Translator and Interpreter Training: Issues, Methods and Debates [Illustrated] 082649806X, 9780826498069

Table of contents :
Contents
List of Figures and Tables
General Editor's Comment
Contributors
Introduction
A Note on URLs
1 Professionalization and Intervention
2 Teaching Interpreting and Interpreting Teaching: A Conference Interpreter's Overview of Second Language Acquisition
3 Training Editors in Universities: Considerations, Challenges and Strategies
4 Mobility Programmes as a Learning Experience for Translation Students: Development and Assessment of Specific Translation and Transferable Generic Competences in Study Abroad Contexts
5 Systematic Assessment of Translator Competence: In Search of Achilles' Heel
6 First Results of a Translation Competence Experiment: 'Knowledge of Translation' and 'Efficacy of the Translation Process'
7 SLIP – A Tool of the Trade Married to an Educational Space: Making British Sign Language Dictionaries
8 Fan Translation Networks: An Accidental Translator Training Environment?
9 The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Z

Citation preview

Translator and Interpreter Training

Continuum Studies in Translation Series Editor: Jeremy Munday, Centre for Translation Studies, University of Leeds Published in association with the International Association for Translation and Intercultural Studies (1ATIS), Continuum Studies in Translation aims to present a series of books focused around central issues in translation and interpreting. Using case studies drawn from a wide range of different countries and languages, each book presents a comprehensive examination of current areas of research within translation studies written by academics at the forefront of the field. The thought-provoking books in this series are aimed at advanced students and researchers of translation studies. Translation as Intervention Edited by Jeremy Munday

Translator and Interpreter Training Issues, Methods and Debates Edited by

John Kearns

continuum

Continuum International Publishing Group The Tower Building 80 Maiden Lane, Suite 704 11 York Road New York London SE1 7NX NY 10038 © John Kearns and Contributors 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-08264-9805-2 (hardback) 978-08264-9806-9 (paperback) Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data CIP data has been applied for by the Publisher Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Cornwall

Contents List of Figures and Tables General Editor's Comment Contributors Introduction A Note on URLs

1 Professionalization and Intervention

vii ix x xiii xv 1

Cane/ace Seguinot, York University, Toronto

2 Teaching Interpreting and Interpreting Teaching: A Conference Interpreter's Overview of Second Language Acquisition

19

Alessandro Zannirato, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

3 Training Editors in Universities: Considerations, Challenges and Strategies

39

Haidee Kruger, North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, South Africa

4 Mobility Programmes as a Learning Experience for Translation Students: Development and Assessment of Specific Translation and Transferable Generic Competences in Study Abroad Contexts

66

Dorothy Kelly, AVANTI Research Group, University of Granada, Spain

5 Systematic Assessment of Translator Competence: In Search of Achilles'Heel Catherine Way, AVANTI Research Group, University of Granada, Spain

88

VIi

Contents

6 First Results of a Translation Competence Experiment: 'Knowledge of Translation' and 'Efficacy of the Translation Process' 104 PACTE Group : Allison Beeby, Monica Fernandez, Olivia Fox, Amparo Hurtado Albir, Inna Kozlova, Anna Kuznik, Willy Neunzig, Patricia Rodriguez, Lupe Romero (in alphabetical order). Principal researcher: Amparo Hurtado Albir, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Spain

7 SLIP -A Tool of the Trade Married to an Educational Space: Making British Sign Language Dictionaries Christine W.L Wilson and Rita McDade, Department of Languages and Intercultural Studies, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland

127

8 Fan Translation Networks: An Accidental Translator Training Environment? Minako O'Hagan, Dublin City University

158

9 The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education John Kearns, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland Index

184

215

List of Figures and Tables Figures Figure 3.1 A sequential model of the editing process.

56

Figure 6.1 A holistic model of translation competence.

107

Figure 6.2 Results obtained for item 10 (D).

113

Figure 6.3 Results obtained for item 4 (S).

114

Figure 6.4 Distribution of the mean dynamic index of the subjects in the two experimental groups. Figure 6.5 Spanish text used for A-B translation with 'rich points' indicated.

114 116

Figure 6.6 Acceptability distribution for the 15 'best' translators and the 15 'best' teachers in A-B translation.

118

Figure 6.7 Total time taken and acceptability.

119

Figure 6.8 Acceptability and time taken at each stage.

120

Figure 7.1 Body notation system. SLIP Project 2000. This is the design "hidden behind the screen interface". Users can click freely to select a location on the body, but zones on the body are carefully coded.

147

Figure 7.2 Location. SLIP Project 2001. This is the simple shape visible to the user on screen. The various "invisible" zones are highlighted as the cursor moves over them.

148

Figure 7.3 Handshapes. SLIP Project 2001. This shows the pop up menu seen by the user who can then select the appropriate handshape.

148

Figure 7.4 Facial expressions. SLIP Project 2001. A sample of the twenty-two facial expressions which appear in a pop up menu. Figure 8.1 Example of mimetic words used as part of artwork (circled by the author for emphasis). Figure 8.2 Introduction to Ofcama-looking character.

149 168 173

Tables Table 3.1 Important components and principles of the theoretical and practical dimensions of editorial training in a language-practice programme

52

Table 3.2 Analysis of student's editorial interventions according to the process-oriented model Table 4.1 Translator competence and outcomes of mobility programmes

58 81

Table 5.1 Students' 'Achilles' Heel' record sheet

96

Table 5.2 Recording communicative and textual competence

96

Table 5.3 Recording cultural competence

97

Table 5.4 Recording subject area competence

97

VIII

List of Figures and Tables Table 5.5 Recording instrumental and professional competence

98

Table 5,6 Recording psycho-physiological competence

98

Table 5.7 Recording interpersonal competence

99

Table 5.8 Recording strategic competence

99

Table 8.1 Comparative data between fan and professional translations

170

Table 8.2 Use of Translator's notes in fan and professional translation

171

Table 8.3 Use of orthographic devices by the fan translator

173

General Editor's Comment The International Association for Translation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS) provides a global forum for scholars and researchers concerned with translation and other forms of intercultural communication. The Association facilitates the exchange of knowledge and resources among scholars in different parts of the world, stimulates interaction between researchers from diverse traditions, and encourages scholars across the globe to explore issues of mutual concern and intellectual interest. Among the Association's activities are the organization of conferences and workshops, the creation of Web-based resources and the publication of newsletters and scholarly books and journals. The Translation Series published by Continuum in conjunction with IATIS is a key publication for the Association. It addresses the scholarly community at large, as well as the Association's members. Each volume presents a thematically coherent collection of essays, under the coordination of a prominent guest editor. The series thus seeks to be a prime instrument for the promotion and dissemination of innovative research, sound scholarship and critical thought in all areas that fall within the Association's purview. Jeremy Munday University of Leeds, UK

Contributors John Kearns is Associate Professor in the Institute of Modern Languages and Applied Linguistics at the Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland. His main area of research is translator education, the subject on which he completed his doctoral studies at Dublin City University. He has edited the collection New Vistas in Translator and Interpreter Training for the Irish Translators' and Interpreters'Association (ITIA), is general editor of the journal Translation Ireland and reviews editor for The Interpreter and Translator Trainer. He is on the executive committee of the ITIA and also chairs the training committee of the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS). He has worked extensively as a translator from Polish to English and divides his time between Ireland and Poland. Dorothy Kelly is senior lecturer in Translation at the University of Granada, where she has been teaching since 1981, and where she currently coordinates a programme of doctoral studies in Translating and Interpreting entitled "Traduccion, Sociedad y Complication". She obtained her first degree in Translating and Interpreting at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh (Scotland), and her doctoral degree from the University of Granada. Her main research interests are translator training and directionality in translation, on both of which she has published numerous articles and chapters in collective volumes. She is author of A Handbook for Translator Trainers (2005), has edited La traduccion y la interpretation en Espana hoy: perspectivas profesionales (2000) and La direcdonalidad en Traduccion e Interpretation (2003). She is currently series editor of Translation Practices Explained and co-editor of the journal The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, both at St Jerome Publishing, Manchester, UK. Haidee Kruger is a lecturer in Language Practice and English Literature at the Vaal Triangle Campus of North-West University in Vanderbijlpark, South Africa, where she teaches editing, translation and twentieth-century poetry and fiction. She has also worked as an editor, translator and materials developer, mostly in the field of educational publishing. She holds an MA in English Literature (on the Beat poetry of Allen Ginsberg) and is currently reading for a Ph.D. in Translation Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand, focusing on the translation of children's literature in the South African educational context. She is also a writer and poet.

Contributors Minako O'Hagan is a lecturer at Dublin City University, Ireland, where she teaches translation technology and Japanese. Her current research interests include CAT (Computer-aided Translation) applications, audiovisual translation, Japanese popular culture (anime, manga and videogames) and e-learning. She is the author of The Coming Industry of Tele-translation (1996), and coauthor, with David Ashworth, of Translation-mediated Communication in a Digital World (2002). The PACTE Group (Proceso de Adquisicion de la Competencia Traductora y Evaluacion) was formed in October 1997. The aim of its research is to investigate translation competence and its acquisition in written translation using an empirical and experimental-based research methodology. Six language pairs are used: English-Spanish, English-Catalan, French-Spanish, French-Catalan, German-Spanish and German-Catalan. PACTE is a member of the Institute of Neurosciences (INC) of the Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona since 2001. For more information, see the Group's website: twww.fti.uab.es/pacte Candace Seguinot is a Full Professor in the School of Translation at Glendon College, York University, in Toronto, Canada, where among other responsibilities she directs the Programme in Technical and Professional Writing. Her research and publications are in the areas of cross-cultural communication, global marketing, theoretical models of the translation process and the nature of professional expertise. She is the editor of The Translation Process (H.G. Publications, School of Translation, York University, 1989) and is currently engaged in research on cross-disciplinary perspectives on knowledge transfer. Catherine Way has been a lecturer in Translation and Interpreting (SpanishEnglish) at the University of Granada in Spain since 1989 and also lectures on the role of translation and interpreting in intercultural mediation in the faculty of law at the university. Along with Dorothy Kelly she is a member of the AVANTI Research Group. A professional translator and interpreter, her research interests are in economic, commercial, financial, legal and sworn translation, public service interpreting, directionality in translation and translator training. She has recently authored a study on translation as social action and has co-edited a collection of papers on directionality in translation. With Dorothy Kelly she co-edits the journal The Interpreter and Translator Trainer. Christine W.L. Wilson and Rita McDade, lecturers in the Department of Languages and Intercultural Studies, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, developed and run the only university British Sign Language/English interpreting course in Scotland. Christine Wilson's background is in French/English

Xi

XII

Contributors translation and interpreting as practitioner, lecturer and researcher with special interest in interpreting in public sector fields, by videoconferencing and in cross-cultural surveys. She is co-author of Translating, Interpreting & Communication Support: A Review of Services in the Public Sector in Scotland. Rita McDade, a respected member of the Deaf Community, is a relay interpreter and translator and was previously Training Officer for the Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters. She has particular interest in the teaching and acquisition of BSL at advanced levels, BSL tutor training and translation into sign language. Alessandro Zannirato is senior lecturer and director of the Italian Language Program at Johns Hopkins University. He received a degree in liaison interpreting from Milan's Civica Scuola per Interpret! e Traduttori (now ISIT), a laurea in Conference Interpreting from S. Pio V University of Rome, and a Ph.D. with a double concentration in Second Language Acquisition and Interpreter Training from the University of Cape Town. He is a sworn translator of the High Court of South Africa, and has worked as a teacher, teacher trainer, technical translator and interpreter for various institutions. His research interests include foreign language programme evaluation, interpreter training and L2 teacher development.

Introduction The present collection reveals the field of research in language mediation education to be finding a surer footing for itself in various ways. Perhaps most conspicuous and refreshing from an editorial point of view has been the absence of earnestly dogmatic pleas for the importance and necessity of training in translation and interpreting, which seemed to characterize discourse in the field for several years. The value of education, it seems, is something which can now be increasingly presumed at least within training circles and discussion has progressed to more challenging issues of what and how we should be teaching (and indeed, in the case of Minako O'Hagan's contribution, of how our training efforts can be informed by the successes of translators who define themselves through their very lack of training). Other trajectories become apparent on closer examination. There appears to be a move away from papers which focus hermetically on the individual experiences of trainers arriving at their own solutions in their own classrooms. Contributions in the current collection challenge this isolation in different ways, perhaps most obviously in the fact that researchers are feeling increasingly assured in talking about training as it connects with a variety of other fields - Haidee Kruger's extension of the discussion into editing appears, in this respect, as entirely appropriate as Dorothy Kelly's investigation of translation in student exchange programmes and Christine W.L. Wilson and Rita McDade's study of lexicography for sign-language interpreting. Most particularly, however, it appears that we are becoming more comfortable in talking about education at the same time as we talk about translator and interpreter training. There is a more conspicuous willingness to move into other disciplines to inform our research and, concomitantly, a greater bravery in viewing the implications of our work in the broader social arena. Such a tendency is clear in Candace Seguinot's examination of the role of training intervention in the context of broader notions of professionalization or Alessandro Zannirato's study of the interplay of interpreter training and second language acquisition. Moreover, this extension into other fields appears to be matched by a growing awareness of the development of a research canon in our own field of investigation. This is particularly evident with regard to the increasingly sophisticated discussions which are evolving around the notion of competence, the meticulous research trajectory of the PACTE group in

XIV Introduction Barcelona being a case in point here. While competence is also a primary theme of the contributions by Dorothy Kelly and Catherine Way to this collection, it is worth noting that it is a notion which is mentioned in one form or another in all of the papers in this volume. Along with the development of a common vocabulary, the contributors here reveal an increasing tendency to draw on a common research canon. One name mentioned frequently in the papers is that of Don Kiraly, whose social constructivist approach to translator training responds to the inadequacies of many traditional 'transmissionist' training models with a pedagogy informed by recent thought in constructivist psychology. For many, notably O'Hagan, the direction which these collaborative methods of learning point towards is firmly within the potentialities offered by new technologies. Cutting-edge technology is also at the core of Wilson and McDade's project, which maps new ground in terms of research into the development of training tools. Catherine Way shares this concern with tools when she aptly notes how trainers nowadays are not only faced with the task of enabling trainees to acquire new professional competences, but also of providing their graduates with the tools to ensure that they are capable of maintaining and upgrading these competences throughout their working lives. In keeping with the sentiments of Kiraly's approach, perhaps the future of translator and interpreter training research lies in examining ways in which we can enable our learners to learn how to learn, as this would seem to be a primary competence demanded in both professional and personal life after university. The broad international range of these papers reflects the fact that all but one were initially presented at the Second International Conference of the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS), held at the University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa in July 2006. In addition to thanking all the contributors, I would also like to thank both the conference organizers and those within IATIS for making such an international endeavour possible. I extend my gratitude to series editor Jeremy Munday for his unfailing support and to the many specialists who provided peer reviews for the articles. Finally many thanks to Gurdeep Mattu and Colleen Coalter at Continuum for their patience and understanding. John Kearns

Dublin, September 2007

A Note on URLs Unless otherwise indicated, all URL links quoted in the articles were accessed and found to be active on 4 September 2007.

This page intentionally left blank

Professionalization and Intervention Candace Seguinot

Chapter Outline Introduction The field of translation studies Education and training Codes of ethics Effects of change Notes References

1 4 8 10 12 15 16

Introduction Over the past 50 years the ways in which translators and interpreters carry out their work has changed, and the ways in which translation theory has looked at this work has also changed. Whatever the expectations of how visible translators and interpreters should be, translation and interpretation are acts, and translators and interpreters actors. The degree to which these actors intervene in the process, the nature of that intervention, and the perspective from which that intervention is seen, lie at the heart of what is taught in training courses and what is published in scholarly journals. Attitudes to intervention themselves are intimately tied to notions of professional behaviour. The most overt expressions of these attitudes are the norms and codes of ethics published by associations and developed by institutions which use interpreting and translating services.

1

@

Translator and Interpreter Training These different attitudes to intervention have different sources. The first source comes from the field itself. As the focus in Translation Studies has shifted from translation as an object to translation as a process and then to translators as subjects, intervention on the level of translation theory has become more central as a research issue. The second source of attitudes comes from the professional world where technology and globalization have made significant changes to the way work is organized and carried out. Third, today's focus on intervention is also a reflection of postmodern ways of seeing the world and a reaction to the rootlessness that postmodernism has engendered. Although current discourse in translation theory, with its focus on the translator's habitus, helps us understand and value the translator/interpreter as agent, changes in the management and pragmatic aspects of the professional world are working in the opposite direction, restricting the sense of reward that comes from identification with the product of one's labour. One place to embark on a discussion of the different institutionalizing forces on translation as a profession is the term 'profession' itself. To begin with, there are a number of connotations. A handyman may have as much skill in his or her domain as a translator in his or hers, but we don't speak of a handyperson as a professional. There is a certain snobbery attached to the term 'professional'. Whether we are talking about the way work is organized, as in 'Globalization has changed the organization of the translating profession', or the qualities attributed to an individual, as in 'That wasn't professional behaviour on your part', there is a sense of (1) a collective, (2) restricted membership and (3) standards or expectations. Even though we know that expert translators and interpreters automatize processes and that gifted translators and interpreters seem to comprehend the essence of meaning in larger units than do people who stay close to the structure of the original (See Englund Dimitrova, 2005 for a review of research), we do not think of translators and interpreters as operating out of intuition. Rather, as with other professions, we understand that on some level the knowledge on which a translator or interpreter draws is analytic. That is in fact why translation and interpretation can be taught rather than passed on through apprenticeship. This is one of the criteria in the development of professions as a cultural phenomenon. Professionalization is a process by which expertise is institutionalized. That institutionalization began after the Industrial Revolution, when the division of labour and the population shift to the cities meant that people could ask for payment for their advice and their services. The development of

Professionalization and Intervention professions then followed a more or less predictable pattern (Abbott, 1988: 10-11). First came the recognition that training was needed and some kind of specialized education was set up. If the training was not offered at a university, there was a move to have some kind of relationship with a university. We see this stage of development currently in the Western world in some of the health care professions. Nurses used to be trained in schools of nursing and that training has been moved to universities; chiropractic colleges are currently applying to make the same move. The professionalization of dialogue or community interpreting is in part constrained by the limited levels of training offered in educational institutions and in part by the low level of formal training required by employers. Even when courses are offered at a post-secondary level, they are generally certificate- rather than degree-level courses. Most training courses are short and, as with subtitling, entrance into the field is often by examination and/ or relevant work experience rather than through certification. University programmes in translation and interpretation in general are relatively recent, have widely differing relationships to the practice of the profession (Milton, 2004), and in some parts of the world private training institutions that also offer language or business programmes are still the norm. In the field of organizational studies, research into the formation of professions shows that when training migrated to universities, the standards got higher, the training got longer, and there was a move to hire full-time instructors. The next step in the professionalization process was found to be the creating of professional associations, and after that an explicit attempt to separate competent practitioners from the incompetent. Codes of ethics followed, and then an attempt at some form of legal recognition in the form of limiting the right to use a professional title or the more restrictive practice of licensing. Viewed from a sociological perspective, these developments can be seen as ways to impose control over work. What tasks are defined as being the work of the profession? What training is needed to be able to do the work? Who gets to do the work? How can the members of the profession ensure that the public has trust in the people who do the work? How can practitioners or would-be practitioners be excluded if their work or their behaviour reflects badly on the profession? How can practitioners ensure that the work goes only to members of the professional community? What has Translation Studies had to say about this process as it applies specifically to the professionalization of translation?

3

$

Translator and Interpreter Training

The field of translation studies Translation as object The first step in the professionalization of translation involved the mounting of training courses in post-secondary institutions, especially universities. As the new field was housed in most cases in language, literature or linguistics departments, the methodologies current in these fields drove the first research into professional translation. The structural approach in linguistics meant a structural approach to translation: meaning was associated with linguistic units and patterns and comparisons were made between languages to identify correspondences between structural and translation units. The analytic knowledge that is the hallmark of a professional was seen here as literally analytic as much as skill-based. The method of asking students to analyse the structure of the source text before they began a translation was often - and is still sometimes - seen as a logical preparation for translating (see, for example, Nida, 1969). The focus was on translation as an object and the way to study that object was to compare source and target texts. The shift to more target-oriented explanations of translation (e.g. Nida, 1969), functional models and pragmatic, problem-centred pedagogic materials (like Newmark and Delisle) moved the field of Translation Studies closer to the concerns of the profession. During this period, as Translation Studies itself was moving to a target and cultural orientation (Toury, 1995:25), classroom emphasis on the notion of a translation brief or assignment highlighted the service aspect of translation. Well before the social sciences began to work with the realization that meaning and language are not givens, that meaning is constructed through the ways in which language is used in particular situations (Winograd, 1980), translation had already understood the importance of contextualization and was defining the role of the professional in intervening in the interpretation of that meaning. The power of intervention that the translator had from the functional perspective was one of choice. In Juliane House's words: According to ReiB and Vermeer (1984), it is the translator who decides which function he selects for his translation and his route of translation, he is given an important new role of "co-author" (Vermeer, 1994: 13). The notion of function, critical in their theory, is not clear to me at all. I can only hypothesize that they consider it to be the real-world effect of a text. In ReiB/Vermeer's Skopos theory, then, the translator is elevated to a much more important position than he or she is normally credited with - a fact that, as Wilss

Professionalization and Intervention (1997) remarked - may indeed be one of the motivations for establishing Skopos theory. I would agree that one of the plausible reasons for legitimizing manipulations of the source text is an attempt to lift the translator up from his 'invisibleness' (Venuti, 1995), and that the subtext in all the target text/target culture- and response-centred approaches to translation may well 'up-grade the status of the translator'. (House, 1997: 13)

Translation as process As a reaction to the normative source of hypotheses about the translation process, there was a movement to study the actual behaviour of translation professionals. It is here that we see the evolution of our understanding of what it means to be a professional and the confusion between the terms 'expert' and 'professional' (Pym, 2004). The assumptions behind the first process studies were as follows: 1. Studying translation in the classroom (which, in the initial studies, meant the foreignlanguage classroom) would shed light on translation competencies, meaning the inherent characteristics of a good translator and skill components that could be taught. 2. Comparing first-year and advanced translation students would be equivalent to studying professional versus non-professional translators. 3. Professional translators, meaning people who made their living from translation, were good translators and their strategies would be good strategies. 4. A cognitive model - that is a model based on the individual mind - would be best suited to describe translation behaviour.

As this field developed, there was a hope that it would be possible to discover both universal strategies and effective strategies. All that was needed was enough studies with enough subjects with enough different language pairs. Instead what became clear early on was that just because someone worked as a translator didn't mean they did not make mistakes or even that they were good translators. This led to a rethinking of the distinction between what it means to be a 'professional' and what it means to be an 'expert' (Seguinot, 2000; Englund Dimitrova, 2005). It also became clear from studies of translators in the workplace that there are general or global strategies whose effects may not show up as decision points marked by pauses as opposed to more local strategies that show up in think-aloud protocols as the translator verbalizes the options he or she is considering. The choice of register, the preference for staying close to the text or working on larger

5

6

Translator and Interpreter Training units, the conventions or norms of translating in a particular culture, field, or organization: these are not necessarily associated with decision making at particular points in a text. They are a product of social conditioning and sometimes a reflection of the pragmatic constraints of the workplace and they may not be conscious or available to consciousness. For example, no one has said anything in recorded think-aloud protocols like, 'I keep on translating until my mind goes blank', or 'I know what these product descriptions need to look like - I've done thousands of them'. In this sense people working in the cultural transfer of information who have wondered about the efficacy of empirical research (e.g. Hermans, 1996) are both wrong when they expect that empirical research will account for social information and right when they point out that both the psychological and the social are needed to account for repeated behaviour. Moreover, recent work has shown that people come already formed to their tasks as translators, that is, they bring with them cognitive styles as well as habits that may have served them well in particular situations, and may or may not serve them well in the situation being observed or even in their day-to-day work. This means first that full-time translators working on pragmatic texts tend to have one of two preferred cognitive styles, what Paula Asadi (Asadi and Seguinot, 2005) has called 'prospective thinking' versus 'on-line or on-screen thinking'. Rather than a binary opposition, it is probably more accurate to describe this preference in terms of ways of translating that are more or less close to one of two poles. It may be that this preference is part of a person's make-up, but it is also possible that conditions of work influence the way a translation is produced, for example, the fact that the pressure to produce a certain number of words a day leads the prospective thinkers to tackle proposition-length segments and to read ahead for comprehension. These translators solve problems before they type the solution so that they produce a draft and revise later. At the other extreme are translators who follow the source text closely and revise as they go. If these cognitive styles are innate, training that advocates one way of working through a translation task is not really targeting professional behaviour but more likely reflects a reaction to student fixation with correspondences between words. Also, the more experience people have with particular types of texts, the more likely they will be to insert large chunks of text from memory, regardless of their preferred style. This makes them more productive in terms of speed, but it can lead to errors and again is a strategy that can't be passed on to novice

Professionalization and Intervention translators. Third, the type of tasks people perform on a regular basis - for example, responsibilities for revision or terminology - may well prompt a transfer of habits from those tasks to translation. Similarly, people with a background in technology who can solve their own computer problems are in a sense more productive than those who can't, since dealing with formatting, file preparation, etc. now takes a substantial amount of a translator's time. In fact, taking advantage of time-saving features offered by software, like typing over the original text to ensure the correct spelling of proper names, changes the translation process itself. As we will see later on when we look at the effects of technology and globalization on the nature of intervention in the translation process, increases in efficiency can decrease the likelihood of the translator reconceptualizing a text in the target language. In organizational studies this has been referred to as the deskilling effect of technology (Westwood and Linstead, 2001). As one of the rewards of translating is the opportunity to understand what one is reading and to be creative, there is an alienating effect in the loss of these opportunities.

The translator as subject The alienation that is a by-product of modernism and globalization is perhaps one of the reasons why Translation Studies has come to focus more on the people involved in the act of translation than on the process or the product. This focus on the translator as subject has at least two aspects: the translator or interpreter as agent, reflecting ideology through choice, and the subject as an individual, a real person whose working life is affected by the translating or interpreting situation, institutional aspects of the profession and material constraints. As studies by Foucault and Bourdieu on social agency and habitus have shown, the ways in which a field operates and the ways in which individuals operate within the field are constrained by inherited sociocultural relations (see, for example, Foucault, 1976). These constraints are internalized in terms of conventions, norms and ideological preferences. It is not enough to say that asymmetrical relationships determine behaviour: as post-colonial and feminist researchers have shown, it is the internalization of those asymmetries that perpetuates ways of acting and ways of being. This self-referential understanding of power relations determines the expectations that we have of others and of ourselves.

7

8

Translator and Interpreter Training Some of the social predispositions that have been associated with the concept of professionalism are really cultural values that are learned young and make their way into the ethical standards of the self. For example the desire to do a good job that Chesterman (2001:146) sees as one of the virtues of professional practice is clearly a cultural rather than a field-based motivation. Other predispositions belong more strictly to the field. One of the interesting facets of professionalism as it pertains to translation is this integration of professional identity with the self. You can say, for example, that someone is a writer, but that she hasn't written anything for a long time. However, of a translator, you can't say, 'She is a translator, but she hasn't translated anything in a long time'. What you can say is that she is a translator but she hasn't worked in a long time. It is not simply that a profession is a describing rather than a defining characteristic because we can say that someone is a doctor or a lawyer even when they have retired from practice. With lower prestige professionals like translators and university professors who have retired, we use the past tense. Now our understanding of the individual in the modern world is that the individual's self and the roles that that person plays in their family, religious life, work, and other communities are separate. It follows from a strictly logical point of view that the relationship between the individual and his or her attachment to the profession of translation or interpretation is more likely to be instrumental than based on emotional attachment (Sampson, 1989: 915). However if we look at what Donald Norman (2004) says in his book Emotional Design, a new take on his early work on design and human-machine interfaces, there is an acknowledgement of what we all instinctively know, namely that human emotion and aesthetics have a lot to do with the choices we make. What, then, is the role of education?

Education and training University training promotes the separation of self and role in the teaching of certain market-place skills. Assignments need be delivered as they would be on the outside, sometimes electronically, sometimes word processed, deadlines need to be respected, there should be no guessing at meaning, etc. It also contributes to the submissiveness associated with the profession, in part through the use of the terms coined in the field that carry emotive connotations, terms like 'adequate' and 'appropriate' translation. Similarly, the concept of loyalty suggested by Christiane Nord (1997, 2001) to correct the

Professionalization and Intervention client-subservient potential of Skopostheorie has both an inherent asymmetry and a value judgement attached to it. Conceived as an improvement over the word 'faithful' which has an object focus (i.e. which focuses on the relationship between texts) it focuses on the people involved in the whole of the translation exercise. This formulation of the translator's role in terms of moral responsibility to others refers to what would normally be considered the private rather than the public self. It limits initiative in the self-identity of a translator in a way that the metaphor of invisibility does not. It is perhaps this kind of prescription in training rather than personal characteristics that leads to the following statement by Roger Chriss on his website Translation as a Profession: The very qualities that seem to make a good translator, those of attention to detail, passion for languages and research, care and craft in writing, also seem to be those that make a poor negotiator or marketing person.

(Chriss, 2006)

Until recently, the specifics of the way the workplace constrains the exercise of the profession and the reasons why the business of translation operates as it does did not receive much attention (Cronin, 2003; Mossop, 2006). Certainly the translation of literature has been seen as a higher vocation, but part of the reason is also linked to the fact that translation is a profession where some practitioners are academically trained and others are not. Abbott (1988: 53) suggests a reason why knowledge from academic studies does not make its way into the profession: 'Professional knowledge exists, in academia, in a peculiarly disassembled state that prevents its use'. He gives the example of library science, where indexing is taught independent of the thing to be indexed, accessibility or the structure of a collection - factors that working librarians need to work with. However, that is not the problem of the indexing theorist. Similarly, in psychiatry an academic aims to understand the dynamics of a particular defence mechanism rather than to identify it in a particular case. The character of the abstract classification system is thus dictated by its custodians - the academics - whose criteria are not practical clarity and efficacy, but logical consistency and rationality. Arguments about translators being naturally suited to perform certain functions are arguments then from common sense. The underlying message is that there is a natural social order in which other people are better suited to take on the managerial and entrepreneurial functions than the translator who does the work.

9

10

Translator and Interpreter Training The current view from Translation Studies is to look at the distribution of power in the profession from the perspective of Foucault's notion of the construction of subject-positions. For translation this means looking at the role of organizations and within those organizations the role of management. The power of management is enabled through discourses of economic rationalism and objective scientism (Westwood and Linstead, 2001: 9). It follows that arguments which are raised for the purpose of social control will be presented as necessary and based on practical grounds. The ideological bases for decisions and their social consequences, actions with social meaning, will be hidden. In organizations specific narratives develop to mesh the demands of individual skills and abilities into the functional demands of the organization. Stephen Linstead (Westwood and Linstead, 2001: 14) calls this the rhetoric of humanistic control. Thus in the case of Sibel Edmonds, the translator who was fired from her job at the FBI after complaining of intelligence failures and poor performance in her unit, the FBI justified the firing not only on the grounds of security violations but also citing the disruption of the translation unit.1 It is in the organization's, and in the case of translation the industry's, interest that the desire that the individual has for self-improvement be tempered by the notion of service which requires self-effacement - what Stephen Linstead refers to as altruistic control. Similarly, professionalism in the sense required by organizations is promoted through a rhetoric of self-control in which disciplined self-denial is expected at work, though it means suppressing the desire for the gratification that comes with being creative. Social control is tied to cultural power, humanistic control to subjective power, altruistic control to ethical power, objectification (meaning the suppression of personal identity) to authoritarian power and self-control to the uses of language, images, stories and symbols that are linked to the self.

Codes of ethics These ideological and ethical meanings make their way more overtly into codes of ethics. Thus the notions of professionalism reflect the different needs and ideologies of the initiating body. Where community interpreting is concerned, there is a clear difference between the points of view of associations which wish to exercise an exclusionary function and those which want to further the professionalization of the field. The California Standards for Healthcare Interpreters go a long way to integrating notions of a personal and

Professionalization and Intervention a professional self with reference to a higher vocation. They say that the ethical standards have been devised with the patient's health and well-being in mind. There is a recognition that the norms and conventions of American health care are not intuitive, especially to people who may themselves be recent immigrants, and there is a clear training function to the document. Each ethical principle has an underlying value description followed by a set of performance measures which demonstrate how the interpreter's actions follow the principle. The standards are also a political document with a clear suggestion of empowerment in Ethical Principle 6: 6. Cultural responsiveness Interpreters seek to understand how diversity and cultural similarities and differences have a fundamental impact on the healthcare encounter. Interpreters play a critical role in identifying cultural issues and considering how and when to move to a cultural clarifier role. (California Healthcare Interpreters Association (CHIA), 2002: 11, emphasis in original)

The Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators Incorporated (AUSIT) is not limited to community interpreters but it does have many members who work in this area. This is reflected in the training aspect of the following advice on professional conduct in the Code of Ethics published on their website: Interpreters and translators should decline gifts and tips (except token gifts customary in some cultures), explaining to clients that accepting them could compromise their professional integrity (AUSIT, undated)

Codes of ethics are also a sign that a profession is well established and is a way of strengthening associations and excluding outsiders. Thus the AUSIT code encourages compliance with the authority of the Association: refrain from unprofessional or dishonourable behaviour and refer any unresolved disputes to the AUSIT Executive Committee and accept its decision.

and promotes group loyalty as in the following section: 8. Professional solidarity • Interpreters and translators shall respect and support their fellow professionals.

11

12

Translator and Interpreter Training They should • assist and further the interests of colleagues, refraining from comments injurious to the reputation of a colleague • promote and enhance the integrity of the profession through trust and mutual respect. Differences of opinion should be expressed with candour and respect - not by denigration - refraining from behaviour considered unprofessional by their peers. (AUSIT, undated)

In contrast, the Canadian associations for translators and interpreters, with the exception of one province, are resisting an increase in membership from community interpreters, partly because of the time and effort needed to expand testing in less frequently encountered languages and partly because of an idea of professionalism that precludes the immigrant experience of cobbling together different jobs to survive.2 The Association of Canadian Corporations in Translation and Interpretation (ACCTI) which reflects the business side of the language industries goes even further in interpreting professionalism in an instrumental and exclusionary way: their Code of Ethics enjoins its members in article 2 to: 'maintain such systems and equipment, and ensure that they are technically proficient, as required by modern communications and information technology' (ACCTI, undated).

Effects of Change The effects of technological change and globalization are not the same all over the world. In Canada, as Brian Mossop has recently written (2006), translation departments in government and industry used to be the norm. As most translation is still between English and French, the only languages with official status, outsourcing means in essence that former employees now act as independent contractors. However, it is becoming clear that there will be a gap when more experienced translators retire and the old system that allowed for integrating recent graduates into the profession is no longer in place. The downloading of the costs of technology onto the translator rather than a department means not just the costs of the actual equipment and software but a revised pricing structure for redundancies in texts and the added cost of training both in translation and in computer applications (Translator X, 2004). There is always a shaking-out time for new software so that new products will appear before there is a consensus that the rewards are worth the investment.

Professionalization and Intervention This means that the experience of a translator who follows new technological developments out of a natural interest or inclination is quite different from that of one who feels an obligation to keep up in order to remain competitive. Where education was valued and paid for by large companies, the burden now falls to the individual who has to lose translating hours in addition to paying for courses. Furthermore, the reward for good performance as an employee was eventually promotion to a position of revisor or manager. Now the reward is monetary and there are fewer employers willing to take on work-placement students because of the costs of doing so. The anonymity that comes with faceless interaction has its price. In an unpublished research project conducted in Montreal last year, a group of community interpreters agreed that they preferred working at Montreal's Children's Hospital for half the fees they were paid at other public institutions. The reasons were that they were treated with respect, largely through the ways in which the department that managed interpretation was able to intervene in problem situations. The interpreters valued the fact that they were offered educational workshops, but the offer was more important than the actual content as very few people attended. The notion that one is doing a worthwhile job and the interpretation of just what kinds of intervention are possible are key in the issues of triadic interpreting raised by Sandra Hale (2005) and Ian Mason (2005). To reduce the management costs of outsourcing and to ensure a reliable source of contract translators, the Canadian government is encouraging the consolidation of the translation industry into large businesses (Canadian Translation Industry Sectoral Committee, 1999). It is unlikely that any but the largest or less regulated companies will be able to compete in the multilingual market-place, although ironically Canada is a country of multilingual immigration. This is partly because there is so much work translating between the official languages that freelance translators can do well without finding ways of offering services in other languages through alliances with other translators. Training is still largely geared to transfer between the two official languages and it is not in the interests of either the public or private sector to professionalize training in languages spoken by immigrants beyond a certain level as this would raise significantly the cost of community interpreting and translation into languages of non-official status. The economic argument that the market will not pay for university-trained practitioners has also been raised for audiovisual training, a public argument now in Spain where specialization in media translation is available at university level and where the government has decided to authorize lower-level training (Diaz-Cintas, 2007).

143

14

Translator and Interpreter Training Economics is not the only reason the market-place may prefer to hire translators who are not university-trained. There are patterns of networking that lie behind many business practices around the world, and it is not clear whether these social patterns or the liberal arts flavour of university offerings in translation are responsible for disconnects between the profession and academia of the kind mentioned by John Milton (2004) in Brazil. Political intervention in language policy and planning also influences the extent to which translation and interpretation will be maintained at particular levels on national territory and how translating and interpreting into and out of the languages of minorities and immigrants will be supported. In Canada there is a kind of schizophrenic vision where multiculturalism is promoted, but not multilingualism, as though culture consists of the kinds of events that can be enjoyed by the majority of Canadians, like celebrations and food and music. The Canadian Multiculturalism Act says (C-18.7): (1) It is hereby declared to be the policy of the Government of Canada to (a) recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism reflects the cultural and racial diversity of Canadian society and acknowledges the freedom of all members of Canadian society to preserve, enhance and share their cultural heritage;

Policies of responsibilization restrict the provision of interpretation in some provinces to the first year that immigrants and refugees arrive. This is promoted as the route to social inclusion. It also happens to be a convenient way of capping government expenditures. By way of contrast, the European Union has a policy of multilingualism which serves both the national interests of member states and the economic interests of the Union: The European Union is built around the free movement of its citizens, capital and services. The citizen with good language skills is better able to take advantage of the freedom to work or study in another Member State . . . Also in this context, the Commission is working to develop the entrepreneurial spirit and skills of EU citizens (for example through the European Charter for Small Enterprises! as well as the Green Paper on Entrepreneurship). Such goals will be easier to achieve if language learning is effectively promoted in the European Union, making sure that European citizens, and companies, have the intercultural and language skills necessary to be effective in the global market-place. (Commission of the European Communities, 2003)

Professionalization and Intervention 15 The role of translation is seen both as a way to facilitate communication between European Union (EU) citizens and as an expression of a social model. In the words of the European Commission's Director-General for Translation Karl-Johan Lonnroth (2006: 2), 'If I was not allowed to dream in my mother tongue, I would be much less European'. These social and political factors make it difficult to predict what the outcome of the changes we are seeing will be. Individuals used to be organized in societies. What will happen if work comes to be organized on the basis of global units without the support of the middle level of organizations? Trevor Haywood suggests that the outcome can be far reaching. When the British shipbuilding industry collapsed, there were fewer marine engineers and therefore fewer retiring marine engineers to assess risks for insurance companies. Haywood asks (1995: 102) what will happen to the British insurance industry if German or Korean engineers are now doing the risk assessment. Ten years ago Marilyn Gaddis Rose (1996) posed the question, referring to the teaching of translation in the United States, whether the liberal arts goals of the university and the applied training valued by the profession would come together when the university came to take note of what the market wanted (see also Forstner, 2003). In areas where that orientation has taken place, or at least where the pressure to adapt has been felt, there is now a questioning of whether the incorporation of many kinds of skills development is contributing to a deprofessionalization of the profession. Has the perception that translators have a specialized expertise diminished as the need for translation has grown (Ladmiral and Meriaud, 2005: 30)? Anthony Pym (2003) has made the argument that knowledge and skills that speed up the translation process are not in themselves part of translation competence. The theorizing that he advocates in order to help students develop their translation competence is congruent with a trend that is happening in some universities that have adapted to market needs, namely the development of the cultural studies side of Translation Studies, with its roots in liberal arts and social science. This is perhaps a necessary next step in thinking about the processes of professionalization and deprofessionalization.

Notes 1. See http://newsmine.org/archive/9-l 1/forewarned/translator-sibel-edmonds/court-turns-downcase-of-sibel-edmonds.txt

16

Translator and interpreter Training 2. In an interview that was part of an unpublished 2005 research project on community interpreting, a senior officer of one of the provincial associations said that some members did not want to have to associate with taxi drivers.

References Abbott, Andrew (1988), The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Labor. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Asadi, Paula and Candace Seguinot (2005), 'Shortcuts, strategies and general patterns in a process study of nine professionals', Meta, 50, (2), 522-547. Available at http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2005/ v50/n2/010998ar.pdf Association of Canadian Corporations in Translation and Interpretation (ACCTI) (undated), Code of Professional Conduct, Ethics and Business Practices. Available at http://www.accti.org/html/en/cof. html [Accessed December, 2007]. Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators Incorporated (AUSIT) (undated),'AUSIT Code of Ethics for Translators and Interpreters (Summary version)'. Available at http://www.ausit.org/eng/ showpage.php3?id=650 California Healthcare Interpreters Association (CHIA) (2002), California Standards for Healthcare Interpreters: Ethical Principles, Protocols, and Guidance on Roles 6- Intervention. Sacramento, CA: CHIA. Available at http://www.cms.chiaonline.org/images/Publications/CA_standards_healthcare_interpreters.pdf Canadian Translation Industry Sectoral Committee (1999), Survey of the Canadian Translation Industry. Available at http://www.uottawa.ca/associations/csict/strate.pdf Chesterman, Andrew (2001), 'Proposal for a Hieronymic oath', in Anthony Pym (ed.), The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies, a special issue of The Translator, 7, (2), 139-154. Chriss, Roger, articles on Translating as a Profession on the website http://www.languagerealm.com/ ArticlesTop.html [Accessed April, 2006]. Removed from the Web June 2007 and now self-published in book form. Commission of the European Communities (2003), Promoting Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity: An Action Plan 2004 - 2006. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/education/doc/official/ keydoc/actlang/act_lang_en.pdf Cronin, Michael (2003), Translation and Globalization. London and New York: Routledge. Diaz-Cintas, Jorge (2007), E-mail to list-serves on translation 12 June 2007 (accessed on itit@ yahoogroups.com). See also website referred to: www.firmasonline.com/lfirmas/campl.asp?C=675 Englund Dimitrova, Birgitta (2005), Expertise and Explicitation in the Translation Process. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Forstner, Martin (2003), 'Hidden qualitative dimensions of performance indicators and their importance for the assessment of translation education', VI Seminario de Traducao Cientifica e Tecnica em Lingua Portuguesa 2003: Actes do Seminario. Fundacao para a Cie'ncia e a Tecnologia / Union Latina, pp. 89-96. Foucault, Michel (1976), Histoire de la sexualite. Paris: Editions Gallimard.

Professionalization and Intervention 17 Gaddis Rose, Marilyn (1996), 'The dilemma of professionalism in American translation studies', in Marilyn Gaddis Rose (ed.), Translation Horizons Beyond the Boundaries of 'Translation Spectrum, Series: Translation Perspectives, IX. Binghamton: Center for Research in Translation, pp. 293-295. Hale, Sandra (2005), 'The interpreter's identity crisis', in Juliane House, M. Rosario Martin Ruano and Nicole Baumgarten (eds), Translation and the Construction of Identity: IATIS Yearbook 2005, Seoul: lATIS.pp. 14-29. Haywood, Trevor (1995), Info Rich/Info Poor: Access and Exchange in the Global Information Society. London, Melbourne, Munich, New Jersey: Bowker-Saur. Hermans, Theo (1996),'Norms and the determination of translation", in Roman Alvarez and M. Carmen Africa Vidal (eds), Translation, Power, Subversion. Clevedon (UK), Bristol (USA) and Adelaide: Multilingual Matters, pp. 25-51. House, Juliane (1997), Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revisited. Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Ladmiral, Jean-Rene and Marie Meriaud (2005), 'Former des traducteurs: pour qui? pour quoi?', Meta, 50, (1), 28-35. Available at http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2005/v50/nl/010654ar.pdf Lonnroth, Karl-Johan (2006), 'Translation practices in the Commission'. Paper delivered at the CICEB conference 2006. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/translation/reading/articles/pdf/2006092 l_cicebtranslation_practices_en.pdf Mason, Ian (2005 ), 'Projected and perceived identities in dialogue interpreting', in Juliane House, M. Rosario Martin Ruano, and Nicole Baumgarten (eds), Translation and the Construction of Identity, IATIS Yearbook 2005. Seoul: IATIS, pp. 30-52. Milton, John (2004), 'The figure of the factory translator: University and professional domains in the translation profession', in Gyde Hansen, Kirsten Malmkj i o t ^^-4-tt—Aj(utterance

Excuse meee!

Excuse me ...

by an effeminate man) 5. ti—v>(slightly reluctant acceptance)

Okaaay

OK

6. is«6—g-t-?—(a loud shout being

I'lllll kill yoooou!

I'll kill you!

heard, written in bold typeface)

F and P made different lexical choices in the introduction to this character (Figure 8.2) as 'girly guy' and 'camp-looking guy' respectively: Fan: This weird girly guy acted homeless, but there was a lot of mystery about him. Pro: This weird, camp-looking guy appears homeless, but there's something odd about him. Source: - W

Figure 8.2 Introduction to Otema-looking character. Source: Page 74 in 5/i/sso Nikki. Copyright Hideo Azuma/East Press. All rights reserved.

173

174

Translator and Interpreter Training The same references to this character are retained in each translation in a reference to him again later (p. 75 in Shisso Nikki): Fan: Hmmm. He acts cutely, but he ignored me back like a girly man . . . Pro: Hmm . . . he ignored me back, but in such a cute or rather camp kind of way . . . Source: 5 — tr fcS 19 1' t/0*^fc. Lv>iv>5/!r>

However, only F seems to have backed up the characterization of this 'girly guy' with orthographic devices to visually re-create the character's somewhat effeminate characteristics (see examples 3 and 4 in Table 8.3). This is a measured technique and is often used in commercial translations in order to re-voice a character in manga translation (Howell, 2005: 63). In the retrospective interview, it was clear that the fan translator had especially marked okama as culture-specific to Japanese or specific to Japanese popular culture genres in its usage and associations, often as a parody and in some pejorative way, and conceded that he had debated whether or not to insert a translator's note for the term. It is true that a character described as okama crops up often in Japanese popular culture genres, such as videogames and anime (e.g. Mas L6pez, 2004). The fan translator's exposure to these genres may have made him more acutely aware of the particular stereotypical views the term carries. Howell (2005: 297) suggests that one way in which the translation approach used in popular culture genres differs from literary translation is in the assimilation of characters' voices, which are probably driven more by 'the importance of stereotypical characters' in the former. This seems to explain the specific approach taken by the fan in the use of orthographic devices. By comparison, a similar level of attention was not observed with regard to this particular character in the professional version. Example 5 is an attempt by F to convey the slight reluctance connoted in the source text with the prolonged vowel. The last example 6 demonstrates that F's use of orthographic devices appears to have been motivated by a desire to compensate for the loudness expressed by the use of bold typeface in the source text, whereas P used an exclamation mark but did not provide any other emphasis to compensate for the effect. In the absence of the use of orthographic devices, some autonomous interjections were observed in P as in example 1 in Table 8.3. The following shows another such example. A dry humour underlies the whole story, with the main character (i.e. the manga artist) often adopting an ironical tone and creating a comic effect in otherwise dire circumstances. The two versions used different renderings of the source text to express this (p. 83 in Shisso Nikki).

Fan Translation Networks Fan: You like bullying me like this, library?! Pro: Damn it, library, so you enjoy tormenting me?!

Source: -

This line was uttered when the main character discovered, much to his disappointment and annoyance, that his usual shelter - the local library - was closed for renovations when he really wanted to have a quiet place to rest. P inserted the interjectional phrase 'damn it' to express the character's irritation, whereas F expressed this by phrasing it with the use of the verb 'bullying'. While insertions of interjectional phrases are commonly used in commercial translations of manga (Howell, 2005: 63ff), F tended to avoid any insertions of extra words, which could be interpreted as part of a general effort towards trying to be faithful to the source text. Finally the last examples below were for the utterance made by the main character at the end of the episode (p. 85 in Shisso Nikki). Fan: I think that was when I got that bit more cynical. Pro: This time I ended up feeling rather empty. Source: '2>'JlfJfJw [Theory of Manga Industry], Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. Napier, Susan (2001), Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke: Experiencing Contemporary Japanese Animation. New York: Palgrave. Nornes, Abe Mark (1999/2004), 'For an abusive subtitling', in Lawrence Venuti (ed.), The Translation Studies Reader (Second edition). New York/London: Routledge, pp. 447-469. O'Hagan, Minako (2006), 'Manga, anime and video games: Globalizing Japanese cultural production', Perspectives, 14, (4), 242-247. —(2007), 'Impact of DVD on translation: Language options as an essential add-on feature', Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 13 (2), special issue 'The Consumption and Use of DVDs and Their Add-ons', guest editor Pat Brereton, 157-168. O'Hagan, Minako and David Ashworth (2002), Translation Mediated Communication in a Digital World: Facing the Challenges of Globalization and Localization. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. O'Hagan, Minako and Carmen Mangiron (2004), 'Games localization: When arigato gets lost in translation', New Zealand Game Developers' Conference Proceedings. Otago: University of Otago, pp. 57-62. Ono, Kosei (2003), 'How Tsuge Yoshiharu's Neji-Shiki was published in English', Manga Studies, 4,149-169.

Fan Translation Networks Ortabasi, Melek (2006), 'Indexing the past: Visual language and translatability', in Kon Satoshi's Millennium Actress', Perspectives, 14, (4), 278-291. Peiez Gonzalez, Luis (2006), 'Fansubbing anirae: Insights into the "butterfly effect" of globalisation on audiovisual translation', Perspectives, 14 (4), 260-277. Richie, Donald (2005), A Hundred Years of Japanese Film: A Concise History, with a Selective Guide to DVDs and Videos (Revised and updated edition). Tokyo: Kodansha International. Schodt, Frederic (1988), Manga! Manga! An Introduction to the World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha International. —(1996), Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. Swales, John M. (1990), Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tennent, Martha (2005), 'Introduction', in Martha Tennent (ed.)> Training for the New Millennium: Pedagogies for Translation and Interpreting. Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins, pp. xv-xxv.

Media cited Azuma, Hideo (2005), &I&I3 gE [DisappearanceDiary]. Tokyo: Eastpress.

183

9

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education John Kearns

Chapter Outline

Introduction: translation and academe The cultivation of the mind and the vocational impulse Against the dichotomy Academic rationalism and translators: at your peril! The university, skills transferability and the market Determining transferable skills societally Conclusion: we do not train translators, we teach translation (among other things...) Notes References

184 187 191 198 202 205 207 210 211

There is a story - no doubt apocryphal - that at the outbreak of the First World War a group of patriotic Englishwomen who were going about the country recruiting soldiers swept into Oxford. On the High Street one of them confronted a don in his Oxonian master's gown who was reading the Greek text of Thucydides. 'And what are you doing to save Western civilization, young man?' she demanded. Bringing himself up to his full height, the don looked down his nose and replied, 'Madam, I am Western civilization!' (Pelikan, 1992: 137)

Introduction: translation and academe The relationship between real-world vocational demands and the classical humanist traditions of academe has not always been an easy one. Nevertheless, it remains an issue which is central to translator training - a typically

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education vocational activity which is often based in, and in other ways contingent on, academic settings. The situation of translator education in this respect is particularly germane when assessing broader curricular issues, an assessment which must take stock of what will be referred to here as the modes of needs and situation analysis upon which curricular renewal in such programmes should be predicated: How should we define the needs of the learner? How should these needs be addressed in a programme of education? How can this programme relate simultaneously to the local needs of the learner and to those of other stakeholders, such as the professional translation industry, the Translation Studies community and the broader community of translator trainers? Moreover (and with particular reference to these last two groups of stakeholders) our analysis of the situation of translator training must consider these needs in the context of how they can comfortably be reconciled with and complemented by - the educational centres (in this case, universities) where such training takes place. Much writing on translator training has started out by being hostile to the idea of translators being trained in a specific kind of university environment. A good example of such hostility may be found in a recent guide for trainers: [U]niversities in systems with a strongly academic tradition will not formulate their overall aims in the same way as those with a more vocational tradition. One might indeed question whether the former would actually be interested in translator training programmes as such at all! (Kelly, 2005: 23)

A major assumption underlying the discussion of curricular renewal1 in what follows is that curricula themselves are representative of various ideological positions, not merely in the course-/programme-content which they propose, but also in terms of a wide array of other parameters, from the teaching methodologies they advocate, to the modes of assessment and evaluation they espouse, to their internal styles of structuring and organization, be they planned or tacit. As such, the tertiary educational ethos of universities 'with a strongly academic tradition' which Kelly refers to, has been characterized by various curricular commentators in ideological terms. Here we shall follow the examples of Jack Richards and John Clark in referring to this tradition as 'academic rationalism', a term which better reflects the academic connotations which writers like Kelly associate with the university environments which it characterizes (Clark, 1987: 5-6; Richards, 2001: 114-115). Discussing this in the pedagogical context of curriculum renewal, Richards writes that academic rationalism views 'content matter of different subjects . . . as the basis for

185

186

Translator and Interpreter Training a curriculum and mastery of content [as] an end in itself rather than a means to solving social problems or providing efficient means to achieve the goals of policy makers' (2001:114). Such a system, as Clark observes, aims to maintain and transmit through education, the wisdom and culture of previous generations, reinforcing a two-tier system of learning in which the 'higher' tier concerns itself with the cultural traditions of an elite and the 'lower' tier addresses more concrete and practical issues of the public at large (Clark, 1987: 6). Typically the teaching methodologies employed are what writers such as Kelly and Kiraly characterize as 'transmissionist' (Kiraly, 2000; Kelly, 2005). This notion of academic rationalism is broad and it may take a wide variety of forms in different contexts. There is a tendency for it to become synonymous with intellectual and educational ossification, and its valorization of a two-tier concept of culture leads to a mode of exchange in which, as Bourdieu and Passeron have suggested, schools become agents of cultural reproduction in systems of'cultural capitalism' (Bourdieu and Passeron, 1977). It is also typically concerned with the establishing and maintaining of certain standards standards which are resistant to challenge, though obviously, and given the particular mutability of notions of liberality and conservativeness in curriculum development, it should be borne in mind that today's conservatives may often have been yesterday's revolutionaries. While in many societies such 'academic' learning environments may be of limited significance with regard to translator training (with the activity falling firmly within the purview of vocational and technical colleges), elsewhere universities — including those with 'strongly academic traditions' - play a much larger role in translator training, with such institutions often traditionally being perceived within their societies as guarantors of quality and integrity. Obviously, not all university traditions have such an academic orientation and there are, of course, many societies where translators are trained in both universities and colleges of further education. Moreover, in the European context, the changes in curricular orientation which have begun to take place through the harmonization of higher education under the Bologna Process will inevitably involve re-conceiving undergraduate and graduate studies in many ways, not least in terms of generic and specific competences - notions which challenge directly many of the preconceptions of academic rationalism. Nevertheless, the academic/vocational dichotomy has traditionally been one of the fundamental issues with which curricular discussion of translator training in universities has always had to grapple (evidenced, for example, in the debate about the relevance of theory to practical translation) and this is unlikely to change in the future.

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education Here we shall consider both academic and vocational orientations (without denying that there may be others, or that these themselves may merely be extremities of the same spectrum) in terms of how they influence translator training, an endeavour which would appear to be particularly relevant with regard to issues of curriculum renewal: there is a great need, on the one hand, to re-evaluate many university practices in the light of more general educational trends, both in translator training and in other areas. Yet on the other hand, we need to look at curriculum renewal in institutions which have more traditionally been characterized by a vocational orientation, given that many such vocational institutions in Europe are now being brought closer to the university institutional model. Finally, we would also contend that thinking within Translation Studies and translator training discourses can usefully be informed by a discussion on ideologies of academic and vocational curricular orientations, especially with regard to the perennial debate about the relationship between translation theory and practical translation in the training environment.

The cultivation of the mind and the vocational impulse How could an ideology as popularly derided as academic rationalism have come about in academia and - more problematically - why should it be successfully perpetuated in many institutions today? Its historical development may ultimately be seen as intertwined with the institutional development of tertiary education in universities. The roots of academia may be found in the seven liberal arts of the historical trivium and quadrivium of the Middle Ages, within which modern fields of study have their origins. This scheme, broadened by the effect of Renaissance humanism, saw a change in emphasis in the nineteenth-century development of universities as research centres rather than as solely teaching institutions, through the efforts of Wilhelm von Humboldt in particular. The twentieth century saw both teaching and research emphasized, as greater demands came to be placed on universities by societies eagerly seeking both mass education and innovation. To return to the nineteenth century, however, according to Newman's Idea of a University Defined and Illustrated (1852-58/1927), the rationale for a university is the provision of a 'liberal' education to contribute to the 'cultivation of the mind'. According to a leading modern authority on Newman, the book'remains to this day without any rival in its definition of what must surely

187

188

Translator and Interpreter Training always remain at the heart of a university's aim and goals if it is to be more than either a research institution or a college for technical vocational training' (Ker, 1999: 25). At the essence of this distinction is Newman's famous idea that, if we take the development of the mind as an ultimate aim then knowledge in and of itself can constitute a goal. Why should we take the cultivation of the liberal mind as a focus for tertiary education in the first place? Newman relies on a particular 'universal' notion of knowledge, conceived in education as the application of rationality on philosophy. Taking this as the basis for educational praxis, it is not difficult to see how the criticism that academia is insulated from the 'real world' can arise, as demonstrated by our opening anecdote. The notion that academics are resistant to examining the practical implications and applications of the subjects which they theorize is one which has characterized much of the discourse on universities in the twentieth century and a good example of this in our own field may be found in the criticisms often levelled by the professional translation community at the study of theory in translation programmes (cf. Chesterman and Wagner, 2002). While this critique may sometimes take the form of anti-intellectualism, it may also fail to take account of the fact that an entirely separate institutional tradition has developed around vocational education, a tradition which has its roots, not in universities, but in the institution of apprenticeships. While vocational training was traditionally oriented exclusively towards non-academic careers, recent years have witnessed major changes in the historical two-tier division, with increased levels of commercial and state funding being invested in vocational education as a response to the development of a more specialized job market where the technical training which such education can provide has become more highly valued. Once there was a major institutional (and ideological) chasm between universities on the one hand, and tertiary vocational schools, institutes of technology, and polytechnics on the other - a chasm reinforced by the spectre of academic rationalism. Now this gap has narrowed, occasionally being removed entirely (in its institutional - if not always in its ideological - manifestation) with the granting of university status to former vocational institutions of various kinds. Concomitantly, there has been an increased expectation on the part of many in society that the education which universities offer should directly provide graduates with skills sets which can be applied immediately in specific work environments. The privileging by academia of those subjects thought most likely to 'cultivate the mind' dates back to the classical Greek distinction between theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge, the former believed by Aristotle to

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education pertain to a constancy which practical knowledge lacked. While the social status of intellectuals may have changed over the following millennium, the basic epistemological hierarchy was retained in Western thought. Indeed, the abiding influence of Descartes from the sixteenth century onwards served only to emphasize the dichotomy: if, as is the implication of the Cogito, we are essentially minds inhabiting mortal bodies, then it should be the development of these minds that education ought to focus on. Yet, just as knowledge determined social status in ancient Greece, the persistence of the vocational/academic dichotomy in modern times has similarly reflected deeper social divides: theoretical knowledge has become associated with a leisured elite and applied knowledge with those who go to work for a living.2 While there have always been some elements of vocational training present in Western university education, and indeed while training in the professions has enjoyed a greater status at universities since the Industrial Revolution, the academic/vocational dichotomy survived nonetheless, so that in the middle of the last century, the British botanist and educator Sir Eric Ashby outlined what he saw to be the roles of universities and vocational schools in terms not too dissimilar from those of Newman: Here is the criterion for determining what subject or what parts of a subject should be taught at a university. If the subject lends itself to disinterested thinking; if generalization can be extracted from it; if it can be advanced by research; if, in brief, it breeds ideas in the mind, then the subject is appropriate for a university. If, on the other hand, the subject borrows all its principles from an older study (as journalism does from literature, or salesmanship from psychology, or massage from anatomy and physiology), and does not lead to generalization, then the subject is not a proper one for a university. Let it be taught somewhere by all means. It is important that there should be opportunities for training in it. But it is a technique, not an exercise for maintaining intellectual health; and the place for technique is a technical college. (Ashby, 1946:81)

Ashby's proposals do not preclude the possibility of certain subjects entering the university curriculum once they have reached the stage of generating their own fields of research and autonomous theoretical principles. Historically, certain subjects faced a steep ascent to admittance to university programmes - pharmacy was restricted to the level of apprenticeship for many years and engineering similarly was long seen to be dealt with more appropriately in technical colleges (Hager and Hyland, 2003: 273). Yet the generation of bodies and traditions of research in these fields, which was both the

189

190

Translator and Interpreter Training requirement for and the result of their inclusion in university curricula, has moulded the way we now conceive of both disciplines and has been integral to determining how they are situated in relation to other disciplines. Such subjects as Media Studies and Film Studies, both now recognized as core elements of humanities curricula in most Western university societies, would never have been acknowledged as university contenders by Ashby, and even now they may still face some detractors from both within academia and beyond. This, however, may well be testament to the rapidity with which these subjects have gained the kind of critical mass that now enables them to fulfil the criteria which Ashby sets out, largely as a result of the development of autonomous bodies of core theory in both. Indeed, if we attempt to imagine a world without the writings of Marshall McLuhan, Stuart Hall, Roland Barthes or Christian Metz - in short, a world devoid of the older primary reference points in the theory of media, film, and popular culture - it is hard to see how necessary core principles of reference could have developed and, in turn, how media and film could have gained entry to academia, even taking stock of the way universities themselves have changed since the end of the Second World War. Bearing in mind that much of this theory has been the result of the post-war explosion in academic attention devoted to the humanities, it should also come as no surprise that the curriculum has changed radically, or that not everyone within academia (much less those outside) has been able to keep abreast of developments. What then of Translation Studies in this respect? Certainly it shares many similarities with fields such as Media Studies and Film Studies in terms of its recent arrival on the academic scene. If we bear in mind that the seminal works in establishing the academic field by writers such as Holmes, Toury, Nida and Steiner all date from within roughly the past 40 years, then the current profusion of journals and research initiatives in the area testify to a general effort to grant Translation Studies academic status. Yet while many (though by no means all) programmes in Media Studies and Film Studies, perhaps taking their lead most obviously from 'traditional' literary studies, have tended to focus on training in the analysis of the objects of their attention, Translation Studies programmes are almost always obliged to at least possess, and preferably be centred around, a practical element of training.3 We have already noted the common criticism which practical translators raise of the prevalence of theory in courses with no obvious applicability to practice. Should this problematize the acceptance of Translation Studies within academia? One would hardly think so, given the much longer history of the study of modern languages at universities, generally accompanied by practical

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education language training. Yet the existence of modern languages in universities could always be justified in academic terms with such arguments as literatures needing to be studied in the original or linguistic research being buttressed with empirical data from multiple languages. Thus, skills which are both eminently vocational (facilitating entry into the job market), and 'transferable' (facilitating mobility between jobs) could be brought - some might say smuggled - into the curriculum under the guise of what the European academic tradition refers to as 'philologies'. Ironic, then, that it was in programmes in modern languages that Translation Studies entered academia4 - a Trojan Horse within a Trojan Horse.5 Yet in so doing, it caused problems almost from the outset. Notwithstanding the direct challenges proposed by such scholars as Lawrence Venuti to the primacy of the source text, or the move away from linguistic paradigms that has characterized the development in the field over the past 20 years, Translation Studies as a whole still had to remain essentially vocational in its orientation towards professional development to an extent far greater than had been the agenda of modern languages. Perhaps even this vocational orientation in itself could have been tolerated - subjects such as law and engineering and business studies are bulwarks of academia while remaining eminently vocational.6 Yet the combination of two additional factors proved even more problematic for Translation Studies. First, it had originated within the humanities, even if its forays into computing, law, history, psychology and (more recently) medicine and politics sometimes appeared to give the impression that this 'interdiscipline' was doing its best to jump ship at the earliest available opportunity. While the interdisciplinarity may often have been appreciated, the vocationalism was a novelty for many humanists of the more classical bent. The second (more intractable) problem lay in the particularly strong variety of vocationalism that Translation Studies seemed to espouse, characterized by the aforementioned pleas for more vocationally oriented courses - and against theory - from the professionals. Were the soldiers exiting the horse before it had even entered Troy?

Against the dichotomy Perhaps the apprehensions of many of the stricter adherents to the academic rationalist/classical humanist tradition may appear more understandable when considered in terms of the perceived threat being not first and foremost to their grand tradition. They had, after all, already seen the arrival of Film Studies, Popular Culture Studies, Lesbian and Gay Studies, and many other

191

192

Translator and Interpreter Training new discourses which, it could be argued, served to complement and enhance traditional literary studies. Rather the problem lay in what vocationalists have referred to as 'front-end loading' - training programmes focused virtually exclusively on the development of those practical vocational skills which were required for a specific career. Such a mode of curricular orientation presumes that students are pursuing studies not just for exclusively vocational ends in the general sense, but that they wish their course content to be defined by the requirements of particular jobs. To those accustomed to more traditional university curricula, such an approach appears not to permit either intellectual reflection or a role for research and thus rules itself out of contention for inclusion in university curricula. Indeed, such front-end loading vocational training programmes, by their eschewal of any broader consideration of the context of the knowledge and skills which they transmit, themselves reinforce the dichotomous view of academia versus vocationalism arguably as much as did our Oxford don engrossed in his Thucydides. As Hager and Hyland note with regard to the broader curricular implications of front-end loading vocationalism at third level, such dichotomous theory/practice thinking prevents serious consideration of knowledge peculiar to the workplace, or of the possibility that the workplace might be an important and distinctive source of knowledge. If workplace practice merely involves the application of general theories (taught through formal education), then the details of the workplace remain of little interest to formal education. (Hager and Hyland, 2003: 274)

Workplaces are far more than mere arenas where technical skills can be put into practice - they are areas of human interaction, similar to many other areas of life (including education). As such, could it be that academic rationalism, by focusing on such elements from the humanities as art and literature as interesting in and of themselves and perhaps paradigmatic of larger-scale human interests, might not be as irrelevant to life after graduation as some in the professional translation community were alleging? Or perhaps this is merely an indication that the fundamental dichotomy between vocational education and academic education is in itself unhelpful. Hager and Hyland (2003: 274-275) provide three general types of argument against this dichotomy, which can be summarized thus: 1. Economic arguments. Numerous educational studies have demonstrated that graduates of more traditional academically oriented university programmes tend to find

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education better paid jobs than graduates of vocational programmes (see Hager, 1990; Skilbeck etal., 1994; Avisetal., 1996:164-180 and passim.). Moreover, less developed countries intent on economic growth generally tend to do better when they attempt to develop broad academic educational structures rather than purely vocational structures (Green, 1997). As such, there would appear to be a paradox in that general education proves more economically 'vocational' in both short-term and long-term perspectives than does vocational education. 2. Technological arguments. These arguments centre around what Lewis (1997) has noted as being the potential of universities to develop capacities to cope successfully with rapid technological change. While the inclination of some of the more traditional conceptions of front-end loading vocational programmes may be to provide trainees with skills specific to particular technologies, this approach does not always adequately provide for the redundancy of these technologies. Localization guru Bert Esselink quotes an example from his own experience in the early 1990s of translation students being taught C+* in their lecturers' (mistaken) belief that programming skills would form a central component of translation competence in the years to come.7 In the past 15 years the influence of technological redundancy has led educationalists to place an increasing emphasis on 'generic skills' - skills which are common to performance both in education and in the workplace. However, some doubt has been cast on the transferability of these skills from one professional activity to another, with research demonstrating that many such skills are better acquired in the workplace itself (Hyland, 1999). Again, this provides a strong case against front-end loading vocational education. 3. Educational arguments. Epistemologically, a major research theme in tertiary level educational studies has involved a reassessment of the theory/practice dichotomy, focusing in particular on the supposed distinction between 'knowledge' and 'competence'. Without engaging in a prolonged discussion of cognitive science, it is nonetheless worth noting that for several years now prevailing wisdom in the field has been to regard different types of knowledge as sharing a commonality in terms of how they enact systems of relationships. Samuel Messick explains this as follows: At issue is not merely the amount of knowledge accumulated, but its organization or structure as a functional system for productive thinking, problem solving, and creative invention . . . The individual's structure of knowledge is a critical aspect of ...

achievement. . . . A person's structure of knowledge in a subject area

includes not only declarative knowledge about substance (or information about what), but also procedural knowledge about methods (or information about how), and strategic knowledge about alternatives for goal setting and planning (or information about which, when, and possibly why). . . . Knowledge structure basically refers to the structure of relationships among concepts. But as knowledge develops, these structures quickly go beyond classifications of concepts as well as first-order relations among concepts and classes to include organized systems of relationships or schemas. (Messick, 1982, quoted in Wolf, 1989: 42, italics in original)

193

194

Translator and Interpreter Training The consequence of this, Wolf notes, is to discredit the compartmentalization of different forms of knowledge which regards some of these forms as more suited than others for competency oriented learning (Wolf, 1989: 42). While there might be, at best, a spectrum along which are situated the general cognitive skills associated with 'education' and the more narrowly vocational skills associated with 'training', the dichotomous terms in which we have traditionally thought of vocational and academic education are largely untenable.8 From the perspective of translator training, this suggests that there is an indivisibility of theoretical and practical knowledge which must be acknowledged in the consideration of translation competence, a position supported by many of those who believe some theoretical training (education?) is desirable in translator education (training?) and which forms the basis of Anthony Pym's 'minimalist' notion of translation competence (Pym, 2003). Yet, there are other educational arguments against the vocational/academic dichotomy. One emerges from the way in which traditional divisions of knowledge (natural sciences, social sciences, humanities etc.) are gradually changing, owing to a combination of the rise in interdisciplinary approaches and the impact of new technologies. New disciplines need new research strategies, and while technical/vocational colleges may teach these new disciplines, it will ultimately be universities -through their powers to grant research doctorates-which will dominate research and theorizing in these fields. This is as necessary for science and the furtherance of human knowledge as it is for universities themselves: to shun the Vocational' risks inhibiting the growth of knowledge in new and expanding areas. The combination of these arguments thus appears to provide a basis for dismantling the dichotomy between the 'vocational' and the more generally 'academic'; moreover, it also cautions against approaches which are prone to excessive systematization, if only to face up to the fairly mundane realization that a certain amount of training cannot be anticipated and must be obtained on the job. A separate research project might do well to investigate a role for internships in translator training,9 yet from our discussion here what would also appear imperative is that such a project investigate not merely what can be gained from internships but whether the sacrificing of more traditional 'general education' courses (literature, electives etc.) from the university curriculum would not be to students' detriment. This is said, not in the context of any partisan allegiance to traditional academic values but in response to those from the professional translation community who maintain that training should be vocational (in the front-loading sense) at all costs. While we have

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education already expressed doubts about this position, more generally, what we are concerned to emphasize is that higher education curricula acknowledge that significant learning can take place outside of the institutions themselves, and even (problematizing the notion of internships in training programmes) outside of their formal systems of accreditation. This relates in particular to debates about the acknowledgement of'lifelong learning' by tertiary education and the strategies which training should adopt to support such learning (see Hyland, 1999). It is also possible to reassess the vocational/academic dichotomy from the concrete experience of the changes which educational structures themselves have recently undergone, with two particular forces of circumstance prompting important curricular changes in this respect: 1. Greater economic demands have been placed on older universities to provide courses with a more obviously vocational bias. 2. New academic demands have been placed on many younger universities which have been 'upgraded' from being vocational schools, technical schools, or other tertiary educational institutions which may in the past have focused exclusively on training at diploma, bachelors and masters levels.

There are radically different experiences of both forces in different countries, yet some general tendencies may be noted internationally. Inevitably, the demands referred to in items (1) and (2) prove controversial. With regard to item (1), the discourse is one of the increasing commercialization of education: [Governments, with some considerable pressure from international bodies such as the OECD . . . have sought to reduce the economic burden of expensive educational institutions. To compensate for the savage cuts that have been incurred, universities have adopted the behaviour of corporations, streamlining their operations and supplementing their contracting budgets with income from whatever sources seem agreeable to underwrite their operations and activities. . . . It has been suggested that the Humboldtian idea of the university, that of an institution charged with identifying and preserving a nation's culture, has been superseded by the university as corporation, whose dominant concern is excellence. (Symes, 2000: 30-31)

The issues which Symes raises of the ideologies governing tertiary educational policy are vast and, though interesting, lie largely beyond the parameters of this chapter (though the interested reader may wish to investigate Avis et al.,

195

196

Translator and Interpreter Training 1996 and Evans, 2004). What is more relevant to our discussion here, however, is the ideology governing curricular planning at universities as it is ultimately this which undergirds all considerations of the modes of needs and situation analysis mentioned earlier. If we take modern Curriculum Studies to have developed by and large with the rise of mass schooling in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Flinders and Thornton, 2004: 1), then one of the first major debates in this field can provide a useful background for our purposes here. Progressivism, particularly in its American incarnation, found its voice in Franklin Bobbitt's highly influential work The Curriculum (1918), a book which claimed to be the first of its kind in the field. In highly self-assertive prose, Bobbitt argued for the practice of curricular development to be modelled on recently developed theories of 'scientific management' in industrial production, maintaining that the curriculum developer's remit was the organization of learning in ways that would maximize efficiency and eliminate waste. In some ways this can be considered forward-thinking for its time insofar as Bobbitt was reacting to the Gradgrindism associated with pedagogical practice of the nineteenth century: 'Education is now to develop a type of wisdom that can grow only out of participation in the living experiences of men, and never out of mere memorization of verbal statements of facts' (Bobbitt, 1918, in Flinders and Thornton, 2004: 10). However, he was equally insistent that the goals of any curriculum should be determined by first examining what successful adults know and then ensuring that this knowledge is covered thoroughly and effectively in educational programmes: Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class, they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which these affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations, and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of curriculum. (quoted in Flinders and Thornton, 2004: 11)

Bobbitt's focus on industrial efficiency has come in for extensive criticism from numerous educationalists, particularly for the lack of concern it showed for the interests of learners themselves and for its failure to question the justness of the very social order which it was trying to support (Lagemann, 2000: 107). The most prominent objector was the philosopher John Dewey, who criticized 'the social definition of education, as getting adjusted to

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education civilization, [because it makes education] a forced and external process, and results in subordinating the freedom of the individual to a preconceived social and political status' (Dewey 1929, in Flinders and Thornton, 2004: 18; see also Dewey 1902). Dewey believes that it is the learner who should be at the centre of the educational process, maintaining that she or he can best be stimulated by the demands of the social situations with which she or he is faced. That learners may be optimally stimulated by the demands of learning in real-life situations, challenges hard and fast categorizations of subject matter such as 'Mathematics', 'Geography', and 'Physics' and Dewey's curriculum would thus attempt to break down barriers between the classroom and real life for learners. Whereas education, for Bobbitt, was a means of social reproduction, for Dewey it was an agent of social reform, with the curriculum being considered a tool with which society could re-invent itself. There is another point, relating to the notion of the'hidden curriculum', on which Bobbitt and Dewey seem opposed. Bobbitt writes: The curriculum may [ . . . ] be defined in two ways: (1) it is the entire range of experiences, both undirected and directed, concerned in unfolding the abilities of the individual; or (2) it is the series of consciously directed training experiences that the schools use for completing and perfecting the unfoldment. Our profession uses the term usually in the latter sense. (Bobbitt, 1918, in Flinders and Thornton, 2004: 11)

It is interesting that while Bobbitt acknowledges the role of unplanned experience in the learning process - a notion of such huge importance in Dewey's conception of the curriculum - he deliberately orients his notion of curriculum development exclusively towards the organization of planned experience. This is a position which is in keeping with his idea that schools should be places where everything which goes on must be highly structured and organized. Moreover, it is also a stance which inevitably positions the teacher at the centre of the learning process in the most transmissionist of educational scenarios - a scenario to which Dewey's conception was entirely opposed. In terms of the defensibility criteria influencing university curricular planning, we find that the tendencies towards commercialization (in Symes's analysis) veer, not towards Bobbittian utility criteria as one might expect, but rather towards virtuosity criteria relating to the fostering of excellence with fruitful publishing potential. As such, commerce allies with academic rationalism, embattling Progressivist and Social Reconstructionist positions alike. Dewey himself foresaw many of these concerns when he wrote of the importance of dismantling the 'antithesis of vocational and cultural education'

197

198

Translator and Interpreter Training predicated on what he argued were false dichotomies of 'labor and leisure, theory and practice, body and mind' (Dewey, 1916/1966: 306). If we are to examine how the challenges posed by the commercialization of the curriculum may be met in the specific context of translator training, it is necessary to further investigate academic rationalism as it relates to the university environments in which translation is taught.

Academic rationalism and translators: at your peril! Early one morning several years ago I got a phone call from a former student who had graduated just a few months earlier. The student, whom I knew to have been extremely diligent and academic, had never studied translation as part of his degree. He apologized for phoning me so early but explained that he was completing a translation from Polish and was unable to find one particular word, the name of a fish. He gave me the word - mintaj- and I checked it in my dictionary. The English translation given was 'walleye pollock', which I duly passed on and, knowing that this student also took on a lot of scientific translation jobs and remembering him to be of a particularly 'academic' inclination, I asked if he would like the Latin name for the fish as well. No doubt remembering his lessons in the development of comprehensive and watertight arguments in his academic writing classes, he eagerly agreed that the more information the better. About two weeks afterwards I was somewhat surprised to see listed on the menu of a local restaurant, the dish Mintaj w sosie ziotowo-smietanowym Walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) in herb and cream sauce

In a guide entitled Translation: Getting It Right - A Guide to Buying Translations (Durban, 2003) Chris Durban attempts to provide sound, common-sense advice for those who may be involved in purchasing translations, but who may not know much about the translation business. The guide is particularly notable for the fact that it has been co-published by three major national bodies representing professional translation and linguistic interests, and it has gained the approval of FIT (the International Federation of Translators). As such, it might be considered a near-definitive statement from the 'professional' (as distinct from the 'academic') translation community on a number of

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education different aspects of'real-world' translation. It is interesting in this respect to examine the advice given in relation to employing teachers and academics to do translations: Teachers & academics: at your peril For many companies faced with foreign-language texts, the first stop is the language department of a local school or university. While this may - sometimes work for inbound translation (i.e. when you want to find what the other guys are up to) it is extremely risky for promotional texts. Teaching a foreign language is a demanding activity that requires a special set of skills. These are rarely the same as those needed to produce a smooth, stylish translation. (Durban, 2003: 15, emphasis in original)

Durban makes some unstated presumptions about university language departments here, not least that their activity is 'language teaching' rather than translator training (or, more generally, education in linguistics, literature and cultural studies). It is not difficult to imagine, however, what some of her other criticisms might be, leading on from this: university departments are focused on language in the abstract, language in linguistics, language in literature, and emphatically not language in the 'real world'. It could be argued that my mintaj example provides good evidence for such criticisms to be well founded. The breach between academic language and language as it is used popularly - and indeed between the impulses and world views which both modes of language use may imply - can often seem gaping. Moreover, in spite of what we may say about defending the place of translation in university curricula, the vast majority of most contemporary translation activity would appear to fall into the 'real world' category, rather than the 'academic' category, at least considering what notions such as 'academic' and 'real-world' popularly imply. Yet, there would still appear to be problems with Durban's stance in terms of its implications for translation in universities, particularly in terms of what one imagines are its negative implications for universities as translator training centres. Durban's warning prompted a response from Anthony Pym in which he defended university language departments' abilities with regard to translation, claiming that there have always been, and will continue to be, strong links between academia and translation. Many translators are also university teachers, many lecturers also translate in their spare time, and in other more specialized areas associated with translation, such as computer-assisted translation, machine translation, localization etc. the links may be even stronger:

199

200

Translator and Interpreter Training [W]e are all in much the same social space. Whether localizes, project managers, translators, teachers, theorists or researchers, we are all working in the overlaps of cultures. We are all in intercultures, all concerned with improving relations between cultures. That general task requires language-learning, intercultural competence, translation, localization, language technology, terminology, and a good deal of critical thought, from people who have had the time and training to think. (Pym, 2001 27)

The abilities of translation academics may thus be defended on the grounds of the demands which are made of them by dint of their position at the interface of various professional worlds, academia itself being a profession and one which must interact with many other professions from day to day (Pym, 2001: 27-28). The result is that, while academics may be sheltered from the realities of the market-place, it would be wrong to see this as synonymous with being isolated from the 'real world'. On the contrary, they are at the service of societies rather than markets - an observation which would doubtless have pleased Dewey and consequently must deal with a wide variety of social groups living in close proximity to each other. Pym contrasts translator trainers in this respect with those involved in translation technology at universities (localization, translation software etc.), who are often perceived as being more closely in touch with professional realities: While the language technician thinks that the world should all be moving in the one way, the academic has to negotiate with people to find ways in which things can be moved just here and now. Perhaps paradoxically (given the ideologies of 'universities'), academics are involved in creating what anthropologists call 'local knowledge.' (Pym, 2001: 28)

Reality for translation academics is often a complex place, and this complexity is reflected in the hidden curriculum which they contribute to translator training. If their training is not always explicitly market-oriented, this is not (or at least not just) because of the gap that exists between them and the market, but also because they can see the market as only one (admittedly important) factor among the many which make up the society for which they are preparing their students and of which their students form a part. In response to Pym, academic and translator Janet Fraser noted how she perceives the common ground between academic Translation Studies and professional translation to be 'lonely' and sparsely populated: 'Yet, as with any

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education wilderness experience, it has also sharpened my perception of the factors involved in this non-communication between two of the communication professions par excellence (Fraser, 2001: 24, emphasis in original). Part of the problem, Fraser opines, is that the discourses of the professional and academic communities are often worlds apart, though she also comments that the squabbles over theory and methodology that characterize much academic discourse on translation may work to the detriment of Translation Studies in the broader arena. The factor most likely to win over sceptical professionals is 'academics with the appropriate skills and expertise becoming involved in the organisations representing translators' (Fraser, 2001: 24). In discussing Pym's commentary on translation academics and professionals, however, it is important to note, as Fraser does, that he makes one assumption at the outset: 'All language-learning programs include some teaching of translation' (Pym, 2001: 27). This may be interpreted in different ways. If it is taken to mean that translation is a device used in the language teaching classrooms of university language programmes, then certainly this is to be admitted, though with the rider that the role of translation in this respect has been minimized by the influence of communicative teaching methodologies. However if, as seems more likely, it is taken to mean that all university language degree programmes feature some element of translator training, then while this maybe true in Pym's immediate environs in Catalonia, it is not true on a global scale. It was not true of the language programme from which my minta/'-translating student graduated in Poland, nor is it sufficiently true to prompt Chris Durban to associate university programmes with very much more than their traditional 'philological' roles. Nevertheless, there is much which is true in what Pym writes concerning the multiplicity of interactions in which translator trainers find themselves. This is a point which is very difficult to formulate precisely because what is at issue is a tacit or hidden skills repertoire very similar to notions of a tacit or hidden curriculum. Nevertheless, with a view to formalizing the kind of skills that characterize a variety of different interactions - but are nonetheless vocational - recent years have seen the development of a discourse in tertiary educational studies on 'transferable skills'. Such skills differ from traditional 'vocational' skills in that, while vocational skills prepare the student for a specific job, transferable skills prepare him or her for mobility between a number of different jobs. Pym's point about the heterogeneity of interactions to which translation academics are exposed (in comparison with others) is a perfect reflection of the integral nature of transferable skills to translator training in the university context.

201

202

Translator and Interpreter Training One remaining point springs to mind, however, stemming from Eraser's conclusion: if my mintaj student had had translation classes from an instructor who was a member of an organization representing professional translation rather than classes from an instructor who was not - would that have made him less likely to have confused a textual genre in the way he did? The initial point to be made here is that any translation classes at all would probably have been of some benefit to him and beyond this anything which we could say about what instructors might or might not be like under certain circumstances is little more than pure conjecture. If my student had had classes with a freelance translator, then this might have given him an insight into how translations are done in the 'real world', but the world of FIT, EST or IATIS conferences is seldom the same world as that occupied by most average professional translators. A much stronger line of argument, however, is that the student would have benefited most, not from a teacher who happened to be a member of certain organizations, but rather one who was skilled at teaching translation. The importance of training for trainers is frequently overlooked by many commentators, in the apparent belief that both professional translation knowledge and pedagogical acumen will transfer to the trainers by some vague process of community osmosis. The issue of training for trainers is a crucial one and merits discussion in a separate study. For the moment we shall return to the issues raised by vocational training in university environments to see how they relate to the issues of skills transferability raised earlier.

The university, skills transferability and the market During the 1980s, concerns were raised in a number of surveys of British employers that university graduates lacked certain vocational skills, underequipping them for the job market. Skills which were felt to be particularly lacking included those of public speaking, written communication, numeracy, and computing (Roizen and Jepson, 1985; Brennan and McGeevor, 1987). Three separate government white papers emphasized the importance of such vocational skills, not merely in terms of preparing graduates for particular jobs, but in terms of preparing them for a wide range of different jobs in what was, at that time, a particularly volatile job market (Department of Education and Science, 1986,1987,1991). The emphasis as such fell not just on 'vocational' skills, but on 'transferable' skills which would enable professional

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education mobility both within and between sectors of the job market. Particularly significant in terms of setting the agenda for such skills in universities was the Enterprise in Higher Education (EHE) programme, which argued for the development of 'enterprising people' who are 'resourceful, adaptable, creative, innovative and dynamic' (Training Agency, 1990: 5). 'Enterprise' according to the report, involved possessing 'transferable skills: the generic capabilities which allow people to succeed in a wide range of different tasks and jobs' (Training Agency, 1990: 5). Many academics criticized the EHE proposals along the same traditional lines of thinking about university education as those voiced by Ashby which we discussed earlier, that is, 'academic inquiry is intellectual; it is not concerned with practical matters' (Assiter, 1995: 13, emphasis in original). The ultimate implication of this line of reasoning is that there is a basic difference between universities and the rest of society, reflected in the insistence on the distinction between 'skills' and 'knowledge'. However, echoing what we have noted already about both skills and knowledge being manifest in competencies which have similar cognitive characteristics, Assiter notes that '"problem-solving skills", "management skills", or "interpersonal skills" all rest upon considerable knowledge and understanding' (Assiter, 1995: 13, emphasis in original) - the notion of'cognitive skills' acknowledges a much wider variety of abilities than merely those of'analysis' and 'evaluation' traditionally nurtured by universities. There will be those who will argue that skills by definition are low-level and routine, but it is difficult to see this position as emanating from anything other than a traditional unquestioning allegiance to the age-old educational ideologies we have already examined; following on from our discussion of Wolf, it is difficult to defend such a position by an examination of the nature of the skills themselves. However, there are also other more considered objections to the kind of reforms suggested by the EHE. Barnett has argued that the development of a transferable skills agenda in higher education along the lines proposed by the EHE fundamentally changes the relationship between institutions of higher education and society (Barnett, 1994). He notes that such an agenda implies that it is the state (in terms of the forces of market capitalism on the job market) which identifies the curricular areas it sees as worthwhile and communicates these to universities, which then prioritize them in the curriculum in such a way as to predetermine students' education in utilitarian fulfilment of an economic and social agenda. Such an approach regards personal development and the development of skills needed for the market-place as being largely identical.

203

204

Translator and Interpreter Training Assiter rejects Barnett's criticisms outright: I have yet to hear any academic arguing that HE should not be concerned with developing communication skills, problem-solving and information technology (IT) abilities. . . Most academics, from most disciplines, when pressed to justify their programmes for students who are not likely to become specialists in the academic's own discipline, have done so in terms of its fostering these kinds of development in those students. Indeed it is interesting to note that those who suggest... that HE is concerned with knowledge and not skills, would not actually deny, when pressed, that HE is concerned to develop communication and analytical abilities— In other words, even if the core skills agenda is market driven, it is very difficult for anyone to argue against it a/so being good for individual learning, for personal development, and for life. (Assiter, 1995: 15, emphasis in original)

Nevertheless, there are certain caveats relating to state intervention in education which far pre-date discourses around transferable skills. These include the concerns expressed by the philosophers such as John Stuart Mill that education should be protected from the pressures of the market-place. As Assiter notes, it is possible to sympathize with proposals such as those of the EHE programme, while still being concerned about the prospect of the demands of universities to compete in the market-place denying them the independence they need to engage in research and teaching which may be critical of determining forces in this competition. If the state is given free rein to determine the university curriculum, this again poses a threat and must be challenged. One brief example of how the independence of the curriculum must be defended in relation to market commitments to translator training is that of the role of training in encouraging the translation of minority languages discussed by Michael Cronin. Cronin is concerned in particular with the fate of minority languages, which may fare poorly when faced with market pressures: 'Market demands, history and cultural proximity often lead to economies of scale that militate not only against translation into and out of minority languages but also against translation between these languages' (Cronin, 2003: 153). If, as a community, translation scholars are to make a commitment to respecting the integrity of translation into, out of, and between minority languages, then this must acknowledge the necessity of training. The translation demands between more unusual language combinations (featuring minority languages or languages of limited diffusion) often tend to be handled by untrained, well-meaning amateurs, often with lamentable consequences. As Cronin notes: Training of translators in a minority language can usually only be justified economically if a major language is involved, but translator training institutions have

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education to argue beyond the rationale of the accountant for more inclusive training programmes that have minor-minor language combinations. (Cronin, 2003: 153)

This then underlines the necessity for a certain degree of protection for translator training institutes from unbridled exposure to market forces, a protection in curricular terms that can be seen as analogous to the protection traditionally demanded by the exigencies of academic freedom. It is certainly a long way from Bobbitt and reflects the importance of acknowledging the relevance of the curriculum to a variety of stakeholders, rather than allowing it to be solely determined by a blinkered view of job requirements. Yet just as academics have the right to academic freedom, they also have a responsibility to students to provide them with an education that will address issues and circumstances which they will encounter in their lives. It is in this context that the issue of transferable skills assumes an urgency.

Determining transferable skills societally The first thing to say about transferable skills is that their nature cannot be presumed as coterminous with sometimes misleading notions of 'vocationality'. Often, for example, the inclusion of Latin in the curriculum is quoted as an instance of the worst excesses of rational humanism. Yet, as Judith Belam notes, the justification often given for the teaching of Latin was that it provided students with a good grounding in grammar which would serve them well in mastering other languages. Moreover it was thought that learning Latin was an aid to the development of methodical work habits and logical thinking - skills regarded as useful in a very general sense (Belam, 2001: 31). Indeed, for many years the transferability of the skills in whose development Latin putatively aided was almost the only justification for the subject being taught - while the language may have been 'vocationally' useful for those wishing to pursue careers as classicists and Latin teachers, there were few other professions to which it naturally led. As such, in spite of not being obviously'vocational', Latin might be considered an example of a subject defended on the grounds of skills transferability. Earlier we noted that the origins of university curricula - and what many now allege to be the roots of the vocationally antithetical academic rationalism were to be found in the medieval trivium and quadrivium. Yet Stephen Prickett notes that the way in which these were addressed by medieval Oxford was to

205

206

Translator and Interpreter Training squarely practical ends: 'Grammar, rhetoric and logic were powerful tools for both administration and preaching and an essential foundation for law and medicine' (Prickett, 1994:173). This points to a very important aspect of curricular orientation in higher education: a difference must be drawn between principles of academic rationalism as they arise initially in university contexts and those principles which (subsequently) become associated with 'academicism'. While, for example, writers like Kelly might criticize 'academic' environments for adopting an excessively non-vocational curriculum, it may be argued that it is not academic rationalism which this criticism is actually addressing but rather the perversion of the academic tradition resulting from a failure to keep abreast of changing needs and situations in society. Certainly it is appropriate to criticize transmissionist teaching practices, but such methodologies are not themselves intrinsic to the university tradition. Integral to classical philosophical enquiry, a keystone of the tradition of academic rationalism, is the Socratic dialogue - a mode of enquiry as opposed to the transmissionist lecture as one can imagine. Long after Socrates, one can quote the example of Peter Abelard, whose text Sic et Non of 1121 led the author to abandon the lecture format in favour of getting students to ask each other questions about the contradictions between two authoritative texts, a methodology that was to prove highly influential. More recently the teaching environment of the university (at least in western Europe and America) is being redirected away from transmissionist lectures by various writers who see learning innovation — and the necessity of pedagogical training for university teaching staff- as being essential to the success of mass tertiary education (see, for example, Laurillard, 2002; Biggs, 2003; Bryden, 2003; O'Neill et al., 2005). If it is to be agreed that the dichotomy between the academic and the vocational is not a helpful one, the next issue is whether the distinctions between such curricular ideologies as social reconstructionism, progressivism and academic rationalism are advisable. A focus on curricular orientations may be useful, indeed essential, for any discussion of the organization of educational programmes. Curriculum Studies reveals the potential for systems (curricula) to express their own dynamics and, in so doing, to reflect their own ideological agendas. Yet, to use such curricular orientations as a shorthand with which to describe different - perhaps mutually exclusive - avenues in progressions of studies may fail to respect the potential of these orientations to mutually influence each other.

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education Not only is there scope for academic rationalism (in the truest sense of 'rational humanism') to be informed and shaped by educational philosophies such as those of Bobbitt, Dewey and others, but it is essential for its preservation as a legitimate educational end that this happen. It is for this reason that we propose that the kind of assessment of society (manifested in stakeholders) enabled by curricular assessment is not merely unthreatening to notions of academic freedom and independence, but is also essential as an acknowledgement of the responsibilities inhering in these notions which give them meaning in the first place. It would appear that a key issue to be addressed by such an assessment is the degree to which the skills (knowledge) imparted by this curriculum are (is) transferable.

Conclusion: we do not train translators, we teach translation (among other things ...) Yves Gambier has stated, with no doubt deliberate bluntness, 'We do not teach translation, we train translators' (Neves, 2005: 23, emphasis in original). There are many reasons for sympathizing with this position, reflecting as it does a desire for translator training to be oriented towards providing students with the skills required to embark on a profession rather than being selfishly geared towards lecturers' own academic interests. It is an appeal for translator training to be relevant to the market-place so that graduates of translation programmes may, in Kiralyan terms, become 'empowered'. However, notwithstanding all of these considerations, there is also a sense in which it may be misguided. While the phrase 'translator training' has been used throughout this chapter as a convenient shorthand for the activities which go on in 'translation courses' and on degree programmes designated 'Translation MA!, it is probably safe to assume that at least 95 per cent of the time, we do not train translators. With the exception of mentoring programmes and Continuing Professional Development courses, we - in colleges, universities, and private institutes of education - train, teach or otherwise attempt to facilitate the education of students of translation. Very often these students may be studying many other things as well. Very often we educators may be teaching many other things as well, or indeed be engaged in an array of other non-pedagogical activities.

207

208

Translator and Interpreter Training Very often 'translation' students pursuing even explicitly vocational 'front-end loading' translation courses, may not end up becoming - or even wishing to become - translators. 'Very well,' Gambier might rejoin, 'give these students transferable skills, so that they will be prepared for every eventuality - it still amounts to training.' Certainly the case for the incorporation of transferable skills within the curriculum is a strong one. However, the issue of what skills are transferable is contingent on a variety of different factors. If we subscribe to Tymoczko's opinion that a major current in Translation Studies discourse in the coming years will be 'definitional' (i.e. that it will focus on examining what we talk about when we talk about translation) (Tymoczko, 2005), and if this issue is further complicated by the relentless course of technological progress changing the very nature of the translator's activity in different ways in different cultures, then is it entirely appropriate to refer to what we do as 'training'? The verb 'to train' is one which is inherited from the vocational tradition, a tradition with its origins in the specificity of the apprenticeship rather than the generality of academe. It assumes a very specific activity, though is not intrinsically transmissionist as training environments can be created where the 'trainer' is, himself or herself, decentred (as in the Kiralyan classroom). The 'lecturer', on the other hand, is involved in what is usually an implicitly transmissionist activity and we agree with the many writers - Kiraly, Kelly, Gonzalez Davies and others - who have cast doubts on whether the lecture alone is in any way an effective means to educate translators. Why then has it survived at the heart of the academic enterprise? By the same token, why do translators continue to be trained in universities? One does not need to defend transmissionist teaching practices to acknowledge that part of the reason may be the high intellectual standing in which universities are held by the rest of society, as inheritors of a grand intellectual tradition. Yet we would also contend that another reason is that translation needs theory - the kind of theory which has developed within the tradition of Translation Studies discourse, and a discourse which in turn has been associated with academia. We have seen how the activity of translation, as envisaged by Pym, is one involving a process of perpetual theorizing - theorizing in translation. Even if one wished to refute Pym's assertion that this minimalist definition of competence should always form the core of translator training, in favour, say, of Kiraly's curricular competence dichotomy or of any of the other numerous competence models which have been produced, at no point may the analytical skills needed to think about translation be jettisoned in

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education favour of an exclusive reliance on lists of false friends and sentence transformation exercises (though this is not to deny that these may have some role to play as well). It is as centres of thought down through the centuries that universities have gained their standing within societies and it is for this reason that they have the potential to wield great power in the education of translators. If translation is to continue being taught in universities - and, as we have said, there are good reasons for this to be the case - then lecturers themselves must be acknowledged as stakeholders in the curriculum. As such they should be provided with support, with training in teaching being one important element in that support which has been neglected in many societies for too long throughout the development of the higher education curriculum. While, in the European context, this does not appear to have received a high degree of priority in discussions surrounding the recent Bologna Process, the research impulse which universities may nurture is helpful to the adoption of an inquisitive, analytical approach to translator training. What is required is for this teaching innovation to be matched at an institutional level in the adoption of support structures for those who wish to innovate and develop. To sum up, the reality of curricular renewal in translation education is messier than is often acknowledged. True, we realized it was messy some time ago when the fallacy of direct-mapping equivalence models of translation began to be acknowledged in new theoretical models of translation which gradually permeated teaching practice. Yet Tymoczko's prediction for the development of the definitional trajectory of Translation Studies in the future testifies to our underestimation of just how messy these issues were. Add to this the manifold variables of translator training in the institution - variables such as availability of human resources, timetabling constraints, teacher training (or the lack of it), prevailing traditions of curricular ideologies, the position of inverse translation particularly with regard to languages of limited diffusion, the development of translator training cultures through time and the influence of external reforms (such as Bologna) which leave many staff members mystified - and the translator training process appears messier still. As Kelly notes, we have hardly begun to consider the changing abilities of students over time (Kelly, 2005: 43-44). To attempt to systematize all of these variables in the style that is sometimes adopted by industrial human resource development models is impractical. What is required is an holistic approach to curriculum renewal which does not presume needs at the outset, but which identifies them as contextually ('situationally') dependent on manifold variables.

209

210

Translator and Interpreter Training At the basis of such a mode of analysis is the necessity for larger philosophical and ideological reflection on the nature of the curriculum. Are we training translators to enter preordained positions (a la Bobbitt)? Or are we training them as members of society? A curricular orientation which fosters in students skills which will benefit them in many professional and non-professional contexts is not incompatible with academic or vocational impulses. Rather we believe that it reveals the distinction between these impulses itself to be unworkable and instead proposes that a synergy between both can be enabled by enlightened educational practice.

Notes 1. In common with a number of commentators (e.g. Feyereisen et al., 1970; Clark, 1987; Glatthorn, 1987) I am deliberately opting for the term 'curricular renewal' rather than 'curriculum development' here to reflect the fact that such (re)consideration of learning programmes must of necessity work with what is pre-existing - regardless of how flawed the existing structures are thought or found to be - rather than concern itself exclusively with building anew. This, in keeping with much of the discussion here, relates to the issue of curricular ideologies, a more thorough presentation of which can be found in Eisner (1992). 2. For stimulating discussions of this divide in relation to organization, see Schofield (1972) and Lewis (1991). 3. For an interesting account of the extent to which courses in the United Kingdom and Ireland are theoretically or practically oriented, see Kemble (2006). Out of a survey of 25 university programmes in translation, only 24 per cent were found to be theoretically oriented, though it was thought that 66 per cent of the students pursuing these courses - and an average of 72 per cent of students overall - intended becoming translators on completion of the programme. 4. There were other routes, of course, notably the training of Bible translators (the tradition of Nida, for example) and the interest in translation which developed in computing circles through interest in MT and CAT technologies. Yet the role of translation in modern languages departments holds a certain centrality to the (inter)discipline of Translation Studies as such. 5. Indeed, its arrival may have been made all the more inconspicuous given the way grammartranslation had always been classical humanism's language teaching methodology of choice (cf. Clark, 1987:3-13). While the years which saw the rise in Translation Studies were the same years which saw the rise in the 'communicative approach', this was by no means uniform throughout the world. 6. 'Vocational' in the sense that they aim to 'produce' professionals in their fields. Others would, of course, argue that subjects such as law and medicine can be viewed as eminently non-vocational, given our current connotations of the programmes offered in 'vocational' colleges (see Avis et al.,

1996: 177). 7. Esselink: lecture on Translator Training and Developments in the Localization Industry, Summer School in Translator Training, University of Granada, July 2003.

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education 8. Much more could be written here on the training/education distinction. For an example, see Bernardini (2004). 9. Some work has already been done in this area (e.g. Roberts, 1981; Allissat, 1988; Keith, 1989; Losa, 1989).

References Allissat, Heinrich (1988), 'On-the-job training of junior translators', in Catriona Picken (ed.), ITI Conference 2: Translators and Interpreters Mean Business. London: ASLIB, pp. 71-77. Ashby, Eric (1946), 'Universities in Australia', in Eric Ashby (ed.), Challenge to Education. Sydney and London: Angus & Robertson, pp. 72-100. Assiter, Alison (1995), 'Transferable skills: A response to the sceptics', in Alison Assiter (ed.), Transferable Skills in Higher Education. London/Philadelphia, PA: Kogan Page, pp. 11-19. Avis, James, Martin Bloomer, Geoff Esland, Denis Gleeson and Phil Hodkinson (1996), Knowledge and Nationhood: Education, Politics and Work. London/New York: Cassell. Barnett, Ron (1994), The Limits of Competence. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Belam, Judith (2001),'Transferable skills in an MT course', in Mikel L. Forcada, Juan-Antonio PerezOrtiz, and Derek Lewis (eds), MT Summit VIII: Proceedings of the MT Summit Workshop on Teaching Machine Translation. Geneva: European Association for Machine Translation, pp. 31-34. Available as pdf at http://www.eamt.org/summitVlII/papers/belam.pdf Bernardini, Silvia (2004),'The theory behind the practice: Translator training or translator education?', in Kirsten Malmkjaer (ed.), Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programmes. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins, pp. 17-29. Biggs, John (2003), Teaching for Quality Learning at University: What the Student Does(Second edition). Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Bobbitt, Franklin (1918), 'Scientific method in curriculum making', originally published as 'Public domain', Preface, and Chapter IV in The Curriculum. Cambridge, MA: The Riverside Press. (Reprinted Flinders and Thornton, 2004, pp. 9-16.) Bourdieu, Pierre with Jean-Claude Passeron (1977), Reproduction in Education Society and Culture. Transl. Richard Nice. London: Sage. Brennan, John and Philip McGeevor (1987), CNAA Graduates - Their Employment and their Experiences after College: A Summary Report of a Survey of CNAA Graduates. CNAA Development Series, No. 13. London: Council for National Academic Awards. Bryden, David A. (2003), Fundamentals of Teaching in College and University: Survival Strategies for the Blackboard Jungle. London: Athena, 2003. Chesterman, Andrew and Emma Wagner (2002), Can Theory Help Translators? A Dialogue Between the Ivory Tower and the Wordface. Manchester: St. Jerome. Clark, John L. (1987), Curriculum Renewal in School Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: OUP with ELBS. Cronin, Michael (2003), Translation and Globalization. London: Routledge. Department of Education and Science (DBS) (1986), Working Together: Education and Training. London: HMSO.

211

212

Translator and Interpreter Training —(1987), Higher Education: Meeting the Challenge. London: HMSO. —(1991), Higher Education: A New Framework. London: HMSO. Dewey, John (1902), The Child and the Curriculum. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press. Dewey, John ([1916] 1966), Democracy and Education. New York: Free Press/Macmillan. —(1929), 'My pedagogic creed', Journal of the National Education Association, 18, (9), 291-295. (Reprinted in Flinders Thornton, 2004, pp. 17-23). Durban, Chris (2003), Translation: Getting it Right - A Guide to Buying Translations. Milton Keynes/ London/Paris: Institute of Translation and Interpreting/The National Centre for Languages/Social^ Francaise des Traducteurs. Available online from the website of FIT - The International Federation of Translators: http://www.fit-ift.org/download/getright-en.pdf Eisner, Elliott (1992), 'Curriculum ideologies', in Philip W. Jackson (ed.), Handbook of Research on Curriculum. New York: Macmillan, pp. 302-326. Evans, Mary (2004), Killing Thinking: The Death of the Universities. London/New York: Continuum. Feyereisen, Kathryn V., A. John Fiorino and Arlene T. Nowak (1970), Supervision and Curriculum Renewal: A Systems Approach. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Flinders, David J. and Stephen J. Thornton (eds) (2004), The Curriculum Studies Reader (Second edition). New York/London: RoutledgeFalmer. Fraser, Janet (2001), 'Translators and academics co-habiting: A reply to Anthony Pym', Language International, October 2001,13, (5), 26-27. Glatthorn, Allan A. (1987), Curriculum Renewal. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Green, Andy (1997), 'Core skills, general education and unification in post-16 education', in Ann Hodgson and Ken Spours (eds), Dearing and Beyond: 14-19 Qualifications, Frameworks and Systems. London: Kogan Page, pp. 88-104. Hager, Paul (1990), 'Vocational education/general education: A false dichotomy?', Studies in Continuing Education, U, (I), 13-23. Hager, Paul and Terry Hyland (2003), 'Vocational education and training', in Nigel Blake, Paul Smeyers, Richard Smith and Paul Standish (eds), The Blackwett Guide to the Philosophy of Education. Maiden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 271-287. Hyland, Terry (1999), Vocational Studies, Lifelong Learning and Social Values: Investigating Education, Training and NVQs under the New Deal. Aldershot: Ashgate/Arena. Keith, Hugh (1989), 'University versus in-service training', in Catriona Picken (ed.), ITI Conference 3: Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting. London: ASLIB, pp. 39-49. Kemble, Ian (2006), 'Interacting with the translation profession: A report'. Available at http://www. port.ac.uk/media/Media,51847,en.pdf Kelly, Dorothy (2005), A Handbook for Translator Trainers. Manchester: St. Jerome. Ker, Ian (1999), 'Newman's Idea of a University. A guide for the contemporary university?', in David Smith and Anne Karin Langslow (eds), The Idea of a University. London/Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, pp. 11-29.

The Academic and the Vocational in Translator Education Kiraly, Don (2000), A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education: Empowerment from Theory to Practice, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Lagemann, Ellen Condliffe (2000), An Elusive Science: The Troubling History of Education Research. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Laurillard, Diana (2002), Rethinking University Teaching: A Conversational Framework for the Effective Use of Learning Technologies. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Lewis, Theodore (1991),'Difficulties attending the new vocationalism in the US A', Journal of Philosophy of Education, 25, (1), 95-108. —(1997), 'Towards a liberal vocational education', Journal of Philosophy of Education, 31, (3), 477-89. Losa, Edith F. (1989), 'The internship: An approach to technical translator training in the "real world'", in Deanna Lindberg Hammond (ed.), Coming of Age: Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the American Translators Association. Medford, NJ: Learned Information, Inc., pp. 545-549. Messick, Samuel (1982), Abilities and Knowledge in Educational Achievement Testing: The Assessment of Dynamic Cognitive Structures. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Neves, Joselia (2005), 'We do not teach translation, we train translators: An interview with Yves Gambier', Translating Today, 2, January 2005,23-25. Newman, John Henry Cardinal ([1852/1858] 1927), The Idea of a University Defined and Illustrated. Ed. Daniel M. O'Connell. Chicago, IL: Loyola University. O'Neill, Geraldine, Sarah Moore and Barry McMuIlin (eds) (2005), Emerging Issues in the Practice of University Learning and Teaching. Dublin: All Ireland Society for Higher Education. Pelikan, Jaroslav (1992), The Idea of the University: A Reexamination. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Prickett, Stephen (1994), 'Enterprise in higher education: Nice work, or ivory tower versus exchange and mart', Higher Education Quarterly, 48, (3), July 1994,169-181. Pym, Anthony (2001),'To localize and humanize ... On academics and translation", Language International, August 2001.13, (4) 26-28. —(2003),'Redefining translation competence in an electronic age: In defence of a minimalist approach', Meta, 48, (4), 481-497. Available at http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2003/v48/n4/008533ar.pdf Richards, Jack C. (2001), Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roberts, Roda P. (1981),'The role of thepracticum in translator training programmes', in Jean Delisle (ed.), L'enseignement de I'interpretation et de la traduction de la theorie a la pedagogic, Cahiers de traductologie No. 4. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, pp. 193-203. Roizen, Judith and Mark Jepson (1985), Degrees for Jobs: Employer Expectations of HE. Nelson, Guildford: SRHE/NFER. Schofield, Harry (1972), The Philosophy of Education: An Introduction. London: Allen & Unwin. Skilbeck, Malcolm, Helen Connell, Nicholas Lowe and Kirsten Tail (1994), The Vocational Quest: New Directions in Education and Training. London: Routledge. Symes, Colin (2000), '"Real world" education: The vocationalization of the university' in Colin Symes and John Mclntyre (eds), Working Knowledge: The New Vocationalism and Higher Education. Oxford: OUP, pp. 30-45.

213

214

Translator and Interpreter Training Training Agency (TA) (1990), Enterprise in Higher Education: Key Features of the EHE Proposals. Moorfoot, Sheffield: Employment Department. Tymoczko, Maria (2005), 'Trajectories of research in translation studies', Meta, 50, (4), 1082-1097. Available at http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2005/v50/n4/012062ar.pdf Wolf, Alison (1989), 'Can competence and knowledge mix?', in John W. Burke (ed.), Competency Based Education and Training. London: The Palmer Press, pp. 39-53.

Index Abbott, A., 3,9 Abelard.R, 206 abusive subtitling, 165 academia, 9, 14-15, 20-21, 34, 40-44, 67, 80, 184-211 academic rationalism, 185, 192, 198, 206 academic staff exchange, 68 accuracy, 27, 34 Achilles'Heel (Way), 93-101 Adab.B., 92 affective variables, 32-33 Afrikaans, 42, 59 age, 29 aggression, 99 Aida,Y., 32 Alderson, C.J., 28 alienation, 7 Allissat.H., 211 n.9 Altbach, P.G., 67 altruistic control, 10 American Sign Language, 130-131, 151, 154 Ammann, M., 90 Anderman, G.M., 20 anime, 160-167 annotation, 53 anticipation, 22 anxiety, 32-33 Appel,V., 39 apprenticeship, 2, 40, 188 aptitude, 30 Arabic, 128 Aristotle, 188 Arre's.E., 72 Asadi, P., 6 Ashby.E., 189-190 Ashworth, D., 158

assessment, 32-34, 83-84 Assiter.A., 203-204 Association of Canadian Corporations in Translation and Interpreting (ACCTI) 12 Atkinson, D. (see 'Temcu Project'), 66-85, 84n.l attitude, 107 Attwell,A., 41 Auberge espagnole L\ 69 audiovisual translation, 13, 41, 161 AUSIT (Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators Inc.), 11 Auslan (Australian Sign Language), 135 automatization, 31 autonomy, 93 Avis.J., 193, 195, 210 n.6 avoidance, 32 Azuma, H., 168-169 Baer,BJ., 39 Barnett, R., 203-204 Barthes,R., 190 Bartrina, F., 48 Beeby.A., 92,105 Bejoint,H., 145 Belam.J., 205 Bell,R.T., 105 Benati,A., 28 Berchem, T., 67 Berdardini, Sylvia, 41, 47, 211 n.8 best practices, 61-62 Bey.Y, 158, 179 Bible translation, 210 n.4 Biggs,}., 68, 206 bilingualism, 21 Blaauw, J., 48, 51

216

Index Black, J.S., 78 Bobbin, F., 196-197, 205, 207, 210 body notation system, 146-147 Boets.E., 48, 51 Bologna Process, 186, 209 Bourdieu,R, 7, 186 brain drain, 68 Brazil, 14 Brennan, J., 202 Brennan.M., 131,156n.2 Brien,D., 133, 135 British National Corpus, 154 British Sign Language (BSL), 130-156 British Society for Mental Health and Deafness, 134 British Telecom, 136 Bryden,D.A., 206 Burgess,}., 25, 28 Butcher, J., 49, 50, 53, 62 n.2 Byram.M., 77-78 California Standards for Healthcare Interpreters, 10-11 Calvo,E., 72,88 Caminade, M., 84 n.6 Campbell, S., 105 Canada, 12-14 Canadian Multiculturalism Act, 14 Carmichael, E., 40 Carnegie Mellon University, 23 Carroll,!., 68 Carstens, W.A.M., 42, 48, 50 Castillo Perez, R., 74 CAT (Computer-Aided Translation), 164 Catalan, 105, 108 Catalonia, 201 Chesterman, A., 8, 48, 188 Child of Sign Language Adults (COSLA), 145, 156 n.7 Chinese, 128 Chriss.R., 9 Chubb, R., 134 CIUTI (International Permanent Conference of University Institutes of Translators and Interpreters), 70, 84 n.6, 155 n.l clarity, 55 Clark,!., 185, 186, 210 n.l, 210 n.5

codes of ethics, 1, 3, 10, 11, 12 cognitive development, 41 cognitive processes, 26, 107 coherence, 50 cohesion, 50 Coimbra, 70 Coleman, !„ 71, 74, 77, 78, 84 n.7 commodification of higher education, 67 community interpreting, 10, 13-14, 128, 142 compensation, 31 Competence Based Training (CBT), 89, 92 competence, xiii-xiv, 15, 27, 30, 72-77, 80-83, 88-101, 104-126, 179, 186, 194 Computer-Aided Translation (CAT), 164 Concise American Sign Language Dictionary, 135 Confederation of European Rectors' Conferences, 67 confidence, 98 Constitution of South Africa, 42 constructivism, xiv, 160 Continuing Professional Development (CPD), 89, 139, 207 Cook,G., 20, 30 copyediting, 49, 53 copyright, 50, 162 corpora, 144, 154 correction, 6-29, 88-101, 129 COSLA (Child of Sign Language Adults), 145, 156 n.7 Costello, E., 135 CPD (Continuing Professional Development), 89, 139 creativity, 107 critical period hypothesis, 30 Cronin.M., 9, 180, 204-205 Cubbison,L, 160-162 culture shock, 78-79 culture, 8, 14-15, 71-79, 81, 97, 115, 128, 160, 168 curricular variables, 26-27 curriculum, 34, 44, 46-47, 82-83, 89, 105, 184-211 Darwish,A., 76 De Federico de la Rua, A., 75 Deaf Community, 130, 136-138, 142-143, 154,156n.3

Index Dearing Report (1997), 93 decision making, 109 DeKeyser.R., 26 Delisle,J., 4, 90 Department of Education and Science, 202 Deppey, D., 162, 164-165 deprofessionalization, 15 Descartes, R., 189 deskilling, 7 Deuchar,M., 131 Developing Translation Competence (conference), 92 Dewey,J., 196-198, 200, 207 dialect, 131 Diaz Cintas,}., 13, 161-162, 165 dictionaries, 133 Dictionary of British Sign Language/ English, 133-135 directionality, 83, 94 Disappearance Diary, 168-177 discourse communities, 179 Dodds.J., 33 Dollerup,C., 39, 92 domestication, 168 Dornyei.Z., 22, 30 DuPlessis,A., 42, 48, 50 Durban, C, 198-199, 201 Durham, University of, 133 dynamic translation paradigms, 111-115 editing, 39-65 editorial intervention, 57, 58 editorial skills 51, 52 editorial theory, 48 Edmonds, S., 10, 15 n.l Eisner, E., 210 n.l Ellis, R., 24-25, 27-28 emotion 8,32-33 empowerment, 41, 43, 46-47, 161, 207 EN 15038:2006 (European Standard for Translation), 89 energy, 28 English, 82, 105, 108, 116, 128, 131, 149, 150 Englund Dimitrova, B., 2, 5 Enterprise in Higher Education (EHE), 203-204 Erasmus exchange programme, 69-71, 74

errors, 6, 22-23, 26-30, 33, 55-59, 94-100, 129, 170, 175-176 Esselink.B., 193, 210 n.7 EST (European Society for Translation Studies), 202 Etherington, S., 25, 28 ethics, 8, 10-11, 53, 72, 83, 142 ethnocentrism, 79 euphemisms, 154 European Commission DirectorateGeneral for Translation, 15, 117 European Commission, 14 European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), 68, 84 n.4 European Higher Educational Area (EHEA), 70, 84n.4 European Language Portfolio, 84 European Rectors' Conference, 67

European Standard for Translation EN 15038: 2006, 89 European Union Tuning Project, 88 European Union, 14-15, 76, 91-92, 131 European University Association, 67 evaluation, 30, 83-84 Evans, M., 196 exoticization, 168, 177 expertise, 5, 108-109, 138 facial expressions, 148-149, 151 fan translation, 158-181 fansubs, 161-162, 164-165, 169 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 10 feminism, 7 Feyereisen, K.V., 210 n.l Film Studies, 161 fingerspelling, 151 FIT (International Federation of Translators), 198,202 Flinders, D.J., 196-197 foreignization, 168, 172 formality, 152-153 form-focused instruction, 24-25 Forstner, M., 15 fossilization, 30-32 Foucault, M., 7, 10 Fox, O., 92, 100 Fraser, J., 200-202 freelance editing, 43

217

218

Index freelance translation, 13 French, 105, 108, 116, 128, 131, 150 Friend, C, 62 n.2 front-end loading, 192-194 Gaddis-Rose, M., 15 Gallardo.A., 131 Gambier,Y., 207-208 Gardner, R.C., 29 Gass.S.M, 30 gender, 50, 145, 153 Gentile, A., 48 Gentzler,E., 48 German, 105, 108, 116, 128, 168 Gile.D., 21, 28, 40-44, 53-56, 90 Glatthorn,A.A., 210 n.l globalization, 2, 7, 12, 15, 41, 62, 161 glossaries, 134 Conceives, J.L., 106 Gonzalez Davies, M., 54, 59, 208 Gonzalez,!. 88 Gradgrindism, 196 grading, 94 grammar, 27, 28, 55, 135, 165 Gran.L. 33 Grassroots Deaf, 143, 156 n.6 Greco, A.N., 40, 49, 62 n.l Greek, 128 Green, A., 193 Gross, G.C., 49, 62n.2 group work, 60 Gu,Y., 22 Guiora,A.Z., 32 habitus, 2 Hager.R, 189, 192-193 Hakuta.K., 30 Hale.S., 13 Hall,S., 190 Hampden-Turner, C., 75 Han,Z.H., 30, 31 handshapes, 148, 150 Hansen, G., 105 harmonization, 82 Hart's Rules for Compositors..., 49

Hatim,B., 105 Hayao,M., 161-162, 180 n.l Haywood, T., 15

Heriot-Watt University, 127-130 Hermans, T., 6 Hewson, L., 105 hidden curriculum, 197 Hieke,A.E., 20 HineJ.T. 40,45 Hodgson, D., 134 Hofstede,G., 76, 79 Holmes, J.S., 190 Horibuchi, S., 168 House,}., 4 Howell.R, 161, 167-168, 174-175, 180 n.l Hulstijn, !.H., 31 human resource development, 48 Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 187 Hung,E., 39 Hurtado Albir, A. 88, 90, 105 Hyland, T., 189, 192-193, 195 IATIS (International Association for Translation and Intercultural Studies), xiv, 202 ideology, 10, 50-52, 185, 187 Illich,!., 180 inaccuracy, 23 Inca Project, 78, 84 industry standards, 61-62 inferencing, 22 information processing, 31 in-house training, 41, 43 institutionalization, 2 insurance, 15 interdisciplinary cooperation, 20-22, 33, 194 interlanguage, 24-25, 30, 31 internalization, 7 International Association of Universities, 67 International Association for Translation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS), xiv, 202 International Centre for Higher Education Research, 71 International Permanent Conference of University Institutes of Translators and Interpreters (CIUTI), 70, 84 n.6, 155 n.l International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 133 internationalization, 67-68, 70, 79 internship, 13, 44, 194-195

Index interpreter-speak, 152 inverse translation, 94 Ireland, 82 Irish Sign Language, 153 isiNdebele, 42 isiXhosa, 42 isiZulu, 42, 59 Jakobsen,A.L., 119 Japanese, 158-181 Jenkins, S., 22 Jepson.M., 202 Jewish Deaf Association, 134 Johnson, K. 32 Johnson, R.K., 22 Johnston, T., 135 Jordan, G., 24 Jungst.H., 168, 177 Kaindl.K., 167 Kalina,S., 22 Katan.D., 78 Kayahara, M., 161 Kearns.J., x, xiii-xiv, 83, 184-211 Keiser,W., 21 Keith, H., 129, 211 n.9 Kelly, D., x, xiii-xiv, 66-87, 89-91, 94, 100, 105, 158, 185-186, 206, 208-209 Kemble,!., 210 n.3 Ker,I., 187-188 Kim.Y.Y., 79 Kinsella, S., 160, 167, 181 n.2 Kiraly, D., xiv, 22, 59, 90, 160, 165, 178-179, 186, 207-208 Klapisch.C, 69 Klein, H., 134 Koby,G.S., 39 Kormos, J., 22 Kramsch,C., 23, 24 Krashen.S., 27, 33 Krings.H.P., 90 Kruger, H., x, xiii, 39-65 Kusanagi, S., 161-162, 180 n.l Kufimaul.R, 90 Ladmiral, J.-R., 15, 178 Lagemann, E.G., 196 Lancaster, 131

Landau, S.I., 144, 155 language ego, 32 language learning, 71, 81, 128, 201 language processing, 28 language teaching, 19-35, 199, 201 Latin, 198, 205 Laurillard, D., 206 Laviosa, E, 22 law, 74, 82, 137, 139, 152, 191 laziness, 29 learner autonomy, 93 learner motivation, 29 learner-centred approach, 59 learning objectives, 89 learning outcomes, 71-80, 83-84 learning strategies, 22 Lederer,M., 33 Leeman, J., 25 Leonard, S., 160-162 Levi,A., 161-162, 167 Lewis,!., 193, 210 n2 lexicography, 137-141, 143-144, 149-151 lexicon, 30 liaison interpreting, 26 liberal arts, 15 library science, 9 lifelong learning, 89, 92, 195 linguistics, 4, 50, 52, 191, 199 Linstead, S., 7, 10 lip/mouth patterns, 151 localization, 41, 62, 199 Loddegaard, A., 39 logical reasoning, 107 Lonnroth, K.-J., 15 Losa, E.F., 211 n.9 Lowe, P., 105 loyalty, 8-9, 11 Lupin III, 161 Macaro, E., 27-28 Mackenzie, J., 49, 62 n.2 Maia,B., 39, 41, 46 Maiworm, E, 69, 71 Malmkjajr, K., 20, 39 manga, 160-181 Mangiron,C. 166, 178 Martin, J., 105 Martinez Melis, N., 105

219

220

Index MasL6pez,]., 174 Mason, I., 13, 105 McAlester, G., 92 McDade, R., xi-xiv, 127-157 McGeevor,R, 202 McLuhan,M., 190 meaning-focused instruction, 24—26 medicine, 137, 139, 152, 153, 191 memorization, 22, 26, 27 memory, 6, 72 Mendenhall, M., 78 mental health interpreting, 134 mentoring, 26, 28, 41, 207 Meriaud, M., 15 Messick, S., 193 Metz,C, 190 Mill, John Stuart, 204 Milton, J., 3, 14 minority languages, 130, 204-205 mistakes, 22, 26-30, 33, 55-59, 94-100, 129, 170, 175-176 mobility programmes, 66-85 modernism, 7 monitoring of output, 22 Montagnes, I., 40, 43-44, 46, 61 Monzo.E., 90 Moron, M., 72 morphosyntax, 30 Mossop,B. 9, 12, 40, 45-46, 49, 51, 53 mother tongue, 60 motivation, 22,69-70 mouth/lip patterns, 151 multiculturalism, 14, 79 multilingualism, 14, 59, 60 multimedia, 129 Munos Sanchez, P., 161-162, 165 Nabei.T., 22 Nakuma,C.K., 32 Namy.C, 25-26 Napier, S., 160, 167 Nassaji, H., 26 Nausicaa of the Valley of the Winds, 161-162 needs and situation analysis, 185 Neubert,A., 90, 105 Neunzig.W., 1ll Neves.J., 207

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal, 187-188 Newmark, P., 4 Nida,E., 4, 190, 210 n.4 Niska.H., 142 non-verbal behaviour, 22 Nord, C, 8, 105 Norman, D., 8 norms, 1, 180 Nornes.A.N., 161, 165, 170, 180 North-West University (South Africa), 46 notation, 131, 133, 146-147, 156 n.8 note-taking, 26-27 O'Hagan,M., xi.xiii, 158-183 O'Neill, G., 206 O'SheaWade.J., 51 Oberg,K., 78-79 objectives, 89 Olohan.M., 89 onion-model of culture, 76 on-line/on-screen thinking, 6 Ono.K., 172 open source software documentation, 158-159 Orozco Jutoran, M., 90 Ortabasi.M., 161 orthography, 172-174, 176 outcomes, 71-80, 83, 84 Oxford English Dictionary, 135, 144 Oxford Style Manual, The, 49 Oxford, R., 29 PACTE Group, xi.xiii, 90-91, 104-126; PACTE translation competence model, 106-108 page layout, 50 pair work, 60 paraphrasing, 22, 27 Parra,!., 22 Passeron, J.-C., 186 Payne, J., 40 Pederson,R, 78 Pelikan,J., 184 Perez Gonzalez, L, 161-162 performance magistrate, 178 Philippines, 43 phonology, 30 Pica,!., 22

Index plagiarism, 50 Poland, 201 police, 138 Polish, 198 politics, 11, 142 polycentrism, 79 post-colonialism, 7 post-modernism, 2 pragmatics, 30 Presas.M., 105 prestige, 70 Preston, D.R., 32 Prickett, S., 205 processing constraints, 31 process-oriented approach, 41, 54, 58 process-oriented study, 5 professionalization/professional behaviour, 1-15, 44 Progressivism, 196-197, 206 promotion, 13 prospective thinking, 6 psychiatry, 9 psychology, 160 public-service interpreting, 10,13-14, 128, 142 publishing industry, 42, 43, 44, 50 Pym, A., 5, 15, 47, 61-62, 84 n6. 90, 105, 194, 199-201, 208 quadrivium, 187, 205 quality assurance, 45 Quinn,C, 128-130 reformulation, 59 register, 152-153 Reifi,K., 4 research staff exchange, 68 Residence Abroad Project, 71, 73-74 responsibility, 9 restructuring, 22 reverse culture shock, 79 Richards,!., 185-186 Risku,H., 105 Ritter,R.M., 49 Roberts, R., 48, 211 n.9 Robinson, D., 90 Robinson, P.J., 26 Rogers, M.A., 20

Roizen,J., 202 Roldan Miranda, I., 71, 73 Rundell.M., 155 Russian, 128 Ryan, J., 68 Sainz,M.J., 92 Saljo.R., 128 Sampson, E.E., 8 Samuel, A.G., 30 Santander, 70 Sanz Sainz, I., 71, 73 SASLI (Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters), 137 Sawyer, D., 20, 34 scanlation, 162-165 Schachter, J., 31 Schaffner, C., 92 Schermer, T., 134 Schjoldager, A., 26 Schodt.F., 160, 168 Schofield, H., 210 n.2 scholarly editing, 49 Schopp, J., 51 Schwier,R., 130 Scottish Association of Sign Language Interpreters (SASLI), 137 Scottish Gaelic, 131 Scovel,T., 27 Second Language Acquisition (SLA), 19—35, 180 segmentation, 22 Seguinot, C., xi, xiii, 1-18 Seleskovitch, D., 33 self-assessment, 93-100, 129 self-control, 10 self-criticism, 93 self-esteem, 33 self-motivation, 22 Selinker, L., 30-31 Sepedi, 42 sequential model of editing, 55-56 sequential model of translation, 54-55 Sesotho, 42, 59 Setswana, 42, 59 sex, 145, 153 Shaw, J.G., 40

221

222

Index Shearin.J., 29 shipbuilding, 15 Shisso Nikki (Disappearance

Swales,]., 179 Symes,C, 195, 197 synchronization, 133

Diary), 168-177 Shuttleworth, M., 48 SketNon, 206 Sign Language Interpreting Project (SLIP), 127-156 Signbase, 134 SignSearch, 146-149 Silverberg, S., 30 Simpson, J., 135 simultaneous interpreting, 25-26 Singleton, D., 30 Siswati, 42 situational translation projects, 165 Skehan,P., 32 Skilbeck,M., 193 skills, 45, 47, 179, 203 Skopos theory/Skopostheorie, 4-5, 9 SLIP, 127-156 Slovene, 82 Smith, C, 134 social constructivism, 160, 165-166, 178-179 social reconstructionism, 197, 206 social skills, 99 Soriano, I., 78 South Africa, 40-62 Spain, 93-94, 97 Spanish, 94, 105, 108, 128 Speck, B.W., 40 speed, 6, 165 spelling, 55 standardization, 131, 142 static translation paradigms, 111-115 Steiner.G., 190 Stock, P., 155 Stokoe,W., 131 strategies (learner), 30, 75 structuralism, 4 student-centred learning, 88, 128 style, 55, 166 submissiveness, 8-9 subtitling, 3, 46-47, 161 Sutton-Spence, R., 130-132 Swain, M., 22, 31

teaching staff exchange, 68 technical translation, 158 technology, xiv, 7, 12-13, 43, 51, 72, 128-129, 136-137, 139, 143, 152, 158-181, 194, 199, 200 Teekens,H., 68 Teichler, U, 67, 69-71, 74 Temcu Project, 66-85, 84 nl Tennent, M., 39, 158 terminology, 140, 143, 152 Terrell, T., 27 text analysis, 52 textbooks, 61 Think Aloud Protocols (TAPs), 5-6 Thomas, N., 20 Thornton, SJ., 196, 197 time, 132, 165 Titford, C., 20 Toury, G., 4, 190 Towell,R., 20 Training Agency, 203 training materials, 61 transferable skills, 41, 45, 74, 191, 193, 201-203 translation diaries, 100 translation process, 5, 7, 105, 115-120, 163 translation protocols, 111 Translation Service Provider (TSP), 89 translation strategies, 5-6, 167-168, 177 Translation Studies, 2-4, 7, 15, 20, 72, 88, 90, 92, 162, 167, 177-178, 185, 187, 190-191, 208-209, 210 n.4, 210 n.5 translation theory, 1, 48-49, 186, 188, 190-191 translator's notes, 170-171 trivium, 187, 205 Trompenaars, R, 75-76 Tshivenda, 42 Tsokaktsidou, D., 69, 83 Turell Julia, M.T., 73 Tymoczko.M., 208-209 typography & typesetting, 51, 53, 98, 163-164, 167, 176

Index UNESCO World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-First Century..., 84 n.3 United Kingdom, 82, 131 United States of America, 19 Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, 92 university networks, 70 University of Granada, 84 Valderrey Rinones.C., 91 VanPatten, B., 28 Venuti, L, 5, 191 Vermeer, H., 4 video, 132-133, 143-144 Vigier Moreno, F.J., 90 virtual interpreting classroom, 138, 140 virtual mobility, 76 vocationality/vocational training, 74, 184-211 volunteer translator networks, 158-181 Wagenaar, R. 88 Wagner, E., 48, 188

Warriors of the Wind, 162 Way, C, xi, xiv, 88-103 Werner, E., 135 Westwood, R., 7 Wild.M. 128-130 Williams, A.D., 62 n.l Wilson, Christine W.L., xi-xiv, 127-157 Wilss,W, 4 Winckelman, M., 78 Winograd, T., 4 Wolf, A., 193-194, 203 Woll,B., 130-132 Wong.W., 28 Woodford, P.P., 40 work-placement, 13, 44, 76 World Trade Organisation, 67 Wu,C.-S., 31 xenophilia, 79 Xitsonga, 42 Zannirato, A., xii-xiii, 19-38 Zook,LM., 40, 45

223