays, banners, advertisements, digital promotional materials, etc. • Location for tourists to book tourism services and facilities through the commercial outlets of major service providers seen in the arrival section of the airports. • Airports act as attractions by showcasing and offering tourist attractions within the premises of airports and providing supplementary services like spas, meeting venues, etc. • Airports provide opportunities for tourists to shop from duty-free shops and other commercials located within airports. • Airports act as a catalyst in destination development, as the scope for destination development is directly linked to the growth and expansion of airports as well. • A space for relaxation and entertainment for the tourists during when he/she is inside the airport. • Quality and level of services in airports contribute to the tourists’ overall experience.

13.4 Charter Flights Charter flights have a unique position in the leisure tourism market, as they offer unmatched privacy, affordability, flexibility, convenience, and freedom of choice of destination compared to scheduled air transport services. it is a kind of non-scheduled air transport service. Table 13.1 includes the characteristics of non-scheduled services in general. Modern leisure tourism has grown with the evolution of charter flight operations as well, particularly in Europe. Soon after the Second World War, charter flights increased affordability, convenience, and flexibility in the air transport market, which attracted leisure tourists more. Flight chartering is hiring flights for a specific period for a certain purpose. Usually, other agencies hire charter flights and utilize them for conducting package tours, etc. The US Department of transportation defines a charter flight as “… a flight that is not part of an airline’s published schedule…. Instead, charter flights are typically operated for specific unscheduled itineraries” (www.transportation.gov). Flights are chartered for multiple reasons. Conducting package holidays is one among them. The duration of the chartering in flight also varies. It can be for some hours or a day

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Table 13.1 Non-scheduled air services: characteristics • Operation is based on a contract on a point-to-point and plane-load basis • The operation can either be on an ad-hoc basis or a regular but seasonal basis • No public service obligations, as in the case of scheduled air carriers, such as the requirement to operate flights according to a published timetable regardless of the load factor • High operational flexibility concerning choices of airports, hours of operation, and other operational and service requirements • High financial risk for underutilized payload for the charterer, instead of the aircraft operator • Carriers usually do not have direct control over retail prices, as they are managed by the intermediary involved • Operation is subject to seeking permission or giving prior notification, for each flight or series of flights, to/from the country of origin, destination, or both Source Modified from ICAO (2016)

to many days, weeks, or months. According to Wells and Chadbourne (1994: 179), “Chartering an airplane is similar to hailing a taxi for a single trip. The charter operator provides each trip’s aircraft, flight crew, fuel, and other services. The party chartering the aircraft pays a fee based on hours flown or mileage plus extras such as aircraft waiting time and crew expenses”. Chartering a flight is convenient for transporting people or cargo at cheaper rates. As this is an unscheduled flight, the charter operator is not part of a regular airline route. The departure times and final destinations are fixed depending upon the need of the charter operator or the customer, and finalized as per the individual agreement between the hirer and the charter airline. “Charter products are able to support such multi-destination, multi-traveler itineraries with relative ease. Charter products, once viewed as executive perquisites, could become the sine qua non of medium to large businesses with consistently stable multiple traveler, multiple destination travel demand requirements” (Kaps et al., 2001: 97).

13.5 Types of Charter Services The charter flight sector consists of a range of charter services for the movement of passengers and cargo. Passenger movement is the most visible form and is currently seen more in the leisure tourism market. Freight movement using chartered flights is also getting increased significance, as the air cargo sector is on a growth trajectory. Commercial charter tourism includes inclusive tour charters (ITCs), affinity charters, and own-use charters (Wu & Hayashi, 2013). Chartered flights are also widely used for cargo movements. International Civil Aviation Organization classifies charter services into four types with the following sub-classifications (ICAO, 2016). • Passenger charter flights – Advance booking charter (ABC) or non-affinity group charter – Inclusive tour charter (ITC) – Affinity group charter

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Public charter Common purpose charter Special event charter Student charter Single entity charter or own-use charter

• Cargo charter flights – Chartered for resale purposes – Charterer’s own use • Combinations or variants of passenger and cargo charter flights – Mixed passenger/cargo charter – Split charter • Non-scheduled non-charter flights (on-demand air taxi service) for the carriage of individually ticketed or individually way-billed traffic.

13.5.1 Advance Booking Charter (ABC) or Non-Affinity Group Charter This type of charter flight arrangement for passenger movement is common in domestic as well as international sectors. Intermediaries do this type of arrangement, and they charter a flight and resell the seats to the public. A travel agent, tour operator, charter firm, or any other travel organizer hires a charter flight and arranges the trip. Certain regulatory conditions are followed, like cancellation conditions, stopover restrictions, etc. During and immediately after the pandemic, advance booking charter services got immense significance as the scheduled air transportation was stopped for some months. Even scheduled airlines promoted charter services for transporting people to other cities considering the demand during then.

13.5.2 Inclusive Tour Charter (ITC) Inclusive tour charter is the leading type of charter service utilized by tour operators efficiently. According to Law Insider (www.lawinsider.com), ITC represents “a charter under which an air carrier contracts with one or more tour operators to charter the entire passenger seating capacity of an aircraft, for resale by the tour operator or operators at an inclusive tour price per seat”. Tour operators use charter services to make package holidays, their prime products. They hire flights either in part or entirely. In the leisure tourism sector, ITCs play a key role, and traditionally, they acted as the backbone of the leisure tourism sector, particularly in the European

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markets. Charter-based tours may also remain significant as long as packaged holidays maintain their significance in the tourism market. For many destinations, ITCs are essential in maintaining regular inflow of tourists and in planning for tourism’s further development.

13.5.3 Affinity Group Charter An affinity tour is a group tour arranged as a packaged one for a group of people belonging to an organization or any other entity. According to Reilly (1991), it is a packaged holiday trip in which the membership is composed of individuals sharing some common affiliations, like membership in a club or organization or associationship with an educational institution or church. Charter flights are also used to carry affinity groups for spending holidays. According to the US Department of Transportation, “Affinity charters are charter flights where all passengers are members of a specific group or organization and pay for their airfare individually”. Compared to other forms of packaged tours, the difference is that the tour participants are from the same organization, etc., with interrelationships/common interests.

13.5.4 Special Event Charter There can be a charter arrangement for attending an event, etc. It is a kind of a common purpose charter. In this category, the flight may be arranged only for accessing a particular event. Attending sporting, social, religious, cultural, political, or other events of a special nature for a specific duration can be the reason for special event chartering. For example, special event charter flights can be arranged for a sports team or interested people to be part of Olympics when it is being held in some cities. Table 13.2 describes the charter airline clients and the motivations for using charter services.

13.5.5 Single Entity Charter An individual or company hires an entire airplane for its use for transporting passengers and/or cargo, with the cost borne solely by that entity and not shared directly or indirectly by the passengers or any others. The individual or company contracted the airplane will bear the entire cost, but the chartered flight will be used to transport passengers or cargo. The seats of the flight hired are not for resale. For example, a football club charters a flight for its team to participate in a competition in a foreign city.

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Table 13.2 Charter Airline clients and the reasons/benefits of using charter services The benefits and reasons for using the services of charter airlines by the major clients/customers, according to the Air Charter Association, are summarized below Executive aviation clients • Opportunity for doing confidential business in the air and use their time productively • The passenger needs privacy/discretion owing to their profile • Absence of convenient schedule of airline services • Charter service is more cost or time-efficient • The passengers have to reach somewhere quickly Tour operator/Large passenger groups • Absence of convenient schedule of airline services for their date/route/time • The travel is for a specific event such as a product launch or sporting competition • The travel is for a specific itinerary, like a cruise ship/vacation package/other seasonal charters • The travel is for a professional event like a conference/incentive charter • The passengers need an urgent evacuation from a crisis zone • Point-to-point travel from smaller local airports reduces travel time and overall costs Cargo logistics businesses • Absence of convenient schedule of airline services for their date/route/time • Size/shape issues of the freight or sending valuable or dangerous/specialised/perishable goods • The time of sending the freight is during a seasonal peak, and there is no scheduled freighter capacity • The consignment is transported for a particular schedule and needs to stay together, i.e., band freight or plant moves • The consignment is transported at short notice for emergency purposes Source The Air Charter Association https://www.theaircharterassociation.aero/why-charter/

13.5.6 Public Charter A public charter is like Advance Booking Charter; the seats are sold through intermediaries, often without regulatory requirements. The agency makes advertisements about the flight and sells seats directly or through a travel agent (US Department of transportation). The arrangement is made according to the demand.

13.5.7 Cargo Charter Flights The cargo agents/intermediaries charter flights for transporting cargo/freight. They may either use the flight for transporting their consignments or resell the space for carrying other’s cargo. Mixed passenger/cargo charters are also there.

13.6 Charter Carriers Akin to scheduled airlines, there are exclusive charter carriers also in the aviation markets. The focus of business of such charter carriers is to rent out flights or operate

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package tours using the flights. According to Carmona-Benitez and Lodewijks (2008), charter carriers rent out aircraft to fly on a specific route on specific days, have low operating costs, and are small-sized organizations with small profit margins. Wensveen describes the nature of charter airlines in the following way. “A charter airline offers services to destinations based on demand without using a published time schedule. In other words, the aircraft might be rented one time or multiple times to transport people or goods to specific destinations. This type of service is referred to as an ad-hoc charter. The more common type of charter caters to passengers seeking leisure-oriented destinations. Most airlines in the charter market operate by a nonpublished schedule to specific destinations on a seasonal basis” (Wensveen, 2009: 287). It indicates that charter carrier represents air transport service providers which involve diverse types of passenger and cargo operations using flights. The services offered are not based on published and regular schedules. Some intermediaries, such as tour operators, hire flights from charter carriers and undertake package holidays. Some scheduled commercial airlines provide charter flight services as well. They have suitable aircraft for renting as charter flights for various purposes. Moreover, vertically integrated companies are there which offer both charter flight services as well as leisure package holidays. In-house tour operation is there in some of the charter airline companies (Buck & Lei, 2004). While low-cost carriers have taken away a significant share of the customers from the holiday market, charter operators survive by having the advantage of all-inclusive package tourism, which have inherent advantages over independent holidaying using scheduled airlines (Buck & Lei, 2004). Business travelers are also increasingly seeking an alternative to commercial scheduled air services due to predatory fare practices by the scheduled airlines and the decreasing performance levels of such services (McCoppin, 2000). On-demand charter services in the business sector are also on the increase in some markets, like the USA. Hiring an aircraft and flight crew for a specific trip is the practice (Kaps et al., 2001). At times, charter airlines hire planes from other airlines (Lauring, 2014). Charter carriers diversify their business practices and ensure cost-effectiveness, which is utilized for gaining a market advantage. Characteristics of charter carriers are furnished in Table 13.3. Historically, charter carriers have focused more on the leisure tourism market since the end of the Second World War. The growth of charter tourism has been Table 13.3 Charter carriers: characteristics • Charter carriers are primary air service provider in leisure tourism sector in Europe • This is the pioneer low-cost air service provider in the world • Low unit cost due to dense seat configuration and high passenger load factors • Non-scheduled type of carrier, and sometimes have inconvenient schedules • Secondary airports are preferred to reduce airport costs and fees • Limited on-board services, while some serve meals and other may not • Primarily depends on long-haul travel • Point-to-point type of route network system is followed Source Modified from Papatheodorou and Lei (2006)

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evident and significant in the European market since then, and charter airlines have become a major player in international tourism sooner. During the 1960s and 1970s, charter tourism proliferated, particularly in the North Atlantic and European regions (Wu & Hayashi, 2013). It resulted in the emergence of a substantial share of charter services in international air travel in the North Atlantic (26%) and Europe (58% of international air traffic) (ICAO, 1977, reported in Wu & Hayashi, 2013). Packaged holidays were organized war from the United States (U.S.) after the second world by the supplemental carriers (charter carriers), to the destinations in Europe (Smith, 1998). Pearce (1987) has noted that the growth of inclusive tour charter (ITC) flights has played a critical role in the evolution of Mediterranean tourism during the 1970s and early 1980s. The domination of charter tourism remained in the European market for a long time. The trend of charter tourism expanded to other regions as well. Japan introduced affinity charters in the 1970s and ITCs in the 1980s (Wu & Hayashi, 2013). The Deregulation act 1978 in the USA had adverse effects on the charter sector as most of the supplemental carriers collapsed within years (Doganis, 2002). Though the sector has been growing, there were fluctuations in the charter tourism demand at regular intervals. The factors that cause inconsistency in demand include some tour operator practices, adverse economic environments, currency fluctuations, changing interest rates, and weather conditions. Later, by the 1990s, LCCs started taking over a significant share of Europe’s leisure market (particularly in the shorthaul routes) (Williams, 2001). Charter airlines responded to the challenge by offering seat-only sales, focusing on long-haul holidays, and optimizing aircraft utilization (Williams, 2010). In addition, due to the adverse financial situations, the sector faced vertical integration by mergers, takeovers and diversification of business practices by the major players (Papatheodorou, 2002). Of late, charter tourism is still contenting as a significant player in the tourism market. Though the threat of LCCs is still challenging, charter airlines retain competitiveness in the medium/long-haul routes (Dobruszkes, 2009).

13.6.1 Business Strategies of Charter Carriers Although charter airlines were a dominant player in short-haul routes, once the scheduled airlines, particularly the LCCs, started to increase their share, the focus of charter airlines moved more onto the medium and long-haul sectors. In addition to cargo movements and other types of charter transportation, leisure tourism is still the major market for charter carriers. The potential of charter flights in the business market segment is yet to tap fully. Kaps et al. (2001: 109) suggest the growing potential of charter flights in the business travel sector and argue that “Itinerary flexibility coupled with point-to-point service to vastly greater numbers of airports frequently closer to the travelers’ ultimate destination are powerful marketing tools that can be exploited by charter service providers to capture business travel revenue”. Typically charter airlines operate package tour services to medium or long-haul

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destinations, with a distance of over 2,000 km from the origin region (Buck & Lei, 2004). One of the prime strategies of charter airlines is to reduce the cost of operations. Different strategies they follow. While flying on longer routes, charter airlines ensure better aircraft and crew utilization, along with efficient fuel consumption per block hour (Williams, 2008). Moreover, the relative size of their station and maintenance expenses are lesser. Most charter flights have high/dense seating configurations and higher load factors, enabling them to carry more passengers/cargo. On the other hand, some luxury leisure flights may have fewer seats with low seat density and posh interiors to offer differentiated products. Moreover, many charter tourism agencies provide quality in-flight catering. Choosing charter airports is based on a combination of factors, including trends, safety and security factors, and cost (Wu et al., 2012). Charter airlines usually rent out flights weekly, enabling the operators to utilize the aircraft maximum for back-to-back operations to one or multiple destinations. Continuous legs of flights will be there that can help to have utmost aircraft utilization. Most charter flights prefer to land in non-busy airports/secondary airports, and that helps to reduce landing charges. Moreover, they prefer to use the airports at non-peak hours, which also helps to reduce costs. Generally, services focus is more seasonal, location-focused, and/or event-specific (Papatheodorou, 2002). During the seasons, the highest number of operations will be performed. Though LCCs have become a strong competitor for charter carriers, charter services still have the highest seat occupancy rates among different passenger air transport service providers. As per estimates, the seat occupancy in the leisure charter tourism sector is more than 90% (Williams, 2008). Regarding pricing, charter carriers follow a different strategy than LCCs and FSCs. While LCCs increase the price along with the nearing departure date, charter carriers usually increase the discount on the price set earlier. Further, there are possibilities of flight cancellation due to low occupancy, and some charter carriers may rent out vacant seats to other carriers when unsold seats are there. Therefore, longer-duration flight is a strategy for charter carriers now. They, on average, fly on routes of 2000 km, and the average seat capacity is 224 passengers. Moreover, the charter flight movement is featured with high load factors, and the occupancy rate is the highest (more than 90%) among different airline models (Williams, 2001). Therefore, the distribution of charter flights is a bit more complicated, and it has been a weakness of charter services. On the other hand, scheduled airlines have a well-established system of distribution channels with multiple players involved and offer easy access to the common public as well. Intermediaries are actively engaged in charter tourism as the charter carriers provide the services with the assistance of intermediaries, like travel agents and tour operators. Since charter carriers depend more on intermediaries for the sale of the seats, the cost also involves commission to be paid to the intermediaries. But, of late, charter carriers also use online channels, promoting direct selling through websites. Still, the traditional intermediaries have the upper hand in distributing charter carrier products. For vertically integrated charter carriers, distribution cost is not a concern.

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Moreover, due to a lean organizational structure and limited operational activities compared to FSCs and LCCs, the administrative expenditure is also less for charter carriers (Williams & Balaz, 2009). Charter airline strategies also include developing more long-haul destinations, focusing on higher-benefit niche products, and on small markets to compete effectively with LCCs (Williams, 2010). Charter airline’s competition with regular full-service airlines is less than that with low-cost carriers now (Wu et al., 2012). While LCCs could increase their business share on routes to attraction-based destinations such as the big cities, charter airlines could retain the dominance in seasonal tours and on routes to mass tourist centers like traditional resorts (Bieger & Wittmer, 2006). Strategies adopted by charter airlines to overcome the challenges of low-cost carriers include (Buck & Lei, 2004): • Trips of flexible duration • Increased frequency of flights. • Adopted dynamic pricing strategy-cheaper seats sold first and the costliest in the last. • Direct selling through the internet began (to sell the ‘seat-only’ category easily). The rise of LCCs and hybrid carriers may not subdue the future of charter airlines as they would focus services more on high-demand and high-frequency routes, whereas the charter carriers may focus on low-frequent routes to the second or third-tier airports (Wu & Hayashi, 2014). Seasonality may also remain a factor. Charter service providers prefer to undertake services in high seasons more. As per the current trends, the leisure tourism sector would continue to have a significant presence of charter services.

13.7 Charter Tours: Benefits Charter tours denote packaged holidays, having pre-arranged services including transport, accommodation, meals, sightseeing, etc. (Lauring, 2014). Inclusive Tour Charter (ITC) is the dominating category in the leisure tourism market. ITC represents a package holiday operated by making use of a whole of an aircraft, chartered by one or more tour operators, along with the inclusion of accommodation services (Doganis, 1991). ITCs are organized by tour operators or similar wholesalers, who design package holidays by combining the charter seats with other required tourism services (Wu & Hayashi, 2014). Charter tourism advantages in the international holidaying market include the price advantage derived from the economy of scale; the convenience and greater reliability provided by the charter airlines, the extent of promotion by intermediaries, mainly the tour operators and travel agents; the augmented image of package tours; and the cost, time, and convenience advantages of direct flight to the destination. The factors that attract leisure tourists to charter tours include cheaper rates, quality services, convenient services, safety and security, freedom of being with an interested group, and the possibility of a longer lead time (Dileep & Kurien, 2021). In addition

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to them, the convenience in terms of the timing, all-inclusive offers, possibility of interrelationship and social environment, scope for landing closer to the destination, no transit/intermediate stops, freedom of food preference, the flexibility of schedules, hassle-free baggage handling, etc., also influence a leisure tourist while choosing a charter tourism product. Furthermore, charter operators can choose more airports, some of which are nearer to the tourist centers and not served by the scheduled airlines. In addition to the price advantage, the packaged holidays include quality tour elements, ensuring hassle-free and enjoyable tourist trips. Furthermore, flexible client-driven schedules and itineraries make charter tourism more beneficial. The following are the advantages of packaged holidays for different stakeholders (Dileep, 2019). • Benefits for tourists – – – – – – – – –

Avail the expertise and knowledge Time efficiency Ease and convenience Economical Better safety and security Scope for a favorable social environment More sightseeing/ activities Assistance or guidance throughout More relaxing

• Benefits for destinations – – – – –

Regular tourist arrivals More entrepreneurial activity in the destination The base for infrastructure development Savings in marketing expenditure Employment and income

• Benefits to suppliers – – – – –

Reducing uncertainty Better forecasting Savings in marketing expenditure Easy payments Minimizing seasonality

Charter carriers can provide more personalized services. The services are often tailored to the customer needs. Increased privacy can help to have a more relaxed journey to the destination. Moreover, the convenience of choosing the timing of the journey is also noteworthy. The scope for diversity makes charter services unique. Special interest tours like golf excursions, ski trips, and fishing charters can be organized. Such charter trips can be much more enjoyable than using scheduled flights. Moreover, the price can be lower compared to scheduled flights, making it more attractive.

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Table 13.4 Charter contracting by tour operator Time series

Part chartering

Ad-hoc chartering

• A flight is booked in full, not a part or some seats • Booking is for a specific period of time, from days to longer periods, up to an year • Highest risk, for selling the whole seats • Seats booked for the lowest rates (at highest discounts) due to advanced confirmed bookings • Freedom of flexibility for schedule/itinerary modifications • Highest lead time

• A part of the flight is booked in advance • Contract for days, weeks or longer periods • Risk is lower than the time series chartering, but it is there to sell all the seats booked • Lesser discounts, usually, for the seats • Less flexible, comparatively • Contracting lead time is shorter

• Booking the seats as and when needed • Booking for the dates, when needed • Lowest risk • Seats booked for the lowest discounts • Changing of destinations would be difficult • Shortest lead time

Source Yale (2001) and Dileep (2019)

While contracting a charter flight for a package holiday, the tour operator has different options to choose the most suitable one matching their need. The common types are time series, part chartering, and ad-hoc chartering (Yale, 2001; Dileep, 2019). Time series chartering is done when an aircraft is needed with its full capacity for a package tour. In this case, the aircraft will be contracted for a period of time. They will use it for a back-to-back and point-to-point operations for inbound and outbound transportation of passengers. There will be an empty leg in the first and last trips of the season. Though this is risky as the tour operators have the responsibility to sell all the seats on the flight, the profit margin will be high as the booking confirmation of seats will help to get the stock at much-discounted rates. In the second category, only a section of the flight will be booked by the tour operator, and this option reduces the risk. Finally, in ad-hoc chartering, the tour operators make booking seats as and when needed and as per the actual requirement, instead of advance booking based on estimates of the demand. Risk is the lowest here, but the rates are the highest compared to other types of contracting. A comparison of the three types of charter contracting is given in Table 13.4.

13.8 Charter–Destination Nexus Destinations are indeed interested in charter-based package holidays. In the early stage of the evolution of a destinations and during the development stage, charter flights can have a significant impact. Wu et al. (2012) noticed the role of charter flights in regional development, and also pointed out that some regions depend on charter flights to stimulate the tourism industry. Moreover, the development or survival of some new resorts is highly correlated to inbound charter tourist arrivals. Traditionally,

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charter services have effectively ensured the regular flow of tourists. Another critical point to note is that charter tourism also instills demand in destinations that are not receiving many tourists by way of scheduled airlines. In this regard, Wu et al. (2012: 27) noted that “charter flights have reached locations that were previously not well served by scheduled flights”. In the recent history of the evolution of tourism, from a geographical perspective, charter services could contribute to the expansion of international tourism by providing convenient access to new destinations or directly linking regional markets with holiday destinations (Wu & Hayashi, 2014). In addition, destinations also depend on charter services to reduce the seasonality issues. During off-seasons, the visitor arrivals will slow down sharply. Charter flight-based package holidays are there during off-seasons as well in many destinations. Furthermore, charter airlines could increase tourist traffic into some theme-based destinations as well. According to Laws (1997), charter flights are inevitable for mass-market destinations in attracting sufficient visitors to sustain a fully established tourism industry.

13.9 Conclusion The role of air transport in tourism has been growing since the end of the Second World War. As per the latest scenario, air transport carries more than fifty percent of international tourists on their journeys to destinations. Though lesser, the current trends reveal growth in the share of air transport in domestic tourism as well, especially since LCCs started to play a key role in leisure tourism. While charter airlines retain a critical role in the international leisure tourism market, predominantly in the middle and long-haul sectors, the new airline business models such as LCCs and Hybrid airlines could instill more demand into regional, short-haul, and domestic tourism sectors, particularly. Charter airlines had a critical role in the evolution of tourism after the 1950s, and the significance started to diminish once the aftereffects of Deregulation came into play. The newer business models could dramatically enhance air transport’s affordability and instill more tourism demand into many destinations the world over. Indeed, once the air transport sector regains its growth momentum in the post-COVID era, it is poised to grow further, which will have corresponding effects on tourist traffic as well. In addition to its role in augmenting the tourism demand into destinations, air transport plays several other roles that are discussed in this chapter. Airlines and airports, the essential elements of air transportation, cooperate and collaborate with destinations to promote tourism and enhance thedestinations’ accessibility.

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Chapter 14

Space Tourism

14.1 Introduction Space is no longer the domain of just professional astronauts or for scientific explorations; it is now accessible to all, even for recreation. The platform is ready for people to explore Space, up to the Karman Line, or the International Space Station (ISS), and efforts have begun to visit even the Moon and Mars. Commercial leisure space transportation has already started, and sub-orbital flights, a segment of space tourism, are consequently poised to grow faster than the rest. Beyond the orbit trip, like up to the Moon or Mars, may take some more time to realize. Terrestrial space tourism activities have continued as many can satisfy their curiosity about Space by watching and learning about space-related events, incidents, and shows. In addition, ZERO-G weightless flights and space flight training are also taking place, which can offer the experience of flying at very high altitudes. Not only does space tourism extend the freedom to travel into Space for those with a desire to experience space flights, but it is also wide open as a lucrative commercial sector that can directly or indirectly assist in scientific space explorations through innovations and technological advancements as well. It may enable a large number of people to travel to Space in the next few decades. The new millennium’s first decade could record several space trips into the International Space Station (ISS), and then there was a slump. Later, the momentum was regained after the pandemic that stalled the human movement on the Earth. A sudden rise in leisure space trips was seen in 2021, started by Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin, two prominent leaders in the space tourism industry. In 10 days in July 2021, the commercial spaceflight sector conducted two giant leaps as Virgin Galactic, and Blue Origin made successful flights with paying customers on board. Soon, more sub-orbital flights took off with tourists to enjoy the space ride. The question now is, when space tourism, both suborbital and orbital, becomes affordable for a large section of the society, and when beyond, the orbital space tourism turns out to be a reality. This chapter will discuss various aspects of space tourism and its prospects. An example of space station is shown in Fig. 14.1. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_14

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Fig. 14.1 International Space Station. Courtesy By NASA/Boeing- https://www.nasa.gov/sites/ default/files/thumbnails/image/iss_rosa_correct_channels.jpg (https://www.nasa.gov/feature/newsolar-arrays-to-power-nasa-s-international-space-station-research), Public Domain, https://com mons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10561008

14.2 What Is Space Tourism? Space tourism is considered a futuristic segment of tourism that aims to have voyages into Space for leisure purposes. Wittig et al. (2017) consider Space tourism as the provision of a ‘next generation’ luxury experience, offering affluent travelers unique adventures in Space. Spending leisure in Space has been a dream, and only a few can achieve it as of now. The ongoing efforts can enable space enthusiasts to become astronaut-like for a short period and to experience space journeys as a recreational option. Experience the weightlessness while in Space, feel the infinity while in the dark Space, view the Earth from Space, etc., lure many to venture into space journeys. Space tourism is also defined as space travel for novelty seeking, leisure and recreation, and knowledge pursuit (Chang & Chern, 2013). Diverse motivations can urge people to engage in space tourism. Early space tourists examples are reported in Table 14.1. Space journeys were primarily limited to scientific explorations, and the scope of having expeditions into Space to satisfy curiosity began just a few decades ago when some started thinking of commercial flight operations into Space. The organized form of space tourism requires regular operations by commercial firms, which, after a few experimental trips, is yet to become a reality. In this regard, Loizou (2006: 289) pointed out that space tourism is “any commercial activity offering customers direct or indirect experience with space travel”. Further, the definition proposed

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Table 14.1 Early space tourists Orbital space tourists

Sub-orbital space tourists

1. Dennis Tito, first space tourist, flew on Russian Soyuz rocket on 28 April 2001, and reached International Space Station. The journey lasted for eight days 2. Mark Shuttleworth reached International Space Station. The trip started on April 25, 2002 3. Greg Olsen (October 1, 2005) 4. First female space tourist, Anousheh Ansari, traveled on 20 September 2006 5. Charles Simonyi (April 7, 2007) (All of them travelled on Russian Soyuz rocket and reached International Space Station (ISS) of NASA)

6. Sir Richard Branson, the owner of Virgin Galactic, along with three of its employees, such as Beth Moses, Sirisha, and Colin Bennett; made a cruise into space on July 11 on Virgin Galactic’s First Flight 7. Jeff Bezos, Mark Bezos, Oliver Daemen, and Wally Funk flew on Reusable Space Ship First Step (RSS First Step), a New Shepard space capsule organized by Blue Origin, in July 20, 2021

by the Space Tourism Society (2019), which says that “space tourism is the most logical endeavor for commercial enterprises to pursue towards the goal of expanding humankind into space”, reiterates the significance of having commercial operations. However, monetary barriers primarily would restrict space tourism from becoming mass tourism in the near future. Therefore, considering the limitations, space tourism shall remain a Niche tourism category. According to Dileep and Kurien (2021), it is even more challenging to refer to space tourism as a niche tourism category as the scope of the market size will remain very small in the immediate future. The term space tourism encompasses different forms of journeys into Space as well as engaging in some activities that are associated with Space. While definitions mostly include space tourism as the journeys into Space, a section of such journeys does not go into Space beyond the Karman Line, which is considered the imaginary line that distinguishes Earth’s atmosphere from Space. The Kármán line, which is 100 km above the Earth’s sea level, is the imaginary boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and Outer Space. NASA (2021) clarifies that “For purposes of spaceflight, some would say at the Karman line, currently defined as an altitude of 100 km (60 miles). Others might place a line 80 km (50 miles) above Earth’s mean sea level. But no sharp physical boundary marks the end of atmosphere and the beginning of space”. Most of the recent space tourism flights have not crossed the Karman Line. Moreover, the current attempts aim at having short-duration flights up to the Karman Line or below that; they may not go into the actual Space. Still, those passengers can experience the weightlessness and view the Earth as a globe while on the flight. Moreover, apart from those sub-orbital flights, orbital and beyond orbital space flight experiments are also progressing rapidly, strengthening space tourism significantly. Furthermore, the framework of space tourism encompasses more aspects as well. Non-flight space tourism activities are also there. For instance, Stainton (2022), opines that the space tourism concept is a broader term encompassing not only the temporary movement into Space by the people having an interest in Space but also the

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visits to space-focused museums, watching rocket launches, and trips to destinations popular for stargazing are part of space tourism. She defines space tourism as the “…. act of taking part in activities that involve or are related to space, either for business or leisure purposes”. The following categorization of space tourism by Laing and Crouch (2004) helps to understand the diversity involved in space tourism. 1. Virtual: Use of Virtual Reality (VR) helmets that enable people to have a bird’s eye view into Space 2. Terrestrial: Tourism activities without having a flight, but involves space camp, theme park, a space museum, and similar activities together which can provide a space experience. 3. Near-space: Short trips into high altitudes, within the atmosphere on the supersonic flight to enable the people to experience weightlessness, high altitude sightseeing, etc. 4. Suborbital: Suborbital flight takes people to sufficiently high altitudes by which tourists can watch the Earth’s curvature and the blackness of Space without leaving Earth’s orbit. 5. Low Earth orbit (LEO)/ High Earth Orbit (HEO): These provide actual orbital experiences ranging from hours to days or weeks. Therefore, space tourism involves various activities ranging from days-long orbital flights to visiting Space-related museums. Some of the terrestrial space tourism activities have been happening for several decades. However, the emergence of space tourism as a complete form of tourism gave way to increased significance for such activities.

14.3 Evolution of Space Tourism Though the journey into space as part of scientific exploration began some decades ago, its commercial version only emerged recently. The commercial voyages to space became a reality only by the beginning of the twenty-first century. Yet, Lappas (2006) is of the opinion that the commercial space market, like satellite-based services, has existed since 1970 and has been increasing. Decades ago, in 1967, Barron Hilton, the then president of Hilton Hotels, disclosed his vision for a hotel on the moon (Tasci et al., 2020), and it was an inspiration for those who wished to have commercial flights into space. The attempts to develop commercial space tourism passed through different phases. According to Von der Dunk (2011), from a legal perspective, three distinct eras can be identified in the evolution of space tourism. 1. First era: It was with a limited number of players and stakeholders, which mainly consisted of a handful of governments or their agencies (and occasionally intergovernmental organizations), along with private players such as the manufacturers of certain essentials facilities, services, etc. The 1960s and 70s marked significant decades in this era.

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Table 14.2 Major milestones in the history of space tourism Some of the major milestones in the evolution of space tourism are listed below • 1961; the first astronaut flew to Earth’s orbit • 1968: Pan Am airlines proposed plans for commercial flights to the Moon • 1981: First privately funded manned suborbital rocket for space tourism was designed by Robert Truax (VolksRocketX-3) • 1986: The Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred and it pointed out the importance of cautions in space flight • 1990: The Space Transportation Association (STA) was formed • 1998: Space Adventures, Ltd. was formed in Virginia, USA • 1999: XCOR Aerospace Company based at the Mojave Spaceport, Mojave, California, USA was formed The Russian commercial space flight company MirCorp was formed • 2001: First commercial space tourist Dennis Tito traveled to ISS (28 April–6 May) • 2003: MirCorp was closed after Mir’s demise in 2001 • 2004: Virgin Galactic Company was established in Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA • 2006: FAA of the USA issued the rules and regulations that will govern private human space flights • 2010: Space X successfully orbited and recovered its first Dragon space capsule, which marked the first attempt of a private company to return an orbiting space craft to earth Source Adapted from Chang (2015)

2. Second era: In this era, private participation increased, and their involvement in space activities got enhanced dramatically by launching services or operating space objects themselves. As private participation increased, states started to enact national space laws, licensing systems, and other supervision mechanisms. Yet, manned spaceflight was not part of those operations by the private sector. 3. Third era: Manned spaceflight became a reality, and the commercialization process was gaining significance and intense efforts are in place to commence commercial operations into the space. Some important steps in the history of space tourism are shown in Table 14.2. According to Goodrich (1987), there were attempts from the private sector to have commercial trips to Space during the 1980s, and they approached NASA for the same. But the attempts weren’t encouraged. The quest for having low-orbit space flights for tourists continued by Pacific American Launch Systems, Inc. and Society Expeditions, based in USA, and attempts were there to have a series of low-orbit passenger flights using Pacific American’s planned Phoenix single-stage-to-orbit spacecraft. These attempts fueled the scope of commercial space tourism, and the efforts continued. By the dawn of the new millennium, space travel began. Yet, only a handful of Billionaires could make the dream possible. By the end of the 1990s, there was a deal between the Russian company MirCorp and the American company Space Adventures Ltd. to have a space trip to Mir space station, and Dennis Tito was chosen as the first paying passenger. Yet, that planned trip didn’t take place, and later, the trip was arranged to the ISS on a Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-32 for seven days (Britannicca.com/space tourism). On 28 April 2001, Dennis Tito, an American engineer, and entrepreneur, could have a sojourn into Space. The following

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year, Mark Richard Shuttleworth also traveled to Space with a recreational objective. Gregory Olsen, Anousheh Ansari, Charles Simonyi. etc., followed them. All these trips were to International Space Station (ISS). Table 14.1 consists of the list of early commercial space tourists. After those trips to ISS, there was a long gap of almost a decade to have the next series of commercial trips into space. Meanwhile, the commercial firms involved in space tourism kept experimenting with spacecraft suitable for commercial space journeys. There were some accidents and setbacks, yet the efforts have continued. By this decade, the space journey began once the pandemic issue got settled. The companies such as Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic could conduct low earth orbit or sub-orbital flights with four or more space tourists for very short durations. In the meanwhile, there were multi-day trips to ISS as well. Still, Space tourism is in the nascent stage and has miles to go to make it a viable space tourism segment in the realm of global tourism.

14.4 Importance and Limitations Space tourism is still regarded as a futuristic segment of tourism. If the current space tourism activities continue, the space tourism sector will grow substantially. The predictions on the future of space tourism are awesome. According to the “Space Tourism - Global Market Trajectory & Analytics” report, the global market for Space Tourism is estimated at US$651 Million in the year 2020, and it is expected to reach a revised contribution of US$1.7 Billion by 2027. Sub-orbital tourism alone would reach US$1.5 Billion by 2027. While the US market would turn out to be $175.3 million, China is forecast to have a market size of US$401.6 million (reported on businesswire.com). The space tourism sector would generate a significant number of new jobs and capabilities. Around 600 people have been confirmed for Virgin Galactic flights in the future, along with over 8,000 interested potential buyers registered by 2018 for space trips in the future. Though the predictions are there, the scope for the space tourism economy primarily depends upon the related technological advancements. Experiments of the flights are still going on. In fact, Space tourism is still an unaccounted sector economically except for some industry estimates and predictions. According to Webber (2013: 142), “the importance of space tourism cannot be overstated, partly because of the economic benefits it will bring, partly because of the new perspectives it will provide to all future space tourists, and partly because of the airline-like operating experience with reusable space vehicles, and the associated economies of scale of launch operations that will result”. Once the technological platform for regular operations is ready and the sector becomes affordable for more sections of the people, the economic benefits of space tourism will be visible. As of now, the increasing commercialization of space tourism activities and explorations led to drastically reduced launch costs, enabling an increased human presence beyond the biosphere. This change can be expected more in the years to come as well (Spector et al., 2017).

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Ensuring a viable space tourism industry depends on the economic prospects as well; from the perspective of the potential to create a profitable business, which, according to Penn and Lindley (2003), the revenue generation has to be good enough to meet the operating expenses (mainly with regard to propellants, maintenance, spares, flight crews, and insurance), vehicle amortization costs, and research and development (including test and engineering) costs, in addition to the yield required as the return on investment. Reducing the cost per flight, increasing reliability based on the risk and safety aspects, and ensuring lesser vehicle turnaround time are essential. Penn and Lindley (2003) also point out that the focus of development may be on operability, reliability, and cost rather than performance. Table 14.3 describes the advantages and disadvantages of space tourism. In 1987, Goodrich identified certain barriers to enter into the space tourism sector, which includes limitations associated with transportation technology, extremely high capital requirement, high space travel cost, profit, mental and physical health requirements, safety, legal aspects, government regulations, the inhabitability of space, etc. These limitations are still prevailing. As of now, the transport technology for commercial low-orbit and sub-orbital trips has improved. Yet, there is scope for further improvement, and the widespread usage is to be explored further. The technology development for trips to outer space, into the planets, etc., is in the nascent stage only. It is not that every company can start commercial space tourism. Table 14.3 Space tourism: the Pros and Cons Pros 1. Space tourism can turn out to be a new thriving economic activity, even when the world economy is facing a recession. It can offer employment to thousands of people, and developing new versions of spacecraft/aircraft would generate employment scope for many skilled people 2. There will be further scope for space exploration and innovations, along with the sector’s progress. Moreover, there is a possibility for identifying potential hazards dangerous to Earth 3. The increasing popularity draws more investments 4. The emerging technologies would be beneficial for other domains, in addition to space missions 5. Further space exploration can lead to better weather predictions, resource identification on other planets, etc.; explore the scope of life in other parts of the universe, etc 6. A new form of thrilling tourism shall emerge, which adds to the diverse tourism options Cons 1. Space travel on a commercial basis is still vulnerable to troubles of varied sorts, including health hazards 2. Wastage of resources for unsuccessful ventures 3. There may be unhealthy competition for superior technology, and the issue of opportunity cost will remain 4. It is accessible only to the ‘super rich’ 5. The lack of a legal framework can cause trouble 6. There will be increased atmospheric pollution, etc Source Modified from Jagyasi, P., A Guide to Space Tourism by Dr Prem Jagyasi, retrieved from https://drprem.com/travel/space-tourism-guide/

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The sector necessitates large sums of investment to venture into space tourism. Travel cost is also exorbitant. Only Billionaires can think of space tourism now. Moreover, the sustenance of the sector is also at stake as the scope for profit at this point in time is meager. To become a participant, one has to possess perfect health conditions. Moreover, a lot of training and practice is needed. The efforts needed and the time required for this are very high. Moreover, many technological requirements are there to enable humans to withstand the space environment for long periods. Furthermore, some legal concerns are yet to be discussed. Space is a no man’s land until now, but once commercial operations become successful, there can be issues. How to define the boundaries, etc., could pose problems. Furthermore, the carbon emission issue associated with space tourism is yet to be debated. It may be there in the debates without much delay. These limitations also act as challenges for the space tourism sector.

14.5 Type of Space Tours Space tourism classification is available in different formats in tourism literature. Crouch et al. (2009) identify four distinct space tourism types: high-altitude jet fighter flights, atmospheric zero-gravity flights, short-duration sub-orbital flights, and longer-duration orbital trips into space. Earlier, terrestrial or land-based forms of space tourism (simulations) were also identified as part of space tourism (Crouch, 2001). In the future, interplanetary space tourism for a longer duration can also be seen. According to Spector (2020), sub-orbital space flight, orbital flight, and beyond orbit flight are the types in the space tourism category. The major categories of space tourism are introduced below.

14.5.1 Terrestrial Space Tourism In fact, tourism literature does not have many references on terrestrial space tourism, barring a few definitions. However, terrestrial space tourism is linked to Astro-tourism as well. The term encompasses a range of activities like astronomical observations, watching rocket launches, visits to air and space-related museums, camps, theme parks, displays, and exhibitions, having virtual reality experiences, etc. (Tasci et al., 2020: 1). The tendency to move to different places to engage in astronomical observations is an old trend. According to Crouch (2001), terrestrial tourism began with the journey of astronautical observers, moving from place to place in order to observe astronomical events and objects. There are specific locations from where the enthusiasts can view the astronautical wonders and the outer world objects. Astronomical observatories are there in many places in the world. Telescopes of varied capacities are used for astronautical observations. Kennedy Space Centre in

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Cape Canaveral is an example where a large number of people visit to get more knowledge about space and space-related objects. Some visit such centers for research as well. Some travel to locations where the gaze of solar and lunar eclipses is possible. Aurora viewing and even star gazing can be considered in this category. Rocket launch stations are also visited by people, particularly when the launching or receiving spacecraft takes place. Museums are connected to space technology and science, and having Virtual Reality (VR) enabled experiences too attracts visitors. Virtual reality planetaria are also being set up, and the users can navigate the virtual space and choose from various locations to explore.

14.5.2 Sub-orbital Space Tourism Sub-orbital flights aim to reach up to Karman Line, experience a few minutes of weightlessness, and view the curvature of the Earth from outside the atmosphere. These flights require a speed of 3,700 mph (6,000 km/h) to reach the Karman Line. When the spacecraft reaches outer space, the trajectory intersects the atmosphere and then falls back to Earth’s atmosphere, i.e., suborbital launch makes a trajectory that causes the spacecraft to re-enter the atmosphere. It cannot complete one orbital revolution, as the sub-orbital flight will have a low speed/velocity compared to the orbital spacecraft. The flight goes up to the height from where the experience of weightlessness and views of the curvature of the Earth can be had (Tasci et al., 2020). The flight may go up to 80,000 feet so that the curvature of the Earth can be seen well (Smith, 2000). Sub-orbital flights can be adventurous and educational while experiencing a sample spaceflight. Sub-orbital spaceflight will be a more popular tourist activity, and point-to-point travel can be possible soon (Cater, 2010). In due course, the tourists can experience a few minutes of weightlessness.

14.5.3 Orbital Space Tourism These flights cross the Karman Line and make a complete orbital revolution. What makes the difference between orbital and sub-orbital flight is the speed at which a vehicle travels. Orbital velocity is required for an orbital flight, whereas the others require lower speed only. According to NASA, the speed to reach the Kármán line and return to Earth requires is less than one kilometer per second, but to remain in orbit beyond the Kármán line requires a speed of 7.8 km per second and therefore, the capacity of spacecraft to have orbital flights have to be much greater, like having a velocity of over 11 km per second (Reported in Spector et al., 2017). Currently, Orbital space flights have a speed of up to 17,400 mph (28,000 km/h) and go to an altitude up to 125 miles (200 km) above Earth (Mann, 2020, reported in Tasci et al., 2020). An orbital launch causes a trajectory that allows the spacecraft to stay in orbit around the Earth. In addition, there are Orbital space tourism attempts

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intended to travel to the ISS, which orbits about 400 km above Earth. In fact, Orbital space tourism began when Dennis Tito made his space tourism attempt and reached the International Space Station, which circles the Earth (von der Dunk, 2013).

14.5.4 Beyond Orbital Space Tourism The desire to travel to the moon etc., with a leisure motivation has been there for a long, and the aim of beyond orbital tourism mission is to realize that dream. As of now, it is a distant dream only that cannot attain soon. Beyond orbital touristic spaceflight attempts to reach ‘escape velocity’ and break free from Earth’s gravitation pull to reach the Moon or Mars. The current experiments and commercialization attempts focus mainly on sub-orbital and orbital flights. It is predicted that along with the evolution of space tourism to higher levels, the number of spaceflight participants will increase, and the sub-orbital and orbital flights will inevitably give way to lunar holidays and trips to Mars. Meanwhile, space tourism will be strengthened to be a full-fledged industry capable of truly opening the frontier of space to human beings. Table 14.4 describes some space tourism packages available now on sale. Table 14.4 Space tourism packages for sale now The following are some of the space tourism packages that are notified to attract the potential buyers. The company name and the title of the packages along with a brief description about the package are given 1. Virgin Galactic: Suborbital Joy Ride A 90-min ride to 50 km above sea level in Spaceship Two space plane. A few minutes of zero-gravity experience during descent 2. Blue Origin: Quick Rocket Trip to the Kármán line A 12-min ride to the Kármán line, ride can go up to 100 km above the sea level of earth 3. SpaceX: Multi-Day Orbital Voyage Three-day stay inside SpaceX’s Dragon capsule circling around Earth with three crew mates, and the flight altitude claims to be 574 km above the earth 4. Axiom Space/SpaceX: Vacation on International Space Station A 10-day trip to the International Space Station, including a week-long stay in the orbital lab 5. Roscosmos: Customized Trip to International Space Station A 12-day trip to the International Space Station 6. Space Perspective: “Hot Air Balloon” to Stratosphere Package for six-hour ride to stratosphere in a balloon-borne pressurized capsule, up to an altitude of 30 km above earth Source Cao, S. (2021). Every space tourism package available in 2021 ranked: From $125K to $60 million. Observer, retrieved from https://observer.com/2021/11/commercial-space-travel-roundupspacex-blue-origin-virgin/

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Table 14.5 Types of spacecraft/tools used in space tourism Different types of spacecraft are used in the realm of space tourism. The spacecraft used in orbital, sub-orbital, and high altitude fights are different. The following are the different spacecraft/tools used in Space tourism Sub-orbital space tourism companies and the tools 1. XCOR: Lynx Suborbital Vehicle 2. Virgin Galactic:SS2/WK2 3. Airbus Defense & Space: Space plane 4. Blue Origin: VTVL Vehicle 5. SNC: Dream Chaser Orbital Space tourism Tools 1. Soyuz (Russian spacecraft with two parts-Soyuz capsule and Soyuz rocket) 2. International Space Station (ISS) of NASA Source Chang (2015)

14.5.5 Zero-G Tours The ZERO-G trips are organized to experience weightlessness without reaching the height of the Karman Line. Parabolic Flights are there, which can provide a weightless effect. According to NASA (2011), “Experimenters can test technologies applicable to the low-gravity levels such as those on the Moon or Mars in microgravity for 15 to 30s during parabolic flights on Zero-G Corporation’s modified Boeing 727 airliner. The aircraft has an open, padded interior and flies a series of short parabolic trajectories to repeatedly simulate the desired gravity levels” (NASA 2011). It can undertake parabolic arcs to create a weightless environment so the passengers can float, flip, and soar as if they are in space. Specially trained pilots are there to operate these kinds of flights, and those flights are maneuvered between approximately 24,000 and 34,000 feet altitude. At the same time, each parabola takes ten miles of airspace to perform and lasts about one minute from start to finish (incredibleadventures.com). There are some other flight experiences as well. For instance, the MiG-29 Edge of Space Flight takes people to the stratosphere in a supersonic fighter jet, which usually involves reaching an altitude of 20 to 22 km from where the earth’s curvature can be seen, and the sky is dark. In contrast, people can see into the dark space as well (Henderson & Tsui, 2019). Examples of spacecrafts/tools used in space tourism are presented in Table 14.5.

14.6 Leisurenaut: A Tourist? The term Leisurenaut sounds interesting. It was seen in a featured article mentioning the sub-orbital space tourists as leisurenauts in the following way. “At present, leisurenauts are still an elite class, but the events of the day suggest we’re closer than ever to seeing that change” (Coldewey, 2021). Indeed, every traveler cannot be called a tourist for multiple reasons. Some may not be traveling to visit, whereas others

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may not spend the minimum duration in the place visited. A sub-orbital space tourist may not be spending one full day in space as part of the trip. Yet, they are called a tourist both in the tourism literature and in news reports tourists. The term Leisurenaut seems good to be viewed from that angle. They travel with a strong desire to have the pleasure of experiencing the weightlessness and adventure of being in space along with viewing mother earth from above. The leisure aspects associated with tourism are certainly there in the trip. On the other hand, they are restricted travelers like astronauts. They have to undergo training to become part of the space journeys, though, for sub-orbital flights, the training may be for some hours to a few days compared to the extensive training required to become orbital space tourists. Orbital tourism involves the movement of people into space for more than a day, and those tourists can certainly be classified under the category of tourists. Yet, in tourism literature, different references are there, like tourism is a social process by which the movement of people generates different kinds of interactions between the host and the visiting communities in the place visited. However, despite having these kinds of mismatches in considering the travelers in the space as tourists, tourism has expanded to include a wide variety of travelers, and space tourists are indeed a kind of leisure tourists.

14.7 Privatization and Commercialization: Is Space Tourism a Predecessor for Larger Commercialization of Space? Space tourism is poised to evolve into a significant commercial activity within a few decades. Therefore, private participation is key to the progress of space tourism (Spector et al., 2017). In fact, privatization is not just in spaceflight operations, but the leading space tourism firms are also involved in research, development, and technological innovations as well. All of these would undoubtedly contribute to the progress of space tourism to the next level. There were different targets to achieve by the end of the second decade of this millennium, but due to the delay in technical advancements, the progress of space tourism could not attain the expected pace. Moreover, the pandemic has slowed down the progress further. Yet, by 2021, sudden dynamism emerged in space tourism by having back-to-back sub-orbital flights with space tourists on board who wished to experience the weightlessness and gaze at the Earth from the top. High altitude flights and sub-orbital flights are becoming more affordable. Actual commercialization of space tourism will take a bit more time, only when the sector becomes affordable and accessible for more sections of society. Currently, only the super-rich can think of going to space. Peeters (2010) shares the same opinion, which says that when the supply of commercial spaceflights is smooth and sufficient, and point-to-point (P2P) commercial space transport becomes a reality, the space tourism market will become a major one.

14.8 Who Are in the Business?

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Beery (2012), citing the case of the USA, argues that Space tourism is a predecessor of an agenda of large-scale commercial activities in space. According to him, “Space tourism is an initial step in the wider commercialization of outer space. The success of space tourism may allow for even greater activity in space with immense private participation. In a broader context, private space travel contributes to the emergence of a new post-Cold War geography of outer space…..Moreover, further private space activity could bring with it, in the form of new spaceports, aerospace clusters and labor and capital flows, a corresponding geography on Earth—a geography that is far from determined” (Beery, 2012: 32). Sub-orbital space tourism is ready to be a full-fledged commercial activity. Orbital space tourism may take place in a limited manner. Once more accommodation options in space become available, orbital space tourism will get a fillip. Beyond the orbit space tourism may take more time to become a commercial activity. It demands more technological advancements to take place to have to become a commercial sector and to attract people to visit the planets that are away from the Earth. Currently, space tourism is forecasted as a high-profit margin business in the future. Beery (2012: 28) states, “The entrepreneurs of aerospace and space tourism foresee massive profits and other benefits through the commercialization of space and have been thus willing to invest in the development of new private space vehicles”. As per the ongoing trend, the sub-orbital tourism segment can soon become a commercial activity and expand in the coming decades. Yet, Space tourism will remain a Niche tourism segment considering the number of people who can participate in those activities. Moreover, space tourism is undoubtedly a special interest activity. Indeed, investment is flowing into the sector now, and it can further invigorate space tourism’s evolution.

14.8 Who Are in the Business? Commercial space tourism has begun, and several private firms are directly or indirectly involved in the space tourism business. Space tourism has not yet been established as a profitable business; instead, every stakeholder is seeking to realize space tourism’s economic potential and progress further to expand it. Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin, and Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (Space X), three major players in space tourism, compete among themselves. They have already made some flights and proven the capability to have leisure sub-orbital trips. Currently, they are focusing more on sub-orbital leisure tourism. In addition, Space Adventures and Axion Space have already conducted successful orbital tours. Along with Virgin Galactic, Space Adventures, XCOR, and Rocketplane-Kisler are also competing in the orbital space tourism sector. In the sub-orbital sector, Virgin Galactic claimed to be the first space line that could provide weightlessness and breathtaking views of the Earth. In early July, they conducted sub-orbital flight with Sir Richard Branson, its owner, along with

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three others on board. Their feather technology combines the advantages of capsuledesigned spacecraft and winged space vehicles into one elegant system (www.virgin galectic.com). SpaceX is another private company capable of returning a spacecraft from low Earth orbit, and in 2012 their Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial spacecraft to deliver cargo to and from the International Space Station. SpaceX has ambitious plans to have beyond the orbit space trips to Mars sometime in the future and also to have a space hotel. In 2020, SpaceX became the first private company to take humans there as well (www.spaceX.com). Also, SpaceX claims that they are working on the next generation of fully reusable launch vehicles capable of carrying humans to Mars and other destinations in the solar system. Blue Origin is also engaged in having reusable launch vehicles and in-space systems that are safe and low cost and serve the needs of all customers. Efforts of Blue Origin include flying astronauts to space on New Shepard, developing reusable liquid rocket engines, developing an orbital launch vehicle with New Glenn, building next-generation space habitats, and ensuring trips to the Moon (www. blueorign.com). Armadillo Aerospace works on sub-orbital space tourism for the common public and cooperates with Space Adventures, another high-profile space tourism company. Masten Space Systems is involved in developing new space vehicles which can be reused. Spaceport America is in an attempt to make a commercial spaceport. Bigelow Aerospace is proceeding with the efforts to develop space stations. International Space Station (ISS), which is actually built for research purposes, is currently the center of accommodation in space. Some years ago, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) declared that International Space Station (ISS) should be opened to commercial activities, including space tourism. NASA is opening the International Space Station (ISS) to tourists as well to raise more funds for other space exploration projects (Astronauts and National Space Administration [NASA], 2019). Hilton Hotels aim to have a space hotel through a cofunding mode. Bigelow Aerospace, by Budget Suites of America hotels owner Robert Bigelow, tries to have an accommodation center in space shortly. Space Island Group plans to make a ring-shaped, rotating “commercial space infrastructure” almost 400 miles above the Earth’s surface. Space Island also has plans for a posh hotel in space. This commercially developed, owned, and operated space station will be built in low Earth orbit, with the main goal of creating a human habitat in space. It is expected to operate soon. Orbital Assembly Corporation is planning to open a luxury space hotel called Voyager Station by 2027. It would be able to accommodate 280 guests and 112 crew members (Architectural Digest). NASA sent a “robot hotel” to the International Space Station, and it is also known as “Robotic Tool Stowage”, which is essentially a protected parking space for robots when not in use, helping to protect them from potential dangers (Etherington, 2019).

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14.9 Space Tourism: Motivation and Demand A space trip is a dream for many. As of now, only some thousands could book space tourism trips. According to recent statistics, less than 50 people could only make a trip to space. Those interested would like to seek the experience of being in space, the weightlessness, and see the Earth and other planets from a different location. Generally, the need for adventure and exploration constitutes some of the prime motivations for space tourism. It’s a desire for exploration and adventure that has been there with human beings from their evolution stage. Experience of viewing the Earth is a significant aspect of being in space. The space remains black, and the Earth gets visible from an extremely high altitude which would be an incredible view. According to Reddy et al. (2012), the motivational factors behind space tourism include the vision of Earth from space, weightlessness, high-speed experience, unusual experience, and scientific contribution. Laing and Frost (2019) identified several space travel motivations, and those include thrill-seeking or risk-taking (example for hedonic experience); challenge, curiosity, spirituality, and nostalgia (eudaimonic examples); and seeking distinction or a desire to motivate and assist others. According to Crouch et al. (2009: 442), “younger and male respondents were significantly more interested in space tourism and, as might be expected, there was a strong positive association between current risk-taking behaviour in recreation and leisure activities and a desire to travel into space”. Currently, space tourism demand consists of middle-aged people as only rich business people can afford to have these trips. However, once it becomes more affordable, the trend may change as youngsters would like to seek adventurous trips to space. As of now, only the elite, rich population could succeed in booking seats for flight sojourns. According to Crouch et al. (2009), space tourism customers are likely to be highly sensitive to price, and there is heterogeneity between respondents regarding how they are likely to react to price while selecting the type of space tourism. Also, the study points out that the demand determinants include the nationality of the operator, the physical requirements needed from the passengers, the level of passenger space or crowding, and the extent of pre-flight training required. Moreover, the factors such as age, gender, education, and level of risk-bearing capacity can influence the buying decision-making. Cost, safety, and product design factors impact space tourism aspirants (Crouch et al., 2009). Space tourism is a diverse sector that involves orbital, sub-orbital, terrestrial trips, etc. The demand characteristics and demographics can vary. Moreover, space tourism is still developing, and identifying the demand characteristics at this point is not very relevant. Yet, the tendency of adventure-seeking, good health conditions, enthusiasm to experience weightlessness, etc., would be significant factors among space tourists. Supplyrelated factors can also become significant determinants. For instance, the reputation of the space tourism company can influence the space tourist when making a decision. According to Laing and Chouch (2004), nationality, education, gender, age, and the level of risk-taking behavior have a significant role in space tourism decision-making.

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14.10 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Space Tourism Space tourism, as of now, is the most unregulated regime in the parlance of tourism. There is a lack of regulation concerning compensation and fairness in determining ownership of the space environment (Toivonen, 2020). Being in such a nascent stage, there won’t be many legal aspects as well. Moreover, putting a lot of restrictions can temporarily or permanently hamper the urge and experiments of those involved in space tourism. Once commercialization takes place, there is a possibility to have more rules, regulations, and conditions associated with space travel. Essential aspects are related to the safety, insurance of the people traveling, and sustainability. Moreover, how to regulate the flights by different nations into Space as there is no clarity on boundaries or anything of that sort. “International space law is ambiguous as too accommodating suborbital activities. While some provisions of the UN outer space treaties seem to exclude them, generally, there is no explicit condition in terms of reaching orbit as a requirement for application. …… In the absence of a uniform international regime, each state has the sovereign right to regulate human suborbital flights operating within its airspace” (Masson-Zwaan & Moro-Aguilar, 2013: 243). According to Marsh (2006: 1826), “Space is a dangerous environment, and the legal minimums required for space tourism have yet to be established. If a business is to operate ethically in Space, first, it has to establish what the dangers are and what its liabilities might be. Since space tourism is largely unregulated at present, companies would be well advised to consider the liabilities of other tourism areas and strive to surpass their minimums to ensure the safety of their passengers”. In the USA, some basic regulatory frameworks are there. Regarding sub-orbital flight, a regulatory regime to support sub-orbital space tourism has been established in the USA, with the FAA appointed as the regulatory agency (Webber, 2013). Sustainability concerns are limited now, as only very limited activities are taking place at this point. Space tourism can socially result in a rich versus poor divide (Toivonen, 2020), as only the elite rich can now access space tourism. Space tourism initiatives also lead to emissions of varied kinds, which are yet to be discussed seriously (Scott, 2020). While considering space tourism, it is a fact that the countries that currently have the space launch capability and access to space exploration are indeed among the highest per capita polluters and greenhouse gas emitters contributing to the global climate emergency (Scott, 2020). According to Ross and Vedda (2018), rocket emissions in the stratosphere can lead to stratospheric heating and thermal changes, which can eventually contribute to Ozone depletion, alter the net radiative balance, and enhance radiative forcing. In addition, launch vehicles can have different orbital detritus (Duval & Hall, 2015). Moreover, a majority of the activities may take place in Space, and those effects on the life of people on earth are yet to be identified.

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14.11 Future of Space Tourism More than 40 people could venture into space tourism as of now. Some have made orbital space tourism by traveling to and staying in the ISS. Others could make sub-orbital flights and experience the weightlessness for a short duration. Space Adventures (trips to ISS), Blue Origin, SpaceX, and Axiom Space (trips to ISS) have already conducted space tourism tours. The sector is wide open and poised to evolve further. According to Cohen (2016), the main paradoxes inherent in the space tourism development initiatives include the limitations on human cosmic expansion; the subversion of adventure in space tourism; the banalization of the sublimity of space tourism experience; and the deflowering of the pristinity of other celestial bodies due to space tourism. The future prospects of each type of space tourism also depend on the willingness and capacity of the buyers, emerging technologies capable of carrying the passengers to space, and the price at which the services can be offered. Also the possible factors that affect the future may include competition, the scope for the economy of scale, the socio-economic circumstances, legal and regulatory frameworks, demographical factors, and the emerging concerns linked to the environment (Crouch et al., 2009). Cole (2015) identifies the following phases of space tourism evolution, which will help to get a clearer picture of the future of space tourism. 1. Pioneering: The product will be nearer to adventure travel than to luxury hotel style. Orbital accommodation will be safe but Spartan. Customers will be relatively few—from hundreds to thousands per year; prices will be high, $50,000 and up. 2. Mature: This phase will see the demand growing, and the flights will depart from many airports. Tickets to orbit will cost less, with thousands to hundreds of thousands of passengers per year. 3. Mass: Orbital facilities will grow from being just clusters of pre-fabricated modules to large orbiting structures for hundreds of guests with a range of orbital entertainments. Ticket prices will fall to the equivalent of a few thousand dollars. Moreover, the number of passengers may go from hundreds of thousands to millions of passengers per year. According to Spencer (2004), an exclusive phase is there after the preliminary stage of space tourism evolution. In that stage, the market will be limited only to wealthy and adventurous people. Currently, sub-orbital tourism is passing through that stage. It may be followed by the Rapid growth phase (the mature phase), which will see substantial cost reduction due to maturing technology, the economy of scale, and competition. Space tourism is a highly ambitious sector, as the endeavor to travel to other planets has already begun. It may take more time, but the firms involved in space tourism claim such will happen soon. Cohen (2016: 1) also argues that “Human space tourism, at present limited to the vicinity of the Earth, might expand to the Moon and other planets, especially Mars, in the future, but will in all probability fall short of the aspiration to reach the stars. Even its modest present aims face

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considerable obstacles and risks, which keep its progress significantly short of the optimistic prognoses of a few decades ago”. Flight to Moon is certainly a strong desire of many, and a few space tourism companies announced its possibility in the years to come. Another ambitious attempt is to have trips to Mars, which may not be possible very soon. Johnson and Martin (2016) could predict the emergence of the following types of space tourism in the future. 1. Citizen space exploration: an emancipatory form of space travel, a sort of exploration of outer space as a social space by all those who are able to visit space. It’s a combination of the concepts of citizen science and citizen space exploration. 2. Personal spaceflight: A more individualistic and lifestyle-oriented model of space travel for those with the capability. Whether the trips to Moon or Mars will be possible on a commercial basis soon or not, the sector is poised to grow further, and sub-orbital flights will be possible commercially in the immediate future. Orbital flights also will increase. The scope for beyond the orbit leisure trips is not there shortly, though such can emerge at any point in the future. Moreover, the terrestrial forms of Space tourism have been growing, and the sector is poised for further evolution.

14.12 Conclusion The world is eagerly waiting for the commercialization of space tourism, not only to experience the weightlessness and to watch the curves of the earth from space but also to reach locations that have been thought inaccessible since time immemorial and to stay in space hotels for days. The desire for space travel has been there with many, yet space tourism has not grown to provide the space tourism experience to everyone interested. Currently, it is accessible only to a few billionaires. Moreover, orbital earth tourism has to advance further to make it real and affordable for more people. In addition to the cost factor, the space tourism sector is waiting to see much more advancements in space travel technology to ensure frequent and regular flight services that are safe in all respects and affordable for a large section of the global society. Furthermore, the world is curiously waiting for a successful leisure flight beyond orbit, mainly to the Moon and Mars. If all such takes place, space tourism will turn out to be a significant sector in global tourism.

References Architectural Digest, data retrieved from https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/worlds-firstspace-hotel-open-2027 Beery, J. (2012). State, capital and spaceships: A terrestrial geography of space tourism. Geoforum, 43, 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOFORUM.2011.07.013 Britannicca.com, retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/space-tourism

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National Space Administration (NASA). (2019). NASA opens international space station to new commercial opportunities, private Astronauts, retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/ nasa-opens-internationalspace-station-to-new-commercial-opportunities-private Peeters, W. (2010). From suborbital space tourism to commercial personal spaceflight. Acta Astronautica, 66, 1625–1632. Penn, P.J., & Lindley, A.C. (2003). Requirements and approach for a space tourism launch system. Acta Astronautica, 52(1), 49–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-5765(02)001170 Reddy, M.V., Nica, M., & Wilkes, K. (2012). Space tourism: Research recommendations for the future of the industry and perspectives of potential participants. Tourism Management, 33(5), 1093–1102. Ross, M., & Vedda, J.A. (2018). The policy and science of rocket emissions, Centre for Space Policy and Strategy. https://aerospace.org/sites/default/files/2018-05/RocketEmissions_0.pdf Scott, M. (2020). A space tourism destination: Environmental, geopolitical and tourism branding considerations for New Zealand as a ‘launch state’. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. https://doi. org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1817049 Smith, L.V. (2000). Space tourism: The 21st century “frontier”. Tourism Recreation Research, 25(3), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2000.11014920 Space Tourism Society. (2019). Philosophy: A logical progression into the future, retrieved from http://spacetourismsociety.org/about/philosophy/ Spector, S. (2020). Delineating acceptable risk in the space tourism industry. Tourism Recreation Research, 45(4). https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2020.1747798 Spector, S., Higham, E.S.J., & Doering, A. (2017). Beyond the biosphere: Tourism, outer space, and sustainability. Tourism Recreation Research, 42(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2017. 1286062 Spencer, J. (2004). Space tourism. Do you want to go? Burlington: Apogee Books Publication. Stainton, H. (2022). Space tourism explained: What, why and where, retrieved from https://touris mteacher.com/space-tourism/ Stimac, V. (2021). Is space tourism worth it? https://science.howstuffworks.com/is-space-tourismworth-it-news.htm Tasci, A.D.A., Fyall, A.D., & Fu, X. (2020). Social representations of space travel: Modeling the antecedents and outcomes. International Tourism Research, 23(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr. 2430 Toivonen, A. (2020). Sustainability dimensions in space tourism: The case of Finland. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1783276 Von der Dunk, G.F. (2011). Space tourism, private spaceflight and the law: Key aspects. Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications Law Program Faculty Publications, 60. https://digitalcommons. unl.edu/spacelaw/60 Von der Dunk, F.G. (2013). Beyond what? Beyond earth orbit? …! The applicability of the registration convention to private commercial manned sub-orbital spaceflight. Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications Law Program Faculty Publications, 84. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/spa celaw/84 Webber, D. (2013). Space tourism: Its history, future and importance. Acta Astronautica, 98, 138– 143. Wittig, M.C., Beil, P., Sommerock, F., & Albers, M. (2017). Rethinking luxury: How to market exclusive products and services in an ever-changing environment. LID Publishing. www.blueorign.com www.spaceX.com

Chapter 15

Transportation and Tourist Buying Behavior Modeling

15.1 Introduction As there are many types of tourism, related activities, behaviors, and movement patterns, various approaches, and levels of analysis have been developed in academia and tourism practice. While some may not be very sensitive concerning data used and definitions applied, others may be very demanding in this respect. Specifically, in the case of modeling approaches, to which this chapter is devoted, the precision in defining the domain of analysis, data scope, choice types, and explanatory variables is crucial to ensure plausibility, representativeness, and correct interpretation of the results to avoid ambiguities. It is, then, necessary to distinguish between traveler, visitor, and tourist (Dileep, 2019) as well as between travel, trip, and tour, since these terms, which are often incorrectly used, are used interchangeably (Terrier, 2009). Furthermore, given the fact that tourism is a subset of travel, some of these terms are used in tourism and transport planning domains in different contexts and with different meanings, adding additional confusion. According to the established definitions of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (2010), travel is the movement between geographical locations, and hence the traveler is simply a person undertaking travel. A visitor is a type of traveler, who moves to another place outside his/her usual environment (home or place of residence) for any reason other than employment. The main constraint the definition of a tourist imposes is that it is a type of visitor who stays at the destination for at least one night, as opposed to the same-day visitor (or excursionist). A fundamental unit of measurement in tourism is a trip, which refers to the travel (movement between locations) that occurs between leaving home and returning (United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2010). One trip may consist of visits to many different places. These terms, however, should be strictly differentiated from the definitions used in the field of transport planning, where stages, trips, and tours are present. A stage is a single continuous movement with one transport mode, a trip is a set of stages leading from one activity to another, and a tour is a sequence of subsequent trips (Axhausen, 2008). As noticed by Arce and Pisarski (2009), tourists may differ in their travel © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 M. R. Dileep and F. Pagliara, Transportation Systems for Tourism, Advances in Spatial Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_15

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behavior depending on the nature and characteristics of their travel. Hence, they highlight the need to account for further levels of differentiation, e.g., international and domestic tourists, travel for business versus leisure and other purposes, inbound versus outbound tourism, and many others.

15.2 Travel Behavior and Choices The significance of buying behavior is often associated with product design and marketing strategy formulation activities. Consumer behavior is “concerned with all activities directly involved in obtaining, consuming and disposing of products and services, including the decision processes that precede and follow these actions” (Engel et al., 1995: 4). A tourist is also a consumer, and the buying behavior and the decision-making process are part of the overall consumer behavior process. Basically, it tells about the process of selecting the suitable product and using those products according to the identified need of the consumer (Tirmizi et al., 2009). Different perceptions are there concerning buying behaviors. For instance, one dimension of it is the emotional involvement of consumers, which is the mental, emotional, and physical activities that consumers engage in while selecting, purchasing, using, and disposing of products and services to satisfy their needs and desires (Wilkes, 1994). It is also viewed from the perspective of how individuals make decisions to spend their resources with the objective of consuming items (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2009). According to a model suggested by Howard and Sheith (1969), consumer behavior is the product of the objectives (rational) as well as subjective (emotional) elements. It highlights the role of consumer satisfaction, which the consumer seeks in the purchase of goods and services, along with the need to clearly understand the motivational force that guides the purchase behavior. Buying behavior has ideally been considered a process of sequential stages such as need for recognition, search for information on various products according to these needs, formation of choices, evaluation of alternatives, the act of purchase and consumption, and post-purchase behavior (Foxall & Goldsmith, 1994; Kotler et al., 2003; Horner & Swarbrooke, 2007). Buying tourism products is also a complex activity involving different stages and it is often considered as a high involvement activity as it consists of high consumer commitment; high levels of insecurity associated with ‘intangibility’; other people’s influence in decision-making; long-term decision; high level of information search, and high level of emotional significance (Horner & Swarbrooke, 2007). Moreover, different factors make the process more complicated, including the cost factor, distance factor, unfamiliarity aspects, climate factors, etc. Tourist makes multiple decisions in the whole process of buying behavior in tourism, which may include decisions concerning the choice of destination; the mode of travel to use; type of accommodation to choose for stay; duration of stay; the right time to travel; etc. (Horner & Swarbrooke, 2007). Traveling is a multifaceted phenomenon, and human behavior can be complex and non-homogeneous. As stated earlier, there are many choices a tourist needs to make

15.2 Travel Behavior and Choices

291 Main purpose of travel

Business and professional

Personal

Holidays, leisure and recreation

Visiting friends and relatives

Education and training

Health and medical care

Religion, pilgrimages

Shopping

Transit

Other

Fig. 15.1 Classification of tourism trips by main travel purpose

when thinking of planning, and conducting a trip (Decrop, 2006). The following are major aspects associated with the choices to make: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Participation in tourism (whether to travel or not) Frequency of trips (in a time period) The main purpose of a tourism trip The company on a trip Main destination choice Transport mode choice for long-distance travel to the destination Route choice for long-distance travel to the destination Duration of the stay Type of accommodation Choice of activities at the destination Transport mode choice for trips within the destination Route choice for trips within the destination Tourists’ time-use at the destination Consumption and money spending during the stay.

A typical differentiation by travel purposes is presented in Fig. 15.1 (United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2010). As far as the destination choice is concerned, it is the result of an individual decision-making process, where a tourist experiences different stages of selecting a destination from a set of available alternative destinations they are aware of. Destinations are characterized by several attributes, assuming different values, such as the type of destination, available accommodation options, price, etc. Some attributes, such as price, are quantitative, while others, such as the perceived quality, are qualitative. Given that there is potentially a very large number of possible destinations, a simplified selection between types of destinations can be considered first (e.g., urban or rural; mountains, sea or lake district, etc.), followed by a selection of the final destination from a limited number of alternatives of a given type (e.g., Mediterranean, Adriatic or Baltic Sea). Considering the tourist’s characteristics, the context, and the preferences for different destinations, the final choice will be a destination optimizing the visitor’s experience. Regarding trip-related characteristics, the length

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of stay, type of destination (i.e., urban versus rural), trip purpose, and the number of travel companions are the significant determinants of tourists’ transportation mode choices (Thrane, 2015).

15.3 Transport Choice Transportation has an influence on tourists’ choices, perceptions, and travel behaviors (Pagliara et al., 2015). Destination selection is influenced by transport-related factors as well. In fact, “…tourists’ choice of transport mode and areas visited are closely related” (Le-Klähn et al., 2015: 1). The time and extent of visiting a place by tourists are often related to their transport mode choice (Duval, 2007), as transportation is a major activity and an inevitable activity for a tourist to take part in tourism. According to Prideaux (2000), transport system can influence tourist decisions on their activities and places to visit. Considering the case of transport mode choice as an example, the choice set of possible alternatives is much simpler and consists of different types of motorized private and public modes and non-motorized modes, which differ in travel time, cost, comfort, transfers needed, emissions, etc. Not all of them may be available to a tourist (e.g., having a car or a driving license), and not all of them may be available for a given trip (e.g., no air connection or no train station at the destination), which ought to be considered in the modeling process. Prideaux (2011) also believes that transportation choice depends upon perceived value, speed, cost, comfort, convenience, and destination choice. Usually, individuals’ characteristics, motivations, and trip profiles affect tourists’ choice of transport mode (Hyde & Laesser, 2009). According to Kelly et al. (2007), the attributes that affect tourists’ transport choices include: • Attributes of the travel modes available to the tourist • Features of the destination visited • Characteristics of the individual traveler (demographic factors, socio-economic factors, psychographic factors, motivation, etc.) • Characteristics of the trip (nature of the trip, length of stay, group size, etc.) According to Westlake and Robbins (2005), the factors influencing the selection of transport mode choice include time limit, distance, status, comfort, security, benefit, price, geographical position, and competition. Length of stay is also important. For example, a study on visitors to New Zealand revealed that extended stay visitors tend to use rental cars and private vehicles more (Moore et al., 2015). Group size/travel party also has significance. Table 15.1 shows the factors having an impact on transport choices. The transportation mode used by tourists for their visit, influences their movement patterns (Masiero & Zoltan, 2013). With regard to tourists’ modal choice decision, according to a study by Can (2013), the variables that influence include out-of-mode and on-mode travel time per kilometer, per-kilometer travel cost to income ratio, punctuality, safety, comfort, price/quality, and income. In addition, gender, age, and

15.3 Transport Choice Table 15.1 Factors influencing transport choices

293 Trip related factors • Time of the visit • Type of the holiday • Duration of the visit • Trip profile • Tour group/travel party size

Destination related factors • Distance to Cover • Transfers needed • Geographical factors and conditions • Type of the destination • Spatial distribution of attractions

Personal factors • Motivations • Age • Gender • Occupation • Income level • Companion type • Car ownership • Destination familiarity

Supply side factors • Transportation cost • Speed and comfort level • Service quality • Perceived value • Frequency of services • Convenience of the transport forms available • Safety and security • Comparative benefits • Punctuality • Price-quality ratio • Infrastructure level and conditions

occupation of tourists, as well as distance, affect the decision. Another significant factor is the service quality that can influence the modal choice. A study reveals that age, gender, companion type, car ownership, holiday length, and travel destination are significant when choosing the mode of transport in visiting the destination. Masiero and Zoltan (2013) reiterate that the movement patterns and transportation mode choices are linked. Their study also reveals that the transport mode choice of tourists has a significant relation with demographic variables and the familiarity of the destination. Destination movement patterns are significantly influenced by the familiarity of the destination and the trip characteristics. Therefore, considering the above, the tourism transport mode attributes include travel time, cost of travel, frequency, convenience, flexibility, comfort, and safety. The factors influencing the transport choice are listed in Table 15.2. Other types of choices that a tourist is usually facing before or during a trip can be investigated in a similar manner. The fundamental issue, however, to consider when modeling tourist decisions is whether the choice is made between discrete and mutually exclusive goods (ask yourself the question “which one?”) or if the choice is about the quantity of a given good (ask yourself a question “how much?”). While the first implies the application of discrete choice models, the latter suggests linear regression techniques and its extensions.

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Table 15.2 Leisure travelers’ expectations from a transport Leisure travelers’ expectations of transport include the following (Speakman, 2005) • Information: Accuracy/exactness of timings of travel/transport, like that of departure, arrival, etc • Security: Travelers like to be safe and secure throughout travel • Reliability: Traveler expects punctuality and hassle/trouble-free movement • Comfort: Comfort in terms of movement as well as in accessing the facilities and services provided as part of the journey • Cost efficiency: Better value for money compared to the alternatives • Shared values: The services provided must reflect certain lifestyle assumptions, e.g., concern for the environment and freedom of choice • Fun: The transport experience also has to provide an entertainment experience as well in the possible manner Source Modified from Speakman (2005)

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis The topic of interest (that is, the choice task to be investigated) is specified, and the empirical data appropriate for the research question are available, one should select a suitable method for data analysis. The focus of this chapter lies in modeling tourist’s behavior, in particular their choices. The word modeling implies an approach that is capable of reconstructing (in a simplified way), forecasting a real phenomenon. If we break down behavior of a tourist into a series of single (though often bundled with each other and hardly separable) actions, it is possible to investigate the choices leading to these actions. One of the most widely applied methods fulfilling these requirements is the Discrete Choice Analysis (DCA). DCA is generally used for measuring and predicting individuals’ preferences and alternatives’ choices, providing quantitative measures of the impact of different attributes related to tourism destinations, products, or services, considering also tourists’ willingness to pay for different services (Kemperman, 2021). DCA has found applications in different fields of research including transportation, marketing, retailing, health, and environmental economics, since it can well explain and predict preference and individuals’ choice behavior (Ben-Akiva & Lerman, 1985; Louviere et al., 2000). Some of the examples DCA models are of great use in tourism context include, for example, estimating how attractive tourists find competing destinations with respect to their attributes (Morley, 1994; Masiero & Qiu, 2018), on what premises they choose a transport mode for their trip (Thrane, 2012; Bursa, 2021) or with whom they decide to travel (Rashidi & Koo, 2016). The fundamental concept underlying the methods is the Random Utility Model (RUM) theory, according to which a person chooses an alternative maximizing his/her utility (Thurstone, 1927; Marschak, 1959; McFadden, 1977). The RUM theory is covered in detail in Sect. 15.4.2.

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis

295

15.4.1 Data for Modeling Purposes For any type of a tourist’s choice that an analyst wishes to investigate, high-quality data is necessary, preferably of a disaggregate level, that is with information on single trips, and at the level of single individuals (visitors/tourists), in order to analyze the behavior using discrete choice methods. The literature dedicated to choice modeling is split into two branches—the first operating with Revealed Preference (RP) data and the second one using Stated Preference (SP) data (Wardman, 1988). RP data provide information on what consumers actually do, which in transportation means that researchers observe factual choices of transport system users and collect data on their real market behavior. These data are considered very reliable in depicting current market equilibrium and personal constraints of decision-makers but are limited only to the existing alternatives and are often expensive to collect (Louviere et al., 2000). SP data, on the other hand, provide information on what consumers say they will do in hypothetical choice contexts. Unlike RP data, SP data can inform about consumer preferences for new services or products with new features, however, at the cost of reliability and validity of responses. In recent years, also joint models using both RP and SP data have emerged, which attempt to combine the advantages of both data types (Cherchi & Ortúzar, 2002; Frejinger et al., 2006; Rashedi et al., 2017). Traditionally, RP data have been collected in surveys with the use of Pen-andPaper Personal Interview (PAPI), Computer-Assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI), or via Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI). Over the decades, big data have entered the field of observing and tracking tourist movements. Examples are GPS traces (Hardy et al., 2017; Li et al., 2019; McKercher et al., 2019) or mobile positioning data (Ahas et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2018). However, despite their obvious advantages (cheap, large datasets, high precision in case of GPS tracks), big data on their own are not capable of substituting traditional methods as they do not provide sociodemographic information, cannot measure unobserved variables, or deliver strong causal evidence (Chen et al., 2016; Mokhtarian, 2018). Unfortunately, as opposed to well-established surveys on daily travel behavior (Brög, 2009), there is no consensus on the design and methodology of such surveys in the tourism context that could lead to a replicable approach (Bursa and Mailer, in press). Also, very few researchers provide details on the survey design and report on the fieldwork when applying travel diaries (Thornton et al., 1997; Tschopp et al., 2010; Newmark, 2014). Recently, Bursa (2021) presented a modeling work of tourist intra-destination travel behavior based on a purpose-tailored survey and well-documented field work (Bursa et al., in press). SP data, on the other hand, are almost exclusively collected in discrete choice experiments running in computer systems or at online platforms. In such experiments, a respondent is facing a set of hypothetical choice scenarios, where he/she should select one of the available options based on set of attributes (Louviere et al., 2000; Rose & Bliemer, 2009; Viglia & Dolnicar, 2020).

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15.4.2 Random Utility Theory Random utility theory is based on the hypothesis that every tourist is a rational decision-maker, maximizing utility relative to his/her choices (McFadden, 1974). Specifically, the theory is based on the following assumptions. (a) The generic tourist i, when making a choice, considers mi mutually exclusive alternatives which make up his/her choice set I i . The choice set may be different for different tourists (for example, in the choice of transport mode, the choice set of a tourist without driving license and/or car obviously does not include the alternative “car as a driver”); (b) Tourist i assigns to each alternative j from his/her choice set a perceived utility, or “attractiveness” U ij and selects the alternative maximizing this utility; (c) The utility assigned to each choice alternative depends on a number of measurable characteristics, or attributes, of the alternative itself and of the tourist, U ij = U i (X ij ), where X ij is the vector of the attributes relative to alternative j and to decision-maker i; (d) The utility assigned by tourist i to alternative j is not known with certainty by an external observer (analyst), because of a number of factors that will be described later and must therefore be represented by a random variable. On the basis of the above assumptions, it is not usually possible to predict with certainty the alternative that the generic tourist will select. However, it is possible to express the probability of selecting alternative j conditional on his/her choice set I i , as the probability that the perceived utility of alternative j is greater than that of all the other available alternatives: pi [ j/I i ] = Pr [U ij > Uki ∀k = j, k ∈ I i ]

(15.1)

The perceived utility U ij can be expressed by the sum of the systematic utility V ji , which represents the mean or the expected value of the utilities perceived by all tourists having the same choice context as tourist i (same alternatives and attributes), and a random residual εij , which is the (unknown) deviation of the utility perceived by the tourist i from this value: U ij = V ji + εij ∀ j ∈ I i with: V ji = E[U ij ] σi,2 j = V ar [U ij ] and therefore: E[V ji ] = V ji V ar [V ji ] = 0 E[εij ] = 0 V ar [εij ] = σi,2 j

(15.2)

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis

297

Replacing the expression (15.2) in (15.1) we have: pi [ j/I i ] = Pr [V ji − Vki > εki − εij ∀k = j , k ∈ I i ]

(15.3)

From (15.3), it follows that the choice probability of an alternative depends on the systematic utilities of all competing (available) alternatives, and on the joint probability law of random residuals ε j . The set of available alternatives I i , or choice set, influences significantly the choice probabilities, as can be seen from equations. If the choice set I i of the single tourist is known, the definition of choice probability can be applied directly. Expression of systematic utility. Systematic utility is the mean of the perceived utility among all tourists who have the same attributes; it is expressed as a function V ji (X ki j ) of attributes X ki j relative to the alternatives and the decision-maker. Although the function V ji (X ij ) may be of any type, for analytical and statistical convenience, it is usually assumed that the systematic utility V ji is a linear function in the coefficients βk of the attributes X ki j or of their functional transformations f k (X ki j ): V ji (X ij ) =

 k

βk X ki j = β T X ij

(15.4)

The Multinomial Logit (MNL) model is the simplest random utility model. It assumes that the random residuals ε j are independently and identically distributed (i.i.d.) according to a Gumbel random variable (r.v.) of zero mean and parameter θ (Gumbel, 1958).

15.4.3 Model Formulations During the years, several formulations of the basic logit model have been developed (Louviere et al., 2000; Train, 2009). The Multinomial Logit (MNL) model assumes that the random components of the utility are independent, identically distributed, and Gumbel distributed (Ben-Akiva & Lerman, 1985). An important property of the MNL is represented by independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA), meaning that the choice between any two alternatives cannot be influenced by the existence of other alternatives. This has consequences that are well-documented (red/blue bus paradox) (McFadden, 1973). The Nested Logit (NL) model allows relaxing the IIA constraint, which is the major issue connected with the MNL model, and makes possible to model alternatives sharing some attributes within so-called nests. A separate MNL model can be estimated for each nest, the inclusive value (log sum of estimated utilities) of the alternatives (lowest level) is then applied to the utilities of the nests (upper level), and the model is estimated sequentially. This idea was first introduced in the 1970s by Ben-Akiva (1973), McFadden (1977), and McFadden (1981).

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The Cross-Nested Logit (CNL), which belongs to the family of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) models (McFadden, 1977), was proposed by Vovsha (1997) as a generalization of the NL model. It is a flexible approach, that allows correlations between alternatives within different nests in contrast to arbitrarily determined nest-wise similarities reinforced by the NL structure. McFadden and Train (2000) proposed a new group of mixed models (MMNL) by combining different choice models to capture taste heterogeneity among decisionmakers and correlations between alternatives. Mixed models can take very flexible functional forms and approximate any discrete choice model. However, they require the use of simulation methods for estimation. One of the most advanced developments in the field of discrete choice is the Hybrid Choice Model (HCM) (Ben-Akiva et al., 2002; Abou-Zeid & Ben-Akiva, 2014; Vij & Walker, 2014), which incorporates the effects of latent variables (e.g., attitudes or perceptions) into the framework of the DCA. Some alternative approaches based on assumptions other than the classical utility maximization principle have also emerged in recent years. One example is the Random Regret Minimization (RRM), which is based on the Regret Theory (Chorus, 2012).

15.4.4 Applications of DCA in Tourism Over the years, many researchers have applied the DCA in the tourism context, which have led to a relatively large collection of scientific studies. The absolute majority of these works use SP data, which are relatively easy and cheap to collect in a controlled experimental setting, compared to RP data that require extensive and time-consuming survey work. Back in 2001, Crouch and Louviere reviewed 43 choice modeling studies in tourism, hospitality, and leisure. Kemperman (2021) presented a systematic review of 49 papers published in top five tourism journals between 2010 and 2020 on discrete choice experiments in tourism research. A summary of these reviews, supplemented with other examples included in Viglia and Dolnicar (2020) and Bursa (2021), is reported in Table 15.3 and summarized in the following sections. As Crouch and Louviere (2001) and Kemperman (2021) pointed out, the research scope of these studies is very broad, ranging from holiday destinations choice (Huybers, 2005), to accommodation choice (Masiero et al., 2016; Román & Martín, 2016), to experiences (Oppewal et al., 2015) and activity choices, e.g., restaurant choice (Jung et al., 2015), cruise package choice (Mahadevan & Chang, 2017), cultural heritage (Choi et al., 2010), or wildlife site preferences (Liu, 2017). Some of the most relevant findings, in particular those relating to transport-related issues, are described below. The choice of the main tourist destination has been the first to be investigated in theoretical works (Rugg, 1973; Woodside & Lysonski, 1989; Sirakaya et al., 1996), but more recently in numerous modeling studies. LaMondia et al. (2010) analyzed

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis

299

Table 15.3 Discrete choice approach in tourism: a review Authors

Research topic

Type of choice

Experimental design

Model typea

Studies that use Stated Preference (SP) data Adhikari et al. (2013)

Pricing of experience products

Pricing of experience products

Albaladejo-Pina Tourist preferences for Choice of rural and Díaz-Delfa rural house stays: house (2009) Evidence from discrete choice modelling in Spain

Hierarchical Bayes method Fractional factorial design

MNL, ML

Araña et al. (2016)

Designing tourist Choice of information offices: the service design role of the human factor

Arenoe et al. (2015)

Game theoretic pricing Choice of hotel models in hotel revenue management

Choice based conjoint design

MNL

Bach and Burton (2017)

Proximity and animal welfare in the context of tourist interactions with habituated dolphins

2 experiments: Choice of proximity and likelihood of dolphin interaction & Choice of feeding logistics, welfare concerns and alternative activities

Fractional factorial designs

Conditional fixed effects logistic regression model

Chaminuka et al. (2012)

Tourist preferences for ecotourism in rural communities

Choice of ecotourism alternatives

Fractional factorial design

Conditional probit model

Chen et al. (2019)

Chinese outbound tourist preferences for all-Inclusive group package tours

Choice of group Efficient package tours design

LCM

Choi et al. (2010)

Economic valuation of cultural heritage sites

Choice of services at a cultural heritage site

D-optimal design

ML

Choi and Ritchie (2014)

Willingness to pay for Choice for flying carbon neutral in voluntary Australia carbon offset

D-efficient design

RPL

MNL, ML, LCM, GenMNL, Scaled MNL

(continued)

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Table 15.3 (continued) Experimental design

Model typea

Conflicting preferences Choice of among tourists and tourist residents development

Fractional factorial design

RPL

Crouch et al. (2019)

International convention tourism: host city competition

Best-worst scaling task & choice of convention site

Fractional factorial design

Conditional logistic regression analysis

Dellaert et al. (1997)

Interaction between destination choice and transportation choice as an example of a multi-choice problem

Choice of destination and transport mode

Fractional factorial design

MNL, NL, P

Choice of cycling infrastructure

Fractional factorial design

NL

Fractional factorial design

CLM

Authors

Research topic

Concu and Atzeni (2012)

Deenihan and Tourists’ value of Caulfield (2015) different levels of cycling infrastructure

Type of choice

Figini and Vici (2012)

Off-season tourists and Choice of the cultural offer of a holiday mass-tourism package destination

Fleischer et al. (2012)

The Impact of fear of flying on travelers’ flight choice

Choice of flight Fractional itinerary factorial design

ML

Grigolon et al. (2012)

The influence of low-fare airlines on vacation choices of students

Choice of Fractional transport mode factorial in the content of design vacation choices

MNL

Hergesell and Dickinger (2013)

Environmentally Choice of friendly holiday holiday transport mode choices transport mode among students

Fractional factorial designs

MNL & NL

Jung et al. (2015)

How consumers choose Choice of where to go for dinner restaurant

Fractional factorial design

Repeated measures logistic regression model

Karlsson et al. (2017)

May I sleep in your bed? Getting permission to book

Choice Fractional (acceptance or factorial rejection) of an design Airbnb booking request

LCM

(continued)

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis

301

Table 15.3 (continued) Authors

Research topic

Type of choice

Experimental design

Model typea

Keshavarzian and Wu (2021)

The effect of sequentially receiving airline and destination information on the choice of tourism destinations

Choice of destination

D-Efficient design

MNL

Kim and Park (2017)

The moderating role of Choice of hotel context in the choice for a hotel

Bayesian D-optimal design

MNL & RPL

Bayesian D-optimal design

RPL

Kim and Perdue The effects of (2013) cognitive, affective, and sensory attributes on hotel choice

Choice of hotel

Kim et al. (2019)

The influence of decision task on decoy and compromise effects in a travel decision

Choice of travel Full factorial destination design

Binary logistic regression analysis

Koo et al. (2019)

Effect of safety risk information and alternative forms of presenting on traveler decision rules in international flight choice

Choice of flight Bayesian efficient design

Latent elimination model

Koo et al. (2010)

Transport and regional dispersal of tourists

Choice of transport mode

Fractional factorial design

MNL

Kubo et al. (2019)

Wildlife viewing, the impact of money-back guarantees

Choice of tour participation

D-efficient design

RPL

Lacher et al. (2013)

The role of heritage Choice of trip and cultural elements in coastal tourism destination preferences

D-efficient design

RPL

Landauer et al. (2013)

The Influence of culture on climate change adaptation strategies

Choice of ski destination

Fractional factorial design

MNL

Landauer et al. (2012)

Managing cross-country skiing destinations under the conditions of climate change

Choice of ski destination

Fractional factorial design

LCM

(continued)

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Table 15.3 (continued) Authors

Research topic

Lee et al. (2010) Preferences and willingness to pay for bird-watching tour and interpretive services

Type of choice

Experimental design

Model typea

Choice of bird watching course

Fractional factorial design

MNL

Liu (2017)

Testing on-site sampling correction

Choice of wildlife conservation area visit

Fractional factorial design

Truncated Poisson regression model

Lyu (2017)

Accessible travel products for people with disabilities

Choice of accessible travel product

Fractional factorial design

RPL

Mahadevan and Chang (2017)

Valuing shipscape influence to maximize a cruise experience

Choice of cruise experience package

D-efficient design

RPL

Masiero et al. (2015)

Determining guests’ willingness to pay for hotel room attributes

Choice of hotel room

Efficient design

ML

Masiero and Nicolau (2012)

Tourism market segmentation based on price sensitivity

Choice of tourist cards

Fractional factorial design

ML (followed by cluster analysis on the individual parameters)

Masiero et al. (2016)

Asymmetric preference Choice of hotel in hotel room choice room and implications on revenue management

Efficient design

ML (followed by cluster analysis on individual parameters)

Masiero and Qiu (2018)

Modeling reference experience in destination choice

Efficient design

ML

Masiero et al. (2019)

Hotel location Choice of hotel preference of location customers, comparing random utility and random regret decision rules

Efficient design

MNL & ML

Mathies et al. (2013)

The effects of customer-centric marketing and revenue management on travelers’ choices

Combination of full factorial designs

LCM with reference-dependent fairness effects

Mejía and Brandt (2017)

Utilizing Choice of trip environmental information and pricing strategies to reduce externalities of tourism

Fractional factorial design

RPL

Choice of destination

Choice of airline & hotel

(continued)

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis

303

Table 15.3 (continued) Authors

Research topic

Type of choice

Experimental design

Model typea

Olmsted et al. (2020)

Leveraging support for conservation from ecotourists, the role of relational values

Choice of conservation program

Fractional factorial design

ML

Oppewal et al. (2015)

Tourist destination and experience choice, decision sequence effects

Choice of holiday destination and experience

Combinations MNL of design strategies

Randle et al. (2019)

The role of Choice of Fractional cause-related corporate holiday factorial social responsibility accommodation design (CSR) in accommodation choice

LCM

Román and Martín (2016)

Hotel attributes, asymmetries in guest payments and gains

Fractional factorial design

Panel ML (estimated in preference and WTP/WTA space)

Sarman et al. (2016)

Acceptance of Choice of life-threatening hazards holiday among young tourists

D-efficient design

Hybrid choice model

Fractional factorial design

MNL

Schroeder and Predicting the impact Louviere (1999) of user fees at public recreation sites

Choice of hotel

Choice of a natural park

Scuttari et al. (2019)

Assessing the Choice of Fractional tourism-traffic paradox transport option factorial in mountain design destinations

NL

Seekamp et al. (2019)

Influences on coastal tourism demand and substitution behaviors from climate change impacts and hazard recovery responses

CA

Tyrrell et al. (2013)

A quantified triple Choice of Fractional bottom line for tourism business factorial (contribution to design community)

CA

van Cranenburgh et al. (2014)

A stated preference of revealed preference approach for vacation behavior under high travel cost conditions

Error component portfolio choice model using generalized SP-off-RP estimation procedures

Choice of trip

Full factorial design

Portfolio choice Pivoted of vacation experimental destination, design length of stay, accommodation and transport

(continued)

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Table 15.3 (continued) Experimental design

Model typea

Authors

Research topic

Type of choice

Walters et al. (2019)

The threat of terrorism and tourist choice behavior

Choice of travel Fractional package factorial design

RPL

Westerberg et al. (2013)

The case for offshore wind farms, artificial reefs and sustainable tourism

Choice of offshore wind farms

D-efficient design

LCM

Studies that use Revealed Preference (RP) data Bursa (2021)

Modeling the intra-destination travel behavior of tourists

Choice of transport mode

–

MNL, NL, CNL

LaMondia et al. Traveler Behavior and (2010) Values Analysis in the Context of Vacation Destination and Travel Mode Choices

Choice of destination and transport mode

–

MNL

LaMondia and Bhat (2013)

Visitors’ leisure travel behavior in the northwest territories of Canada

Choice of combination of activities

–

P

Li et al. (2019)

Modeling intra-destination travel behavior of tourists through spatio-temporal analysis

Choice of destination

–

MNL

Masiero and Zoltan (2013)

Tourists intra-destination visits and transport mode

Choice of destination and transport mode

–

P

Nicolau and Más (2006)

The influence of distance and prices on the choice of tourist destinations: The moderating role of motivations

Choice of destination

–

RPL

van Nostrand et al. (2013)

Analysis of long-distance vacation travel demand in the USA

Choice of destination and time allocation

–

MDCEV

Scarpa and Thiene (2004)

Destination Choice Models for Rock Climbing in the Northeastern Alps

Choice of destination

–

LCM

Scarpa et al. (2008)

Utility in Willingness to Pay Space in Destination Choice to the Alps

Choice of destination

–

ML

(continued)

15.4 Discrete Choice Analysis

305

Table 15.3 (continued) Authors

Research topic

Type of choice

Experimental design

Model typea

Thrane (2015)

Examining tourists’ long-distance transportation mode choices

Choice of transport mode

–

MNL

a CLM = conditional logit model; GMNL = generalized multinomial logit model; MDCEV = multiple

discrete–continuous extreme value model; MNL = multinomial logit model; ML = mixed logit model; NL = nested logit model; LCM = Latent Class Model; RPL = random parameter logit model; CA = conjoint analysis; P = probit model Adapted from Kemperman (2021) and Crouch and Louviere (2001) and extended

vacation destination choices of travelers in Europe using RP data and found important effects of nationality, traveler demographics, travel companionship arrangement, traveler preferences and values, and trip and destination characteristics on holiday destination and travel mode choice. Another RP-based study from the USA was done by van Nostrand et al. (2013), who revealed that travel times and costs, lodging costs, leisure activity opportunities, length of coastline, and weather conditions at the destinations influence households’ destination choices for vacation. Keshavarzian and Wu (2021) used a choice experiment to explore travelers’ destination choice behavior when buying airline tickets. The importance of the experience available at the destination for holiday destination choice was explored by Masiero and Qiu (2018) and Oppewal et al. (2015). Apart from the choice of the main destination to the entire trip, a tourist should also decide about destinations he/she visits to perform activities within the area of stay. This topic, however, has not been explored to a similar extent as the long-distance travel component. Examples are the works by Masiero and Zoltan (2013), who analyzed visitors’ behavior in the Swiss canton of Ticino, or Li et al. (2019), who modeled the destination choice of Chinese domestic tourists. Also LaMondia and Bhat (2013) applied discrete choice models to study visitors’ trips in Northwest Canada, while Scarpa et al. (2008) and Scarpa and Thiene (2004) analyzed the tourists’ destination choice in the Alps. A large collection of studies concentrates on tourists’ transport mode choice, mainly for the long-distance travel from home to a given destination. Hergesell and Dickinger (2013) and Grigolon et al. (2012) analyzed the transport mode choice for holiday trips among university students. Thrane (2015), based on RP-dataset, modeled transport mode choices for long-distance trips of Norwegian tourists. Other researchers (Dellaert et al., 1997; Pettebone et al., 2011; Orsi & Geneletti, 2014) applied choice experiments to study significant factors for transport mode choice. Much like in the destination choice case, only a few researchers focused on transport mode choice for the intra-destination trips. An example is represented by the work by Bursa (2021), who reviewed the state of research in this field, collected revealed preference data on travel decisions of tourists in the Alps with the use of bespoke travel-activity diaries, and estimated econometric choice models for transport mode choice. He discovered a significantly negative effect of travel time and travel cost.

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Furthermore, he found a substantial influence of children on transport mode choice. Also travel purpose, price segment of the accommodation, prior knowledge about the destination, and fitness level of tourists proved to have a significant effect. Although to a less extent, many other decisions components, not necessarily transport-related (as elicited in Sect. 15.4.2) of a tourist trip were also investigated in academic studies. Specifically, those concerning the climate change and sustainability issues are worth mentioning, as these are presenting problems of modern societies and are strongly bounded with tourism and transportation industries. Both Landauer et al. (2012) and Landauer et al. (2013) looked at adaptation of tourists’ choice in the face of changing climate conditions, while the Australian study conducted by Choi and Ritchie (2014) estimated their willingness to pay (WTP) for reduction of CO2 emissions from aviation. Chaminuka et al. (2012), for instance, concentrated specifically on the ecotourism case and tourists’ preferences for this branch in rural regions.

15.4.5 Other Modeling Techniques Apart from discrete choice methods, which appear to be dominant now, also other methods have found applications in the field of tourism. In contrast to DCA, however, they do not operate on data at the disaggregate level of single individuals, nor do they refer to behavior and decisions of individual tourists. In principle, numerous kinds of regression techniques are used to describe tourism phenomena at the aggregate level. Regression models assume that the relationship between dependent variable and any independent variable is stationary in space. The use of a fixed relationship between dependent variables and independent variables can, however, influence the adjustments of their estimates, generating instability in the coefficients of the various models. Spatial autocorrelation models can be used to overcome this problem, assuming the coefficients of the variables not constant in space. The Moran’s I index is the most common global spatial autocorrelation indicator which explains the overall distribution of a given phenomenon and whether this phenomenon presents cluster characteristics in a given space. A positive value indicates a positive correlation. A higher value means a stronger spatial autocorrelation, or a more evident clustering effect. A negative value shows a negative correlation, suggesting the absence of spatial autocorrelation. A value that approximates to 0 indicates a random spatial distribution. To test the autocorrelation a simple hypothesis test, calculating a z-score and its associated p-value can be carried out. The null hypothesis means that the data are randomly distributed. The alternative hypothesis is that the data are more spatially clustered than one would expect. When testing the statistical significance of the Moran’s I values, Z(I) > 2.58 or 1.96 or