Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean 9789048552931

Citation preview

Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry

Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman1

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi and Pieter C. Muysken

Lantern of Wisdom Lantèrnu di Sabiduria

Amsterdam University Press 1 In Papiamento, ‘krusa’ laman’ can mean to cross the ocean. Laman means sea and ‘laman ganchu’ is the big sea or the ocean. Here ‘Laman’ is used in the sense of the big sea, the ocean.

The publication of this book is made possible by a grant from the Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds.

Cover illustration: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Photography: Lothar Kort. The lantern represents the wisdom of all languages leading to an oertaal (= Dutch). Oertaal also stands for mother tongue or native language. Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6372 744 0 e-isbn 978 90 4855 293 1 doi 10.5117/9789463727440 nur 630 © H. de Windt Ayoubi and P.C. Muysken / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2022 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use all copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is advised to contact the publisher.

Dedication

To all children –Our future linguists– May their mother tongues Keep singing forevermore… To my beloved granddaughters Talissa and Qyanna de Windt My great inspiration sources Thank you to all the people Who enthusiastically contributed And made this book-project possible… In Memoriam Pieter C. Muysken Dedikashon Na tur mucha –Nos futuro lingwistanan– Ohalá nan lenga di mama Pa semper por sigui kanta… Na mi nietanan stimá Talissa i Qyanna de Windt Mi gran fuentenan di inspirashon Un danki ta bai na tur persona, Ku a duna nan kontribushon ku entusiasmo Pa hasi e proyekto di buki akí bira posibel… Na Memoria di Pieter C. Muysken



Table of Contents Tabla di Kontenido

How to Navigate This Book Kon Nabegá den e Buki akí

13

Acknowledgements Gradisimentu Dankwoord Agradecimientos Remerciements Ευχαριστίες

15 17 19 21 23 25

Preface Prefasio Voorwoord Prefacio Préface Εισαγωγικό σημείωμα

27 28 29 30 31 32

Part 1 Introducing the Mother Tongue Introdukshon di Lenga di Mama Papiamento and Guene/Gueni: The Importance of Translation and Poetry for the Development and Conservation of Mother Tongue Papiamentu i Guene/Gueni: E Importansia di Tradukshon i Poesia pa Desaroyo i Konservashon di Lenga di Mama Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Part 2 The Poem “Lenga di Mama” and its Translations, Comments and Language Descriptions E Poema “Lenga di Mama” i su Tradukshonnan i Komentario i Deskripshon di e Idiomanan Pieter C. Muysken and Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

35

Creole Languages /Idioma Krioyo

Pieter C. Muysken. Jamaican Creole by Matthew Smith

Papiamentu/o1 (Papiamento) / Papiamentu Kreyòl/Krèyol Ayisyen (Haitian Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Haiti/ Haitiano Jamiekan / Jamiekan Kriyu (Jamaican Creole/Patois) / Patwa di Jamaica Kwéyòl (Antillean Creole of Guadeloupe) / Lenga Krioyo di Guadeloupe Matnik or Matinik (Martinican Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Martinique Sranantongo (Creole of Suriname) / Sranantongo (“Taki Taki”) Kriol de Sonsent (Cape Verdean of São Vicente) / Kaboverdiano di São Vicente Morisien (Mauritian Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Mauritio Pidgin (Hawaiian Pidgin) / Bedji di Hawai Kréol rénioné (Réunion Creole or Reunionese Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Réunion African and Asian Languages /Idioma Afrikano i Asiátiko Pieter C. Muysken

Tmaziɣt / Tarifiyt (Tarifiyt/Riffian Berber) / Tarifiyt/Riffian Bѐrber Tashelhiyt / Shilha (Souss Berber) / Tashelhiyt / Souss Bѐrber Harshen / Hausa (Hausa) / Hausa Ásụ̀sụ̀ Ìgbò (Igbo) / Igbo Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian) / Indones Basa Jawa (Javanese) / Yavano Guānhuà (Mandarin Chinese) / Chines Mandarin Nihongo (Japanese) / Hapones Amerindian Languages /Idioma Amerindio Pieter C. Muysken

Nāhuatlahtōlli or Náhuatl (Nahuatl) / Náhuatl  Wayúu / Wayuunaiki (Wayuu/Wayuunaiki of Guajira) / Wayúu di Guajira /Guajiro 1

Papiamentu is used in Curaçao and Bonaire, and Papiamento in Aruba.

57 62 65 68 70 73 75 77 79 81 84 87

91 93 95 98 100 103 105 108 113 117 119

Karìna auran /Kar’ina (Karina/Carib of Suriname) /Karina/Karibe di Sürnam Wampis/Huambisa (Wampis/Huambisa ) / Wampis/ Huambisa di Peru Kichwa (Quechua of Ecuador) / Quechua di Ecuador Runasimi (Quechua of Cuzco) / Quechua di Cuzco Asháninka/Campa (Asháninka) Asháninka di Peru Aymara /Aymar aru (Aymara of Peru) /Aymara di Peru

121 123 126 128 130 133

Constructed Languages /Idioma Konstruí

137

Planlingvo (Esperanto) / Esperanto

138

Germanic Languages /Idioma Germániko

143

Herman Dekeŭnink

Pieter C. Muysken

Dansk (Danish) / Danes Deutsch (German) / Aleman Schwiizerdütsch (Swiss German) / Aleman Suiso Frysk/Fräisk (Frisian) / Lenga di Friesland / Frisio Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes Brabants (Brabantish) / Idioma di Brabant / Brabants Limburgs/ Lèmburgs (Limburgish or Limburgan) / Idioma di Limburg / Lemburgs Huistaal (Afrikaans) / Afrikano / Lenga Surafrikano English / (English) / Ingles Romance Languages /Idioma Romániko

Pieter C. Muysken and Hilda de Windt Ayoubi ( for Catalan)

Français (French) / Franses Catalá or Llengua Catalana (Catalan) / Katalan Español (Spanish) / Spañó Português do Brasil (Brazilian Portuguese) / Portugues di Brasil Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano

148 151 153 155 158 161 164 167 170 173 176 179 181 184 186

Other Indo-European Languages /Otro Idiomanan Indo-Europeo 191 Pieter C. Muysken

Gaeilge (Irish) / Gaélico/Irlandes Elliniká (Greek) / Griego Elliniká (Greek) / Griego: Transliteration / Transliterashon Russkiy yazyk (Russian) / Ruso Hayeren/Hayastan (Armenian) / Armenio Fārsī (Persian/Farsi) / (Persiano) Hindi/Devanagari (Hindi) / Hindi Hindi/Devanagari (Hindi) / Hindi: Transliteration/Transliterashon Hamaar Bhaasaa/Sarnámi Hindoestani (Sarnámi) / Sarnami Other Languages of Europe/Otro idiomanan di Europa Pieter C. Muysken

195 198 200 203 205 207 209 211 213 217

Eesti Keel (Estonian) / Estones Euskera (Basque) / Basko

219 221

Semitic Languages /Idioma Semítiko

225

Pieter C. Muysken and Alessandro Mengozzi ( for the Aramaic languages and Hebrew)

Al-ʿarabiyyah (Arabic) / Árabe Şurayt or Turoyo (Neo-Aramaic or Assyrian) / Arameo o Asirio Sureth (Neo-Aramaic or Assyrian) / Arameo o Asirio Ivrit (Modern Hebrew) / Hebreo Modèrnu

228 231 234 237

Part 3 The Poem “E ‘papiá’ di Papiamentu” and its Translations E Poema “E ‘papiá’ di Papiamentu” i su Tradukshonnan The Translations and Editing of the Poem Hilda de Windt Ayoubi and Leontine Kuster ( for French)

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes English / (English) / Ingles Français (French) / Franses Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano Español (Spanish) / Spañó

241 242 243 244 245 246

Part 4 The Poem “Papiamentu pa Semper” and its Translations E Poema “Papiamentu pa Semper” i su Tradukshonnan The Translations and Editing of the Poem Hilda de Windt Ayoubi and Pieter Muysken ( for Dutch)

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu and Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes English / (English) / Ingles Français (French) / Franses Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano Español (Spanish) / Spañó

249 251 253 254 256

Part 5 The Poem “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” and its Translations E Poema “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” i su Tradukshonnan The Translations and Editing of the Poem Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Pieter Muysken ( for Dutch), Ingrid Donati ( for Italian)

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes English / (English) / Ingles Français (French) / Franses Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano Español (Spanish) / Spañó

261 263 265 267 269 271

Part 6 Commentary Komentario Translation, Language Endangerment and Revitalization, Bilingual Texts Tradukshon, Peliger pa Pèrdida di idioma i Revitalisashon di Idioma, Teksto Bilingual Pieter C. Muysken

275

In Memoriam Professor Dr. Pieter C. Muysken Na Memoria di Profesor Dr. Pieter C. Muysken

293

Special Thanks Also Un Danki Speshal Tambe

303

Note on the Authors Informashon tokante e Outornan

307

Index Índise

309

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi



How to Navigate This Book Kon Nabegá den e Buki akí

The reader of this book may wonder why, instead of the usual number of one or two languages for the preface and acknowledgements, six different languages are included in these sections. The first reason is simply that this book contains more than fifty translations of the main poem “Lenga di Mama”; adding these six languages in the opening sections of the publication builds on that consistency with the idea of translingualism. The second reason, and perhaps the more important one, is that it reflects the language situation in the Dutch Caribbean Leeward Islands, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, where five languages, namely Dutch, English, French, Papiamento, and Spanish, are included in the present school curriculum. A sixth language, Greek, was also included because it used to be part of the curriculum at the secondary level in Curaçao, and also because it was my wish to include one language with different letter signs. Moreover, approximately seven-teen percent of the vocabulary of the languages included in our curriculum are of Greek origin. As for the choice of translations of the poem “Lenga di Mama”, one important criteria was that at least fifty percent of the languages would be a minority and/or an endangered language. In addition, then, at least one translation from each language family would be a minority language. The other fifty percent of larger languages would then serve as promoting media and information to the minority ones. It was our idea to include languages from each continent. However, due to unforeseen Covid-19 circumstances, it was not possible to include indigenous languages of Australia. Regarding the sequence of languages, instead of alphabetically ordering the languages from each language family, we opted for a more visual structure, that is, a more or less geographical order, moving mostly from north to south. For the Creole languages, we departed from the Caribbean, that is from Curaçao, the island where Papiamento is spoken, moving first towards the northern islands of Guadeloupe, Haiti and Jamaica, then southwards to the more southern islands, finally to Suriname for the language of Sranantongo. After this, we proceeded to the West Coast of Africa for the Cape Verdean language, and finally to the Indian and Pacific Ocean Creole languages. In addition, each language family is preceded by one or more corresponding geographical maps so as to serve as an orientation for the reader. As for the denomination of the languages, we opted to first mention the local name (as much as possible), then the English name, and finally

14 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

the Papiamento name (as much as possible, though sometimes making use of the Spanish denomination). After the Greek and Hindi translators, spontaneously sent the transliteration of their translation we decided to include them as examples of transliteration. Our empirical approach to the translations came from a desire to depart from the social context of the language groups and to reflect the cultural diversity within them. We are interested in the anthropological representations to be found in the prism of information given by the translators, from their experiences of translating the poem, whether on language, culture, poetry, conservation, or from an emotional level. We hope that this approach will bring about a discussion amidst scholars, students and those interested in multilingualism, translingualism, translation, poetry, the conservation and loss of languages. Regarding multi- and translingualism, we also wish that the discussion will be widened to encompass not only literary aspects, but to include the importance attributed to the languages, particularly the minority and/or endangered ones.

Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thank Pieter C. Muysken who was the first to translate the poem “Lenga di Mama”, thus opening the path, in one way or another, for other translations. This poem and Pieter’s translation into Dutch were published for the first time on April 4, 2014 on www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. In the course of time, two of my other poems on minority languages were also translated into Dutch by Muysken, “Papiamentu pa Semper” (Papiamento for Evermore) and “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” (On the Wings of Mother Tongue). One of the last poems in this collection, “Het Papiamentse Gespreek” (Papiamento “Speech”), though originally written in Dutch, was also published on www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. Each of these four poems focuses in a different way on the conservation and importance of mother languages. Five years after translating the first poem, Muysken gave me the idea to collect all translations of “Lenga di Mama” for a book of translations. From that moment, the project flourished. Without his knowledge, wisdom and guidance, this collection, probably, would not have seen the light. As the project developed, I kept on receiving more and more translations, finally reaching a total of more than fifty languages. I love the idea that they came from people who live on my island or abroad who, to a large extent, I had met with the help of family members, friends, students, teachers, professors, indigenous speakers, etc. I agree with Pieter when he writes in his preface that, “not all translators were professional translators”; yet from my own experience during this project, I would like to add that they all worked with love and dedication. I would also like to thank those who reviewed several translations and also those who helped me find a translator, and of course my sponsors, the Prince Bernhard Cultural Fund Caribbean, my sons Farouk and Faried de Windt, and my publisher, Amsterdam University Press, particularly Lucia Dove. Finally, to all those who, during the different presentations of my previous books, recited some of the poems contained in this collection, thus giving oral enhancement to the Mother Tongue.

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_ack

16 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Working on this project not only allowed me to become acquainted with many languages, but also to know a little about the cultures and traditions of other countries. Translating works of literature forges ties and builds bridges between countries and people. There is a story behind each translation which makes us feel that we are part of a great world of languages, a world of different melodies and tonalities; yet one that finds us all closely related. So, Papiamento has crossed the sea, which is also expressed in the subtitle of this book. I hope that this team project, through poetry and translation, will contribute to preserving linguistic diversity on Mother Earth. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi World Poetry Day, March 21, 2020

Gradisimentu Na promé lugá, lo mi kier gradisí Profesor Pieter Muyken ya ku ta e a tradusí pa promé biaha e poema “Lenga di Mama”, habriendo asina, di un forma òf otro, e kaminda pa otro tradukshon. E poema akí ku Muysken su tradukshon na hulandes a ser publiká pa promé biaha, 4 di aprel, 2014 riba e wèpsait www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. Den transkurso di tempu, Profesor Muysken, a tradusí tambe dos di mi otro poemanan tokante lenga di minoria na hulandes. Ta trata di e poema “Papiamentu pa Semper” i “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama”. Un di e último poemanan den e kolekshon akí, “Het Papiamentse Gespreek”, (E Papiá di Papiamentu), originalmente skirbí na hulandes, tambe a ser publiká riba e wèpsait menshoná. Kada un di e kuater poemanan menshoná ta enfoká na forma diferente riba konservashon i importansia di lenga di mama. Tabata Pieter tambe ku sinku aña despues di a tradusí e promé poema, a duna mi e idea pa kolekshoná tur e tradukshonnan di “Lenga di Mama” pa asina yega na publikashon di un buki. For di e momento ei e proyekto a sigui krese. Sin su konosementu, sabiduria i guia e kolekshon akí probablemente lo no a mira lus di dia. Segun ku e proyekto tabata avansá mi a sigui risibí mas tradukshon te na mas di un total di 50. Loke ta enkantá mi ta ku nan ta bini di personanan di mi isla o di eksterior ku, pa gran parti, mi a konosé ku yudansa di famia, amigu, studiante, dosente, profesor, ablante indígena, ets. Den su prefasio Muysken ta suprayá ku “No ta tur traduktor tabata traduktor profeshonal”. Esei sigur ta bèrdat pero dor di mi eksperensia a lo largu di e proyekto akí lo mi kier añadí ku nan tur a hasié ku amor i dedikashon. Un danki tambe ta bai na tur esnan ku a revisá vários di e tradukshonnan i esnan ku a yuda mi haña un traduktor, i por supuesto na mi spònsernan, Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds Caribisch Gebied, mi yunan Farouk i Faried de Windt, i mi editorial, Amsterdam University Press, partikularmente, señora Lucia Dove. Por último, un danki ta bai na tur esnan ku durante e presentashonnan di mi bukinan anterior, a resitá algun di e poemanan den e kolekshon akí, dunando asina realse oral na Lenga Materno. Traha na e proyekto akí no solamente a pone mi konosé hopi idioma sino konosé ademas un poko di e kultura i kustumbernan di otro pais. Tradukshon di obra literario ta forha laso, konstruí brùg entre pais i hende. Tras di kada tradukshon tin un historia, loke ta pone nos sinti ku nos ta forma parti di un mundu grandi di idioma, un mundu di melodia i tonalidat diferente pero

18 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

ku tòg ta revelá nos lasonan estrecho. Di e manera akí papiamentu a krusa laman loke ta ser ekspresá tambe den suptítulo di e buki akí. Mi ta spera ku e proyekto den ekipo akí, atraves di poesia i tradukshon lo yuda kontribuí na preservashon di diversidat lingwístiko riba Mama Tera. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi Dia Mundial di Poesia, 21 di mart, 2020

Dankwoord Allereerst wil ik Pieter C. Muysken bedanken, die voor de eerste keer het gedicht “Lenga di Mama” vertaalde. Hierdoor werd het pad naar andere vertalingen, op de een of andere manier, vrijgemaakt. Dit gedicht en haar Nederlandse vertaling werden voor de eerste keer, op 4 april, 2014, gepubliceerd op de webstek www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. In de loop der tijd werden twee van mijn andere gedichten over minderheidstalen ook in het Nederlands vertaald door Muysken, namelijk, “Papiamentu pa Semper” (Papiamentu voor Altijd) en “Riba Ala di lenga di Mama” (Op de Vleugels van Moedertaal). Een van de gedichten in deze collectie, “Het Papiamentse Gespreek”, ofschoon oorspronkelijk geschreven in het Nederlands, werd ook gepubliceerd op www.stemmenvanafrika. nl. Deze vier gedichten richten zich elk, op eigen wijze, op het belang en behoud van moedertalen. Vijf jaar na het vertalen van het eerste gedicht gaf Muysken me het idee om alle vertalingen van “Lenga di Mama” voor de publicatie van een boek te verzamelen. Vanaf dat moment begon het project verder te groeien. Ik ontving steeds meer vertalingen tot een totaal van meer dan vijftig talen. Zonder zijn kennis, wijsheid en begeleiding zou deze collectie waarschijnlijk het licht niet hebben gezien. Ik vind het geweldig dat ze grotendeels afkomstig zijn van mensen die op mijn eiland of in het buitenland wonen, en met wie ik, met de hulp van familie, vrienden, studenten, docenten, professoren en inheemse sprekers, etc. heb kennis gemaakt. In zijn voorwoord schrijft Pieter Muysken dat “niet alle vertalers professionele vertalers waren”. Dat is zeker waar, maar door mijn eigen ervaringen gedurende dit project, wil ik hieraan toevoegen dat iedereen het met veel liefde en toewijding heeft gedaan. Ik wil degenen die verschillende vertalingen hebben gereviseerd en hen die mij hebben geholpen om een vertaler te vinden en natuurlijk mijn sponsors, Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds Caribisch Gebied, en mijn zonen Farouk en Faried de Windt en mijn uitgever, Amsterdam University Press, in het bijzonder Lucia Dove, bedanken. Tenslotte ook een dank aan allen die, tijdens de presentaties van mijn vorige boeken, deze vier gedichten hebben voorgedragen. Op deze wijze hebben zij het orale aspect van de moedertaal geëerd. Door aan dit project te werken, heb ik niet alleen kennis mogen maken met veel talen, maar ben ik ook een beetje te weten gekomen over culturen en tradities van andere landen. Het vertalen van literaire werken smeedt

20 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

banden en bouwt bruggen tussen mensen en landen. Achter elke vertaling schuilt een verhaal; het geeft ons het gevoel dat we deel uitmaken van een grandioze wereld van talen, een wereld van verschillende melodieën en tonen, die evenwel onze nauwe banden onthult. Aldus heeft Papiamentu de zee overgestoken wat ook tot uitdrukking wordt gebracht in de ondertitel van dit boek. Ik hoop dat dit team project, door middel van poëzie en vertaling, zal helpen de taaldiversiteit op Moeder Aarde te behouden. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi Wereld Poëzie Dag, 21 maart, 2020

Agradecimientos Para empezar, quisiera agradecerle a Pieter C. Muysken, pues él tradujo por primera vez el poema “Lenga di Mama”, abriendo así, de una u otra forma, el camino a otras traducciones. Este poema y su traducción en holandés fueron publicados por primera vez el 4 de abril, 2014 en el sitio web www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. A lo largo del tiempo, dos de mis otros poemas sobre lenguas minoritarias fueron traducidos también por Muysken, “Papiamentu pa Semper” (Papiamento para Siempre) y “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” (Sobre las Alas de Lengua Materna). Uno de los poemas de esta colección, “Het Papiamentse Gespreek” (El habla del Papiamento), aunque escrito originalmente en holandés, fue publicado también en www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. Cada uno de estos cuatro poemas se enfoca de manera diferente en la conservación de las lenguas maternas. Cinco años después de traducir el primer poema, Muysken me dio la idea de coleccionar todas las traducciones de “Lenga di Mama” para la publicación de un libro. A partir de ese momento el proyecto continuó creciendo más y más. Sin su conocimiento, sabiduría y guía esta colección probablemente no habría visto la luz. Fui recibiendo cada vez más traducciones hasta alcanzar un total de más de 50 idiomas. Me encantó que vinieran de personas que vivían en mi isla o en el exterior a quienes, por gran parte, había conocido con la ayuda de familiares, amigos, estudiantes, docentes, catedráticos, hablantes indígenas, etc. Muysken en su prefacio menciona que “No todos los traductores eran traductores profesionales”, lo que definitivamente es cierto. Sin embargo, por mi propia experiencia durante este proyecto, quisiera añadir que todos lo hicieron con mucho amor y dedicación. Quisiera extender mi agradecimiento a quienes revisaron algunas traducciones y a quienes me ayudaron a encontrar un traductor. Además me gustaría expresar mi gratitud a mis patrocinadores Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds Caribisch Gebied, mis hijos Farouk y Faried de Windt y mi editorial, Amsterdam University Press, particularmente, a Lucia Dove. Por último, a todos los que, durante las diferentes presentaciones de mis previos libros recitaron algunos de los poemas que figuran en esta colección dando así realce oral a la lengua materna. Trabajar en este proyecto no solo me llevó a conocer muchos idiomas sino también conocer un poco acerca de la cultura y costumbres de otros países. La traducción de obras literarias forja lazos, construye puentes entre países y personas. Hay una historia detrás de cada traducción, lo que nos

22 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

hace sentir que formamos parte de un gran mundo de idiomas, un mundo de melodías y tonalidades diferentes, pero uno que revela nuestros lazos estrechos. De esta forma, papiamento ha cruzado el mar, expresión que se refleja también en el subtítulo del presente libro. Deseo que este proyecto en equipo, a través de la poesía y traducción, contribuya a preservar la diversidad lingüística en la Madre Tierra. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi Día Mundial de la Poesía, marzo 21, 2020

Remerciements Premièrement, je voudrais remercier Pieter C. Muysken, professeur d’université, qui a été le premier à traduire le poème “Lenga di Mama”. Le poème et sa version en néerlandais ont été publiés ensuite sur le site www.stemmenvanafrika.nl (le 4 avril 2014). L’initiative de Pieter a ouvert la voie à la création de toute une série de traductions en d’autres langues. Au cours des années, Muysken a également traduit en néerlandais deux de mes autres poèmes sur les langues minoritaires, notamment: “Papiamento pa Semper” ( Papiamento pour Toujours) et “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” (Sur les Ailes de la Langue Maternelle). Un des dernières poèmes dans le livre, “Het Papiamentse gespreek” (Le Parler Papiamento), bien qu’originellement écrit en néerlandais a aussi paru sur le site www.stemmenvanafrika.nl Les poèmes nommés ci-dessus visent, chacun à sa manière, l’importance et la préservation des langues maternelles. Cinq ans après avoir traduit le premier poème, Muysken m’a suggéré de recueillir toutes les versions de “Lenga di Mama” afin de les publier et c’est uniquement grâce à ses connaissances, sa sagesse et sa direction que ce recueil de traductions a vu le jour. Pendant cinq années, on a continué à m’envoyer de plus en plus de traductions, résultant en un total de plus de 50 langues différentes. Ce qui me ravit, c’est l’idée qu’elles m’ont été envoyées par des personnes de mon île ainsi que des personnes d’autres pays, que j’ai, par surcroît, pu rencontrer moyennant l’aide de ma famille, mes amis, d’étudiants, des collègues, d’enseignants et des professeurs, etc. Dans sa préface, le professeur Muyskens souligne que “les traducteurs n’étaient pas tous des traducteurs professionnels”. Cela est sûr, mais par mon expérience au cours de ce projet de poésie et traductions, je peux ajouter qu’ils ont tous travaillé avec amour et dévouement. Je voudrais également remercier quelques importants groupes de personnes. Le premier groupe se compose de ceux qui ont révisé plusieurs des traductions. Je voudrais ensuite exprimer ma gratitude à ceux qui m’ont aidée à trouver des traducteurs et bien entendu à mes sponsors, Prins Bernard Cultuur Fonds Caribisch Gebied, mes fils Farouk et Faried de Windt et à mon éditeur, Amsterdam University Press, en particulier, Lucia Dove. Finalement, merci à tous ceux qui ont récité quelques–uns des poèmes du livre, lors des différentes présentations de mes livres précédents. En récitant ces poèmes, ils ont honoré l’aspect oral de la langue maternelle.

24 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

En travaillant sur ce projet, j’ai non seulement fait la connaissance de beaucoup de langues, j’ai en plus appris un peu sur les cultures et traditions d’autres pays, ce qui me remplit de reconnaissance. Traduire des ouvrages littéraires crée des liens et construit des ponts entre pays et populations. Derrière chaque traduction, il y a une histoire qui la rend plus proche et plus humaine : elle nous donne la sensation de faire partie d’un monde grandiose de langues, un monde qui consiste en diverses mélodies et tonalités, mais qui révèle nos liens étroits. De cette façon, Papiamento a traversé la mer. J’espère que ce projet en groupe contribuera, via poésie et traductions, à la préservation de la diversité linguistique de notre mère la Terre. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi Journée Mondiale de la Poésie, 21 mars 2020 Traduction en français : Diana Seinen

Ευχαριστίες Καταρχάς, θα ήθελα να ευχαριστήσω τον καθηγητή Pieter C. Muysken που πρώτος προχώρησε στη μετάφραση του ποιήματος Η Μητρική μου Γλώσσα, έργο που άνοιξε, με τον έναν ή τον άλλο τρόπο, το δρόμο για τις επόμενες. Το ποίημα και η μετάφρασή του στα Ολλανδικά από τον Pieter δημοσιεύθηκαν για πρώτη φορά (4 Απριλίου 2014) στο www.stemmenvanafrika.nl . Μέσα στα χρόνια, μεταφράστηκαν από τον ίδιο δύο ακόμη από τα ποιήματά μου, επίσης αφιερωμένα στις μειονοτικές γλώσσες, το “Papiamentu pa Semper” (Παπιαμέντο για Πάντα) και το “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” (Στα Φτερά της Μητρικής Γλώσσας). Το “Het Papiamentse Gespreek”, ένα από τα τελευταία ποιήματα αυτής της συλλογής, αν και γράφτηκε εξαρχής στα Ολλανδικά, δημοσιεύθηκε επίσης στην ιστοσελίδα www.stemmenvanafrika.nl. Καθένα από τα ποιήματα εμβαθύνει με διαφορετικό τρόπο στην σημασία των μητρικών γλωσσών και της προστασίας τους. Πέντε χρόνια μετά τη μετάφραση της Μητρικής Γλώσσας, ο καθηγητής Muysken μου έδωσε την ιδέα να συλλέξω όλες τις μεταφράσεις του ποιήματος με σκοπό να δημοσιευθούν μαζί σε ένα βιβλίο. Από τότε το έργο συνέχισε να ανθεί. Χωρίς τις γνώσεις, τη σοφία και την καθοδήγησή του η παρούσα συλλογή δε θα έβλεπε ποτέ το φως. Στη διάρκεια αυτών τον πέντε χρόνων λάμβανα όλο και περισσότερες μεταφράσεις, συγκεντρώνοντας συνολικά πενήντα. Αγαπώ το γεγονός πως οι μεταφράσεις αυτές προήλθαν τόσο από κατοίκους του νησιού μου, όσο κι από ανθρώπους ανά τον πλανήτη που στην πλειοψηφία τους μου συστήθηκαν μέσω φίλων, συγγενών, συνεργατών, καθηγητών και μαθητών μου, ψυχολόγων και επιμελητών, γηγενών ομιλητών, ακόμη και προσωπικού στις αντίστοιχες πρεσβείες. Όπως τονίζει ο Pieter Muysken στο εισαγωγικό του σημείωμα, «οι μεταφραστές δεν ήταν όλοι επαγγελματίες». Συμφωνώ απόλυτα μαζί του, επιθυμώ ωστόσο να τονίσω πως όλοι ανεξαιρέτως δούλεψαν με ιδιαίτερη αγάπη και αφοσίωση. Θα ήθελα να ευχαριστήσω πολλές ομάδες ανθρώπων, ξεκινώντας με εκείνους που έλεγξαν τις μεταφράσεις του εισαγωγικού σημειώματος, των ευχαριστιών, αλλά και των ίδιων των ποιημάτων. Εκφράζω την ευγνωμοσύνη μου σε όσους με βοήθησαν να βρω μεταφραστές και φυσικά στους χορηγούς μου, Prince Bernhard Cultural Fund Caribbean, καθώς και στον εκδότη μου, Amsterdam University Press, ιδίως στην κα Lucia Dove. Ευχαριστώ επίσης όσους, στις παρουσιάσεις των προηγούμενων βιβλίων μου, απήγγειλαν μια επιλογή ποιημάτων αυτής της συλλογής, αναδεικνύοντας προφορικά τη μητρική γλώσσα. Στο έργο μου αυτό οφείλω όχι μόνο την ευκαιρία να έρθω σε επαφή με άλλες γλώσσες, αλλά και τη δυνατότητα να γνωρίσω βαθύτερα κουλτούρες

26 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

και παραδόσεις άλλων χωρών. Η μετάφραση λογοτεχνικών έργων δημιουργεί πράγματι δεσμούς και χτίζει γέφυρες μεταξύ κρατών και ανθρώπων. Υπάρχει μια ιστορία πίσω από κάθε μετάφραση που την κάνει πιο οικεία και πιο ανθρώπινη, χάρη στην οποία νιώθουμε μέρος ενός σπουδαίου γλωσσικού κόσμου, με πλήθος μελωδιών και τονικοτήτων, όπου ωστόσο όλοι είμαστε συγγενείς. Η Παπιαμέντο διέσχισε τον ωκεανό, όπως λέει και ο υπότιτλος αυτού του βιβλίου. Εύχομαι λοιπόν αυτή η ομαδική δουλειά, μέσω της ποίησης και της μετάφρασης, να συνεισφέρει στην διατήρηση της γλωσσικής ποικιλότητας στη Μητέρα Γη. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi Παγκόσμια Ημέρα Ποίησης, 21 Μαρτίου 2020 Μετάφραση στα Ελληνικά: Cleo Paraskevopoulou

Preface On International Native Language Day, 2014, Hilda de Windt Ayoubi wrote a poem in Papiamento, “Lenga di Mama” (Mother Tongue). A beautiful poem where the content speaks for itself. I then tried to translate the poem into Dutch. It was published on the website of Stemmen van Africa, Voices from Africa (www.stemmenvanafrika. nl). It soon turned out that many more people thought it was a beautiful poem, and in the course of time we received translations in more than fifty languages. The results from this prolific support is found in this collection. It seems that time and time again, translators considered it worth the effort. The act of translation led to released emotions and new thinking. Hilda has supported this process enthusiastically during the years and deserves all the praise for this publication. The translators were not all professional translators, some had never thought they would ever translate anything, because very little was previously written in their own language. In this respect it seems a little bit like Le Petit Prince (The Little Prince) by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, which, with translations in more than 300 languages is the most translated book in the world after the Bible. The Dutch film maker Marjoleine Boonstra recently made a beautiful documentary about this, Het wonder van Le Petit Prince (The Miracle of Le Petit Prince) (IDFA, 2018). Before you lies a smaller miracle. You may encounter the poem in your own language, but it also invites you to discover all kinds of different languages, even several that you did not think you could understand. Translating, recognizing, understanding: all of these contribute to making us become more human. Pieter C. Muysken, Radboud University International Mother Tongue Day, February 21, 2019 Translation into English: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_pre

Prefasio Pa Dia Internashonal di Idioma Materno 2014, Hilda de Windt Ayoubi a skirbi “Lenga di Mama”, un poema na papiamentu. Por sierto, un poema bunita, i e kontenido ta papia pa su mes. Pa e okashon ei mi a purba tradusí e poema akí na hulandes. A publiká e poema riba e wèpsait di Stemmen van Afrika, Bosnan di Afrika (www. stemmenvanafrika.nl). Pronto a resultá ku hopi hende a gusta e poema akí i den kurso di tempu tabata bini kada biaha mas tradukshon aserka na mas i mas idioma. E proseso akí a aselerá i awe nos por mira e resultado den e kolekshon di tradukshon akí. Evidentemente, e traduktornan a haña e poema en kuestion bale la pena. Tradusí e poema akí a pone emoshonnan lòs i a kondusí na tur sorto di fluho di pensamentu, manera un bon poema por hasi. Hilda a sostené e proseso akí ku masha entusiasmo, i ta meresé tur elogio pa e publikashon akí. No ta tur e traduktornan tabata traduktor profeshonal, i algun hamas a pensa ku nan lo a bai tradusí un teksto, ya ku tabatin masha poko skirbí kaba den nan mes idioma. Pa loke ta trata e puntonan menshoná e obra di Hilda ta parse un tiki Le Petit Prince (E Prínsipe Chikitu), di Antoine de Saint Exupéry, ku despues di Biblia ta e obra mas tradusí na mundu, i ku miéntras tantu tin vershon na mas ku 300 idioma. Resientemente Marjoleine Boonstra, a realisá un dokumental tokante e tema akí, Het Wonder van Le Petit Prince (E Milager di e Prínsipe Chikitu) (IDFA, 2018). Bo dilanti bo por kontemplá un milager mas chikitu. Kisas lo bo topa e poema akí den bo mes idioma, pero alabes e ta invitá bo pa deskubrí diferente otro sorto di idioma ku nunka bo a pensa ku lo bo por a komprondé. Tradusí, rekonosé, komprendé, tur ta kosnan ku ta kontribuí pa nos bira mas hende. Pieter C. Muysken, Universidat di Radboud Dia Internashonal di Lenga Materno, 21 di febrüari 2019 Tradukshon na papiamentu: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Voorwoord Hilda de Windt Ayoubi uit Curaçao heeft voor de Internationale Moedertaaldag in 2014 een gedicht, “Lenga di Mama” (Moedertaal), in het Papiamentu geschreven. Een prachtig gedicht, en de inhoud spreekt voor zich. Ik heb toen het gedicht proberen te vertalen in het Nederlands. Het is geplaatst op de webstek van Stemmen van Afrika (www.stemmenvanafrika. nl). Al gauw bleek dat veel mensen het een prachtig gedicht vonden, en in de loop van de tijd kwamen er vertalingen in steeds meer talen. Dat proces is in een stroomversnelling geraakt en het resultaat vindt u in deze bundel. Kennelijk vonden vertalers het telkens de moeite waard. Het vertalen maakte emoties los en leidde tot allerlei nieuwe gedachtenstromen, zoals een goed gedicht dat kan doen. Hilda heeft deze jaren dit gebeuren enthousiast ondersteund, en verdient alle lof voor deze uitgave. De vertalers waren niet allemaal vertaler van beroep, en sommigen hadden ook nooit gedacht dat ze ooit iets zouden gaan vertalen, want er was al heel weinig in hun eigen taal geschreven. Het lijkt hierin een beetje op Le Petit Prince van Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, na de Bijbel het meest vertaalde boek ter wereld, met inmiddels versies in meer dan 300 talen. Daarover heeft Marjoleine Boonstra net een mooie documentaire gemaakt, Het Wonder van Le Petit Prince (IDFA 2018). Voor u ligt een kleiner wonder. Misschien komt u het gedicht in uw eigen taal tegen, maar het nodigt ook uit tot het ontdekken van allerlei andere talen, waarvan u niet eens dacht dat u ze zou kunnen begrijpen. Vertalen, herkennen, begrijpen, allemaal dingen die ertoe bijdragen meer mens te kunnen worden. Pieter C. Muysken, Radboud Universiteit Internationale Dag van de Moedertaal, 21 februari 2019

Prefacio Con motivo del Día Internacional de la Lengua Materna 2014, Hilda de Windt Ayoubi de Curaçao, escribió el poema “Lenga di Mama”, en papiamento. Por cierto, un poema hermoso, y el contenido habla por si mismo. Entonces intenté traducir el poema al holandés. Fue publicado en el sitio web de Stemmen van Africa, Voces de África (www.stemmenvanafrika.nl). Pronto resultó que a muchas personas les pareció un lindo poema, y en el transcurso del tiempo aparecieron cada vez traducciones en más idiomas. Ese proceso se fue acelerando y el resultado encontrará en esta colección de traducciones. Evidentemente, los traductores pensaron una y otra vez que valía la pena el esfuerzo. La traducción liberó las emociones y condujo a todos tipos de nuevas corrientes de pensamiento, como un buen poema suele hacer. Durante estos años Hilda ha apoyado este proceso con entusiasmo, y merece todos los elogios para esta publicación. Los traductores, por parte, no eran todos traductores profesionales, y algunos nunca pensaron que iban a traducir un texto, puesto que muy poco se había escrito previamente en su propio idioma. En este sentido, se parece un poco a Le Petit Prince (El Pequeño Príncipe) de Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, después de la Biblia la obra más traducida del mundo, con versiones en más de 300 idiomas. Marjoleine Boonstra acaba de realizar un hermoso documental sobre esa obra, Het Wonder van le Petit Prince (El Milagro de Le Petit Prince) (IDFA 2018). Delante de usted se encuentra un milagro más pequeño. Tal vez encuentre el poema en su propio idioma, pero además le invita a descubrir todos tipos de otros idiomas, que ni siquiera había pensado que pudiera entender. Traducir, reconocer, entender, todo esto contribuye a que nos volvamos más humanos. Pieter C. Muysken, Universidad Radboud Día Internacional de la Lengua Materna, 21 de febrero de 2019 Traducción en español: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi1 1 Later in the book, Pieter translates the poem “Lenga di Mama” into Dutch. He had intended to offer his comments on the challenges he experienced while translating the poem, however, shortly after an email exchange in February 2021, he sadly fell ill. He did suggest, however, to use the Spanish adjective hermoso or lindo instead of bello for “beautiful”, when I sent him this Spanish translation of the original text of the preface which he had written in Dutch. He was always searching for the words to best convey what language could bring us.

Préface En 2014, Hilda de Windt Ayoubi de Curaçao a écrit “Lenga di Mama”, un poème en papiamento sur la langue maternelle. Ce poème, composé à l’occasion de La journée Internationale de la Langue Maternelle, est un vrai bijou dont le contenu se passe de commentaire. J’ai ensuite essayé de le traduire en néerlandais et bien vite après la publication de ma version sur le site internet de “Stemmen van Afrika” (www. stemmenvanafrika.nl), il se trouva que pas mal de personnes adoraient ce poème. Au fil du temps on a vu paraître des versions en nombre d’autres langues. Ce processus a pris de l’ampleur, ce qui a résulté en ce recueil de traductions. Les traducteurs ont manifestement jugé qu’il valait bien la peine d’en produire une version en leur langue. Action qui a éveillé des émotions fortes et a engendré de nouveaux flots de pensées, comme il arrive souvent quand il s’agit d’un beau poème. Ces dernières années, Hilda a soutenu ces événements pleine d’enthousiasme, aussi mérite-t-elle toutes nos louanges pour l’édition du recueil. Les traducteurs en question n’étaient pas tous des professionnels et certains d’entr’eux n’avaient jamais pensé, qu’un jour ils traduiraient quoi que ce soit. C’est qu’il n’existait pas beaucoup de textes écrits en leur propre langue. Cette affaire fait un peu penser à l’effet qu’a eu l’ouvrage d’Antoine d’Exupéry, Le petit Prince, qui représente après la Bible, le livre le plus souvent traduit du monde, à savoir en plus de 300 langues. Phénomène, à propos duquel, Marjoleine Boonstra vient de réaliser un beau documentaire, Het Wonder van Le Petit Prince (Le Miracle du Petit Prince) (IDFA 2018). Vous avez en mains un petit miracle. Il est bien possible que vous y trouviez une version en votre propre langue. Mais qui mieux est, il vous invite en plus à découvrir d’autres langues que vous n’avez même pas pensé pouvoir entendre de votre vie. Traduire, reconnaître et comprendre, ce sont tous des processus qui aident à devenir plus humain. Pieter C. Muysken, L’Université Radboud Journée Internationale de la Langue Maternelle, le 21 février 2019 Traduction en français : Diana Seinen-Lasten

Εισαγωγικό σημείωμα Το 2014 η Hilda de Windt Ayoubi από το Κουρασάο έγραψε ένα ποίημα στη μητρική της γλώσσα, την Παπιαμέντο (“Lenga di Mama”). Προορισμένο για τη Διεθνή Ημέρα Μητρικής Γλώσσας, το ποίημα δηλώνει ξεκάθαρα στον τίτλο του το περιεχόμενό του κι αποκαλύπτει την ομορφιά του στην πρώτη ανάγνωση. Εγώ έκανα μια προσπάθεια να το μεταφράσω στα Ολλανδικά κι έτσι δημοσιεύθηκε στην ιστοσελίδα Stemmen van Afrika («Φωνές από την Αφρική»). Στην πορεία το αγάπησε πλήθος ανθρώπων και με τον καιρό μεταφράστηκε σε πολλές ακόμα γλώσσες. Η διαδικασία επιταχύνθηκε και το αποτέλεσμά της είναι η παρούσα συλλογή. Είναι προφανές πως οι μεταφραστές θεώρησαν επανειλημμένα ότι άξιζε τον κόπο τους. Δεν ήταν όλοι επαγγελματίες, πολλοί μάλιστα προέρχονταν από χώρες με γλώσσες μειονοτικές, στις οποίες λίγα κείμενα έχουν γραφτεί. Κάπως έτσι, η μετάφραση έγινε μια αποκάλυψη που γέννησε συναισθήματα και οδήγησε σε νέους δρόμους σκέψης. Στην Hilda, που υποστήριξε ενθουσιωδώς την εξέλιξη του έργου όλα αυτά τα χρόνια, αξίζουν όλα τα εύσημα. Δεδομένης της γλωσσικής ποικιλίας που επιτεύχθηκε, «Η Μητρική μου Γλώσσα» θυμίζει λιγάκι την περίπτωση του «Μικρού Πρίγκιπα», του Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. Το πιο πολυμεταφρασμένο βιβλίο μετά τη Βίβλο, είναι σήμερα διαθέσιμο σε περισσότερες από 300 γλώσσες, ενώ η ιστορία του καταγράφηκε πρόσφατα στο ντοκιμαντέρ της Marjoleine Boonstra, “Το Θαύμα του Μικρού Πρίγκιπα” (IDFA 2018). Μπροστά σας βρίσκεται ένα μικρότερο θαύμα. Ίσως συναντήσετε το ποίημα στη δική σας γλώσσα, ίσως όχι. Καλείστε όμως να εξερευνήσετε τις υπόλοιπες. Γλώσσες όλων των ειδών που, ως τώρα, μπορεί να φάνταζαν εντελώς ακατανόητες… Θα συνειδητοποιήσετε έτσι πως η μετάφραση, η αναγνώριση, η κατανόηση, όλες αυτές οι διεργασίες… βοηθούν να γίνουμε περισσότερο άνθρωποι. Pieter Muysken, Πανεπιστήμιο Ράντμπουντ Διεθνής Ημέρα Μητρικής Γλώσσας, 21 Φεβρουαρίου 2019 Μετάφραση στα Ελληνικά: Cleo Paraskevopoulou

Part 1 Introducing the Mother Tongue Introdukshon di Lenga di Mama



Papiamento and Guene/Gueni: The Importance of Translation and Poetry for the Development and Conservation of Mother Tongue Papiamentu i Guene/Gueni: E Importansia di Tradukshon i Poesia pa Desaroyo i Konservashon di Lenga di Mama Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Introduction Before giving an outline on the importance of translation and poetry for the conservation of mother tongue, I will first give a brief description of Papiamento, its origins, its introduction in the education and its music. Papiamento is the main language of the Dutch Leeward Islands, Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire. But nowadays it is also used to some extent on the three Dutch Windward Islands, St. Maarten, St. Eustatius and Saba. Furthermore, educational necessities and individual economic conditions have forced many Papiamento speakers to move to the Netherlands, creating a Papiamento-speaking community there, consisting of at least 150.000 people. The Papiamento they speak is often heavily influenced by Dutch, leading to the label “Papiamento made in Holland” (Martinus 1996: 7). Papiamento is also a recognized language in the Dutch public bodies of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba.

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part01_1

36 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

The Name The name Papiamento stems from the Papiamento verb papia “to speak” and the noun forming morpheme -mentu. Papia and Papea are known as verbs in Cape Verdean Creole, Guiné Bissau Creole and Saramaccan (Saramaccan: papia papia “small talk”). It may, therefore, be derived from the Portuguese verb papear “to chatter”. This Portuguese verb in turn probably goes back to a French verb papier, which is given as “to stammer” or to “speak” (Martinus 1996: 6).

Origins The current consensus on the origin of Papiamento is that it is an AfroPortuguese Creole language (Römer 1985: 367). Still, due to the considerable lexical influence that Spanish has exercised on Papiamento, there is a group of authors that considers Papiamento a Spanish based Creole language. A great part of the lexicon, however, that is considered Spanish may have other Romance origins, e.g. French or Portuguese. As a Portuguese Creole language, Papiamento developed amongst several other Afro-Portuguese dialects (Cape Verdean Creole, Guiné Bissau Creole, A Mina Creole and Angolan/Congolese Creole) brought to the Netherlands Antilles soon after the Dutch conquest in 1634. Sometimes these Creole variations also contain typical Brazilian (Amerindian) words, which could have been picked up, amongst others, either in Brazil or at A Mina (Martinus 1996). In Stemmen uit het verleden (Voices from the Past), Gerard van Buurt and Sydney Joubert (1997) refer to the 250 words and more than 150 toponomies with an Indian origin (mostly from the Taino, Lokono and Guajiro languages), the majority of which refer to the country’s flora and fauna, e.g. warwarú means “whirlwind” in Papiamento and Aruac, wayaká (Papiamentu) and guayacán (Aruac) means “tree”, and macambí (Papiamento) and macabí (Carib) means “fish”. Depending on several factors, for example, the language (Dutch, French, Portuguese or Spanish, etc.) of the country or island where the language was brought to, the Creole language may be more influenced by one of these languages. Through the translation of the main poem “Lenga di Mama” into the Creole of Sao Tomé, the similarities that exist between this Cape Verdean variant and Papiamento struck me deeply. In Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire, Papiamentu also underwent Dutch influence both through partial relexification and expansion of the lexicon, nearly 30% of the Papiamento vocabulary being now of Dutch descent (Lenz

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

37

1928). Later on, the influence of the Spanish speaking environment caused hispanization of part of the lexicon (Martinus 1996: 8). The fact that the Creole we nowadays identify as Papiamento, acquired (native) speakers under the Dutch and Jewish population helped to create a dramatic gap in prestige and recognition between this Papiamento, which became the accepted language of the community beside Dutch, and the collection of dialects called Guene (cf. also one of my four poems “Het Papiamentse ‘Gespreek’” (Papiamento “speech”), in this publication that deals with this theme. The poem was also published in my bilingual language related poetry book Geef me je taal. Dat ik je beter versta / Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó, “Give me your language so that I can understand you better” (De Windt Ayoubi 2019). Papiamento became the language of the city and the wider community and Guene the language(s) of the countryside and slaves. A Dutch diary (1713) of an inhabitant of Curaçao contains evidence pointing to the existence of Papiamento around that time (Martinus 1996).

The Orthography As shown through much research, the official orthography of a language will undoubtedly contribute to the prestige and further development of a language. In the case of the present Curaçaoan-Papiamento orthography, this is – but for a few little changes – based on the one stipulated in 1976 by the Island Counsel of Curaçao and distributed as the provisional one in 1983, the so called Römer- Maduro- Jonis orthography. While the orthography of Papiamento in Curaçao is phonological, one sign standing for one and the same sound, in Aruba an etymological orthography still prevails (Martinus 1996), although during recent years more and more effort is made to come to one orthography for all islands. One of the last proposals comes from Fred de Haas (proposal for a unified spelling, reviewed and augmented, 2017). Regretfully, the work on the standardization of Papiamento has almost come to a standstill for various years.

The First Texts in Papiamento The first appearance of written Papiamento is a proverb that occurs as the name of a Jewish ship in (1767): Awa pasa hariña (hariña) “water has surpassed the flour”: bad times; and the first existing Papiamento text is the

38 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

fragment of a letter dating from 1775, first published by Emmanuel (1970: 256) of which some of the last sentences are represented here (Martinus: 1996): my mamá bida sy bo tin mester algun coza manda pidy bo marido ky tanto ta stimabo, my aurora no bira falso pa my Dios guardabo Dy bo marido ky tanto ta stimabo

mother of my life?, if you need anything ask your husband who loves you so much, my dawn don’t be mean, so that my God can take care of you From your husband who loves you so much

A second text that I would like to mention is one of almost a decade later. It is a letter from 1783, written in Papiamento, that the team of researchers under Professor Marijke van der Wal’s (University of Leiden, The N ­ etherlands) project “Letters as a boot”, recently discovered. In this letter, Anna Elisabeth Schermer-Charje, in name of her young born Jantje, wrote a letter to her husband Dirk Schermer who at the time resided in the city of Rotterdam. The letter raises intriguing questions, for example about the use of Papiamento among the Dutch who had settled in Curaçao and about the intelligibility of Papiamento for sailors like captain Dirk Schermer. Anna Elisabeth SchermerCharje mastered Papiamento, which she must have heard so regularly in her environment, at a very reasonable level. In the first sentences we read: Mi papa bieda die mi Courasson  bieni prees toe seeka bo joego doesje 

My daddy, love of my heart Come soon to your lovely child

In view of the abovementioned example, it is not a surprise that at the beginning of the nineteenth century, Papiamento also replaced Dutch as the mother tongue in households of Dutch lineage (Römer 1985: 369). Due to the production of religious material by Dutch missionaries, it becomes a written language, but on the other hand these missionaries borrowed so heavily from Spanish that one could say that the Roman Catholic mission managed to create a separate Church register in Papiamento besides the general language. Amazingly enough, this Papiamento goes on functioning daily in its separate ways in prayer and song books. Still, the schoolbooks produced since the middle of the nineteenth century are in surprisingly genuine Papiamento.

39

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

Based on the historical linguistic research of Frank Martinus Arion, I feel that the Afro-Portuguese theory might be the most plausible explanation of the development of Papiamento. Papiamento began to develop in the former Netherlands Antilles around 1640 as a mixture of several Afro-Portuguese dialects transferred from the west coast of Africa through the slave trade. These dialects are still present in what is called Guene. They can be studied in the 1400 items in the Guene collection of Paul Brenneker (Zikinza Foundation 1974) of which 60-70% contain specimens of Afro-Portuguese dialects. Guene stands for three things: 1. A secret language that a particular group of slaves used to speak and understand. 2. The slaves who spoke that language of whom it is said that they were of small stature, very black and could fly (Brenneker 1986:248). 3. A collection of songs, rhymes, expressions, puns and words that have been passed from generation to generation on the islands of Curaçao and Bonaire and that is considered to be the legacy of the Guene speaking people (Hartog 1961; 344: Zikinza 17, Brenneker, 1986: 29). The following is a Guene text: A di ma wedje Ta papia palabra di zòme Ta ki e palabra ta Ta palabra di zòmenan

Say, mother, wedje Is word of man. What is that word? That word is of men.

There are few that really understand Guene as a language variety anymore, but it still holds much linguistic relevance; the approximately 1400 items comprise a wide range of topics. It is a historical and cultural treasure from which the islands will be able to benefit for years to come. From the point of view of Papiamento linguistics, it is a source in which Papiamento can be studied from its early beginnings up to now (Martinus 1996: 18). Surprisingly, my husband remembers several Guene words which his great aunt Tan Julie “Aunt Julie” used to direct herself with, whenever she was in an angry or joyous mood, for example: shi kue “get lost”.

40 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

The Long Tradition of Translations into Papiamento Wim Rutgers, in his contribution “The World Literature in the National Language” to my translation E Profeta (De Windt Ayoubi 2013: 79-109), gives an account of the history of the literary translations into Papiamento which, as far as literary translation is concerned, does not only comprise the ancient oral kantika (“song”) and the kuenta (“short story”) but also poetry, going back to the nineteenth century. In this account, Rutgers mentions the oldest locally written poem in Papiamento, which is a translation in Papiamento of a famous Latin liturgical poem of the Middle Ages: “Dies irae, dies illa” (That day is a day of wrath). The translation was by J.J. Putman, who was the first priest of the Church in St. Rosa from 1837-1853. The poem is an emotional farewell for his sister, Joanna Adriana, who was the first teacher of Santa Rosa. In 1853, Putman published it in a thin book, Oen Floor ki J.J. Putman ta boeta aienda, promeer ki eel ta habla adioos na Pueblo di Santa Rosa, arieba sepoelkro di soe roeman stimaar Joanna Putman (A flower that J. J. Putman puts on the grave of his beloved sister Joanna Putman, before he says goodbye to The People of Santa Rosa). Although there was no officially prescribed spelling at the time, the merit of the poem is that it shows us how the language was spoken, heard and written in the middle of the nineteenth century. Rutgers also mentions the first known poem in Papiamento (Atardi, 1903) by the well-known poet J. S. Corsen. This was a translated adaptation of an original Spanish poem written by himself. More recently, the Papiamento poems of Lucille Berry Haseth have been translated into Dutch by Fred de Haas (Berry Haseth: 2013). In the oldest Curaçao magazine Civilisadó (1871-1875), edited and owned by Casten David Meyer, a translation by “P” of the romanticized biography of the famous North-American abolitionist John Brown was published. It was the first time that a Curaçao paper published a serial and that renowned foreign literature was published in the vernacular language. Undoubtedly, this magazine contributed to the emancipation of the native language. From that moment on, the tradition of translation was established on the island. In addition, the mission put Papiamento into practice in education, in original works, but mostly by the translations (from various languages into Papiamento) of famous stories which they published by the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth century in their own local newspapers, such as Amigoe, La Cruz and La Union. In this way, the clergy came to popularise the language and to develop it as a written means (Rutgers: E Profeta, 2013).

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

41

With its influential tradition of translation and a tradition adapted to the local situation by editors and collaborators, the mission, with messages, latest news, and also by means of serials, stories, dialogues, and literary plays, has given the Curaçao readers the opportunity to read about international themes in their own vernacular language. Furthermore, the history of theatre has known a tradition of translations and adaptations since the end of the twentieth century. Especially in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, classical works of the European, North- and South America canon were presented in the national language, such as The Dutch Medieval Miracle play by Mariken van Nieuwmegen and the works of Shakespeare, Feydeau, Shaw and Sartre. The list of translators mentioned by Rutgers is very extensive, but I wish to mention in particular two translators. Firstly, A. F. Leito (Tuyuchi), with his famous translations of Tom Richardson, Detective di fama mundial (“World famous detective”) which introduced a lighthearted variant of the hitherto predominant tradition in which romantic love intrigue was the main theme. Secondly, Frank Martinus with his adaptation and Papiamento translation Ser Beatris of a Dutch Maria legend from the fourteenth century, Beatrijs (Martinus 1985).

The Introduction of Papiamento into the Education System Writing about the importance of the conservation of the mother tongue shows the importance I also give to the mother tongue in the education. Almost half a century ago, Anna (Nelly) Prince Winkel wrote her PhD thesis on the importance of mother tongue in education, starting from the primary school. The results of her research showed that the high percentage of dropouts in our education system, which is based on Dutch and its values and customs, a completely unknown language for the majority of the children, is primarily due to this obstacle (Winkel 1973). In his Bachelor’s thesis, Francis de Windt endorses the standpoints of Nelly Winkel (De Windt 1976). Therefore, the establishment of the first elementary school with Papiamento as the language of instruction, the Kolegio Erasmo that has been in existence since 1987 should be welcomed even more. It would take more than three decades (2018) before the establishment of the first pre-university school with Papiamento and English as the languages of instruction. After a long battle, Papiamento was finally introduced in the school curriculum of most of the primary schools, followed by the secondary schools. It would take many years before it was introduced in the curriculum of The University

42 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

of Curaçao, first at a Bachelor level (2002), later on, at a Master level (2009). For more information on the introduction of Papiamento in the education system of the Leeward Islands, I refer to an article in Levende Talen Magazine by Joyce Pereira and Martha Römer Dijkhoff “PAPIAMENTS van levensbelang voor de ontwikkeling van de leerlingen van Aruba, Curaçao en Bonaire”, available at: https://lt-tijdschriften.nl/ojs/index.php/ltm/article/view/212.

Papiamento Linguists Several other linguists have contributed to the appreciation of minority languages, Papiamento in particular. I will only refer to a few of whom I have been studying or consulting research with, in addition to those who I appreciate for their valuable work. To begin with, the Chilean/German Rodolfo Lenz, the first foreign linguist to write an extensive grammar of Papiamento (Lenz 1928). Furthermore, several linguists from Curaçao, Aruba, and some Dutch linguists who have also done groundbreaking work for my native language: – Antoine Maduro, known for his scientific research in national and international studies on the origins of Papiamento words, sayings and proverbs (Maduro 1969), and for ardently pursuing a standardized orthography of Papiamento (Doctor honoris causa at the University of Curaçao). – Frank Martinus Arion, known for his historical research on the origins of Papiamento; and also for his lifelong efforts to start the first school with Papiamento as an instruction language in Curaçao. Frank was also a poet and writer of plays and novels. His famous novel Dubbelspel was awarded the C.W. van der Hoogt-Prijs in 1974). Interesting to mention that Pieter Muysken was his main advocate (Martinus: The Kiss of a Slave: 1996). – Luis Daal, writer, poet, translator who studied philosophy and journalism and who was awarded the Chapi di Plata (The Silver Rake) of the Fundashon Pierre Lauffer (The Pierre Lauffer Foundation) in 1984. – Pieter Muysken, recognized for his groundbreaking research and linguistic theories about Papiamento, other Creole languages and several indigenous languages of South America. In 1998 he received the Spinoza Prize from NWO (Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research). He was an Academy Professor from 2008-2021. World famous in many fields, such as language description and typology, language contact, sociolinguistics, creolistics and theoretical linguistics.

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

43

– Wim Rutgers, known for his extensive research on the translations into Papiamento and other Creole languages and his support to the translators of recent books into Papiamento. He has written numerous articles on Caribbean Literature, including in Oso, De Gids, Ons erdeel, Callaloo and Ons Erfdeel. He is co-author of the literature method for the Antillean secondary schools, “Kadans”. In 2007 he was appointed professor by special appointment of Caribbean Literature at the University of Curaçao. – Pierre Lauffer (1920-1981) was the first Papiamento poet and writer who inspired me. His work was of utmost importance for Papiamento. Pierre Lauffer was an English school teacher at the secondary school and the Pedagogical Academy. In 1969 he was awarded the Cola Debrot Prize for his poetry. As a coronation of all these efforts, in 2011 our first students of the Master Program graduated in Papiamento at the University of Curaçao (also for the first time in world history). The recent increase in translations, for example, beyond a doubt has also been due to the efforts of several of these ex-alumni who translated one or more works into Papiamento. Because Papiamento is used by a relatively small group of persons, each research or translation effort should be valued highly for the reason that the work will be distributed among a small number of people and, therefore, will not be very profitable. As Professor Suheil Bushrui stated in E Profeta (2013), referring to my translation of The Prophet into Papiamento, “Translating this work into a minority language is an achievement even more remarkable than had it been translated into one of the major languages” (De Windt 2013: xxix). Moreover, the translation of international works or the study of other languages, in particular the minority languages can build bridges between people and countries which otherwise would not have taken place.

The Role of My Translation of the The Prophet into Papiamento In the case of my above-mentioned translation, these bridges definitely have been built; especially during the 2012 Kahlil Gibran conference in Maryland, produced in collaboration with the University of Maryland, the Faculty of Anthropology and The George & Lisa Zakhem Kahlil Gibran Chair for Values and Peace. Professor Suheil Bushrui, the Director of the Chair, was the one who supported me with this translation, alongside many scholars I met there from different countries, the Kahlil Gibran National Committee in Lebanon and the Kahlil Gibran Memorial Foundation in Washington DC.

44 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Further connections were made with The Kahlil Gibran Spirit of Humanities organized by The Arab American Institute Foundation (AAIF) in Washington DC and with the Lebanese American University where I could present E Profeta, my transcription and translation into English of a Spanish “Cuaderno” on the text of an interview with Kahlil Gibran by Gabriela Mistral. In addition, bridges were built in Curitiba, Brazil, where I had the opportunity to present the translation to other scholars on Kahlil Gibran and a great part of the large family of Kahlil Gibran and their acquaintances. Shortly before the event, a brief article on this presentation, mentioning the language Papiamento and the island of Curaçao, was published in a newspaper of Curitiba. And last but not least, with my island Curaçao and my sister islands Bonaire and Aruba where once more I had the opportunity to present E Profeta. Shortly after the publication in 2014, at the National Archaeological Anthropological Museum (NAAM), director Richenel Ansano explained that he read this book for the first time during his student years in Puerto Rico; it was a book that helped him to overcome certain challenges in life and he therefore held this book very close to his heart. The translation into his mother tongue Papiamento came as a gift, after so many years. In October of the same year, I had the opportunity to present E Profeta in Aruba, at the Biblioteca Nacional of Aruba where I was overwhelmed by the enthusiastic reaction of the Aruban people. The following year it was presented at the library of the University of Curaçao and to “crown” the work, together with my first book of poetry, Gedicht, I presented it in 2018 at Addo’s Bookstore in Bonaire. The translation of The Prophet in Papiamento also created the possibilities of translating several of my poems on native language and diaspora from Papiamento into other languages. Pieter Muysken was the first to translate one of my language-related poems, “Lenga di Mama”, which is the main poem in this book. The four poems in this publication were sometimes spontaneously translated, the main poem “Lenga di Mama” (“Mother Tongue”), in particular, but sometimes by request. I will briefly mention the first translations: into Chinese Dr. Zheng Ma, Kahlil Gibran scholar, translator, Professor in China and Assistant Professor in Canada, who also offered me the opportunity to publish an article in a well-known Chinese Art newspaper; into Italian Francesco Medici, Kahlil Gibran scholar, translator of a great part of the works by Kahlil Gibran, Italy; into Dutch Professor Pieter Muysken, the Netherlands, late Professor Emeritus of minority languages at Radboud University, the Netherlands; into Arabic Dr. Tarek Chidiac, Kahlil Gibran

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

45

scholar, writer, President of the Kahlil Gibran National Committee in Lebanon and Professor Riad Nourallah, writer and poet, from Lebanon/ England; into Brabants Gerrit Eikenaar, Curaçao/Brabant, The Netherlands; into Portuguese Liliane Sabbag, psychologist, cousin of Kahlil Gibran in Brazil, who told me that she now uses some of the chapters of The Prophet in her work with her patients, and Cora Catalina, communications expert, Chile); and so on, finally reaching a total of more than 50 languages. It is worthwhile to mention that the Kahlil Gibran family were inspired by this translation and started to study and translate the works of their family member into the Brazilian Portuguese language. The abovementioned text may serve as just one example of the impact that a translation can have for a minority language, not only nationally but far beyond its borders. To conclude, I also wish to mention a recent translation (2020), from Spanish into Dutch, by Jose Alleleijn and my person, El enigma de tu Belleza/Jouw Raadselachtige Schoonheid (Your Enigmatic Beauty) of the famous Peruvian poet, teacher, Professor Marco Marcos. This translation brought together four people from four different countries and cultures, Peru, Colombia, Curaçao, the Netherlands and three different languages, Spanish, Dutch and Papiamento. From a collaboration such as this, all those involved had a new learning experience, not only on a language and translation level but also on an emotional and cultural level.

Music As music is not one of the main themes in the project, I will not go into too much detail about it in this essay. Yet it is still worth mentioning, not least because of its similarities with the art of poetry; each deals with rhythm, tone, melody, rhyme, and so on. It is also important to note that, arguably, younger generations are more interested in music than in poetry, and thus many poems are being adapted into music. As the project is concerned with indigenous languages, music is also considered because many indigenous people make use of songs to express themselves, instead of written texts (poems). And last but not least, music plays a very important role in the lives of our people. As is the case with indigenous languages like Quechua and Aymara (see Part 6: Commentary by Pieter Muysken), it is also through music that we can support a (minority) language in other places or beyond its borders, thus spreading and conserving it in a rythmical, maybe easier way.

46 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

The Tumba, an African derived rhythm, is the most internationally renowned kind of Curaçao music. Nowadays, the Tumba is especially popular in the Carnival period, where it is enjoyed in Papiamento, not only during the Carnival on the Dutch Caribbean islands but also on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, in the Rotterdam Summer Carnival. These Carnival celebrations attract visitors from all over the world. Besides the Tumba, there is a very rich tradition of Antillean waltzes, mazurkas, danzas and pasillos – often referred to as the Classical Music – that are popular in Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire. After the 1950s, the indigenous Papiamento record industry emerged. Jules de Palm, Rene de Rooy and Pierre Lauffer were of utmost importance in this, especially through their manifiesto in which they called for more Papiamento songs to be written. In the context of this project on the mother tongue, it is nice to mention the singer and composer Ced Ride who has a vast repertoire of songs that deal with the mother tongue of Papiamento, e.g., Mi Lenga Bantu. Nowadays, there are some traditional musical groups, like Doble R, and other groups from Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador (mentioned in the essay by Pieter Muysken) that sometimes perform in different languages, that is, in both Papiamento and English or Spanish and sometimes Dutch. Rignald Ricordino of the musical group Doble R adapted the Spanish song “Media Vuelta”, in two languages, English and Papiamento. Later on, the famous Curaçaoan Grupo Ekis Band, founded by three teachers, Edson Ersilia, Shurmer Isenia and Raymond Laufffer continued to play these new language versions. Furthermore, rap singers like the Dutch-Caribbean rapper Fresco, in his song Baranka, sings in both Dutch and Papiamento. The Ritmo Kombiná (Combined Rhythm), which is very popular with the youth in Curaçao, is a combination of different Caribbean types of music, a mix of Zouk, Cadence, Konpas and Merengue, Kaseko and Salsa Antiyano.

The Translators of the Poem “Lenga di Mama” (“Mother Tongue”) Many of the 50+ translators of “Lenga di Mama” (“Mother Tongue”) not only translated the poem into their (mostly) mother tongues, but also offered insights to different matters of poetry and translation; sometimes on the importance of mother tongue, sometimes on the importance of poetry, and sometimes on the importance of translation for the survival of a language, particularly, the minority and/or endangered ones. The broad spectrum of perspectives on these important issues surprised and enriched me, and hopefully will also be of significant value to the future reader, the student, the scholar, and others who are interested in these matters.

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

47

In addition, the translators often shared some details of the challenges and experiences they encountered while translating the poems into their mother tongue. The first observation that struck me again and again was that particularly in poetry it is impossible to translate word to word, for you have to convey the rhythm, the melody, and furthermore, that sometimes a word or expression does not figure in one’s own native language. This made me think of my challenges during the translation of The Prophet into Papiamento. The first challenge was the word “potent” (the quote on the first page), which exists in Papiamento potente, yet with a sexual connotation. The solution was to paraphrase the word: konvinsente i enérgiko, “convincing” and “energetic”. The second observation regarding the feedback of the translators was their immense love for their mother tongue, and in the case of minority and or endangered languages, also the hope that it would never disappear.

Resistance in Poetry: Racism Today, when I read the poems in this book, six years after their birth, I realize that each one, except for “Het Papiamentse ‘Gespreek’” (“The Papiamento ‘Speech’”), vibrates a resistance against any attack or even disdain of the Mother Tongue. In the title of my present book, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry, I use the term translingual, rather than the term “multilingual” which is usually positioned alongside “monolingual”, terms which only describe the coexistence of languages in space and time. However, I also refer to the capacity of languages to interact, influence, enrich, and transform one another. For me, this is in line with Sarah Dowling when she states that the discrimination against native languages, mostly in the post-colonial countries, is one of the main obstacles that inhibit or undermine the flourishing of those languages (Dowling 2018: 4). This is supported by the above-mentioned experiences and challenges described by different translators which altogether give empirical perspectives of languages (see translators comments in Part 2 The Poem “Lenga di Mama” and its Translations). In order to illustrate this, I refer to an interview with Peter Zunneberg in 2020 during which I explained to him that in order to build a community where people show respect, acceptance and appreciation for other cultures and languages, it is not enough to just discuss this issue in the classroom, but that the teaching materials for subjects such as languages, geography

48 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

and history, from primary through university years, should include other languages and their cultures. For example, the subject of Spanish, besides the Spanish language originating from Spain, should also include information on the Latin-American variants and their cultures. My views on this comes from my own experience as a Spanish teacher at the secondary- and university education levels, where I taught the students “Analysis of Methods” so as to help them choose a more appropriate, interactive, social method for learning languages. It is imperative that the system adapts to include this as we cannot just leave it to the goodwill of busy teachers who are tied to the curriculum. (Cultuurkrant NL: 2020 nr. 3). This interview was given a year before the “Black Lives Matter” protests, an outburst of long-restrained emotions, that shocked not only the United States, but also several other countries in Europe. If this awareness process is guided and sustained through the education system, it may hopefully bring more sustainable changes in the inequality between people and languages. In the case of the Dutch Kingdom, the introduction of Papiamento in the school curriculum in the Netherlands would strenghten the relationship between the motherland and the Dutch Caribbean Islands of Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire.

Trespassing Language Barriers Trespassing language barriers may contribute not only to the tolerance and acceptance of other cultures and languages, but also to peace in the world. If we make use of the written word, translation and art forms with a message that is beneficial to humanity, in this case poetry, it may still bear more fruits. In fact, it already started in the seventeenth century, with Venezuelan writers, and in the course of time also with Puerto Rican and Colombian writers, who resided on the Dutch Caribbean Islands and wrote literature in Spanish (Broek: 1998). The importance of translation for minority languages was brought home to me during a memorable visit to Bsharri, Lebanon, when, at presenting my Papiamento translation of The Prophet to Mr. Joe Jaja, the Director of the Kahlil Gibran Museum, I asked him, what difference a translation into Papiamento, a minority language, could make to their large collection of more than sixty translations in other languages; his answer really surprised me: Every day we receive hundreds of visitors from all over the world. When they see the translation into Papiamento they will want to know

49

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

about the language they have never heard of. In turn, I also am more interested. Your translation made me go in search of information about this language, so that I could also give our visitors more information on Papiamento.

At that moment it struck me that the translation of literature into a minority language may be one of the most important vehicles to revitalize them. I realized, more than ever before, that crossing the ocean to present the book at the Lebanese American University (LAU) and the Kahlil Gibran Museum had been worth it. Furthermore, conserving minority languages not only means conserving diversity in a world that is tending more and more towards uniformity, but also conserving a richness in expressions, proverbs and words which benefits the minority languages as much as it does the major or international ones. For it is in David’s minor languages and dialects that we find history and knowledge often lost in Goliath’s major languages. To conclude, I have chosen two examples of Modern Papiamento; the first is a sentence of Changá, the translation into Papiamento by Lucille Haseth, of Dubbelspel (Double Play), by Frank Martinus Arion (p. 9): Entre Blenheim, e santana di hudiu di Tussen Blenheim, de Joodse begraafsiglo diesshete, i Campo Alegre, plaats uit de zeventiende eeuw, en Campo Alegre, In between Blenheim, the Jewish cemetery of the seventeenth century, and Campo Alegre, bo ta haña Wakota, un bario pafó di ligt Wakota, een buurt in de buitenWillemstad. wijk van Willemstad. is situated Wakota, a neighborhood in the suburb of Willemstad.

The second example of Modern Papiamento that I have chosen are the third and fourth sentences of the first chapter “Amor” (“Love”) of E Profeta, my translation into Papiamento of The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran. Ora Amor hasi seña yama bo, siguié. Maske su kamindanan ta pisá i trabahoso.

When Love beckons to you, follow him. Though his ways are hard and steep.

50 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

References Alleleijn, Jose and De Windt Ayoubi, Hilda (2021) El Enigma de tu Belleza. Je Raadselachtige Schoonheid. A Translation into Dutch of Spanish poems by Marco Martos. Editorial Milojas SAC para su sello Garamond. Peru. Berry Haseth, Lucille (2011) Changá translation of Dubbelspel (1973) by Frank Martinus Arion. Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij. Berry, Haseth (2013) Encuentro. Drukkerij www.bluewebfactory.com Broek, Aart (1998) Pa Saka Kara. Historia di Literatura Papiamentu, Tomo 1-111. Brenneker, Paul (1986) Zjozjoli. Volkskunde van Curaçao, Aruba en Bonaire. Willemstad. Brenneker, Paul (1972) Sambumbu. 1-10. (1969-1975). Uitgeverij Paul Brenneker. Curaçao. Buurt, Gerard van and Joubert, Sydney (1997) Stemmen uit het Verleden. Indiaanse Woorden in het Papiaments. Drukkerij Haasbeek, Alphen aan de Rijn. Nederland. Corsen, Joseph Sickman (1903) Atardi in: Pierre A. Lauffer, Raspá. Willemstad, Kòrsou: (s.n.), 1962. p.3, Cultuurkrant NL, nr. 3 (2020) Geen enkel kind discrimineert uit zichzelf. Interview Peter Zunneburg with Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Dijkhoff Martha and Pereira, Joyce “PAPIAMENTS van levensbelang voor de ontwikkeling van de leerlingen van Aruba, Curaçao en Bonaire” in Levende Talen Magazien (https://lt-tijdschriften.nl/ojs/index.php/ltm/article/view/2120). Dowling, Sarah (2018) Translingual Poetics.Writing Personhood under Settler Colonialism. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City. Fundahon Planifikashon di Idioma (2008) Ortografia i Lista di Palabra Papiamentu. Buki di Oro. FPI. Haas, Fred de (2017) “Proposal for a Unified Spelling of Papiamento. Reviewed and Augmented”. Access: https://www.academia.edu/33504853/PROPOSAL_for_a_ unified_spelling_reviewed_and_augmented_june_2017.doc. Hartog, Johan (1961) Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Antillen. Part Ш. Vol.1. Curaçao. Oranjestad: D.J. de Wit. Lenz, Rodolfo (1928) El Papiamento, la lengua criolla de Curazao; la gramática más sencilla. Santiago de Chile: Imprenta Balcell & Co. Maduro J., Antoine (1969) Proverbio-, Refran-, Dicho i ekspreshonnan. Papiamentu i nan nifikashon na hulandes. Kòrsou. Martinus Arion, Efraim Frank (1974) Dubbelspel, Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij. Martinus Arion, Efraim Frank (1985) Ser Beatris. Willemstad, Curaçao: Editorial Ruku. Martinus Arion, Efraim Frank (1996) The kiss of a slave, Papiamentu’s West ‒ African connections. Doctoral thesis, Universiteit van Amsterdam. Muysken, Pieter (2019) El kichwa ecuatoriano: Orígenes, riqueza, contactos. Quito: Abya-Yala.

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

51

Römer, Raúl. G. (1985a) “Gueni”. In: Encyclopedie van de Nederlandse Antillen. Zutphen: de Walburg Pers. Julius Philip de Palm (ed.) (1985): 219. Römer, Raúl. G. 1985b. “Papiamentu”. In: Encyclopedie van de Nederlandse Antillen. Zutphen: de Walburg Pers. Julius Philip de Palm (ed.) (1985): 367-370. Prins-Winkel, Ana Cornelia (1973) Kabes duru, Phd Thesis. Assen: Van Gorcum & Co. Rutgers, Wim (2013) World Literature in the National Language. In: E Profeta. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi (2013): 179-110. Windt, Francis de, (1976) De moedertaal als instructietaal in het basis Basisonderwijs op Curaçao. Kandidaatsscriptie Culturele Antropologie. Katholieke Universiteit van Nijmegen. Windt Ayoubi, Hilda de (2013) E Profeta. Tradukshon for di Ingles na Papiamentu di The Prophet. A Translation of The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran into Papiamento. University of Maryland: CDL Press. Windt Ayoubi, Hilda de (2019) Geef me je taal. Dat ik je beter versta. Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó. Haarlem: In de knipscheer. Windt Ayoubi, Hilda de (2019) Gabriela Mistral. A transcription of the Spanish text and a translation from Spanish into English and Papiamento of the cuaderno by Gabriela Mistral: Zikinza Foundation. (1974) Zikinza (Alphabetical list of Guene songs and numerical list of Guene-tapes). Willemstad.

Additional Reading Arends, Jacques, Pieter Muysken and Norval Smith (1994) Pidgins and Creoles. An introduction. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Brokken, Jan (2018) The Music of the Netherlands Antilles: Why Eleven Antilleans knelt before Chopin’s heart. Translated by Scott Rollins. University Press of Mississippi. Bushrui, Suheil (2012) The Prophet. A New Annotated Edition. Oxford: One World Publications. Alleleijn, José, Windt Ayoubi de, Hilda (2019) Chispas Literarias tomo I ‒ II (2019 i 2020). Colombia: Edición José Alleleijn. Clemencia, Joyceline (1989) Opi i e Gran Kamuflahe. Tokante Poesia di Elis Juliana. Kòrsou: Sede di Papiamentu. Chiha, Helen (2019) The Little Prophet. Helen Chiha Publishing. Deutscher, Guy (2021) Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different in Other Languages. Metropolitan Books. Dijkhoff, Mario (2002) Palabra di Antaño. Publica cu cooperacion di UNOCA. Oranjestad, Aruba. Dijkhoff, Martha, Pereira Joyce (2010) Language and education in Aruba, Bonaire and

52 

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Curaçao. Published online: https://doi.org/10.1075/cll.36.10dij17. Frederiks Th. J. Bernardus and Putman J. Jacobus.(2004) Woordenlijst der in de Landstaal van Curaçao meest gebruikelijke woorden met Zamenspraken. Fundashon pa Planifikashon di Idioma. Stichting Libri Antilliani. Habibe, Henri (2004) Aruba in Literair Perspectief. Tussen Traditie en Verniewing 1905 -1995. Habibe, Henri (2018) Over Vulkanisch Samenzijn. In de Knipscheer. Hart, Jopi (2000) Entrega. Poesia ‒ Poesía ‒ Poetry -Poezie. Kòrsou: Carilexis. Heiligers, Bernadette (2012 ) Pierre Lauffer. Het bewogen leven van een dichter (1920-1981). Katzner, Kenneth (1986). The Languages of the World. Great Britain: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Kook, Hetty, Muysken, Pieter, Vedder Paul (2008) Papiamento/Dutch code-switching in bilingual parent–child reading: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716400008213. Cambridge University Press. Lauffer, Pierre (1996). Kumbu. Kòrsou: Fundashon Pierre Lauffer. Maduro, Antoine (2015) Bida, remordimentu, konfeshon i krítika. Un relato outobiográfiko. Fundashon Instituto Raúl Romer. Morales, Loeki (2017) La Sangre llama. Una Búsqueda Familiar. Traducción al español de Karina Sánchez. Beyond Kultura Events Foundation. Sint Maarten. Mulier, Ludwich (2002) Nieuwe Oogst. Surinaamse Poëzie op de Drempel van een Nieuwe Tijd. Surinaams Dichters- en Schrijversgenootschap. Rotterdam/ Amsterdam/Nijmegen. Muysken, Pieter (1999) De toren van Babel. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Oostindie, Gert (2014) El colonialismo y sus legados transatlánticos. Editorial José Martí, 2014. Rutgers, Wim (2001) Tropentaal: 200 jaar Antilliaanse vertelkunst. Amsterdam: Contact. Rutgers, Wim (2015) Michael Joannes Alexius Schabel S.J. Missionaris op Curaçao. University of Curaçao. Schooladviesdienst (1983) Ortografia Papiamentu. Editá pa Teritorio Insular di Kòrsou. Lero Consultants i Mas Productions. Swakhoven-Troeman, Irmgard (2013) Ora baka tin lechi esú e ta krepchi. UNESCO. Windt Ayoubi de, Hilda (2018) Gedicht. LM Publishers. Volendam, The Netherlands. Windt Ayoubi de, Hilda Gabriela Mistral (2019), a transcription of the Spanish text and a translation from Spanish into English of the cuaderno by Gabriela Mistral: Francesco_Medici_Tracing_Gibran_s_Footsteps_Unpublished_and_Rare_Material_in_Gibran. El pequeño Profeta, a translation into Spanish of The Little Prophet by Helen Chiha. Published by Helen Chiha Publishers.

Papiamento and Guene/Gueni

53

https://www.kahlilgibran.com/57-gabriela-mistral-gibran-was-superior-to-tagore. html. Accessed 14 September 2021. https://www.nemokennislink.nl/publicaties/op-twee-na-oudste-papiamentsetekst-ontdekt/ Accessed 14 September 2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Cura%C3%A7ao Accessed 14 September 2021. https://dcdp.uoc.cw/zikinza_collection Accessed 14 September 2021. https://www.academia.edu/36802368/Francesco_Medici_Tracing_Gibran_s_Footsteps_Unpublished_and_Rare_Material_in_Gibran_in_the_21th_Century_ Lebanons_Message_to Message to the World”, edited by H. Zoghaib and M. Rihani, Beirut: Center for Lebanese Heritage, LAU, 2018, pp. 93-145. Accessed 14 September 2021.

Part 2 The Poem “Lenga di Mama” and its Translations , Comments and Language Descriptions E Poema “Lenga di Mama” i su Tradukshonnan i Komentario i Deskripshon di e Idiomanan

Pieter C. Muysken and Hilda de Windt Ayoubi

Creole Languages

Hawaiian Pidgin

Hawaï

Inset not scaled

Jamaican Creole

Jamaica

Creole of Suriname

Suriname

Cape Verde

Cape Verdian Creole

Réunion Creole

Réunion

Mauritius

Mauritian Creole

Haitian Creole

Haiti

Curaçao

Bonaire

Papiamento

Aruba

Guadeloupe

Martinican Creole

Martinique

Antillian Creole



Creole Languages Idioma Krioyo Pieter C. Muysken. Jamaican Creole by Matthew Smith

Abstract This section contains translations into a number of Creole languages from around the globe. Creole languages emerged in recent history, often as the result of European colonial expansion and slavery or other forms of enforced labor. There are over a hundred of these Creole languages, particularly in the Caribbean, West Africa, the Indian Ocean, and the Pacific. Generally, it concerns languages of low social prestige and they are often spoken alongside European languages of high social prestige. This also means that, generally speaking, there is little written literature in the Creole languages, so the translations here are important in that they increase the range of texts in these languages and show how they can take a literary form. Keywords: Papiamento, Papiamentu, Creole, Caribbean, West Africa, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, South America, Suriname

The words of the Creole languages can be similar to those of certain European languages, the so-called lexifier languages, but their grammar is often strikingly different. Generally, there are fewer endings on verbs and nouns than in the European lexifier languages, and meaning is often expressed with separate particles, as we will see in the translations that follow. I will briefly discuss the languages in the order of the translations presented in them. Pride of place is given, of course, to Papiamento. Papiamento or Papiamentu is the main language of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, spoken alongside Dutch, English, Spanish, and other languages. It is also spoken by emigrants from the islands in the Netherlands. Papiamento is a Creole language with roots in the Cape Verdean islands, where

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_1

58 

Pie ter C. Muysken. Jamaican Creole by Matthew Smith

African languages interacted with Portuguese. Slaves from Africa brought the language to the Caribbean. On Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire, Spanish and Dutch were mixed with the language. It is thus highly mixed, but it has a long tradition of written texts, dating back to the eighteenth century. Typical features of Papiamento include tones to distinguish several meanings. For instance, mata [high low tones] means “plant”; and mata [low high tones] means “to kill”. Most words are short and meaning is often expressed with separate particles. An example of this is found in the proverb: Un man ta laba otro, tur dos ta bira limpi [One hand present wash other, all two present come clean]: “One hand washes the other, both become clean, in other words, it pays off to collaborate.” The Papiamento language is very rich in proverbs and creativity; music plays an pivotal role in the spreading and conservation of Papiamento (see “Papiamento and Guene: The Importance of Translation and Poetry for the Development and Conservation of Mother Tongue” by Hilda de Windt Ayoubi in this volume). Papiamento has a fairly rich literary tradition dating back from the nineteenth century, with some texts already written in the eighteenth century. At present, more and more is printed in Papiamento, although there is by no means enough, for instance, for the needs of the primary schools. Kreyòl or Krèyol Ayisyen is spoken by just about everyone in the Republic of Haiti, as well as by Haitians that have moved away from their island and live in the diaspora. Kreyòl (Haitian Creole) inherited most of its words from French, the prestige language of Haiti and the language of the settlers who brought people from Africa to the island as slaves. However, the grammar is not like that of French, and shares many features with West African languages. With 10-12 million speakers it is an important Creole language. The differences in the grammar with French are striking. Thus, liv yo in Kreyòl, “the books”, would be les livres in French, and liv li, “his book”, would be son livre in French. Kreyòl was recognized as an official language of Haiti in 1987 (alongside French), but there have been literary works in Haitian since the late nineteenth century. Like Papiamento, there is also a rich folklore and tradition in the language, with many proverbs and folk tales. Jamaican Patwa or Jamiekan is like all Creole languages of the Caribbean, expressive, resonant, and historical. Its base is drawn from English vocabulary. Its sound is African. But Patwa has its own sensibility, absorbing and reflecting a long past of multiple migrations into and outside of Jamaica. When the island was under British rule (1655-1962), Patwa evolved out of necessity among enslaved Africans. For centuries it was denigrated as an inferior “broken” English. Today, the attitude is quite different. Patwa travels the world and gives shape to their culture and speech, for example

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

59

through Reggae music. Patwa has influenced a modern, global language of the youth and is the most recognizable aspect of Jamaica’s far-reaching influence. Jamaicans embrace Patwa because it is part of who they are—a language that bears the marks of a difficult history, so you open your mouth and proudly utter each syllable. For Jamaicans, Patwa is an unwhispered oral badge of their survival. Antillean Creole is a Creole language spoken on the many islands of the Lesser Antilles. It is also referred to as Creole of Guadeloupe, Antillean French Creole, Kreyol, Kwéyòl, or Patois. It is different from Kreyòl Ayisyen, but mostly comprehensible for speakers of that variety. Since it is spoken on several islands, there is some variation to be found between them, but it can also be regarded as a single language with over a million speakers. Now, with migration, it is found all over the Caribbean, as well as in North America and France. It has many words of French origin, such as sis mil lang (French six mille langues), but the use of pasé “more than” (from the French verb passer “pass”) also reveals its roots in African language structures. While traditionally Antillean Creole was considered a low social prestige, there has been a growing appreciation for it as a literary language since the 1970s and there are now numerous literary texts in Antillean Creole. Another Creole with a French lexicon is that of the island of Martinique, Matnik or Matinik (Martinican Creole), which is closely related to the vernacular language spoken on Dominica and St. Lucia. There are over half a million people of Martinican descent, most of whom speak some Matnik, but a large group now lives in France. Historically, the language was looked down upon in comparison to French, the only language considered to be of value. However, Creole has now gained higher prestige, in part through the Creolité cultural emancipation movement of the 1980s, and is used informally in many settings. Many texts from Martinique use both French and Matnik, stressing the hybrid nature of Martinican culture. The Matnik word lemond “world” comes from French le monde “the world”, but in the Creole article le is part of the noun. Sranantongo or simply Sranan is the main Creole language of Suriname. The country is highly multilingual (with Dutch as the official language), with many groups speaking their own traditional languages of origin. Sranantongo is the language of the descendants of slaves from Africa who worked the sugar plantations, also including a number of people with African roots who gained their freedom during the period of slavery and settled in the capital of Paramaribo. However, many other groups will also speak Sranantongo as an informal street language. Sranantongo has many words originally from English (such as tongo “language”), but also from Portuguese (such

60 

Pie ter C. Muysken. Jamaican Creole by Matthew Smith

as pikin “little”), Dutch (oogstu “harvest” from Dutch oogst), and African languages such as those of the Gbe family and Kikongo. There is a rich tradition of literature in Sranantongo, dating back to missionary texts from the eighteenth century, various narratives from the nineteenth century, and poems, essays and stories in the twentieth century. Kriol de Sonsent, the Cape Verdean Creole of the island of São Vicente, is one of the varieties of Cape Verdean Creole, and then of the Barlavento branch. There are up to 100,000 speakers, many of them in the diaspora. The lexicon is mostly of Portuguese origin (for instance mund ~ Portuguese mundo “world”), and the grammar has various sources, including the languages of the African coast facing the Cape Verdean islands. In the colonial period, Portuguese was the official language of Cape Verde, and it still is frequently used. After World War II, there has been a literary movement, and there are many poems and short stories written in this Creole language. Morisien or Mauritian Creole is the main language of Mauritius, with well over a million speakers. It is also referred to as Morisyen or Mauritian Creole, and derives much of its lexicon from French. However, its speakers have come from many places, including India, Africa, China, and Europe, and Morisien serves as a lingua franca in this ethnically very diverse country. Following Mauritian independence from the United Kingdom in 1968, Morisien came to be used more and more in plays, and there are numerous other literary genres with Morisien as the main language. Notice the word later “world” from French la terre “the earth”, where again the article is part of the noun. Pidgin (Hawaiian Pidgin) was not recognized as a language for a long time. It competes with English and Hawaiian, the two official languages of Hawai’i and is a popular language, partly comprehensible for English speakers. It is called Pidgin because it emerged out of several pidgin languages, but it really is a native language in its own right, adopted by children and then developed into a full language. Often it is used by people with different ethnic origins. Until recently, it was not much used in literature, but now there are poems, short stories, and plays in Pidgin. Several otherwise English-speaking films and novels portray characters speaking Pidgin and it is also used in advertisements. With some effort, an English reader can understand Pidgin. Notice the word get for “there are”, and the use of go in my haat go come alive “my heart comes alive”. Many words come from English, but are used differently. Kréol rénioné, also known as Réunion Creole, has its roots in the vernacular French of the early settlers in the seventeenth century. These settlers mixed with various other groups that had come from Malagasy

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

61

and from India. It has over half a million speakers, mostly on the island of Réunion. Kréol rénioné is spoken on the island alongside French, the prestige language. Currently, the island has a very diverse population, and the Creole serves as a vernacular between the different groups. Although the words are mostly from French, the way they are used is not. The word ek is from French avec “with”, but it is used as “and”. While much literature from Réunion has been traditionally written in French, there are some texts that contain many fragments of Kréol, as well as of other languages spoken on the island.

62 

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu Lenga di Mama Mas ku 6000 idioma na mundu ta eksistí, ‒ e mayoria di un minoria, pero ta abo, papiamentu, mas serka di mi kurason mi tin Ta den bo mi ta ekspresá detayenan mas ayá ku ta zona manera muzik, tono i melodia ku kisas den e otronan no ta eksistí Mas ku 6.000 lenga na mundu ta eksistí, pero ta mi lenga di mama ku papa i mama na kuchara a duna mi mas mi ta tesorá, mas na mi kurason mi tin pegá Mas ku 6000 idioma na mundu ta eksistí, pero na papiamentu literatura nos ta skirbi, na papiamentu nos ta tradusí obranan internashonal, pa nos lenga di mama mas ayá nos elevá Manera e kunukero no ta planta solamente maishi sino tambe batata dushi papaya, sòrsaka i kalbas pa mayan e kosechá diversidat, asina nos tambe mester tesorá i protehá kada idioma

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

63

ku na mundu ta eksistí, maske e ta di e minoria di mas chikí! Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Kòrsou, Dia Internashonal di Poesia, 21 di febrüari 2014 About the author Hilda de Windt Ayoubi was born and grew up in Curaçao. She studied Spanish and Literature at the Cathlic University Nijmegen in the Netherlands, (1973-1980) and the University of Curacao (2009-11). She has a Master in Education and Spanish and a Bachelor in Public Relations. She also studied English (LO). and visited an Art Painting Academy for four years. She taught Spanish for almost 30 years at secondary schools (1980 -2011) and was a lecturer at the University of Curaçao (2008-2015). Hilda translated The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran into Papiamento for which she was awarded by the Kahlil Gibran Chair at the Maryland University (2014). In 2018 her first book of socially engaged poetry, with illustrations of her own paintings, Gedicht was published (LM Publishers). Shortly after, her bilingual poetry book with language-related poems, Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta/Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó, was published (In de Knipscheer, 2019). In 2019 she received a certificate of Merits from UNESCO for her work for Papiamento. Recently, the translation into Dutch of a selection of Spanish poems by Professor Marco Martos. El enigma de tu Belleza/Jouw Raadselachtige schoonheid was published. (Hilda de Windt Ayoubi and Jose Alleleijn, Garamond. Peru, 2021. Her longtime publications of poems in the Amigoe newspaper in Dutch, English, Papiamentu and Spanish, and in some magazines and websites and her translations were the forerunner to several of her publications. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi a nase i lanta na Kòrsou. El a studia Spañó i Literatura na Universidat Katóliko di Nimega (Nijmegen) Hulanda (1973-1980) i na Universidat di Kòrsou (2009-11). E tin un Maestria den Edukashon i Spañó i un pre-grado den Relashonnan Públiko (BA). Hilda a studia ingles tambe (LO). El a sigui lès pa kasi kuater aña na un Akademia di Arte i Pintura. Hilda tabata dosente di spañó pa mas ku 30 aña na skol sekundario i lektor na Universidat di Kòrsou (2008-2015). El a tradusí The Prophet di e outor Kahlil Gibran na papiamentu (2014). Su tradukshon a ser galardoná pa e Kátedra di Kahlil Gibran na Maryland University (2014). Na aña 2018 su

64 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

promé buki di poesia na hulandes ku ilustrashon di 20 di su pinturanan a sali (LM Publisher). Un aña despues, su buki di poesia bilingual ku poesia relashoná ku idioma, Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta/ Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó a ser publiká (In de Knipscheer, 2019). Na aña 2019 el a risibí un Sertifikado di Mérito di UNESCO pa su trabou pa papiamentu. Resientemente, tradukshon na hulandes di un selekshon di poema na spañó di Profesor Marco Martos, El enigma de tu Belleza/Jouw Raadselachtige schoonheid a ser publiká.(Hilda de Windt Ayoubi i Jose Alleleijn, Garamond. Perú, 2021). Publikashon pa tempu largu di su poesia den korant Amigoe, na hulandes, ingles, papiamentu i spañó riba algun wѐpsait i den algún revista, i su tradukshonnan tabata prekursor di vários di su bukinan.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

65

Kreyòl/Krèyol Ayisyen (Haitian Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Haiti/Haitiano Lang Natif Natal Plis pase 6.000 lang egziste nan mond lan, ‒ majorite nan yon minoritemen se ou, Papiamento, mwen santi ki pi pre nan kè mwen. Se nan ou ke mwen ka eksprime detay delika ki ale pi lwen, son sa tankou mizik, ton ak melodi ki petèt nan lòt lang yo pa egziste. Plis pase 6.000 lang egziste nan mond nou an, men se diskou lang natif natal mwen ke manman ak papa mete nan bouch mwen ak kiyè manje ki pi fò nan nanm mwen, ke mwen renmen ak tout kè mwen. Plis pase 6.000 lang egziste nan mond nou an, men se sèlman nan Papiamento literati nou grave, ke chedèv entènasyonal sa nou tradui yo Konsa, nou ka pwomouvwa lang natif natal nou an nan yon pi wo nivo. Menm yon kiltivatè nan peyi a pa jis plante papay, patat, owosòl ak joumou pou l rekòlte varyete douvanjou.

66 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Se konsa, nou menm tou nou dwe renmen e pwoteje chak lang ki egziste sou latè, menm si l ta soti nan yon ti minorite. Translation: Myriam Lavache, with special thanks to Emmanuel W. Vidrine. About the translator Opinions and challenges Myriam Lavache is from Haiti. She has been living in Curaçao for eighteen years. Since 2014, she has been conducting research of Haitian Creole and produced educational materials to teach her native language to the people of Curaçao. In 2016, she founded “Enstiti Kreyòl Pale, Kreyòl Konprann”. Through this institute she encourages the exchange between Creole languages of the Caribbean and organizes conferences on the subject. Myriam says, “Any language is beautiful and deserves to be valued, especially by the people who speak it.” Emmanuel Vidrine was born in Haiti. He is an editor, educator, researcher, translator and writer. He has published many books on the Haitian Diaspora and Haitian Creole (Kreyòl), https://www.potomitan.info/vedrine/index.php. Emmanuel Vidrine writes, “In Haiti, a high percentage of the population is illiterate. The people would benefit if our government would make sure that there is a free access to education up to the secondary school. The mother tongue is part of our genetic makeup, and part of our soul. In a way, it’s part of who we are. Mostly, I first write a text in Creole, then I translate it into French or English, for it is in the native language that I can best express my thoughts. The native language, for me, is raw material, the good oil. Due to the colonial education system, we were taught to negate our native language. In all developed countries, the education of their people is completed in their native tongue. We received a colonial education in Haiti. When you study linguistics, it changes how you think about language, as you study everything in relation to the mother tongue, the influences or psychological effects.”

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

67

Myriam Lavache ta di Haiti. E tin 17 aña ta biba na Kòrsou. For di aña 2014 e ta hasi investigashon di Kreyòl di Haiti. El a produsí material edukashonal pa siña su idioma materno na e yu’i Kòrsou. Na 2016 el a lanta “Enstiti Kreyòl Pale, Kreyòl Konprann”. Atraves di e instituto akí e ta enkurashá interkambio entre e lenganan krioyo di Caribe i ta organisá konferensia riba e materia akí. E ta di opinion ku kada idioma ta bunita i ta meresé di ser balorá, spesialmente dor di esnan ku ta papi’é. Emmanuel Vidrine a nase na Haiti. E ta editor, edukador, investigador, traduktor i outor. El a publiká hopi buki inkluyendo publikashon riba Diáspora Haitiano, Lenga Krioyo Haitiano (Kreyòl) https://www.potomitan. info/vedrine/index.php. Lenga di mama ta parti di nos makiahe genétiko, y parti di nos alma. Den sierto sentido e ta parti di ken nos ta.

68 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Jamiekan / Jamiekan Kriyu (Jamaican Creole/Patois) / Patwa di Jamaica Madda Tongue Nuff more dan six towsan langwij deh inna di worl nuff more dan a likkle a yuh Patwa dats di nearis inna mi awt mi feel It inna yuh dat mi caah seh nice details weh guh far dat soun like music tone and melodi weh coulda wah inna patwa nuh inna adda langwij Nuff more dan six towsan langwij deh inna di worl dis a fimi language weh mi modda and mi fadda spoon feed mi dat mi cherish di mos’ dat deepis mi ‘old inna mi awt Nuff more dan six towsan langwij deh inna di worl dat only inna patwa di word weh wi mark dat international masta piece wi translate a suh fi wi langwij we may furda rise up Jus as a farma pon di lan nuh ave even a likkle fi plant paw paw, sweet potatoe sowa sap and Kalabash fi reap difran ting a mawnin’ time a suh wi fi cherish an protek

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

69

all de langwij dem weh de pon earth all if adi likklest weh it cum fram. Translation: Matthew J. Smith. Revision: Shanoya Robinson. About the translator Opinions and challenges Matthew J. Smith is Professor of History at the Department of History, University College London (UCL) and Director of the Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slave-Ownership at UCL (https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ lbs). He is the author of Liberty, Fraternity, Exile: Haiti and Jamaica after Emancipation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014). Matthew Smith writes, “The source of pride that most Jamaicans feel for Patwa is reflected in the poem Modda Tong.” Matthew J. Smith ta Profesor di Historia na Departamento di Historia, na University College London (https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs). Un di su obranan ku lo ta bon pa menshoná ta, Liberty, Fraternity, Exile: Haiti and Jamaica after Emancipation (Libertat, Fraternidat, Eksilio: Haiti i Jamaica despues di Emansipashon) Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014). Segun Matthew J. Smith, “E Fuente di orguyo ku mayoria Hamaikino ta sinti ta reflehá den e poema Lenga di Mama.”

70 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Kwéyòl (Antillean Creole of Guadeloupe) / Lenga Krioyo di Guadeloupe Lang Natif-Natal An-Mwen Tini pasé sis mil lang moun ka palé asi latè. ‒ pli souvaman sé prensipalman lang a piti popilasyon moun mé sé vou Papamyento ka viv an fenfon a kyè an-mwen. an ka santi. Sé anni vou i pé rivé fè mwen di pli piti détay pou ay pli lwen pou sonné menmjan èvè mizik èvè ton épi mélodi kon sa pa oblijé ka ègzisté adan dòt lang. Tini pasé sis mil lang moun ka palé asi latè mé sé lang-palé natif-natal an mwen tala anman é apa ban-mwen manjé èvè ti-kuiyè tala an ka chéri plis pasé p’on dòt la tala an ka pòté. an fenfon a kyè an-mwen. Tini pasé sis mil lang moun ka palé asi latè mé sé anni an Papyamennto nou ka maké litérati é nou ka tradui tout mèt-liv enternasyonal é sé konsa nou ka rivé fè lang an-nou monté pli ho.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

71

Menmjan on moun ka travay tè pa ka planté yenki papay, patat, kòwòsòl oben kalbass dous pou rékòlté diversalité-lavi menmjan nou ni pou nou toujou chèché chéri é pwotéjé tout lang moun ka palé asi latè menmsi i sòti adan pli piti pèp-la. Translation: Hector Poullet. About the translator Opinions and challenges Hector Poullet is known in Guadeloupe as a fervent supporter of the Creole cause. In the seventies he did a lot to force the French government to introduce the study of the Creole language into the school curriculum. He contributed to the publication of the first French Creole dictionary and wrote many other books to promote the use of the Creole language. “Poetry is a ‘miraculous weapon’, a defensive weapon which like a shield protects us from the negativity of the world. It saves us from despair and pushes us towards the Northern Lights of life (Aurores Boréales de la Vie). Indeed, there were some challenges. I had to translate ‘from my earliest childhood’ by ‘made me eat with a spoon’ and the ‘calabash’ at home grows on trees and is not edible, I replaced it by ‘sweet calabash’ which is an edible cucurbitacea; on the other hand, the potato here is necessarily sweet, so it is not necessary to specify ‘sweet’. All of these subtleties mean that we cannot translate without adapting at the same time; in Creole we speak of ‘metamorphosis’, or mofwazaj, a magical operation. Poetry is untranslatable from one language to another, any translation of a poem can only be an approximation. When a poem in Papiamento passes into Guadeloupe Creole through French, there is a double perdition, but it allows us to write a new poem in Creole that speaks to Creolophones. It’s like a re-creation.”

72 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Hector Poullet ta konosí na Guadeloupe komo un partidario ferviente di e kousa di lenga krioyo. Den añanan setenta el a hasi hopi esfuerso pa fòrsa e gobièrnu franses introdusí lenga Kwéyòl / krioyo di Guadeloupe den e kuríkulo eskolar. El a kontribuí na publikashon di e promé dikshonario di Franses Kwéyòl i a skirbi hopi otro buki pa promové uso di e lenga krioyo aki. Poesia ta un arma milagroso, un arma di defensa ku manera un hárnas ta protehá nos kontra negativismo di mundu.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

Matnik or Matinik (Martinican Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Martinique Lang natif-natal Ni pasé 6000 lang ka egzisté asou latè Eti majorité-a sé ta an ti-tjò Mé sé wou, papiamento Eti man ka santi Pli pré tjè mwen. Sé épi’w Man pé pli bien palé pou di Tout détay ka rézonnen pli bien Kontel mizik Chanté épi mélodi éti pétet Yo pa ka trouvé adan dot lang. Ni pasé 6000 lang ka egzisté asou latè Mé sé épi lang natif-natal mwen Eti manman-mwen ek papa-mwen nouri mwen dépi toupiti Man simié anpami tout Man ka pòté jik an fondok tjè mwen. Ni pasé 6000 lang ka egzisté asou latè Mé sé yenki an papiamento Nou ka matjé litérati nou Nou ka mofwazé chédev entènasional Pou nou rivé pòté lang natif-natal nou osélélé Pou’y trapé plis valè Menm manniè kiltivatè Pa ka planté tibren mayi selman Mé papay, patat, kosol ek kalbas Pou rékolté dèmen dives fwi Menm manniè nou ni bizwen choyé ek protéjé Chak lang ki ni asou latè Menmsi i ka sòti Dan pli piti tizing lang. Translation: Jude Duranty.

73

74 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

About the translator Opinions and challenges Jude Duranty is from Martinique. He is a librarian, musician, chorus leader, writer in Creole and French and has already published and translated about 20 books. These works are now also on the website: www.potomitan.info. “I think that poetry in the native language is an identity marker and translating it allows us to enter into the personal experience of users of minority languages. The translation of a minority language is an opening to other languages. Each language has its genius. My first translation of “Lenga di Mama” was from an English text and therefore felt too stuck to the English text. My second translation was from a French translation and allowed me to be closer to the Creole language. Le monde (‘the world’), for example, is more aptly expressed by ‘sur toute la terre’ (‘over the whole earth’) than the word in Creole lemond. ‘La majorité an minorité’ in French (‘The majority of a minority’) is less appropriate after the precision of the French translation which means ‘the majority of languages belong to a minority of people’. This idea is better understood by the text translated into French. The word douvan jou aurore in French is different from ‘demain’ (‘tomorrow’) = dèmen which is almost the same in Creole. So, the two translations (English and French) allowed me to be in a better position for translating the poem into Creole.” Jude Duranty ta di Martinique. E ta bibliotekario, músiko, dirigente di koro, i un outor ku ta skirbi den lenga krioyo di Martinique i den franses. El a publiká i tradusí 20 obra kaba. Por konsultá e obranan akí awor tambe riba e wѐpsait:www.potomitan.info. Tradukshon di un lenga di minoria ta apertura pa otro idioma(nan). Kada idioma ku su genio.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

75

Sranantongo (Creole of Suriname) / Sranantongo (“Taki Taki”)1 Mama tongo Moro leki sikisi dusun tongo de na ini Gado grontapu ‒ furu fu deng de wan pikin tongo soso ju, Papiamento, mi habi krosbei na ini mi ati Na ju mi kang kong foe taki abra di fini fini tori san e kong leki poku, a fasi fa ju e taki na lek fa ju e singi wang poku di ini tra tongo no besta Moro leki sikisi dusun tongo de na ini Gado grontapu ma mi mama tongo sang mi mama nanga papa safu gi mi nanga spoeng ini mi mofo, dati mi e ori moro na ini mi ati Moro leki sikisi dusun tongo de na ini Gado grontapu ini a Papiamento wi e skrifi lecturu ini a Papiamento wi e bodoi a grongtapu lecturu fu hopo wi mama tongo fu tjari a tongo go na hei Soleki fa wan mang sa e prani no e prani soso karo ma owktu ai prani sweti papata 1 “Taki Taki” is included here in inverted commas. The term, meaning “talk talk” or “chit chat”, is perceived as derogatory and is no longer used.

76 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

papaya, sunzaka nanga krabasi fu kun oogstu difrinti tamara lek so wi owktu moso tirie nanga kibrie ibri tongo ini a Gado grontapu, awinsi if a de fu dati na wang pikin tongo Translation: Henny Hasselbaink, Natascha Robles, Wieland & Leontine Kuster. About the translators Opinions and challenges Natascha Robles, Leontine Kuster, Henny Hasselbaink, and Mr. Wieland know each other in Suriname through their work. The three of them speak Sranantongo. Together, they have translated the poem “Mother Tongue” with much dedication. They do not have a language related profession. Leontine Kuster writes, “Poems are personal. They reflect the poet’s attitude to life and that is quite difficult to translate because you have to get into the poet’s skin. In addition, a poem has a certain rhythm and you have to preserve that too. When you translate you also have to keep the strength of certain words that require that. I know that some writers from Suriname initially thought: I know the language, so I can translate a poem. And that didn’t work because poems are a specific form of language and therefore a challenge to translate in such a way that the intention of the writer is maintained. Sranantongo on paper is quite recent and therefore the translators found it a challenge and consulted other people.” Natasha Robles, Leontine Kuster, Henny Hasselbaink i señor Wieland konosé otro dor di nan trabou na Sürnam. Tur tres ta papia sranantongo. Huntu nan a tradusí e poema “Lenga di Mama” ku mashá dedikashon. Nan trabou no ta riba tereno di idioma. Leontine: Un poema tin sierto ritmo ku e traduktor mester mantené. Ora e ta tradusí e mester mantené tambe forsa di sierto palabra ku ta rekerí esei.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

77

Kriol de Sonsent (Cape Verdean of São Vicente) / Kaboverdiano di São Vicente Lingua Materna Mas duki 6.000 idioma ta izistí na mund, i maioria ê d’um minoria, ma ê bo, Papiament, k’m tem mas pert d’nha kurasão Ê na bo kum ta xpressá kes detalh mas sab ek ta parsê moda muska, ton i melodia ek talves ka ta izistí n’otx lingua Mas duki 6.000 lingua ta izistí na mund, ma ê nha lingua materna ke mama i papa dá-m k kdjer ke karinh, i k’m ta valorizá mas, k’m ta pegá más na nha kurasão Mas duki 6.000 idioma ta izistí na mund, ma na papiament no ta skrevê literatura, na papiament no ta traduzí obras internasional, pa nos lingua materna levantá ainda mas Moda um agrikultor ka ta plantá sô midj ma tambem batata doss papaia, pinha i kabassa

78 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

pa manhã podê kolhê diversidad, i assim nos tambem no mestê valorizá i protejê kada idioma ek ta izistí na mund, mesm’ s’el ê kel lingua d’um minoria más pikni! Translation: Friderika Fermino. Thanks to Pieter Muysken. About the translator Opinions and challenges Friderika Fermino was born in Hungary but raised in multicultural Rotterdam. With a Cape Verdean father and a Hungarian mother, she was always surrounded by several languages and cultures. She is studying linguistics in Utrecht. At the moment she spreads the pride of her linguistic roots by teaching Cape Verdean. “I think that translations contribute in the first place to raising awareness about the minority languages. In other words, translations act as a gateway to a language / culture / community. The more people that have access to a language, the more the language receives (positive) attention. The language then has more space to be appreciated. As far as Cape Verdean is concerned, I know that this is super important and I am speaking from a personal perspective. With respect to art, I think that it is underestimated anyway. Poetry is a beautiful and strong form of art, and all the more beautiful when the messages are important. I think that we also have to move with the times and that is one of the reasons that more and more poems are converted into songs. I do find it difficult to estimate how well poetry appeals to people of my generation. But I must confess that it touched me again to reread the poem ‘Lenga di Mama’ after one year. Poems are certainly powerful. And we would be nowhere without artists.” Friderika Fermino a nase na Hungria pero a lanta na e siudat multikultural Rotterdam. Ku un tata kaboverdiano y un mama húngaro e tabata semper rondoná pa vários idioma i kultura. E ta studiando lingwístika na Utrecht. Aktualmente e ta “plama orguyo” di su raisnan dor di duna lès di kaboverdiano.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

79

Morisien (Mauritian Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Mauritio Langaz nu Mama Dan Lemond, ena plis ki 6.000 langaz, Plipar, zot minoriter, me langaz Papiamento, sann la ki mo santi pli pre ar mo leker dan sa langaz la. Ki mo kapav eksprim tu bann detay delika ki ena parey kuma dan son enn lamizik, sa ton ek sa melodi la ki napena dan lezot langaz. Dan lemond, se plis ki 6.000 langaz Ki kapav existe, me mo langaz maternel, Sann la ki finn nuri mwa letan mo ti tipti, Sann la ki mo plis kontan, Sann la ki res pli buku ankre dan mo leker. Plis ki 6.000 langaz ena lor nu later, me se dan mo Papiamento selman ki nu bizin tradyir sa bann morso seleb ki dan lemond antye Zis pu nou fer nu al pli devan. Parey enn laburer plant Papay, batat, lay u kalbas, zis pu ranforsi diversite kumsa mem nu usi nu bizin pran kont ek protez sak langaz lor later, kant mem li pratike par enn tiginn dimunn. Translation: Emmanuel Richon. About the translator Opinions and challenges Emmanuel Richon is Mauritian and his whole life is dedicated to writing and museums. He is a man of museums, because he believes in their role

80 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

of dissemination, pedagogy and participatory democracy in the countries where they are located. Tell me how your museums are doing, and I’ll tell you how your country is doing! He has published about thirty books, including two novels. “Translating into the Mauritian Creole language is a very important step in creating a change in self-appreciation of the status of the language. Though it is a linguistically wrong perception of language, having a mother tongue with very little available writings tends to foster negative understandings. The written word promotes authority and prestige within a society. Therefore, translating is an important prerequisite, particularly to demonstrate that world-renowned authors are translatable into one’s own language. However, this step is not easy because once the first translations have been carried out, the State reappears quickly, to limit and contain the fields of access to writing in the strict literary, communicational or political field, to better prevent it in other fields. The State and the political bourgeoisie are keen to invent a form of ‘elitization’ of language by transforming its standardizing and natural stage into a normative and authoritarian stage. While most languages have most often been influenced by the ‘natural evolution’ of their daily use over several years, in the case of Mauritian Creole, it was suddenly that the State, at the beginning of the 2000s, decided to take back control and rule on the spelling and the creation of an orthography. For example, a book in Creole will only be subsidized by the Ministry of Culture if it follows the government’s spelling. Therefore, independence of thought and expression goes through resistance and a return to old language associations. Poetry often makes it possible to retain all of this freedom of expression, a genre which by nature cannot see the lexical choices, popular expressions, etc. being interfered with.” Emmanuel Richon ta Mauritiano. Henter su bida ta dediká na skirbimentu i museo. E ta un hende di museo pasobra e ta kere den e papel ku museonan ta hunga den distribushon i plamamentu di informashon, den nan papel pedagógiko i nan papel di demokrasia partisipativo den e pais kaminda nan ta ubiká. Konta mi kon ta bai ku bo museonan, i ami lo kontá bo kon ta bai ku bo pais. Palabra skirbí ta promové outoridat i prestigio den un sosiedat. Pa e motibu ei tradukshon ta un rekisito importante…El a publiká mas o ménos 30 buki, inkluyendo dos novela.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

Pidgin (Hawaiian Pidgin) / Bedji di Hawai Da way my madda wen tak (“Native Language”) get mo’ dan 6.000 wayz pepo go tak in da world fram wat everybadi speak to us little guys but when I tak pidgin my haat go come alive wen tak pidgin das dakine way dat I stay express anyting I like say it sound like one music you kno da way it sound dakine music no one else get araun get mo’ dan 6.000 wayz pepo go tak in da world but dis da way I tak dis dakine my madda my fadda wen feed me fram small kid time dakine i get plenny aloha fo’ get mo’ dan 6.000 wayz pepo go tak in da world but only in da pidgin dat tings we wen say dat letters we stay write translate fram odda kine tak bambai pidgin can go up in da world even az one farma on da land neva hardly wen plant coffee an’ sugah cane wild kine guava go pick fram da graund wen grab all dis kine stuff by da time so early in da morning

81

82 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

da chicken go crow so az da way us guyz gotta take care each wayz pepo tak even us manini guyz Translation: Karen Baron and Michelle Baron. Special thanks to Joseph Bagaz and Katie Drager, Ph.D. Associate Professor, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Department of Linguistics. About the translators Opinions and challenges Karen Baron, previously known as Karen Kamigaki, was born in the Hōnaunau Captain Cook area of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and now resides in Honolulu. Michelle Baron is Karen’s daughter and was born in Honolulu. She is currently a graduate student of Linguistics at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa. Joe Balaz writes in Hawaiian Islands Pidgin (Hawai’i Creole English) and in American English. He edited Ho’omanoa: An Anthology of Contemporary Hawaiian Literature and he is the author of Pidgin Eye. He presently lives in Cleveland, Ohio. Michelle Baron writes, “I think that poetry is important for several reasons. One main reason is that while other approaches to conservation may only include a list of words or a recorded conversation, the role of poetry allows the understanding of rhythm in each particular language. Translation of the same piece also allows direct comparison to show variation from languages which may generally be considered very similar. Of the many challenges I encountered during the translation, a major one was that our language is not a written one. While it is sometimes written nowadays, we use English as a guide to write our language down and it is not something that we want to steer away from in our community. Second, direct translation is difficult because many expressions or terms do not exist in our language. For example, there was a list of crops most of which do not exist traditionally in Hawai’i. The options we had were either using crops commonly seen in Hawai’i but that are not translations of the same words, or borrowing English words. Furthermore, words for certain expressions

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

83

or feelings are not frequently used in our culture and thus we either had to use a word we use more often or use a word that is borrowed from English.” Anteriormente konosí komo Karen Kamigaki, Karen Baron a nase den e área Hōnaunau Captain Cook di Big Island na Hawai. Awor e ta biba na Honolulu. Tradukshon di e mesun teksto ta permití tambe komparashon direkto pa mustra variashon entre idiomanan ku, generalmente por ser konsiderá masha similar. Michelle Baron ta yu muhé di Karen/. El a nase na Honolulu. Aktualmente e ta un studiante postgrado di Lingwístika na Universidat di Hawai na Mānoa. Joe Balaz ta skirbi den bedji (Pidgin) di e Islanan di Hawai i den ingles di Merka. El a editá Ho’omanoa. An Anthology of Contemporary Hawaiian Literature (Un Antologia riba Literatura Kontemporáneo di Hawai) i ta outor di e obra Pidgin Eye. Aktualmente e ta biba na Cleveland, Ohio.

84 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Kréol rénioné (Réunion Creole or Reunionese Creole) / Lenga Krioyo di Réunion Nout Langkozé Néna plis 6.000 lang dsi la Tér plipar, lé minoritér mé aouminm Papiamento i rét ziskoté mon fonnkér Sanm ou, mi giny di bann détay délika An ou, in son, in mizik, in ton, in mélodi, i artrouv pa dann in ot lang. Néna plis 6.000 lang dsi la Tér mé ek mon lang maternel monmon papa la fé gandi amwin ek kontantman lamour saminm pli profon dan mon kér. Néna plis 6.000 lang dsi la Tér mé ryink dan nout langkozé nou la bezwin tradwi bann gran teks po mét anlér nout lang Parey in plantér, i fé pous papay, patat, lay ek kalbas po in rishés mélanzé parlfét, anou osi i fo ni fé parey fé in kont ek protéz sak lang an zarlor partou dsi la Tér kinm in ti pé domoun i koz ali.

Creole L anguages / Idioma Krioyo 

85

Translation: Nadia Saint Omer. Thanks to Francesca Palli. About the translator Opinions and challenges To translate and create, in Nadia Saint Omer’s opinion, are two things necessary for the survival of a language. The daughter of a cultural activist, Nadia received the translation as an inheritance and remains convinced that translating a language is to build it. “I think that poetry is essential for the conservation of minority languages because it is a vision of the world that we observe. It brings our emotions by playing with words, rhymes, the sounds of languages and is therefore an identity marker. The biggest challenge when translating poetry, in my opinion, is respecting the prosody. Translating a text literally is not the same as translating poetry. The duration, the rhythm, the melody of a poem are just as important to translate as the words.” Francesca Palli The Italian-speaking Swiss, Francesca Palli, is the head and webmaster of the www.potomitan.info website, which is dedicated to the promotion of Creole languages and cultures. She graduated in biochemistry and taught chemistry and biology in high school until she retired. Tradusí i krea, na Nadia Saint Omer su opinion, ta dos kondishon nesesario pa sobrebibensia di un idioma. Siendo yu di un aktivista kultural, el a risibí tradukshon komo herensia i ta keda konvensí ku tradusí un idioma ta konstruyé. Di abla italiano, Francesca Palli di Suisa, ta na kabes i e atministrador di e página wѐp di e wèpsait www.potomitan.info ku ta dediká na promoshon di lenga- i kulturanan krioyo. El a graduá den biokímika i te na momentu ku el a baha ku penshun, el a duna lès di kímika i biologia na skol sekundario.

China

Indonesian

African and Asian Languages

Japan

Japanese

Mandarin Chinese

Javanese

Indonesia

Arabic

Riffian

Souss Berber

Morocco

Igbo

Nigeria

Hausa

Niger



African and Asian Languages Idioma Afrikano i Asiátiko Pieter C. Muysken

Abstract This section features translations into African and Asian languages. However, these languages by no means form a unit. Each has very different characteristics both grammatically and in terms of their status and oral and written traditions. Grouping our sample of translations this way does not, we realize, cover the richness in language traditions from these continents. Keywords: Africa, Asia, Multilingualism, European Colonization

Africa is home to both large and smaller language families, and some that, as far as we know, are unrelated to other languages altogether. Due to the history and legacy of European colonization, most languages of Africa generally do not have a high social status in the country. Many African countries are highly multilingual, with several languages used in the same community, neighborhood, and even household. Similarly, the languages of Asia belong to many different families (including Indo-European which we have presented separately). As many countries in Asia were not fully under European colonial rule, their languages have generally maintained a high social status. In some cases, the colonial powers did not completely impose their own European language onto the local population, but rather gave privileges to the people who spoke their European language, as is the case in Dutchcolonized Indonesia. We begin with a selection of African languages, from north to south in the continent, and then turn to Asian languages.

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_2

88 

Pieter C. Muysken

Tarifiyt is the variety of Berber or Amazigh spoken in the Rif mountain range in northern Morocco and in some communities in Algeria. It is also a heritage language in Belgium and the Netherlands. Altogether, it may have six or seven million speakers. It does not have much prestige in Morocco itself, although there is a current cultural revival movement. It is also called Rif or Riffian Berber and many speakers use “Tamazight” to refer to it, but that term is a generic label for all of Berber. While there is a rich oral tradition, much of which has been recorded, and/or written, Tarifiyt literature only dates from the twentieth century, and includes short stories, novels, plays, retellings of traditional stories, cartoons, and songs. Many writers whose first language is Tarifiyt have written in the languages of the diaspora: Spanish, French, Dutch, and even English. In Morocco itself, many Tarifiyt speakers also know Arabic and French or Spanish. Tashelhiyt is the variety of Berber spoken in southwestern Morocco. It is also sometimes called Shilha, Chleuh or Souss Berber. It is an old and vigorous language with about seven million speakers, and it boasts a literary tradition going back to the sixteenth century. There are three writing systems. Traditionally, Arabic script was used, and there is a modernized orthography with Arabic characters. European scholars have devised various transcriptions in Latin script, and internationally there is now a fairly standard transcription. In Morocco, there is also Tifinagh, which uses old symbols and is promoted as the authentic way of writing the language. Tifinagh is also used in road signs. The earlier texts in Arabic script were mostly religious and meant for instruction of the faithful. Later, a more diverse set of genres developed, partly based on the rich oral tradition in the language. Hausa (or also called Harshen) is a very important language spoken in western Africa, particularly in Nigeria and Niger, but also by Muslims in neighboring countries. It is classified as a Chadic language and belongs to the Afroasiatic language family. Speaker estimates suggest about 47 million first-language and 25 million second-language speakers, but there may be many more, making it one of the most frequently spoken languages in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hausa has been enriched with many words originally from Arabic. It is written with a Latin-based alphabet called bogo, but there are also many older texts in an Arabic-based script called ajami, written before British colonization started in 1903. Currently, there is a rich Hausa literature, including popular fiction. Igbo is a major language spoken in southeastern Nigeria, with many dialects. Igbo is also spoken in Kogi, Benue, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon. It has about 45 million speakers, and belongs to the Niger-Congo language family. It is a language rich in tonal patterns, with two main tones, high

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

89

and low, and in addition a down-stepped high tone. There is a strong oral tradition in Igbo with several well-known proverbs. The Igbo novel is a burgeoning literary use for the language too. Bahasa Indonesia means “language of Indonesia” and was adopted as the national language of Indonesia when the government declared its independence from the Netherlands in 1945. It is rooted in various varieties of Malay, including Standard Malay and informal Bazar Malay, and has adopted words from many languages, including Sanskrit, Arabic, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. These influences reflect the complex history of Indonesia, colonized and involved in trade for many centuries. In local varieties of the language, spoken in the whole Indonesian archipelago, words from other local languages may appear as well. Literature in Bahasa Indonesia emerged out of Malay literature, and for many years coexisted with literature in other Indonesian languages. From the 1920s onward, there has been a steady stream of publications in various genres, and contemporary Indonesian literature is very rich. Pramoedya Ananta Toer may be the most famous Indonesian author. In Child of all Nations (Anak semua bangsa), the second of his epic quartet, like in the first one, he describes life under oppression in a colonized nation. Basa Jawa (Javanese, Båså Jåwå) is the native language of the population of central and eastern Java, and it has over 80 million speakers. It is an Austronesian language and certainly not a dialect of Bahasa Indonesia, though speakers of Basa Jawa also know that language. The very rich Javanese literature dates back to the beginning of the ninth century CE, and from the fifteenth- through twentieth century a special script was used. The older literary form of the language contained many loan words from Sanskrit, which are more formal. There are also loans from Arabic (particularly related to the Islam) and in the modern language from Dutch, such as pit from Dutch fiets “bicycle”. As with Arabic, the word “Chinese” can refer either to the official language of the People’s Republic of China, or to all Chinese languages together, languages which are related but not always mutually comprehensible. The official language, also termed Mandarin, Guānhuà or Putonghua, is based on the Beijing pronunciation of Mandarin. In addition, many spoken minority languages are not related to Chinese. The Chinese world consists of many different languages, however, united by a common writing system. It goes without mentioning that there is an extremely rich and vast Chinese literary tradition, dating back to at least the eleventh century BCE and covering a host of genres. During the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-256 BCE) many works related to Chinese philosophy and religion were produced, laying the basis

90 

Pieter C. Muysken

for Chinese traditions such as Confucianism and for the tradition of Imperial examinations for holding a government post. From the eleventh century BCE onward, there has been a steady flow of great collections of classical poetry. Around 1900, outside influences became apparent and there were many new experiments with different styles and genres. So far, two authors have received the Nobel Prize for Literature: Gao Xingjian in 2000 and Mo Yan in 2012. At present, much of the modern Chinese literature is available online, but China continues to publish many thousands of books each year. Nihongo or Japanese is the main language of Japan. Together with the Ryukyuan languages, spoken on the Ryukyuan islands to the south main islands of Japan, it forms the Japonic language family. Although there are some rough grammatical similarities to languages spoken on the Asian mainland area next to Japan, it is not possible to establish a direct family relationship with these languages. The Japanese writing system is originally based on Chinese characters, and the first written Japanese texts date from the eighth century CE. Between 1000 and 1012 CE, the female writer Murasaki Shikibu wrote the well-known Tale of the Genji, a novel in Japanese about courtly love. Since then there has been an impressive development of various literary genres, including many novels and the haiku, a form of Japanese poetry that evokes imagery of nature, the most common format being a three-line poem with a 5-7-5 syllable pattern. Three Japanese authors have won the Nobel Prize: Kawabata Yasunari in 1968, Ōe Kenzaburō in 1994, and Kazuo Ishiguro in 2017. Outside of Japan, authors such as Yukio Mishima and Haruki Murakami are well-known. Recent developments are cell phone novels and manga comics, both well-known. outside of Japan.

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

Tmaziɣt / Tarifect (Tarifiyt/Riffian Berber) / Tarifiyt / Riffian Bѐrber Tutlayt inu Yeɛdu 6.000 n tutlayin i yellan deg umadal ‒ ɛraḥar marra d timeẓyanin, maca cem, a Tapapiamentut, kessiɣ cem akidi deg ul inu Qa daym i zemmareɣ ad afeɣ marra min yellan am ifettucen aḥmi tesriḍ i muzika, d ticti d lɣa i war yellin di tutlayin nneɣni Yeɛdu 6.000 n tutlayin i yellan deg umadal maca awal inu i day-i sremden idadden inu s tayri i ṭḍeɣ d aceffay zeg yemma d wenni i ṭfeɣ ɣar-i deg ul inu Yeɛdu 6.000 n tutlayin i yellan deg umadal maca s Tapapiamentut ntari zzay-s tasekla, ɣar Tapapiamentut ad ɣar-s nari tasekla umadal, ḥuma awar nneɣ ad tt nessili deg ujenna Am umekraz deg iyyar war yelli xa izumbiyen ig iṭeẓẓu maca ra d batata ukeccuḍ d papaya d graviola d texsact ḥuma tiwecca ad iɣeǧǧer timegga, amya i ɣa negg i marra tutlayin ad xas nḥawer ad tt neḥḍa

91

92 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

s marra min yellan deg umadal, Waxxa d tameẓyant n tmeẓyanin, d tutlayt! Translation: Baghdad el Mesbahe. About the translator Opinions and challenges Baghdad el Mesbahe is a speaker, writer and poet in a minority language, namely the Tarifiyt or Riffain Berber. The fun thing about translating poems is the feeling of penetrating into the soul of another world citizen. Being a cosmopolite without traveling. The Papiamento becomes Tamazight and vice versa. “Translating the poem ‘Mother Tongue’ has challenged me with regard to the words used in Tamazight. Because Tamazight is mainly known for its oral tradition, many words have been lost and replaced by loan words. The challenge for me here was to use original words as much as possible, such as Tutlayt, amadal, tasekla for which we regularly use loan words from Arabic. Translating the cultivated crops mentioned in the poem was also a challenge, such as papaya, which we do not know in North Africa. I had to translate literally to introduce the reader to this other world of crops. Just like the naturalness of a farmer who grows ‘corn’ for which we can use ‘grains’. Here too I have chosen to mention corn.” Baghdad el Mesbahe ta ablante, outor i poeta den un idioma di minoria, es desir, Tarifiyt òf Riffian Bѐrber. E kos dibertido di tradusí poesia ta e sentimentu di penetrá den alma di un otro siudadano di mundu. Siendo kosmopolita sin mester di biaha. Papiamentu ta bira Tamazight, i visevèrsa.

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

Tashelhiyt / Shilha (Souss Berber) / Tashelhiyt / Souss Bѐrber Tutlayt inu (awal inu) llant uggar n 6.000 n tutlayin ɣ umaḍal tilli ggutnin gant tin mddn lli drusnin mašša kmmin, Papiamentu, usiġkm ɣ ugns n tasanu Kmmin ka waḥdukm aɣ zḍarɣ ad afɣ kullu ɣaylli siggilɣ, lli ismrarn zund amarg d uḥrsi d lmizan lli ur illin ɣdar tutlayyin yaḍnin Uggar n 6.000 n tutlayyin ad illan ɣ umaḍal mašš tutlayt inu lliyid isslqi baba d inna s tayri ɣ tirimt lli ššiɣ ɣ timẓi inu ntta ad bahra ḥbbelɣ ɣ ugns n tasanu Uggar n 6.000 n tutlayyin ad illan ɣ umaḍal mašš s Papiamentu as nttara taskla, s Papiamentu as ntterjam taskla n wiyyaḍ fad ad simɣorɣ atig n tutlayt inu Zund afllaḥ urd ka asngar ad ikkrz ġ wakal ar ikkrz ula baṭaṭa, zzitun, aẓalim, ibauwn baš askka ad mgerġ mnnawt lɣllat, dɣayann af iga labudda a nḥbbel nḥḍu kullu man tutlayt illan ɣ umaḍal waxxa ɣir tga kra n tutlayt imẓẓiyn.

93

94 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: Mohamed Saadouni. About the translator Opinions and challenges Mohamed Saadouni was born in Taznakhte (South Morocco) and grew up in Morocco. He studied at the universities of Marrakech, Amsterdam and Leiden. He is an Arabist and Berber-specialist. He has been working at the library of the University of Leiden since 2007. Translation is important for Tashelhiyt because it shows that it is a living and modern language, and that it can convey universal literature. Moreover, it enriches the Berber language, and increases the style level of this language that comes from the oral language. The national, official language of Berber in Morocco is Tamazight. There are three regional variants, Tarifiyt (northern Morocco), Tamazight (central Morocco) and Tashelhiyt (south Morocco). The translation Mohamed made for this project is in Berber-Tashelhiyt, and it is also the official, local name of this southern variety. He translated the Berber conversations in the documentary The Miracle of Le Petit Prince (IDFA 2018, director: M. Boonstra). Pieter Muysken, by coincidence, mentions this in his preface when referring to the many translations in this book. Mohamed Saadouni a nase na Taznakhte (sur di Maròko) i a lanta tambe na Maròko. El a studia na Universidat di Marrakech, Amsterdam i Leiden. E ta Arabista i ta spesialisá den idioma bèrber. Mohamed ta traha for di aña 2007 na Universidat di Leiden . Tradukshon ta importante pa Tashelhiyt pasobra e ta demostrá ku ta trata di un idioma bibu i modѐrnu ku por transmití literatura universal. Ademas tradukshon ta enrikesé i ta alsa e nivel di estilo di e idioma bèrber akí ku ta provení di un lenga oral. E idioma nashonal bѐrber na Maròko ta Tamazight. Tin tres variante regional, Tarifiyt, (parti nort di Maròko), Tamazight (parti sentral di Maròko) i Tashelhiyt (parti sur di Maròko). E tradukshon ku Mohamed a hasi pa e proyekto akí ta den e variante Tashelhiyt, ku tambe ta e nòmber lokal di e variante di parti sur akí. El a tradusí e kòmbersashonnan pa e dokumental, The Miracle of Le Petit Prince (IDFA 2018, direktora: M. Boonstra). Pa kasualidat, Pieter Muysken ta menshoná esaki den su prefasio, ora e ta referí na e tantísimo tradukshon den e buki akí.

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

Harshen / Hausa (Hausa) / Hausa Harshen Kasa Fiye da harsuna 6.000 a duniya yana wanzu, ‒ a yawancin ‘yan tsirarunamma kai ne, Papiamento, cewa mafi kusa a cikin zuciyata Ina ji Yana cikin ku cewa zan iya bayyana m bayanai da suka wuce, wannan sauti kamar kiɗa, sauti da karin waƙa wanda watakila a wasu harsuna ba su wanzu Fiye da harsuna 6.000 a cikin rayuwar mu, amma ita ce maganganun na wanda mahaifiyata da mahaifina suka ciyar da ni cewa, mafi yawan duk ina son, wanda ya fi zurfi na shiga a cikin zuciyata Fiye da harsuna 6.000 a cikin rayuwar mu, amma kawai a Papiamento cewa wallafe-wallafen da muka zana, wannan mashahuriyar duniya muna fassara don haka harshenmu na asali za mu kara kara Kamar yadda manomi a ƙasar ba kawai shuka ba gwanda, mai dadi dankali, sop da santaka don girbi iri iri a ranar asuba don haka dole ne mu ma-dole ne mu yi godiya da karewa

95

96 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

kowane harshen da yake a duniya, ko da daga cikin mafi ƙanƙanci kaɗan shi ya fara Translation: Mohammed Al Munzir Jamal Jichi. Special thanks to Nada Ayoubi. About the translators Opinions and challenges Mohammed Al Munzir Jamal Jichi was born in Tripoli, Lebanon in 1985. He is a son of Salima Jichi Ayoubi (writer and a cousin of Hilda de Windt Ayoubi). He is a Lebanese/Nigerian businessman. Mohammed graduated from the Lebanese University in 2007. He speaks Arabic, French, English and Hausa, and is a writer and a translator. Nada Ayoubi is the cousin of Mohammed and Hilda. At the moment, she is studying Business Administration (Lebanese University) and also English and Turkish. Nada writes, “The meaning of mother tongue can often be referred to as your first or native language. It refers to the language that the child has used from birth, so during the most impactful times in his life. Unfortunately, when someone writes in their second language ‒ no matter how skilled ‒ there are always giveaway signs that occasionally creep in, betraying that they are not using their mother tongue. I would like to cite the words of the poet W.H. Austin when he defines a poet: A poet is before anything else, a person who is passionately in love with language. When it comes to embracing our mother tongue, reading and writing poetry can be transformative. It allows us to explore the sounds and feelings of words. Poetry leads us beyond language and shows us that words can mean so much more than they often convey on the page. Poetry can also be an effective tool in language learning, especially among children with two or more languages. Introduced early and frequently during a child’s journey with literature, poetry can make the difference because it reaches every aspect of the word’s power and provides a fun and creative outlet for children to find their inner voice.” Mohamed Al Munzir Jamal Jichi a nase na Tripoli, Líbano, na aña 1985. E ta yu hòmber di Salima Jichi Ayoubi (eskritora y prima di Hilda de Windt

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

97

Ayoubi). E ta un negosiante libanes / nigeriano. Na aña 2007 el a graduá na Universidat Libanes. E ta papia árabe, franses, ingles y hausa, i ta eskritor i traduktor. Nada ta prima di Mohammed i Hilda. Aktualmente e ta studiando Atmini­ strashon di Empresa (Business Administration, Lebanese University) i tambe ingles i turko. Segun Nada, un poeta, na promé lugá ta un persona ku ta pashonalmente enamorá di idioma.

98 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Ásụ̀sụ̀ Ìgbò (Igbo) / Igbo Asụsụ obodo Ihe karịrị asụsụ puku isii n’ụwa dị, otutu nke ndi pere mpe mana ọ bụ Igbo nke kachasi n’ime obi nwee mmetụta m Ọ bụ n’ime gị na m nwere ike igosipụta nkọwa siri ike nke gafere, nke ahụ dị ka egwu, ụda olu na abụ olu ụtọ ndị ọzọ nwere ike ghara ịdị n’asụsụ ndị ọzọ Ihe karịrị asụsụ puku isii n’ụwa anyị dị, mana ọ bụ asụsụ m nne na nna m nyekwara m ka nri ka ihe niile m ji kpọrọ ihe na m nwere ọdụ miri emi n’ime obi m Ihe karịrị asụsụ puku isii n’ụwa anyị dị, mana ọ bụ naanị na Igbo akwụkwọ ahụ anyị dere, ọkaibe mba ụwa / ofesi anyị na-atụgharị yabụ asụsụ obodo anyị anyị nwere ike bulie elu Dika onye oru ugbo n’elu ala anaghị akụ ụkọ pọọpọ nduku ụtọ, soursop na calabash ka esi enweta nkpuru di iche iche na ututu yabụ, anyị onwe anyị kwesịrị ịdị mkpa iji hụ n’anya ma na-echebe

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

99

asụsụ ọ bụla dị n’ụwa, ọ bụrụgodi na ndi pere mpe dị obere, ọ malitere. Translation: Ihechukwu Clara Nzeako. Special thanks to: Professor Anthony Nzeako and Professor Dr. Rose Mary Allen, Extraordinary Professor in the field of Culture, Community and History at the University of Curaçao Dr. Moises da Costa Gomez. About the translator Opinions and challenges Ihechukwu Clara Nzeako is a Nigerian from the Igbo nation and a native of Umuahia, Abia State in Federal Government College, Enugu, Nigeria. She speaks Igbo, English, and a little French. She is the daughter of Professor Anthony Nzeako whom Hilda de Windt Ayoubi met when studying in Nijmegen, The Netherlands. “Regarding translation and poetry, I think that the translation of poetry helps to share valuable poems with people of different languages. It also helps in the uplifting and boosting of the endangered languages so as to make known their cultural connection, history, and way of thinking rather than going into extinction. In other words, bringing the minority to the world. I did have some challenges while trying to translate the poem to my mother tongue (Igbo), especially the last paragraph. Some large words like ‘international’ had me asking people questions. My mom was also of help to me because the elderly seem to have more knowledge of languages than we youths do. Since the Igbo language has so many dialects, i.e. a word can have so many Igbo translations, I had to make sure the Igbo phrases I translated them into were in the Central Igbo format which is the general Igbo understood by all. Being a lover of novels, I have read so many books by some famous authors, but my favorite author is Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. Out of all her books that I have read, my favorite is the famous novel Purple Hibiscus. I also like the poem ‘Phenomenal Woman’ by Maya Angelou.” Ihechukwu Clara Nzeako ta un hóben nigeriano di e tribu Igbo. E ta nativo di Umuahia, Abia State na Federal Government College, Enugu, Nigeria. E ta papia igbo, ingles i un poko franses. Clara ta yu muhé di Profesor Anthony Nzeako ku Hilda a konosé tempu ku e tabata studia na Nijmegen, Hulanda. Tradukshon di poesia ta yuda tambe alsa i fortalesé idiomanan ku ta den peliger di ekstinshon.

100 

Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian) / Indones Bahasa Ibu Wah, lebih dari 6.000 bahasa berada di dunia ini mayoritasnya dari minoritas, namun Engkau, Papiamentu terasa terdekat di hatiku Terutama dalam kekayaan kosakatamu kubisa menggali detail nan terhalus terdengar seperti musik, nada serta melodi nan mungkin tiada dalam bahasa lain Lebih dari 6.000 bahasa berada di dunia ini namun bahasa ibuku nan ayah dan ibuku menuangkan pada sahaya dengan sendok penuh kasih sayang itu yang paling saya simpan dalam hatiku Lebih dari 6.000 bahasa berada di dunia ini tetapi dalam Bahasa Papiamentu kami menulis kesusasteraan dalam Papiamentulah kami menterjemahkan sastra dunia untuk menaikkan bahasa ibu kami semakin tinggi di sana Sama seperti seorang petani tak hanya menanam jagung melainkan ubi jalar, pepaya, karung dan labu untuk memanen keberagaman keesokan harinya

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

101

jadi marilah kita semua menghargai dan melindungi tiap-tiap bahasa nan berada di dunia meskipun dari minoritas terkecil! Translation: Frank Landsman. Proofread by Gilang Filipus Wicaksono. About the translator Opinions and challenges Frank Landsman holds a Master’s degree in American and Comparative Literature, and has been teaching English in Indonesia for almost a quarter of a century at Parahyangan Catholic University in Java, Indonesia. The translation of certain words was a challenge for Frank and he consulted some experts on this. Landsman writes, “The greatest challenge for a literary translator is to take on the role of the original writers and credibly convert their style into another language. The gifted poet Hilda de Windt Ayoubi shows her lyrical bent and her analytical mind to reveal the beauty of minority languages and the reasons for preserving them. What strikes me in Hilda’s poetry is the unadornedness and the sincere feeling or the beating heart behind it. In the Indonesian language there are two levels, formal and informal, but also a poetic and literary register. Young people use a type of slang for young people with many English loanwords, wordplay, and reversed words. An example is you = kamu, ‘you’ (formal) = Anda and Engkau = ‘Thou’. Another example is the relative pronoun ‘that’ = yang, but for poetic usage it would be nan. The shortening of tidak to tak and tidak ada to tiada (‘not being or existing’) serve to make it more direct or appealing. Sahaya (‘I, me’) is more poetic than saya. Kesusasteraan is more solemn or elevated than sastra for ‘literature’. Wah is a spontaneous exclamation of surprise or admiration, and is more appropriate here than the formal and dramatic Astaga with Arabic overtones. All things considered, every choice of words counts for two in poetry and translation! But if you think about it for too long, no word will come from our pen.”

102 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Frank Landsman tin un Maestria den Literatura Merikano i Komparativo, i ta dosente di ingles na Parahyangan Catholic University na Java, Indonesia pa kasi bintisinku aña kaba. Tradukshon di sierto palabra a forma un reto pa Frank i el a konsultá sierto eksperto riba esei. E desafio di mas grandi pa un traduktor literario ta asumí e papel di e eskritor original i konbertí su estilo na un manera kreibel/verídiko den otro idioma. E talentoso poeta Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, ta mustra un inklinashon líriko i un mente analítiko pa revelá e beyesa di lenganan di minoria i e rasonnan pa preservá nan. Loke ta sorprendé mi den e poesia di Hilda ta su sensies i e sentimentu sinsero i e kurason ku ta bati su tras.

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

Basa Jawa (Javanese) / Yavano Basa Ibu Wuelok, Ono luwih saking 6.000 basa Nyatane ing donya iki – mayoritas saking minoritas, nanging Sampeyan, Papiamentu Tak rasa paling cedhak ing atiku Utamane ing kekayaan kosakata Aku isa ngowahi rincian sing paling mulus swara kaya tembang, nada lan melodi sing mboten wonten ing basa liya Luwih saking 6.000 basa ing donya iki nanging basa ibuku nan ibu lan bapakku nuangaken cahya nganggo sendok lengkap katresnan paling kathah Tak simpen ing ati Luwih saking 6.000 basa ing donya iki nanging ing Basa Papiamentu Awakdhewe nulis sastra ing Papiamentu awakdhewe nerjemahaken sastra donya kanggo ngunggahake basanipun awakdhewe luwih dhuwur tinimbang saiki Kaya petani ora mung nandur jagung nanging yo singkong, kates, kacang lan waluh kagem panen kaberagaman ing dina sabanjuré supaya awakdhewe kabeh ngajeni lan nglindhungi saben basa ing donya sanadyan saking minoritas cilik!

103

104 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: Filipus Gilang Wicakson. About the translator Opinions and challenges Filipus Gilang Wicaksono is an Indonesian language instructor and translator. He used to teach the national Indonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia) to foreign students at the Parahyangan Catholic University in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. He is currently pursuing a graduate degree in Children’s Literature, Media, and Culture. “Language is key to our perception of the world; it quite literally puts our senses into words, making it intelligible and meaningful. As each language carries distinct nuances of how to perceive the world, translation allows different cultures to connect to others ‒ transferring their own unique way of thinking along the way. Translating this poem has been an honor and I thank Hilda for the opportunity.” Filipus Gilang Wicaksono ta dosente di idioma i tradukshon. E tabata duna lès di e lenga nashonal indones (Bahasa Indonesia) na studiantenan strañero na e Universidat Katóliko Parahyangan na Bandung, Java Oksidental, Indonesia. Aktualmente e ta den proseso pa atkerí un diploma posgrado den Literatura Infantil, Medionan di komunikashon i Kultura. Idioma ta yabi pa persepshon di mundu. I ya ku kada idioma tin matisnan diferente pa kon persibí mundu, tradukshon ta hasi posibel pa diferente kultura konektá ku otro…

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

Guānhuà (Mandarin Chinese) / Chines Mandarin 母 语 (Muyu) 世界上存在着6.000多种语言， 大多数语言来自少数民族 但只有你，帕皮阿门托语 令我感到， 最接近我的心灵 只有你 能让我表达 无以言表的精妙与细腻 听起来像音乐 那语调和旋律 似乎独一无二 世界上存在着6.000多种语言 但只有那爸爸妈妈 哺育我们长大的母语 我最为珍惜 珍藏于心底 世界上存在着6.000多种语言 但只有在帕皮阿门托语中 镌刻着我们的文学 珍藏着 我们所译的世界名篇 我们的母语因此而得以提升 就像田地间耕作的农夫 种下的只是木瓜和番薯， 刺果番荔枝和葫芦\ 破晓时，却收获更多 同样，我们也应珍惜和保护 地球上存在的每种语言 即使它来自最小的民族 希尔达·德·温德特· 阿尤比 2014年4月23日 国际书日

105

106 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: Dr. Zheng Ma. About the translator Opinions and challenges Zheng Ma is a researcher and translator. Her interests are mainly in the fields of Kahlil Gibran studies, Arab American studies and Social Justice studies. She received her education, fellowship and work positions in China, the US, and Canada. She has published over forty papers and two books, one of which is a translation of a book on Kahlil Gibran into Chinese. “I translated the English poem, Native language, to Chinese in 2014. In the Chinese language, there are two alternative understandings and translations for the ‘native language.’ One is 母语(muyu), and its literary meaning is mother tongue; The other one is 祖国的语言(zuguo de yuyan), and means the language of the homeland. Which one would be more suitable to transmit the inner voice of an Arab-Curaçao diaspora poet? At that time, as a Chinese translator who was educated in a monocultural and monolingual surrounding, I was perplexed by the poet’s entangled origin and identity. I was not sure whether Papiamento was the language from her parents or her upbringing, but I translated ‘native language’ into 母语 (muyu, mother tongue), as Hilda writes, But it is my native speech which mom and dad spoon fed me that most of all I cherish, that deepest I harbor in my heart.

As a diaspora, I can now reflect on the translation of six years ago and reach a more in-depth understanding. In this moving time, people identify home within language; when one settles their heart in his/her own language, one recognizes the home. As for a diaspora, the native language is a way to go back home. At this point, I am grateful to Hilda; for through my Chinese translation, I settle my heart in my native language.” Zheng Ma ta investigador i traduktor. Su interesnan ta partikularmente riba tereno di Estudionan di Kahlil Gibran, Estudionan Árabe Merikano i Estudionan di Hustisia Sosial. El a risibí su edukashon i beka di China, Estádos Unídos, i Canada i a haña puesto di trabou na e paisnan akí. El a

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

107

publiká dos buki, unu ta un tradukshon na chines di un obra di Kahlil Gibran. Ademas, el a publiká mas ku 40 artíkulo. Ora un hende ankra su kurason den su propio idioma, e ta rekonosé su hogar. Pa un persona di diáspora, lenga di mama ta un forma pa e bolbe bѐk kas.

108 

Nihongo (Japanese) / Hapones 母語 (Bogo) 6.000を超える言語が この世界にある －少数言語たちの大きな集まり－ けれど それはあなたなのです、パピアメント　 私が心のいちばん近くに 感じるのは あなただから 表現できるのです こまやかな襞の奥深くまで　　　 音楽のようなその響き 音色やメロディーといった もしかしたら　　　　 他の言語では表現できないものを 6.000を超える言語が 私たちの世界にある けれど それは私の母語なのです 母と父がスプーンで与えてくれた 私が何より愛し 心のなかの　　　　　　　　 いちばん深くに宿しているもの 6.000を超える言語が 私たちの世界にある けれど それはパピアメントだけなのです 私たちが文学を刻み込み 世界に通じる名作を 翻訳するのは そうすれば私たちの言語を さらに高められるかもしれないから 大地の農園主も ただ植えているわけではないのです パパイヤを、サツマイモを、 サワーソップにカラバッシュの実を 夜明けに多種を収穫するために だから私たちも慕い守らなければなりません

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

African and Asian L anguages / Idioma Afrik ano i Asiátiko 

109

この地球に存在する一つひとつの言語を たとえどんなに小さなマイノリティから 生まれていても

Translation: Makiko Nambu. Special thanks to Guita Hourani, Assistant Professor. About the translator Opinions and challenges Makiko Nambu is a PhD student at the Graduate School of Global Studies, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Today she is a student of Middle Eastern Area Studies, doing ethnographic works. Dr. Guita Hourani, Assistant Professor and Director of the Lebanese Center for Migration and Diaspora Studies, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Notre Dame University-Louaize, Lebanon. Makiko Nambu writes, “I often associate the act of describing a society to another society (in my case mainly Japan) with the act of translation. This includes translating a language, and more broadly a series of moments of human experience with the hope of marking their existence and emotional truth we all can relate to. The tender relationship between the author and the Papiamento language was the first impression I got from this poem and hoped that I could translate that softness in the tone of Japanese as well. Thus, I chose to translate the verses in a spoken oral Japanese to express the personal, instead of written Japanese which is the language of formality. In addition, I encountered some challenges, for example, the term ‘you’ can be translated into several personal pronouns in Japanese since we use them differently to address the others, depending on our social relationship (directed to or used between males, females, friends, children, elders etc.). I translated ‘you’ as ‘あなた (anata)’, the term that is used in both formal and close relationships (among grown-ups, friends, from parents to children etc.). The term is also written in Hiragana, the most basic form of Japanese writing (we have three main forms of Japanese, Hiragana, Katakana, Kanji and they are used in conjunction with each other) to keep the softness.”

110 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Guita writes, “Through their translation from Levantine languages to European languages and vice versa, Syriac and Maronite translators played an imperative role in introducing these two estranged worlds to each other ‒ consequently ensuing an unprecedented informed cultural and religious dialogue that continues to date.” Makiko Nambu, ta hasiendo su PhD, na Graduate School of Global Studies, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. Aktualmente e ta un studiante/e ta hasiendo e estudio/ di Estudionan di Region di Medio Oriente kaminda e ta hasiendo trabou etnográfiko. Frekuentemente mi ta asosiá e akto di deskribí un sosiedat na otro sosiedat (den mi kaso, prinsipalmente Hapon), ku e akto di tradusí. Dr. Guita Hourani, profesor asistente i direktor di Center for Migration and Diaspora Studies, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Notre Dame University-Louaize, Lebanon. “Atraves di nan tradukshon di idiomanan levantino den idiomanan europeo i visevèrsa, traduktornan sirio i maronita a desempeñá un papel sumamente importante den introdusí e dos mundunan distansiá akí na otro. Esaki a resultá den un diálogo kultural i religioso sin presedente ku ta kontinuá te dia di awe.”

Amerindian languages

Nahuatl

Mexico

Ecuador

Bolivia

Aymara

Quechua

Asháninka

Peru

Wampis

Quechua

Colombia

Wayuunaiki of Guajiro

Suriname

Brazil

Carib



Amerindian Languages Idioma Amerindio Pieter C. Muysken

Abstract This section presents translations into some of the indigenous languages of the Americas. These languages belong to a great many language families; in South America alone there are over a hundred families. Thus, the languages are by no means all related, as the reader might have expected. When we say that they are not related we mean that they do not share enough similar words to ascertain or determine that they are related. Nonetheless, many of them share grammatical features, such as tendencies to place much of the sentence information in verb endings. Keywords: Amerindian, Americas, North America, South America, MesoAmerica, Endangered Languages

Many Amerindian languages are seriously endangered. Only a handful in each continent have a substantial number of speakers, and even these are not growing in speaker numbers, for the most part. In this book there are translations from one language of Meso-America, Nahuatl, and of half a dozen languages from South America. We present the Amerindian languages roughly from north to south. Náhuatl (Nahuatl in English) is one of the best known indigenous languages of Mexico, and a major language of the Uto-Aztecan language family. There are over one and a half million speakers. The language was spoken by the Aztecs, who lived in central Mexico and founded what is now Mexico City, then Tenochtitlan. Words in English with a Náhuatl origin include avocado, chocolate, and tomato. Pre-Columbian Aztec writing was image-based and did not represent the full language, but texts (called

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_3

114 

Pieter C. Muysken

codices) served as a memory aid for people narrating a text. With the Spanish conquest, the Latin script was introduced to represent Náhuatl, and many texts, both prose and poetry, have been preserved since the sixteenth century, relying on the earlier pictorial representations in many cases. One of the features of Náhuatl is the possibility of adding the object of the verb directly to the verb itself, as in ni-naka-kwa “I eat meat” (literally I-flesh-eat). There are some Spanish loans in Náhuatl, such as maske “more than” (< Spanish más que) in the translation. Wayuunaiki (also called Wayuu or Guajiro) is the language of the Wayuu; sometimes the language is also referred to by the name of the group. It is, for Amerindian languages, a surprisingly strong language, with over 300,000 speakers. It is spoken on the Guajira peninsula in the border region between northern Colombia and Venezuela. Wayuunaiki belongs to the Arawakan or Mapurean language family, one of the largest language families in South America. Many Wayuunaiki speakers, particularly the younger ones, also speak Spanish. Newspapers are sometimes printed in Wayuunaiki, and some poetry as well. There is also a recent Colombian film (2018), Pájaros del Verano (Birds of Passage), spoken entirely in Wayuunaiki. As in other languages, location is marked with a separate particle on the noun, as in pi-pia-luˀu “in your house” (literally “you-house-inside”). The Kar’ina language of Suriname belongs to the Cariban languages, a large family of languages spoken mostly in the northern part of the Amazon area. The name Kar’ina can be spelled in different ways, including Kali’na, Kari’nja, Kariña, Kariña, Kalihna, Kalinya. Sometimes the language is referred to as “Carib”. It is spoken mostly along the northern coast of South America, from Venezuela to French Guyana with some inland groups, and Brazil. The language is highly endangered, with over 7,000 speakers, many of them older. There have been very few texts written in Kar’ina so far with texts mostly produced as part of missionary efforts. Wampis or Huambisa is a language in the Chicham or Jivaroan language family, a language cluster spoken on the border of Peru and Ecuador. The traditional term Jivaroan has been rejected by many speakers of the language because of its original meaning of “wild” or “rustic”. The languages in the family, including also Shuar and Aguaruna or Awajún, are closely related; this makes it hard to make precise divisions. There may be about 8,000 speakers, who often also speak a Quechua variety or Spanish. Wampis has tone distinctions (like Chinese) and many complex verbs. Subordination of one clause to another is generally marked with verb endings. Kichwa is the largest indigenous language of Ecuador. It is part of the Quechua language family, which also covers parts of Peru, Bolivia, Argentina,

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

115

Colombia, and Chile. It is mostly spoken in the Andean highlands, and a bit in the Amazonian foothills. Kichwa was brought to Ecuador from Peru, but adapted to the original languages spoken in the country. Kichwa now has a standard written form, and is taught in many rural schools, but it still has low prestige and is gradually losing ground to Spanish. Speaker estimates range between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Typical features of Kichwa include a lot of lengthy words since verbs have many particles attached to them: yaku-naya-chi-wa-rka [water-want-cause-me-past] “it caused me to want water”. There are many stories and songs in Kichwa, and there are many musicians performing in Kichwa and Spanish, including rap groups such as Mafia Andina e Inmortal Cultura and Soberanos SBRNS. Runasimi (literally “mouth or language of the people”) is used as a generic term for all Quechua varieties but it is used specifically for the Quechua of the city of Cuzco and the surrounding countryside. It is the variety of Quechua with the highest prestige, since it is associated with the Incas and spoken in a region with strong Quechua traditions. It probably is not the most ancient variety, as many have claimed, since it was brought to southern Peru from the center of the country and has undergone many influences from Aymara in an earlier period. This variety of Quechua is the one with the longest written tradition of the many different Quechua varieties; there are plays, poems, sermons, political texts, oral histories and narratives, some dating back to the Spanish colonial period, building on the rich oral traditions of traditional Andean culture. This variety of Quechua features the use of particles added to a word in the sentence, indicating the status of the evidence presented by the speaker: -mi is used when the speaker has witnessed the event described, -si when it is hearsay, and -cha when it is a supposition made by the speaker. Thus tamian-mi means “I see that it is raining” and tamian-si “They say that it is raining.” Asháninka or Asháninca is the language of a group with the same name. They are also referred to by the derogatory name Campa, a name coined by the Incas. There are about 35,000 speakers. The language belongs to the large Arawakan or Mapurean language family, just as Wayuunaiki. The larger ethnic group numbers 80,000 inhabitants in southern Peru and the adjacent part of Brazil. Asháninka is closely related to other languages nearby such as Gran Pajonal Campa, Axaninca, Ashéninka, Machiguenga, and Nomatsiguenga. Aymara is the most important language of the family with the same name. The other member of the family is Jaqaru, from Central Peru. Aymara is spoken in the Altiplano, high plain, of southern Peru and western Bolivia, also including the northern tip of Chile. It has over two million speakers.

116 

Pieter C. Muysken

Aymara shares many words and a considerable number of grammatical features with Quechua. For this reason, some linguists have assumed that the two languages are directly related. However, this is probably not the case. While the highland Bolivian variety of Aymara has been studied in detail, less is known about varieties in Peru which may have undergone influence from Pukina, an unrelated, now extinct Andean language of the region. Aymara has many verb endings with special meanings. A striking example are endings that indicate the direction of an action. An example would be ir-su- “to take out small objects” (literally “carry small objects-out”) and ir-ta- “to pick up small objects” (literally “carry small objects-up”). Aymara is a fascinating and highly complex language that requires more study.

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

Nāhuatlahtōlli or Náhuatl (Nahuatl) / Náhuatl Nantlatoltsin Weyi xikipihli totlatoltsitsin ipan in tlaltikpak (+ de 6.000 ) miak kimiktinemin maske tewatsin mexikano, masehualtlatoltsin mela nisiwtsin noyolowikatiw Mowan wel niktenewa sehsentetl tlamachtsitsintin ika ihkin tlatsotsona kakisti kas nokwikatinemitikisas itlah tla ipan okseki tlatohli axyeskeh Maske pani 6.000 tlatoltsitsin ipan in tlaltikpak in nonantlasoltlatoltsin in ika nonantsin wan notatsin iwan in xopihli onechmak in chalchiwtsin niktlasotla notlatsintlayolo nikwika Maske pani 6.000 tlatoltsitsin ipan in tlaltikpak ipan nantlatoltsin titlakwilowan kwahkwaltsin amoxtsitsintin ipan mexikano totlatolkwepa nochi itlaltikpak amoxtsitsintin ipan nawatlatoltsin tiawe seki pahpanitsin techtlekowtia xahkotsin Ihkin ken in tlakamihlwa kitoka tsintli, no ihki wel kitoka wanabana, papaya, ayotsin wan boniato para kwahkwaltsin ihkon kixehxelowa imiltsin no ihki noneki notlasohtla wan notlapialia sehsentetl tlatohli ka in tlaktikpak nemi maske otlakat tsitsikitsin

117

118 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: José Antonio Flores Farfán. About the translator Opinions and challenges José Antonio Flores Farfán has Yucatec Maya as his ancestral language; a language in which he has promoted books and videos for its revitalization. He studied linguistics which helped him to delve deeper in the study and cultivation of Nahuatl, along with the development and production of teaching materials in this and many other minority languages in Mexico. He has written children’s books, translated and edited academic works on language contact, linguistic revitalization, native education, Malinche history, Nahua ethno-medicine. His work can be found at: https://ciesasdocencia.academia.edu/JoséAntonioFloresFarfán. Farfán writes, “For this translation, a peasant Nahuatl, that is a rural Nahuatl, was taken up, along with a ‘classical’ one. Based on the polysynthetic structure of the language, neologisms provide a whole resource for lexical coinage that allows us to face the challenge of translating words like ‘detayenan’, creating an oral and written, ancient and modern ‘mixed’ variety. ‘Detayenan’ was translated with a distributive plural, plus a generic for ‘thing’: sehsentetl tlamachtsitsintin: ‘distributed things’. One of the texts that has most impacted me are the so-called tocotines, which Sor Juan Inés de la Cruz consecrated with that name, referring to preHispanic ‘poetry’, also known as Mexican Songs. They are sacred performative invocations that the ruling class made harangues to legitimize their status, true performances that probably included dance, oratory, singing, music, etc. What is most interesting is that a musical score is encoded in the phonetics of the language, in the chorus of the ‘poems’, something titiquitiquiitico titiquitiquiiticoco, ahhhh! This has a contemporary expression, to a greater or lesser extent, in the tongue twisters that are also riddles like tsitsinkiriantsintsonkwakwa, which is the riddle of the scissors, a genre that I also find fascinating.” José Antonio Flores Farfán tin maya yucateca komo lenga ansestral. Den e lenga akí el a promové buki i video pa revitalisashon di su idioma. El a studia lingwístika loke a yud’é profundisá den estudio i kultivo di lenga náhuatl. Alabes el a desaroyá i produsí material didáktiko den e lenga akí i hopi otro lenga di minoria na México. El a skirbi buki pa mucha, tradusí i editá trabounan akadémiko riba tereno di kontakto di lenga, revitalisashon lingwístiko, edukashon nativo, medisina etno-Nahua. Su trabou ta riba https://ciesasdocencia.academia.edu/JoséAntonioFloresFarfán.

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

119

Wayúu / Wayuunaiki (Wayuu/Wayuunaiki of Guajira) / Wayúu di Guajira /Guajiro Tü wanüikikalü Esü maka 6.000 wanüiki sulü mmakat jayain maka tü waneirua aluwatasü pia piakalü tanüikikalü, tü pejekat süütpa tain tamana. Pünain esü supüla taküjain tia’a tü kasa anaskalü apünakalü maka sain musika ayalajüin tü shirakat shian sünain tü wane wanuiki nnojolüin ein Esü maka 6.000 wanüiki saüpüna’a mmakat süpüshua, shianjain sümaiwajatü tanüiki shia shimüin, napaka na’a teikat, otta tashikai, jarain napüin tamuin suma anashantain main, tü ettakalü sünannmüin tain shimüin. Esü maka 6.000 wanüiki sülupüna mmakat jayai, shianja tü tanüikikalü sükuwaipa tü wanikümjatükat otta süma tü wayalerakat wairaka nananje ekiralikana wattapüna naüshajerüin maka süpüla wayalerüin tü wanüikikalü. Maka chi apünajüikat, nnojotsü shianne nüpüjüin maiki, apünashi wanawana, kapoyo, aliita, otta woniato, süpüla sünukünüin tü pünajüt maka sain cheijain wamüin shia aijatüin otta wanajaitüin wanewai tü aniküka saupüna tü mmakat, maka einnaya saupüna sümaa motsoin nai tü wakuwaipakalü. Thanks to UNI and Caribische Integratie Suriname and Curaçao that organizes socio-cultural economic events to promote cooperation and integration between Latin American and Caribbean countries. Translation: Jeferson Jesús Vanegas Epieyu and Brayan José Vanegas Epieyu.

120 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

About the translators Opinions and challenges For Jefferson, translating a poem into his own native Wayuu language is like sowing plant seeds. Brayan thinks that through his mother language, Wayuu, he dignifies the culture and worldview of his Jasaishiao community. Jefferson and Brayan have already translated f ive Spanish books into Wayuunaiki, but this was different. When they read the poem, they had the feeling that it was embedded in their cosmovision, written by their own people, their grandparents, their ancestors. Therefore they feel that the translation is 95 percent correct. In one verse, the expression I harbor in my heart inspired them to write a poem with that title. Through the translation of the poem into Wayuunaiki, the family, together with some members of their community were reunited again for an entire week. In the poem they encountered three words/concepts that do not figure in the Wayuunaiki’s cosmovision, so neither in the language; [a.] “minority” (aluwatasü), [b.] “melody” and “tonality” (ayalajüin tü shirakat shian), [c.] “engrave” (sükuwaipa). In the Wayuunaiki’s cosmovision, they are not familiar with “melody”, they usually use “tonality”, so they included melody in the translation for “tonality”. “Engrave” in the Spanish translation, esculpir, has a negative connotation in Wayuunaiki, meaning sabotage someone or even to spit on someone. These three unknown concepts/words have now been added to the Wayuunaiki dictionary which is updated after fifty new words are found. Pa Jefferson, tradusí un poema den su propio idioma indígena wayúu ta manera sembra simia di mata. Brayan ta pensa ku atraves di su lenga materno e ta duna balor na e kultura i kosmovishon di su komunidat Jasaishiao. Tradukshon di e poema “Lenga di Mama” den Wayuunaiki a pone nan famia i algun miembro di nan komunidat reuní atrobe pa henter un siman.

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

121

Karìna auran /Kar’ina (Karina/Carib of Suriname) /Karina/Karibe di Sürnam Asano Auran O’win-toima dusu kopo ero nono tupo auranano ma. moro pyime waty itopono wynombo Amoro te jauran papiamento Tyse waty turupo’ta mana. Ota’te ero ituranory mery epory taro’wa amy ware,imory ety, ware wytory mory wara, eroko pai morokon amykon tera auranano’ta uwa’ma O’win-toima dusu kopo ero nono tupo auranano ma. moro jauran te moko tata nyry’po tymanatyry wyinomboro ero aipynano maro, moro te po’to me imero sapija turupo’ta. O’win-toima dusu kopo ero nono tupo auranano ma. moro jauran ta te ero aimeropo merojaton. moro jauran ta moro ero nono tupono aimeropo amy terapa aurano taka myja moro kaurango kawonaka yto me. Moko manja pokono wara moro awasi roten anipomypa, eroko napi,kabaja,urusu kwai enapa te koropo ukuty’pa roten po’tome moro wara enapa pa’poro auranano pynary unemyry enapa ma morokon ero nono tupo aitoto moro isikyipo pyjme waty aitoto wyinombo rory’po moro auranano. Translation: Aloewanai Starian. Special thanks to Purcy Olivieira, board member of UNI Foundation. About the translator Opinions and challenges Aloewanai Starian was born in Galibi in the Marowijne district, Suriname. In daily life he is a basja (an assistant to the village chief) of Christiaankondre.

122 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

He is also a translator of his native language, the Kari’na, and has written a few poems in his language. He participated in the translation of a calculation book of bilingual education and also in the translation of the UN Declaration on Indigenous Human Rights. “My mother tongue is my identity. The translation of the poem ‘Mother Tongue’ was a very edifying and enriching process for me. My mother tongue tells me that I am an indigenous, which is why I experienced the translation as an inspiration to give mother tongue a place in my life so that it does not get lost. I also realized that any tribe or people that has no mother tongue has no identity. It is very important to know your mother tongue and to realize that the mother tongue of a people or tribe must be cherished, preserved and protected so that it cannot be lost. Mother tongue must be taught from the birth of a child and must also be used in education, so that the children can express themselves better. During the translation, the poem spoke to my mind and I translated it with passion and with great love. I felt that my mother tongue was my strength and inspiration. During the Day of the Mother Tongue, the government should pay more attention to this and organize seminars so that each people can display their mother tongue. Once again my native language is my identity, strength and source of inspiration and should never be lost. I encountered a few challenges for which I found plausible solutions. 1. The word dusu ‘thousand’ is a loanword from Sranantongo, ultimately from Dutch duizend. 2. In the fourth stanza the word Papiamentu has been replaced by jauran. 3: In this poem the word “music” has been translated with ware.” Aloewanai Starian a nasé na Galibi den e distrito Marowijne na Sürnam. Den bida diario e ta basja (asistente di e kasike di un pueblo) di Christiaankondre. E ta traduktor tambe di su lenga materno, Kari’na, i a skirbi algun poema den su idioma. El a partisipá na e proyekto di tradukshon di un buki di kalkulashon pa enseñansa bilingual i tambe na e tradukshon di e Deklarashon di Nashonnan Uní riba Derecho Humano Indígena. Mi lenga di mama ta bisa mi ku mi ta indígena. Kada tribu òf nashon ku no tin un lenga materno no tin identidat.

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

123

Wampis/Huambisa (Wampis/Huambisa ) / Wampis/ Huambisa di Peru Iiña chichame 6.000 chichaman iñankaki nunka tepaka jui awai ‒ ashi irura iismaka ujumkea nuya aiñawaiTurasha ametme, papiamento, miña enentairui ijus arutumka Amini tumainitjai nu warí ti penker aiña nuna, juka nampetjai metek antuwawai, chichaman penkeri antujamain tikich chichamnumka atsau 6.000 chichaman iñankaki ju nunka tepaka jui awai turasha juka miña chichamruiti apar tura nukur shikika yuttaijai shikik surusaruiti ima nekas nuna ima shir aneajai shir init enentairui juwawai 6.000 chichaman iñankaki nunka tepaka jui awai turasha ima papiamento iiña literaturari mamikmasar awarji papi penkeri aarmu aiñasha tikich nunkanmaya chichamjaisha iñankakji yaja nattrati, tusar, iiña chichame Ajanam takau ima shaanak aratsu nunis guanábanan, wapain, yuwin tura inchin tsawarai pachim jukartasa uruka,

124 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

nutiksar atsumaji shir anentsar iistasar tura kuitamattsar chicham nunka jui a nu, ashi irura iisam ujumkea nuya akiña nusha Translation: Dina Ananco. About the translator Opinions and challenges Dina Ananco is a poet and a translator and interpreter of the WampisSpanish-Spanish Wampis language. Her first poetry book Sanchiu was recently published in 2021. As part of the Awajun and Wampis people of the Jíbaro linguistic family, it is very important for her to bring her mother tongue beyond the borders. She writes, “Through translation we spread our language and allow other languages to know our mother tongue (wampis). In addition, the translation facilitates that the following generations dispose of written material since we come from a purely oral people. For me, the mother tongue is important because it is our identity and our way of living. It relates us to our environment. When we stop expressing ourselves in our mother tongue, victims of the colonization that sowed discrimination in a country like Peru, we lose the right to exercise it and speak it freely in different spaces or to transmit it with pride to the next generations. For this reason, many languages are losing speakers; if they did not yet become extinct, they are in the process… I am a translator and as such I see translation as an opportunity, as a right. In other words, translation is a means of accessing information when we refer to the translation of documents, whether off icial or not, into the mother tongue. On the other hand, when the translation is from the original language into Spanish, like in the case of Peruvian indigenous languages, it is an opportunity to reach a larger audience and invite them to get to know the language, culture and its complexity or richness in other spaces. The original languages in Peru are oral and each one of them has a way of expressing its culture, history, or traditions. In the case of awajun and wampis, there is no poetry as such, however, it could be related to the songs: anen and nampet. The anen are magical songs. They can be passed down from a supernatural being or from a wise mother to daughter. The nampet

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

125

are songs that can be sung by someone who has the ability to create or imagine, thus, a type of poetry. In these two expressions the language rests and flows orally. In modern times, when we learn to write using the alphabet, we become involved in many genres. The writing itself seems to us a more static register on x topic that adds to orality. In this sense, we perceive that we have new tools to reflect on our language, express our daily lives, loves, stories, etc., both in narrative and in poetry. It is strange to say it, but, more than an inspiration, when I read texts that included awajun or wampis terms in the poetry of authors who were not part of my town, it gave me a lot of courage, challenging me to write or publish in book format in my language as a literary and original person, knowing the language. On the other hand, the main author to inspire me to write poetry was my grandmother who fed me with songs and narratives of the history of her adventures and ancestors. And today, I really enjoy listening to and reflecting on the songs.” Dina Ananco ta poeta, traduktor i intérprete di e idioma wampis-spañóspañó-wampis. Sanchiu, su promé buki di poesia lo ser publiká pronto. E ta forma parti di e pueblonan awajun i wampis ku ta pertenesé na e famia lingwístiko Jíbaro. Komo tal ta masha importante pa e hiba su lenga di mama mas ayá di frontera. Den otro palabra, atraves di tradukshon nos ta plama nos idioma i permití ku otro idiomanan ta konosé nos lenga materno. Ademas, tradukshon ta fasilitá pa e siguiente generashonnan disponé di material skirbí ya ku nos ta un pueblo totalmente oral.

126 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Kichwa (Quechua of Ecuador) / Quechua di Ecuador Mamakuna Shimi Mashi sukta waranka shimikuna pachamama tiarini ‒ tukuymari ushallamitian kan papiamentu, mashi kimichishpa ñuka shunguan charini Kambasha ñuka rimachishpa ima juyasha, may wakarishpa tunokuna chay melodia ima tauka shimikuna na tian Mashi sukta waranka shimikuna ñukanchi alpa mama tiarin ñukanchi shimi nativa, ima mama taita karakpi cucharilla ima mashi tukuy juyashka ima mashi ukupi charini ñuka shungupi Mashi sukta waranka shimikuna, kay ñukanchi alpa mama tiarin kanguna papiamentu, ima literatura grabachishpa shungusha ima obra makikuna internacional yallichiy ima ñukanchi shimi mama kuna chay ushashpa jatarishpawuan Chin ima agricultor na tiarishpa jiway zarata chin tian mishki papa, guanabana, calabaza, japishpa kay pakarina punshapi japishpa ñukanchi makikuna chin ñukanchi minishtinimi kuidashpa juyashpa shimikuna idioma kay alpa mama tiarinmi kaylla pukaikunalla uchilayay tian. Translation: Rosa Cartagena. Revision: Pieter Muysken. Special thanks to Gladys Arce. About the translator Opinions and challenges Rosa Cartagena is from Imbabura (Ecuador). She speaks Spanish and Kichwa. She believes that Kichwa is the most understandable of all other quechua varieties, and so also the easiest to study. Rosa is proud of her

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

127

language. When she was only twelve years old, she went to Quito to look for work, so she could help her mother. That is why, while translating the poem, she sometimes had to look for a word and sometimes had to consult a Kichwa teacher. Rosa thinks that the variant of Kichwa from Imbabura, that she speaks, is the most understandable and authentic of all. She loves languages. She expresses it in these words: “We are born in Mother Earth with our Mother Language, may she not get lost, neither today, nor tomorrow… (ñukanchi shimikuna wiñakchiska alpanama ama chingarishpa… cunan, kaya punshapi…). I never dared to say that I am a Kichwa speaker but since I met Hilda and she showed so much interest in my language, and I also understood that Professor Muysken values this language so much and has done a lot of research in this language, it has helped me. It strengthened my self-esteem. For mother tongue Ňuka shimi ‘our lenguage’ or ‘mouth’ is used.” Rosa Cartagena a nase na Imbabura (Ecuador). E ta papia spañó i kichwa. E ta di opinion ku kichwa di Imbabura ta e variedat mas komprendibel i outéntiko ku tur otro variedat di Quechua, i p’esei esun mas fásil pa siña. E ta stima idioma. E ta ekspresá esaki na e siguiente manera: Nos ta nase riba Mama Tera ku nos Lenga Materno, ohalá nunka e bai pèrdí, ni awe ni mayan (ñukanchi shimikuna wiñakchiska alpanama ama chingarishpa… cunan, kaya punshapi).

128 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Runasimi (Quechua of Cuzco) / Quechua di Cuzco Mama Simi Aswan suqta waranqa simikuna kay pachapi kan asqhan chay pisimanta ichaqa qanmi kanki papiamento aswan ichaqa sunquypi kanki. Qanpi willakuni paykunaq ch’utillukuna ichaqa. harawi hina qaparin takihina kunkan manan kanchu uk siminunapiqa. Aswan suqta waranqa simikuna kan hatun QUYLLUPI ichaqa nukaq mama simiypiqa mama taytayqa wisllawan hina quwarranku (yachachiwaranku) aswanta llspankunamanta tesoruy. Aswan suqta waranqa simikuna kan kay hatun quyllurpi ichaqa papiamento llapa nuqaykuq dimi kapchuykuta ch’iquyku. Allim allin ruwasqa hatun hatun Llaqtakunapaq t”krayku wichayman uqarisqa mama simichis kananpaq. Chaymanta chaqra llank’aq runaa manan sarallatachu tarpun chaymanta, guanabata, papata calabazata boniatutapas. Inaymana rurusqakunata pacha psqariymant uqarinqa Chaymanta nesecitasunchis musyayta qhispichiyta llapan kawsaq simikunata kay pachapi kaqkunata pisikunalla kaqtimpas kawsachisun Translation: Eusebia Centeno Mendoza, Antonio Pariguana Peralta, Antinio Quispe, y Helida Pariguana. About the translators Opinions and challenges Eusebia, Antonio, Antinio and Helida are from Cuzco, Peru. In the translation, they tried to find Quechua words for new concepts, such as “literature” = simi kapchuy; “sculpture” = ch’iquy; “Papiamento” = idioma de corazao; “refined” = ch’utillo; “planet” = hatun wiyllur; “world” = kay pacha.

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

129

They write, “We think that it is very important that we maintain and continue to cultivate our mother tongue which is what we have in our soul and what is so special to each human being on this planet. Though being ashamed of our language is part of our history we have to go on writing it.” Helida Pariguana writes, “I consider that the mother tongue is important because it is the beginning of our existence, it is the one that represents us as unique beings within this world, it is the one that gives us authenticity and cultivates in us ways of thinking and feeling and above all respect for the other one and the creation. The translation of a language, more than a sacrifice, is a gift because, thanks to this, many different countries and cultures can meet, learn and transmit many things, without having to speak the same language. Now poetry is something much more complex and complete, it is not just a plain text with an end; poetry mixes experiences, dreams, sadness, and joys and does it as if it had some music through the lyrics. I consider it to be a very subtle way of conveying feelings. When I was little my parents had a book of poetry called Let’s Talk about Love. Despite not understanding them much, I liked reading the poems, listening to how some words rhymed and how they used words so pleasant to the ears. I carried it with me until one day I lost it. Nora Alarcón (journalist) is another poet, and a writer of novels that I really like. She was born in the cradle of terrorism in the city of Ayacucho. It must be for this reason that her poems reflect suffering, but despite this, she writes very beautifully. The poem that I like the most is written in Quechua, ‘Mana Wañuo’, which in Spanish would be ‘Immortal’. Even if it is not my poem, I dedicate it to my mom and Hilda and to Professor Pieter Muysken.” Eusebia, Antonio, Antinio y Helida ta di Cuzco, Perú. Ta parse nos masha importante mantené i sigui kultivá nos lenga materno, ku ta loke nos tabatin den nos alma i loke ta hasi kada ser humano riba e planeta akí asina spesial. Ounke tene bèrgwensa ta parti di nos historia nos mester sigui skirbi nos idioma.

130 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Asháninka/Campa (Asháninka) Asháninka di Peru Ñanentsi Atimakor Abishiro 6.000 ñanentsipe timatsiri kipatsiki ‒ oshekitake ñanentsipe pianentajetainchari ‒ Abirotake noñane Papiamento, kempejitanarori nasankane Noinijantayetakeri kametsayetatsiri abirotake amitakotanari, oshiyarori pampoyantsi opoimati, okampeniperoti tema aisati oshiyaro ñanentsipe timayetatsiri Abishiro 6.000 ñanentsipe timatsiri kipatsiki iroiteitake noñane ashi oiro notimakore yabijajeitakenari apa jero ina irotake nokempoyantarori maroni, nobakotiro tsompoisanoriki nasankaneki Abishiro 6.000 ñanentsipe timatsiri kipatsiki Iro kantacha apinto noñaneki papiamento iñanatakoyetakero ibakoyetakero literature okonijatantari antakayetantsipe kametsapero ojatakotake arejisano nampitsipeki asankenatakero añane atimakore osaikakotantyari jenoki Kemperitya pankiberenti osheki ipankiyetiri ipankitiro guanábana, mapocha, calabaza jero shiyokayetatsiri abayetari te apintya ipankitero sonkoki ikoyaitantyari osheki oitsore ibankiberepe okitaitetamanajerika, aitake okantari anintaperotero aisati akempoyero ñanentsiyetatsiri timatsiri kipatsiki, okantabeitya te ishekijeite ñabeterone opoñakoyetara Translation: Deniz Contreras Alva. About the translator Opinions and challenges

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

131

Deniz Contreras Alva is from Peru. Together with Cinthya Gonzalez he hosts the informative program in the Ashaninka language, Intercultural Magazine, Our Voice (Magazina Intercultural “Ashi Anañe”) in the state media TV Perú and Radio Nacional. Deniz and Cynthya are empirical communicators of the Asháninka culture. Deniz is also a translator and interpreter in training of the Ashaninka. Deniz Contreras writes, “The language we are born with is our very identity. In it is the essence of all the oral and written knowledge of our ancestors and therein lies the importance of preserving it, of caring for it, keeping it always alive; that is why today we must be proud to belong to an original group. My mother tongue allows me to understand the needs of my people and facilitates communication to the authorities at the national level. It is now synonymous with pride while years ago it lacked its own identity for reasons of discrimination and disrespect. Through poetry we express our longings, joys, sorrows and anxieties. Poetry allows us to evade reality or dream of a different world while translation breaks down barriers or boundaries and allows us to get closer to other cultures and get to know each other. During the translation of the poem I encountered some challenges. The first one was the number 6,000 for which it was necessary to make a loan since that concept does not exist in our language. Furthermore, I had to take away the word ‘tone’ because in the Ashaninka language we relate it to melody. tone and melody that maybe in the other languages don’t exist / aitake oshiyarori pampoyantsi opoimati, kametsapero tema aisati oshiyaro otimira ñanentsipe

Los Heraldos Negros (The Black Heralds) by César Vallejo touched me deeply because in my childhood and youth I experienced a lot of discrimination. The phrases this author uses relates to my reality. I really thought that God hated us for being indigenous.” Deniz Contreras Alva ta di Perú. Huntu ku Cinthya Gonzales e ta presentá e programa informativo na lenga asháninka Revista Inter-kultural “Nos Bos” (Magazine Intercultural “Ashi Añañe”) den medionan estatal TV Perú y

132 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Radio Nacional. Nan tur dos ta komunikadó empíriko di kultura asháninka. Deniz además ta traduktor i intérprete den formashon di idioma asháninka. Tin mas o ménos 80 mil ablante di asháninka na Perú i parti di Brasil. Mi lenga di mama ta hasi posibel pa mi komprondé nesesidatnan di mi pueblo i ta fasilitá komunikashon ku outoridatnan riba nivel nashonal. Poesia ta permití nos hui for di realidat òf soña ku un mundu diferente, miéntras tradukshon ta kibra barera òf frontera…

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

Aymara /Aymar aru (Aymara of Peru) /Aymara di Peru Taykana Arupa Aka pacha laq’ana Suxta waranqa jila arunakawa utji ‒ k’atata alluxaptata ‒ papiamintu aru jumätawa, aka chuymaja jark’anktawa. Suma warurt’asinjamawa suma k’achakinakampi sumachata jumana arsurijtha q’iwajamawa ist’asi suma muxsa warurt’awicha yaqha arunakana jani utjpacha. Aka pacha laq’ana suxta waranqa jila arunakawa utji tayka awkija jisk’a wisllampi nayra pacha arunaka churataparuwa inampi munasina aka chuymaja manqhana imasiwatha Aka pacha laq’ana suxta waranqa jila arunakawa utji ukhampisa, papiamintu arunakampi qillqatanaka suma lurañanakjamawa mayja yaqha jayana utjiri arunaka jach’aptäñataki, taykana arusampi qillqasiwapthwa Kunjamati yapuchirixa janiwa juyra mayaki yapuchawakiti, guanabanampi, papayampi, calawasampi apichumpiwa yapuchawarakixa qhantatitpacha taqi kuna yapuchawayi ukhamarakiwa aka laq’ana taqi jakiri arunakaruwa suma munasina jark’asiwañawa

133

134 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

niyasa ichkata jakaptäskpachasa. Translation: Luz Delia Justo Pinto. Special thanks to: Estela Cecilia Gamero López. About the translators Opinions and challenges Luz Delia Justo Pinto was born in 1992 in Moho (Puno ‒ Peru). She is a surgeon. She has published a medical Manual in Aymara: Preparation of the Clinical History, an important milestone for Aymara-speaking health personnel and patients in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia, as well as in some provinces of Chile and Argentina. She received the International Award “Cristo de la Concordia” Cochabamba- Bolivia 2020. Luz was also one of the winners of the XXV Poetry Contest of the National Cultural Contest of the Medical College of Peru. Recently, she was selected in the World Poetry Anthology 100 Women Poets. Estela Cecilia Gamero López was born on November 22, 1955 in Susapaya, inter-Andean area of Tacna (Peru). Estela is bilingual from birth. She is a teacher, writer and book editor. Specialist in Intercultural Bilingual Education, she promotes the revitalization of a variant of the Aymara language “Aymara Pukina” of the Tacna region and also the teaching of the Aymara language as a second language. Luz Delia writes, “Since ancient times the original languages of each people have been preserved by their citizens. However, due to transculturation, technology has taken over the idiomatic delicacy. That is why we must highlight and practice it from infancy to old age. It is highly edifying to translate one language into the other, because it strengthens and nurtures our cultural identity. Translation is nothing but a way of preserving, knowing and interpreting different cultural manifestations. It allows us to prevail its essence and through poetry, as a universal expression that is so much needed in these unfortunate times, it allows us to humanize ourselves as such.” Luz Delia Justo Pinto a nase 13 di yanüari, 1992 na Moho (Puno ‒ Perú). E ta médiko-siruhano. El a publiká un manual médiko den lenga Aymara: Elaborashon di Historia Klíniko (Elaboración de la Historia Clínica), un echo importante pa personal di salú i pashèntnan aymara ‒ ablante den altiplano

Amerindian L anguages / Idioma Amerindio 

135

na Perú i Bolivia, i na algun provinsia di Chile i Argentina. El a risibí e Galardon Internashonal “Kristu di Konkordia” (Cristo de la Concordia), Cochabamba ‒ Bolivia 2020. E ta un di e ganadornan di e XXV Konkurso di Poesia di e Sertámen Nashonal Kultural di Kolegio Médiko di Perú XXV (Concurso de Poesía del Certamen Nacional Cultural del Colegio Médico del Perú). Luz además a ser selekshoná den e Antologia Mundial di Poesia ‒ 100 Muhé Poeta (Antología Mundial de Poesía 100 Mujeres Poetas). Debí na transkulturashon, teknologia a apoderá di delikadesa idiomátiko. Ta sumamente konstruktivo tradusí un idioma den otro idioma, pasobra esaki ta fortalesé i nutri identidat kultural di nos pueblo. Estela Cecilia Gamero López a nase 22 di novèmber 1955 na Susapaya, zona interandino di Tacna (Perú). E ta bilingwe for di nasementu. Estela ta dosente, eskritor i editor di buki. Espesialista den Edukashon Interkultural Bilingwe, e ta promové revitalisashon di e variante di aymara, “Aymara Pukina” di e region Tacna i tambe enseñansa di idioma aymara komo e di dos lenga.



Constructed Languages Idioma Konstruí Herman Dekeŭnink

Abstract This short section only deals with one constructed language: Esperanto. A constructed language is a language that, instead of having developed naturally, is consciously devised or invented. Constructed languages may also be referred to as artificial, planned or invented languages. Keywords: Esperanto, Planlingvo, Language Diaspora, Cultural Identity, Transnational Language

Designed in 1887, Esperanto or its more scientific term, Planlingvoj, (plant languages), has evolved from a written language project (“Fundamento de Esperanto”) into a living language whose speakers live in Europe, Latin America, Africa, and East Asia. The term Konstruita lingvo or Konstruitaj lingovj (pl) (en: “Constructed languages” is hardly used. In Esperanto one usually speaks of Planlingvoj (plant languages, the more scientific term, certainly also in German = Plansprache). While speakers initially wished to contribute to international understanding, today they are mainly motivated by the aspect of being a playing field for all languages and cultures. In addition to translated world literature, it has its own original literature written directly in Esperanto (represented by Esperanta PEN within PEN International) and a dynamic music culture. Esperanto is also used as a family language by some internationally composed families. Some speakers feel they belong to a chosen language diaspora that helps shape their cultural identity. The Esperanto culture is transnational and intercultural in nature and defends also a number of values promoted by UNESCO.

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_4

138 

HERMAN DEKEŬNINK AND HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Planlingvo (Esperanto) / Esperanto Denaska Lingvo Pli ol 6000 lingvoj estas en la mondo ‒ la plej multaj de minoritato sed vin, papiamento, mi havas plej proksime ĉe mia koro Ĝuste en vi mi povas trovi la plej subtilajn detalojn kiuj sonas kiel muziko, tono kaj melodio, kiuj eble ne ekzistas en la aliaj lingvoj. Pli ol 6000 lingvoj estas en la mondo sed mia denaska lingvo kiun miaj panjo kaj paĉjo instruis al mi infanaĝe tiun mi plej tenas en mia koro Pli ol 6000 lingvoj estas en la mondo sed en papiamento ni verkas literaturon, en papiamento ni tradukas la mondan literaturon, por tie pli altenlevi nian denaskan lingvon Kiel kamparano sur la kampo ne sole plantas maizon sed ankaŭ batatojn papajon, graviolon kaj kalabason por morgaŭ rikolti diversecon, tiel ni ankaŭ devas ami kaj protekti ĉiun lingvon

Constructed L anguages / Idioma Konstruí 

139

kiu ekzistas en la mondo, eĉ se ĝi estas la lingvo de la plej eta malplimulto. Translation: Herman Dekeŭnink. About the translator Opinions and challenges Herman Deceuninck lives in Belgium. He is multilingual, loves text, art, and translating. He is a language revisor for Global Voices in Esperanto, where his family name is Dekeŭnink, which is more consistent with the Esperanto pronunciation. He has already made translations for Literatura Foiro, the magazine of Esperanta PEN (Esperanto PEN-Club) including a text by the Eritrean-Ethiopian author Sulaiman Addonia (“Silence is My Mother Tongue”). Deceuninck writes, “As I do not know Papiamento, the language in which the poem was written originally, I made use of the Dutch translation. Nevertheless, I experienced some challenges. For example, regarding the translation of the word ‘mother tongue’. which is usually translated as ‘gepatra lingvo’, although ‘gepatra’ literally means ‘language of the parents’, language belongs to everyone, which is why I have freely translated the title ‘mother tongue’ as denaska lingvo. A number of Esperanto speakers are ‘denaskuloj’ (native Esperanto speakers), so not the result of a choice of your their own. Children not only learn a language from their mother or father, but also from other children. It also happens that the (official) mother tongue is not the home language. The ‘International Mother Language Day’ (the UNESCO initiative which, despite the name ‘mother’ tongue, aims to honor the world’s linguistic diversity) can become the holiday of everyone if it becomes the day of the adoption language1 (the language of choice). This way the world would honor not only 1 When I saw the word “native language” I wondered if we should not instead choose “adoptive language” (the language we choose voluntarily). For example, Eastern European Jews had a “native language” that was, in fact, an adopted language rather than a native language: German. They adapted that language (Yiddish) so well that they lived in it, as if it were their native language. As for literature, I would like to mention an interesting book, The Last Lingua Franca by Nicolas Ostler in which he wonders if we can really take the dominance of English for granted in the 21st century.

140 

HERMAN DEKEŬNINK AND HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

the languages learned without freedom of choice, but also the languages that we consciously and freely prefer. With no knowledge at all of Papiamento, I have translated ‘detayenan mas ayá’ (the most delicate details), as plej subtilaj detaloj. Grammatically, Esperanto can adapt very flexibly to the syntax of the poem. The word order in the poem: ‘om onze moedertaal ginder hoger op te tillen’ (‘to raise our mother tongue higher over there’) follows as por tie pli altenlevi nian denaskan lingvon. Although Esperanto also has its own phraseology, I have not found a similar idiom for ‘me met de lepel hebben ingegeven’ (which they spoon fed me), and therefore I have translated it as instruis al mi infanaĝe (‘taught me from childhood’). It is nice that Papiamento is sometimes compared to a kind of natural Esperanto language, although Esperanto is not linked to a colonial past and Creole languages are. The literary world focuses mainly on the dominant European languages, mainly English, and rarely makes room for less spoken languages, certainly not Creole languages. That is another reason why this book is unique in the literary world.” Herman Deceuninck ta biba na Bèlgika. E ta multilingual i ta gusta tekstoarte (text-art) itambetradusi. E ta revisor di Global Voices na Esperanto, kaminda su fam ta Dekeŭnink loke ta mas konforme e pronunsiashon den Esperanto. El a hasi tradukshon kaba pa Literatura Foiro, e revista di- Esperanto Pen, entre otro, un teksto pa un outor di Eritrea-Etiopia, Sulaiman Addonia), di e obra Silensio ta mi Lenga di Mama (Silence is my Mother Tongue). Ta algu bunita ku tin biaha Papiamentu ta ser kompará ku un tipo di esperanto natural.”Dia Internashonal di Lenga di Mama”, un inisiativa di UNESCO, por bira dia di fiesta pa tur hende si e bira dia di lenga adoptá (e lenga di eskoho).

Germanic Languages

South Africa

Afrikaans

L Limburgish

B Brabantish

F Frisian

United Kingdom

English F

German

Germany

Danish

Switzerland Swiss German

Belgium

B L

Dutch

Netherlands

Denmark



Germanic Languages Idioma Germániko Pieter C. Muysken

Abstract The family of Germanic languages is mostly spoken in northwestern Europe. It includes the Scandinavian languages, German, Frisian and Dutch, and also English. In this section we include translations into some of the standard languages, but also into non-standard language varieties and in one case into a dialect cluster, Brabantish. Keywords: Northwestern Europe, Scandinavian, Alemannic, South Africa, Dialect, Regionalism

Dansk sprog (Danish) is a Scandinavian language spoken primarily in Denmark, in Greenland, and in Southern Schleswig in Germany, across the Danish border. Many find it hard to learn as a second language, in part because of its many vowels (it has 27 of them) and 19 diphthongs. When learning indefinite nouns, the article precedes the noun, while with definite nouns it is attached to it. Thus, we have Jeg så et hus. “I saw a house” and Jeg så huset “I saw the house” and in the translation of the poem landet “the land”. Many writers have published in Danish, a tradition established in the Middle Ages. Outside of Denmark, perhaps the best known are Hans Christian Andersen for his children’s tales and the philosopher Sören Kierkegaard. Modern Danish literature is thriving and many of its works are translated into other languages. German is an important language spoken primarily in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. It has a rich history and a vast literature. It has a standard written form but there is much regional variation. Someone from Bavaria speaks differently than someone from Berlin. In these territories, and in

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_5

144 

Pieter C. Muysken

other areas in central Europe where German used to be a literary language, great literary works have appeared over the past millennium. German, Austrian and Swiss authors are core f igures in the European cultural landscape. German also used to be an important scientific language, but this is less of the case now. Swiss German (also called Schweizerdeutsch or locally Schwiizerdütsch is closely related to the German of the larger northern Federal Republic and Austria, and coexists with standard German in Switzerland itself. However, it has many distinct features. It is part of the group of Alemannic dialects of German, and there are many grammatical differences from standard German. Traditionally, there was not much literature in Swiss German, since it was primarily used as a spoken language, but there have been some authors in the past decades who have produced more ambitious works than short sketches or radio plays. Most authors in the German-speaking part of Switzerland write in standard German, and Swiss German is mostly found in informal pieces in the newspapers. If you compare the Swiss German to the German, you will see many differences as well as similarities. Frisian is the traditional language of the province of Friesland in the Netherlands with a long history. It is currently spoken there alongside Dutch and other languages. There are few monolingual speakers of Frisian, but it is spoken as a first language by 350,000 people, with another 100,000 second language speakers. While Frisian is most closely related to Dutch as a West-Germanic language, it also has similarities with English. Consider the following example: Frisian Dutch English

bûter, boter, butter,

brea, (rogge)brood, (rye)bread,

En En And

griene groene green

Tsiis Kaas Cheese

Since the eleventh century, texts have been written in Frisian. Originally, these were primarily legal texts, but later epic poems and narratives also appeared. Since the revival of the Romantic period in the nineteenth century, there has been a steady production of poetry and short stories in Frisian, some of which have also appeared bilingually in Dutch or English. Standard Dutch or Nederlands was created in the seventeenth century as a result of the fusion between different varieties in the western part of the province of Holland, at the time an important economic center and the destination for many immigrants and refugees from Germany and what later became Belgium. It is now the main language of the Netherlands and Flanders, and is also the official language of the Republic of Suriname and

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

145

one of the official languages of the Dutch Caribbean islands. There are also many speakers of Dutch as a second language in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, and pockets of heritage speakers in Canada, the U.S., Australia, Brazil, and New Zealand. In Indonesia, it is no longer spoken, although it has an important historical presence there, including many written texts. Dutch has many dialects, some of which have a separate status as regional languages; the border between language and dialects is hard to draw of course. Dutch literature is produced in all areas where Dutch is spoken, and there is a literary tradition stretching back well into the Middle Ages. As a literary language, it is also sometimes used, next to the other languages of those regions, in Curaçao and in Suriname, where it has its own particular characteristics. Brabantish or Brabants is not an off icially recognized language but rather a cluster of dialects spoken in the province of Noord Brabant, the Netherlands. It is closely related to varieties spoken across the border in the Belgian province of Brabant. A distinctive trait of these dialects is the use of gij or ge as the second person pronoun, where standard Dutch has jij and Limburgish has doe. This is sometimes repeated, so that you have hebt-ge gij > hedde gij “do you have”. As there is no single standard Brabantish dialect, writings in this variety are generally tied to a specific town or region. While there were some early texts from the nineteenth century (when the norm was to write in standard Dutch or even in French), in the first half of the twentieth century a number of authors, often priests, produced stories, poems, religious messages, and newspaper articles. Additionally, standard Dutch novels and plays appeared with characters speaking Brabantish. Only from the 1960s and 1970s onward the number of texts written in Brabantish increases rapidly, and the genres become more diverse. At present there are annual literary festivals in Brabant with dialect literature. Limburgish or Limburgs is a Dutch regional language recognized in the European Charter of minority languages, It is spoken in the provinces of Limburg in the Netherlands and in Belgium, and traditionally was closely related to German dialects spoken in the adjacent part of Germany. However, these have now grown closer to standard German, while the other Limburgish dialects have undergone influence from standard Dutch. There is no single recognized form of Limburgish that is the standard. Each sub-region and major town has its own distinctive variant. One of the features of many (not all) Limburgish dialects is that they distinguish two tones, like Swedish, for instance. We also see many differences in pronouns and verb inflections, as in the following forms:

146 

Limburgish diech bis heer is veer zien geer zeet

Pieter C. Muysken

Dutch jij bent hij is wij zijn jullie zijn

you are he is we are you (pl.) are

Literature has been written in Limburgish since the 12th century but comprises fewer full books in prose than poems, newspaper articles, and sketches. There is a steady stream of publications and a yearly poetry contest. The variant of Limburgish used here is one from the eastern mining region and it is precisely this that is generally least understood elsewhere in Limburg. Afrikaans is a language with many faces. It is a vibrant language with speakers in many parts of South Africa, particularly in the Western Cape, belonging to different ethnic groups. There are also speakers in Namibia. It has European origins and grew out of the Dutch which came to South Africa by settlers in the seventeenth century. It also has an Asian face, in that it was influenced by the enslaved East Asians that were brought to the Cape in the seventeenth century. Finally, it also has African influences, in that it was adopted by speakers of Khoi languages that were spoken on the Cape before the European colonizers arrived, speakers who left traces of their original languages as well. While the standard varieties of Afrikaans are closer to Dutch, there are many other varieties with words from African languages, slang words, and English. It has less status as an official written language than in the period of Apartheid, when it was much more actively promoted. There is a rich Afrikaans literature going back at least to the nineteenth century and many writers and poets in Afrikaans have been translated into other languages. Parts of Afrikaans are also used in modern rap texts and it is one of the components of street languages in South Africa. English is now the foremost language used in international communication, as is also evidenced in the fact that these notes are in English even though their author is not an English-speaker. English is spoken in many different varieties, some of which are probably not easily comprehensible for other speakers from a different region. It is spoken in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, parts of South Africa, the Caribbean, and as a second language in many countries. You may think of English as a macrolanguage in this respect, a “group of mutually intelligible speech varieties that are sometimes considered distinct languages”, although it is generally not thought of as consisting of multiple languages. The reason is that English is also a lingua franca, used in interaction between people with different native languages, all using English in their own way. Similarly,

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

147

English literature comprises many voices, from Toni Morrison to William Shakespeare to the Zimbabwean novelist Tsitsi Dangarembga. While English undoubtedly is a Germanic language, it is rather different from German, for instance, in its present form. Due to the Norman conquest, it acquired a very many words from French, often not immediately recognizable any more, such as “beef” from French boeuf and “veal” from French veau. Also its complex multilingual history with many invasions and the presence of original Celtic groups in the country has contributed to its changes in grammar away from Old English, which resembled Dutch and German much more grammatically.

148 

Dansk (Danish) / Danes Modersprog Mere end 6.000 sprog i verden eksisterer ‒ flertallet af et mindretals ‒ men det er dig, Papiamento, det nærmeste i mit hjerte jeg føler Det er i dig at jeg kan udtrykke sarte detaljer, der går ud over, det lyder som musik, tone og melodi det måske På de andre sprog findes der ikke Mere end 6.000 sprog i vores verden eksisterer men det er min oprindelige tale Hvilken mor og far skænkede mig at mest af alt jeg værner om, det dybeste jeg havner i mit hjerte Mere end 6.000 sprog i vores verden eksisterer men det er kun i Papiamento den litteratur vi graverer, de internationale mesterværker vi oversætter så vores modersmål vi kan yderligere hæve Selv som en landmand på landet ikke knapt plante papaya, søde kartofler, soursop og calabash at høste mangfoldighed ved dagbruddet

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

149

så vi også må-behøve at værne om og beskytte hvert sprog der findes på jorden, selvom fra det mindste mindretal det stammer fra Translation: Christie Geisler Hansen. About the translator Opinions and challenges Christie Geisler Hansen has Danish nationality but was born and raised on the lovely multicultural island of Curaçao. Her father, who was a “true” Dane, married her Dutch/Indian mother who was an island-born child, a “yu di Kòrsou”. She writes, “Both my parents were gifted artists in their own right, and this is my little contribution to Hilda’s objectives to bring art, in this case poetry, with a special message to serve humanity, to a greater audience. Poetry is an art form which expresses human thoughts and feelings. The proper translation of a poem from the original language it was first conceived in, is not an easy feat. The translator must be very sensitive in his choice of words and sentences, in order to capture and convey those thoughts and sentiments which the poet intended to convey. We were raised speaking English at home. After all, Dad did not speak Dutch and Mom did not speak Danish. Because of my love of languages, art and fine literature I did not encounter many difficulties with the translation as such, despite the fact that I am not a professional translator. As children, our Dad started by reading us stories of Hans Christian Andersen. In adulthood, I discovered many elements that contain several significant moral lessons, social critique, satire, and philosophy which can connect to people’s everyday lives. Out of Africa by Karen Blixen (Isak Dinesen) is also a wonderful work of literature and an expression of the deep inherent empathy of the Danish people. It is a reminder that empathy, love and respect are essential elements for a fulfilled and meaningful life, and that it can make this world a better place. There is no question that Danish literature has left an indelible footprint on the world of literature.”

150 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Christie Geisler Hansen tin nashonalidat danes pero el a nase i lanta na e dushi isla multikultural Kòrsou. Su tata ku ta un “berdadero” danes a kasa ku su mama ku ta un yu di Kòrsou di orígen hulandes/indjan. Tradusí un poema for di e idioma original den kua el a ser konsebí no ta un tarea fásil. E traduktor mester ta masha sensitivo den elekshon di su palabra- i frasenan pa e por kapta i transmití pensamentu i sentimentu ku e poeta kier a transmití den su teksto. Mi mayornan tabata artista talentoso i esaki ta mi kontribushon chikitu na e metanan di Hilda pa hiba arte na un públiko mas grandi, den e kaso akí poesia ku un mensahe speshal ku ta sirbi humanidat.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Deutsch (German) / Aleman Muttersprache Mehr als 6.000 Sprachen gibt es in der Welt ‒ die meisten von einer Minderheit aber Du, Papiamentu, liegst mir ganz besonders am Herzen Gerade in Dir drücke ich die kleinsten Details aus die so klingen wie Musik, Ton und Melodie, die vielleicht andere Sprachen nicht haben Mehr als 6.000 Sprachen gibt es in der Welt aber meine Muttersprache, die mir Vater und Mutter liebevoll mit dem Löffel gegeben habe die mir Vater und behalte ich stärker in meinem Herzen. Mehr als 6.000 Sprachen gibt es in der Welt aber im Papiamentu schreiben wir Literatur, im Papiamentu übersetzen wir die Weltliteratur, um unsere Muttersprache dort emporzuheben. So wie ein Bauer auf dem Feld nicht nur Mais pflanzt sondern auch Süßkartoffeln, Papaya, Sauersack und Kalebassen, um morgen Vielfalt zu ernten, so müssen wir auch jede Sprache pflegen und beschützen

151

152 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

die es in der Welt gibt, auch wenn sie von der kleinsten Minderheit stammt. Translation: Professor Andre Klump & Melanie Merien Schmale. About the translator Opinions and challenges Andre Klump is Full Professor of Spanish and French Linguistics, Department of Romance Studies, and Director of the Research Center America Romana at the Trier University in Germany. He has published monographs, and numerous scientific essays about the Caribbean, especially about the Spanish variety in the Dominican Republic. Another important research focus involves the language situation and structure of the Kreyòl Ayisyen (Haiti) and the Papiamentu (Curaçao). For Andre, the mother tongue represents the personal identity, the free expression and communication and the feeling of Heimat (German for “home(land)” and “origin”). “The magnificent poem ‘Lenga di Mama’ from Hilda de Windt Ayoubi is dedicated to the topic of mother tongue, the ‘language of the heart’, to linguistic identity and to the evolution from a Creole and minority language to a literary language and language of distance. The challenge in translation is to reflect the expressive and metaphorical language, the culture-specific particularities, sometimes even the emotional and identity-forming text passages.” Andre Klump ta Profesor Titular di Lingwístika Spañó i Franses na Departamentu di Estudio Romanse / Románika (Department of Romance Studies) i Direktor di e Sentro di Investigashon Amérika Romana na Universidat Trier na Alemania. El a publiká monografia, i numeroso ensayo sientífiko tokante Karibe, espesialmente tokante e variedat spañó na Repúblika Dominikana. Otro foko importante di su investigashon ta abarká e situashon i struktura di lenga di Kreyòl Ayisyen (Haití) i papiamentu (Kòrsou). Pa Andre Klump, lenga materno ta representá, ekspreshon i komunikashon liber i e sentimentu di Heimat (aleman pa “hogar (tera)” i orígen.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Schwiizerdütsch (Swiss German) / Aleman Suiso Muättärschproch Äs git meh aus 6.000 Schprochä uf dr Wäut ‒ diä meischtä ghöhrä anärä Mindärheit, abär Duh, Papiamento, ligsch am nöchschtä bi mym Härz Äs isch i dyr woni mi i dä chlinschtä Detail cha usdrückä wo töhne wiä Musigg, töhn und Melodiä wo filläch i dä andärä Schprochä nid beschtöh Äs git meh aus 6.000 Schprochä uf dr Wäut abär äs isch myni Muättärschproch, diä wo my Fatter und myni Muättär myr mit füu Gedoud und Liäbi hei bybrocht woni am feschtischtä i mym Härz bhautä Äs git meh aus 6.000 Schprochä uf dr Wäut abär uf Papiamento schribä mär Litäratuur, iz Papiamento übersetzä mär Wäutlitäratuur um üsi Muättärschproch gäng höcher lo z schtigä So wiä ä Buur uf äm Land nid numä Meis ahpflanzt, abär ou süässi Härdöpfu, Papaia, Süürsack u Kaläbass, für schpöhtär Verschidniggs chönnä z ärntä,

153

154 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

so müässä myr ou jedi Schproch schätzä u beschützä wo i dr Wäut beschteit, ou wenn si dr auär chlynschtä mindärheit ghöhrt! Translation: Bettina Kibbelaar Huber. About the translator Opinions and challenges Bettina Kibbelaar Huber is the Honorary Consul of Switzerland in Curaçao. Bettina was lucky to grow up in a bilingual city in Switzerland. After having lived for 10 years in Italy, she followed her husband to Curaçao, where she faced the challenge of new languages. She is now fluent in eight languages, but would like to learn more. She writes, “My passion for languages is rooted in the belief that they are not only a means of communication, but the basis for trying to understand different cultures.” Bettina Kibbelaar Huber tabatin suerte di lanta den un siudat bilingual na Suisa. Despues di a biba 10 aña na Italia, el a sigui su esposo na Kòrsou, kaminda el a enfrentá e reto di idiomanan nobo. Awor e ta papia 8 idioma masha bon pero lo e kier siña un par mas. Mi pashon pa idioma ta ankrá den e kerensia ku idioma no ta solamente un medio di komunikashon, sino tambe e base pa purba komprondé diferente kultura. Aktualmente Bettina ta Kònsel Honorario di Suisa na Kòrsou.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Frysk/Fräisk (Frisian) / Lenga di Friesland / Frisio Memmetaal (Huistaal) Mear as 6.000 talen binne der yn ‘e wrâld ‒ de measte fan in minderheit mar do, Papiamento, leist it tichtste by myn hert Krekt yn dy kin ik gean foar de alderfynste details se klinke as muzyk, toan en meldij dy’t meskyn net besteane yn ‘e oare talen. Mear as 6.000 talen binne der yn ‘e wrâld mar myn memmetaal dy’t mei leafde my jûn is troch ús mem en heit, dy hâld ik it meast fêst yn myn hert. Mear as 6.000 talen binne der yn ‘e wrâld mar yn it Papiamento skriuwe we literatuur, yn it Papiamento sette wy de wrâldliteratuur oer om ús memmetaal Papiamento dêr jinsen heger op te tillen Sa as in boer op it lân net allinnich mais op it lân plantet mar ek swiete ierpels, papaya, soersek en kalebas om moarn ferskaat te rispjen sa moatte wy eltse taal dy’t bestiet yn ‘e wrâld, koesterje en beskermje,

155

156 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

sels al is it fan de allerlytste minderheit, de taal! Translation: Jeltsje Feenstra & Pytsje Feenstra. About the translators Opinions and challenges Jeltsje Feenstra (1970) grew up in a small village in the south-west of Friesland (Fryslân), The Netherlands. Since her law studies at the University of Amsterdam (UvA) she has been living and working in Amsterdam. During her many travels in the Caribbean and particularly, because of her friendship with many inhabitants, she has a strong connection with the island of Curaçao. She writes, “By creating poetry in your own mother tongue, you come closer to your feelings, it touches your soul. Nowadays there is also the possibility to translate into Frisian with Google translate. Sometimes this provides a nice springboard in translation. But the feeling and depth you want to transfer will always come from yourself and not from Google. At times, with your own translation with just one word or part of the sentence which you bend to yourself, you can reach the feeling you want to convey. You can also see an increase in the day-to-day use of Frisian. The young as well as the older generations WhatsApp in Frisian, sending short messages to each other in their native language. Even though these messages are not always answered in the same language, it is understood and gives a personal touch when you express yourself in your own language. Using the Frisian language in daily life also makes you aware of the special features of your own native languages.” Pytsje Feenstra (1968) was born and raised in Friesland (Fryslân), the Netherlands. After her study at the conservatory in Amsterdam she has been living and working here again as a music teacher and chorus leader in “it Heitelân”.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

157

Jeltsje Feenstra (1970) a krese den un pueblo chikí na parti sur- wèst di Friesland (Fryslân), Hulanda. For di tempu ku e tabata studia Lei na Universidat di Amsterdam (UoA) e ta biba i traha einan. Durante su hopi biahanan den Caribe i partikularmente, dor di su amistat ku hopi habitante e tin un laso fuerte ku e isla Kòrsou. Kreando poesia den bo lenga di mama, bo ta yega mas serka di bo sentimentunan, te den bo alma. Pytsje Feenstra (1968), a nase i lanta na Friesland (Fryslân), Hulanda. Despues di a finalisá su estudio na konservatorio di Amsterdam, e ta biba i traha atrobe akinan komo dosente di músika i dirigente di koro den “It Heitelan”.

158 

Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes Moedertaal Meer dan 6.000 talen zijn er in de wereld ‒ de meeste van een minderheid maar jou, Papiamento, heb ik het dichtst bij mijn hart In jou juist kan ik terecht voor de aller-fijnste details die klinken als muziek, toon en melodie die misschien in de andere talen niet bestaan. Meer dan 6.000 talen zijn er in de wereld maar mijn moedertaal die liefdevol mijn vader en moeder me met de lepel hebben ingegeven die houd ik meest in mijn hart vast Meer dan 6.000 talen zijn er in de wereld maar in het Papiamento schrijven we literatuur, in het Papiamento vertalen we de wereldliteratuur, om onze moedertaal ginder hoger op te tillen Zoals een boer op het land niet alleen maïs plant maar ook zoete aardappels papaja, zuurzak en kalebas om morgen verscheidenheid te oogsten, zo moeten wij ook elke taal koesteren en beschermen

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

159

die in de wereld bestaat, al is het van de piepkleinste minderheid, de taal! Translation: Pieter C. Muysken. About the translator Opinions and challenges Pieter C. Muysken was born in Bolivia, but grew up in the Netherlands. He did his undergraduate work at Yale University (BA 1972) and obtained his PhD at the University of Amsterdam (1977). He was a member of the Netherlands Royal Academy of Sciences (Nederlandse Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen) and the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. Prizes awarded to him include the Bernhard Prize, Prix des Ambassadeurs, and the Spinoza Prize. He was a professor Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam (1978-87), Leiden (1999 -2001), and in Nijmegen 2001 ‒ onward. His work on Ecuadorian Quechua resulted in El kichwa ecuatoriano: Orígenes, riqueza, contactos (Abya-Yala, 2019), summarizing his long life research on this language. After f inishing “Lenga di Mama” in early 2014, Hilda sent the poem to Pieter Muysken. He was at the airport in South Africa, boarding a flight to Amsterdam, when he asked her if he could translate it into Dutch. So, the poem was translated during that flight and returned the moment he arrived at Schiphol Airport. The language triangle between America ‒ Africa ‒ The Netherlands ‒ America was complete. It would be the first translation by Pieter of Hilda’s language-related poems. Pieter C. Muysken a nase na Bolivia, pero a lanta na Hulanda. El a hasi su estudio pre-grado na Universidat di Yale (BA 1972) i a doktorá (PhD) na Universidat di Amsterdam (1977). E tabata miembro di Akademia Real Hulandes di Siensia (Nederlandse Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen) i di Sosiedat-Max-Planck (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft). Premionan ku a ser otorgá na Muysken ta inkluí Premio Bernard (Prins Bernard Prijs), Premio di Embahador (Prix des Ambassadeurs) i Premio Spinoza (Spinoza Prijs). E tabata profesor di Lingwístika na Universidat di Amsterdam (1978-87), na Leiden (1999- 2001), i na Nijmegen di 2001 te na 2021. Su trabou riba Quechua Ekuatoriano a resultá den e obra El kichwa ecuatoriano: Orígenes, riqueza,

160 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

contactos (Abya-Yala, 2019), ku ta resumí su investigashon di bida largu di e lenga akí. Despues ku el a finalisá e poema ‘Lenga di Mama’ na komienso di 2014, Hilda a manda e poema pa Pieter Muysken. Na e momento ei Pieter tabata na e aeropuerto di Sur Afrika, na punto pa subi e buelo ku destinashon Amsterdam i a puntra Hilda si e por a tradusí e poema na hulandes. Pues, e poema a ser tradusí durante e buelo ei i mandá bèk asina Pieter a yega Aeropuerto di Schiphol. E triángulo lingwístiko entre Merka, Afrika i Hulanda tabata kompleto. Esaki lo a bira e promé tradukshon ku Pieter a hasi di Hilda su poemanan relashoná ku idioma.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Brabants (Brabantish) / Idioma di Brabant / Brabants Moedertaol Mir dan 6.000 toale zèn d’r in de wereld de miste van ’nen minderheid mèr jou, papiamento heb’k’t dichtst bè m’n hart Kèbt in jou kan’k op d’n goeie plek zèn veur de sch6nste detais die klinke as meziek toon en meledie die mischiens in aander toale nie veurkomme Mir dan 6.000 toale zèn d’r in de wereld mèr m’n moedertoal die onze Pa en ons moeder me lieftevol mee de paplepel ingegeve hebbe die hou’k bovenalles in m’n hart vast Mir dan 6.000 toale zèn d’r in de wereld mer in ’t papiamento skrijve we literatuur in ’t papiamento vertoale we de wereldlibratuur um onze moedertoal ginder hogerop te brengen Gelijk’nen boer op z’n laand nie allenig mais uitzet mer ok zuute èrrepel papaya, zuurzak en kalebas um mèrrege’n verscheijenheid te oogste zo moete wi’ok elke toal die in de wereld bestoat

161

162 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

vertroetelen en behoede al is’t van de petieterigste minderheid, de toal Translation: Gerrit Eikenaar. Special thanks to his son Hans Eikenaar. About the translator Opinions and challenges Gerrit Eikenaar was born at Waalwijk February 11, 1926 and passed away September 25, 2017. He moved to Curaçao in 1959. He was director of Bonifacius College (a primary school for the poor) and fought for the rights of these children. He worked for many years as a teacher of manual work at PSC. As a voluntary worker at Ayudo Sosial, Gerrit did a lot of social work in Curaçao. For years he used to write a Christmas card in his native language to family members, friends and acquaintances (every year approximately 600 copies). For him, children’s wellbeing came first. His son Hans Eikenaar explains, “My father believed in the power of the letter and later on the mail (2000 contacts), that writing letters keeps a friendship alive. Through this exchange of letters he helped many in an individual, personal way.” Although Gerrit himself did not write poetry, he enjoyed and framed many of the poems that were dedicated to him. He also used poetic language with a lot of metaphors in his texts (poetic prose) putting attention to the accents, paying attention to the punctuation marks which are important for the right pronunciation. Every year, he first designed a drawing for the Christmas card and then wrote a text for it in Brabants, while sometimes he sent a summary in Dutch or English. The texts were about his emigration to Curaçao, about small children and ended with a positive message. His lemma: Send a positive message to the youth. Aside from the nostalgia and love of the language, he also wrote to keep his mind supple. Furthermore, he also believed that the readers for whom Brabants was usually an unknown language would read the text several times and would therefore delve more deeply into its message. Gerrit Eikenaar a nase na Waalwijk, Hulanda, riba 11 di febrüari, 1926 i a bai sosegá na Kòrsou, riba 25 di sèptèmber, 2017. El a muda pa Kòrsou na aña 1959. E tabata direktor di Bonifacius College (Un skol básiko pa mucha ménos pudiente) i a bringa pa e derechinan di e muchanan akí. El a traha hopi aña na PSC komo dosente di obra di man i a hasi hopi trabou sosial na

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

163

Kòrsou (komo trahadó voluntario na Ayudo Sosial). Pa hopi aña e tabatin kustumber di manda un tarheta di Pasku den su lenga materno pa famia, amigu, i konosínan (un total di 600 karchi pa aña). Bienestar di mucha tabata bini na promé lugá p’e. Hans Eikenaar ta splika, Mi tata tabata kere den e poder di karta i despues den e poder di meil (2000 kontakto), ku skirbi karta ta mantené un amistat bibu. Atraves di e interkambio di karta ei el a yuda hopi hende na un manera individual, personal.

164 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Limburgs/ Lèmburgs (Limburgish or Limburgan) / Idioma di Limburg / Lemburgs Moedertaal Mieë dan 6.000 talen sund der op de wereld ‒ de mietste van ing minderheed ‒ Mer dieng, Papiamentu, Moedrtaal Han ich et dichts bie mieng hats In dieng zjust kan ich terecht veur de aller fiengste details die klinken wie muziek, toon en melodie die mesjieng in angere talen neet bestunt Mieë dan 6.000 talen sund der op de wereld mer mieng moedertaal die liefdevol mieng vader en moeder mich met de paplepel hant ingeggeven die hot ich et mietste in mieng hats vast Mieë dan 6.000 talen sund der op de wereld mer in het Papiamentu sjrieven ver literatuur, in et Papiamentu vertalen ver de wereld literatuur, om oze moedertaal ginder hoger op te tillen Sowie inge boer op et land neet alling mais plant mer och zeute aardappel, papaya, zoerzak en kalebas om meurge versjiedenheed te oogsten, zoe motte veer och gekere taal

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

165

koesteren en beschjeremen die in de wereld beschjtunt, al is et van de piep klingste minderheed, de taal! Translation: Jamie-Lee. Special thanks to Jose Alleleijn and Dr. Robbie van Gerwen. About the translators Opinions and challenges Jamie-Lee was born in Vijlen, a small village in the province of Limburg, the Netherlands. She lived and studied for some years in the sunny island of Curaçao. Jose Alleleijn was born in Epen, South Limburg, the Netherlands. She did her primary at Petrus en Paulus School in Epen, and her grammar school at the Gymnasium Alpha Sophianum, Vaals. She has a Master Spanish Language and Literature, Radboud University Nijmegen. She is the President of Ática Global. She has been living in Colombia for more than for 25 years. Robbie van Gerwen writes, “The variant of Limburgs used here is one from the eastern mining region, and it is precisely this one that is generally the least understood elsewhere in Limburg. Kerkrade is the center of this region, but some elements in the translation do not match this variant.” Jose Alleleijn writes, “My mother tongue, Ieëpisch, from Epen, means a lot to me. In my kitchen there is a glossary from my mother tongue, which I read every day. This way I keep a good focus on my hometown. For example, vurdevots ‘doing something one by one’. I feel right at home every time I get back to my region and am greeted as if I left yesterday. By translating texts from a ‘minority language’, one retains the identity and the feeling of that ‘minority language.’ In addition, poetry or translated poetry from that ‘minority language’ gives the speaker a sense of added dignity and stimulates his or her creative, emotional expressiveness. I speak Epens. So, while I was reading the poem ‘Mother Tongue’ words of my own language appeared immediately: instead of: sund der op de wereld, I would use: hat ’t op de welt in Ieëpisch, ‘Exist in the world’. And, instead of Moedertaal ‘Mother tongue’ we would use al va mieng mam in Ieëpisch.

166 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

The poetry book plus the CD: ‘Leefste’ of Marijke Ozek- Gulpers, touched me deeply. Leefde

Leefde is

da Leefde pas, wens te mieë es te verlangs voet te geve has.

One particularity worth mentioning is that Limburgers know more easily when to use the definite article de ‘the’ or het ‘it’ before the noun in Dutch.” Jamie-Lee a nase na Vijlen, un poblashon chikitu di e provinsia Limburg, Hulanda. El a biba i studia algun aña na nos isla Kòrsou. Jose Alleleijn a nase na Epen, parti sur di Limburg, Hulanda. El a bai skol básiko na Petrus i Paulus na Epen, i a bishitá skol sekundario na Gymnasium Alpha Sophianum, Vaals. E tin un maestria den Spañó i Literatura, Universidat di Radboud. E ta biba na Colombia pa mas ku 25 aña. E ta presidente di Ática Global. Poesia òf poesia tradusí for di un lenga di minoria ta duna su ablante un ѐkstra sensashon di dignidat i ta stimulá su ekspresividat kreativo, emoshonal. Robbie van Gerwen ta splika ku e variante di Limburgs usá den e tradukshon akí ta di e region minero oriental, i ta hustamente esaki ta esun ku nan no ta komprondé den otro parti di Limburg. Kerkrade ta e sentro di e region akí, pero algun elemento den e tradukshon no ta kuadra ku e variante akí.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Huistaal (Afrikaans) / Afrikano / Lenga Surafrikano Moedertaal (Huistaal) Daar is meer as 6.000 tale wat op aarde bestaan ‒ die meeste van `n minderheid ‒ maar dit is jy, Papiamentu, wat die taal is van my hart Dit is in jou wat ek kan uitdruk die fynste besonderhede van doer ver wat klink soos musiek, note en melodieë wat miskien in ander tale nie eers bestaan nie Daar is meer as 6.000 tale wat op aarde bestaan, maar dis my moedertaal wat my pa en ma my met die paplepel ingegee het wat ek die meeste koester, wat ek diep in my hart bewaar Daar is meer as 6.000 tale wat op aarde bestaan, maar dis net in Papiamentu dat ons geskrifte skryf dat internasionale meesterwerke vertaal word sodat ons ons moedertaal kan verhef tot daardie hoogte Soos `n boer wat op sy land nie alleen maar plant mielies sonder soet patat, papaja, suursak en kalbas om later `n verskeidenheid te oes, so moet ons ook koester en beskerm elke taal

167

168 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

wat hier op aarde bestaan, selfs al is dit van `n minderheid en al is dit ook piepklein Translation: Annalize van’t Zand. About the translators Opinions and challenges Annalize van’t Zand was born (1968) in Witbank, South Africa. In a country with eleven official languages she felt at home with Afrikaans as her mother tongue, and English as well. In 2003, she emigrated to the Netherlands and now lives in Curaçao where she works as a nurse in the Intensive Care Unit. I have learned new languages and that is very far-reaching, but Afrikaans is always the language in which I can best express myself. “As for challenges, I really had some challenges regarding a few expressions. For example, in the second stanza, in the Dutch translation of the poem: In jou juist kan ik terecht voor de allerfijnste details (It is in you that I can express delicate details), I found that very difficult to formulate properly in Afrikaans, because kan ik terecht is an expression that does not exist in Afrikaans. Possibilities include: ek kan my uitdruk; ek kan my uitleef, ek kan daar regkom, ek kan my vind, ek kan verstaan, etc. In the first instance I chose, ek kan my uitdruk. But later on I still opted for, ek kan my uitleef. Uitdruk actually has the meaning of field of writing and speaking. Whereas, Uitleef also includes the emotions and the heart which is what this poem is about. Poetry is very important to preserve a language. Unfortunately, the newer generations are not very interested in that. But it is often turned into music lyrics. Then suddenly it becomes much more interesting for the youth. So, moving with the times, poets could take care as to shape some of their poems in such a way that they can be transformed into music lyrics. That way, there may also be more interest in their other poems. The language of your heart is the language in which you argue, understand jokes and are intimate. That is why it is worth cherishing your native language. No matter how small your language may be…”

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

169

Annalize van’t Zand a nase na aña 1968 na Witbank, Suráfrika. Den un pais ku 11 idioma ofisial e tabata sinti su mes na kas ku lenga surafrikano (Afrikaans) komo lenga materno i banda di esei igualmente ku ingles. Na aña 2003 el a emigrá pa Hulanda i ta biba aktualmente na Kòrsou kaminda e ta |traha komo enfermera den e Unidat di Kuido Intensivo. Mi a siña idioma nobo i esei ta hiba un hende masha leu pero tòg mi ta ekspresá mi mes semper mihó den Afrikaans.

170 

English / (English) / Ingles Mother Tongue More than 6,000 languages in the world exist, ‒ the majority of a minority ‒ but it is you, Papiamento, that the nearest in my heart I feel It is in you that I can express delicate details that go beyond, that sound like music, tone and melody that maybe in the other languages do not exist More than 6,000 languages in our world exist, but it is my native speech which mom and dad spoon fed me that most of all I cherish, that deepest I harbor in my heart More than 6,000 languages in our world exist, but it is only in Papiamento that literature we engrave, that international masterpieces we translate so our native language we may further elevate Even as a farmer on the land does not barely plant papaya, sweet potatoes, sour sop and calabash to harvest diversity at daybreak so we too must cherish and protect

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

171

each language that on earth exists, even if from the tiniest minority it originates. Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Eduardo Wout. About the translator Opinions and challenges Eduardo Wout is an English teacher and a certified English translator. He is Hilda’s former colleague and English teacher. For him, language is the key to communication. “It is very important to first master your mother tongue. From there you can go on to learn more easily or smoothly, other languages. If you live in the country where the language is foreign to you, among its native people you can acquire the correct tone and rhythm of the language. This will, for sure, help you master the language. Nevertheless, the foreign language will never completely become your mother tongue. For it is in your mother tongue that you were spoon-fed. Translation can undoubtedly help to conserve the language but it should be a correct translation. Poetry comes from a limited group of people. It does not always attain itself to the standardized rules of the language. It has its own rules of formulation. A ‘normal’ person does not write or read poetry. So people may think that the poet is not normal or even weird. Nevertheless, when you start to develop and love your language, depending also on your personality, you may start to enjoy writing and or reading poetry. Caribbean English, as is the case with British, American and other variants, has the right to exist, for there are millions of people who speak it. Each one has its beauty.” Eduardo Wout ta dosente i un traduktor sertif iká di ingles. E ta Hilda su èks ‒ kolega i dosente di ingles. E ta di opinion ku idioma ta e yabi pa komunikashon i ku un lenga strañero nunka por bira bo lenga di mama kompletamente ya ku ta bo lenga di mama nan a duna bo na kuchara.

Portugal

Portuguese

Brazilian Portuguese

Brazil

Spanish

Spain

French

France

Romance Languages * As Catalan was the last language sent, it could not be included in the map of Romance languages that was already made.

Latin American Spanish speaking countries

Italy

Italian



Romance Languages Idioma Romániko Pieter C. Muysken and Hilda de Windt Ayoubi (for Catalan)

Abstract Several Romance languages are represented here: Catalan French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. All originate in the Vulgar Latin of the late Roman Empire; all have been very important in the cultural history of western Europe and continue to be so today. It is immediately obvious that they are closely related. The word for “hand”, for instance, is mà in Catalan, main in French, mano in Spanish and Italian, and mão in Portuguese. Though they stem from Latin, they do not share many of the grammatical characteristics of Latin, such as the Latin case endings. Keywords: Cultural History, Literary History, (Vulgar) Latin, Literature, Second Languages

Little need to introduce the French language here. It has lost quite a bit of its status as a language of international communication, but it is spoken natively in most of France and parts of Belgium, Luxemburg, Switzerland, and Canada. It is the official language of 29 countries (also of some islands in the Caribbean, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, French Guiana and Saint-Martin), but in many of these it is primarily used as a second language. This also means that there is much diversity in the way French is spoken, although presumably there is a single “standard” in French, corresponding to educated Parisian French. There has been a large literature in French since the early Middle Ages. In the Francophone countries, including countries in Africa, authors write and publish in French. French does not have the same flexibility as Spanish to change the grammatical order of the parts of the sentence. For instance, existent dans notre monde

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_6

174 

Pie ter C. Muysken and Hilda de Windt Ayoubi (for Catal an)

“exist in our world” in the translation is the only order possible. France has the appearance now of a fairly monolingual country, but in earlier times, before the French Revolution and Napoleon in particular, the country was much more multilingual. In the north there was a Dutch speaking region, the Breton speaking area was much larger, in the southwest there was Gascon and Basque, in the south Provençal was widely spoken, and in the east Alsatian German was spoken. In addition, there were many dialects. Catalan, catalá or llengua catalana is a Western Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin. It is the off icial language of Andorra and a co-official language of three autonomous communities in Eastern Spain, namely Catalonia, Valencia and the Balearic Islands, the so called Paises Catalans or “The Catalan Countries”. In the Valencian Community and Carche it is known as Valencian. It has a semi-official status in the Italian Alghero and is also spoken in two other areas in Eastern Spain, and in the Pyrénnées- Orientales department of France. There are more than 10 million first and second-language speakers. Thus, the Catalan translator of the poem is a native speaker. The grammar of Catalan follows the general pattern of Western Romance languages. The primary word order is subject-verb-object. However, unlike in French, word order is very flexible. Thus, verb-subject constructions are used to achieve a semantic effect. So in the translation of the poem, we see en el món existeixen “exist in the world” instead of existeixen en el món. Nineteenth century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival which culminated in the early 1900s. Spanish is a world language with more than 480 million native speakers and also many second language speakers. It is spoken in Spain, large parts of Latin America and the United States, in some African countries, and also by heritage speakers across the world. Spanish was influenced by Basque and Arabic in its early stages. As is the case with English and Portuguese, the oldest form of the language, the type of Spanish spoken in Castile in central Spain is now by no means the most frequently spoken one. Standard Latin American Spanish has many more speakers. For various reasons, Spanish is a very popular second language in many parts of the world. As with the other larger European languages, Spanish has contributed many works to world literature and continues with a thriving literary culture both in Spain and in Latin America. In recent times, Spanish authors, such as Camilo José Cela, have won the Nobel Prize for Literature, and in Latin America, Gabriela Mistral, Miguel Angel Asturias, Pablo Neruda, Gabriel García Márquez, Octavo Paz, and Mario Vargas Llosa. In Spanish, it is possible to place words in different orders in the sentence for expressive effect and

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

175

to emphasize something. So, in the translation we have en nuestro mundo existen “in our world exist”, while it also would have been possible to say existen en nuestro mundo. The personal marker a (before the direct object) in Spanish also makes it easier to change the order in the sentence. Thus, we can have quiero a mi hija. “I love a my daughter”, while it is also possible to say a mi hija quiero. Given the size of the original territory where Portuguese was spoken, Portugal, it is surprising how many people speak it in the world. Of course, the largest group of speakers live in Brazil, but there are also speakers in the former Portuguese colonies, such as Angola and Mozambique. In all these places, very different varieties of Portuguese are spoken. Altogether, there may be as many as 220 million native speakers and an additional 50 million second language speakers. Probably, most varieties of Portuguese are mutually intelligible, but at the same time it is immediately clear if someone is from Porto, Portugal, or São Paulo, Brazil. Both in Portugal, where they have musical traditions such as the fado, and in Brazil, there is a strong culture of songs written in Portuguese. In both countries there have been many important poets and novelists. Paulo Coelho has conquered the hearts of people all over the world with his novels such as O Alquimista. Portuguese was also important for the development of Papiamento, as was noted before. Compare for instance batata doce (Portuguese) and batata dushi (Papiamento) for “sweet potato”. Italian is the official language of Italy and came out of the Florentine dialect as it was used in Dante’s Divina Comedia in the fourteenth century. Alongside Standard Italian there are many regional dialects in Italy that differ a great deal from the standard language, as well as minority languages such as Albanian and Greek. Italian is also spoken in many heritage language communities across the world, and in parts of some countries surrounding Italy, notably a part of Switzerland. It has over 67 million speakers. Many people know of Italian, through the movies or the opera, and many people speak it as a second language. It still has a presence in parts of east Africa due to the earlier Italian occupation of some territories there. Italian literature dates back to the twelfth century and throughout history there have been important works in the language. Today, many modern Italian authors are widely translated into other languages, and this has been the case in the previous centuries as well.

176 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Français (French) / Franses Langue Maternelle Plus de 6.000 langues existent dans le monde dont la majorité appartient à une minorité mais, c’est vous, le papiamentu qui est le plus proche de mon cœur C’est juste en vous que je peux m’exprimer le mieux en détail le plus subtil et qui résonne comme de la musique dont la tonalité et la mélodie n’existent pas dans les autres langues Plus de 6.000 langues existent dans notre monde mais, c’est ma langue maternelle que papa et maman m’ont inculquée dès ma plus tendre enfance que je chéris le plus profondément et retiens éternellement dans mon cœur Plus de 6.000 langues existent dans notre monde mais c’est seulement en papiamentu que nous produisons de la littérature que nous traduisons les chefs-d’œuvre internationaux afin que nous puissions porter notre langue maternelle à un niveau plus élevé Comme un cultivateur sur le terrain vague ne plante pas seulement du maïs mais aussi des pommes de terre douces, la papaye, le corossol et la calebasse pour récolter demain une diversité de fruits nous devrions aussi chérir et protéger chaque langue qui existe dans le monde même si c’est la langue de la minorité la plus minuscule

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

177

Translation: Josephine Sweers and Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Leontine Kuster and Diana Seinen Lasten. About the translators Opinions and challenges Leontine Kuster is of Surinamese descent. She was only three months old when her family emigrated to Curaçao. Her Kumbatey (“Umbilical Cord”) is in Suriname but her roots are in Curaçao. She is a teacher of French and Dutch. Leontine believes that “Language is indispensable and connects us to each other”. Diana Seinen-Lasten was born in Curaçao (1948). She has been living in the Netherlands since 1971 and worked as a French and Dutch teacher for almost 40 years. She also speaks Papiamento, English and Spanish. At the moment, just for the fun, she is learning Chinese. For Diana, “Language opens doors and hearts”. Josephine Sweers was born in Limburg, the Netherlands (1934 -2016). When she was approximately 23 years old she moved to Curaçao and lived on the island for the rest of her life. She was a French teacher, a professional translator and was the President of Alliance Française for many years. She also used to write poetry. Hilda de Windt Ayoubi writes, “French was one of my favorite languages, so when I finished secondary school, I wanted to continue studying this language of culture, arts, etc. But for several practical reasons, I did not. Nevertheless, I continued reading and later on, practicing it with the “Amis de France in Curaçao”. Leontine Kuster ta di desendensia surinameño. E tabatin tres luna so ora su famia a emigrá pa Kòrsou. Su ‘Kumabatey’ (Lombrishi) ta derá na Sürnam pero su raisnan ta na Kòrsou. E ta dosente di franses i hulandes. Idioma ta indispensabel i ta konektá nos ku otro. Diana Seinen-Lasten a nase na Kòrsou (1948). For di aña 1971 e ta biba na Hulanda kaminda el a traha mas o ménos 40 aña komo dosente di franses i hulandes. Ademas di franses e ta papia papiamentu, ingles i spañó. Aktualmente, djis pa prèt, e ta siñando un poko chines. “Idioma ta habri porta i kurason.”

178 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Josephine Sweers a nase na Limburg, Hulanda (1934-2016). El a muda pa Kòrsou na edat di mas o ménos 23 aña, i a biba riba e isla akí pa resto di su bida. E tabata dosente di franses, traduktor profeshonal i e tabata skirbi poesia tambe. Ademas e tabata Presidente di Alliance Française pa hopi aña.

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

179

Catalá or Llengua Catalana (Catalan) / Katalan Llengua Materna Més de 6.000 llengües, en el món existeixen la majoria d’una minoria ‒ però ets tu, “Papiament” la que més prop del meu cor tinc. En tu puc expressar aquells refinats detalls, que com a música sonen, melodies i tonalitats, que potser en les altres llengües no existeixin. Més de 6.000 llengües en el nostre planeta existeixen, però és la meva llengua nativa que pare i mare, em van donar a cullerades la que més atresoro de totes, la que més profund albergo en el meu cor. Més de 6.000 llengües en el nostre món existeixen però, només en “Papiament” la nostra literatura esculpim, i les obres mestres internacionals traduïm. Per a més alt elevar la nostra llengua materna. Així com l’agricultor, no solament sembra blat de moro, sinó també, guanàbana, Papaia, carabassa i moniato per a diversificar la seva collita, des de l’alba, així també necessitem, apreciar i preservar, cada idioma, que viu en la terra, encara que sigui originat, de la més petita minoria. Translation: Jose Maria Baulenas. Thanks to Frank landsman. About the translator Opinions and challenges Jose Maria Baulenas is from Barcelona. He speaks Catalan (mother tongue), Castilian, and a little French. His career has been in advertising, but his passion (music) has always been present in his mother tongue Catalan.

180 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

“The importance of a mother tongue, for a person, particularly a child, or a people is that it is their root. It is their future expression and development, with the fluidity of what is already imprinted on the psyche, as a reflection of a natural and genuine language in the human being. The role that translation and poetry play for the preservation/development of a language is vital. Without translations and poetry, the great poets, writers, scientists of history, would not have access to our education, both intellectually and emotionally. As for poets, I’d mention the ones I love, namely Bob Dylan, Jim Morrison. My favorite writers are Oscar Wilde, Joseph Conrad, and E.A. Poe. While translating the poem I did not really experience great challenges. Many times, above all, while translating and adapting songs by other authors, as if by magic, as soon as the ‘meaning’ is discovered, the words emerge, and the poetry is readjusted, emotionally, and otherwise. I fervently believe that, in all languages, emotions, and experiences will be expressed with due fluidity in the mother tongue, because when we want to express something, it goes from the conscious mind to the unconscious mind. Thus, there are no language barriers in the mother tongue.” Jose Maria Baulenas ta prosedente di Barcelona. E ta papia katalan (su lenga di mama), i un poko franses. Su karera ta den publisidat pero su pashon (músika) semper ta presente den su lenga di mama katalan. Sin tradukshon i poesia, e gran poeta-, eskritor-, i sientífikonan di historia lo no tabatin akseso na nos edukashon, tantu intelektual - komo emoshonalmente.

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

Español (Spanish) / Spañó Lengua Materna Más de 6.000 lenguas en el mundo existen ‒ la mayoría de una minoría ‒ pero eres tú, papiamento, la que más cerca de mi corazón tengo En ti puedo expresar aquellos refinados detalles, que como música suenan, melodías y tonalidades que acaso en las demás lenguas no existan Más de 6.000 lenguas en nuestro planeta existen pero es mi lengua nativa que mamá y papá me dieron a cucharadas la que más atesoro de todas, la que más profundo albergo en mi corazón Más de 6.000 lenguas en nuestro mundo existen pero sólo en papiamento nuestra literatura esculpimos y las obras maestras internacionales traducimos para más alto elevar nuestra lengua materna Así como el agricultor no solamente siembra maíz sino también, guanábana, papaya, calabaza y boniato para diversicar su cosecha desde el alba,

181

182 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

así también necesitamos apreciar y preservar cada idioma que en la tierra vive, aunque de la más pequeña minoría se origina Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Emilio Jorge Rodríguez. About the translator Opinions and challenges Emilio Jorge Rodríguez is an essayist and a literary critic. He was Director of the Center for Caribbean Studies (1994-1998) and the Founder / Director of Anales del Caribe (1981-2000). He has won several international awards. He is an author of essay collections and anthologies on Caribbean literature; he is also a collaborator of numerous books and encyclopedias. “A mother tongue is a source of nourishment for the spirit of a people. Speech, as well as other forms of discourse, are essential conditions for the existence of the human being and identifies its speakers and differentiates them from others who do not share it. At the same time, the coexistence of languages in a geographical space should not imply exclusion or segregation towards the speakers of one of them, but rather be a matter of rejoicing for the richness implicit in its permanence which contribute to and is part of a plural identity. Due to the plurality of ethnic roots and languages that have converged in the territories and languages of the Caribbean, it is essential that their own creations (of poetic or other genres) flow into translations to the different languages we share so that versions of these works contribute to human dialogue. I have always kept the memory of a poetry book by the Cuban Eliseo Diego, entitled Por los extraños pueblos “Through the Strange Peoples” (1958), which I read in my youth. It is a work that evokes urban spaces near the Cuban capital through a special sensitivity to recover them with longing, with which I identified myself because I was born and raised in one of those places. These people, at the same time, had the charm of an intense but peaceful economic, social and cultural life; among their habits were also good customs, respect and pleasant treatment, the coexistence of different social strata, whether of Hispanic or African descent. Theatre, oral and written tradition, music and the plastic arts flourished, despite the existence of an often difficult political climate.”

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

183

Emilio Jorge Rodríguez ta ensayista i krítiko literario. E tabata direktor di e Centro de Estudios Caribenses (1994-1998) i fundador / direktor di Anales del Caribe (1981-2000). El a gana vários premio internashonal. E ta outor di buki di ensayo i antologia riba literatura karibense; Ademas e ta kolaborador di hopi buki i ensiklopedia. Lenga di mama ta fuente di nutrishon pa alma di un pueblo.

184 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Português do Brasil (Brazilian Portuguese) / Portugues di Brasil Língua Nativa Mais de 6.000 línguas no mundo existem, mas és tu, papiamento, a que mais próxima do meu coração tenho. É em ti na qual posso expressar detalhes delicados que vão mais além, que soam como música, tom e melodia que talvez em outras línguas não existem. Mais de 6.000 línguas no nosso mundo existem, mas é na minha língua nativa que mamãe e papai me deram às colheradinhas que acima de tudo acarinho, que mais profundamente abrigo no meu coração. Mais de 6.000 línguas no nosso mundo existem, mas é somente em papiamentu que a literatura nós gravamos, que as obras-primas internacionais traduzimos para que a nossa língua nativa mais além possamos elevar. Assim como o agricultor não somente planta trigo senão também batata doce, graviola papaya e abóbora para cultivar diversidade ao alvorecer assim nós também necessitamos apreciar e preservar cada idioma que na terra existe

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

185

mesmo que da mais ínfima minoria seja originário. Translation: Liliane Sabbag (Brazil) & Cora Catalina (Chile). About the translators Opinions and challenges Liliane Sabbag is from Curitiba, Brazil. Her maternal grandmother, Maria Gibran Sabbag, was a cousin of Gibran Khalil Gibran. Liliane is a family clinical psychologist, and language is one of her main tools, be it listening, speaking, reading or writing. The texts of Khalil Gibran are important sources of inspiration in her work. That is why she uses them in different situations, “to favour the expansion of consciousness, to understand deep emotional states and to strengthen the connection with her patients.” Cora Catalina was born in Santiago, Chile. She has been living in Brazil for many years and works as a university professor in communications. She recognizes the importance of communication in social processes and mediations. She says, “The language is the system by which we communicate ideas and feelings, be it through speech, writing or other conventional signs. And, in turn, the possibility of expressing ourselves in different languages through translation, brings us closer to different cultures and expands our vision of the world.” Liliane Sabbag ta di Curitiba, Brasil. Su wela parti mama, Maria Gibran Sabbag, tabata prima di Gibran Khalil Gibran. Liliane ta sikólogo klíniko di famia, i lenga ta un di su medionan prinsipal di trabou, sea si ta trata di skucha, papia, lesa òf skirbimentu. E tekstonan di Khalil Gibran ta fuente importante di inspirashon den su trabou. Pa e motibu ei e ta usa nan den vários situashon pa favoresé ekspanshon di konsenshi, pa komprenshon di estadonan emoshonal profundo i fortalesimentu o sea fortifikashon di e kontakto ku su pashèntnan. Cora Catalina a nase na Santiago de Chile. E ta biba ya pa hopi aña na Brasil i ta profesor di komunikashon na universidat. E ta rekonosé e importansia di komunikashon den prosesonan sosial i mediashon. Lenga ta e sistema ku kua nos ta komuniká nos idea i sentimentunan, sea atraves di papiamentu, skirbimentu òf otro señalnan konvenshonal. I na su turno, e posibilidat pa ekspresá nos mes den diferente idioma, atraves di tradukshon, ta hiba nos mas serka di diferente otro kultura i ta ekspandé nos vishon di mundu.

186 

Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano La mia lingua madre Esistono al mondo più di seimila lingue, ‒ la maggioranza di una minoranza ‒ ma sei tu, Papiamento, quella che io sento più vicina al mio cuore È grazie a te che io posso esprimere sottili dettagli, al di là del tono e della melodia, che forse neppure esistono in altre lingue Esistono al mondo più di seimila lingue, ma è la mia lingua natia, con cui mamma e papà mi hanno nutrita, che più d’ogni altra io amo e che serbo nel profondo del mio cuore Esistono al mondo più di seimila lingue, ma è soltanto in Papiamentu che noi incidiamo la nostra letteratura e traduciamo i capolavori di altri Paesi affinché la nostra lingua madre possa esserne ulteriormente elevata Come un contadino nei campi pianta senza posa papaya e patate dolci per mietere all’alba i frutti della varietà così dobbiamo anche noi aver

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

187

cura e proteggere ogni lingua esistente sulla terra anche se proviene dalla più esigua minoranza. Translation: Francesco Medici. Special thanks to Ingrid Donati. About the translators Opinions and challenges Francesco Medici is a scholar and translator of works of Arab-American authors, particularly, Kahlil Gibran, Ameen Rihani, Mikhail Naimy, and Ilia Abu Madi. He has published many articles on these authors. He writes, “They say that every two weeks a language disappears, taking with it an entire cultural and intellectual heritage. It is precisely for this reason that UNESCO invites its Member States to support as many languages as possible – ‘the little’ ones in particular ‒ as reminder that linguistic diversity and multilingualism are essential for sustainable development. Poetry and translation are undoubtedly the main vehicle for the conservation of a language. In order to do this, it is essential for a country to have a wide literary production, which includes various literary genres, from popular to more formal texts, up to the ‘classics’. Once Kahlil Gibran, in a letter to Archimandrite Antony Bashir (who was the translator of many of Gibran’s English works into Arabic), wrote: In my judgement, the translator ‒ who spends days translating a book from one language to another ‒ is a creator, whether people acknowledge this or not. The late Italian philosopher, semiotician and novelist Umberto Eco, in his collection of translation studies entitled Saying Almost the Same Thing (Dire quasi la stessa cosa), says that ‘to translate is to betray’ (‘tradurre è tradire’) – and we know that it is absolutely true: there is always something lost in translation. The value of translation and of communication in general resides precisely in that ‘almost’. Quoting a famous French saying, there are only two kinds of translations: la belle infidèle and la laide fidèle, ‘the unfaithful beautiful and the ugly faithful’. As a translator, I have always tried to reach a compromise between a good style and a good rendition. Italy is the land of poetry, so it is impossible for me to mention a poet or a book in particular… As an Italianist and literary critic, I think that the modern Italian poetry would not exist without Giacomo Leopardi, to whom

188 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

I dedicated a monograph some years ago. But I cannot forget that without Dante’s Divine Comedy, Italy would have neither a national language nor a national poetry/literature.” Francesco Medici ta un erudito i traduktor di obra di outornan árabemerikano, partikularmente di e outornan, Kahlil Gibran, Ameen Rihani, Mikhail Naimy, Ilia Abu Madi. El a publiká hopi artíkulo ku ta trata e outornan akí. Komo traduktor semper mi a purba yega na un kompromiso entre un bon estilo i un bon interpretashon. Ingrid Donati is a teacher of Italian and Spanish. She lived in Curaçao for 3 years. Thanks to the island she got in touch with the author with whom she shares the passion for languages. She cooperated with great pleasure to this project. She writes, “With the rise of English as a lingua franca and a dominant language, it is very important to keep the other languages alive. I work in an international environment and I am aware of the importance of knowing English as a basic skill, but being able to make connections and similarities with your mother tongue is of the same importance. Your mother tongue is part of your identity, it tells who you are and where you are coming from. In some cases this would not be possible if it was not for translations. Communication means different things nowadays. We went from writing letters and cards to writing emails and sending messages, and lately we also learned how to communicate with our eyes, without showing the rest of our face. This gives an idea of how important communication is for all human beings, whatever the type of communication. What I personally like about communication is that it’s alive. It changes its shape, form and color according to the situation, resulting always up to date. One Italian masterpiece that I really enjoyed and that reminds me of the current situation of the Covid-19 pandemic is ‘Il Decamerone’ of Boccaccio, c. 1351. The book is structured as a frame story containing one hundred tales told by a group of seven young women and three young men who shelter in a secluded villa just outside Firenze (Florence) in order to escape the pestilence which was afflicting the city. The tales are about the comparison between good and evil, luck and nature, love and sexual desire. The book gives a realistic picture of life at that time. The ‘big boot’ is divided into 20 regions and every region has its own traditions, food, and of course, dialect. Some of them have been recognized

Romance L anguages / Idioma Romániko 

189

as an official language. This is the case of ‘il Friulano’, a language spoken in Friuli Venezia Giulia, a region in the north east of Italy.” Ingrid Donati ta dosente di italiano i spañó. El a biba tres aña na Kòrsou. Danki na e isla akí e por a drenta den kontakto ku e outor ku ta kompartí su pashon pa idioma. El a kooperá ku masha plaser na e proyekto akí. Loke ami personalmente ta gusta di komunikashon ta ku e ta bibu, e ta kambia su forma, su koló segun e situashon, i semper ta aktual.

Hindi Sarnami

Suriname

Other Indo-European languages

Ireland

Gaelic

Scotland

Gaelic

Greece

Greek

Armenia

Iran

Persian

Armenian

Russian

Russia

India

Hindi



Other Indo-European Languages Otro Idiomanan Indo-Europeo Pieter C. Muysken

Abstract Earlier, we have presented two branches of the Indo-European language family, the Romance languages and the Germanic languages, but the language family is much larger, with speakers of different branches living from Iceland to India. The family is often claimed to have been established by the English scholar and colonial judge in India, Sir William Jones in 1786, but other European travelers and scholars had pointed to the existence of similarities between the languages of northern India and the Mediterranean (Italian, Greek, Latin) since the sixteenth century. We cannot present translations into as many languages as there are in the family, but have to limit ourselves to some here, presented roughly from west to east. Keywords: Old Languages, Literary Tradition, Reading, Films

Irish (Gaeilge) is spoken both in Ireland and Scotland. in two different varieties, Irish (Gaelic) and Scottish Gaelic. Like Welsh, it is one of the Celtic languages and thus part of the Indo European languages. Although Irish has the third oldest literature in Europe after Latin and Greek, it has now been reduced to the language of a minority on the island of Ireland, spoken daily by about 150,000 people, most of whom speak English as well. It is spoken as a first language in counties such as Cork, Donegal, Galway and Kerry, as well as in smaller areas of the counties of Mayo and Meath and Waterford. Even though it is an official language of the country, it is in an endangered state, and as such it should be conserved.

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_7

192 

Pieter C. Muysken

Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus. It has 13 million speakers in Greece, Cyprus, southern Albania, as well as in diaspora communities all over the world and small traditional pockets of speakers elsewhere in the eastern Mediterranean. In addition to the modern standard language, there are many dialects. The language is written with the traditional alphabet inherited from Ancient Greek, from which it descends but from which it also significantly differs. The impact of Greek upon the vocabulary of all languages, including English, has been enormous. Many prefixes such as, -poli (many), ‒ tele (distance) and suffixes such as -gram (letter), phobia, are used in the majority of languages. Modern Greek literature started flourishing around 1600, and since the nineteenth century there has been a steady stream of novels and poetry collections written in Greek. A well-known example is the poet Kafávis or Cafavy, who wrote mostly in Alexandria in Egypt. Modern Greek is a continuation, over many centuries, of Ancient Greek, the language of Homer, the great tragedies of Sophocles and others, and also of philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Russian is an important Slavic language, with over 170 million native speakers and perhaps also 124 million second language speakers. It is a politically important language, as the language of the former Soviet Union, but it is also culturally very important. Many authors write and continue to write in this language, and many works that are part of the canon of Western literature were written in Russian (we only need to think of Pushkin, Chekhov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, and so on and so forth), and there is a steady stream of new publications, including many masterpieces. Russians love to read. There have been six Nobel Prizes for Literature for Russian authors: Ivan Bunin (1933), Boris Pasternak (1958), Mikhail Sholokhov (1965), Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1970), Joseph Brodsky (1987), and Svetlana Alexievich (2015). Russian is written in the Cyrillic script, which was developed in Bulgaria in the ninth century, and is also used in other languages in the parts of Europe and Asia where the Orthodox church and Russia were influential. Armenian is an ancient Indo-European language, primarily spoken in Armenia, but also in some neighboring areas and by the Armenian diaspora. It constitutes a separate branch in the Indo-European family, but it may be closest related to Greek and somewhat more distantly to Indo-Iranian, the family that includes Farsi and Hindi. Armenian has its own alphabet, which was introduced in 405 CE. Since Armenia was surrounded by other powerful states, which later became Iran and Turkey, its territory was often divided and this has hampered the development of a continuous literary tradition. The language has played an important part in preserving Armenian identity. As said, written Armenian is very old. Originally, all texts were religious,

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

193

but with the Arabic conquest a folk tradition developed, first in oral form, about a great hero who would help to free the country. In the twelfth century more diverse genres flourished, and with the invasion by Iran the Armenian diaspora started, with books published in many parts of the world. With Romanticism, novels came to be published and now with independence Armenian literature is developing in several directions at once. Farsi or Persian is the language of Iran. It is a very old language, perhaps 6,000 to 7,000 years old. Farsi is written with the Arab alphabet (with some additions) but the language is Indo-European, not related to Arabic. Farsi has a very long literary tradition, dating back to inscriptions in the sixth century BCE but also to strong oral traditions. However, the major impulse for literature in Farsi came with Islam. Best known is the poetry from this era, which has become world-famous and has been translated into many languages. The poet Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī (Persian: ‫جالل‌الدین محمد‬ ‫رومی‬‎), better known as Rumi (1207-1273) has a strong reputation outside Iran. The Masnawi (metaphorical stories) and the Diwan Shams (love poems) are his most beautiful works. Also well-known in the West is the scientist and poet Omar Khayyam (eleventh century). Very famous, in many versions and translations, are the Tales of One Thousand and One Nights, which was compiled gradually out of different folk tales and appeared in book form in the eighth century CE, and was then modified again in the fourteenth century. Persian was also taken to India in the Mughal period (sixteenth century) and only was replaced there by Hindustani as the official language in the nineteenth century. In more recent periods, all literary genres are flourishing, and work from Iran is translated into French and English as well. Hindi is one of the official languages of the government of India (together with English) and spoken in many Indian states. It is a formalized register of Hindustani, a set of varieties which also includes Urdu, the off icial language of Pakistan and which after English and Mandarin is the third most frequently spoken language in the world. The term “Hindi” is also used for diaspora varieties across the world that descend from other northern Indian language varieties such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. A large number of the Hindi elite in Suriname, for example the pandits, the higher educated and the scribes, prefer to speak Hindi or Urdu instead of Hamaar Bhaasaa. Hindi is now written in the Devanagari script, in which consonant and vowel combinations are expressed in a single symbol. Earlier, other scripts were used as well. Hindi literature dates back to the eleventh century and is written in several dialects. Originally, there were mostly epic poems, but later other genres flourished, including lyrical poetry, plays, travel writing, and essays. The Bollywood film industry centered around Mumbai

194 

Pieter C. Muysken

produces a large number of films in Hindi (often with some English mixed in), generally with English subtitles. These films may portray traditional themes from Indian literature or romantic comedies. Hamaar Bhaasaa (also called Sarnami or Sarnami Hindoestani or Hindi) is the vernacular language of many people in Suriname with forebears from the Indian subcontinent. They consider it their mother tongue. It is based on the Hindi varieties Awadhi and Bhojpuri and gradually developed in Suriname after 1870 by the contract laborers and their descendants. In Suriname, the language has undergone many grammatical changes and has borrowed many words from Sranantongo and Dutch (like the word vertaal “translate”). Hamaar Bhaasaa literature dates from after 1945, although in the earlier period Hindi plays were adapted to the local variety. The principal genres are poetry, drama, and journalism. Nowadays, many speakers of Sarnami are in closer contact again with Hindi from India through films and social media.

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

Gaeilge (Irish) / Gaélico/Irlandes Teanga Dhúchais Is ann do bhreis agus 6,000 teanga ar domhan, – móramh an mhionlaigh – ach is tusa, a theanga Ghaeilge, is gaire do mo chroí, mothaím Gur ionatsa gur féidir liom sonraí fíneálta a chur in iúl, sonraí thar an ngnách, iad mar a bheadh ceol, le tondath agus le binneas nach ann dóibh, b’fhéidir, sna teangacha eile. Is ann do bhreis agus 6,000 teanga ar domhan, ach is í mo theanga dhúchais lenar bheathaigh mo mham is mo dhaid mé a mhuirním thar chách, a choimeádaim i ndoimhneacht mo chroí. Is ann do bhreis agus 6,000 teanga ar domhan, ach is sa Ghaeilge amháin a shnoímid an litríocht, is ise a chuirimid ar mhórshaothair an domhain chun ár dteanga dhúchais a uaisliú a thuilleadh. Fearacht an fheirmeora ar a thailte nach gcuireann an papá nó an práta milis nó an t-úll deilgneach nó an mealbhacán fada ar mhaithe len iad a bhaint le fáinne an lae, caithfimidne gach teanga dá bhfuil ar domhan

195

196 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

a mhuirniú agus a chosaint, fiú más den mhionlach is lú í. Translation: Dr. Mark Ó Fionnáin. Thanks to Antony Owers and Sean O’Donoghue. About the translator Opinions and challenges Mark Ó Fionnáin lectures in the Celtic Department at the Catholic University of Lublin, Poland, where he teaches courses in translation, conservation, Irish language, and culture. He is a translator, both of Russian and Polish into Irish. His main areas of research include Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx and their respective literatures. He writes, “I feel it is imperative to keep such a fragile, historic language alive, especially one surrounded and threatened by the vast sea of English. It is therefore important to translate all sorts of works into Irish – not just poetry – in order to show that other people’s literature, customs, histories, are not the preserve of English only, or can only be accessed through the medium of English, an attitude which would only help to further reduce the status of Irish. It is, furthermore, also important to reverse this process and translate from Irish into other languages in order to show that there is also modern vibrant literature – poetry, prose, plays – being produced in lesser-used languages. Translation, in effect, can help place Irish on the same pedestal as its more powerful neighbors, and it also thereby links foreign works to an unbroken literary tradition going back one and a half millennia. One book of Irish poetry well-worth reading, both for those with an interest in Irish literature, culture and history and those who know very little, is An Duanaire 1600–1900: Poems of the Dispossessed by Seán Ó Tuama and Thomas Kinsella, an anthological collection of original Irish poetry – and modern English translations – covering a period of three hundred years, from the time that the native Irish order fell to the English to the start of the Gaelic revival in the late 1800s. It therefore presents an overview of the response of the native Irish to the social, cultural and linguistic oppression imposed on them by the English, and covers various types of verse and poetic styles: love songs, prayers, humorous verses, epigrams and more. It is preceded by a detailed bilingual Introduction to the period, and to each

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

197

poet and poem, and overall the collection illustrates the personal, varied, human story of those dark centuries of Irish history.” Mark Ó Fionnáin ta duna kòlezje na e Fakultat Séltiko di Universidat Katóliko di Lubelski, Polonia. Aki e ta duna kurso den materia di tradukshon i kombersashon den idioma i kultura irlandes, na Fakultat Séltiko di Universidat Katóliko di Lubelski. E ta traduktor di tantu ruso komo polako pa lenga irlandes. Su terenonan prinsipal di investigashon ta inkluí e idiomanan, irlandes, Gaélico di Eskosia, Manx i nan respektivo literatura. E ta e traduktor di Translation in Times of Turmoil. Ta un echo ku tradukshon, por yuda pone irlandes riba mesun pedestal ku su bisiñanan mas poderoso i, asina vinkulá tambe obranan estranhero na un tradishon literario ininterumpí ku ta data di milenio i mei.

198 

Elliniká (Greek) / Griego Η μητρική γλώσσα (Mitriki mou glossa) Γλώσσες περισσότερες από έξι χιλιάδες υπάρχουν στον κόσμο, – μικρές στην πλειοψηφία τους – μα εσένα, Παπιαμέντο, νιώθω πιο κοντά στην καρδιά μου Σ’ εσένα μόνο μπορώ να εκφράσω τις αιθέριες λεπτομέρειες που ακούγονται σαν μουσική, τόνος και μελωδία, που ίσως στις άλλες γλώσσες ούτε να υπάρχουν Γλώσσες περισσότερες από έξι χιλιάδες υπάρχουν στον κόσμο, αλλά τη μητρική μου, εκείνη που η μαμά κι ο μπαμπάς με τάισαν με το κουτάλι, κρατώ πιο βαθιά στην καρδιά μου Γλώσσες περισσότερες από έξι χιλιάδες υπάρχουν στον κόσμο μας αλλά σ’ εσένα, Παπιαμέντο, αποτυπώνουμε τη λογοτεχνία μεταφράζουμε έργα διεθνή για να ανυψώσουμε τη μητρική μας γλώσσα πιο ψηλά ακόμα

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

Όπως ο αγρότης στη γη φυτεύει ακούραστα παπάγια και γλυκοπατάτες, Γουανάμπανα και νεροκολοκύθες για να ποικίλει η σοδειά του την αυγή, έτσι κι εμείς είναι ανάγκη ν’ αγαπάμε, να προστατεύουμε αυτού του κόσμου κάθε γλώσσα ακόμη κι αν στην πιο ταπεινή μειονότητα ριζώνει. Μετάφραση στα ελληνικά: Κλειώ Παρασκευοπούλου Translation: Cleo Paraskevopoulou. Special thanks to Amrita Eudoxie.

199

200 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Elliniká (Greek) / Griego: Transliteration / Transliterashon Mitriki mou glossa Glosses perissoteres apo eksi chiliades iparhoun ston kosmo, – mikres stin pliopsifia tous – ma esena, Papiamento niotho pio konta stin kardia mou S’esena mono mporo na ekfraso tis etheries leptomeries pou akougontai san mousiki, tonos ke melodia, pou isos stis alles glosses oute na iparhoun Glosses perissoteres apo eksi chiliades iparhoun ston kosmo, alla ti mitriki mou, ekini pou i mama ke o mpampas me taisan me to koutali, krato pio vathia stin kardia mou Glosses perissoteres apo eksi chiliades iparhoun ston kosmo mas alla s’esena, Papiamento, apotiponoume ti logotehnia metafrazoume erga diethni gia na anipsosoume th mitriki mas glossa pio poli akoma

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

201

Opos o agrotis sti gi fitevei akourasta papagia ke glikopatates guanabana ke nerokolokithes gia na pikili i sodia tou tin avgi, etsi ki emis ine anagki n’agapame na prostatevoume aftou tou kosmou kathe glossa akomi ki an stin pio tapini mionotita rizoni Greek transliteration: Cleo Paraskevopoulou. About the translator Opinions and challenges Cleo Paraskevopoulou is from Thessaloniki, Greece. She loves foreign languages and cultures for the way they can expand one’s view of the world; the translation of this poem has been, for her, quite precious in this respect. She writes, “Poetry might as well be one of the toughest types of writing to translate. Yet the process is a joy. One is striving to keep a rhythm, to grant the words the freedom they need to be heard singing. With ‘Mother Tongue’, in particular, the love infused in the text, the love for one’s mother tongue, helped me translate it in Greek with that necessary freedom. I played a little with the order of the words and sometimes didn’t go for the obvious choices. One word that I transformed was ‘delicate’: It is in you that I can express delicate details that go beyond, that sound like music, tone and melody that maybe in the other languages do not exist

The first options that come to one’s mind entail notions of sensitivity as well as fragility. I didn’t think they were the best match, so I thought I could

202 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

use ‘αιθέριες / etheries’ instead. Ethereal. Not just delicate, rather, heavenly. Small but important. Transcendent. Currently, as a graphic designer with a background in science, I don’t feel like I am any sort of natural or that I’ll ever fully understand. But what a world! How amazed can a person become by the countless links and connections between the languages spoken on our planet. How beautifully each one of them opens a window to another. And how essential it is, staying in touch with the language of one’s land. The language that requires no struggle to form, because it was imprinted on us before memories, earlier than most things in our life. The native language. Now, translation is the manifestation of that window I just spoke about. It can be high up and it can be risky looking out of it, going too close to the open air. Yet it is our best chance of communicating with the outside view and of letting others peek into what we call home.” Cleo Paraskevopoulou ta di Thessaloniki, Gresia. E ta stima lenga i kultura stranhero pa e manera kon nan por amplia un hende su bista riba bida. Tradusí e poema “Lenga di Mama” tabata den e respekto aki, algu presioso p’e. Poesia muy bien por ta un di e formanan di skirbi mas difísil pa tradusí. Sin embargo, e proseso ta trese alegria.

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

203

Russkiy yazyk (Russian) / Ruso Pодной язык (Rodnoy Yazik) Ближе всех и роднее мне мамин язык, Он звучит для меня с колыбели. И из нескольких тысяч он в сердце ‒ один. Называется он ‒ Папьяменто. На тебе, мой язык, я могу описать Все нюансы, оттенки Вселенной. Ты как песня звучишь. Где, ещё, мне скажи, Я мелодию в слове могла бы найти? Среди тысячи тысяч чужих говоров Я узнаю родной Папьяменто. Он с пелёнок знаком; он мне в сердце зашёл С материнским густым молоком. В мире несколько тысяч других языков. Я добавлю в копилку родного Переводы шедевров и свой скромный вклад. Развивайся, родной Папьяменто! Фермер вырастил тыкву, папайю, батат, Экзотический фрукт Гуабану. Пестрота урожая очень важна. Однообразие губит природу. Так и мы сохраним всю палитру культур Древних, редких, больших и не очень. В мире несколько тысяч иных языков Разнообразие красит планету. Translation: Marina Bondareva-Matizen. Special thanks to Lucia Dove and Jassir de Windt. About the translator Opinions and challenges

204 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Marina Bondareva-Matizen’s hobbies are creative writing and genealogy. She has a blog on Facebook «Марина Матизен. Кафе Счастье» where she writes about old photos and the history of her family. Her pseudonym is Matizen. She writes, “While working on the poem I didn’t translate it ‘word-toword’. My goal was to preserve the main idea of the original. For example, in Russian we have a very good expression ‘to soak with mother’s milk’ and I thought this Russian phraseology would be a better translation for the phrase ‘it is my native speech which mom and dad spoon fed me’. I believe that native language is a very important part of the culture of each country. Samuil Marshak, a Russian poet (1887-1964) translated the poetry of Robert Burns with such perfection that his translations inspired Russian composers to write beautiful songs. These poems are: ‘A Red Red Rose’, ‘Poortith Cauld and Restless Love’, ‘For The Sake O’ Somebody’ and ‘The Winter it is Past’. These songs were very popular in Russia in the late 1970s but only few people knew that the verses were born in Scotland.” E hòbinan di Marina Bondareva-Matizen ta skirbimentu kreativo i genealogia. E tin un blòg riba Facebook «Марина Матизен. Кафе Счастье» kaminda e ta skirbi tokante portrèt di tempu bieu i e historia di su famia. Pa ilustrá importansia di tradukshon, Marina ta skirbi, Samuel Marslak, poeta ruso (1887-1964) a tradusí e poesia di Robert Burns ku tantu perfekshon ku su tradukshonnan a inspirá kompositornan ruso pa skirbi kansionnan bunita. Jassir de Windt was born in Nijmegen, the Netherlands (1979) and raised in Curaçao. He has a master of Arts in Communication and a Bachelor of Business Administration. He stayed for a while with a Russian family in Russia, and has Russian friends who helped him find a translator for the first Russian translation which does not figure in this book. He is an example of the younger generation, open to other cultures, languages, diversity. De Windt writes, “I would describe my personal reality as a polyglot kaleidoscope. That is, I prefer to write in English, as the ‘souplesse’ or flexibility of this language lends itself for wonderful phrases. In public, I prefer to express myself in Dutch, as the seniority of this language results into me feeling heard. When it comes to popular culture and literature, I prefer Spanish, as the passion this language oozes a certain sense of childhood nostalgia. Finally, during moments of unrestrainedness I turn to Papiamentu, the first language I have been exposed to from birth.” Jassir de Windt a nase na Nijmegen, Hulanda (1979) i a lanta na Kòrsou. Lo mi por deskribí mi realidat personal komo un kaleidoskop poliglòt.

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

Hayeren/Hayastan (Armenian) / Armenio Mayreni lezu Ashxarum 6.000 ic avel lezuner kan ‒ poqramasnutyan metsamasnutyune ‒ bayc da du es, Papiamento, vor amena motiknem yes zgum im srtum Bayc da du es vor yes karoxanumem artahaytel nurb manrukner vore durs en galis vore yerki nmane hnchvum ton yev meghedin vore karox e urish lezunerum goyutyun chunen Ashxarum 6.000 ic avel lezuner kan bayc im mayreni khoskne vori mor u hor gtale indz kerakrel e vor amenits shat yes paypayumem vor khore im srtum yes aprumem Ashxarum 6.000 ic avel lezuner kan bayc miayn Papiamento um e ayd grakanutyune vor e menk gravumenk vor mijazgayin glukhgorcocner menk tarkmanumenk, mer mayreni lezun menk karoxenk aveli bardcracnel Nuynisk vorpes hoghagorc, miangamic chen gorcum papaya, kaghcr kartofil ttu sop yev calabash aravotyan berki bazmazanutyune menk el petk e pahpanenk yev paypayel amen lezu vore vor goyutyun uni ays ashxari vra, nuynisk ayn nvazaguyn poqramasnutyunic Translation: Diana Gasparyan. About the translator Opinions and challenges

205

206 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Diana Gasparyan is from Armenia but lives in the Netherlands. Armenian is a language that is only used by people of Armenian origin. It would be nice to see that people of a different origin also show an interest in this beautiful language. “I think that it is very important that people don’t neglect their mother tongue. In life we are looking for who we really are and where our roots lie. This is reflected, for example, in adopted children who wish to visit their biological parents at a certain age. Particularly, when it comes to a minority language, people should use it more often and pass it on to the next generations so that it does not get lost. Poetry and translation are very good ways to promote the existence of mother tongue. In addition, by writing poetry and translating, our mother tongue is even used in a creative way. Many Armenians still use and read the poems of an ancient poet named Paruyr Sevak. His texts are widely known to all Armenians. This is an example of the Armenian language that is preserved through poetry.” Diana Gasparyan ta di Armenia pero ta biba na Hulanda. Ta solamente hende di orígen armenio ta papia e lenga akí aktualmente. Lo ta bunita mira otro hende di diferente orígen tambe mustra interes pa e idioma bunita akí.

‫‪207‬‬

‫ ‪Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo‬‬

‫)‪Fārsī (Persian/Farsi) / (Persiano‬‬ ‫(‪ )Zaban-e Madari‬مادری‬ ‫شش هزار زبان در این دنیا‬ ‫که مردم با آنها حرف میزنند – برخی کمرت و برخی بیشرت‪-‬‬ ‫ولی این عشق توست پاپیامنتو‬ ‫که در قلب من شعله می کشد‬ ‫با توست که من‬ ‫لطیف ترین دقایق را بیان میدارم‬ ‫در توست آن موسیقی گوش نواز‬ ‫آن آواها و نغمهها‬ ‫که شاید در هیچ زبانی نباشد‬ ‫شش هزار زبان‬ ‫در این دنیا‬ ‫اما تو زبان مادریم هستی‬ ‫که پدر و مادر ذره ذره به من چشاندهاند‬ ‫که ب رایم عزیزترینی‬ ‫که در دنج ترین أعامق قلبم خانه داری‬ ‫شش هزار زبان‬ ‫در این دنیا‬ ‫اما به دست توست پاپیامنتو‬ ‫که ادب و هرن را نقش می زنیم‬ ‫که شاهکارهای جهان را به زبان خود بر می گردانیم‬ ‫تا زبان بومیامن را بال و پر دهیم‪.‬‬ ‫با امید ف راوانی و تنوع در روز درو‬ ‫مثل کشاورزی که تنها در زمین‬ ‫پاپایا منیکارد و سیبزمینی شیرین‬ ‫یا فقط کدو قلیانی و ساپادیل‬ ‫ما نیز متام زبانهای دنیا را‬ ‫عزیز میداریم و م راقبت میکنیم‬ ‫حتی اگر زبان چند نفر باشد‬ ‫هیلدا دی وینت ایوبی‬ ‫بیست و سوم آوریل ‪۲۰۱۴‬‬ ‫روز جهانی کتاب‬ ‫ترجمه فارسی از لیال الحق‬

208 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: Leila Alhagh. Thanks to Helen Chiha, teacher and children’s book writer (Australia). About the translator Opinions and challenges Leila Alhagh is an Islamic art and manuscripts researcher. It was such a blessing to become familiar with Hilda’s culture and native language through her eyes and words. She said in the best words what indeed needed to be said for any native language. May we all cherish our native languages and the beauties they enjoy. Leila was the curator of “The Garden of the Prophet Exhibition” (Melbourne, Australia, November 2018 ‒ March 2019). In this exhibition, selected paintings, documents and literary works of Kahlil Gibran were on display. “While translating this poem into Persian (Farsi) I have dealt with two particular problems. Firstly, the analogies used in some of the expressions and phrases were not common in Persian. Secondly, some of the fruits and vegetables mentioned in the poem do not exist in Iran or the Middle East. So, naming them could affect the connection between Farsi speaking readers and the translated poem. There were some unknown expressions for which I had to find phrases in Farsi, that have similar meanings and implications. Otherwise, just word to word translation would not make any sense in Persian, for example, ‒ ‫رتشیب یخرب و رمتک یخرب‬, ‘the majority of a minority’ and the ‫ک رد نیرت جند قامعأ مبلق ھناخ ی‬, “the deepest I harbor in my heart”. Leila ta investigadora di arte i manuskrito islámiko. Tabata asina un bendishon pa atraves di Hilda su wowo- i palabranan familiarisá ku su kultura i lenga materno. El a ekspresá den e mihó palabranan loke ta konta pa kualkier lenga materno. Ohalá nos tur tesorá nos lenga di mama i e beyesanan ku e ta disfrutá. Leila tabata e kuratòr di e eksposishon “E hardin di e Profeta” (Melbourne, Australia, Novèmber, 2018 ‒ Mart 2019). Tabata un eksposishon di un selekshon di pintura, obra literario i dokumento di Kahlil Gibran.

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

Hindi/Devanagari (Hindi) / Hindi मातृ भ ाषा (Matribhasha) ६००० से अद िक भाषाएँ दु न िया में अध िकाँ श अल्पसं ख्यक ले किन तु म् हार ी पापिआमें त ो मे रे सबसे पास है मे रे द िल के पास तु म में ह ी मैं पा सकता हूँ बे ह तर ीन व िवरण जो सं ग ीत क ी तरह आवाज करते हैं, स्वर और माधु र्य शायद अन्य भाषाओं में मौजू द नह ीं है ६००० से अध िक भाषाएँ दु न िया में हैं ले किन मे र ी मातृ भ ाषा को मे रे माँ और पिता ने प्यार से घु ट ट ी में मु झे पिलाया उसको मैं सबसे कर ीब अपने द िल में धारण करता हूँ ६००० से अध िक भाषाएँ दु न िया में हैं ले किन पापिआमें त ो में हम साहित्य ल िखते हैं व िश्व साहित्य को पापिआमें त ो में अनु व ाद करते हैं हमार ी मातृ भ ाषा को ऊपर उठाने के ल िए जम ीन पर किसान क ी तरह सिर्फ मकई के पौधे नह ीं ले किन शकरकं द भ ी पप ीता ,खटटा और कालबास कल फसल में व िभ िन्नता पाने के ल िए इस ी तरह हर भाषा को सं जोना और रक्षा करन ी है

209

210 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

जो दु न िया में मौजू द हैं भले ह ी सबसे छोट ी हो अल्पसं ख्यक में , यह भाषा ! प्रोफ़े सर प ीटर मु इ स्कें न ीदरलैं ड , २१ फरवर ी २०१४ अं त र्राष्ट् रीय मातृ भ ाषा द िवस Translation: Kamla Ramcharan-Ganesh. Antar raashtrieya maatri Bhaashaa Diwas. Special thanks to Shereeta Ramcharan.

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

211

Hindi/ Devanagari (Hindi) / Hindi: Transliteration/Transliterashon Matribhasha 6.000 se adhik bhaashaae Duniyaa me adhikaansh alpa sankhyak lekin tumhaarie papiamento mere sabse paas hai mere dil ke saath Tum me hie mai paa sakataa hoe behatarien wiwaranh djo sangeet kie tarah aawaaz karte hain, swar aur maadhurya shaayad anya bhaashaao me maudjoed nahie hai 6.000 se adhik bhaashaae duniya me hain lekin merie maatrie bhaashaa ko mere maa aur pitaa ne pyaar se ghuththie me mudje pilaayaa usko mai sabse karieb apne dil me dhaaranh kartaa hoe 6.000 se adhik bhaashaae duniyaa me hai lekin papiamento me ham saahitya likhate hain wishwa saahitya ko Papiamento me anuwaad karte hain hamaarie maatri bhaashaa ko oepar uthaane ke liye Zamien par kisaan kie tarah sirf makai ke paudhe nahie lekin shakarkanda bhie papietaa,khathathaa aur kalebas kal fasal me wibhinnataa paane ke liye isie tarah har bhaashaa ko sandjonaa aur rakshaa karnie hai djo duniyaa me maudjoed hai bhale hie sab se chotie ho alp sankhyak me yah bhaashaa. Hindi: Transliteration: Antar raashtrieya maatri Bhaashaa Diwas. Translation: Kamla Ramcharan-Ganesh. About the translator Opinions and challenges Kamla Ramcharan-Ganesh was born in Suriname. She is from the fourth generation of Indian immigrants. She speaks three languages, Hindi, Dutch, and Sarnámi, and teaches young people in the Hindi doctrine and religion. I studied Hindi but Sarnami is my mother tongue. “My mother tongue is my own language that I have learned through oral transmission which happened automatically without any effort. Only by hearing it could I understand and speak it. I didn’t have to learn any grammar. In my native language, I can easily express my thoughts and my emotions. We are social creatures and depend on each other. Therefore, we must be able to share our love and sorrow with each other. And in which other language than our mother tongue can we do this better? Furthermore, the mother tongue strengthens the bond, the mutual relationship and a

212 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

close unity is created through the cultural values and norms that belong to a person’s language. Poems are often events, thoughts, experiences, stories that are short and powerful. They are often easy to understand and to remember and very pleasant to read. They are written down on paper, so the language remains alive forever through poetry, and cannot just die out. There are many books in Hindi but the Vedas are our holy books. The mantras are in Sanskrit with subtitles in Hindi. What inspired me in these books is that there are three entities that are eternal. We are with a purpose on Earth and that means that we must raise our souls. The Body is the means to achieve that goal. The body is compared to a jacket. When worn out, it will be replaced by a new one which is based on our actions and deeds. That inspires me to always do the right thing and live a sober, modest life.” Kamla Ramcharan-Ganesh a nase na Sürnam i e ta di e di 4 generashon di imigrante hindi. E ta papia 3 idioma, hindi, hulandes i Sarnami i ta duna lès na hóbennan den doktrina i religion hindi. Mi a studia hindi pero Sarnámi ta mi lenga di mama. Poesia frekuentemente ta ekspreshon di evento, pensamentu, eksperensia i historia kòrtiku i poderoso. Hopi biaha fásil di komprondé i memorisá i agradabel pa lesa.

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

Hamaar Bhaasaa/Sarnámi Hindoestani (Sarnámi) / Sarnami Mahatári bhásá Chau hajjár se jádá bhásá hai duniyá men ‒ sab se dher kam jane ke baki tu, Papiamento, hamse bilkul sab se priye hai Torhi men srif ham pái sakilá ek se ek madhur cinhá jaun sangit jaise gunguná hai, swar aur sur jaun sáit dusar bhásá men ná hai. Chau hajjár se jádá bhásá hai duniyá men baki hamár mahatári bhásá jaun dulárá se hamár báp-mái hamare men chotainye se basáil hai oke ham apan jigar men dapkaile rahab Chau hajjár se jádá bhásá hai duniyá men baki Papiamento men hamlog likhilá sahittyá, Papiamento men hamlog anubád karilá wiswa sahittyá, apan mahatári bhásá ke ohin uncá darjá par rakkhe khát Jaise ek kisán apan khet men ná kháli makai bowe hai baki bhi patetá, papaiyá, salifá aur kalbási agámi men wiwidhatá káte khát, aisahin hamlog ke har ek bhásá ke

213

214 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

gale lagáwe ke cáhin aur rakshá kare ke jaun i duniyá men maujud hai, cáhen u sab se pilli alpasankhyak hai, i bhásá! Translation: Rabin S. Baldewsingh. Special thanks to Henk Moeniralam, a cofounder of WCACN (De werkgroep Caribische en Aziatische Cultuur Nijmegen /The Association of the Caribbean and Asian Culture in the city of Nijmegen). About the translator Opinions and challenges Rabin S. Baldewsingh’s oevre is huge, so we had to make a selection for this publication. In 1984, he made his debut with his novella Stifá (“Farewell”) and in 1984 his short novel Sunwái Kahán (“Nowhere a Refuge”). He also published some poetry collections in Sarnámi. In 2013, he released his bilingual collection Man ke Mauni / In de Stilte van de Ziel (“In the Silence of the Soul”). In 2018, two linguistic publications would be the crowning glory: Het Sarnámi woordenschat (The Sárnami Vocabulary) and The Sarnámi taalgids (“The Sárnami Language Guide”). He also initiated the Sarnámihuis (“Sarnámi House”) and several social-cultural activities and festivities. “With only 400,000 speakers worldwide, Sarnámi is a language that is under severe oppression and we cannot disregard the fact that eventually it will disappear. Language is very important to a people, it is a heritage that is closely linked to identity. That is why it is good to cherish, preserve and further develop it. I enjoyed translating Hilda’s poem into my native language. And this was not really difficult because the deeper meaning of the poem touched me very much, particularly, taking into account the actual position of Sarnámi. I found some special words and expressions in the poem that moved me. For example, the expression, met de lepel ingegeven ‘spoon-fed’ which I have translated very lyrically, saying that the language huist in mij ‘lives in me’. It was also exciting to play with words like minderheid ‘minority’ and diversiteit ‘diversity’ which was indeed difficult, for it contains a contradiction that makes you think, but further, it is nice to ‘play’ with in Sarnámi so as to achieve a result that is profound and sounds lyrical. It was a pleasure to participate in this project through my small contribution as a translator of a special poem.”

Other Indo -European L anguages / Otro Idiomanan Indo -Europeo 

215

Ya ku Rabin Baldewsingh su obra ta enorme nos mester a hasi un selekshon. Na 1984 Rabin a dibutá ku un kuenta kòrtiku, Stifá (Despedida) i na 1984 su novela kòrtiku Sunwái Kahán (‘Sin Niun Refugio’) i algun kolekshon di poesia na Sarnámi a ser publiká. Na 2013 el a saka su kolekshon bilingual di poesia Man Ke Mauni / ‘Den Silensio di e Alma’. Na 2018 dos publikashon lingwístiko a koroná su obra: Het Sarnámi woordenschat (‘Vokabulario Sarnami’) i De Sarnámi Taalgids (E guia pa Idioma Sarnámi). El a inisiá e Sarnámihuis (‘Kas di Sarnámi’) i diferente aktividat i festividat sosial ‒ kultural. Tabata eksitante hunga ku palabranan manera ‘minoria’ i ‘diversidat’ pero difísil tambe ya ku tin un kontradikshon ei ku ta pone bo pensa.

Finland

Estonia

Estonian Russia

Latvia

Lithuania

France

Basque Country

Basque

Spain Portugal

Other languages of Europe



Other Languages of Europe Otro idiomanan di Europa Pieter C. Muysken

Abstract While many languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European family, there are two other families represented on the continent (in addition to the Semitic language Maltese spoken in the Republic of Malta): Finno-Ugric or Uralic and Basque. This section presents translations into these additional European language families. Keywords: Folk Poetry, Literature, Ergative Language, Bilingual

The Finno-Ugric or Uralic family is presented in this book by Eesti Keel or Estonian, a language related to Finnish, spoken primarily in the Republic of Estonia, where it is the official language. It has over 1,000,000 speakers. The first texts in Estonian date back to the sixteenth century; in earlier times German was used, a language from which Estonian borrowed many words. More recently, Russian became dominant and there still is a Russianspeaking minority in Estonia. Like Finnish, the language has a very rich case system, with fourteen case endings for each noun. Thus, “Put the glass on the table” becomes Pane klaas lauale, and “I took the glass from the table” Ma võtsin klaasi laualt. The adjective generally agrees with the noun in case. From the sixteenth century onwards, there has been written literature in Estonian, much of which took the form of folk poetry and later on also folk songs. Modern Estonian literature covers several genres. Euskera or Basque is the well-known language of Basque country in part of northern Spain and southwestern France. It is not related to the other European languages, and there has been considerable speculation about possible relatives of the language outside of Europe but without much

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_8

218 

Pieter C. Muysken

success. Despite being declared as dying already in the nineteenth century, it has survived and currently has around 700,000 speakers. In addition to the standard language, Euskera Batua, there are five regional dialects. Euskera has undergone influences from surrounding Spanish and French varieties, but it also may have influenced Spanish in the past. Basque is an ergative language, which means that the subject of a transitive verb receives a special marking, as in the following example: Ni-k liberu bat eresten dut “I buy the book”. Here the pronoun ni “I” is marked with a -k because it is ergative. There are some written texts dating back to the ninth century CE, but Euskera literature took off more seriously in the seventeenth century. At the beginning there were mostly religious texts and a play, but later on more genres were represented, and today there is a flourishing literary scene with some authors translated into other languages as well. Most Basques are bilingual, speaking Spanish or French in addition to their own language.

Other L anguages of Europe / Otro idiomanan di Europa 

219

Eesti Keel (Estonian) / Estones Emakeel On ilmas keeli üle kuue tuhande, neist enamikku räägib vähemus. Kuid sina, papiamento, nende seast mu südamele oled kõige lähemal. Just sina annad mulle võimaluse end väljendada kõige täpsemalt, su sõnad kõlavad kui muusika, mis teistes keeltes eksisteerida ei saakski vahest. On ilmas keeli üle kuue tuhande, kuid oma emakeelt, mis ema-isa on mulle lusika peal ulatanud, ma hindan üle kõige ja hoian südames nii sügaval. On ilmas keeli üle kuue tuhande, kuid papiamento keeles loome kirjandust, maailma meistriteoseid sellesse me tõlgime, et meie emakeel kord enneolematutesse kõrgustesse tõuseks. Ei külva põllumees ju ainult maisi: ta kasvatab papaiat ja bataati, annoonat, kalebassi, et päevatõusul mitmekesist saaki korjata. Nii nõndasama hindama ja kaitsma peame iga keelt siin ilmas, ükskõik kui väike on see rahvakild, kes seda räägib. Translation: Katrin Kern. Thanks to Kristina Deshko. Frank in de Knipscheer and the Estonian Consulate in Curaçao. About the translator Opinions and challenges Katrin Kern is an editor, a translator and an educator. She loves languages, books and music. Every language has some particular ways of looking at the

220 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

world, but it also sheds light to the corners of our mind, so we understand our human experience more. “I usually don’t translate poems, so I was a bit hesitant. In the end I just imagined how I would say those thoughts in Estonian, then revised it to be more concise and rhythmical. I had no particular difficulties word wise, except for some plants that are not grown in Estonia. I had to check a database of botanical names to find a word for sòrsaka, ‘soursop’. The botanists here have just modified the Latin name for it (Annona muricata) and called it ‘annoona’. I used this word as it gives some exotic flavor to the poem. Mother tongue is the means for the children to connect to the world, to make their way in it and relate to other people. As it is so nicely put in the poem, we need diversity. Minority languages bring with them unique ideas of the world around us. There is a fine example in Estonian literature. About 200 years ago a very young Estonian man wrote the following lines: ‘Cannot the language of this land / like a song on fire / rise up to the skies / to seek its own eternity?’ His name was Kristjan Jaak Peterson and he is now considered to be the first Estonian poet. He died at a young age and his manuscripts were published about a hundred years after his death. Another hundred years passed and Estonia became an independent state, and Estonian acquired the status of official language. We now can answer his question with ‘Yes, it can’ and we celebrate the Day of Mother Tongue on his birthday. In a way, it all started with a poem.” Katrin Kern ta editor, traduktor i edukador. E stima idioma, buki, i músika. Kada idioma tin su manera partikular di mira mundu, pero kada unu ta tira su lus tambe riba hukinan di nos mente, pa asina nos por komprondé nos eksperensia humano mihó. Pa ilustrá esaki, Katrina ta sita un par di verso antiguo di un yònkuman estones, E lenga di nos tera /Meskos ku un kantika na kandela / Lo no por lanta su buelo pa shelu / Pa buska su propio eternidat?

Other L anguages of Europe / Otro idiomanan di Europa 

Euskera (Basque) / Basko Ama-hizkuntza Badira munduan 6.000 hizkuntza baino gehiago, ‒ gutxituak gehienak ‒ baina zu zara, papiamento, bihotzetik gertuen dudana. Zugan adierazi ditzaket xehetasun finenak, musika gisa, gainontzeko hizkuntzetan, agian, existitzen ez diren doinu eta tonuak. Badira lurrean 6.000 hizkuntza baino gehiago, baina nire jatorrizko hizkuntza, gurasoek koilarakadaka emandakoa, guztien artean dut maiteena, bihotzeko txoko sakonenean gordeta. Badira gurean 6.000 hizkuntza baino gehiago, baina bakarrik papiamento zizelkatzen dugu gure literaturan eta munduko maisulanak itzuli, gure ama hizkuntza gorago jasotzeko. Nekazariak, egunsentitik uzta anizteko, ez du soilik artoa ereiten, guanabana, papaia, kuia eta batata ere sorrarazten ditu. Haren gisara, guk ere balioetsi eta zaindu behar dugu lurreko hizkuntza bakoitza, gutxiengo txikienetik eratorri arren.

221

222 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: Miren Ayanaya Uriarte. Thanks to Arawi Ruiz, Historian and Quechua language teacher and translator at Academia Quechua de Humanidades in Ecuador. About the translator Opinions and challenges Miren Ayanaya has a degree in psychology and a master’s degree in Participation and Comunitarian Development from the Basque Public University (UPV / EHU). She has worked as a Basque teacher for non native speakers of Euskera (euskaltegi) and has also collaborated on projects for the revitalization of the Basque language. She owes her first name to her hometown, Euskal Herria, and her second name to her brotherhood with the Kichwa people. She understands language as a unique and collective way of feeling and understanding life, and has, as a reference, the renowned euskaltzale (the one that fights and militates in favor of the Euskera language), Elbira Zipitria. “Txori bakoitzak bere kantaera eta herri bakoitzak bere hizkera.” Elbira Zipitria (Each bird its song and each town its language). “When translating the poem, there was an expression that made me reflect: ‘the majority of a minority’ which according to me, did not receive the special prominence it requires. The terms ‘minority language’ gutxiagoko hizkuntza and ‘minorized language’, hizkuntza gutxitua are concepts that we try to differentiate well in Euskera, since in the case of ‘minorized languages’, gutxituak there is an intention behind. The intention of making them disappear, through violence and power. That is why the translation into Euskara was gutxituak gehienak, ‘the minorized majority’, in the poem. There is a work by the historian Xamar (Juan Carlos Etxegoien Juanarena) that is highly recommended and goes hand in hand with this work. It’s called Etxera bidean, but it has also been translated into Spanish: De vuelta a casa (‘Back home’). It is an autobiographical work in which Xamar recounts the rupture in the natural transmission of Euskera and the recovery work that the young people of his valley did.” Miren Ayanaya ta lisensiado den sikologia i tin un maestria den Partisipashon i Desaroyo Komunitario di Universidad Pública Vasca (UPV/ EHU). El a traha komo dosente di euskera pa ablante no nativo di euskera (euskaltegi). Ademas el a kolaborá ku proyektonan pa revitalisashon di euskera. E debe su promé nòmber na su lugá di nasementu, Euskal Herria,

Other L anguages of Europe / Otro idiomanan di Europa 

223

i su di dos nòmber na su fraternidat ku e pueblo Kichwa. Pa Miren lenga ta un forma úniko i kolektivo di sinti i komprondé bida. Su referensia ta Euskal Herria, e konosido euskaltzale (esun ku ta lucha i militá na fabor di e idioma euskera). “Txori bakoitzak bere kantaera eta herri bakoitzak bere hizkera” Elbira Zipitria (Kada para ku su kanto y kada pueblo ku su lenga). E términonan ‘Lenga di minoria’ gutxiagoko hizkuntza i ‘lenga minorisá’ hizkuntza gutxitua’ ta konseptonan ku nos ta purba distinguí bon den Euskera, ya ku den kaso di e término “lenga di minoria” tin un intenshon skondí, esta, esun di pone nan desaparesé, atraves di violensia i poder.

Semitic Languages

The African countries where Arabic is the official (main) language.

Sudan

Libya Egypt

Tunisia

Algeria

Mauritania

Western Sahara

Morocco

Inset is not scaled

Modern Hebrew Jordan

Syria Arabic

Iraq

Yemen

Arabic

Saudi Arabia

Sureth

Aramaic

Şurayt Arabic

Arabic

Israel

Arabic

Palestine

Arabic Lebanon

Turkey

Arabic

Oman Arabic

Qatar Qatar Arabic U.A.E. U.A.E. Arabic

Bahrain Bahrain Arabic

Kuwait Kuwait Arabic

Iran



Semitic Languages Idioma Semítiko Pieter C. Muysken and Alessandro Mengozzi (for the Aramaic languages and Hebrew)

Abstract The Semitic language family is spoken in the Middle-East and northern Africa, and is a branch of the much larger Afroasiatic language family. It is historically very important since several religious traditions are transmitted in a Semitic language, including Islam and Judaism. Although speakers of some of the Semitic languages are politically divided, their languages are closely related. The writing systems of the Semitic languages prioritize the consonants, while the vowels are either not marked at all or are marked with small dots. In this book, translations into Arabic, Aramaic and Hebrew are included. All three language names stand for a cluster of varieties, some ancient, some modern. Keywords: Religious Tradition, Ancient Languages, Modern Languages, Middle-East, Aramaic, Hebrew, Arabic, Afroasiatic language family

The word “Arabic” can be used as a collective name for a large number of varieties, spoken in a vast area from the Persian Gulf to Mauritania, often alongside of other local languages. It is also the term for Modern Standard Arabic (a standardized variety that developed in the Arabic world over a hundred years ago) and Classical Arabic (the language used in the Quran and texts from the same period). The latter two varieties differ mostly in vocabulary, and for Arabic speakers are variants of the same language. The identity conveyed by the term “Arabic” is so strong that it overrides the many linguistic differences between the varieties of the language. The written version of the language is mostly the standard variety. Like Hebrew, Arabic is a Semitic language and it belongs to the Afro-asiatic language family. The

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part02_9

226 

PIETER C. MUYSKEN AND ALESSANDRO MENGOZZI

Arabic script dates back to the fourth century CE, and is also used for many other languages in countries with a strong Islamic tradition. The Qur’an has been instrumental in giving shape to the extremely rich Arabic literary tradition, which covers many genres: poetry has been very important, as well as religious studies, surprisingly many cookbooks, but also plays, novels, and scholarly treatises. Only a small part of this tradition is known in the West. As is already apparent from the writing system, words are characterized through their consonants, and vowels added for extra information. Thus, kitab is “book” and kutub “books”, katib is “writer” and kuttab “writers”. All the words share the consonants [k,t,b], which carry the basic meaning. Surayt and Sureth, included in this book, are varieties of the “Aramaic” language. Sureth is the autoglottonym used among other names— (Vernacular) Aramaic, (Modern) Assyrian, Chaldean vulgar, (Modern) Syriac, Vernacular Syriac—, for North-Eastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) varieties that were and are spoken and occasionally written by Christians of various denominations—especially Assyrians, Chaldeans and Syrian Catholics—in northern Iraq, south-eastern Turkey, Syria and north-western Iran. Ṣurayt is the current autoglottonym for Ṭūrōyo or Ṭōrānī, the cluster of Modern Aramaic dialects spoken by Syriac Orthodox Christians in Ṭur ‘Abdin, south-eastern Turkey. The autoglottonyms Sureth and Ṣurayt derive from the adverb surā’iṯ “in Syriac” and Syriac is the classical variety of literary and liturgical Aramaic used by all Christians to the East of Byzantium, from Syria to Mesopotamia, from Persia to Central Asia, from India to China. Terms such as surāyē or suryānī simply mean “Christians” in many languages of the Middle East. The Christians of the region have as main cultural centers the Syriac Orthodox monasteries of Ṭur ʿAbdin, the village of Alqosh in the Mosul plain and the city of Urmia in north-western Iran. Alqosh has been active since the sixteenth century in the preservation and revitalization of East-Syriac literature, and today is an entirely Chaldean village on the troubled border between the Kurdish Autonomous Region and the Iraqi Governorate of Nineveh/Mosul. During the nineteenth century, the East-Syriac Christians of Urmia adopted ideas and cultural practices of Western modernity, including schools and educational systems and institutions, the press, foreign literary genres such as dramas, novels, short stories, and journalism. In line with the process of cultural appropriation of the Assyrian and, more in general, Mesopotamian past in traditional Syriac culture, Urmi intellectuals of the nineteenth century developed a national consciousness, based on the identification of East-Syriac Christians with the ancient Assyrians of preChristian Mesopotamia.

Semitic L anguages / Idioma Semítiko 

227

Whatever denomination and identity they adopt for themselves — Arameans, Assyrians, Chaldeans or even Syriacs — all speakers of Modern Aramaic love their language — whatever name they call it — and perceive it as part and parcel of their religious, cultural or political identities. They try to preserve it and promote its knowledge and use among younger generations in the Middle-East and especially in the worldwide diaspora. It is their mother tongue, the direct link to their ancestors’ culture, their contemporary communal identities and their beloved and dreamed-of homelands. Hebrew is the ancient language of the Hebrew Bible and the first official language of the State of Israel. It was used in antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages as the language of liturgy and culture by all Jewish communities. Many Hebrew words were also retained in the so-called Jewish languages, such as Ladino, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Italian, Jewish Neo-Aramaic, and Yiddish, which are all written in Hebrew script, but they are in fact varieties of Arabic, Aramaic, Romance or Germanic languages. The modern language is used by many modern authors such as Amos Oz and David Grossman and is spoken by over 9,000,000 people as a first or second language. Poland recognizes it as a minority language, and there are communities in the United States that use the language regularly.

‫‪PIETER C. MUYSKEN AND ALESSANDRO MENGOZZI‬‬

‫ ‪228‬‬

‫‪Al-ʿarabiyyah (Arabic) / Árabe‬‬ ‫(‪ )Lugha Umm‬ال لّغة األم‬ ‫يوجد أكرث من ستة آالف لغة يف العامل‬ ‫ولك ّن ني أشعر أنّك أنت أيّ تها البابيامنتو‬ ‫من هي األقرب إىل قلبي‬ ‫بك أستطيع التعبري عن تفاصيل دقيقة‬ ‫الص وت وال ّن غمة‬ ‫هي أبعد من ّ‬ ‫وهذا من املمكن أن ال يتواجد يف لغات أخرى‬ ‫يوجد أكرث من ستة آالف لغة يف العامل‬ ‫ولك ّن ها لغتي األ ّم الّتي نسغتها عن أ ّم ي وأيب‬ ‫والّتي أغتبط بها وأسكنها يف قلبي‬ ‫يوجد أكرث من ستة آالف لغى يف العامل‬ ‫ولكن يف البايامنتو فقط ننقش أدب اً‬ ‫ونرتجم روائع عامل يّ ة‬ ‫ولذا وجب أن نرتقي بها‬ ‫وكام املزارع ال يزرع بصعوبة البابايا يف أرضه‬ ‫أو مثرة القشدة أوالبطاطس الحلوة‬ ‫ليحصدها متنوعة عند الفجر‬ ‫كذلك علينا أن نعت ّز ونحمي‬ ‫كل لغة عىل األر ض‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫حتى ولو كان مصدرها‬ ‫أقل يّ ة ضئيلة‬ ‫هيلدا دي ونت أيّ بي‬ ‫‪ / 23‬نيسان ‪2014 /‬‬ ‫اليوم العاملي للكتاب‬ ‫ترجمة الد‪ .‬طارق شدياق‬ ‫رئيس لجنة ج ربان الوطن ّي ة‬

Semitic L anguages / Idioma Semítiko 

229

Translation: Tarek Chidiac and Ihssane Laabadl. About the translators Opinions and challenges Tarek Chidiac was born in Bsharri, Lebanon, the hometown of Khalil Gibran. He has been practicing dentistry since 1980. He is a researcher on Gibran’s writings and paintings and was president of the Gibran National Committee for eight years (2010-2018). He is also a novelist and playwright. Ihssane Laabadl was born in Casablanca-Morocco. She is an architect. Despite her academic approach, since her childhood she has been fond of literature and, in particular, Arabic literature. She considers Arabic ‒ her mother tongue ‒ a sacred language as it is the language of the Qur’an, which is a summit of eloquence, rhetoric and good statement, and also the most spoken of the Semitic languages. This is why she feels proud to translate a literary text to this majestic language. Tarek Chidiac writes, “Mother Tongue expresses the real state of a person. When we are happy or sad, Mother Tongue shows this happiness to others by words of joy or sadness. Thinking, meditating, contemplating, are very easy to be done and expressed in our mother tongue. This is because Mother Tongue has grown with us since our childhood. Mother Tongue is the real expression of the person himself. Lebanon has conserved the Arabic language during the long ages of history, and it still continues to do this very important mission. In formal speech or writing such as the literary composition of poems or novels, and even pure human thoughts, we use the formal Arabic language. Nevertheless, nowadays the spoken dialect is most used, for it is more expressive, more beautiful and able to be rhythmic. Poetry and other literary genres in this spoken dialect may have deep thoughts, yet with simplicity or simple words. When a language is bearing ages of civilization and human experiences, the translations of its books into another language bear its civilizations and experiences too. It will be for a great mutual experience for all human beings, especially for those interested in the survival of their language. Let our languages interact together and we will be in better human conditions.” Tarek Chidiac a nase na Bsharri, Líbano. Bsharri ta pueblo natal tambe di e outor Khalil Gibran. E ta praktiká odontologia for di aña 1980. E ta investigador di obra i pintura di Kahlil Gibran. E tabata Presidente di e

230 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Komité Nashonal di Gibran durante 8 aña (2010-2018). Ademas e ta novelista i dramaturgo. Awendia e dialekto árabe libanes ta esun mas papiá pasobra e ta mas ekspresivo, mas bunita i rítmiko. Poema òf otro género literario den e dialekto akí por ekspresá pensamentunan profundo, i tòg ku un simplesa òf palabranan simpel. Ihssane Laabadl a nase na Casablanca, Maròko. E ta arkitekto. Apesar di su aserkamentu sientífiko / akadémiko, for di su infansia e tabata enkantá ku literatura, partikularmente literatura árabe. E ta konsiderá árabe, ku ta su lenga materno, un idioma sagrado ya ku e ta e idioma di Koran ku ta kumbre di elokuensia, retórika, i bon testimonio; ademas esun mas papiá entre e idiomanan semítiko. Ta pa e motibu akí Ihssane ta sinti su mes orguyoso di por tradusí un teksto literario den e idioma mahestuoso akí.

Semitic L anguages / Idioma Semítiko 

Şurayt or Turoyo (Neo-Aramaic or Assyrian) / Arameo o Asirio Lišon d emo bu cëlmo, kcoyëš cël më 6 alfo lišone, – sahmo rabo mënayye, l came zcurene – Papiamento! Aloh b lebo, qarëw ẖa, hatat lëno! box lẖuḏe, kibi manfaqno ẖaşra l larwal w l cëlmo … hawxa mosiqa, cam qolo w naẖlo basimo balki, ẖa ẖreno latle. b cëlmo d këtlan, kcoyëš, cël më 6 alfo lišone… lišon d emi, emi w babi, b ţarwoḏo, huwalli b cëmqe d lebo, Aloh, zëd më kulle huwwe, këtle ẖubo kcoyëš, cël më 6 alfo lišone… Papiamento! bas box lẖuḏe naqëš knuqšina kṯiwto! Këmtarjëmina, faylasufe d cëlmo hawxa, ašan maclena zëd, ёšmo w gëšmo l lišon d emo! cayn xu zaroco, lo bas papaya, pëţaţa-ẖliṯo, ẖëmşiṯo w qarce-qḏole kzorëc b arco … ašan mšaklo,

231

232 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

cam nhoroṯo qoţëf! hawxa, klozëm aẖna ste huwena more w mẖamyone l kul lišono b arco hano, haka hawi l camo ğalabe ёšmo ste! Translation: Jan Beṯ-Şawoce. Special thanks to Roger Abrahams. About the translator Opinions and challenges Jan Beṯ-Şawoce (Hanna) was born in 1955 in Midyat, Turabdin in Upper Mesopotamia, where he also went to school. In 1975, he moved to Sweden and started working on the Şurayt language by publishing books, something that he is still doing. “All languages are relevant and highly respected. It is therefore urgent that languages should be taught in schools and institutions; otherwise, the languages would weaken and lose the appeal that they deserve. Personally, I look upon Şurayt as something essential and worth reviving. I have actually taken this cause very seriously, defending it and asserting its intrinsic value as a potent means of reading, writing and communication. Presently, my aim seems to be achieved. I believe that the most beautiful and valuable thing on earth is the mother tongue. It is the people’s indispensable instrument to express themselves. The study of Şurayt both in its written and reading forms is rather new. There are still effectively few writers, scholars and linguistic experts in this respect. In turn, this situation has negatively affected the endeavor to translate especially into Şurayt. Regarding myself, I resort to cultural nuances to convey the meanings at hand. The language Şurayt is old and we are still uncertain about how it has come into existence and how it relates to the ancient languages of the region. Şurayt has been employed by the West Assyrians in Turabdin, a region in Upper Mesopotamia. It was their mother tongue. Due to the lack of studies about the Şurayt, whether it had a written form or not in former times, a conclusion is not yet fully established. That is why I embarked singlehandedly on a study in an effort to revitalize Şurayt.

Semitic L anguages / Idioma Semítiko 

233

All languages are apt to develop and expand when people use them to express themselves one way or another. My conviction is that even translating from other languages, into the mother languages, vitalizes them. States and authorities can have fatal influence on languages when they exert efforts to restrict or ban them. The languages in question would deteriorate and stiffen. Such negative stances towards languages should be stopped and resisted.” Jan Beṯ-Şawoce (Hanna) a nase na aña 1955, na Midyat, Turabdin, Mesopotamia Superior. Na aña 1975 el a bai biba na Suesia i a kuminsá traha riba e lenga Şurayt dor di publiká buki, algu ku e ta hasi te dia di awe. Estado i outoridat por tin influensia fatal riba idioma ora nan hasi esfuerso pa restringí òf prohibí nan.

‫‪HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI‬‬

‫ ‪234‬‬

‫‪Sureth (Neo-Aramaic or Assyrian) / Arameo o Asirio‬‬ ‫(‪ܸ )Leshana d-yema‬ܠ ܵܫ ܵܢܐ ܕ ܸܝ ܵܡܐ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܐ ̈‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܵ ܵ‬ ‫ܠܦܐ ܸܠ ܵܫ ܹ̈ܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܫܬܐ � ܹ‬ ‫ܙܘܕܐ ̣ܡܢ ܸ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܒܥܠܡܐ ܐ ܼܝ ܬ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܿ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܪܘܬܐ‬ ‫ܝܘܬܐ ܕܒ ܨܘ ܼ‬ ‫ܒܘܫ ܼ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܐ ݇ܢܬ‪ܵ ،‬ܝܐ ܵܦܦ ܵܝ ܡܢܬܘ‪ܿ،‬‬ ‫ܐܝ ܵܢܐ ܲ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܼ ܸ‬ ‫�‬ ‫ܩܘ ܵ‬ ‫ܪܒܐ ܲ�ܥܠ ܸܠܒ ܼܝ‬ ‫ܕܒܘܫ ܼ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܵܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܝܘܢ‬ ‫ܐܢܐ ܸܒܪ ݂ܓܫܐ ܸ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܒ ܼܵܝ ݂ܟ ܝ ܼܝܠ ̇ܗ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܨܝܢ ܲ‬ ‫ܫܡܢ‬ ‫ܡܓ ܸ‬ ‫ܕܡ ܹ‬ ‫�‬ ‫ܵ ܵ‬ ‫ܵ̈‬ ‫̈‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܸܫܠ ܹܠܐ �ܩܛ ܼܝ ܹܢܐ‬ ‫ܕܥܒܪܐ ܝܢܐ ̣ܡܢ �ܗܕ‬ ‫݂‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܠܡܘܣ ܼܝ ܩ ܼܝ‬ ‫ܕܕ ܹܡ ܝ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܢܬܐ ܘܙܡܝ ܵ‬ ‫ܒܩܝ ܵ‬ ‫ܕܩ ܵ‬ ‫ܪܬܐ ܵ‬ ‫ܘܡܐ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫݇ ݇‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܒ ܸܠ ܵܫ ܹ̈ܢܐ ܐ ܹܚ̈ܪ ܹܢܐ �ܠܝܬ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܐ ̈‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܵ ܵ‬ ‫ܠܦܐ ܸܠ ܵܫ ܹ̈ܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܫܬܐ � ܹ‬ ‫ܙܘܕܐ ̣ܡܢ ܸ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܒܥܠܡܐ ܐ ܼܝ ܬ‬ ‫ܐ ܼܝ ܵܢܐ ܸܠ ܵܫ ܵܢܐ ܕ ܸܝ ܡ ܼܝ ܝ ܹܠܗ‬ ‫ܿ‬ ‫ܕ ܸܝ ܡ ܝ ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܦܘܡ ܼܝ‬ ‫ܡܘ ܸܬ ݂ܒ ܠܗܘܢ ܓܘ ܼ‬ ‫ܘܒܒ ܼܝ ܼ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܐܠ ܼܝ‬ ‫ܕ ܸ ̰ܟܡ ܼ‬ ‫ܡܘ ܸܚܒܐ ܝ ܹܠܗ ܸ‬ ‫ܒܥܘ ܹ̈‬ ‫ܡܩܐ‬ ‫ܕܟܐ ܲ�ܚ ܹܡܝܢ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܹ‬ ‫ܕ ܸܠܒ ܼܝ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܐ ̈‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܵ ܵ‬ ‫ܠܦܐ ܸܠ ܵܫ ܹ̈ܢܐ‬ ‫ܐܫܬܐ � ܹ‬ ‫ܙܘܕܐ ̣ܡܢ ܸ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܒܥܠܡܐ ܐ ܼܝ ܬ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܐܚܟ ܝ ܒܦܦ ܵܝ ܡ ܿ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܢܬܘ‬ ‫ܼ ܸ‬ ‫ܐ ܼܝ ܢܐ � ̰ ܼ‬ ‫ܵ ܲ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܩܪܚ‬ ‫ܕܣܦܪ ܼ‬ ‫ܝܘܬܐ ܹܟܐ ܢ �‬ ‫ܸ‬ ‫ܠܚ ̈ܢܐ ܹ̈ܪ ܵ‬ ‫ܝܫ ܹܝܐ ܲ �ܒܝ ܲ�ܢ ܝ ܲ�ܥ ܹ̈‬ ‫ܕܦܘ ܹܵ‬ ‫ܡܡܐ‬ ‫ܼ‬ ‫ܕܟܐ ܲ‬ ‫ܓ ܲ �ܡܚ‬ ‫�‬ ‫ܹ‬ ‫ܡܬܪ ܸ‬ ‫ܕܠ ܸܠ ܵܫ ܲ�ܢܢ ܕ ܸܝ ܵܡܐ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܪܘܡܪ ܵܡܐ‬ ‫ܗܒܚ ܼ‬ ‫ܲ �ܝ ܲ �‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܐ ܵܟ ܵܪܐ ܲ‬ ‫ܝܟ ܲܚܕ ܲ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܒܐ ܵ‬ ‫ܪܥܐ‬ ‫ܐܦ �ܐ ݂ �‬ ‫�‬ ‫�‬ ‫ܵܕܠܐ ܲ‬ ‫ܐܚ ̰ܟ ܼܝ ܹܟܐ ܵܙ ܹܪܥ‬ ‫�‬ ‫ܿ ̈‬ ‫ܵ ܵ‬ ‫ܠܝܐ‪،‬‬ ‫ܦܦ ܵܝܐ‪ܼ ،‬‬ ‫ܩܘ̈ܪܛܘ ܹܦܐ ܸܚ ܹ̈‬ ‫ܵܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵܣܦ ܸܚ ܵ‬ ‫ܠܝܐ ܘܟܠܒܫ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܕܝ ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܠܦܘ ܵܬܐ ܒܙܪ ܵܩܐ ܵ‬ ‫ܘܡܐ‬ ‫ܨܕ �‬ ‫ܡܫ ܸܚ ܼ‬ ‫ܕܚ ܹ‬ ‫ܵ ܲ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫̇‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܲ‬ ‫ܛܪܚ‬ ‫ܐܦ �ܐܚ �ܢܢ ܘ ܹܠܐ ܝܠܗ �‬ ‫ܕܡ ܸܚ �ܒܚ ܘܢ �‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܵ‬ ‫ܕܥ ܵ‬ ‫ܟܠ ܸܠ ܵܫܢܐ ܲ�ܥܠ ܦܬܐ ܵ‬ ‫ܠܡܐ‬

Semitic L anguages / Idioma Semítiko 

235

ܵ ܿ ܵ ܿ ܵ ‫ܨܘܪܐ‬ ‫ܕܥ ܵܡܐ ܒ‬ ܼ �ܲ ‫ܐܢ ̣ܡܢ ܙܥܘܪܐ‬ ܸ ‫ܐܘܦ‬ ܵ ‫ܦܠ ܵܛܐ ܝ ܹܠܗ‬ Anonymous translator. Revision, proofread and abstract : Professor Alessandro Mengozzi. Special thanks for facilitating contact with a translator extends to: Yona Sabar, Professor Aramaic, his son Ariel Sabar,2 writer and journalist, Geoffrey Khan, Regius Professor of Hebrew University of Cambridge and Willem F. Smelik, Professor at the Department of Hebrew & Jewish Studies, University College London, Holger Gzella, Professor of Old Testament at the Faculty of Catholic Theology of the Ludwig- Maximilians- Universtät Munich, Roger Abrahams, journalist. About the translator Opinions and challenges Alessandro Mengozzi, PhD Leiden University, is Professor of Semitics at the University of Turin where he teaches Semitic Philology and Classical Syriac. His main research interests are Modern Aramaic Languages and Literatures and Late East-Syriac hymnography. See, among his most recent publication «Yazdandukht and Mar Qardagh», Kervan 24/2 (2020): 199-229, «A Sureth Version of the East-Syriac Dialogue Poem of Mary and the Gardener», Kervan 23 (2019): 155-74, and «The Sureth Dispute of the Months and its East-Syriac Vorlage», Hugoye 22.2 (2019): 319-344. Alessandro observes how the themes and words of “Lenga di Mama” easily resonate with the Aramaic words which were well chosen and combined by an anonymous translator. Alessandro Mengozzi, a obtené su grado di PhD na Universidat di Leiden. E ta profesor di Semítika na Universidat di Turin, kaminda e ta duna lѐs di Filologia Semítiko i Sirio Klásiko. Su interesnan prinsipal di investigashon ta riba tereno di Idiomanan i Literatura Arameo Modѐrnu i Himnografia Sirio Oriental di tempu tardío. Entre su publikashonnan mas resiente tin «Yazdandukht y Mar Qardagh»,», 2 A variant of Aramaic was previously spoken by a Jewish community in Zakho. This old variant from Zakho is mentioned by Ariel Sabar (My Father’s Paradise), the son of Professor Yona Sabar. The fact that Jews and Muslim lived so peacefully, next to each other, impressed me; it made me think of my mother’s stories on Lebanon where Christians and Muslims also used to live peacefully together, each group in its own rights.

236 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Kervan 24/2 (2020): 199-229, «Un vershon na Sureth di e poema di Diálogo Oriental-Sirio di María y e Hardinero», Kervan 23 (2019): 155-74, i «E Disputa Sureth di e Lunanan y su *Vorlage Sirio-Oriental, Hugoye 22.2 (2019): 319-344. Alessandro ta opservá kon fásilmente e tema- i palabranan di “Lenga di Mama” ta resoná ku e palabranan arameo ku a ser bon skohé i kombiná pa un outor anónimo.

‫‪237‬‬

‫ ‪Semitic L anguages / Idioma Semítiko‬‬

‫‪Ivrit (Modern Hebrew) / Hebreo Modèrnu‬‬ ‫(‪ )Sfat Em‬שפת – אם‬ ‫יותר מ ‪ 6.000‬שפות‬ ‫קיימות בעולם‬ ‫הרוב הם של מיעוטים‬ ‫אבל פאפימנטו‬ ‫היא הקרובה ביותר‬ ‫לליבי‬ ‫רק איתך‬ ‫אני יכולה להביע‬ ‫פרטים עדינים שעוברים עלי‬ ‫שנשמעים כמו מוזיקה‬ ‫צליל ומנגינה שאולי‬ ‫בשפות אחרות לא קיים‪.‬‬ ‫יותר מ ‪ 6.000‬שפות‬ ‫קיימות בעולם‬ ‫אבל שפת האם שלי‬ ‫שאבא ואמא באהבה‬ ‫בכפית האכילו אותי‬ ‫שאני שומרת אותה עמוק בליבי‪.‬‬ ‫יותר מ ‪ 6.000‬שפות‬ ‫קיימות בעולם‬ ‫אבל בפאפימנטו‬ ‫אנחנו כותבים את הספרות‬ ‫שאנחנו מתרגמים לפאפימנטו‬ ‫מספרות עולמית‬ ‫על מנת את שפת האם שלנו‬ ‫לעלות לרמה גבוהה יותר‪.‬‬ ‫כמו שאיכר בשדה‬ ‫לא זורע רק תירס‬ ‫אבל גם תפוחי אדמה מתוקים‬ ‫פפיה‪,‬סופ חמוץ ודלעת‬ ‫אשר מחר יקצור את היבולים השונים‬ ‫כך שאנחנו צריכים על כול שפה‬ ‫לעודד ולשמור‬ ‫אשר קיימת בעולם‬ ‫אפילו הקטנה ביותר‬ ‫של המיעוטים‪,‬השפה‪.‬‬

238 

HILDA DE WINDT AYOUBI

Translation: Joram Fuchs and Yael Ackerman Stark. Thanks to Monique Gomes Cassares Da Costa Gomez. About the translators Opinions and challenges Joram Fuchs has Hebrew as his native language so he speaks “Ivrit”, modern Hebrew, fluently. He likes to translate. He lives in Amsterdam and has been visiting Curaçao for many years to spend the winter. Yael Ackerman Stark was born in 1944, raised and educated in Tel-Aviv, Palestine. She has lived in Curaçao since 1971, and became “Yu di Kòrsou” (an island-born child). She has been an officer of the Consulate of Israel in Curaçao since 1983. Yael writes, “Regarding my mother tongue, it all began with sounds of the womb that transformed, after my birth, to my mother’s gentle voice that mutated yet again to my maternal language; it was pacifying, reassuring and nurturing like no other. The flawless Modern Hebrew spoken by both my late mother and father left an indelible mark on my life, they saw to it that the Hebrew language is engraved in my mind forever! As for literature, I am gripped by a three thousand years old Hebrew language of The Book of Books ‒ ‫ספר הספרים‬- ‘The Hebrew Bible’, and am fascinated by the prose and poetry of ‘this book’ written by numerous authors in a most eloquent Hebrew (I don’t see eye to eye with some of its content though!).” Joram Fuchs su lenga materno ta Ivrit (hebreu modѐrnu) , pues e ta papi’é masha bon. E ta gusta tradusí. E ta biba na Amsterdam i pa hopi aña ta bishitá Kòrsou pa pasa wenter. Yael Ackerman Stark a nase na aña 1944 i a lanta i haña su edukashon na Tel- Aviv, Palestina. Yael ta biba na Kòrsou for di aña1971 i a bira “Yu di Kòrsou”. For di aña 1983 e ta funshonario na e Konsulado di Israel na Kòrsou. E hebreo moderno i perfekto ku tantu mi mama difunto komo mi tata tabata papia a laga un marka ku hamas por kita den mi bida…

Part 3 The Poem “E ‘papiá’ di Papiamentu” and its Translations E Poema “E ‘papiá’ di Papiamentu” i su Tradukshonnan

The Translations and Editing of the Poem Hilda de Windt Ayoubi and Leontine Kuster (for French)

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part03

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu E “papiá” di Papiamentu Si no tabatin gruponan riba nos isla ku tabatin hopi di bisa den komersio, religion i ekonomia, manera Iglesia Katóliko ku pa konvertí mas lihé pa eduká mihó a tradusí na papiamentu Biblia i bukinan di skol… Manera e Hudiu i e Protestantnan blanku, ku no solamente tabata usa Papiamentu komo lenga di komunikashon ku otro so, pero ku tabata papi’é tambe ku otro na kas dunando asina e lenga un status mas elevá… Manera e tribunan afrikano ku a resultá akinan, por ta mas tèrko, rebelde i mas stabil den lenga, e ora ei meskos ku e surafrikano nos tambe lo tabatin un papiá ku mas tabata parse e papiá di e hulandes Manera hopi biaha osean ta determiná e kurso i koriente di un riu, asina tambe faktornan mayó den historia ta determiná kon un idioma ta desaroyá, o asta pa gran parti ta transformá… Translation into Papiamento: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi.

241

242 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes Het Papiamentse “gespreek” Waren er op ons eiland geen groepen geweest die een belangrijke vinger hadden in de pap van handel, economie en religie, zoals de Katholieke kerk die om sneller te bekeren, om beter te onderrichten de Bijbel en schoolboek- geschriften in het Papiaments schreef … Zoals de Joden en blanke protestanten die het Papiaments als communicatietaal niet alleen onderling maar ook thuis met elkaar spraken, zodoende de taal een hogere status gaven… Zoals de stammen van de Afrikanen die hier terechtkwamen, wellicht halsstarriger, weerbarstiger, standvastiger in de taal?, dan hadden wij hier zoals de Zuid-Afrikaan een variant “gespreek” dat meer op het Nederlands geleek Zoals de oceaan vaak de loop en de stroom van een rivier bepaalt, zo ook bepalen grote factoren in de geschiedenis hoe een taal zich ontwikkelt of zelfs voor een groot deel transformeert… Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Curaçao, 27 September 2014 Original in Dutch, published for the first time on www.stemmenvanafrika.nl.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

243

English / (English) / Ingles Papiamento “speech” Had there not been groups on our islands that had an important finger in the pie of commerce, economy and religion such as the Catholic Church which, to convert people, translated the Bible and school-books and manuscripts into Papiamento Like the Jews and white Protestants who did not only use Papiamento as a language of communication among their groups but also spoke it with each other at home, thus granting it a higher status Like the African tribes that arrived on the isle, maybe more stubborn, rebellious, more stable in the language, we would have had a variant speech that resembled the Dutch language more Like the ocean often determines the course and flow of a river, so do big factors in history determine how a language will develop or even transform to a great extent Translation into English: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Eduardo Wout.

244 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Français (French) / Franses Le parleparle du Papiamento Si jamais il n’y auraient pas eu de groupes sur notre île qui avaient un gros doigt dans la bouillie du commerce, de l’économie et de la religion Comme l’Eglise Catholique qui afin de convertir plus vite les gens afin de mieux les enseigner, la Bible, les livres scolaires et les manuscrits en Papiamento a traduit Comme les Juifs et les protestants blancs qui avaient comme langue de communication non seulement entre eux mais également chez eux, le Papiamento un statut plus élevé lui a donné Comme les tribus des Africains qui ont fini ici sans doute plus têtus, plus rebelles, plus fermes dans la langue nous aurions eu ici comme en Afrique du Sud une variante du discours qui à la langue néerlandaise ressemblait Juste comme l’océan détermine souvent le cours et le débit d’une rivière ce sont les grands facteurs dans l’histoire qui déterminent comment une langue se développe et même se transforme en grande partie Translation: Leontine Kuster.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano “Parlare” del papiamentu Se non ci fossero stati gruppi nella nostra isola che non fossere stati coinvolti nel commercio, nell’economia e nella religione come la Chiesa Cattolica che per convertire ha tradotto la Bibbia e le scritture scolastiche in Papiamento. Come gli ebrei e i protestanti bianchi che non usavano il papiamento come una lingua di comunicazione con i loro gruppi ma la parlavano fra di loro a casa, attribuendole così uno stato più elevato Come le tribù africane che sono arrivate nell’isola probabilmente più ostinate, ribelli e più risolute nel linguaggio? Allora avremmo voluto avere una variante che assomigliasse molto di più alla lingua olandese Come l’oceano spesso determina il corso, la direzione ed il flusso di un fiume così fanno i grandi fattori nella storia determinano come una lingua si sviluppa o addirittura come si trasforma. Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Thanks to Ingrid Donati.

245

246 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Español (Spanish) / Spañó El habla del Papiamento Sin la presencia de unos grupos en nuestra isla que tuvieran un papel importante en el comercio, en la economía y religión, como la Iglesia Católica que para convertir más rápido para enseñar mejor escribieron en papiamento la Biblia, los libros y documentos escolares… Como los judíos y los protestantes blancos que no solamente hablaban el papiamento como la lengua de comunicación entre ellos sino también en sus familias dándole así un estatus más elevado… Como las tribus de los africanos que por aquí resultaron probablemente más obstinados, rebeldes, constantes en la lengua, tuviéramos aquí como el surafricano un habla variante más semejante a la lengua holandesa. Como el océano determina la corriente y el curso de un rio, así también los factores mayores en la historia determinan cómo se desarrolla un idioma o hasta por gran parte se transforma Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Emilio Jorge Rodríguez.

Part 4 The Poem “Papiamentu pa Semper” and its Translations E Poema “Papiamentu pa Semper” i su Tradukshonnan

The Translations and Editing of the Poem Hilda de Windt Ayoubi and Pieter Muysken (for Dutch)

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part04

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

249

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu and Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes PAPIAMENTU PA SEMPER Papiamentu, nan a pidi mi pa mi lubidá bo, nan a asta roga mi pa mi no papia bo argumentando ku no ta hopi hende na mundu ta papia bo, ku bo vokabulario ta mashá limitá pa nos por ekspresá lo ke nos ta pensa

PAPIAMENTU VOOR ALTIJD Papiamentu ze vragen me om je te vergeten ze smeken me om je niet te spreken met het argument dat er niet veel mensen in de wereld zijn die je spreken, dat je woordenschat te beperkt is om uit te drukken wat we denken

Papiamentu, mi sintí a konsentí un tiki, mi kurason a bringa ku rason i a bisa rotundamente: NO!

Papiamentu, Mijn verstand was het er een beetje mee eens, mijn hart sprong terecht op en heeft ronduit: NEE gezegd!

Pasobra maske* lenga di pueblo di ku nos mester siña lenganan internashonal ku por hiba nos muchu mas ayá di kas… kon lo mi por menospresiá bo, kon lo mi por habraká** bo si ta abo a siña mi kana tur senda den selva i den mondi salbahe di sílaba, palabra i frase?

Omdat hoewel het volk beweert dat we internationale talen moeten leren die ons ver van huis kunnen meenemen … hoe zouden we je kunnen minachten, hoe zouden we je kunnen verhaspelen, als jij zelf me hebt leren lopen langs alle paden in het bos en in het wilde woud van lettergrepen, woorden, zinnen?

Ku ta abo a duna mi e base pa semper mi por sigui kana den mundu mas grandi di palabra?

Dat jij zelf mij de basis hebt gegeven zodat ik altijd kan blijven lopen in de grotere woorden wereld?

Kon e yu por nenga su mama ku a mam’é siñ’é kana sin trompeká riba niun sílaba ni niun palabra?

Hoe kan het kind zijn moeder negeren die hem heeft gezoogd hem heeft leren lopen zonder struikelen over geen enkel lettergreep of woord?

250 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Papiamentu, mi ke pa semper bo keda un refugio den mi kurason i alma, den henter mi bida mi altá!

Papiamentu, ik wil dat jij voor altijd een toevluchtsoord blijft in mijn hart en ziel, in mijn hele leven op een altaar verheven!

(Di repente m’a realisá kon nos nieta di tres aña ta papia su idioma materno, esta papiamentu, sin ningun problema, ku fluides, asta usando i kombinando palabra i ekspreshonnan saká for di kuna di nos bieunan).

(Plotseling besefte ik hoe mijn kleindochter van drie jaar haar moedertaal spreekt, welnu, Papiamentu, zonder enig probleem, vloeiend, en zelfs woorden en uitdrukkingen combineert die het uit de wieg van onze ouderen heeft gehaald).

E poema akí a ser publiká riba e Dit gedicht verscheen op de website van wèpsait di www.stemmenvanafrika.nl www.stemmenvanafrika.nl Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Kòrsou, yanüari Vertaling (translation): Pieter Muysken 2016 * “Lenga di pueblo di”, segun nan ta bisa, Laclé-Herrera, Digna, 2006, UNOKA, Proverbionan. ** “Habraká un idioma”, ta us’é inkorektamente, Römer, V. Reginald, 2009, Sapaté, na bo sapatu!, Mil i un ekspreshon / lokushon… i proverbio pa mi pueblo).

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

English / (English) / Ingles Papiamento forevermore Papiamento, they asked me to forget you, they even begged me not to speak you Arguing that not many people in the world speak you, that your vocabulary is very limited for us to express what we think Papiamento, my mind agreed my heart with reason resisted and said forthright: no way! Because even if it is a big truth that we should learn international languages that can take us much further how could I disdain you how could I tear you apart if it is you who taught me how to walk the trails of the wilderness of syllables, words and phrases? If it’s you who has given me the basis to keep walking forevermore through the bigger world of words? How can the child deny his mother who has breastfed him and taught him how to walk

251

252 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

without stumbling on any syllable or word? Papiamento, I want you to be forevermore my refuge, in my heart and soul, through my entire life an altar! Translation into English: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Curacao, January, 2016. Revision: Eduardo Wout.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Français (French) / Franses Papiamento à jamais Papiamento, on m’a demandé de vous oublier On m’a même supplié de ne pas vous parler Argumentant que dans le monde peu de gens vous parlent que votre vocabulaire est trop limité pour que nous puissions exprimer nos pensées Papiamento, mon esprit a accepté un peu c’est avec raison que mon coeur a résisté et qu’il a dit franchement: pas question! Parce que même si c’est une grande vérité que nous devrions apprendre des langues internationales qui pourraient nous mener beaucoup plus loin comment pourrais-je vous dédaigner comment pourrais-je vous déchirer tandis que c’est vous qui m’avez enseigné comment marcher sur les sentiers du désert des syllabes, des mots et des phrases? Tandis que c’est vous qui m’avez donné la base pour continuer à marcher toujours et toujours à travers le plus grand monde des mots? Comment l’enfant peut-il nier à sa mère qui l’a allaité et qui lui a appris à marcher sans trébucher sur une syllabe ou un mot? Papiamento, je veux que vous soyez mon refuge à jamais dans mon coeur et dans mon âme dans toute ma vie un autel! Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Leontine Kuster.

253

254 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano Papiamentu per sempre Papiamentu, mi chiedono di dimenticarmi di te mi supplicano di non parlare di te Con l’argomentazione che non ci sono molte persone nel mondo che ti parlano, che il tuo vocabolario è troppo limitato per esprimere ciò che pensiamo Papiamentu, la mia mente era un po’ d’accordo, il mio cuore giustamente si e’ ribellato e ha detto francamente: NO! Perché anche se le persone sostengono che abbiamo bisogno di imparare le lingue internazionali che ci possono portare lontano da casa.. come potrei disdegnarti, come potrei travisarti se sei stata tu ad avermi insegnato a percorrere i sentieri delle terre selvagge popolate di sillabe, parole ed espressioni? Se sei stata tu ad aver gettato le basi perché io potessi avventurarmi nel più vasto mondo della parola? Come può il bambino ignorare la madre che lo ha nutrito e gli ha insegnato a camminare senza inciampare In nessuna sillaba o parola?

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Papiamentu Voglio che tu rimanga un rifugio per sempre Nel mio cuore e nell’anima, Esaltato per sempre come in un altare Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Ingrid Donati.

255

256 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Español (Spanish) / Spañó Papiamentu para siempre Papiamentu, me pidieron que te olvidara, hasta me suplicaron que no te hablara Argumentando que no hay mucha gente en el mundo que te hablara, que tu vocabulario fuera muy limitado para expresar lo que pensamos Papiamentu, mi razón un poco consintió, mi corazón con razón se resistió y dijo rotundamente que NO! Puesto que aunque el pueblo diga que aprendamos las lenguas internacionales que nos pueden llevar más allá de nuestras casas… cómo podría menospreciarte, cómo podría embarullarte si eres tú quien que me enseñaste a caminar todas las sendas de la selva y el bosque salvaje de sílaba, palaba y frase? Si eres tú quien me has dado la base para poder seguir caminando por el mundo más grande de la palabra? ¿Cómo podría el hijo negarle a su mamá que le ha enseñado

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

a caminar sin tropezar con ninguna sílaba ni palabra Papiamentu, quiero que por siempre seas mi refugio en mi corazón y alma, en toda mi vida mi altar! Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi.

257

Part 5 The Poem “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” and its Translations E Poema “Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama” i su Tradukshonnan

The Translations and Editing of the Poem Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Pieter Muysken (for Dutch), Ingrid Donati (for Italian)

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part05

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Papiamentu/o (Papiamento) / Papiamentu Riba ala di Lenga di Mama Ohalá mas i mas nos por siña, un pèrla bunita, balorá i konservá nos lenga materno Pasobra no ta asina ku ora nos lanta buelo riba ala di lenga di mama mas nos por amplia nos bista riba tur aspekto di bida? Pasobra papiamentu, no ta ku bo konosementu usando bo palabra i gramátika ku entonashon i ritmo verbal natural nos por bisa esun ku mas nos ta stima ku t’e so so so asin’aki nos ta stima, mi pretu di wowo, mi suku, mi dushi, nos por usa palabranan kuchikuchi yen di kariño ku nos yuchi? Pasobra, mi lenga di mama, mi m’matongo, mi lengua materna, minha língua materna, ma langue maternelle, my mother language, mijn moedertaal, my moedertaal, logghat oummi (‫)لغة أمي‬, Zu Guo De Yu Yan (我的母语), mia lingua nativa,

261

262 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

no ta asina ku ta abo ta habri hanchu hanchu e kaminda pa mas fásil otro idiomanan nos siña, pa multilingual un dia nos por bira? Hilda de Windt Ayoubi, Kòrsou, 1 di febrüari, 2015.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Nederlands (Dutch) / Hulandes Op de vleugels van moedertaal Konden we maar steeds meer leren onze moedertaal, een prachtige parel, te waarderen en te conserveren Want is het toch niet zo dat wanneer wij op de vleugels van moedertaal opstijgen wij ons zicht op alle aspecten des leven meer kunnen uitbreiden? Want Papiamentu, is het toch niet met jouw kennis, dat wij gebruikmakend van jouw woorden en grammatica met de natuurlijk intonatie en verbale ritme tegen degene die wij het meest beminnen kunnen zeggen dat wij hem, maar dan ook hem alleen zo liefhebben, mijn oogappel, mijn suikerdiefje, mijn lieve schat, wij liefdevol kooswoordjes tegen ons kindje kunnen spreken? Want moedertaal, mi mamatongo mi lengua materna, ma langue maternelle, my mother language, mijn moedertaal, my moedertaal, logghat oummi (‫)لغة أمي‬, Zu Guo De Yu Yan (我的母语), mia lingua nativa, is het toch niet zo dat jij de weg voor ons hebt vrijgemaakt

263

264 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

om gemakkelijker de andere talen te leren om ooit meertalig te worden in het leven? Translation: Pieter Muysken.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

English / (English) / Ingles On the wings of Mother Tongue Would that we could each day learn even more to save and appreciate this most beautiful pearl which is our mother tongue For isn’t it so that, if on the wings of our mother tongue we fly, we can broaden our insight on all aspects of life? For Papiamento, isn’t it so that with your knowledge, using your grammar and vocabulary your natural accentuation and verbal rhythm we can tell our most beloved one that it is him alone that this way we love, the apple of my eye, my darling, my sweet honey, we can use cozy words full of love with our little babe? For Papiamento, mi lenga di mama, mi m’matongo, mi lengua materna, minha língua materna, ma langue maternelle, my mother language, mijn moedertaal, my moedertaal, logghat oummi (‫)لغة أمي‬, Zu Guo De Yu Yan (我的母语), mia lingua nativa, isn’t it so that it is you that fully open the way

265

266 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

so that easier we can learn other speeches or tongues, so that one day multilingual we may become? Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Eduardo Wout.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Français (French) / Franses Sur les ailes de la Langue Maternelle Si seulement on pouvait apprendre à apprécier et à conserver de plus en plus notre langue maternelle cette perle merveilleuse Car, n’est-il pas vrai qu’en montant sur les ailes de notre langue maternelle nous pouvons élargir encore notre vision sur chaque aspect de notre existence? Car Papiamento, n’est-il pas vrai qu’en ayant une bonne connaissance de vous en utilisant votre vocabulaire, votre grammaire votre intonation naturelle et votre rythme verbal on peut dire à celui que tendrement nous aimons que c’est lui et lui seul qu’on aime éperdument, ma prunelle de mes yeux, mon chéri, mon chouchou on peut dire affectueusement des mots pleins d’amour à ses petits enfants? Car Papiamento ma langue maternelle mi m’matongo, mi lengua materna, minha língua materna, ma langue maternelle, my mother language, mijn moedertaal, my moedertaal, logghat oummi (‫)لغة أمي‬,

267

268 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Zu Guo De Yu Yan (我的母语), mia lingua nativa, n’est-il pas vrai que c’est vous qui ouvrez largement la voie afin d’apprendre plus facilement d’autres langues afin de devenir un jour multilingue? Translation: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Leontine Kuster.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

269

Lingua italiana (Italian) / Italiano Sulle ali della Lingua Nativa Vorrei che potessimo imparare qualcosa di nuovo ogni giorno per salvare ed apprezzare la perla più bella che è la nostra madre lingua Perché non è cosí che, se nelle ali della nostra lingua nativa volassimo potremmo ampliare la nostra visione in tutti gli aspetti della vita? Perché Papiamento non è forse vero che con il tuo sapere usando la tua grammatica ed il tuo vocabolario, la naturale accentuazione e il ritmo verbale possiamo dire al nostro amato che lui è l’unico ed il solo che amiamo in questo modo, la luce dei nostri occhi, nostro adorato, la nostra dolcezza, possiamo usare parole accoglienti piene di amore con il nostro amato? Perché Papiamento mia lingua nativa mi lenga di mama, mi m’matongo, mi lengua materna, minha língua materna, ma langue maternelle, my mother language, mijn moedertaal, my moedertaal, logghat oummi (‫)لغة أمي‬, Zu Guo De Yu Yan (我的母语), mia lingua nativa, non è forse vero

270 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

che sei tu che apri completamente la strada cosí che noi possiamo facilmente apprendere altri discorsi o lingue, cosí che possiamo un giorno diventare multilingue? Translation: Ingrid Donati.

Germanic L anguages / Idioma Germániko 

Español (Spanish) / Spañó Sobre las Alas de Lengua Materna Ojalá pudiéramos aprender cada día más, a valorar y conservar una linda perla, nuestra lengua materna ¿No es verdad que cuando alcemos el vuelo sobre las alas de lengua materna más lograremos ampliar la perspectiva sobre cada aspecto de la vida? Papiamento, ¿no es verdad que con tu conocimiento usando tus palabras y gramática tu entonación y ritmo verbal natural podemos expresarle al quien más amemos que es solo a él, y a nadie más a quien amamos, la niña de mis ojos, mi azúcar, mi dulzura, y recurrir a palabras íntimas repletas de cariño hacia nuestro hijo? Porque, mi lengua materna, mi lenga di mama, mi m’matongo, mi lengua materna, minha língua materna, ma langue maternelle, my mother language, mijn moedertaal, my moedertaal, logghat oummi (‫)لغة أمي‬, Zu Guo De Yu Yan (我的母语), mia lingua nativa,

271

272 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

¿no es verdad que eres tú la que nos abre completamente la senda para que con más facilidad podamos aprender las otras lenguas, para que un día seamos un pueblo multilingüe? Translation into Spanish: Hilda de Windt Ayoubi. Revision: Emilio Jorge Rodríguez.

Part 6 Commentary Komentario



Translation, Language Endangerment and Revitalization, Bilingual Texts Tradukshon, Peliger pa Pèrdida di idioma i Revitalisashon di Idioma, Teksto Bilingual Pieter C. Muysken

Abstract A sea of languages; we live in a world in which there are not just many languages but also many people who speak several. Linguists estimate that there are around 7,000 languages, but some are rapidly disappearing and sometimes the boundary between language and dialect is hard to establish. The figure 7,000 is thus somewhat arbitrary, but not unreasonable. Yet many languages are under threat, and language endangerment is an urgent cultural concern, since all languages are part of the intangible cultural heritage of mankind. Every language is like a cathedral: the result of creative efforts of communities over the centuries. This commentary on the translations of Hilda de Windt Ayoubi’s poems deals with translations and their role in language revitalization. Can we cross that sea? Keywords: Big languages, small languages, language endangerment, language revitalization, bilingual, mass translations

I start with the processes of language loss and language revitalization, as they relate to translation, and illustrate this with a case study on a dying language from Bolivia. In the third part, I also discuss the role of translation in a larger sense, as something much broader than we tend to think of it as, beyond a professional activity. It focuses on translation as enrichment and

Windt Ayoubi, H. de and P. C. Muysken, Translingualism, Translation and Caribbean Poetry: Mother Tongue Has Crossed the Ocean/Lenga di Mama a Krusa Laman. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2022 doi 10.5117/9789463727440_part06_1

276 

Pieter C. Muysken

deals with a special kind of translations: those within a single text and in bilingual songs. In bilingual communities, texts may contain translation fragments, doublings, in which potentially contrasting form and meaning elements in the two languages are juxtaposed, to celebrate the difference, to create new meaning nuances, for enjoyment, for bilingual punning, etc. Here the translation is clearly a gain: both versions are available to the reader/hearer. I will illustrate this with examples from bilingual songs in the Andes, waynos, multilingual raps in the Berber community, and calypsos from Trinidad. The final part of the chapter deals with the larger social ecology of translation practices and with mass translations. Most of the mass translations involve a center-periphery model. Here, central texts such as the Gospel of Luke, the UN Declaration of Human Rights, or Le Petit Prince are translated into many languages. There is however a second type of mass translation, as in this book. A text from the periphery, in this case from the Creole language Papiamento, is translated into many different languages, countering the trend towards increasing dominance by a single language.

Big languages, small languages, language endangerment, language revitalization As said, there may be as many as 7,000 languages in the world, although this number is rapidly shrinking. Not all of these languages have the same opportunities and social, political and economic status, as has been stressed by many scholars. A good example is Abram de Swaan’s provocative book on the World Language System (2002). These inequalities have long been recognized. Minae Mizumura’s The Fall of Language in the Age of English (2014) bears poignant testimony to the consequences of this inequality from a literary and cultural perspective. The Greeks called a person who did not speak their language and did not follow their customs as βάρβαρος (someone who is not a proper Greek, a “barbarian”), and indeed all over the world, from the Amazon to the Himalayas, such distinctions are made. With the Renaissance and the Reformation, different vernacular languages in Europe started acquiring status and developing literary traditions. In the area of the Romane languages, the notion of Kultursprache gained popularity. It roughly refers to languages with an independent literary tradition and literature, such as French and Latin. To give this notion a more solid and object basis, Kloss (1967) coined the term Ausbausprache to refer to standard languages with possibly a

BILINGUAL TEX TS

277

number of dialect variants. With colonialism, some of these languages were taken all over the world, where of course the European colonialists were confronted with other languages that had a long written tradition, such as Chinese, Japanese, Farsi, and Sanskrit. With the development of science and the growth of scholarship, a number of languages also came to be used as languages of scientific disciplines. Finally, some of these languages were adopted as the language of university education. The exact figures are not known, but probably no more than one percent of the world’s languages is used in university education.3 According to one estimate (based on Ethnologue (Eberhard, et al 2019)), the top ten of the languages of the world is spoken by 5,088,000,000 people, that is to say, much more than half the world’s population (including second language speakers), and by 3,179,000,000 (almost half the world’s population) if we just consider f irst language speakers. To give another f igure, based on Parkvall (2007), the top 100 languages cover 85% of the native speakers. There are thousands of languages which together are spoken only by a small percentage of the world population. As said, the number of languages in the world is rapidly decreasing. The most simple answer to the question why is this happening? is that speakers of small languages do not pass their language on to their children because they feel that their children have a better future speaking another language, generally the dominant language of the region, and often the national language. Thus, the lack of transmission of their language is linked to the perception of the parents of the viability of their community and its way of life in the long run. In the cases I am familiar with, this was not a voluntary process. I think people would like to stick to their language if they can. The rapid disappearance of these languages has led to the growth programs of language documentation and description. This type of research program was made even more urgent by the alarm sounded by a number of linguists, including Robins and Uhlenbeck (1991) and Hale et al. (1992) about the rapid pace with which small languages were disappearing worldwide. Documentation and description suddenly became less of an obscure hobby and more of an urgent cultural imperative, with new funding possibilities, across different schools of linguistics (cf. also Flores Farfán and Ramallo, 2010). 3 I feel that people who readily adopt another language than their own for university education, like many Dutch students when, for example, they continue their study in another country, do not realize how fortunate they were that their language (Dutch) was used in the university at all to begin with, with one percent of the languages of the world used for this purpose.

278 

Pieter C. Muysken

Language endangerment in Bolivia I will illustrate the issue of language endangerment and documentation with Bolivia, a country where a research team that I headed has done a lot of work. Bolivia, a country with more than 11,000,000 inhabitants, has no less than 36 languages. The majority of the inhabitants indicate that they speak Spanish (6,821,000), and substantial minorities speak Quechua (2,281,000) and Aymara (1,525,000). The third largest original Amerindian language is Guaraní, with around 62,000 speakers, and the thirty odd other languages taken together have less than 49,000 speakers. Bolivia is not only one of the poorest countries of Latin America, it is also a country with a huge cultural and linguistic diversity. In addition to Spanish, as said 36 indigenous languages are or were recently spoken, with speaker numbers ranging from several million to less than five. There are not only many languages, but these languages also belong to many different, genetically completely unrelated families. So far, geographical obstacles, the lack of roads, and the isolation of large parts of Bolivia have led to the preservation of parts of the cultural and linguistic heritage. Nonetheless, the majority of the languages of Bolivia are critically endangered. It is expected that only ten to twenty per cent will survive in the next century, and in fact all indigenous languages are under pressure or severe threat in the country (Crevels, 2012). So, Bolivia may host no more than three or four languages in 2100. Despite their great cultural and linguistic wealth, the knowledge of Bolivian languages and cultures was very limited until recently. A large number of the indigenous languages is only spoken by small ethnic groups and are becoming less and less used. Before the small Bolivian languages become extinct, it is important that they are documented in reference books and recordings. For the Bolivians, this is of cultural historical and cultural political importance, while for the international linguistics community such a description is important because it gives insight into issues such as language development and what happens when languages are in contact with each other. In Bolivia there is no national tradition of linguistic research and there are hardly any trained Bolivian linguists. Native speakers of indigenous languages with training and interest in their own language belong mostly to the two largest groups, the Quechua and Aymara. Most of the research was and is done by foreigners, and the results, in so far as they have been published, are hardly available in Bolivia itself, since they are mostly written in English. They contain, moreover, a lot of technical linguistic terminology.

BILINGUAL TEX TS

279

Unfortunately, Western scholars often achieve excellent research results with data acquired in the Global South, while the local population, and particularly the people who collaborated in the projects, seldom get to see any results. With the Lenguas de Bolivia book publication project (Crevels & Muysken 2009, 2012, 2014, 2015) we hoped to have put a stop to this situation, offering for the general public brief descriptions in Spanish of the languages of Bolivia. By mapping the highly threatened and remarkable linguistic diversity of Bolivia and editing a series of books, the interest of local students and scholars in these languages may be sparked, and the attention to cultural and linguistic diversity stimulated. Many languages spoken in Bolivia are at risk. A number of the languages spoken in the Andean foothills and the Amazon basin were classified by Crevels (2002) as seriously endangered or nearly extinct. Quite possibly we are dealing with zero speakers there at present. In the South American context, Xavier Albó’s article in Spanish El futuro de las lenguas oprimidas en los Andes [The future of the oppressed languages of the Andes] (1977) introduces the discussion of language endangerment in Bolivia in terms of the notion of linguistic oppression, and poses that there are only two options for an oppressed language: loss or revitalization. To illustrate the difficulties of revitalization, I focus here on a language from the highlands, Uchumataqu, where a slightly different situation holds from the lowlands.4 The Bolivian altiplano [high plain] is now predominantly Aymara- and Spanish-speaking, but in earlier times several other small language families were present. The small language family that concerns us here is Uru. In recent history its speakers have occupied part of the borders of Lake Titicaca, Río Desaguadero and the main altiplano water system, in the departments of La Paz and Oruro. Now three groups are left that are most frequently considered ethnically Uru, and I focus here on the inhabitants of Irohito, living on the banks of the Desaguadero River near Lake Titicaca. Only one Uru group has managed to retain its language, the Chipaya, the largest group. The Uru of Irohito have lost their language, Uchumataqu, although not completely. The last speaker who learned the language as a child died in 2001. The Uru of Irohito are now Aymara-speaking, while the Chipaya tend to be bilingual in Chipaya and Aymara. Members of all groups also know Spanish as a second or third language, to varying degrees. Why and when did Uchumataqu cease to be spoken in Irohito? The community of Irohito [“iru”witu] is located on the banks of the Desaguadero river, 4

The following discussion is based in part on Muysken (2010).

280 

Pieter C. Muysken

about twenty-five kilometers from Lake Titicaca. The Uru are completely dependent on the river. They hunt and fish (selling their surplus catch elsewhere), and feed their cattle with reeds and plants from the river. In earlier times, the totora reeds played an even more important role, serving as the basic material for their reed boats, and for the roofs of their houses. Now boats are made of wood, and roofs of various materials including roof tiles and fibre cement plates. Nonetheless, dependence on the river is still the hallmark of Uru life (Distrito Nacionalidad Uru, 2005). As far as we know, the community has never been very large, ranging from seven people in the earliest source to as many as 80 in the early twentieth century. Currently, there are about 220 people living almost permanently in Irohito. So what happened? Brenzinger and Dimmendaal (1992: 3) divide the approaches to language decline into two main clusters. (1) Developments in the external environment: political, historical and economic factors; (2) Reactions of the speech community: language use, attitudes, speaker strategies. It would not be appropriate to think of these as competing clusters, but rather as different levels of analysis. Taking this as our starting point, five external explanations, alternative or complementary to each other, could be given for the demise of Uchumataqu. Urban migration: as more and more Uru went to live in the cities, old traditions declined and the language withered away. In fact, many Uru have now moved to El Alto, the large Indian twin capital of La Paz located right next to it but on the altiplano proper. Economic and socio-cultural restructuring: the Uru started resembling the neighboring Aymara more and more in their living habits. They still value their aquatic lifestyle but in actual practice this plays less of a role. Population decrease: the number of members of the community diminished, and hence the transmission of the language was interrupted. A drought in the 1930s led to the shrinking to as few as five people in the local community at one point. Exogamy, i.e. marriage outside of the group. Since Uru men were more and more prone to marry Aymara women, children were not raised in the language any more. Aymara women are known for their practice of raising their children in Aymara. Ecology. The delicate ecological basis of a water-based economy may have proven fatal for traditional Uru language and culture in the long run. Particularly recurrent droughts, salinification, and water pollution are threats. These five external factors had repercussions for the speech community itself and its language attitudes. We can talk about “the bad fortune of a

BILINGUAL TEX TS

281

language” because it shows the vulnerability of language transmission in a small community. Though the Uru as a group managed to survive the drought of the 1940s and at present are stronger than ever, they did not manage to maintain their language, a loss which is now dearly felt in the community. However, it is not so clear this was felt as a loss at the time. Nancy Dorian (1998: 3) writes that “languages are seldom admired to death but are frequently despised to death”. The question is whether the differences in the prestige of Aymara and Uchumataqu contributed to the shift Uchumataqu to Aymara in the community. This question is difficult to answer directly since we cannot really know the language attitudes that prevailed in the thirties and forties of the previous century. We may surmise that the bilingualism there was mostly asymmetrical: speakers of Uchumataqu were bilingual in Aymara as well, but speakers of Aymara probably did not know Uchumataqu. Furthermore, it is clear that Aymara is held in high esteem by its speakers. However, the “people of the lake”, as Vellard (1954) called them, also had a keen sense of identity, even if they were considered savages by mainstream Bolivian society. Thus, a simple account in terms of differences in general prestige may not work here. At the micro-level of child raising patterns, coupled with ecological crisis, the transmission potential for Uchumataqu diminished fatally: many mothers were Aymara-speaking. A possibility in line with Woolard (1989) is that Aymara was used inside of the community by those wanting to distinguish themselves sociolinguistically from other, less socially prominent community members. However, it seems to me that the more prominent members of the community later took on the role of guardians of Uchumataqu, as is evidenced from the names of the consultants of the investigators who visited the community previously, and the way they are described. This is certainly the situation at present: the dozen or so adult males most interested in rescuing the language could be viewed like the miniature version of the Irohito Rotary Club. This also matches a suggestion in Woolard (1989: 364) about purism as a possible channel for intra-community linguistic self-profiling. In addition, we can view this type of activity in terms of the assertion of internal stratification and power. The language has also adapted internally to Aymara (Muysken, 2000). A number of Aymara words and affixes have been borrowed by the language, there has been semantic restructuring, and some pronouns may have been modeled upon Aymara. Thus, the giving way of Uchumataqu to Aymara in the speech community was probably accompanied by a restructuring of the moribund language in its final stages. If Uchumataqu survives in any way, it

282 

Pieter C. Muysken

will be as a lexicon grafted upon the Aymara structures of the inhabitants of Irohito. This is not uncommon in revitalization (Zuckermann, 2020).

Bilingual songs: Lost and gained in translation I will now turn to translation. Translation makes a text originally composed in Language A available to readers or hearers in another language, Language B (typically for people who do not know language A well). Additionally, there is often the assumption of loss in translation: some valuable meaning or form element of the original has not survived the passage from A to B. It is generally considered that the original is “better” or “more expressive” than the translation (there are exceptions: some people think the English translation of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason is more accessible than the German original, even for some German readers). Consider the “lost in translation” view, from A → B, where: – A is richer in meaning than B – A has more nuances than B – A contains a sound-symbolic relation which B lacks However, you may also think of the A ↔ B scheme where: – A and B each contribute meaning and nuances – A and B have both a sound and meaning relation – A and B contrast in interesting ways In this view, something is actually gained in the translation, and translation becomes a meaningful, reflexive exercise. The South African writer Antjie Krog discusses translation in a beautiful collection of Afrikaans essays or memoirs called Een ander tongval [Another tongue]. She writes, referring to a comment by her Swedish translator colleague Christina (2005: 296), “Vertaling is noodsaaklik als ons wil leer om op hierdie planeet saam te leef. Ons moet begin om mekaar te vertaal.” [Translation is necessary if we want to learn to live together on this planet. We must begin by translating each other.- transl. pm]. Krog herself was engaged in translating (into Afrikaans) Nelson Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom (1995), which the South African government wanted translated into all of South Africa’s official languages. She reflects on Mandela’s use of

BILINGUAL TEX TS

283

the term “African”, which has bewildering range of meanings in the book, with more and more inclusive reference (pp. 303-4): nét Temboe, dan Xhosa

[just Temboe, and then Xhosa] (the ethnic group that Mandela was born into – pcm) almal wat swart is [all people that are black] swart en coloured ‒ die Indiërs en die wittes kom van ander kontinente, swart en coloured nie. [black and couloured – the Indians and the white people come from other continents, but not black and coloured] almal wat nie wit is nie [all people that are not white] Afrikaander-bewaarder dat dié ook ’n [an Afrikaander prison guard that is “African” is also “African”] Struggle-afrikaans > “African” [Struggle Afrikaans is also “African”] Afrikaan [African] Afrikaanse man [African man] Afrikaner [Afrikaans-speaking person] Afrikaan-man [African-man] Afrikaman [Africa man] man van Afrika [man from Africa] Afrikaan-nasionalisme vs. [“Afrikaans nationalism” versus Afrika-nasionalisme “Africa nationalism”]

Here, nothing is “lost in translation”; Krog does not simply follow a single translation of Mandela’s “African”. Rather, she renders each use of it into something specific to the meaning and context, adding a significant dimension that involves reflection, understanding and enrichment of the text. This enrichment, where different languages reinforce each other and add meaning, is found within bilingual text translation. I will focus on texts encountered in bilingual songs in Quechua (Q) with many Spanish (Sp) elements from the Andes. Here, translation has a different function. Again, I will focus on Bolivia, and refer to a specific corpus of wayno, texts.5 The wayno is a form of popular music and dance from the Andes. At present it is very widespread among the Andean peoples, especially Quechuas and Aymaras. It is especially found in Peru and Bolivia, but also present in Chile, Argentina, and Ecuador. The history of the wayno dates back to 5 These are Andean typical dances. A much earlier version of some of this analysis appeared in Muysken (1987).

284 

Pieter C. Muysken

colonial Peru, and involves a combination of traditional rural folk music and popular urban dance music. Some elements of wayno originate in the music of the pre-conquest era, the Inca Empire. The most striking feature of the texts of these wayno (cited here from Baumann, 1983) are repetition and bilingual doubling or semantic rime, where two near synonyms or semantically related words are used in succession. These are underlined in the following examples: charanku qan-pata viditay cuerdas noqay-pata kuraj-ni-n qan-pata viditay sullka-n noqa-ypata

the charango is yours, my life the strings are mine the tallest is yours, my life the shortest is mine

The Spanish presence in the wayno is manifest in many ways. It is symbolized in the forms of address used in the lyrics, which contain the Spanish diminutive -itu (masculine) / -ita (feminine, F) or a Spanish loan word: Address form vid-ita-y ñañ-ita-y samb-ita-y negr-ita-y palom-ita-y waw-ita-y

Source Sp vida Q ñaña Sp samba Sp negra Sp paloma Q wawa

Gloss “life” “sister” “black one F” “black F” “dove” “child”

The Spanish presence is also symbolized in directive exclamations which are interspersed with the Quechua main text: ay caraspa ahora, vidita, cualquiera cosita, una much’ita! vámonos (con más alegría) sí qué pasa, che?

< caramba “now, little life of mine, a little something, a little kiss” “let’s go (with more cheer)” “yes” “what happens, che”

There are also many switches between the languages in the main text, as in the following two examples, where Spanish elements are bold, and sometimes combined with Quechua endings, quétal-ta-chus muna-ku-yki

285

BILINGUAL TEX TS

how about-perhaps love-I to you “how about it if I love you” Bilingual doubling is also very frequent, where a specific notion is first expressed in Quechua, and then in Spanish. Bilingual doublets can be nouns, but we also have many cases of bilingual doublets with verbs: taki-rillasun / tuna-risallun ni-spa-chá ni-sa-nki / alaba-ku-sa-nki praising” ri-pu-saj / libra-kusaj

“let’s sing / let’s party” “you are just talking / you are “I will go away / I will free myself”

Finally, there are bilingual puns. In the first example, the verb para- (“remain” in Spanish, “drizzle” in Quechua) appears: qaynaiphu para-n, negr-ita-y maykamataj para-n qaynaiphu para-n, negr-ita-y imapitaj para-n paloma-y saqesqa-y, negr-ita-y imapichus para-n

yesterday it drizzled, my little black one until where did it drizzle yesterday it drizzled, my little black one where did it remain the dove that I left, my little black one where did it remain

In the next example there is a play on the Spanish word monja “nun” and the Quechua verb ending -mo-nqa “movement towards speaker, third person future” (~ = “more or less”): ay monqa monqa ay palom-ita-y relampagu-mo-nqa por vos vid-ita-y

oh ~nun ~nun oh my little dove it will flash here for you my life

The Andes is far from unique in harboring bilingual songs. In fact, they are found all over the world. I can only give a few examples. There is a lot of very interesting bilingual material in Berber Rap in Algeria, involving Tamazigh, Arabic, French (bold) and even some English (underlined) (see Kleinstra, 2016). A few examples from these texts:

286 

ktabta ktābī m basé ‘alā mes histoires waḥdānī nšūf kī ḫrağt min al-lycée w raḥt li-l-trottoir (MC Majhoul – Ktabi)

Pieter C. Muysken

“I wrote my book based on my stories Solitarily I see how I left high school and I returned to the pavement”

Stylo we feuille, njemel ga’ li khereb fe had rap ta’ dzair “Pen and sheet, I write to all those who destroy in this the rap from Algeria”

Another place where bilingual songs are common is Trinidad in the Caribbean, where we have English and French Creole or patwa (bold) (see Winer 1986) in the calypso: Fire Brigade, water the road Ah, mwen pa tini mama-o Holder, you cruel murderer C’est ou qui choue Eva Perry waiting with the rope To break your manima. … A patois woman said, Madam Maxwell Sé sa mwen ka kwié lavai Noel ou better pull yuhself and leh me shake me deviwé Gade deye mwen, sé sa mwen vlé Ou pa konet bagai-la sho

Ah, I have no mother It’s you who killed Eva carryings on

That’s what I call a real Christmas Eve You better pull yuhself and leh me shake me backside Look at my behind, that’s what I want You don’t know the thing hot?

There are many places in the world where languages are combined deliberately in bilingual songs or poetry. The contrast of the languages has a strong effect. Words from one language are implicitly translated into the other one in the mind of the hearers. In the United States, there has been a stream of publications on multilingual poetry, the translations and the experience of subaltern groups, see Anzualda (2009) and Dowling (2018).

BILINGUAL TEX TS

287

Mass translations: from Afrikaans to Zulu Some texts have been translated into a great many languages. The best example is the Christian Bible. According to the Wycliffe Bible Society in late 2019, “the full Bible has been translated into 698 languages, the New Testament has been translated into an additional 1,548 languages and Bible portions or stories into 1,138 other languages. Thus at least some portions of the Bible have been translated into 3,384 languages.”6 For the Quran there is the more modest figure of seventy-four languages. The Jehovah’s Witness magazine The Watchtower is translated into more than 190 languages, and its parallel publication Awake! into more than eighty.7 Khalil Gibran’s The Prophet is translated into at least 112 languages, including the Papiamento translation by Hilda de Windt Ayoubi.8 These are all examples of translation with primarily a missionary aim. The text E Profeta is philosophical, spiritual and holistic, a precursor of New Age literature. Another aim may be termed political. The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a widely translated text; in November 2016 it was translated into over 500 languages (including thirteen Quechuan languages) in accordance with the mission of the United Nations to be a universal organization. A rather different example is the Communist Manifesto, of which translations into over 100 languages exist. Of course, an important aim of translation may be primarily commercial. There are many fiction books, particularly children’s books, which have multiple versions in many languages. Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Caroll (1865) has been translated into 174 languages, Antoine de Saint Exupéry’s Le Petit Prince (1943) has been translated into more than 300 languages, and the Le avventure di Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi (1883) was also translated over 300 times. In more recent years, the Lord of the Rings series (J. R. R. Tolkien 1937-1949) was translated over thirty-eight times and some of the Harry Potter volumes by J.K. Rowling (1997-2007) over seventy-eight times. Authors such as Agatha Christie, Jules Verne, William Shakespeare, Enid Blyton, and more recently Barbara Cartland and Danielle Steel have thousands of editions, the latter two in thirty-eight and forty-three languages, respectively. 6 Source: https://www.wycliffe.net/resources/statistics, accessed June 16, 2020. 7 Source: https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/activities/publishing/watchtowerawake-magazine, accessed June 16, 2020. 8 According to the latest estimate by the Kahlil Gibran researchers Francesco Medici (Italy) and Glen Kalem (Australia). Medici, Francesco (2020) Gibran’s The Prophet in All the Languages of the World, in 5ème Rencontre Internationale Gibran, IMA, Paris, 3 Octobre 2019, Beirut: Center for Lebanese Heritage (Lebanese American University-LAU), 2020, pp. 111-135.

288 

Pieter C. Muysken

While the translations of, say, Danielle Steel have the primarily commercial aim of increasing the potential readership and the sales of this author’s works, this is different for something like the Asterix comics series, which has been claimed to have been translated into 116 languages and dialects.9 The website reporting on this speaks of eighty-seven languages and twenty-nine “Mundarts”, dialects. In fact, many more dialects are involved. For Germany there are twenty-three dialects with some Asterix published in it, for France (not counting overseas territories) six dialects, for Austria five dialects, for Belgium three dialects, for Greece three dialects (next to standard Greek and ancient Attic Greek), for the Netherlands two dialects (next to Dutch and Frisian), for Switzerland four dialects, for Spain two dialects (in addition to Castilian, Basque, Catalan, and Galician), etc. This makes Asterix, also considering its ideology of small village resisting a mighty enemy using ancient knowledge and traditions, a vehicle for a primarily European preoccupation with regional linguistic diversity. The fact that there are translations into Attic Greek, but also Latin and Esperanto, points to the ideological motivation for these translations. We may term these emancipatory translations. Very likely, the same holds for some of the works listed earlier as commercial translations and missionary translations. That Le Petit Prince, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or the New Testament has been translated into so many different languages can add to the status of that publication. Of course, sometimes the translations must have been done for the fun of it. The Latin version of A.A. Milne’s Winnie-The-Pooh (1926) was first published privately in Brazil and then became a New York Times bestseller. Political and missionary translations may also be emancipatory, but with a caveat. The contents of an Asterix strip may align with the cultural values to a specific European region (and some Asterix strips celebrate that diversity since Asterix and Obelix travel to this region and become acquainted with its customs, such as eating cheese fondue in Switzerland). However, this is not necessarily so in other cases. In 2004, the Communist Manifesto appeared in Kichwa in Ecuador. There have been attempts to interpret the ideology of the Inca State in the Andes before the arrival of the Spanish invaders as some form of indigenous communism. However, the gap between indigenous culture and the ideology in the Manifesto is enormous. Similarly, the meanings conveyed in the Gospel of Luke, for instance, stands miles apart from the beliefs of an Amazonian community in Ecuador or Bolivia. The missionaries who instigated and made the translation of Luke 9

Source: https://www.asterix-obelix.nl, accessed June 16, 2020.

BILINGUAL TEX TS

289

(with the help of converted members of the Amazonian community) were well aware of this, of course. If there had been an exact match in beliefs, the missionary activity would not have been needed. However, in these cases it is not so clear what emancipatory means then. Yes, written texts become available in the indigenous language. No, these texts do not support the traditional culture of the community, however, and this may be problematic if the community is under threat of cultural extinction.

Epilogue The final point I want to make, which goes in a different direction altogether, has to do with computer technology and the internet. Technology has important consequences for translation. Translation technology is improving every year. It might be that ten years from now books can appear instantly in twenty languages because the translation possibilities are good enough for the publisher to do a multilingual edition from the very beginning. Of course, this presupposes the existence of texts in both languages for the computer program to be trained on. Also, in face to face communication, instant automatic interpreting is rapidly improving. Another trend is the increased presence of small indigenous languages in social media. I am starting to work on the Ecuadorian Amazonian language of the Waorani, Wao Terero, about which very little is known, but which does have a Facebook presence, to my great surprise. We do not know what this increased digital presence of smaller languages will mean in terms of increased access to different knowledge sources in languages which in the past had been cut off from the wider world. As I was starting to write the notes about all the different languages represented in this book, I started to realize more and more that the notion of “language” as a unified concept to cover all these varieties does not really make that much sense. You could think of a language as a way of speaking that is sufficiently distinct from other ways of speaking in its vocabulary and grammar to be considered a separate unit. However, this definition ignores the vast differences in status, speaker numbers, degree of normativity, and written tradition that characterizes the languages presented here. The translation of Hilda de Windt Ayoubi’s poems bear testimony to the power of language users to create written traditions.

290 

Pieter C. Muysken

References Albó, Xavier (1977). El futuro de las lenguas oprimidas en los Andes. Documento de trabajo 33. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Centro de Investigación de Lingüística Aplicada. Albó, Xavier (1995). Bolivia plurilingüe. Guia para planificadores y educadores. Cuadernos de investigación 44. 2 volumes, Maps, Appendices. La Paz: Unicef ‒ Cipca. Anzaldua, Gloria (2009). The Gloria Anzaldúa Reader, edited by AnaLouise Keating. Durham: Duke University Press. Baumann , Max Peter (1983), Sojta chunka qheswa takis bolivia llajtamanta. Sesenta canciones del quechua boliviano. Cochabamba: Centro Pedagógico y Cultural de Portales . Brenzinger, Matthias and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal (1992). Social contexts of language death. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.) Language death. Factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa, 3-5. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Crevels, Mily (2002). Why speakers shift and languages die: an account of language death in Amazonian Bolivia. In Mily. Crevels, Simon van de Kerke, Sergio Meira, and Hein van de Voort (eds.) Current Studies on South American Languages, 9-31. ILLA 3. Leiden: CNWS. Crevels, Mily, and Pieter Muysken (eds.). (2009). Lenguas de Bolivia, vol. I Ámbito andino. La Paz: Plural editores. Crevels, Mily, and Pieter Muysken (eds.). (2012). Lenguas de Bolivia, vol. II Amazonía. La Paz: Plural editores. Crevels, Mily, and Pieter Muysken (eds.). (2014). Lenguas de Bolivia, vol. III Oriente. La Paz: Plural editores. Crevels, Mily, and Pieter Muysken (eds.). (2015). Lenguas de Bolivia, vol. IV Temas nacionales. La Paz: Plural editores. Crevels, Mily. (2012). Language endangerment in South America: the clock is ticking. In Lyle Campbel & Verónica Grondona (eds.) The indigenous languages of South America: a comprehensive guide, 167-234. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Distrito Nacionalidad Indígena Urus de Irohito (2005). El idioma Uchumataqu. Manuscript, Irohito, Bolivia. Dorian, Nancy C. (1998). Western language ideologies and small language prospects. In Lenore A. Grenoble and Lindsay J. Whaley (eds.) Endangered languages. Current issues and future prospects, 3-21. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dowling, Sarah (2018). Translingual Poetics. Writing Personhood Under Settler Colonialism Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.

BILINGUAL TEX TS

291

Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.) (2019). Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-third edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnolog Flores Farfán, José Antonio & Fernando F. Ramallo (eds.) (2010) New Perspectives on Endangered Languages. Bridging gaps between sociolinguistics, documentation and language revitalization. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Hale, Kenneth., Krauss, Michael, Watahomigie, Lucille J., Yamamoto, Akira Y., Craig, Colette, LaVerne Masayesva, Jeanne, & England, Nora C. (1992). Endangered Languages. Language 68(1), 1-42. Hammarström, Harald (2015). Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: A comprehensive review. Language 91(3), 723-737. Kleinstra, Vera T.J.F. (2016). Kharjas andalucíes y RAP ARGELINO. MA Scriptie, Radboud Universiteit Kloss, Heinz (1967). “Abstand languages” and “Ausbau languages”. Anthropological Linguistics, 9 (7): 29-41. Krog, Antjie (2005). Een ander tongval [Another tongue]. Cape Town: NB Publishers Limited. Minae Mizumura (2014). The Fall of Language in the Age of English. New York: Columbia University Press. Muysken, Pieter (1987) Taalcontact en grammaticale coherentie: Spaans en Quechua in de wayno. In Guus Extra, Roeland van Hout en Ton Vallen (eds.), Etnische minderheden. Taalverwerving, taalonderwijs, taalbeleid. Dordrecht: Foris Publications, 1-14. Muysken, Pieter (2000). Drawn into the Aymara mold? : Notes on Uru grammar. Hein van der Voort & Simon van de Kerke (eds.), Essays on indigenous languages of lowland South America : contributions to the 49th international congress of Americanists in Quito 1997. Leiden: University of Leiden, Research School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies (CNWS), 111-128. Muysken, Pieter (2010). The demise and attempted revival of Uchumataqu (Uru). In Flores Farfán and Ramallo (eds.), 93-118. Parkvall, Mikael (2007). Världens 100 största språk 2007. (The World’s 100 Largest Languages in 2007), Nationalencyklopedin (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Nationalencyklopedin). Robins, Robin H., & Eugene M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.) (1991). Endangered Languages. Oxford: Berg Publishers. Swaan, Abram de (2002). Words of the World. The world language system. Cambridge: Polity Press. Vellard, Jehan (1954). Dieux et parias des Andes. Les ourous, ceux qui ne veulent pas êtres des hommes. Paris: Éditions Émile-Paul.

292 

Pieter C. Muysken

Weinreich, Uriel (1950). Di forschung fun “mishshprakikhe” yidishe folkslider [The study of macaronic Yiddish folksongs]. YIVO-Bleter 34, 282-288. Winer, Lisa (1986). Socio-cultural change and the language of Calypso In: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 60, no: 3/4, Leiden, 113-148 Woolard, Kathryn A. (1989). Language convergence and language death as social processes. In N. Dorian (ed.) Investigating obsolescence: studies in language contraction and death, 355-367. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zuckermann, Ghil’ad (2020). Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond. New York: Oxford University Press.



In Memoriam Professor Dr. Pieter C. Muysken Na Memoria di Profesor Dr. Pieter C. Muysken

While working with Pieter on the last revision of the manuscript for this book, he fell ill and passed away shortly after, on April 6, 2021. For this reason, I have included the following, not at all foreseen, In Memoriam in the book. The following text was published on the website Voertaal.nu.1 Pieter Muysken, A Bridge Builder: Give me your Language … When I was asked to write a text about Pieter Muysken as a scientist and bridge builder for the website Voertaal.nu (Language of Instruction.now), my thoughts first of all went back to the opening quote of Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je Beter Versta / Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó (Give me your Language. So that I can understand you better), the language-related book that I dedicated to Pieter Muysken and Frank Martinus Arion in 2019: He who helps preserve the language and culture of minorities also helps to revive world peace “World Peace”, the title of this quote, is not included in this book so that the readers can fill it in for themselves. The importance of peace is also emphasized in certain languages such as Arabic, Hebrew and Hindi in everyday life and it is customary in those languages to greet each other with the word for peace, salaam ‫ مالس‬shalom 1 There are two further In Memoriam pieces dedicated to Pieter Muysken that readers may wish to read. After the publication of my poetry book Geef me je taal. Dat ik je beter versta / Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó (In de Knipscheer, 2019), which I dedicated to Pieter Muysken and Frank Martinus Arion, Neerlandistiek approached me for the publication of the poem “Lenga di Mama” in their journal. Two years later, the journal dedicated an In Memoriam to Pieter, entitled ‘De dag dat ik sterf, begraaf me dan met boeken’ (The Day I Die, Bury Me with Books), which includes my contribution: ‘De Poetische Taalwereld van Pieter Muysken’ (Pieter’s Poetic World of Translation): https://neerlandistiek.nl/2021/04/de-dag-dat-ik-sterf-begraaf-medan-met-boeken. Secondly, stemmenvanafrika, where the main poem in this book, ‘Lenga di Mama’, was published for the first time: https://stemmenvanafrika.nl/pieter-muysken-1950-2021.

294 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

‫ םֹול ָׁש‬and vratee वर् त ी respectively, a sentence in which peace is wished to the other. Likewise, studying, recording and publishing each other’s language is a way to show respect to each other, to wish each other peace and thus, to make some contribution to world peace. It cannot be disputed that Pieter did this until a few weeks before his departure. One of the figurative definitions of “bridge builder” is someone with a big heart who loves to see others blossom, who allows others to succeed in the steps they want to take, and who encourages, helps and gives advice, so that one can move forward again. Along with countless other friends, acquaintances and family members, I think that this definition fits Pieter most completely. A second, more literal definition given is: “someone who builds bridges for his profession” does not initially suit Pieter. Pieter is a linguist and not a bridge builder in the literal sense of building bridges. Yet he built bridges between people from different countries and continents. This natural gift of making contacts and creating collaborations is also clearly visible in his works, in particular his books, which he often wrote in collaboration with someone else or several people. Moreover, these two definitions can certainly be found in the passion with which he studied, registered and published the very smallest languages, especially those of South America, for example Kallawaya. It was moving that during Pieter’s funeral on April 15, Simon van de Kerke (a student, friend, colleague of Pieter’s who taught Quechua at Leiden University) read the translation of the “Our Father” into Kallawaya, a translation provided by Pieter himself. A book on Kallawaya, the last indigenous language he mapped, will be published posthumously. Pieter Muysken, een bruggenbouwer: Geef me je Taal… Toen ik gevraagd werd om voor Voertaal.nu een stuk over Pieter Muysken als wetenschapper en bruggenbouwer te schrijven, gingen mijn gedachten in de eerste plaats terug naar de openingsquote van Geef me je taal. Dat ik je beter versta/Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó, het taalgerelateerd boek dat ik in 2019 aan Pieter Muysken en Frank Martinus Arion heb opgedragen: Degene die de taal en cultuur Der minderheden helpt conserveren Helpt tevens bij de herleving van de wereldvrede

NA MEMORIA DI PROFESOR DR. PIETER C. MUYSKEN

295

“Wereldvrede”, de titel van deze quote, is niet in dit boek opgenomen, opdat de lezer dit zelf kan invullen. Het belang van vrede wordt ook in bepaalde talen, zoals het Arabisch, het Hebreeuws en het Hindi in het dagelijks leven benadrukt en het is in die talen gebruikelijk om elkaar te begroeten met het woord voor vrede, salaam ‫ سالم‬respectievelijk sjalom ‫ ָשלֹום‬en vratee व्रत ी, een zin waarin vrede aan de andere wordt toegewenst. Evenzo is elkaars taal bestuderen, registreren en publiceren een manier om respect aan elkaar te tonen, elkaar vrede toe te wensen en zodoende, enigszins een bijdrage aan de wereldvrede te leveren. Het valt niet te betwisten dat Pieter dit tot enkele weken voor zijn heengaan heeft gedaan. Als ik vervolgens kijk naar een van de figuurlijke definities van “bruggenbouwer”: mensen met een groot hart die anderen graag zien opbloeien. Die het de anderen gunnen dat de stappen die ze willen zetten ook lukken. Voorts de anderen aanmoedigen, helpen en vaak goede tips geven, waardoor ze weer vooruit kunnen, past deze definitie helemaal bij Pieter, vind ik, en samen met mij talloze andere vrienden, kennissen en familieleden. Een tweede, meer letterlijke definitie: iemand die voor zijn beroep bruggen bouwt, past in eerste instantie niet bij Pieter. Pieter is een linguïst en geen bruggenbouwer in de letterlijke zin van bruggen construeren. Toch bouwde hij bruggen tussen mensen van verschillende landen en continenten. Deze natuurlijke gave om contacten te leggen en collaboraties tot stand te brengen is duidelijk ook te zien in zijn werken, in het bijzonder zijn boeken, die hij vaak in collaboratie met iemand anders of meerdere personen schreef. Deze twee definities zijn bovendien zeker terug te vinden in de passie waarmee hij de allerkleinste talen, in het bijzonder die van Zuid-Amerika, bijvoorbeeld het Kallawaya, bestudeerde, registreerde en publiceerde. Mooi dat tijdens de uitvaart van Pieter op 15 april, Simon van de Kerke (medestudent, vriend, collega van Pieter, en docent Quechua aan de Universiteit van Leiden), de vertaling van het “Onze Vader” in het Kallawaya voorlas. Pieter had zelf voor deze vertaling gezorgd. Een boek over het Kallawaya, de laatste inheemse taal die hij in kaart heeft gebracht, zal postuum worden gepubliceerd.

296 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Oda na Lenga Lenga, sin bo mi no tin rumbo sin bo mi no tin mundu sin bo mi no tin nada Mi a stima bo no pa plaka ni poder sino pa bo mes Mi a adorá bo te pèrdè mi mes den un nubia hel hel Pero mi no sabi kon mi tin ku deklará esaki asta ni ku e palabranan ku bo mes un dia a yega di siña mi Mi a hala rosea mi a konta strea sin salida sin bida Tur hende tin nan motibu tur hende tin nan destino tur hende tin nan manera di haña rosea Lenga, pa ami ta abo tabata e manera Bisa mi kiko mi mester hasi pa sin bo mi bida haña rumbo pa atrobe mi tin un mundu Mi a tehe pa bo un tela di lenga

NA MEMORIA DI PROFESOR DR. PIETER C. MUYSKEN

Bisa mi ki palabra ta hasi bo falta lo mi no rabia lo mi komprondé Bisa mi ki palabra Bo ta haña superfluo Lo mi no sara Lo mi komprondé! Ta asina ta bida palabra ta bini palabra ta bai pero abo lenga semper lo keda Lenga, bo a yuda mi deskubrí e misterio ku tei na mama tera, asta te leu den hemisferio Tantu lus bo a laga sendé, te den fondo di mi kurason mi no sa si mihó mi wanta e doló mi no sa si mihó mi pag’é Tantu kos bo a laga pendiente den tantu kos ainda mi ta kere Ohalá tur kos bai bo bon Ohalá ora mi no tei mas bo no lubidá e palabranan ku un dia pa bo mi a murmurá

297

298 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Ohalá bo haña un otro ku kier kanta nan Pa bo benanan yena ku sanger un biaha mas! I Lenga, kòrda ku sin hende bo no tin nada mas pa krese Bo tambe no tin rumbo bo tambe no tin mundu… Kòrsou, 25 di ougùstùs, 2019 Poema dediká na tur idioma, partikularmente na esnan di minoria i o den peliger di ekstinshon i na Pieter Muysken ku ta representá vários di e idiomanan ei. E palabranan akí a bini komo reflekshon después ku mi a finalisá e buki di e kolekshon di poema Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta. Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó (Indeknipscheer, 2019), ku mi a dediká na Pieter Muysken i Frank Martinus Arion.

NA MEMORIA DI PROFESOR DR. PIETER C. MUYSKEN

An Ode to Language Language, Without you I have no direction without you I have no world without you I have nothing I loved you not for power, nor for money but only because of you I adored you until I lost myself in a deep yellow dream of clouds Yet I do not know how to explain this not even with the phrases which you yourself once taught me I took a breath I counted the stars without a way out with no life at all Every person has his motive every person has his destiny every person has his way to get some breathing space Language, for me you are that breathing space Tell me what I have to do that my life without you gets another purpose that there is a world for me again!

299

300 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

For you I have interwoven a language quilt Tell me which word you are missing I will not become mad I will understand! Tell me which word you find redundant I will not get irritated I will be able to give it a place! That’s life words come and go but you, language will last forever more Language, you helped me to unveil the mystery on Mother Earth even far into the ether this could be heard So much light did you ignite to the bottom of my heart I don’t know if it is better to embrace the joy I don’t know if it is better to bear the pain or that it is better to blow it out You left an open door for many things and I still believe in them I wish you all the best May it be that when I’m gone you don’t neglect the words I once whispered to you

NA MEMORIA DI PROFESOR DR. PIETER C. MUYSKEN

301

May you find another one who can sing them for you so that your veins may fill up once more with blood that flows And language, just remember that without human beings you have nothing left to expand That there will be no direction for you anymore that there will be no world for you anymore … Curaçao, August 25, 2019 Poem dedicated to all languages, particularly the minority and or endangered languages, and to Pieter who represents various of these languages. These words came as a reflection after finishing the poetry book Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta. Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó (Give me your language so that I can understand you better (Indeknipscheer, 2019), which I dedicated to Pieter Muysken and Frank Martinus Arion.



Special Thanks Also Un Danki Speshal Tambe

Ackermans, Annelies en Elodie Alexander, Patrick (Director Penn State University Press) Amigoe di Kòrsou (newspaper Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire) Andriguetto-Sabag, Mariza Ansano, Richinel (Former Director National Archeological Anthropological Memory Management) Arab American Institute Foundation in the United States of America Aspekor Perú Kòrsou Ayoubi, Abdallah Bak, Suzette Ball F, Gregory (Former Dean and now vice President for research University of Maryland) Bassil Davidson, Liliane Berg, van der Margot (Assistant Professor, University of Utrecht) Berry-Haseth, Lucille Bouwland, Rebecca Britten, Astrid (Director of Biblioteca Nacional Aruba) Broere, Joss Brute, Ithel (Papiamento Faculty, University of Curaçao) Bushrui, Mary Bushrui, Suheil (Professor, University of Maryland) Consulate of Denmark in Curaçao Consulate of Estonia in Curaçao Consulate of Germany in Curaçao Consulate of Israel in Curaçao Consulate of Lebanon in Curaçao Consulate of Suriname in Curaçao Cornips, Leonie (Professor Maastricht University) Corsen, Larissa Criens, Linda Cuales, Orlando (Radio Z86) Da Costa Gomez, Monique Dalnoot, Ludrith Dick, Irene

304 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Dingemans, Mark (University of Radboud, Department of Language and Communication) Doorn van, Monique Do Rego, Charles (University of Curaçao, and writer) Dovale, Myrna El Hoss, Majid and Suzy Engels, Verele Eps van, Quirine Feng, Yen Freitas de Ayoubi, Hadie Freitas de, Zena Fundashon Arte di Palabra Fundashon Stima Kòrsou Georges, Joseph Marcel (Professor University of Haiti) Glorie, Ingrid (www.voertaal.nu) Gonzalez, Zatessa Graff de, Anne Frederic (Professor Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Groenewoud, Margo (Assistant Professor University of Curaçao) Hek, Ivana Heuvel, Jeroen (University of Curaçao) Hooyer, Helen (Director/Owner Radio Hoyer) Kahlil Gibran National Committee Lebanon Kahlil Gibran Spirits of Humanity Kalem, Glen (Australian Filmmaker and Kahlil Gibran Research-Historian) Kempen van, Michiel (Professor of Dutch-Caribbean Literature, University of Amsterdam) Lacle, Jenny Lacle, Mirjen Lebacs, Diana Leonora, Lianne (Library University of Curaçao and Mongui Maduro Library) Liesbeth Echteld (Associate Professor University of Curaçao) Lodewijks, Ludmila Mantel, Liesbeth (Newspaper Amigoe) Martinus Arion, Frank (Professor University of Curaçao) Martinus, Margi Mous, Maarten (Professor Leiden University) Mufwene, S. Salikoko Neerlandistiek.nl (Journal of Dutch Linguistics and Literature) Neijhorst, Achmed (Board member of the UNI Foundation and Stichting Caraibische Integratie)

UN DANKI SPESHAL TAMBE

305

Noë, Raymond (Editor Project Laurens Jz. Coster) Oomen, Sinuhe Pater Dongen van, Piet Pietersz, Henri Posner, Astrid Prins Bernard Cultuurfonds Caraibisch Gebied Quast, Laura (University of Curaçao) Rach, Latifa Radio Hoyer Radio Paradise Radio Z86 Riedel, Nohealani (Musician and Pianist) Rijk de, Peter Rollins, Scott Rutgers, Wim (Professor University of Curaçao and University of Aruba) Saba, Judy Sakoda, Kent Schultz, Henri (President of the UNI Foundation and Stichting Caraibische Integratie) Schultz, Jenny (Board member of the UNI Foundation and Stichting Caraibische Integratie) Scriwanek, Maximiliaan (Director National Archives Curaçao) Stichting Simia Literario Taams-Kaplan, Aviva Television channel 8 and 11 Veenstra, Tonjes (Leibniz-Zentrum Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft /ZAS) Vos, Tico Wal van der, Joop Wanga, Donna (Board member of the UNI Foundation and Stichting Caraibische Integratie) Windt de, Christina Windt de, Faried Windt de, Farouk Windt de, Francis jr. Windt de, Gianna Windt de, Jassir Windt de, Qyanna Windt de, Talissa Windt de-Dos Santos, Aliyah Windt de, Francis Giovanni

306 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Wooning, Karin (Newspaper Amigoe) Wout, Ivy www.stemmenvanafrika.nl



Note on the Authors Informashon tokante e Outornan

Hilda de Windt Ayoubi was born and grew up in Curaçao. She studied at the Cathlic University Nijmegen in the Netherlands, (1973-1980) and the University of Curaçao (2009-2011). She has a Master in Education and Spanish and a Bachelor in Public Relations. She also studied English (LO). and visited an Art Painting Academy for almost four years. She taught Spanish for almost 30 years at secondary schools (1980-2011) and was a lecturer at the University of Curaçao (2008-2015). She translated The Prophet by Kahlil Gibran into Papiamento for which she was awarded by the Kahlil Gibran Chair at the Maryland University (2014). In 2018 her first book of socially engaged poetry, with illustrations of her own paintings, Gedicht was published (LM Publishers). Shortly after, her bilingual poetry book with language related poems, Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta, was published (In de Knipscheer, 2019). In 2019 she received a Certificate of Merits from UNESCO for her work for Papiamento. Pieter C. Muysken was born in Bolivia, but grew up in the Netherlands. He did his undergraduate work at Yale University (BA 1972) and obtained his PhD at the University of Amsterdam (1977). He was a member of the Netherlands Royal Academy of Sciences (Nederlandse Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen) and the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. Prizes awarded to him include the Bernhard Prize, Prix des Ambassadeurs, and the Spinoza Prize. He was a professor Linguistics at the University of Amsterdam (19781987), Leiden (1999-2001), and Nijmegen 2001-2021. His work on Ecuadorian Quechua resulted in El kichwa ecuatoriano: Orígenes, riqueza, contactos (Abya-Yala, 2019), summarizing his long life research on this language. Hilda a nase i lanta na Kòrsou. El a studia Spañó i Literatura na Universidat Katóliko di Nimega (Nijmegen) Hulanda (1973-1980) i na Universidat di Kòrsou (2009-11). E tin un Maestria den Edukashon i Spañó i un pre-grado den Relashonnan Públiko (BA). Hilda a studia ingles tambe (LO). El a sigui lès pa kasi 4 aña na un Akademia di Arte i Pintura. Hilda tabata dosente di spañó pa mas ku 30 aña na skol sekundario i lektor na Universidat di Kòrsou (2008-2015). El a tradusí The Prophet di e outor Kahlil Gibran na papiamentu (2014). Su tradukshon a ser premiá/galardoná (bestaat) pa e Kátedra di Kahlil

308 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Gibran na Maryland University (2014). Na aña 2018 su promé buki di poesia na hulandes ku ilustrashon di 20 di su pinturanan a sali (LM Publisher). Un aña despues, su buki di poesia bilingual ku poesia relashoná ku idioma, Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta, Duna mi bo idioma pa mi por komprondé bo mihó a ser publiká (In de Knipscheer, 2019). Na aña 2019 el a risibí un Sertifikado di Mérito di UNESCO pa su trabou pa papiamentu. Pieter C. Muysken a nase na Bolivia, pero a lanta na Hulanda. El a hasi su estudio pre-grado na Universidat di Yale (BA 1972) i a doktorá (PhD) na Universidat di Amsterdam (1977). E tabata miembro di Akademia Real Hulandes di Siensia (Nederlandse Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen) i di Sosiedat-Max-Planck (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft). Premionan ku a ser otorgá na Muysken ta inkluí Premio Bernard (Prins Bernard Prijs), Premio di Embahador (Prix des Ambassadeurs) i Premio Spinoza (Spinoza Prijs). E tabata profesor di Lingwístika na Universidat di Amsterdam (1978-1987), na Leiden (1999- 2001), i na Nijmegen di 2001 te na 2021. Su trabou riba Quechua Ekuatoriano a resultá den e obra El kichwa ecuatoriano: Orígenes, riqueza, contactos (Abya-Yala, 2019), ku ta resumí su investigashon di bida largu di e lenga akí.

Index Page numbers in italics refer to maps Titles of books are in italics Local names of languages are added in brackets “African,” meanings 283 African languages, descriptions or vignettes 88–89 map 86 Afrikaans (Huistaal) literature 146 Moedertaal 167–68 spoken area 146 as street language 146 varieties 146 to Zulu, mass translations 287–89 Albó, Xavier, El futuro de las lenguas oprimidas en los Andes 279 Alhagh, Leila, translator, biography 208 on the native language 208 on translation 208 Alleleijn, Jose, translator 45, 63 biography 165, 166 on the mother tongue 165 Alva, Deniz Contreras, translator biography 131, 131–32 on the mother tongue 131 on poetry 131 Amerindian languages descriptions or vignettes 113–116 map 112 Ananco, Dina, translator biography 124, 125 on the mother tongue 124 on translation 124–25 Andersen, Hans Christian 143, 149 Antillean Creole (Kwéyòl) 59 Lang Natif-Natal An-Mwen 70–71 Arabic (Al-‘arabiyyah) features 226 literary tradition 226 Lugha Umm 228 script 226 varieties 225 Aramaic (Şurayt), varieties 226–27 see also Assyrian; Sureth Arion, Frank Martinus 39 Dubbelspel (Double Play) 42, 49 Ser Beatris 41 Armenian (Hayeren) literature 192–93 Mayreni lezu 205 script 192 Asháninka language (Campa) Ñanentsi Atimakor 130

speakers 115 spoken area 115 Asian languages, description or vignettes 89-90 Asian languages, maps 86 Assyrian / Neo-Aramaic ( Şurayt) Lišon d emo 231–32 see also Sureth Ásụsụ̀ ̀ Ìgbò see Igbo Austin, W.H. 96 Aymara language (Aymar aru) Bolivia 280, 281–82 features 116 speakers 115 spoken area 115 Taykana Arupa 133–34 Ayoubi, Nada, translator biography 96–97 Harshen Kasa 95–96 on the mother tongue 96 on poetry in language learning 96 Bahasa Indonesia see Indonesian Balaz, Joe, translator biography 82, 83 Da way my madda wen tak 81–82 Baldewsingh, Rabin S., translator biography 214, 215 publications 214 on translation 214 Baron, Karen, translator biography 82, 83 Da way my madda wen tak 81–82 on poetry 82–83 on translation 82–83 Baron, Michelle, translator biography 82, 83 Da way my madda wen tak 81–82 Basa Jawa see Javanese Basque (Euskera) Ama-hizkuntza 221 dialects 218 language isolate 217 literature 218 speakers 218 uniqueness 217–18 Baulenas, Jose Maria, translator biography 179, 180 on the mother tongue 180 on translation 180 Berber rap, bilingual songs 276, 285–86

310 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Beṯ–Şawoce, Jan, translator biography 232, 233 language revitalization 233 on the mother tongue 232–33 on the origins of Şurayt 232 Bible, The, translations 287, 288–89 bilingual songs Berber rap 276, 285–86 Quechua 283–85 Trinidad 286 bilingual text translation 283 bilingualism, and translation 276 “Black Lives Matter” movement 48 Blixen, Karen, Out of Africa 149 Boccaccio, ‘Il Decamerone’ 188 Bolivia Aymara language 115–116, 278, 280, 281–82 Español (Spanish) 278 Guaraní 278 language endangerment 278–82 Lenguas de Bolivia Book Publication Project 279 Quechua 278 Uchumataqu language 279–81 Uru language group 279, 279–80, 281 Bondareva-Matizen, Marina, translator biography 204 on translation’s inspiration 204 Brabantish (Brabants) features 145 literature 145 Moedertaol 161–62 spoken area 145 Brazilian Portuguese (Português do Brasil) Língua Nativa 184–85 The Prophet (Gibran) 45 Brown, John, Papiamento biography 40 Bushrui, Suheil 43 Campa see Asháninka language Cape Verdean of São Vicente (Kriol de Sonsent) features 58 Lingua Materna 77–78 varieties, Barlavento branch 60 Carib of Suriname (Kar’ina language) Asano Auran 121 speakers 114 spoken area 114 Cartagena, Rosa, translator biography 126–27, 127 on the mother tongue 127 Catalan (Catalá/Llengua Catalana) features 174 Llengua Materna 179 speakers 174 spoken area 174 Catalina, Cora, translator 45 biography 185 Chidiac, Tarek, translator 44

biography 229, 229–30 on the mother tongue 229 spoken dialect vs formal speech 229 Chinese see Mandarin Chinese Civilisadó, Curaçao magazine 40 Coelho, Paulo 175 comics, translations 90, 288 communication, Donati on 188 Communist Manifesto, translations 287, 288 Corsen, J.S. 40 creole languages descriptions or vignettes 57 – 61 maps 56 similar/dissimilar or shared/unshared features 57 Creole of Suriname (Sranantongo/Sranan) as informal street language 59 Mama tongo 75–76 roots 59 vocabulary roots 60 Daal, Luis 42 Danish (Dansk) features 143 Modersprog 148–49 spoken area 143 Dante, Divine Comedy 188 de Haas, Fred 37, 40 de Palm, Jules 46 de Rooy, Rene 46 de Swaan, Abram, World Language System 276 de Windt, Francis 41 de Windt, Hilda Ayoubi An Ode to Language 299–301 biography 63–64, 307, 307–8 E Profeta (The Prophet), translation 43–45, 47, 49, 287, 307 on French 177 Gedicht 44, 63, 307 Geef me je Taal. Dat ik je beter versta 37, 63, 293, 293 n.1, 294, 301, 307 Oda na Lenga 296–98 de Windt, Jassir biography 204 polyglot 204 Deceunink, Herman, translator biography 139, 140 on the mother tongue 139–40 on translation 140 Deutsch see German Devanagari see Hindi Diego, Eliseo, Por los extraños pueblos 182 Dijkhoff, Martha Römer 42 Donati, Ingrid, translator biography 188, 189 on communication 188 Italian dialects and languages 188-89 on the mother tongue 188 Dorian, Nancy 281

311

INDEX / ÍNDISE

Dowling, Sarah 47 Duranty, Jude, translator biography 74 Lang natif-natal 73 on the translation of minority languages 74 Dutch (Nederlands) dialects 145 Het Papiamentse “gespreek” 242 literature 145 Moedertaal 158–59 Op de vleugels van moedertaal 263–64 PAPIAMENTU VOOR ALTIJD 249–50 spoken area 144–45 Eco, Umberto education, university, languages in 277 n.3 Saying Almost the Same Thing 187 on translation: ‘to translate is to betray’ 187 Eesti Keel see Estonian Eikenaar, Gerrit, translator 45 biography 162–63, 163 Eikenaar, Hans 45 on the importance of punctuation marks 162 on poetic language in metaphors 162 on the power of letters and mails 162 el Mesbah, Baghdad, translator biography 92 on translation 92 Tutlayt inu 91–92 English literature 147 as língua franca 146 as macrolanguage 146 Mother Tongue 170–71 Papiamento forevermore 251–52 Papiamento “speech” 243 on the wings of Mother Tongue 265–66 Epieyu, Brayan José Vanegas, translator 120 Epieyu, Jeferson Jesús Vanegas, translator 120 biography 120 cosmovision 120 on translation 120 Español see Spanish Esperanto (Planlingvo) Denaska Lingvo 138–39 Esperanta PEN (within PEN International) 137 features 140 literature 137 “native language” vs. “adoptive language” 139 n.1 spoken area 137 Estonian (Eesti Keel) Emakeel 219 features 217 literature 217 speakers 217 Euskera see Basque

Farfán, José Antonio Flores, translator biography 118 on translation 118 Fārsī see Persian Feenstra, Jeltsje biography 156, 157 Frysian, use in digital media 156 on translation 156 Feenstra, Pytsje, translator, biography 156, 157 Fermino, Friderika, translator biography 78 Lingua Materna 77–78 poetry, powerful messages 78 fiction books, translations 287–88 French (Français) de Windt on 177 features 173–74 Langue Maternelle 176 Le parleparle du Papiamento 244 Papiamento à jamais 253 spoken area 173 Sur les ailes de la Langue Maternelle 267–68 Frisian (Frysk/Huistaal) features 144 literature 144 Memmetaal (Huistaal) 155–56 Fuchs, Joram, translator, biography 238 Gaeilge see Irish Gasparyan, Diana, translator biography 206 on the mother tongue 206 German (Deutsch) Muttersprache 151–52 regional variations 143 as scientific language 144 see also Swiss German Germanic languages, descriptions or vignettes 143 – 147 maps 142 Gibran, Kahlil The Prophet Brazilian Portuguese 45 Papiamento 43–45, 47, 49 translations, 287 n.8 on translators as creators 187 Greek (Elliniká) impact upon other languages 192 literature 192 Mitriki mou glossa 198–201 speakers 192 spoken area 192 varieties 192 Guānhuà see Mandarin Chinese Guaraní, Bolivia 278 Guene (Gueni) dialects 37 texts 39

312 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

haiku 90 Haitian Creole (Krèyol Ayisyen) features 58 French vocabulary 58 Lang Natif Natal 65–66 lexicon 58 literature 58 Nout Langkozé 84 roots 60 speakers 58 as vernacular 61 Hamaar Bhaasaa (Sarnami Hindoestani) literature 194 Mahatári bhásá 213–14 vocabulary 194 Hansen, Christie Geisler, translator biography 149, 150 on translation 149 Harshen see Hausa Haseth, Lucille Berry 40, 49 Hasselbank, Henny, translator 76 Hausa (Harshen) Harshen Kasa 95–96 literature 88 speakers 88 writing systems 88 Hawaiian Pidgin see Pidgin Hayeren see Armenian Hebrew, modern (Ivrit) language of liturgy and culture 227 Sfat Em 237–38 speakers 227 Hindi (Devanagari) film industry 193–94 literature 193 Matribhasha 209–10 script 193 transliteration 211 varieties of the diaspora 193 Hourani, Guita, biography 109, 110 on Levantine translations 110 Huambisa see Wampis Huber, Bettina Kibbelaar, translator biography 154 on language as basis for understanding other cultures 154 Huistaal see Afrikaans; Frisian Igbo (Ásụsụ̀ ̀ Ìgbò) Asụsụ obodo 98–99 speakers 88 tone system 88–89 indigenous languages, and social media 289 Indo-European languages descriptions or vignettes 191 – 94 maps 190 Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesian) Bahasa Ibu 100–101 Indonesian: poetic and literary register 101

literature 89 roots 89 vocabulary 89 Irish (Gaeilge) preservation, Ó Fionnáin on 196–97 speakers 191 spoken area 191 Teanga Dhúchais 195–96 Ishiguro, Kazuo, Nobel Prize winner 90 Italian (Lingua italiana) La mia lingua madre 186–87 Papiamentu per sempre 254–55 “Parlare” del papiamentu 245 presence in east Africa 175 speakers 175 Sulle ali della Lingua Nativa 269–70 varieties 175 Ivrit see Hebrew, modern Jamaican Patwa or Creole (Jamiekan) English vocabulary 58 Madda Tongue 68–69 and Reggae music 59 Jamie-Lee, translator 165, 166 Japanese (Nihongo) 90 Bogo 108–09 haiku and manga comics 90 writing system 90 Javanese (Basa Jawa) Basa Ibu 103 speakers 89 vocabulary 89 Jichi, Mohammed Al Munzir Jamal, translator biography 96, 97–98 Harshen Kasa 95–96 Kallawaya language 294, 295 Kar’ina language see Carib of Suriname Kern, Katrin, translator biography 219–20, 221 on the mother tongue 220 Kichwa language see Quechua of Ecuador Kierkegaard, Sören 143 Klump, Andre, translator biography 152 on the mother tongue 152 Papiamento, language of distance 152 Kolegio Erasmo 41 Kréol rénioné see Réunion Creole Krèyol Ayisyen see Haitian Creole Kriol de Sonsent see Cape Verdean of São Vicente Krog, Antjie, on translation 282–83 enrichment in translation 283 Kultursprache, language 276 Kuster, Leontine, translator 76, 177 biography 177

INDEX / ÍNDISE

rhythm and strength of words in poetry translation 76 Kwéyòl see Antillean Creole Laabadl, Ihssane, translator biography 229, 230 sacred language, Qur’an 229 Landsman, Frank, translator Bahasa Ibu 100–101 biography 101, 102 on translation 101 language Ausbausprache 276–77 Kultursprache 276 Wicakson on 104 language barriers, trespassing 48–49 language endangerment Bolivia 278–82 phases and reasons 280–81 language learning, and poetry 96 languages constructed see Esperanto disappearance of 277 indigenous, on social media 289 most, percentages of speakers 277 number of 277 in university education 277 in the world 276 Lauffer, Pierre 43, 46 Lavache, Myriam biography 66, 67 “Lenga di Mama”, translator, Kreyòl (Haitian Creole) 65–66 Leito, A.F. (Tuyuchi), translations, Tom Richardson, Detective di fama mundial 41 “Lenga di Mama” (“Mother Tongue”) translations 44 – 45 translators 46–47 see also mother tongue Lenz, Rodolfo, Papiamento grammar 42 Leopardi, Giacomo, Italian poet 187–88 Levende Talen magazine 42 Limburgish (Limburgs) dialects 145 features 145–146 literature 146 Moedertaal 164–65 spoken area 145 tones 145 variants 165 López, Estela Cecilia Gamero, translator, biography 134, 135 Maduro, Antoine 42 Mandarin Chinese (Guānhuà) literature 89–90 muyu 105 writing system 89

313 Marcos, Marco 45 Martinican Creole (Matinik) Creolité cultural emancipation movement 59 Lang natif-natal 73 Matinik see Martinican Creole Mauritian Creole (Morisien) features 60 Langaz nu Mama 79 as lingua franca 60 Medici, Francesco, translator 44 biography 187, 188 Mendoza, Eusebia Centeno, translator, on the mother tongue 129 Mengozzi, Alessandro, translator biography 235, 235 – 36 on translation 236 see also Aramaic and Hebrew Meyer, Casten David 40 The Miracle of Le Petit Prince, Boonstra, documentary 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 94 Mishima, Yukio 90 Mizumura, Minae, The Fall of Language in the Age of English 276 Mo Yan, Nobel Prize winner 90 Morisien see Mauritian Creole mother tongue Alleleijn on 165–66 Alva on 131 Ananco on 124–25 Ayoubi on 96 Baulenas on 179–180 Beṯ–Şawoce on 232–33 Cartagena on 127–28 Chidiac on 229 conservation 35, 41 Dekeunink on 139–40 Donati on 188–89 Gasparyan on 206 Kern on 219 – 20 Klump on 152 Mendoza on 129 Paraskevopoulou on 201–2 Pariguana on 129 Peralta on 129 Ramcharan-Ganesh on 211–12 Rodríguez on 182 Starian on 122–23 Stark on 238 Wout on 171 see also “Lenga di Mama” (“Mother Tongue”) “Mundarts” dialects, translations 288 Murakami, Haruki 90 Murasaki Shikibu, Tale of the Genji 90 music and minority languages 45–46 Papiamento 45–46, 58 Muysken, Pieter, translator 44, 158–59 biography 159, 159–60, 307, 308

314 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

El kichwa ecuatoriano: Orígenes, riqueza, contactos 159 In Memoriam 293–95 Spinoza Prize 42 PAPIAMENTU VOOR ALTIJD 249–50 Moedertaal Op de vleugels van Moedertaal voorwoord 29 Nahuatl (Náhuatl /Nāhuatlahtōlli) English words 113 Latin script 114 Nantlatoltsin 117 speakers 113 Nambu, Makiko, translator biography 109, 110 on translation 109 Nihongo see Japanese Nourallah, Riad 45 Nzeako, Ihechukwu Clara, translator Asụsụ obodo 98–99 biography 99 on translation 99 Ó Fionnáin, Mark, translator biography 196, 197 on preservation of Irish 196–97 Ó Tuama, Seán, An Duanaire 1600–1900: Poems of the Dispossessed 196 Ōe Kenzaburō 90 Omer, Nadia Saint, translator Nout Langkozé 84 on poetry 85 orthography, Papiamento 37, 42 Other Languages of Europe 217–18 descriptions or vignettes 217 – 18 maps 216 see also Basque Palli, Francesco, translator, biography 85 Papiamento (Papiamentu) “dies irae, dies illa”, translation 40 Dutch influence 36–37 E “papiá” di Papiamentu 241 E Profeta (The Prophet), translation 43–45 in education system 41–42 etymology 36 features 58 first texts 37–40 grammar 42 Lenga di Mama 62–63 linguists 42–43 literary tradition 58 master’s degree 43 music 45–46, 58 musical groups 46 Netherlands 35 newspapers 40 origins 36 orthography 37

PAPIAMENTU PA SEMPER 249–50 and Portuguese 175 Portuguese influence 36 Riba Ala di Lenga di Mama 261–62 Spanish influence 36, 37, 38 spoken areas 35, 57–58 The Prophet (Gibran) 43–45, 47, 49 theatre 41 translations into 40–41, 48–49 see also Guene dialects; “Lenga di Mama” Paraskevopoulou, Cleo, translator biography 201, 202 on the mother tongue 201–202 on poetry 201 on translation 201–202 Pariguana, Helida, translator, on the mother tongue 129 Patwa see Jamaican Patwa peace greetings 293–94 Peralta, Antonio Pariguana, translator, on the mother tongue 129 Pereira, Joyce 42 Persian (Fārsī) One Thousand and One Nights 193 poetry 193 script 193 Zaban-e Madari 207 Peterson, Kristjan Jaak, first Estonian poet 220 Pidgin (Hawaiian Pidgin) Da way my madda wen tak 81–82 lexicon 60 roots 60 Pinto, Luz Delia Justo, translator biography 134, 134–35 on translation 134 Planlingvo see Esperanto poetry and language learning 96 Omer on 85 Paraskevopoulou on 201–202 Portuguese literature 175 and Papiamento 175 speakers 175 spoken area 175 see also Brazilian Portuguese Poullet, Hector, translator biography 71, 72 Lang Natif-Natal An-Mwen 70–71 Putman, J.J., Oen Floor ki J.J. Putman ta boeta aienda… 40 Quechua of Cuzco (Runasimi) features 115 literature 115 Mama Simi 128 spoken area 115 Quechua of Ecuador bilingual songs 283–86 Bolivia 278?

315

INDEX / ÍNDISE

features 115 Mamakuna Shimi 126 musicians 115 speakers 115 spoken area 114–15 written form 115 Quispe, Antinio, translator 128 Qur’an, translations 287 Ramcharan-Ganesh, Kamla, translator biography 211, 212 on the mother tongue 211 Reggae music, and Jamaican Patwa (Jamiekan) 59 Réunion Creole (Kréol rénioné) roots 60–61 spoken area 61 vernacular 61 vocabulary 61 Richon, Emmanuel, translator biography 79–80 Langaz nu Mama 79 on translation, importance of 80 Ride, Ced 46 Riffian Berber see Tarifiyt Robles, Natascha, translator 76 Rodríguez, Emilio Jorge, translator biography 182, 183 Caribbean literary creations 182 on the mother tongue 182 on translation 182 Romance languages, descriptions or vignettes 173–75 maps 172 Runasimi language see Quechua of Cuzco Russian (Russkiy yazyk) literature 192 Rodnoy yazyk 203 speakers 192 Rutgers, Wim, 43 “The World Literature in the National Language” 40 Saadouni, Mohamed, translator biography 94 on translation 94 Tutlayt inu 93 Sabbag, Liliane, translator 45 biography 185 language as a tool for psychologists 185 Sarnami Hindoestani see Hamaar Bhaasaa schools of linguistics, language documentation and description 277 Schwiizerdütsch/Schweizerdütsch see Swiss German Seinen-Lasten, Diana, translator, biography 177 Semitic languages, descriptions or vignettes 225–27 Semitic languages, maps 224

Smith, Matthew J., translator biography 69 on Jamaican Creole, 58–59 social media, and Indigenous languages 289 Souss Berber see Tashelhiyt Spanish (Español) Bolivia 278 El habla del Papiamento 246 in education 48 features 174–75 Latin American 174 Lengua Materna 181–82 literature 174 Papiamentu para siempre 256–57 Sobre las Alas de Lengua Materna 271–72 speakers 174 spoken area 174 in wayno music and dance 283–85 Sranantongo/Sranan see Creole of Suriname Starian, Aloewanai, translator biography 121–22 on the mother tongue 122 Stark, Yael Ackerman, translator 237 biography 238 on the mother tongue 238 Şurayt see Aramaic; Assyrian/Neo-Aramaic Sureth (Neo-Aramaic, Assyrian) Leshana d-yema 234–35 autoglottonym, and other denominations 226 spoken area 226 Sweers, Josephine, translator biography 177, 178 Swiss German (Schweizerdütsch/ Schwiizerdütsch) features 144 Muättärschproch 153–54 Tarifiyt (Riffian Berber) as heritage language 88 literature 88 Tutlayt inu 91–92 Tashelhiyt (Souss Berber) Berber variety 88 literature 88 Tutlayt inu (awal inu) 93–94 writing systems 88 translation Alhagh on 208 Ananco on 124–25 Baulenas on 180 and bilingualism 276 Deceunink on 140 Duranty on 74 Eco on 187 el Mesbahe 92 Farfán on 118 Feenstra on 156

316 

Tr anslingualism, Tr ansl ation and Caribbean Poe try

Hansen on 149 Krog on 282–83 Landsman on 101 “lost in translation” view 282 mass 276 Mengozzi on 236 Nambu on 109 Nzeako on 99 Paraskevopoulou on 202 Pinto on 134 Richon on 80 Saadouni on 94 Starian on 122 and technology 289 Uriarte on 222 van’t Zand on 168 Zheng Ma on 106 translations Alice in Wonderland 287 the Bible 287, 288–89 comics 288 Communist Manifesto 287, 288 emancipatory 288, 289 fiction books 287–88 “Mundarts” dialects 288 Qur’an 287 The Prophet (Gibran) 287 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 287, 288 The Watchtower 287 translators, Gibran on 187 translingualism, meaning 47 Trinidad, bilingual songs 286 Tumba rhythm 46 Uchumataqu language, Bolivia 279–81 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, translations 287, 288 Uriarte, Miren Ayanaya, translator biography 222–23 De vuelta a casa (‘Back home’) 222 hizkuntza gutxitua (‘minorized language’) 222, 223 on translation 222 Uru language group, Bolivia 279, 279–80, 281

Valencian 174 Vallejo, César, Los Heraldos Negros 131 van de Kerke, Simon 294, 295 van Gerwen, Robbie, translator 165, 166 van’t Zand, Annalize, translator biography 168, 169 on native language 168 on translation 168 Vidrine, Emmanuel, biography 66, 67 on free access to education 66 psychological effects of mother tongue 66 Wampis (Huambisa) language Iiña chichame 123–24 speakers 114 spoken area 114 tones 114 Wao Terero language 289 Watchtower, The, translations 287 wayno music and dance 283 Spanish words 284–85 *Wayuunaiki language (Wayuu of Guajira or Guajiro) Pájaros del Verano (Birds of Passage) 114 speakers 114 spoken area 114 Tü wanüikikalü 119 Wicakson, Filipus Gilang, translator Basa Ibu 103 biography 104 on language 104 Wieland, Mr, translator 76 Winkel, Anna (Nelly) Prince 41 Wout, Eduardo, translator biography 171 on the mother tongue 171 Xingjian, Gao, Nobel Prize winner 90 Yasunari, Kawabata 90 Zheng Ma, translator 44 biography 106–7 muyu 105 on translation 106 Zulu, from Afrikaans, mass translations 287–89 Zunneberg, Peter 47