Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 372) [1st ed. 2022] 9783030931544, 9783030931551, 3030931544

Table of contents :
Introduction
Contents
Green Innovations in Agriculture and Food Security
The Influence of Tillage Methods on Its Condition and the Yield of Spring Vetch for Two Rotations
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Features of Winter Common Wheat Water Regime in the Arid Conditions of the Rostov Region
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Estimation of Productivity, Grain, and Flour Quality of the Winter Common Wheat Varieties When Sown After Peas in the South of the Rostov Region
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Effectiveness of Herbicide Treatment on Pea Crops
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Evaluation of Promising Lines of Spring Soft Wheat in the Nursery of Competitive Testing
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased Environment-Improving Function of Plants
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Increasing the Competitiveness of Russian Agricultural Producers Using the “Economic Cross” Model
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Yield of Winter Soft Wheat Varieties, Elements of Its Structure, and Adaptive Properties in the Conditions of the Non-chernozem Zone
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Effect of Different Levels of Mineral Nitrogen and Inoculation with Various Biological Preparations on Productivity and Quality of Spring Wheat
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
New Varieties of Seed Peas for a Wide Area of Cultivation
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Effect of Micronutrients on the Productivity of Medicinal Plants
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn—A New Cultivated Buckwheat for Russia (Characteristics of a New Variety ‘Kurab’)
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean Varieties Cultivated in the Conditions of the Central Black Earth Region
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Antioxidant Activity of Ground Grain (Flour) of Different Buckwheat Species and the Dynamics of Its Decrease During Heating
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence of Environmental Conditions on Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in Pea
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Deep Processing of Pea Varieties Bred in the Federal State Budgetary Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops”
1 Introduction
2 Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Interpretation of Features of Seed Productivity of Common Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L. Savi) of Different Ripeness Groups in Breeding for Early Ripeness
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Characteristics of the Protein Complex of Field Bean Seeds
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Reaction of Isolated Fragments of Chickpea Seedlings to Hormone Composition of Nutrient Medium
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Prospects for the Development of Soybean Production in Russia
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Method of Physical and Chemical Assessment of Immunobiological Activity of Cow Colostrum According to Its Electronic Polarization Parameters
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Effective Management of the Agro-Industrial Complex as a Basis for Food Security
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Investment Attractiveness of Russian Agricultural Holdings as a Factor in Improving National Food Security
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
On the Issue of Sustainable Development of the Russian Agro-Industrial Complex
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Methods of Increasing Potato Yields in the Yamal Far North Environment
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Joint Use of Inoculants with Disinfectants Is an Essential Element in Intensive Technologies of Soybean Cultivation
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Modeling the Optimal Mode of Operation of the Harvesting and Transport Links if Grain Is Stored in Flexible Polyethylene Containers
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Creation of Highly Effective Variety-Microbial Systems for Soybeans
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Legal Regulation of Sustainable Development and Environmental Security
Features of the Legal Regulation of Unmanned (Autonomous) Transport in the Russian Federation
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Current State of Criminal Legislation and Law Enforcement Practice on Parole in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Lithuania
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Jurisdiction in Cyberspace: American Law Versus International Law. Competition or Collaboration?
1 Introduction
2 Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Formation of New Legal Approaches to Regulate the Marriage and Family Relations in the PRC
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussions
5 Conclusions
References
Certain Aspects of the Law Enforcement Practice of Determining the Status of Persons Responsible for Copyright and (or) Related Rights Violation on the Internet and Determining the Parties Involved in the Dispute
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Fundamentals of the Effectiveness of the Development of Technological Capabilities of Production in the Context of the Formation of Complex Integration Interactions of the Participants in the Process
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Prevention of Religious Terrorism in the Execution of the Penal Sanction of Incarceration
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Legal Policy and Legal Culture in the Field of Unification of Legal Terminology, Reforms in Criminal Proceedings in the Conditions of the Sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
The Use of Legal Intersectoral Terminology in the Process of Improving Legislation, Legislative Innovations on the Responsibility of Legal Entities in the Conditions of the Sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
The Problem of Student-Centered Learning of IT Specialists for Education Sphere
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
From Previous Economic Order to New Economic Reality
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Improving the Quality of Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners in Russia, Mongolia, and China
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Mongolian Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners
2.2 Russian Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners
2.3 China: Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering (AML) Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
A Debate on Artificial Intelligence in Area of Law and the Legal Professions
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
3.1 AI Debates in Legal Sub-disciplines
4 Conclusion
References
Eurasian Technological Platform “Technologies for Sustainable Ecological Development”: Organizational and Functional Aspect
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Accessibility of Register Information as an Element of Smart Regulation of Entrepreneurial Relations in the Digital Society
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Digital Transformation of the Financial Sector in Russia and Its Regions
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Economic Security of Regions and Green Innovations in the Management of Natural Resources
Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities: A Methodological Approach to the Security Tools Selection
1 Introduction
2 The Theoretical Basis of the Study
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusion
References
Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor Roads from Subsidence Loams in Mountainous Areas
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Oil Spill Statistics as a Call for Green Innovation
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Key Determinants of Regional Land Policy in the Area of Agricultural Land Use (Based on Materials from the Orel Region)
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Potential for Growth of Legume Production in the Orel Region
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
The Agrarian Sector of the Central Federal District: The Nature of Land Use in a Pandemic
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Funding the Management of Municipal Solid Waste Through Public-Private Partnerships
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Cluster Development of the Economy: Regional Aspect and Mechanisms of Financial Support
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Fundamentals and Principles of Islamic Finance
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
The Impact of Regulation Methods with Shadow Economy on Sustainable Development: The Case of Kazakhstan
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Results
3.1 Structure and Sources of the Shadow Economy
3.2 Struggle with Illegal Activities
3.3 High Coverage, but the Modest Result
3.4 Prospect Estimated Measures
4 Conclusion
References
The Mechanism of an Integration Solution in the Financial and Economic Activities of Construction Organizations
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Economic Integration as a Mechanism for Managing Service Activities
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
India on the Global Market of Energy Resources: Issues of Energy Security
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Global Market of Oil and Gas Fields’ Services: Current Development Trends
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Conceptual Framework for Solid Waste Management
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Formation and Development of a Waste Management System in the Region
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Current Problems of Using Forest Resources in Russian Regions
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
The Mechanism for the Development of the Tourism and Recreational Cluster for Effective Organizational and Economic Management of the Formation of the Innovative Potential of the North Caucasus
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Designing Mechanisms for Ensuring the Economic Security of Regions: Countering the Challenges of Instability
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusion
References
Economic Security of Regions During a Pandemic: Methods for Diagnosing Problem Areas and Ensuring Sustainability
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Indicators of the Economic Component of the Economic Security
5.1 Industrial Production Index
5.2 The State Debt of the Regions
5.3 Fixed Capital Investments Per Capita
5.4 Retail Trade Turnover
6 Indicators of the Social Component of the Economic Security
6.1 Registered Unemployment Rate
6.2 The Number of People with Monetary Incomes Below the Subsistence Minimum
6.3 The Lethality of the Population from COVID-19
7 Indicators of the Technological Component of the Economic Security
7.1 Internal Research and Development Costs
7.2 The Share of Organizations that Implemented Technological Innovations in the Total Number of Surveyed Organizations
8 Conclusions
References
Factors and Conditions for the Functioning and Development of Regional Socio-economic Systems
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Discussion
4 Results
5 Conclusion
References
Methodology for Evaluating Change Management at the Municipal Level
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Discussion
4 Results
5 Conclusion
References
Green Investment and Innovation as a Basis for Business Contributions to Regional Economic Development
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Materials and Method
4 Results
5 Conclusion
References
Technological Security in the Digital Environment, Data Protection, and Information Security
The Digital Platform as an Innovative Tool for the Development of Technological Safety, on the Example of Dairy Engineering
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Robotization: Incentives for Development and Impact on Employment
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
Appendix 1: Results of the Linear Regression
References
Russian Aircraft “Sukhoi Superjet-100”: Position in Russian and Global Markets
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
3.1 SSJ-100 Production Fragmentation
3.2 Government Support of SSJ-100 Production
3.3 SSJ-100 Positions in the Russian Market
3.4 SSJ-100 Positions in Global Markets
4 Conclusion
References
Arbitration Proceedings in the Conditions of Development of Digital Technologies
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Digital Technologies in Bankruptcy
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
3.1 Electronic Information Resources in Bankruptcy
3.2 Digitalization of Processes of Interaction of Creditors
3.3 Digital Currency in the Bankruptcy Estate
3.4 Digital Technologies in the Sale of the Debtor's Property
4 Conclusion
References
Stability of Corporate Governance to the Conditions of the Modern Economic Environment
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Competency Direction of Improving Personal Information Security in the Digital Environment of Russian Society
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Mechanism for Assessing the Economic Efficiency of Organizations in the Service Sector
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Main Trends in Import Tariffs Within the Eurasian Economic Union
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
3.1 Characteristics of the EAEU Foreign Trade
3.2 Goals of the Customs and Tariff Regulation in the EAEU
3.3 Institutional Foundations of Customs and Tariff Regulation
3.4 Research on the Proposals for the Adjustment of the Import Tariff Rates Within the Framework of CCT
4 Conclusion
References
The Identification of the Sphere of Small Business as a Condition for an Effective State Policy of Its Regulation
1 Introduction
2 Resources and Methods
2.1 Governmental Support of SME
2.2 Economic Factors Characterizing the Development of SMEs
2.3 Micro-, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
2.4 Hypotheses
3 Methods
4 Results
5 Discussion
5.1 The Criteria for Small Business Category Allocation
5.2 Small Business Development Guidelines
6 Conclusion
References
The Evolution of Cryptocurrencies in the Global Political Economy
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Kyrgyz Methods of Leather Dressing (Late 19th–Early 20th Centuries)
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Identification of Points of Economic Security for Large Integrated Structures of the Manufacturing Sector of the Economy
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Topical Issues of Determining the Threshold Values of Indicators of Economic Security for Integrated Industrial Enterprises
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Social Contract as a Legal Instrument for Improving Water Resources Management
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Security as the Priority of Personnel Management and Intellectual Property Protection
Conducting Lectures on Physical Education at the University with the Use of Distance Educational Technologies
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Development of Integration Mechanisms in the Field of Educational Services and Labor Market in Transport
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Socio-economic Assessment of Labor Efficiency in Crop Production
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Female Leadership in the Modern Business Environment: Opportunities and Barriers
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Tourism Destination Management: Focusing on Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Skills Development in a Green Economy
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Assessing the Quality of Production Equipment
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Classic Project Management Based on PMBOK 7.0
1 Introduction
2 Methods
3 Results
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Managerial Problems of Enterprise Development During the Pandemic COVID-19
1 Introduction
2 The Theoretical Basis of the Study
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Innovation and Applied Knowledge as the Basis for Economic Development
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
3 Results
4 Conclusions
References
Regional Aspects of Unemployment in Russia: Structural Approach
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusions
References
Lean Production in the Process of Creating New Products
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Results
4.1 Prerequisites for the Introduction of Lean Production Technologies by Russian Enterprises in the Process of Creating New Products
4.2 The Content of Lean Production Technologies at Different Stages of Creating New Products
4.3 The Algorithm for Implementing Lean Manufacturing Technologies in the Process of Creating New Products by Small Enterprises
5 Conclusion
References
Anti-crisis Technologies for Improving the Efficiency of the Organization’s Personnel Management
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Methodology
4 Results
5 Conclusion
References
Analytical Review of Patent Activities in the Russian Federation
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Research of Open Data of Recruiting Agencies of the Russian Labor Market Using Big Data Analytics Technologies
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results
4 Conclusion
References
Provision of Security for Sustainable Development: The Perspective of the Decade of Action (Conclusion)

Citation preview

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372

Elena G. Popkova Andrey A. Polukhin Julia V. Ragulina   Editors

Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume 372

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas— UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15179

Elena G. Popkova · Andrey A. Polukhin · Julia V. Ragulina Editors

Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security

Editors Elena G. Popkova MGIMO University Moscow, Russia

Andrey A. Polukhin Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops Orel, Russia

Julia V. Ragulina Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) Moscow, Russia

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-030-93154-4 ISBN 978-3-030-93155-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Introduction

New Achievements in the Sphere of Security Provision: Food and Ecological, Information and Technological and Personnel and Intellectual The latest trends of development of the modern world economic system actualized the problem of security provision. While the COVID-19 pandemic stimulated the primary achievement of healthcare security, three other directions of security provision are also important and are actively implemented—each of them was started by the corresponding global trend. First trend: “demographic explosion” (quick growth of the planet’s population) of the recent decades and the following increase of the global demand for food. This trend increased the problem of food security provision. This problem is solved with the help of the development of agriculture, though the systemic solution to the problem of food security, which would allow for the simultaneous increase of quality and efficiency (quantitative accessibility) of food and the reduction of its cost, has not been found yet. Second trend: intensive economic growth of industrial economy and preservation of a large share of the real sector and the large share of industry in GDP even after the transition to the post-industrial economy. Large ecological costs of economic growth cause the initiatives of decarbonization of the economy. At the level of the world economy, countries, and countries’ regions, the programs of environment protection and production waste reduction are implemented. Both these trends have formed a direction that is connected to the provision of food and environmental security, in which implementation of the key role belongs to green innovations. Third trend: the Fourth Industrial Revolution and transition to the digital technological mode. Under the influence of this trend, information and technological security have acquired an important role for companies and economies. Its manifestations include the necessity to achieve and sustain high technology. In the conditions of the digital economy, the competitiveness and effectiveness of economic activities and economic systems have acquired a new treatment and new approach to evaluation. v

vi

Introduction

Not only quality and price (and their ratio) but also progressiveness of the technologies used determine competitiveness now. Keeping up with the times and updating the technologies constantly are the basic principles of keeping positions in the world markets for the modern economic systems. Another manifestation of information and technological security consist in data protection: personal information protection, non-disclosure of commercial secrets, and prevention of cybercrimes. Information is a valuable resource; it forms the limits of privacy, and data are the object of management. The manifestations include also social adaptation to new technologies and new forms of storing and using information. This hi-tech economy, in which the leading technologies of data and information protection are widespread, but which has a large social group that is isolated from the digital environment (e.g., remote rural areas without access to the telecommunication infrastructure or digital equipment), cannot be considered the economy that has high information and technological security. That is why social adaptation to new technologies and stimulation of their wide dissemination are necessary for the provision of information and technological security of modern socioeconomic systems. Fourth trend: formation of the “knowledge economy” at which human (personnel) and intellectual (objects of intellectual property) resources have become the critical factors of the companies’ market success. Against this trend, the significance of personnel and intellectual security of companies grows—it is ensured through the attraction (provision of deficit-free states of companies) of personnel with targeted qualification, implementation of their human potential (to create highly-efficient jobs), keeping employees who are valuable for the company, and registration and protection of rights for the objects of intellectual property created by employees. Personnel and intellectual security of modern companies determine their capabilities for mastering the unique competitive advantages and the long-term presence in the market. To achieve personnel and intellectual security, companies conduct the management of human and intellectual resources. This emphasizes the importance of improving organizational and managerial practices. This book aims to show that modern socioeconomic and entrepreneurial systems are on the path to the increase of security, to determine the obstacles they face on this path, and to find the opportunities to overcome these obstacles. The purpose of this book is to describe the newest achievements in the sphere of security provision. The originality of this book consists in the development of the fundamental basis of security provision of modern socioeconomic systems through the development and application of a new classification of the directions of security provision—food and ecological, information and technological, and personnel and intellectual—and their systemic consideration. The uniqueness of this book is due to the research of the leading international practices of socioeconomic systems’ security provision and description of the most important mechanisms of activating and supporting these practices: green innovations and protection of intellectual property and information. The book has a logical structure—five consecutive parts.

Introduction

vii

The first part considers progressive green innovations in agriculture and the modern experience of provision of food security. The second part is devoted to the issues of legal regulation of sustainable development and environmental security. The third part studies the economic security of regions and green innovations in natural resources management, in particular production waste reduction. The fourth part elaborates on the foundations of the provision of technological security in the digital environment, data protection, and information security. The fifth part dwells on security as the priority of personnel management and intellectual property protection. The primary target audience of this book includes scholars who study the issues of security provision in modern socioeconomic systems. In this book, they will find the fundamental inventions and empirical studies of the international experience of security provision in its new classification in the unity of food and ecological, information and technological, and personnel and intellectual security. The secondary target audience of the book includes economic practitioners who conduct the management of security of modern socioeconomic systems. Representatives of public authorities will find in this book the recommendations on monitoring and regulation of food and ecological, information and technological, and personnel and intellectual security. Subjects of entrepreneurship will find in this book the applied solutions for corporate management of security.

Contents

Green Innovations in Agriculture and Food Security The Influence of Tillage Methods on Its Condition and the Yield of Spring Vetch for Two Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dmitrii A. Dementiev, Vitalii G. Antonov, and Andrey A. Fadeev

3

Features of Winter Common Wheat Water Regime in the Arid Conditions of the Rostov Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evgeny I. Nekrasov, Elena V. Ionova, and Valentina A. Likhovidova

11

Estimation of Productivity, Grain, and Flour Quality of the Winter Common Wheat Varieties When Sown After Peas in the South of the Rostov Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana N. Gromova, Olga V. Skripka, Sergey V. Podgorny, and Nina S. Kravchenko

19

Effectiveness of Herbicide Treatment on Pea Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana V. Ilina, Andrey A. Fadeev, and Inga Yu. Ivanova Evaluation of Promising Lines of Spring Soft Wheat in the Nursery of Competitive Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inga Yu. Ivanova, Lyudmila V. Volkova, and Svetlana V. Ilina Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased Environment-Improving Function of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anatoly M. Medvedev, Andrey V. Nardid, Evgeniy N. Liseenko, Svyatoslav S. Pavlov, and Alexey V. Nardid Increasing the Competitiveness of Russian Agricultural Producers Using the “Economic Cross” Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexander V. Panin, Dmitriy V. Timokhin, Lidia A. Golovina, and Lyubov V. Degteva

27

33

41

53

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Yield of Winter Soft Wheat Varieties, Elements of Its Structure, and Adaptive Properties in the Conditions of the Non-chernozem Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bagrat I. Sandukhadze, Ramin Z. Mamedov, Maria S. Krakhmalyova, and Valentina V. Bugrova Effect of Different Levels of Mineral Nitrogen and Inoculation with Various Biological Preparations on Productivity and Quality of Spring Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Svetlana Kh. Khuaz, Sofya V. Kondrat, and Andrey P. Kozhemyakov

61

67

New Varieties of Seed Peas for a Wide Area of Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maria S. Shakirzyanova and Nikita A. Shagaev

77

Effect of Micronutrients on the Productivity of Medicinal Plants . . . . . . . Zhanna M. Yakhtanigova, Irina V. Kulishova, and Alexander V. Afanasyev

87

Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn—A New Cultivated Buckwheat for Russia (Characteristics of a New Variety ‘Kurab’) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nikolay N. Fesenko, Ivan N. Fesenko, and Zorrida I. Glazova

95

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean Varieties Cultivated in the Conditions of the Central Black Earth Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Ekaterina V. Golovina Antioxidant Activity of Ground Grain (Flour) of Different Buckwheat Species and the Dynamics of Its Decrease During Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Elena V. Klimova, Olga V. Rezunova, and Ivan N. Fesenko Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence of Environmental Conditions on Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in Pea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Gennady P. Guryev and Mikhail T. Golopyatov Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Deep Processing of Pea Varieties Bred in the Federal State Budgetary Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Andrey A. Zelenov, Andrey A. Polukhin, and Anatoly N. Zelenov Interpretation of Features of Seed Productivity of Common Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L. Savi) of Different Ripeness Groups in Breeding for Early Ripeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Olga A. Miyuts, Maria P. Miroshnikova, and Pavel V. Yatchuk Characteristics of the Protein Complex of Field Bean Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Tatyana N. Selikhova and Kristina Yu. Zubareva

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Reaction of Isolated Fragments of Chickpea Seedlings to Hormone Composition of Nutrient Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Galina N. Suvorova and Maria V. Donskaya Prospects for the Development of Soybean Production in Russia . . . . . . . 167 Irina L. Tychinskaya and Nikolay V. Varlamov Method of Physical and Chemical Assessment of Immunobiological Activity of Cow Colostrum According to Its Electronic Polarization Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Sergey N. Tsygankov and Alexander D. Levshin Effective Management of the Agro-Industrial Complex as a Basis for Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Yulia V. Bykovskaya, Angelina F. Dyatlova, and Andrey V. Minakov Investment Attractiveness of Russian Agricultural Holdings as a Factor in Improving National Food Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Elvira A. Divaeva, Olesya G. Kukharenko, and Aliya Sh. Gizyatova On the Issue of Sustainable Development of the Russian Agro-Industrial Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Mikhail P. Burov, Vasily I. Nilipovskiy, Omari N. Margalitadze, and Vladimir S. Gorbunov Methods of Increasing Potato Yields in the Yamal Far North Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Anatolii N. Tikhanovskii Joint Use of Inoculants with Disinfectants Is an Essential Element in Intensive Technologies of Soybean Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Kristina Yu. Zubareva, Irina L. Tychinskaya, and Andrey A. Polukhin Modeling the Optimal Mode of Operation of the Harvesting and Transport Links if Grain Is Stored in Flexible Polyethylene Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Alexander V. Panin, Andrey A. Polukhin, Svetlana P. Klimova, and Aleksey V. Kondykov Creation of Highly Effective Variety-Microbial Systems for Soybeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Andrey G. Vasilchikov and Alexander S. Akulov Legal Regulation of Sustainable Development and Environmental Security Features of the Legal Regulation of Unmanned (Autonomous) Transport in the Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Olga A. Serova and Aleksandr T. Naniev

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Current State of Criminal Legislation and Law Enforcement Practice on Parole in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Olga V. Vasilenko-Zakharova and Anatoly V. Zubach Jurisdiction in Cyberspace: American Law Versus International Law. Competition or Collaboration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Sergey N. Vinokurov Formation of New Legal Approaches to Regulate the Marriage and Family Relations in the PRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Natalia V. Ivanovskaya and Yanan Li Certain Aspects of the Law Enforcement Practice of Determining the Status of Persons Responsible for Copyright and (or) Related Rights Violation on the Internet and Determining the Parties Involved in the Dispute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Dmitry A. Lepeshin and Tatiana V. Dautia Fundamentals of the Effectiveness of the Development of Technological Capabilities of Production in the Context of the Formation of Complex Integration Interactions of the Participants in the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Ekaterina P. Garina, Alexander P. Garin, Yana V. Batsyna, Alexander Yu. Nechushkin, and Elena S. Gaylomazova Prevention of Religious Terrorism in the Execution of the Penal Sanction of Incarceration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Marina A. Davidenko Legal Policy and Legal Culture in the Field of Unification of Legal Terminology, Reforms in Criminal Proceedings in the Conditions of the Sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Gulnara B. Aidarbekova, Ainura D. Urmatova, Baktybek S. Batyrbaev, Tolkun S. Salybekova, and Kadyrbek A. Umetov The Use of Legal Intersectoral Terminology in the Process of Improving Legislation, Legislative Innovations on the Responsibility of Legal Entities in the Conditions of the Sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Ainura D. Urmatova, Tamara I. Ganieva, Edil E. Moldoev, Tolkun S. Salybekova, and Kadyrbek A. Umetov The Problem of Student-Centered Learning of IT Specialists for Education Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Elena Yu. Novikova, Elena V. Popova, Tatyana A. Andreeva, Victoria Yu. Garnova, and Aglaya D. Busalova

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From Previous Economic Order to New Economic Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Olga V. Brizhak and Elena S. Chikanova Improving the Quality of Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners in Russia, Mongolia, and China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Lkhagvatsend Tserensuren A Debate on Artificial Intelligence in Area of Law and the Legal Professions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Yucel Ogurlu, Rosalina V. Shagieva, and Alexander S. Bersanov Eurasian Technological Platform “Technologies for Sustainable Ecological Development”: Organizational and Functional Aspect . . . . . . 375 Elena S. Ratushnyak Accessibility of Register Information as an Element of Smart Regulation of Entrepreneurial Relations in the Digital Society . . . . . . . . . 387 Marina Yu. Kozlova Digital Transformation of the Financial Sector in Russia and Its Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Tatiana V. Kushnarenko and Natalia S. Braun Economic Security of Regions and Green Innovations in the Management of Natural Resources Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities: A Methodological Approach to the Security Tools Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Svetlana V. Solonina, Maria E. Konovalova, Ekaterina V. Lisova, Olga V. Savvateeva, and Natalia I. Lavrikova Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor Roads from Subsidence Loams in Mountainous Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Erkinbek M. Karimov Oil Spill Statistics as a Call for Green Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Ksenia V. Kozhaeva and Igor F. Kantemirov Key Determinants of Regional Land Policy in the Area of Agricultural Land Use (Based on Materials from the Orel Region) . . . 441 Andrey A. Polukhin, Svetlana P. Klimova, Aleksey V. Kondykov, and Alexander A. Titkov Potential for Growth of Legume Production in the Orel Region . . . . . . . . 449 Andrey A. Polukhin, Vladimir I. Zotikov, Andrey A. Zelenov, Veronika I. Panarina, and Natalia G. Khmyzova

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The Agrarian Sector of the Central Federal District: The Nature of Land Use in a Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Andrey A. Polukhin, Svetlana P. Klimova, Aleksey V. Kondykov, and Alexander A. Titkov Funding the Management of Municipal Solid Waste Through Public-Private Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Alexey M. Gubernatorov, Dmitry V. Kuznetsov, Irina V. Makunina, and Irina E. Bystrenina Cluster Development of the Economy: Regional Aspect and Mechanisms of Financial Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Natalia G. Varaksa, Maria S. Alimova, Elena S. Rozhdestvenskaia, and Sergey A. Alimov Fundamentals and Principles of Islamic Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 Irina A. Aidrous and Braijie Morsi The Impact of Regulation Methods with Shadow Economy on Sustainable Development: The Case of Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Diana P. Niyazova, Saltanat K. Kondybayeva, and Nazarbay Yerkin The Mechanism of an Integration Solution in the Financial and Economic Activities of Construction Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Natalia S. Andryashina, Zhanna V. Smirnova, Elena V. Romanovskaya, Ekaterina P. Garina, and Svetlana N. Kuznetsova Economic Integration as a Mechanism for Managing Service Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 Elena V. Romanovskaya, Zhanna V. Smirnova, Natalia S. Andryashina, Marina V. Artemyeva, and Svetlana N. Kuznetsova India on the Global Market of Energy Resources: Issues of Energy Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Yulia A. Konovalova, Nikolay P. Gusakov, Sayar Ahmad Reshad, and Svetlana E. Kiryukhina Global Market of Oil and Gas Fields’ Services: Current Development Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 Inna V. Andronova and Ivan O. Khabarov Conceptual Framework for Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Olga V. Titova, Yuri V. Shenshinov, and Tatiana K. Naplyokova Formation and Development of a Waste Management System in the Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Viktoria V. Vorobyova, Natalia A. Diesperova, and Natalia A. Torgashova

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Current Problems of Using Forest Resources in Russian Regions . . . . . . . 553 Mikhail A. Savin, Elena A. Shevereva, and Aleksey A. Malinovskikh The Mechanism for the Development of the Tourism and Recreational Cluster for Effective Organizational and Economic Management of the Formation of the Innovative Potential of the North Caucasus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Ludmila A. Burnyasheva, Larisa Kh. Gazgireeva, Irina I. Pavlenko, Irina E. Romanko, and Oksana N. Taranenko Designing Mechanisms for Ensuring the Economic Security of Regions: Countering the Challenges of Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Denis Yu. Fraymovich, Maria E. Konovalova, Uliana Yu. Roshchektaeva, Evgeniya K. Karpunina, and Greta L. Avagyan Economic Security of Regions During a Pandemic: Methods for Diagnosing Problem Areas and Ensuring Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Sergey S. Moiseev, Svetlana E. Bolonina, Igor V. Petrov, Ernest V. Zanyukov, and Dmitriy A. Konovalenko Factors and Conditions for the Functioning and Development of Regional Socio-economic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Liubov V. Plakhova, Natalia V. Zakharkina, Natalia N. Sokolova, Larisa L. Alekhina, and Elena V. Troshina Methodology for Evaluating Change Management at the Municipal Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Maria A. Vlasova, Yuliia A. Zviagintceva, Svetlana A. Legostaeva, Margarita N. Isakova, and Ivan V. Ilin Green Investment and Innovation as a Basis for Business Contributions to Regional Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Svetlana E. Sitnikova, Natalia S. Polusmakova, and Svetlana A. Savina Technological Security in the Digital Environment, Data Protection, and Information Security The Digital Platform as an Innovative Tool for the Development of Technological Safety, on the Example of Dairy Engineering . . . . . . . . . 631 Olga B. Digilina and Mikhail M. Kulumbegov Robotization: Incentives for Development and Impact on Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 Ekaterina I. Shumskaia, Anton V. Oleynik, and Nikita A. Badaev Russian Aircraft “Sukhoi Superjet-100”: Position in Russian and Global Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Elizaveta S. Kidun and Natalia A. Volgina

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Arbitration Proceedings in the Conditions of Development of Digital Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Boris I. Bashilov Digital Technologies in Bankruptcy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Nikolay Y. Mysak Stability of Corporate Governance to the Conditions of the Modern Economic Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Sergey Yu. Ilyin, Natalia V. Lobareva, Alexey A. Sigankov, Irina V. Shatskaya, and Svetlana I. Dmitrieva Competency Direction of Improving Personal Information Security in the Digital Environment of Russian Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Anatolii A. Krivoukhov and Vitaly V. Zotov Mechanism for Assessing the Economic Efficiency of Organizations in the Service Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Zhanna V. Smirnova, Valentina A. Sidyakova, Natalia S. Andryashina, Gennady I. Lyashko, and Olga A. Brazhka Main Trends in Import Tariffs Within the Eurasian Economic Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 Anna Y. Pak, Inna V. Andronova, David A. Amatunyan, and Kristina D. Kretova The Identification of the Sphere of Small Business as a Condition for an Effective State Policy of Its Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713 Sergei N. Shchemelev, Daniil A. Staroseltsev, Vasiliy U. Boev, and Svetlana S. Galazova The Evolution of Cryptocurrencies in the Global Political Economy . . . . 727 Diana M. Madiyarova and Nurselen Tamer Kyrgyz Methods of Leather Dressing (Late 19th–Early 20th Centuries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Oktyiabr E. Kapalbaev Identification of Points of Economic Security for Large Integrated Structures of the Manufacturing Sector of the Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 Andrey V. Bogatyrev, Alexander N. Stefan, Oksana Y. Bubnova, Oleg L. Morozov, and Oleg M. Yelfimov Topical Issues of Determining the Threshold Values of Indicators of Economic Security for Integrated Industrial Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 Dmitry V. Nazarychev, Sergey A. Marinin, Anatoly E. Shamin, Lyudmila A. Abramova, and Sergey V. Repin

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Social Contract as a Legal Instrument for Improving Water Resources Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Larisa I. Nekhvyadovich, Vera G. Krasheninina, and Pavel T. Avkopashvili Security as the Priority of Personnel Management and Intellectual Property Protection Conducting Lectures on Physical Education at the University with the Use of Distance Educational Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 Angela V. Babayan and Zoya S. Varfolomeeva Development of Integration Mechanisms in the Field of Educational Services and Labor Market in Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 Renata I. Karavashkina, Igor K. Kuzmichev, and Zhanna Y. Pyzhova Socio-economic Assessment of Labor Efficiency in Crop Production . . . . 791 Andrey A. Polukhin, Nina I. Proka, Svetlana P. Klimova, and Aleksey V. Kondykov Female Leadership in the Modern Business Environment: Opportunities and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801 Irina V. Dolgorukova, Tatyana N. Yudina, Tatiana V. Fomicheva, and Taisiya V. Leontieva Tourism Destination Management: Focusing on Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 Larisa B. Nyurenberger, Olga A. Latysheva, and Svetlana V. Shlegel Skills Development in a Green Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 Evgeny M. Bukhvald, Anton A. Chernykh, and Evgeny O. Pochkin Assessing the Quality of Production Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 Elena V. Kovaleva Classic Project Management Based on PMBOK 7.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Valery V. Maslennikov, Elena V. Popova, and Irina A. Kalinina Managerial Problems of Enterprise Development During the Pandemic COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841 Alexander A. Voronov, Tatyana G. Sobolevskaya, Elena V. Smirnova, Olga V. Shugaeva, and Sergey V. Ponomarev Innovation and Applied Knowledge as the Basis for Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 Aleksei I. Bolonin and Alexey A. Uchenov Regional Aspects of Unemployment in Russia: Structural Approach . . . 861 Evgeniya K. Karpunina, Farida I. Mirzabalaeva, Liubov V. Shirokova, Zhanna A. Shadrina, and Ekaterina V. Mugaeva

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Lean Production in the Process of Creating New Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Nadezhda V. Kapustina, Irina V. Kosorukova, Konstantin A. Yakovlev, Tatyana V. Koryakina, and Bella O. Khashir Anti-crisis Technologies for Improving the Efficiency of the Organization’s Personnel Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 Gulnaz F. Galieva, Ekaterina E. Mirgorod, Olga F. Alekhina, Bella O. Khashir, and Anna F. Beilina Analytical Review of Patent Activities in the Russian Federation . . . . . . . 897 Elena V. Sibirskaya, Lyudmila V. Oveshnikova, Irina Y. Vladyko, Innara R. Lyapina, and Aleksandr V. Zakharov Research of Open Data of Recruiting Agencies of the Russian Labor Market Using Big Data Analytics Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 Elena V. Sibirskaya, Innara R. Lyapina, Elena M. Semenova, Elena N. Tokmakova, and Tatyana S. Pitel Provision of Security for Sustainable Development: The Perspective of the Decade of Action (Conclusion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

Green Innovations in Agriculture and Food Security

The Influence of Tillage Methods on Its Condition and the Yield of Spring Vetch for Two Rotations Dmitrii A. Dementiev , Vitalii G. Antonov , and Andrey A. Fadeev

Abstract This paper studies various variants of tillage for spring vetch on individual indicators of soil cover. We studied the traditional options (with the use of plowing with a reservoir turnover), with the replacement of the plow with a disk harrow or a combined tillage unit KOS-3, and with the rejection of autumn tillage. The highest yield was obtained with the traditional method of processing. The best agrophysical and biological indicators were obtained in the version with the use of a plow, except for the accumulation of productive moisture. The maximum result of economic efficiency was achieved by replacing the plow with a combined KOS-3 unit. Keywords Spring vetch · Minimal processing · Economic effect · Impact on the soil JEL Classification Q16

1 Introduction Grain legumes in crop rotation are one of the elements that help to preserve soil fertility in the modern economic environment. The soil is enriched with nitrogen, which increases its fertility [4]. At the same time, the ability to fix free nitrogen makes it possible to reduce the cost of the resulting products by reducing the doses of applied mineral fertilizers. In addition to reducing the use of nitrogen fertilizers, the economic component is also affected by the type of tillage for the crop. Recently, farms have been actively implementing resource-saving technologies that allow them to preserve the soil as the main production resource. But, here it is important to choose the option of tillage that will allow you to get a high crop yield at low economic costs and maintain soil fertility. For research, such a forage crop as spring vetch was taken, which is used as a forage crop, for seed production, and as a honey plant [3]. D. A. Dementiev (B) · V. G. Antonov · A. A. Fadeev Federal Agricultural Research Center of the North-East named after N. V. Rudnitsky, Kirov, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_1

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The purpose of our research was to study the influence of different variants of spring vetch tillage on its yield, agrophysical and biological indicators in two rotations in the crop rotation.

2 Methodology In 2011 and 2017, spring vetch was sown in the experimental field of the Chuvash Research Institute of Agriculture in a 6-field grain-and-steam crop rotation. The predecessor of the studied crop was barley. The soil of the experimental site is a dark gray forest, heavy loam. The content of humus is 5.5 cm (according to Tyurin), pH kcl is 5.3, mobile phosphorus is 125 mg/kg, exchangeable potassium is 146 mg/kg (according to Kjeldahl), sum of absorbed bases is 28.3 mg-eq./100 g, hydrolytic acidity is 2.7 mg-eq./100 g of soil. The soil cultivation methods for the research were as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Classic—(traditional) St.—PLN-3-35 (autumn), BZT-1.0, KPS-4 (control). Combined-1—KOS-3.0 (autumn), BZT-1.0, PAUK-6. Combined-2—BDM-4 × 3.2 (autumn), BZT-1.0, PAUK-6. Minimum (autumn without processing)—BZT-1.0, PAUK-6 [2].

The main tillage in the experiments in the fall of 2010 was carried out on September 28 according to the scheme of the experiment, in conditions of severe desiccation. Pre-sowing preparation of the field was carried out harrowing—on May 6, cultivation (KPS-4, KOS-3, Spider-3.6, BDM-3, 2 × 4)—on May 12. Complex nitrogenphosphorus-potassium fertilizer NPC-at a dose of 3.0 c/ha (N40 P40 K40 kg per ha), under spring vetch was applied for pre-sowing cultivation with the MVU-6 unit. The sowing was carried out on May 13 with the SZ-3.6 seed drill in an ordinary way with etched seeds of the Tsivilyanka variety of elite reproduction, with a seeding rate of 2.5 million pieces of germinating seeds per 1 ha. The soil was rolled up on May 14. In the phase of 3–4 leaves, the crops were treated with the herbicide Corsair, a dose of 1.5 l/ha. Treatment of crops against the main pests, the flower eater and aphids, was carried out in the budding phase—with the drug Sharpey at a dose of 0.1 l/ha. The harvesting of feed beans was carried out by direct combine harvester Sampo-500 with straw shredding. The main tillage in the experiments in the fall of 2016 was carried out on October 4 according to the scheme of the experiment. For pre-sowing preparation of the field, harrowing was carried out on May 6, and cultivation was carried out on May 8. Complex nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium fertilizer NPC-at a dose of 3.0 c/ha (N40 P40 K40 kg per ha), under spring vetch was applied for pre-sowing cultivation with the MVU-6 unit. The sowing was carried out on May 9 with the NWT-3.6 seed drill using the ordinary method of etched seeds of the Tsivilyanka variety of elite reproduction, with a seeding rate of 2.5 million germinating seeds per 1 ha. The soil was rolled up on May 6. Spring vetch harvesting was carried out on September 16 by direct harvesting (Sampo-500).

The Influence of Tillage Methods on Its Condition and the Yield …

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Phenological observations are carried out according to the method of the State Variety Testing of Agricultural Crops, 1989. The density of the soil composition is set with the help of a Nekrasov drill for each 10 cm layer; the Hardness is set with a Dor. NII hardness tester. Total duty cycle—calculated based on the indicators of the specific gravity of the solid phase and the density (volume weight) of the soil; p = (d − d0): d × 100%. Total moisture reserves and productive moisture reserves are calculated separately for each 10 cm layer of soil as the product of the additional density by the total soil moisture and humidity above the coefficient of stable wilting, respectively. Samples are taken separately in the same layers and in the same places as when determining humidity. The rate of decomposition of organic matter in the arable layer is determined by the method of I. S. Vostrov and A. N. Petrova (pieces of linen cloth weighing 5 g are laid in the germination phase of plants to a depth of 5, 10, 15, and 20 cm) in each plot of two non-contiguous repetitions. Their weight loss is taken into account for the entire growing season. The meteorological conditions of the 2011 period were not very favorable for the growth and development of the spring wiki. The first 2 decades of May were dry, which negatively affected the initial development of plants. Then the end of May and the whole of June were torrential rains, which led to excess over the average long-term indicators of more than 2 times. This led to compaction of the soil and lodging of the crop. The sowing of spring grain crops in 2017 began in early May, or 10 days later than in previous years. This year, the growth and development of agricultural crops came in conditions of excess moisture against the background of a cold temperature regime at the beginning of the growing season (May and June months) and close to the average long-term norm in the rest of the growing season. For this reason, the harvest team arrived 18 days late. Due to frequent heavy precipitation in the third decade of August and early September, there was a significant waterlogging of the arable soil layer, which delayed the harvesting operations.

3 Results One of the first indicators for assessing the cultivated crop is the yield obtained. When changing the method of tillage, the yield of spring vetch also changed. Table 1 shows the yield of the studied crop, depending on the processing option for 2 rotations. As can be seen from the table, for both rotations, the spring vetch gave the highest yield indicator precisely for classical processing using plowing—2.64 t/ha in 2011 and 2.53 t/ha in 2017. The remaining options for cultivating the soil for culture did not allow us to get an excess over the control or at least the same result. According to the indicator of the smallest significant difference of the NSR05, a significant deviation from the control in the direction of reducing yield was observed with minimal tillage—when autumn tillage was completely absent and only spring loosening of the surface layer was carried out with BZT-1.0 and Pauk-6 aggregates. This situation

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Table 1 Wiki yield (2011, 2017) depending on the method of tillage Method of tillage

Yield, t/ha

Deviation, +, −

1.

Classic (control)

2.64

–

2.

Combined-1

2.58

−0.06

3.

Combined-1

2.56

−0.08

4.

Minimum

2.11

−0.53

No. 2011

The smallest significant difference05 (NSR05 )

0.18

2017 1.

Classic (control)

2.53

–

2.

Combined-1

2.26

−0.27

3.

Combined-1

2.11

−0.42

4.

Minimum

2.07

−0.46

The smallest significant difference05 (NSR05 )

0.15

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

developed during both years of research for 2 rotations. In the second rotation, all options were significantly worse than the control in terms of yield. In addition to the yield, when studying the tillage for grain legumes, the influence of tillage on the agrophysical indicators of the soil is important, this is shown in Tables 2 and 3. For the study, the soil was selected from a depth of 0–10, 10–20, 20–30, 30–40, and 40–50 cm. According to Table 2 for 2011, the most over-compacted soil was observed in the variant with only spring surface tillage—from 1.19 g/cm3 at a depth of up to 10 cm, and up to 1.57 g/cm3 at a depth of 40–50 cm. When plowing at the entire depth of up to 50 cm, the soil is the least dense in comparison with other options. The total content of wells in the root layer affects the water–air regime of the soil, which will affect the yield of the crop. In this regard, the task of the farmer is to create the most optimal conditions for plants in the root layer [1]. An increase in the well capacity of the soil contributes to more comfortable conditions for the development of plant roots and, accordingly, an increase in yield. Plowing in the experiment allowed us to obtain the maximum duty cycle at the entire studied depth (50% in the upper layer and up to 40% at 40–50 cm). The minimum processing method showed the lowest duty cycle—47% on the surface to 32% at a depth of up to 0.5 m. The conditions of the latter option contribute least to the development of the root system of plants, which, as we can see in Table 1, was one of the reasons for the reduction in yield. The above indicators are interrelated with the indicators of soil hardness and productive moisture reserves. Here, a similar trend is observed as in the previously described indicators: the less the soil is cultivated, the greater the value of soil hardness. In the classic plowing treatment, the hardness is lower than in the absence

The Influence of Tillage Methods on Its Condition and the Yield …

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Table 2 Influence of different tillage methods on the agrophysical properties of the soil in 2011 Tillage option

Indicators in the layer, cm

Average

0–10

10–20

20–30

30–40

40–50

2

3

4

5

6

7

Classic (control)

1.12

1.19

1.23

1.30

1.43

1.19

Combined-1

1.13

1.25

1.29

1.39

1.48

1.27

Combined-1

1.18

1.26

1.30

1.41

1.49

1.28

Minimum

1.19

1.28

1.36

1.48

1.57

1.35

Classic (control)

50

48

42

40

40

44.0

Combined-1

49

43

40

38

36

41.2

Combined-1

48

42

40

37

34

40.2

Minimum

47

41

38

35

32

38.6

Classic (control)

2.1

9.2

12.2

–

–

5.5

Combined-1

2.3

12.2

14.3

–

–

6.4

Combined-1

2.6

13.4

15.6

–

–

6.8

Minimum

2.7

15.6

17.5

–

–

7.6

1 Volume weight,

g/cm3

Total duty cycle, %

Soil hardness, kg/cm2

Productive moisture reserves, mm Classic (control)

15.2

32.6

58.2

69.2

82.7

51.6

Combined-1

16.3

35.6

54.2

71.3

81.5

51.7

Combined-1

16.5

34.3

53.9

69.5

79.8

50.8

Minimum

15.0

30.8

48.4

62.8

69.1

45.2

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

of any autumn treatment. According to all indicators of the agrophysical properties of the soil, the Classical method of tillage provided plants in the root layer of the soil with better conditions for the development of the root system than the minimal one (worse indicators). The combined variants are in an intermediate position. The exception is the indication of productive moisture. Due to the destruction of the soil capillaries and the absence of evaporation from the unprotected layer of soil during plow rotation, the combined methods were in some layers in better conditions than the classical method of processing. An almost identical trend in agrophysical indicators was observed in the next rotation in 2017 (Table 3). The exception was that in the drier season, the reserves of productive moisture were better preserved in the variants with combined treatments. There is even an excess of moisture reserves over the control variant, which suggests that such tillage of the studied soils contributes to the maximum moisture retention in the event of insufficient precipitation.

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Table 3 Influence of different tillage methods on the agrophysical properties of the soil for 2017 Tillage option

Indicators in the layer, cm

Average

0–10

10–20

20–30

30–40

40–50

2

3

4

5

6

7

Classic (control)

1.12

1.18

1.26

1.29

1.38

1.23

Combined-1

1.13

1.21

1.28

1.31

1.42

1.27

Combined-1

1.15

1.22

1.29

1.33

1.43

1.28

Minimum

1.16

1.23

1.30

1.34

1.44

1.29

Classic (control)

62

56

50

43

36

49.4

Combined-1

59

54

49

43

36

48.2

Combined-1

55

54

49

42

35

47.0

Minimum

54

50

46

41

35

45.2

Classic (control)

3.19

10.22

16.44

–

–

9.95

Combined-1

3.73

12.37

18.95

–

–

11.67

Combined-1

3.98

14.46

20.81

–

–

13.08

Minimum

4.65

16.56

24.55

–

–

15.25

Classic (control)

16.2

23.6

20.6

14.8

19.6

18.96

Combined-1

16.3

25.8

21.9

19.3

21.9

21.04

Combined-1

15.5

24.4

19.9

17.5

20.8

19.62

Productive moisture reserves, mm

11.0

19.8

18.2

12.8

17.1

15.78

1 Volume weight,

g/cm3

Total duty cycle, %

Soil hardness, kg/cm2

Productive moisture reserves, mm

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Further, when studying the impact of legumes on the soil, the factor of the influence of culture on the biological activity of the soil cover is interesting. For this purpose, the method of linen cloths was used (Table 4). The results of the table show the predominance of the decomposing ability of soil bacteria in the plowed soil and the least activity of cellulose-decomposing microorganisms in the spring surface treatment option. This trend was observed during both rotations. At the same time, the Combined-1 variant prevailed in biological activity over the Combined-2 and Minimal. For any modern economy, it is not so much important to get the maximum yield, as to achieve the greatest economic efficiency in the cultivation of the crop. This leads to the fact that the agricultural producer tries to abandon economically inefficient measures that take away most of the income. It is known that plowing from the entire cycle of cultivation of the crop is the most energy-consuming operation, so many farms accept a technology in which plowing is replaced by other options for

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Table 4 Mass loss of linen in different soil horizons during the growing season (2011, 2017), % No.

Method of tillage

The depth of the web location, cm 5

10

15

20

Average value

2011 1.

Classic (control)

40.2

32.2

30.1

22.0

31.1

2.

Combined-1

38.0

29.3

28.0

21.4

29.2

3.

Combined-1

36.8

26.8

25.2

20.5

27.3

4.

Minimum

35.7

26.2

23.2

20.0

26.3

1.

Classic (control)

62.3

57.2

45.2

36.0

47.2

2.

Combined-1

58.6

52.9

43.0

33.4

46.9

3.

Combined-1

56.1

50.1

43.2

32.1

45.4

4.

Minimum

52.8

50.2

41.5

30.0

43.6

2017

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

tillage, or is completely absent. Table 5 shows the economic feasibility of the studied methods of tillage. Based on the obtained yield, the cost of production and the cost of cultivation are given in the prices of the studied year. Note that the final result is profitability, the maximum during both years of study in the combined version-1-47 and 75%. The control version is slightly lower—by 2 and by 7%. The minimum option in 2011 showed the lowest profitability due to low yield, so despite the minimal costs of preparing the soil for sowing, the net income, in this case, is also minimal during Table 5 The economic feasibility of various wiki cultivation processing systems Method of tillage

The cost of production thousand rubles per 1 ha

Costs thousand rubles from 1 ha

Net income, thousand rubles per 1 ha

Profitability, %

Classic (control)

15.4

10.6

4.8

45

Combined-1

15.1

10.3

4.8

47

Combined-1

15.0

10.3

4.7

45

Minimum

11.8

9.1

2.7

30

Classic (control)

30.4

18.7

11.7

68

Combined-1

27.1

15.5

11.6

75

Combined-1

25.3

15.2

10.1

66

Minimum

24.8

14.9

9.9

66

2011

2017

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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D. A. Dementiev et al.

both rotations. As a result, the option-Combined-1 with the use of the combined unit KOS-3.0 for autumn tillage is economically most preferable.

4 Conclusion Summarizing the data obtained, we can conclude that the highest yield was obtained in 2 years in the version with plowing for autumn tillage. This was facilitated by the fact that the agrophysical indicators of the soil were the most optimal in the control version. Except for productive moisture reserves, all other indicators were the best at the control. Also, the maximum biological activity of the soil was observed precisely at the control. But, based on the profitability of production, it is economically profitable to cultivate without using plowing—using the combined KOS-3.0 aggregate for autumn tillage. This allows you to store the largest volume of water with spring meltwater, and spring pre-sowing loosening of the soil cover with a heavy tooth harrow and a combined Spider-6 unit allows you to preserve the accumulated moisture for the growing season.

References 1. Belyakov AI, Kunafin RI (2017) Theory and practice of basic tillage in modern agricultural systems. Vladimirsky selkhozelets [Vladimir Agric] 1(79):8–11 2. Dementyev DA, Antonov VG (2019) The influence of the application of minimal methods of tillage on the density of addition and hardness of gray forest soils. In: The collection: materials of the V international scientific and practical conference “methods and technologies in plant breeding and crop production”, pp 229–231 3. Donskaya MV, Velkova NI, Naumkin VP (2017) Assessment of morphobiological characteristics and yield of joint crops of vetch seed with white mustard. J Legum Cereal Crops 3:58–63 4. Razumova VV, Antonov VG, Ivanova IYu (2016) Comprehensive pea protection system. Legum Cereals 1(17):27–30

Features of Winter Common Wheat Water Regime in the Arid Conditions of the Rostov Region Evgeny I. Nekrasov , Elena V. Ionova , and Valentina A. Likhovidova

Abstract The current paper is presenting the study results of the features of the water regime of winter common bread wheat leaves in the Rostov region and the selection of promising varieties with the best drought tolerance. The objects of the study are 14 winter common wheat varieties developed by the FSBSI ARC “Donskoy”. The leaves are selected in the fields in the period of head growth and flowering of winter common wheat. The water regime of plants is estimated by the method of L. S. Litvinov in the laboratory of plant physiology. The study of the way the plants utilize water during periods of insufficient moisture supply is of paramount importance for identifying and selecting the most adapted genotypes for an arid environment. According to the study results, there were identified the varieties ‘Don 107’, ‘Asket’ and ‘Kaprizulya’ with the largest increase in water-absorbing capacity (from 31.2 to 46.7%), a minimum increase in water deficit (1.0–1.7%), and the smallest decrease in the total water content in plant tissues (2.3–3.0%) due to water stress adaptability. These samples were recommended to introduce in the breeding process aimed at developing drought-resistant winter common wheat varieties. Keywords Winter wheat · Water regime · Water deficit · Adaptability · Drought tolerance · Water absorbing capacity · Water content · Water retaining capacity JEL Classification G1 · G180

1 Introduction One of the most important requirements in the formation of agrocenoses is the adaptation of plants to environmental conditions. One of the main issues of grain crop breeding is the development of new drought-resistant genotypes with better biological and economically valuable traits and properties.

E. I. Nekrasov (B) · E. V. Ionova · V. A. Likhovidova Agricultural Research Center “Donskoy”, Zernograd, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_2

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Because of the climate aridization, most regions of Russia are characterized by a rise of unfavorable periods during plant vegetation periods. In this regard, the selection of breeding material only for high productivity can result in a reduction of the potential productivity of varieties under the effect of severe agro-climatic conditions. With sufficiently long and deep water stresses, metabolic disturbances often become irreversible, which results in a significant reduction of crop productivity. Drought can affect photosynthesis, respiration, enzyme activity, growth of plants, etc. But the main is its effect on the water regime of plants, namely on water-absorbing capacity, water-retaining capacity, water deficit, and changes in total water content during the process of ontogenesis. The water regime of a certain variety largely characterizes plant tolerance to drought. The study and simultaneous estimation of a range of water regime parameters can significantly increase the reliability of the drought tolerance assessment of plants. The purpose of the current paper is to study the peculiarities of the water regime of winter common wheat leaves under the conditions of the Rostov region and to select promising samples with the best drought tolerance for further utilization in the breeding process.

2 Materials and Methods In the course of the current study, there were analyzed the existing research works on the study of water regime and assessment of drought tolerance of wheat plants [1–16]. The objects of the study were 14 winter common wheat varieties developed in the FSBSI ARC “Donskoy”, the standard variety ‘Don 107’, the classifier variety ‘Asket’. The study was carried out in 2013–2015 on the experimental plots of the laboratory for winter common wheat breeding and seed production. The forecrop was a sunflower. Winter wheat sowing was conducted with a Wintersteiger Plotseed seeder, to a seeding depth of 5–6 cm, with a seeding rate of 550 germinating seeds per m2 . The accounting area of the plots was 10 m2 , with four replications. The trials were set up following the methodology of a field trial. The leaves were selected in the fields in the period of head growth and flowering of winter common wheat. The water regime of plants was estimated by the method of L. S. Litvinov in the laboratory of plant physiology of the FSBSI ARC “Donskoy”. The weather conditions during the years of study were characterized by high air temperature and insufficient precipitation during the period of head growth and flowering of winter common wheat. The data processing was performed by the Microsoft Office Excel 2010 software.

Features of Winter Common Wheat Water Regime in the Arid …

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3 Results and Discussion Wheat plants respond to drought with morphological and physiological changes in all parts of the plant. Plants’ response to water deficit can result in both cell damage and the manifestation of adaptive processes. Water absorbing capacity of winter common wheat leaves’ tissue indicates the ability of varieties to absorb and retain water in pores and capillaries. On average, over the years of study, this indicator varied from 96.9% (the variety ‘Krasa Dona’) to 130.0% (the variety ‘Don 107’) in the head growth period. According to Table 1, the highest values of this parameter were identified in the varieties ‘Asket’ (126.4%), ‘Ermak’ (129.9%), and ‘Don 107’ (130.0%). Drought is the result of high temperatures as well as water deficit. Water deficit in leaves’ tissues increased due to a reduction of total water content and ranged from 11.3% (the variety ‘Asket’) to 18.5% (the variety ‘Kaprizulya’). The varieties ‘Asket’ (11.3%), ‘Don 93’ (13.6%), and ‘Don 107’ (13.8%) showed the lowest level of water deficit. Total water content in winter common wheat leaves’ tissues varied from 64.7% (the variety ‘Ermak’) to 79.6% (the variety ‘Asket’). The varieties ‘Lilit’ (75.4%), ‘Don 107’ (76.0%), and ‘Asket’ (79.6%) were characterized by a high level of total water content in the leaves. Plant development and safety in arid conditions largely depend on water availability in cells. Water content in the leaves was 53.2% (the variety ‘Kaprizulya’) and 78.1% (the variety ‘Asket’). For 18 h of wilting, the leaves lost 25.3–47.5% of water. Water loss is of great importance as one of the characteristics of plant drought tolerance. It shows a different nature of changes in the water-retaining capacity of leaves of different drought-tolerant wheat varieties during an increasing drought under which there is an increased interaction of proteins with water, i.e. an increased amount of bound water. The process results in increased stability of the cytoplasm and improved water-retaining capacity of cells. This allows plants to tolerate a long drought. Subsequent turgor restoration showed high reparation (92.0–100.0%) of the varieties ‘Izyuminka’, ‘Don 93’, and ‘Asket’, with minimal leaves’ damage. The studied varieties lost a critical percentage (40%) of water content in different periods from 17 h 10 min (the variety ‘Kaprizulya’) to 25 h 50 min (the variety ‘Asket’) under the conditions of artificial wilting. The slowest water loss was recorded in the varieties ‘Asket’ (25 h 50 min), ‘Don 93’ (23 h 00 min), ‘Don 107’ (22 h 40 min), ‘Ermak’ (22 h 30 min), ‘Donskoy Prostor’ (22 h 00 min). Water stress in the reproductive stage of plant development results in the sterility of wheat spikelets, during the flowering period it mainly affects grain size, and stress during pollen formation of young microspore results in the interrupted development of pollen and reduced number of grains. Through the years of study, the water-absorbing capacity of winter common wheat leaves’ tissue in the flowering time increased and ranged from 126.2% (the variety ‘Lidiya’) to 163.3% (the variety ‘Asket’). According to Table 2, the highest values

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Table 1 Water regime of winter common wheat leaves’ tissue in the head growth period, 2013–2015 Variety

Water absorbing capacity, %

Water deficit, %

Total water content, %

Water content in leaves, % of raw weight

Water loss for 18 h, %

Don 107

130.0

13.8

76.0

63.8

27.6

90.0

22 h 40 min

Stanichnaya

119.9

16.6

73.0

61.3

41.5

47.0

18 h 00 min

Don 93

118.8

13.6

69.4

67.9

29.6

95.0

23 h 00 min

Ermak

129.9

14.4

64.7

61.8

34.5

69.0

22 h 30 min

Donskoy prostor

120.0

16.8

74.6

62.6

33.8

82.0

22 h 00 min

Lidiya

98.3

16.5

75.1

59.8

37.6

73.0

20 h 50 min

Kapitan

100.7

13.9

73.1

70.9

39.1

61.0

18 h 15 min

Asket, a classifier

126.4

11.3

79.6

78.1

25.3

100.0

25 h 50 min

Izyuminka

120.6

14.1

70.2

64.2

29.8

92.0

21 h 40 min

Krasa Dona

96.9

17.3

72.5

66.8

32.6

77.0

21 h 30 min

Lilit

105.7

15.0

75.4

58.0

40.2

52.0

18 h 00 min

Kaprizulya

101.0

18.5

68.3

53.2

47.5

38.0

17 h 10 min

Volny Don

120.7

16.4

74.7

56.7

42.0

40.0

17 h 40 min

10.7

13.9

74.1

65.4

40.3

60.0

18 h 00 min

Volnitsa

Leaves with restored turgor, %

Time which took leaves to lose 40% of water

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

of the studied trait were recorded in the varieties ‘Volny Don’ (154.1%), ‘Don 107’ (161.2%), and ‘Asket’ (163.0%). At increasing drought during flowering the indicators of water deficit in the leaves ranged from 12.4% (the variety ‘Asket’) to 20.2% (the variety ‘Kaprizulya’), the least water deficit was identified in the varieties ‘Izyuminka’ (15.2%), ‘Don 107’ (14. 8%) and ‘Asket’ (12.4%).

Features of Winter Common Wheat Water Regime in the Arid …

15

Table 2 Water regime of winter common wheat leaves’ tissue in the flowering time, 2013–2015 Variety

Water absorbing capacity, %

Water deficit, %

Total water content, %

Water content in leaves, % of wet weight

Water loss for 18 h, %

Leaves with restored turgor, %

Time which took leaves to lose 40% of water

Don 107

161.2

14.8

73.0

62.0

39.8

90.0

18 h 00 min

Stanichnaya

130.5

18.7

61.0

54.0

41.5

77.0

18 h 00 min

Don 93

140.1

16.2

65.1

59.1

41.3

76.0

18 h 00 min

Ermak

150.8

19.1

61.2

52.3

47.0

61.0

17 h 15 min

Donskoy prostor

141.8

19.2

68.9

62.2

44.5

86.0

17 h 30 min

Lidiya

126.2

18.7

71.0

65.8

55.8

79.0

16 h 10 min

Kapitan

131.3

17.6

68.4

61.9

62.0

73.0

15 h 50 min

Asket, a classifier

163.3

12.4

77.1

68.2

40.9

98.0

18 h 00 min

Izyuminka

151.1

15.2

65.0

58.4

42.2

91.0

18 h 10 min

Krasa Dona

128.9

19.8

66.0

58.6

42.6

79.0

18 h 10 min

Lilit

139.2

16.8

70.0

63.7

50.2

70.0

17 h 00 min

Kaprizulya

147.7

20.2

66.0

59.0

57.5

57.0

16 h 30 min

Volny Don

154.1

17.4

71.4

64.3

59.1

68.0

16 h 00 min

Volnitsa

133.1

168

70.0

62.1

55.7

64.0

16 h 10 min

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Total water content in leaves varied from 61.0% (the variety ‘Lilit’) to 77.1% (the variety ‘Asket’). The varieties ‘Volny Don’ (71.4%), ‘Don 107’ (73.0%), and ‘Asket’ (77.1%) were characterized by high values of total water content in leaves. Water content in leaves varied from 52.3 to 68.2% of the wet weight. 18 h of wilting resulted in water loss of 38.9% (the variety ‘Don 107’) to 62.0% (the variety ‘Kapitan’). The varieties ‘Izyuminka’, ‘Don 107’, and ‘Asket’ restored 90.0–98.0% of their leaves’ tissue turgor.

16

E. I. Nekrasov et al.

At flowering, the varieties intensively lost the critical percentage of water (40%). The time of loss ranged from 15 h 50 min (the variety ‘Kapitan’) to 18 h 10 min (the varieties ‘Izyuminka’, ‘Krasa Dona’). The unfavorable drought effect on plants depends on the duration of the water deficit effect and the ability of varieties to control water regime under stress conditions throughout their ontogenesis. There has been estimated the change in water-absorbing capacity, total water content, and water deficit of the identified varieties at the periods of head growth and flowering (Table 3). There have been identified the varieties ‘Don 107’, ‘Asket’ and ‘Kaprizulya’ with the largest increase in water-absorbing capacity (from 31.2 to 46.7%), a minimum increase in water deficit (1.0–1.7%), and the smallest decrease in the total water content in plant tissues (2.3–3.0%) due to water stress adaptability.

4 Conclusions The essence of plant drought tolerance refers to the water supply of plant cells and tissues, to the maintenance of the structural and functional integrity of the plant organism, which ensures the growth and formation of reproductive organs under insufficient water supply. The understanding of the way the plants utilize water during droughts is of paramount importance for identifying and selecting the most adapted genotypes for the unfavorable environment. According to the study results, there have been identified the varieties ‘Don 107’, ‘Asket’ and ‘Kaprizulya’ with the largest increase in water-absorbing capacity (from 31.2 to 46.7%), a minimum increase in water deficit (1.0–1.7%) and the smallest decrease in the total water content in plant tissues (2.3–3.0%) due to water stress adaptability. These samples have been recommended to introduce in the breeding process aimed at developing drought-resistant winter common wheat varieties.

126.4

101.0

Kaprizulya

147.7

163.3

161.2 11.3 18.5

46.7

13.8

36.9

31.2

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

130.0

Asket

Head growth

20.2

12.4

14.8

Flowering

Water deficit, %

+ From phase to phase

Head growth

Flowering

Water absorbing capacity, %

Don 107

Variety

1.7

1.1

1.0

+ From phase to phase

68.0

80.0

76.0

Head growth

66.0

77.0

73.0

Flowering

Total water content, %

Table 3 Water regime of the identified winter common wheat varieties from head growth to flowering, 2013–2015

2.3

2.5

3.0

− From phase to phase

Features of Winter Common Wheat Water Regime in the Arid … 17

18

E. I. Nekrasov et al.

References 1. Andreeva ZV (2011) About the unrealized potential of grain yield of spring common wheat in different agroclimatic zones of Western Siberia. Bull Novosibirsk State Agrar Univ 1(17):14–17 (in Russ.) 2. Budak H, Kantar M, Yucebilgili Kurtoglu K (2013) Drought tolerance in modern and wild wheat. Sci World J 548246 3. Bychkova OV, Khlebova LP, Sovrikov AB, Titova AM (2018) Reaction of spring durum wheat genotypes under the conditions of simulated osmotic and salt stresses. Bull Altai State Agrar Univ 2(160):5–11 4. Evdokimov MG, Yusov VS, Morgounov AI, Zelensky YuI (2017) Drought tolerance gene pool in developing adaptive varieties of durum wheat identified in study nurseries under the Kazakhstan-Siberian program. Vavilov J Genet Breed 21(5):515–522. https://doi.org/10.18699/ VJ17.23-o 5. Goncharova EA (2011) Strategy for diagnostics and forecasting of agricultural crop tolerance to weather and climatic anomalies. Agric Biol 1:24–31 6. Gorina VM (2015) Prospects for the use of the apricot gene pool of the Nikitsky Botanical Garden. Fruit Grow Viticult South Russ 36(6):43–56 7. Krupnov VA (2011) Drought and wheat breeding: system conception. Agric Biol 1:12–23 8. Lepekhov SB (2015) Some principles of spring common wheat breeding for drought tolerance and productivity in the Altai Territory. Barnaul 5 9. Likhovidova VA, Ionova EV (2020) The effect of arid growing conditions on water deficit and chlorophyll content of winter durum wheat varieties differing in productivity. Agrar Sci 5:72–75. https://doi.org/10.32634/0869-8155-2020-338-5-72-75 10. Marchenkova LA, Davydova NV, Chavdar RF, Orlova TG, Kazachenko AO, Gracheva AV, Shirokolava AV (2017) Adaptability evaluation of spring wheat varieties and breeding lines under the conditions of artificially modeled stress factors, vol 5, no 151, pp 9–15 11. Mir RR, Zaman-Allah M, Sreenivasulu N, Trethowan R, Varshney RK (2012) Integrated genomics, physiology, and breeding approaches for improving drought tolerance in crops. Theor Appl Genet 125:625–645 12. Nekrasova OA, Kravchenko NS, Ignatieva NG, Marchenko DM, Ivanisov MM (2020) Grain quality of the winter soft wheat varieties depending on the forecrops. Grain Econ Rus 4:31–35. https://doi.org/10.31367/2079-8725-2020-70-4-31-35 13. Osipova SV, Rudikovsky AV, Permyakov AV, Rudikovskaya EG, Permyakova MD, Verkhoturov VV, Pshenichnikova TA (2020) Physiological responses to water deficiency in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) lines with genetically different leaf pubescence. Vavilov J Genet Breed 24(8):813–820. https://doi.org/10.18699/VJ20.678 14. Shamanin VP, Truschenko AYu, Pinkal AV, Pushkarev DV, Pototskaya IV, Morgunov AI (2016) The problem of spring wheat drought hardness in Western Siberia and modern express— methods of its evaluation in the field conditions. Bull Novosibirsk State Agrar Univ 3:57–64 (in Russ.) 15. Shinozaki K, Yamaguchi-Shinozaki K (2007) Gene networks involved in drought stress response and tolerance. J Exp Bot 58:221–227. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erl164 16. Zhuravleva EV (2015) Breeding and seed production are an integrated approach, current state, and prospects. Achiev Sci Technol Agro-Ind Complex 29(12):5–7

Estimation of Productivity, Grain, and Flour Quality of the Winter Common Wheat Varieties When Sown After Peas in the South of the Rostov Region Svetlana N. Gromova , Olga V. Skripka , Sergey V. Podgorny , and Nina S. Kravchenko Abstract The current study was conducted in 2016, 2017, and 2019 on the experimental plots of the FSBSI Agricultural Research Center “Donskoy” in order to estimate the effect of peas as a forecrop on the formation of productivity, grain, and flour quality of the winter common wheat varieties in the south of the Rostov region. There have been studied 8 winter common wheat varieties developed by the FSBSI ARC “Donskoy”. The variety ‘Ermak’ was taken as a standard one. The correlation analysis has identified that productivity had a positive mean correlation with plant height (r = 0.46, p < 0.05), with bread volume (r = 0.31, p < 0.05) and with general baking assessment (r = 0.25, p < 0.05). Productivity had a negative correlation with protein percentage in kernel (r = −0.34, p < 0.05), with nature weight (r = −0.26, p < 0.05), with falling number (r = −0.47, p < 0.05) and with flour strength (r = −0.27, p < 0.05). The study has identified such highly productive varieties as ‘Shef’ (with 7.31 t/ha) and ‘Donskaya Step’ (with 8.14 t/ha), HCP05 = 0.21 t/ha. According to a complex of economically valuable traits, there were identified the varieties ‘Aksiniya’, ‘Nakhodka’, and ‘Shef’. These varieties are of great interest for introduction into the breeding programs to develop genotypes with high grain quality. Keywords Winter wheat · Productivity · Height · Date of full heading · 1000-kernel weight · Grain quality · Baking assessment JEL Classification Q16 · Q18 · Y10

1 Introduction Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the world’s main food crops and plays an important role in providing food security. Therefore, grain productivity increase and

S. N. Gromova (B) · O. V. Skripka · S. V. Podgorny · N. S. Kravchenko Agricultural Research Center “Donskoy”, Zernograd, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_3

19

20

S. N. Gromova et al.

grain resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses have always been the target of genetic improvement of this crop [1, 7]. Recently, due to the demand for high-quality wheat in the domestic and international markets, the quality of final products has also become one of the main goals of various world wheat breeding programs. Wheat quality is controlled by a large number of genes and gene nets, which are strongly affected by growing and environmental conditions [2]. The purpose of the current study was to estimate the effect of peas on the formation of productivity, grain, and flour quality of the winter common wheat varieties in the south of the Rostov region.

2 Materials and Methods The current study was conducted in 2016, 2017, and 2019 on the experimental plots of the FSBSI Agricultural Research Center “Donskoy”. The objects of the study were 8 winter common wheat varieties of the Competitive Variety Testing. The variety ‘Ermak’ was taken as a standard. The trials were laid according to the methodology of a field trial [3]. The sowing was made with a Wintersteiger Plotsed seeder. The seeding rate was 4.5 million germinating grains per hectare; the seeding depth was 5–6 cm. The plot area was 10 m2 with four replications. Harvesting was carried out with a small-sized Wintersteiger Classic combine at the stage of optimum maturity. The laboratory study to assess grain quality traits of winter common wheat was carried out according to the methodology of the State Variety Testing of agricultural crops [12], as well as according to the existing GOSTs. The content of protein and gluten in the kernel was estimated using the Spektra Star 2200 device. Statistical data processing was performed using software Microsoft Office 2010 and Statistica 10.

3 Results and Discussion Wheat productivity is a complex quantitative trait that is affected by many morphological, physiological, and biochemical components, each of which can be improved to produce better yields directly or indirectly [14]. The productivity of the varieties varied from 6.89 t/ha (the variety ‘Zernogradka 11’) to 8.14 (the variety ‘Donskaya Step’) in comparison with 7.01 t/ha of the standard variety ‘Ermak’ (Table 1). A significant increase (HCP05 = 0.21) to the standard variety ‘Ermak’ was shown by the varieties ‘Shef’ (0.30 t/ha) and ‘Donskaya Step’ (0.83 t/ha), the rest of the samples were at the level of the standard variety.

Estimation of Productivity, Grain, and Flour Quality …

21

Table 1 Morpho-biological and economic characteristics of the winter common wheat varieties when sown after peas (2016, 2017, and 2019) Varieties

Productivity, t/ha

Heading stage, date

Plant height, cm

1000 kernel weight, g

Ermak, standard

7.01

May, 16

93

46.0

Aksiniya

7.08

May, 16

81

45.9

Nakhodka

6.90

May, 14

82

44.0

Etyud

7.04

May, 15

84

46.0

Shef

7.31

May, 12

88

39.9

Donskaya Step

8.14

May, 17

92

45.0

Zernogradka 11

6.89

May, 17

89

41.5

Tanais

7.10

May, 17

85

42.9

Mean value

7.25

May, 16

86

43.9

HCP05

0.21

3

6

2.3

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

The formation of wheat stem length is strongly affected by weather conditions [8]. Some researchers consider that the optimal stem height, depending on the cultivation conditions, including resistance to lodging and productivity, is within 75–106 cm [4, 10, 11]. According to plant height, all studied winter common wheat varieties belonged to the varieties of average height (81–95 cm). The varieties ‘Aksiniya’ (81 cm) and ‘Nakhodka’ (82 cm) had the lowest straw height, which can be used as the initial material for breeding varieties with short stems. The growing season length characterizes not only the variety productivity but also its drought tolerance, resistance to disease, and other stress factors. Wheat plants before a heading stage are sensitive to different day lengths, temperatures, and precipitations. The growing rate from ‘emergence’ to ‘heading’ is controlled by many genes with different effects of their interaction [13]. To determine the full maturity of winter wheat in the south of the Rostov region, the ‘heading stage’ is a more accurate criterion than the ‘maturing stage’ [9]. The head formation stage of the standard variety ‘Ermak’ started on May 16 (Table 1). Almost all the studied varieties were at the level of the standard variety ‘Ermak’ according to ‘heading stage’ and belonged to the mid-early group of maturity. Only one variety ‘Shef’ showed its earlier head formation on May 12 and belonged to the early maturing group. The trait ‘1000-kernel weight’ can be used as a criterion for selecting adaptive forms and as a source of the large kernel in the breeding process [6]. According to trait ‘1000-kernel weight’, seven studied varieties produces large kernels (more than 40.0 g), and one variety ‘Shef’ had medium-sized kernels (35.1– 40.0 g). The maximum ‘1000-kernel weight’ was formed by the standard variety ‘Ermak’, the varieties ‘Aksinya’ and ‘Shef’ (45.9–46.0 g). They can be used as the sources of the large kernel in hybridization.

22

S. N. Gromova et al.

The development of wheat varieties that combine high productivity with improved technological, biochemical, and nutritional advantages of grain is a difficult breeding task [5, 6]. According to GOST R 52554-2006, protein and gluten percentage in kernel made the varieties ‘Aksiniya’, ‘Nakhodka’, ‘Shef’ and ‘Tanais’ belong to the 1st class of quality (>14.5%), the varieties ‘Etyud’, ‘Donskaya Step’ and ‘Zernogradka 11’ belong to the 2nd class of quality (13.5–14.4%). The standard variety ‘Ermak’ showed 14.2% of the trait (Table 2). The studied varieties ‘Aksiniya’, ‘Nakhodka’, ‘Shef’ and ‘Tanais’ corresponded to the 2nd-grain quality class according to the mass fraction of gluten (28.0–32.0%), and the varieties ‘Etyud’, ‘Donskaya Step’ and ‘Zernogradka 11’ corresponded to the 3rd grain quality class (23.0–27.9%). Mass fraction of gluten of the standard variety ‘Ermak’ was 26.1%. According to gluten quality (gluten deformation index), all studied varieties, on average, corresponding to the 1st and 2nd grain quality classes. The index of the standard variety ‘Ermak’ was 72 that corresponded to the 1st-grain quality class. Sedimentation is an indirect method, which characterizes the baking properties of flour. In accordance with the scale of the SDS-sedimentation index, developed at the ARRIGC named after I. G. Kalinenko (now—the FSBSI ARC “Donskoy”), the samples are divided into very strong (66 > ml and more), strong (65–55 ml), mean (54–45 ml), satisfactory (44–40 ml) and weak (39 ml and less) [15]. The values of this trait in the studied varieties varied from 52 to 64 ml with 54 ml of the standard variety ‘Ermak’. The strong group included the varieties ‘Etyud’ (56 ml), ‘Zernogradka 11’ (56 ml), and ‘Shef’ (64 ml); all other samples belonged to the mean group according to sedimentation. Table 2 Grain quality indicators of the winter common wheat varieties when sown after peas (2016, 2017, and 2019) IGD, un.a

SDSb , ml

Nature weight, g/l Hardness, %

72-I

54

799

57

30.4

82-II

52

803

54

30.7

82-II

54

818

67

25.8

68-I

56

794

54

Varieties

Percentage in kernel, % Protein

Gluten

Ermak, standard

14.2

26.1

Aksiniya

14.7

Nakhodka

15.3

Etyud

13.9

Shef

15.4

30.1

75-I

64

816

68

Donskaya Step

13.9

26.9

76-I

53

800

59

Zernogradka 11

14.4

27.0

62-I

56

811

55

Tanais

15.0

30.8

77-I

53

820

70

Mean value

14.6

28.5

74-I

55

808

60

a IGD

is an index of gluten deformation, units is a sediment, ml Source Developed and compiled by the authors

b SDS

Estimation of Productivity, Grain, and Flour Quality …

23

The nature weight characterizes kernel uniformity and plump condition of the kernel. The nature weight ranged from 794 to 820 g/l, the standard variety ‘Ermak’ showed 799 g/l. All studied samples formed grain with a high nature weight (more than 750 g/l) and belonged to the class of strong wheat. The highest nature weight was produced by the varieties ‘Tanais’ (820 ml), ‘Nakhodka’ (818 ml), and ‘Shef’ (816 ml). The structure of wheat endosperm is characterized by hardness. The kernel hardness is due to the characteristics of the varieties and is subject to the effect of changing growing conditions. On average, over the years of research, the trait ‘kernel hardness’ ranged from 54% (the varieties ‘Aksiniya’ and ‘Etyud’) to 70% (the variety ‘Tanais’), with 57% of the standard variety ‘Ermak’. All varieties belonged to strong and valuable wheat according to grain quality. A falling number (FN) is a test that helps determine the structural integrity of starch chains. The studied varieties belonged to the 1st-grain quality class according to GOST R 52554-2006 for wheat; the falling number was not less than 200 c (Table 3). The variation of the trait values ranged from 447 c (the variety ‘Donskaya Step’) to 484 c (the variety ‘Aksiniya’), in comparison with 464 c of the standard variety ‘Ermak’. On average, over three years, all wheat varieties were characterized by a low activity of the enzyme alpha-amylase, which indicated a high resistance of the grain to root germination. However, high falling numbers result in reduce in bread volume and worsening its quality. Flour strength is a conditional trait that characterizes the rheological properties of raw gluten or dough in general. Table 3 General baking assessment of the winter common wheat varieties when sown after peas (2016, 2017, 2019) Varieties

Falling number, c

Flour strength, u.a.

Coefficient P/L

Volume, cm3

The general assessment, point

Ermak, standard

464

251

1.6

637

3.9

Aksiniya

484

230

1.0

697

4.5

Nakhodka

471

292

1.8

597

3.6

Etyud

446

219

1.4

580

3.6

Shef

457

277

1.2

660

4.3

Donskaya Step 447

226

1.9

637

3.9

Zernogradka 11

235

2.4

577

3.5

458

Tanais

474

238

1.7

587

3.6

Mean value

463

246

1.6

621

3.9

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

24

S. N. Gromova et al.

Corelation coefficients

The variety ‘Nakhodka’ (292 u.a.) belonged to the class of strong wheat (from 280 to 340 u.a.), and the rest of the studied samples belonged to valuable wheat (from 180 to 279 u.a.) (Table 3). The dough resilience of strong wheat should be at least 70 mm. The ratio of resilience to extensibility (coefficient p/l) is desired to be in the range of 0.7–2.0. The varieties ‘Aksiniya’, ‘Nakhodka’, Etyud’, ‘Shef’, ‘Donskaya Step’ and ‘Tanais’ (0.7–2.0) belonged to the class of strong wheat, and the variety ‘Zernogradka 11’ was classified as valuable wheat according to the methodology of the State Variety Testing [12]. The baking value of flour is determined by the laboratory baking of bread as the main criterion for the quality of the variety. The new wheat varieties are finally evaluated according to the baking qualities of flour. The baking properties of the varieties are characterized by the value of such traits as ‘bread volume’ and ‘general baking assessment’ [6]. On average, throughout the study, bread yield varied from 577 cm3 (the variety ‘Zernogradka 11’) to 697 cm3 (the variety ‘Aksiniya’), with 637 cm3 of the standard variety ‘Ermak’. The variety ‘Aksinya’ (697 cm3 and 4.5 points) corresponded to the class of strong wheat according to the methodological recommendations on bread yield and the general baking assessment, the other varieties were close to valuable wheat varieties. The correlation analysis has found that productivity had a positive mean correlation with plant height (r = 0.46, p < 0.05), with bread volume (r = 0.31, p < 0.05) and with general baking assessment (r = 0.25, p < 0.05) (Fig. 1).

0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 -0.10 -0.20 -0.30 -0.40 -0.50

Productiviti, t/ha

0.46

0.31

-0.34

-0.26

0.25

-0.27 -0.47

Fig. 1 Coefficients of correlation between productivity and other traits (2016, 2017, and 2019). Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Estimation of Productivity, Grain, and Flour Quality …

25

Productivity had a negative correlation with protein percentage in kernel (r = − 0.34, p < 0.05), with nature weight (r = −0.26, p < 0.05), with falling number (r = −0.47, p < 0.05) and with flour strength (r = −0.27, p < 0.05).

4 Conclusions The study has identified the varieties: • ‘Shef’ and ‘Donskaya Step’ which exceeded the productivity of the standard variety ‘Ermak’ on 0.30–0.83 t/ha, HCP05 = 0.21 t/ha; • the varieties ‘Aksiniya’, ‘Nakhodka’ and ‘Shef’ according to a complex of economically valuable traits. The identified varieties are of great interest for introduction into the breeding programs to develop genotypes with high grain quality.

References 1. Alabushev AV, Popov AS, Ovsyannikova GV, Sukharev AA (2020) The influence of sowing dates for various predecessors on the yield and quality of grain of soft winter wheat of the Krasa Don variety in the southern zone of the Rostov region. Grain Econ Russ 1(67):4–10. https://doi.org/10.31367/2079-8725-2020-67-1-4-10 2. Altukhov AI, Zavalin AA, Milashchenko NZ, Trushkin SV (2020) The problem of improving the quality of wheat in the country requires a comprehensive solution. Bull Kursk State Agric Acad 2:32–39 3. Dospekhov BA (2014) Methodology of a field trial (with the basics of statistical processing of study results), 5th edn, appr. and add. Stereotype edn. Alliance, Moscow, p 351 4. Grabovets AI, Fomenko MA (2007) Winter wheat: monograph. OOO Publishing House ‘Yug’, Rostov-on-Don, p 600 5. Gromova SN, Skripka OV, Podgorny SV, Kostylev PI, Nekrasova OA (2020) Study results of winter common wheat samples of the competitive variety testing according to productivity and grain quality. Agric Sci 10:56–59. https://doi.org/10.32634/0869-8155-2020-342-10-56-59 6. Ionova EV, Kravchenko NS, Ignatieva NG, Vasyushkina NE, Oldyreva IM (2017) The technological evaluation of winter soft wheat varieties and lines. Grain Econ Russ 6(54):16–21 7. Ivanisov MM, Marchenko DM, Nekrasov EI, Rybas IA, Grichanikova TA, Romanyukina IV, Kravchenko NS (2019) The study results of the winter soft wheat varieties of various ecological and geographical origins in the south of the Rostov region. Grain Econ Russ 6(66):12–17. https://doi.org/10.31367/2079-8725-2019-66-6-12-17 8. Kovtun VI, Kovtunova VL (2014) Yield, plant height, and lodging resistance of new varieties of winter soft wheat in the south of Russia. Bull Orenburg State Agrar Univ 4(48):45–47 9. Kovtun VI, Samofalova NE (2006) Selection of winter soft wheat in the south of Russia. ZAO Kniga, Rostov-on-Don, p 480 10. Lykova NA (2006) Variability of genetic and statistical traits of Triticum aestivum and Hordeum vulgare in ontogenesis. Sci J Kuban State Agrar Univ. URL: http://ej.kubagro.ru/2006/08/pdf/ 24.pdf. Accessed 24 Dec 2020

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11. Medvedev AM, Medvedeva LM (2007) Breeding and genetic potential of grain crops and its use in modern conditions: monograph. Moscow Branch of Vavilov ARRI. Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Moscow, p 484 12. Methodology of the State Variety Testing of Agricultural Crops (1989) Grain crops, groats, legumes, maize, and forage crops, 2nd edn. Moscow, p 194 13. Nabokov GD (2001) Inheritance of the duration of winter bread wheat growing season. In: Wheat and triticale: the works of the scientific-practical conference “green revolution by P.P. Lukyanenko”. Sov. Kuban, Krasnodar, pp 480–488 14. Nekrasov EI, Marchenko DM, Rybas IA, Ivanisov MM, Grichanikova TA, Romanyukina IV (2018) Study of yield and elements of its structure in winter soft wheat varieties according to the sunflower precursor. Grain Farm Russ 6:46–49. https://doi.org/10.31367/2079-8725-201860-6-46-49 15. Samofalova NE, Kopus MM, Skripka OV, Marchenko DM, Samofalov AP et al (2014) SDSsedimentation in the stage-by-stage assessment of winter wheat breeding material according to grain quality. Kniga, Rostov-on-Don, p 32

Effectiveness of Herbicide Treatment on Pea Crops Svetlana V. Ilina , Andrey A. Fadeev , and Inga Yu. Ivanova

Abstract In the Chuvash Republic, peas are cultivated as a food and feed crop. Great damage to crops caused by weeds. With severe contamination, the reduction in grain yield in farms is 35–50%. In order to obtain high yields of pea grain, experiments were conducted with the use of herbicides. The article discusses the research conducted in 2018–2020 on the effectiveness of a two-component herbicide Korsar Super normal 1.2 l/ha in phase 4–5 leaves of a cropper and the early phases of development of weeds in crops of pea varieties Spartak in the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka Region of Russia. During the fieldwork experience in the Chuvash Research Agricultural Institute—Branch of “Federal Agricultural Research Centre of the North-East named after N.V. Rudnitskogo” on loamy gray forest soil, the use of herbicide treatment led to a significant reduction in the number of weeds in biological effectiveness 84.2%. It provided a reliable grain increase of 0.9 t/ha. The level of profitability of grain production made averaged 33% in 2018–2020. Keywords Peas · Infestation · Herbicide treatment · Yield · Efficiency JEL Classification Q16

1 Introduction Leguminous crops are of great economic importance. With proper agricultural techniques, peas produce high and stable yields, and in favourable weather conditions, advanced farms receive pea grains at 35–40 ha [10]. Reserve for increasing the productivity of crops is the clearing of weeds from the fields. Weeds are a permanent component in pea crops. With a high number, they reduce the yield and make it difficult to perform many types of fieldwork, including harvesting [3].

S. V. Ilina (B) · A. A. Fadeev · I. Yu. Ivanova Federal Agricultural Research Center of the North-East named after N.V. Rudnitskogo, Kirov, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_4

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Having a high genetic yield potential, peas need protection from weeds, which are becoming increasingly difficult to control due to the emergence of resistant species. About 30% of all growing costs are spent on weed control. By reducing the crop yield, weeds degrade their quality by using nutrients and soil moisture. The use of herbicides on crops is essentially the only effective means of controlling weeds, preventing crop losses [2, 8]. In the conditions of the Chuvash Republic, the effectiveness of herbicides in the cultivation of peas is currently insufficiently studied. When using herbicides, it is first necessary to find out what types of weeds are present or may appear on the field in the near future. Repeated application of herbicides with the same mechanism of action contributes to the spread of certain resistant weed species [11].

2 Methodology The experimental field of the Chuvash Research Institute of Agriculture. The study was conducted by laying production experience on dark gray forest soil. The effect of the herbicide Korsar Super, IBS with a dose of 1.2 l/ha against weeds was studied in comparison with the control variant without this treatment. The experiments were based on seed-growing crops of Spartak peas. Post-emergence two-component herbicide Korsar Super, VRK (contains bentazone, 400 g/l + imazamox, 25 g/l) has a wide spectrum of action against annual cereal and dicotyledonous weeds, inhibits the development of perennials. The variety of pea Spartacus (morphological type chameleon) was obtained by crossing the heterophyll line Az-23 with a vegetable (wrinkled seeds) leaf sample of San Cipriano (Italy). The Spartak variety has a high yield potential, which is most fully realized under favourable growing conditions [12]. The equality of conditions for the options is met. The terrain and soil fertility were equalized, the placement was based on a single predecessor, the same types and doses of fertilizers, soil treatment and seeds were used. In the experiment, simultaneous sowing of seeds with high sowing qualities, one year of cultivation, was carried out. The relief is weakly slope of the South-Eastern exposure. The elevation above sea level is 110 m. the coordinates of the centre of the Tsivilsky district can be considered 55° 49 s. w. and 47° 29 w. d. [5]. The soil of the experimental site is gray forest heavy loamy with a humus content of 4.6, a neutral reaction of the soil solution—6.1, and an increased content of mobile phosphorus and exchangeable potassium [7]. Methods of observations and records in the experiment: phenological observations, biometric analysis of plant samples, crop accounting and mathematical data processing [1, 4, 9]. The calculation of economic efficiency is based on the actual price level for material and technical resources and agricultural products, which has developed over the years of research. The predecessor were potatoes. In the spring at the end of April, the field was harrowed in order to close the moisture with a trailed wide-reach harrow BPSh-15. The cultivator Spider-6 carried out pre-treatment in early May. Sow pea’s varieties

Effectiveness of Herbicide Treatment on Pea Crops

29

Spartak reproductions super-elite seeder SZ-3.6 a rolling on 4–8 May, the seeding depth of 6–8 cm. The seeding rate is 1.4 million grains per hectare or in weight terms 340–360 kg/ha. Weather conditions in the years of research differed. According to the conditions of humidification, 2018 was classified as arid (SCC = 0.68), 2019 and 2020 were moderately warm with a lack of plants and with high moisture availability during the maturation phase of the crop. The GTC of  the growing season was 1.09 and 1.1, respectively. The sum of active temperatures ( t > 10 °C) in 2018 was 1782 °C, in 2019—2303 °C, in 2020—2160 °C from [6].

3 Results The composition of the weed flora was typical for the crops in this region. At the experimental site, we studied the species composition of weeds, the number of which in the control was 48.2–72.6 pcs./m2 , dominated by Chenopodium album, Galium aparine, Amaranthus retroflexus, Convolvulus arvensis L. Cereal weeds accounted for about 39.4%, juvenile and perennial dicotyledonous weeds accounted for on average, 60.6% (Table 1). Taking into account the infestation for 2018–2020 of pea crops before harvesting, it was found that herbicide treatment reduced the number of weed components in relation to the control by 4.8–9.1 times, which amounted to an average of 49 pcs./m2 . Drug Korsar Super effective against annual cotyledons and cereals, as well as some perennial weeds. Most of the approved drugs, as a rule, do not harm peas. The herbicide Korsar Super over the years of research also showed no signs of phytotoxic action. In general, the studied herbicide has a large selective effect on the protected pea plants. Table 1 Infestation of pea crops by type of weed (before harvesting), pcs./m2 Weed species

Control (without herbicides)

Herbicide treatment

2018

2019

2020

Average

2018

2019

2020

Average

Chenopodium album

22.3

26.2

20.1

22.9

1.0

1.5

2.1

1.5

Galium aparine

17.3

8.7

8.1

11.4

7.3

0

4.0

3.8

Amaránthus retrofléxus

2.7

8.3

5.3

5.4

0

0

0

0.0

Echinochloa crus-galli

1.6

6.5

8.4

5.5

1.0

0

0

0.3

Málva pusílla

1.0

8.2

2.1

3.8

0.3

0

0.2

0.2

Sonchus arvensis L.

1.0

6.3

4.2

3.8

0

1.8

1.0

0.9

Convolvulus arvensis L.

2.3

8.4

5.4

5.4

0.5

4.6

2.3

2.5

48.2

72.6

53.6

58.2

10.1

7.9

9.6

9.2

Total

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Structure of the pea crop Option

Number of plants before harvesting, pcs/m2

Weight of 1000 grains, g

Yield, t/ha

Control (without herbicides)

123

249.23

1.81

Herbicide treatment 134

279.37

2.73

30.14

0.92

Difference

11

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

In the years of research, the herbicide Korsar Super had a strong toxic effect in the crop protection system during the entire growing season on both dicotyledonous and cereal weeds. The total contamination of pea crops of the Spartak variety before harvesting decreased by 80–84.2%. Yield is the final parameter of plant development, reflecting the intensity of growth and production processes during the growing season [4]. Reduced competition from weeds during herbicide treatment contributed to the growth and development of cultivated plants, resulting in a high yield of pea grain—2.73 t/ha (Table 2). A significant increase compared to the control was 0.9 t/ha (with an NSR0.5 of 0.6 t/ha). The efficiency of the herbicide Korsar Super on pea crops was 51%. As a result of calculating the economic efficiency in the pea protection system, it was revealed that with herbicide treatment relative to control in the conditions of 2018–2020, with an increase in yield by 9.2 c/ha, the cost of pea grain decreased by 208 rubles/c, and the profitability increased by 34%.

4 Conclusion Research in 2018–2020 on gray-forest soils of the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka Region of Russia showed that it is advisable to use the herbicide Korsar Super at a rate of 1.2 l/ha to increase the grain yield of field peas of the Spartak variety to 0.9 t/ha. Carrying out protective measures is recommended in the phase of 4–5 leaves of the crop and the early stages of weed development. Biological efficiency is 84.2%, economic efficiency is 51%, and profitability is 74%. Acknowledgements The research was carried out under the support of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation within the state assignment of the Federal Agricultural Research Center of the North-East named after N.V. Rudnitsky (theme No. 0767-2019-0097).

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References 1. Antonov VG, Dementyev DA (2019) The efficiency of complex protection of winter wheat with new preparations of JSC firm “August”. Legum Cereals 3(31):97–103. https://doi.org/10. 24411/2309-348X-2019-11122 2. Evseenko MV et al (2018) The influence of herbicide global, bp on the contamination of crops and the yield of peas. Agric Breed Belarus 54:50 3. Grinko AV, Markarova ZhR, Pasko TI (2018) Protection of peas from weeds in the Rostov region. Alley Sci 1(3):424–427 4. Ilina SV (2020) The efficiency of microbiological preparations application on spring wheat. In: Results and prospects for the development of the agro-industrial complex, pp 57–60 5. Ivanova I, Ilina S (2020) Variability of morphological features of spring soft wheat Moskovskaya 35. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. IOP Publishing 433(1):012016 6. Ivanova IYu (2020) Variety study of soft wheat in the conditions of the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka Region. Agrar Sci Euro-North-East 21(4):379–386. https://doi.org/10.30766/ 2072-9081.2020.21.4.379-386 7. Ivanova IYu, Fadeev AA (2020) Influence of weather conditions on soybean yield in the conditions of the Volga-Vyatka Region. Legum Cereals 4(36):93–98. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309348X-2020-11210 8. Mamiev DM et al (2015) The effectiveness of various herbicides and doses of mineral fertilizers on crops. Mod Probl Sci Educ 2:749–749 9. Mikhailova NN, Nikiforova II (2020) Herbicides on soybean crops. In: Current state and prospects of soybean research, pp 97–106 10. Razumova VV, Antonov VG, Ivanova IYu (2016) A complex system of protection of peas. Legum Cereals 1(17):27–30 11. Simonov VYu (2012) Agroecological assessment of herbicides in spring wheat crops. Bull Bryansk State Agric Acad 6:5–9 12. Zelenov AN, Zadorin AM, Zelenov AA (2018) The first results of the creation of pea varieties of the chameleon morphotype. Legum Cereals 2(26):10–17. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309348X-2018-10009

Evaluation of Promising Lines of Spring Soft Wheat in the Nursery of Competitive Testing Inga Yu. Ivanova , Lyudmila V. Volkova , and Svetlana V. Ilina

Abstract The article presents the results of field experience to determine the structure yield of spring soft wheat varieties in the conditions of the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region. Scientific research on the study of important elements of the crop structure of spring wheat varieties of various ecological and geographical groups was conducted at the experimental field of the Chuvash Agricultural Research Institute in 2018–2020. The scheme of the experiment included seven samples of spring soft wheat selected by the Federal Agricultural Research Center of the North-East named after N.V. Rudnitsky. The standard was the Simbircit variety zoned in the Volga-Vyatka region of Russia. The article presents the results of research on the variability of productivity and adaptability of varieties of different origins. Preliminary testing was carried out in the collection nursery; five promising varieties of spring soft wheat were identified according to economically valuable characteristics. Keywords Spring soft wheat · Varietal types · Yield · Economically valuable characteristics · Coefficient of adaptability of the variety JEL Classification Q16

1 Introduction Spring wheat is a crop of the widest area of cultivation and large-scale production. In terms of sown area, gross harvest, and grain quality, it ranks first among other grain loaves. In the Chuvash Republic, acreage is 42% of the total area [3, 6, 15]. A huge role in increasing the yield is the selection of varieties that are most adapted to the soil and climatic conditions of the region. The evaluation of varieties in ecological variety testing on the plasticity and stability of the crop, resistance to unfavorable growing conditions allows us to distinguish from a large number of newly

I. Yu. Ivanova (B) · L. V. Volkova · S. V. Ilina Federal Agricultural Research Center of the North-East named after N.V. Rudnitsky, Kirov, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_5

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created varieties with high potential productivity varieties with the highest degree of adaptation to the conditions of a particular region [2]. To date, there are more than 200 varieties of spring soft wheat in the State Register of Breeding Achievements Approved for Use in the Russian Federation. The wide range of this important food crop is due to the different climatic and soil conditions of the country. However, the yield and quality of grain in the regions of cultivation are subject to sharp fluctuations depending on weather conditions [6, 9, 13, 18]. Experience shows that in years with sufficient moisture, the genetic potential of plant productivity, their resistance to lodging and diseases is most clearly manifested. In wet years, the highest yield is formed, especially in intensive varieties [5]. Their yield can reach 6–8 t/ha or more. It is well known that the intensive type varieties are more productive, in comparison with the usual ones, only if significant doses of fertilizers are applied and pesticides are used, irrigation and modern agricultural machines and tools are used. However, techniques that enhance the growth of plants, at the same time contribute to reducing their resistance to environmental stress. Therefore, the yield value always depends on the resistance to adverse environmental factors [14]. The specific soil and climatic conditions of the Chuvash Republic (low soil fertility, lack of the sum of effective temperatures, arid conditions during tillering and entering the tube) make it difficult to obtain spring wheat grain with high technological indicators [6, 8, 12]. The Chuvash Research Institute of Agricultural Sciences is working on the study and selection of varieties with high productivity potential and stable yields, adapted to the natural and climatic conditions of the Volga-Vyatka region. Among the components that determine the success of breeding work, the source material—its availability and degree of study, occupies a special place [7, 8, 14]. The object of the study is varietal samples of spring soft wheat selected by the Federal Agricultural Research Center of the North-East named N.V. Rudnitskogo. The purpose of the research is to study a new breeding material of spring soft wheat based on economically valuable characteristics, in the natural and climatic conditions of the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time in the Chuvash Republic, work is underway to study and select varieties that provide sustainable yields with high-quality products adapted to the natural and climatic conditions of the Volga-Vyatka region.

2 Methodology Field science experiment was conducted on loamy gray forest soils with a humus content of 4.8 in the field № 3-fodder crop rotation Chuvash Research Agricultural Institute—Branch of “Federal Agricultural Research Centre of the North-East named N.V. Rudnitskogo” with the humus content of 5.8%, phosphorus—273 mg/kg, potassium—111 mg/kg, acidity, pH (KCI) is 5.5.

Evaluation of Promising Lines of Spring Soft Wheat …

35

In the collection nursery, the Simbircit variety was chosen for the standard. Repeat three times, 21 varieties. Cleaning-in sheaves, by hand. The area of one plot is 16 m2 . The experiments were laid in threefold repetition; the placement of variants was systematic. The total area under the experiment is 336 m2 . During the growing season of spring soft wheat plants, the main phases of the studied varieties were established. The productivity of the varieties was determined by the elements of the crop structure [12], 25 typical shoots were sampled to determine the coefficient of provision of the potential productivity of the ear with vegetative mass and the coefficient of its use. All observations and records were carried out in accordance with generally accepted methodological recommendations [4, 10, 11, 16, 17]. Varietal technology of crop cultivation in the experiment: the testing of spring soft wheat varieties was carried out following the recommendations for agricultural production in the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region of the Russian Federation, taking into account weather conditions, soil type, and characteristics of the cultivated crop. Elements of agricultural machinery: the predecessor is spring oats. The main tillage for soybeans was carried out with a KOS-3 plow to a soil depth of 15–17 cm. In the spring of the first decade of May—closing of moisture with a trailed wide-reach harrow BPSh-15. Pre-sowing cultivation was carried out with a disk harrow with a working width of 6 m. The terrain of the area under the experiment was smooth. Sowing of spring soft wheat was carried out with SN-16 seeder; the seeding rate is 6 million germinating grains [6]. Weather conditions during the growing season of spring soft wheat in the years of research differed in both the temperature regime and the amount of precipitation. Conditions from wet to dry included 2018 (hydrothermal coefficient = 0.68), but in 2019 there was a moderately warm moisture deficit at the beginning of the growing season and high moisture availability in the maturation phase of the crop (hydrothermal coefficient = 1.09). In 2020, precipitation fell 325.2 mm, which is 37.9% of the long-term norm (hydrothermal coefficient = 1.45). The sum of  active temperatures ( t > 10 °C) in 2018 was 1782 °C, in 2019—2303 °C, in 2020—2230.6 °C.

3 Results The productivity of varieties and breeding material is an important indicator that determines the main directions of breeding work, as well as the needs of agricultural production. Table 1 shows the values of productivity elements for 2018–2020 for seven varieties. According to the results of the analysis of the approbation sheaf, it was found that in almost all the studied samples, the productive bushiness is inferior to the standard indicator and is within the error of the experiment. The height of the plants in the breeding numbers was mostly lower than the standard variety; the exception was noted in the number N-154 (by 3.30 cm). The shortest number was C-103 (68.60 cm), which is 9.37 cm (12%) below the standard.

36

I. Yu. Ivanova et al.

Table 1 Characteristics of productivity elements (2018–2020) Grade/number

Productive bushiness, pcs

Stem height, cm

The length of the ear, cm

The number of grains per ear, pcs

Weight of grains per ear, g

Weight of 1000 seeds, g

Simbircit, st

1.02

75.21

7.65

26.85

1.27

44.56

R-63

1.20

69.64

8.27

31.89

1.28

36.45

P-57

1.01

65.70

7.72

28.01

1.28

41.11

T-122

1.02

65.07

865

37.40

1.39

34.69

C-65

1.23

72.58

7.99

27.08

1.26

44.20

C-84

1.03

71.30

8.20

28.45

1.19

37.72

C-103

1.03

68.31

8.65

29.48

1.07

34.80

N-154

1.03

72.23

8.05

25.52

1.13

41.76

HCP05

0.4

7.7

1.0

7.47

0.38

10.29

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

The maximum length of the spike, number of grains, and year productivity revealed the T-122 (9.20 cm, 41.83 pieces, and 1.58 g), a significant excess over the standard made up 1.50 cm, 14.53 pieces, and 0.32 g, respectively. The weight of 1000 grains characterizes the size and performance of the grain. This is due to its linear size, chemical composition, and a set of technological properties that determine the quality of the resulting grain [10]. The studied varieties in the conditions of the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region of Russia in 2018–2020 formed a smaller grain than the standard, which by weight of 1000 grains exceeded the similar all studied breeding numbers by 9.94–34.86%. The maximum value between the varietal samples was noted for the number N-154—36.87 g, the minimum value for P-57—26.67 g. The study of the variability of economically useful traits and properties of grain allows us to identify the degree of their variability. Table 2 shows the indicators of variation of morphophysiological signs of productivity of the studied cultivars for three years of study, where it is revealed that the most stable indicators are of productive bushiness relative to the standard variety are the numbers P-57 (7.86%) and the number T-122 (10.35%). The analysis of the phenotypic variability of plant height showed that this morphoparameter is the least variable among the biometric indicators of the plant in all breeding numbers. The smallest change in this indicator was found in the numbers C-84 and R-63 (1.21 and 1.34%, respectively). The degree of variability of the ear length in all numbers was in the range from 7.34 to 17.19%. The lowest coefficient of variation is found in the number T-122, which is 5.47% less than the standard. The most stable indicator of grain variability in terms of weight and quantity per year over the three years of the study was found in the standard variety (4.03 and 0.46%). By weight of 1000 seeds, the least variable indicators

Evaluation of Promising Lines of Spring Soft Wheat …

37

Table 2 Structure of variability of productivity elements in varietal samples (2018–2020), % Grade/number

Productive bushiness

Stem height

The length Number of of the ear grains per ear

Weight of grains per ear

Weight of 1000 seeds

Simbircit, st

12.20

5.00

12.81

4.03

0.46

8.18

R-63

30.88

1.34

14.81

10.73

5.50

3.53

P-57

7.86

3.06

13.48

20.07

25.58

38.79

T-122

10.35

9.27

7.34

14.99

17.36

5.51

C-65

41.30

4.15

12.58

19.92

19.50

24.48

C-84

19.71

1.21

17.19

20.85

22.05

14.99

C-103

19.41

5.48

11.89

11.08

13.67

6.25

N-154

19.22

15.39

13.84

15.40

17.10

19.89

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

were the breeding numbers R-63, T-122, and C-103 (3.53, 5.51, and 6.25%). In the standard, this indicator was equal to 8.18%. In 2018–2020, the climatic conditions in the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region were favorable for the growth and development of spring wheat plants [6]. The average yield of the studied breeding lines varied from 37.09 c/ha for the number C-65 to 49.82 c/ha for the number C-84 (Table 3). According to the test results, the average yield of the best breeding material C-84 for the two years of study (2019 and 2020) was 59.46 and 56.26 c/ha. The average yield of standard grades Simbircit for three years of study made repossessed 50.01 kg/ha. Table 3 Total yield and adaptability of spring wheat varieties (2018–2020) Grade/number Yield, c/ha 2018

2019

2020

Average value

± c/ha to st. Cv, % The coefficient of adaptability

Simbircit, st

38.93 51.29 59.81 50.01

–

20.99

1.11

R-63

42.93 47.41 46.99 45.78

−4.23

5.40

1.02

P-57

37.33 69.32 42.81 49.82

−0.19

34.34

1.11

T-122

34.80 56.09 62.78 51.22

+1.21

28.52

1.14

C-65

30.80 48.38 39.19 39.46

−10.55

22.29

0.88

C-84

33.73 59.46 35.09 42.76

−7.25

33.86

0.91

C-103

31.07 47.71 44.17 40.98

−9.03

20.42

0.91

N-154

38.00 49.14 30.08 39.07

−10.94

24.51

0.87

NSR0.5

5.6

Coefficient of variation, Cv, %

11.53 14.33 25.12

10.1

13.0

7.0

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

38

I. Yu. Ivanova et al.

The lowest average-grade coefficient of yield variability was recorded in 2018— 11.53%. The least variability concerning the breed standard Simbircit (20.99%) was observed at room R-63 (5.40%). All other breeding lines showed yield variability from 20.42 (C-103) to 34.34% (P-57). To identify the adaptive potential of promising varieties of spring soft wheat in the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region of the Russian Federation, the average annual crop yield was taken to compare the overall adaptive response of the species [1]. The conversion of the yield of each of the varieties to the average grade as a percentage allowed us to compare their behavior in different years. During the test period, only one breeding line T-122 had an adaptability coefficient higher than the standard-the Simbircit spring wheat variety.

4 Conclusion As a result of the research conducted in the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region for 2018–2020 in the nursery of the preliminary test, promising breeding lines were selected: • for 5 elements of productivity with a coefficient of variation less than 15% of one breeding number—T-122; • for 3 elements of productivity with a coefficient of variation of less than 15%, one selection number—R-63, according to two tri—N-154, C-103, C-84; • according to the adaptive potential-2 breeding lines (C-84—1.13 and T-122— 1.11). Acknowledgements The research was carried out under the support of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation within the state assignment of FARC North-East (subject number 0767-2019-0093).

References 1. Dospekhov BA (1985) Methodology of field experience. Kolos, Moscow, p 351 2. Dubinkina EA, Belyaev NN (2017) Belarusian varieties of spring soft wheat in the conditions of Central Chernozem Region. Bull Belarus State Agric Acad 4:90–93 3. Dvornikova EI, Zharkova SV (2018) Productivity of spring soft wheat varieties and its variability in the conditions of the forest-steppe of the Ob region of the Altai Territory. Bull Altai State Agrar Univ 11(169):5–9 4. Grigoriev YuP, Belan IA (2019) Influence of crop structure elements on the yield of spring soft wheat varieties in the conditions of the subtaiga zone of the Omsk region. Agrar Russ 5:3–6. https://doi.org/10.30906/1999-5636-2019-5-3-6 5. Ignatieva GV, Vikulina EV (2019) Spring wheat selection and results. Vladimir Farm 88:46–50

Evaluation of Promising Lines of Spring Soft Wheat …

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6. Ilina SV, Ivanova IYu. Source material for spring wheat breeding in the conditions of the Chuvash Republic. Int Sci Agric J 3(1):30–39 7. Ivanova IYu (2020) Variety study of soft wheat in the conditions of the southern part of the Volga-Vyatka region. Agrar Sci Euro-North-East 4(20):379–386. https://doi.org/10.30766/ 2072-9081.2020.21.4.379-386 8. Ivanova IYu, Ilina SV (2018) Comparative assessment of the productivity of promising varieties of spring soft wheat of the VIR collection. Proc Samara Sci Cent Russ Acad Sci 2–2(82):182– 185 9. Ivanova IYu, Ilina SV (2018) Valuable samples of spring soft wheat for breeding. Bull Mari State Univ Ser Agric Sci Econ Sci 3(15):32–37 10. Ivanova IYu, Volkova LV (2019) Variability of economically valuable traits of spring wheat and their contribution to the stabilization of yield. Agrar Sci Euro-North-East 6(20):567–574. https://doi.org/10.30766/2072-9081.2019.20.6.567-574 11. Kazakov ED (1987) Methods of grain quality assessment. Agropromizdat, Moscow, p 207 12. Lozhkin AG (2018) Ecological plasticity of spring durum wheat varieties in the conditions of the forest-steppe zone of the Chuvash Republic. Bull Chuvash State Agric Acad 4: 23–27. https://doi.org/10.17022/xrt7-t815 13. Malkanduev KhA, Mokhova LM, Malkandueva AKh, Shamurzaev RI, Puzyrnaya OYu, Kerimov VR (2020) Selection results for winter wheat. Izv KBNTS RAS 3(94):66. https:// doi.org/10.35330/1991-6639-2020-2-94-66-71 14. Nikiforov VM, Nikiforov MI, Mameev VV (2020) Yield and grain quality of spring wheat varieties in the conditions of the Bryansk region. Bull Bryansk State Agric Acad 1(77):7–12 15. Razumova VV, Ivanova IYu, Antonov VG (2017) Study of spring soft wheat varieties in the VIR collection by economically valuable characteristics. In: Methods and technologies in plant breeding and crop production, materials of the III international scientific and practical conference, pp 134–137 16. Volkova LV (2019) Heritability and variability of productivity traits in hybrids of spring soft wheat of the first-fourth generations. Agrar Sci Euro-North-East 20(3):207–218. https://doi. org/10.30766/2072-9081.2019.20.3.207-218 17. Yurina AV (1985) Methods of state variety testing of crops. Kolos, Moscow, p 267 18. Zotikov VI (2017) The role of genetic resources in increasing the productivity and environmental sustainability of crop production. Legum Cereals 2(22):4–8

Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased Environment-Improving Function of Plants Anatoly M. Medvedev , Andrey V. Nardid , Evgeniy N. Liseenko , Svyatoslav S. Pavlov , and Alexey V. Nardid Abstract The paper focuses on the issue of obtaining new and improved varieties of winter triticale obtained by using the world gene pool. New varieties have high productivity indicators, grain quality, resistance to bio-abiostressors, and increased environment-improving function of plants. Moreover, they contribute to the conservation and improvement of soil fertility. The triticale varieties Viktor, Hermes, Nemchinovsky 56, Capella, and Arctur have been created with potential productivity of up to 12 t/ha, increased signs of adaptability, and improved grain quality. The authors reveal the varieties and lines with more significant (compared with the standard) environment-improving function of plants with involvement in the soil of organic matter in the form of shredded straw and root residues. The authors determine that the medium-fertility of triticale is a selective trait, which is advisable to improve during the creation of new genotypes. Keywords Winter triticale · Variety · Yield · Grain quality · Stability · Environment-improving function JEL Classification Q16 · I23

A. M. Medvedev (B) · A. V. Nardid · E. N. Liseenko · S. S. Pavlov · A. V. Nardid Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “FITS” Nemchinovka, Novoivanovskoe, Russia e-mail: [email protected] E. N. Liseenko e-mail: [email protected] S. S. Pavlov e-mail: [email protected] A. V. Nardid e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_6

41

42

A. M. Medvedev et al.

1 Introduction Cultivated in the non-black soil zone and other regions, winter triticale varieties selected by the Federal Research Center “Nemchinovka” (Hermes, Nemchinovsky 56, Capella, Arcturus, etc.) have a high productivity potential. However, similar to other breeding achievements, there are significant fluctuations in grain yield and plant resistance to stress over time [5]. So far, insufficient data have been obtained on the environment-improving function of the new genotypes compared to the standards [2, 5]. One of the most urgent tasks is the breeding of winter varieties with a complex of positive traits, including potentially higher productivity (over 12 t/ha of grain), resistance (tolerance) to the most dangerous diseases (snow mold, fusarium ear, and septoriosis), and increased function of the soil-improving ability of new genotypes [3, 4, 8]. Particular attention is paid to the development of the triticale’s root system, indicators of its volume, and the depth of penetration into the soil.

2 Materials and Methods Work on the development of winter-hardy high-yielding winter triticale varieties with increased medium-hardiness was carried out in 2016–2020 in the breeding rotation of the Moscow Research Institute of Agriculture. Observations and measures were carried out according to the methodological guidelines of Dospekhov [1], State Commission for Selection Achievements Test and Protection [2], Federal Research Center “N. I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources” (FRC VIR) [6], and other manuals. Sharp fluctuations in air temperature and precipitation in the fall-winter and summer periods with thaws in December–February, repeated snowfalls, and lack of heat are considered the peculiarities of the manifestation of weather factors in the years of experiments. A heat deficit was noted in the spring and summer of 2017 and 2018. These years, the sum of active temperatures in May–June decreased by 10–15% with rainfall totaling 1.3–1.5 times the average annual norm. The soil in the experimental plots is insufficiently fertile, loamy, and sod-podzolic. A humus content is 2.0–2.5%. The Ph of the soil solution is 4.6–6.0. In the fall before sowing, an essential fertilizer of up to 250 kg/ha of nitrogen-phosphoruspotassium fertilizer was applied. Sowing was carried out using SK-10 plot seeder, with a seeding rate of 5 million germinated seeds per one ha. The plot size was 12 m2 . The experiment was repeated four times. The plot size in the control nursery was 3–4 m2 . In early spring, 100–150 kg/ha of ammonium nitrate was applied as a top-up. The yield structure was determined by the sheaf-splitting method according to the method of Merezhko and Udachin [6]. When determining the quality parameters of grain, flour, dough, and bread, a complete technological analysis scheme was applied, including physical properties of grain, quality of flour, and physico-chemical parameters (Hagberg falling number;

Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased …

43

GOST 27676-88; the quantity of gluten in the flour was determined by handwashing according to GOST 51412-99; ISO 7495-90; gluten quality was determined on the IDK-4). The baking properties of the grains were determined by laboratory baking.

3 Results and Discussion Under the difficult growing conditions of winter triticale plants in 2017–2020, genotypes with increased productivity and resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors were identified from a large set of varieties from the global gene pool of FRC VIR (Table 1). Compared with the standards, Hermes and Viktor were reliably higher in grain yield than the known varieties Doctrine 110, Efremovskaya, Preco (Kill)/Rex, Aos, and Nemchinovsky 56 on average over four years. Excess grain yield was in the range 10–15%, with the yield of a Viktor variety of 722 g/m2 . In the new set of varieties, the Polish variety Hortence, Amulet (Republic of Belarus), and Boguslav (selected by the Kursk Research Institute of Agricultural Production) significantly surpassed the standards in productivity and other traits on average over two years. The same samples stood out for their lower stem height and resistance to lodging. The best of the genotypes was used in crosses with local varieties. Table 2 shows the promising lines obtained by crossing the varieties Victor, Nemchinovsky 56, Nina, and Gera (selected in the Federal Research Center “Nemchinovka”) with varieties of foreign and Russian selection. Selections were also made from some heterogeneous varieties of the world collection. Some of the selected lines outperformed the standards in terms of grain harvesting and stress tolerance (selection line from Krasnodar sample No. 1224, etc.). Table 3 shows that some varieties from the world collection outperform the standards in terms of grain protein and starch content (Dozor, Hera, Ingen 33, and Efremovskaya). Grain protein content in the standards Hermes and Viktor averaged 13.0–13.3% over two years, the variety Hera—16.8%, and Dozor—15.3%. These genotypes are promising in crosses with locally bred varieties that are well adapted to harsh cultivation conditions. Varieties and lines with increased medium-fertility that leave up to 12 t/ha of organic matter in the soil in the form of shredded straw, chaff, and root residues have been identified in the nursery of competitive variety trials (2016–2019) (Table 4). The varieties Nemchinovsky 56 and Hera (lines 6155-26-2-26, 6414-25-15, and 1501-5) are promising in terms of the mass of root residues in the soil. Federal Research Center “Nemchinovka” (FRC “Nemchinovka”) plans to strengthen research in this area. Table 5 shows data for 2020 indicating that some cultivars, including selection lines from hybrid combinations, have higher rates of plant biomass return to the soil due to shredded straw, chaff, and root residues. As a rule, these hybrid combinations include the genotypes with increased grain yield—selection lines from the variety

St2 Victor, FRC 125 “Nemchinovka”

Doctrine 110, Voronezh NIISKh

Efremovskaya, MOVIR

Hortence (k-4012), Poland

Preco (Kill) Rex|AOS, Poland

Amulet (k-3950), Republic of Belarus

Shalanda (k-4095), Ukraine

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

107

115

110

100

130

127

St1 Hermes, 119 FRC “Nemchinovka”

5

7

5

7

9

9

7

7

321

323

320

322

319

322

320

319

9

7

5

7

7

7

9

5

9

9

9

9

9

7

9

9

Plant Overwintering, Growing Resistance Resistance height, points season, to snow to brown cm days mould, rust, points points

1

No. Varieties of the line

57

50

56

53

50

53

49

51

Number of grains per ear, pcs

2.9

3.0

3.1

2.8

3.0

3.2

3.0

2.9

Grain weight per ear, g

60.0

52.2

56.0

61.6

62.0

60.0

61.2

62.0

–

–

860

–

590

840

800

370

–

–

800

–

675

550

610

600

860

850

860

980

790

850

780

800

720

730

572

843

707

760

732

670

(continued)

790

730

773

911

690

750

730

610

Weight Grain harvesting, g/m2 of 1000 2017 2018 2019 2020 Average grains, g

Table 1 Winter triticale varieties that have been distinguished, based on a set of traits, FRC “Nemchinovka” 2017–2020

44 A. M. Medvedev et al.

Topaz FRANZ, RAS

Nemchinovsky 120 56, FRC “Nemchinovka”

11

12

Source Compiled by the authors

97

87

7

57

5

325

322

325

7

5

3

7

9

9

9

Boguslav (k-4115) Kursk Research Institute of APP

5

10

321

95

Ingen33 (k-4100), Republic of Moldova

9

7

Plant Overwintering, Growing Resistance Resistance height, points season, to snow to brown cm days mould, rust, points points

No. Varieties of the line

Table 1 (continued)

54

55

49

61

Number of grains per ear, pcs

3.0

2.9

2.7

2.8

Grain weight per ear, g

55.0

54.0

50.0

55.4

720

450

–

–

620

570

–

–

820

820

980

850

680

615

720

550

720

717

850

700

Weight Grain harvesting, g/m2 of 1000 2017 2018 2019 2020 Average grains, g

Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased … 45

St. Hermes, FRC 320 “Nemchinovka”

St. Victor, FRC “Nemchinovka”

Selection line 325 from cases 1318 SP 2019

Selection line from the 2019 sample call

Selection line 320 SP 2019, d.2312

Selection line 2019, No. 2124t

Selection line from d-4949 SP 2019

Selection line 2019, Prag 560

Selection line D468 KP 2019g

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

321

325

322

322

320

320

3

2

1

Growing season, days

Lines

No.

130

100

90

130

90

140

100

142

140

4

Plant height, cm

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

7

7

5

Resistance to lodging, points

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

9

6

Overwintering of plants, points

5

5

5

5

5

5

7

9

5

7

Snow mould, points

3

3

5

3

5

3

3

3

3

8

Septoriosis, points

Disease resistance

55

61

56

59

49

45

50

54

55

9

Number of grains per ear, pcs

2.8

2.5

2.5

2.6

2.2

2.6

2.2

2.3

2.2

10

Grain weight per ear, g

43.8

50.9

48.1

45.0

42.3

44.5

59.9

43.6

4506.0

11

Weight of 1000 grains, g

739

845

820

920

870

890

620

700

710

12

Grain harvesting, g/m2

(continued)

Well done

Well done

Perfectly done

Perfectly done

Perfectly done

Perfectly done

Well done

Well done

Well done

13

Grain physical quality

Table 2 Promising lines obtained by crossing the varieties Victor, Nemchinovsky 56, Nina, and Gera with the varieties of foreign and Russian selection

46 A. M. Medvedev et al.

Selection line from Gera variety, 2019

Selection line D-60 PIP, 2019

10

11

12

318

318

321

3

Growing season, days

Source Compiled by the authors

2

Selection line kol.2019 Jngen35

1

Lines

No.

Table 2 (continued)

125

125

100

4

Plant height, cm

9

9

9

5

Resistance to lodging, points

9

9

9

6

Overwintering of plants, points

7

7

7

7

Snow mould, points

5

5

5

8

Septoriosis, points

Disease resistance

50

51

42

9

Number of grains per ear, pcs

2.5

2.0

1.5

10

Grain weight per ear, g 11

47.0

48.6

33.9

Weight of 1000 grains, g

812

845

810

12

Grain harvesting, g/m2

Perfectly done

Perfectly done

Well done

13

Grain physical quality

Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased … 47

48

A. M. Medvedev et al.

Table 3 Winter triticale with increased grain protein and starch content, FRC “Nemchinovka,” 2016, 2019 No.

Variety, VIR catalog number

Origins

Protein content in the grain, %

Starch content in the grain, %

2016

2019

2-year average

2016

2019

2-year average

1

Hermes, St1

FRC “Nemchinovka”

16.2

13.0

14.6

57.6

57

57.3

2

Victor, St2

FRC “Nemchinovka”

12.9

13.3

13.1

51.8

56.6

54.2

3

Efremovskaya

MOVIR

15.4

14.6

15

55.7

57.2

56.5

4

Moskovskaya MOSNIISKH 39 winter wheat

15.3

14.7

15

62.5

54

58.2

5

Dozor

Krasnodar 13.6 NIISKh, K-4021

16.5

15.1

53.1

57.8

55.5

6

Prag 565, k-4111

Dagestan Experimental Station of VIR

–

18.5

–

46.7

–

–

7

Zhytsen

Republic of Belarus

13.8

15.1

14.5

54.7

52.6

53.7

8

Ingen 35

Republic of Moldova, K-4101

–

16.2

–

61.9

–

–

9

Nemchinovsky 56

FRC “Nemchinovka”

14.6

13.6

14.1

52.8

55.2

54

10

Hera

FRC “Nemchinovka”

16.5

17.2

16.8

58.2

55.8

57

11

Topaz

DZNIISKH

13.2

13.0

13.1

49.6

55.4

52.5

Source Compiled by the authors

Hera, hybrid population SP-1-del. 5295, etc. The cultivars from the world collection—Hector (k-4060), Skolot, and others—stood out for their increased amount of root residue in the soil.

4 Conclusion In recent years, winter triticale varieties Capella and Arcturus with potential productivity of up to 12 tonnes of grain per hectare have been obtained and registered in the “State register of breeding achievements approved for use” [7]. Modern methods of obtaining genotypes with distant, nutri-specific hybridization, and ecological mutagenesis were used in their creation.

2

Victor, St

Hermes

Nemchinovsky 56

Nina

Antheus

Hera (121-1-9)

6155-26-2-26

150-1-5

6414-25-15

6355-26-2-26

6408-19-71

NSR 05

1

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

0.51

5.40

8.75

8.08

8.35

8.75

7.49

6.78

6.83

5.47

6.17

3

2016

Source Compiled by the authors

Variety, line

No.

0.45

5.70

7.20

7.86

7.95

7.42

7.28

7.65

7.90

7.73

8.90

4

2017

1.13

7.70

6.20

7.38

7.63

7.84

5.70

5

2018

0.84

6.96

5.50

6.66

6.71

6.11

6.40

6

2019

5.55

7.97

7.95

8.15

8.08

7.35

5.85

7.11

7.26

6.78

6.66

7

Average t/ha

6

130

115

622

612

120

110

127

115

130

120

125

8

2.30

5.77

7.06

7.33

6.94

7.16

6.78

5.85

6.56

6.97

7.35

6.66

9

Plant height, Weight cm t/ha of straw

11.32

15.03

15.28

15.09

15.24

14.13

11.72

13.67

14.23

14.13

13.32

10

Weight t/ha of grain + straw

0.49

0.53

0.52

0.54

0.53

0.52

0.50

0.48

0.51

0.48

0.50

11

Grain to straw weight ratio

Table 4 Yield (t/ha) of winter triticale varieties and lines in competitive variety trials, FRC “Nemchinovka,” 2017–2019

0.18

3.40

4.51

4.58

4.53

4.57

4.24

3.52

4.10

4.27

4.24

4.00

12

Weight t/ha of root residues

9.17

11.57

11.98

11.47

11.73

11.02

9.37

10.66

11.24

11.50

10.66

13

Return t/ha to soil

Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased … 49

Hector, k-4060, FRANZ RAS

Line Prag 560, Dos VIR

Selection from SP-1, d.5295, 2020

Selection from d.53, Roma, Poland

Prag 561, k-4107, Dagestan Experimental Station of VIR

3

4

5

6

7

100

120

140

110

110

Hermes, St, 135 FRC “Nemchinovka”

2

1.50

2.70

3.60

1.73

2.09

2.75

2.66

515

1137

1031

393

839

935

954

Victor, St, FRC 145 “Nemchinovka”

1

5

3

2

1

4

Plant Weight Weight height, of of cm straw straw with per m2 , ear, g g

No. Variety, line

2.06

1.81

2.54

1.94

2.00

2.23

2.50

6

Grain weight per ear, g

495

640

580

335

820

650

585

7

Weight of grain per m2 , g

4.16

4.97

6.97

4.17

4.69

6.69

5.56

8

Total weight of straw and grain, g

Table 5 Yield (t/ha) of grain, straw, and roots, FRC “Nemchinovka,” 2020

1010

1777

1611

728

1659

1585

1539

9

Total biomass per m2 , g

10

11

Grain weight per hectare, t

10.10 4.95

17.77 6.40

16.11 5.80

7.28 3.35

16.59 8.20

15.85 6.50

15.39 5.85

Total biomass per hectare

5.15

11.37

10.31

3.93

8.39

9.35

9.54

12

Weight of straw from one ha, t

51

64

64

54

57

58

61

13

Straw mass to total mass ratio

49

36

36

46

43

42

39

14

Ratio of grain weight to total weight

3.03

3.45

4.83

2.18

4.98

4.76

4.61

15

Mass of root residues, t/ha

(continued)

8.18

14.82

15.14

6.11

13.37

14.11

14.15

16

Return of biomass t/ha to soil

50 A. M. Medvedev et al.

Markiyan, 130 k-4098, Ukraine

Selection from Hera variety, 2020

Selection from SP-462, 2020

Skolot, FRANZ 130 RAS

Taza, Kazakhstan

Era, Republic of 130 Belarus

Domitee, k-4002, Poland

10

11

12

13

14

15

Source Compiled by the authors

120

120

125

120

1.75

1.83

1.67

1.66

1.75

1.97

2.36

2.02

685

666

605

720

740

850

813

516

9

130

Mikhas, D.35, Republic of Belarus

8

5

3

2

1

4

Plant Weight Weight height, of of cm straw straw with per m2 , ear, g g

No. Variety, line

Table 5 (continued)

2.73

1.83

1.67

2.00

2.19

2.60

2.23

2.29

6

Grain weight per ear, g

805

545

495

720

720

850

520

560

7

Weight of grain per m2 , g

5.09

4.10

4.01

4.17

4.52

5.23

4.28

4.79

8

Total weight of straw and grain, g

1490

1211

1100

1440

1460

1700

1333

1076

9

Total biomass per m2 , g

11

Grain weight per hectare, t

14.90 8.05

12.11 5.45

11.00 4.95

14.40 7.20

14.60 7.20

17.00 8.50

5.20 5.23

1076.00 5.60

10

Total biomass per hectare

6.85

6.66

6.05

7.20

7.40

8.50

8.13

5.16

12

Weight of straw from one ha, t

46

55

55

50

52

50

61

52

13

Straw mass to total mass ratio

54

45

45

50

48

50

39

48

14

Ratio of grain weight to total weight

4.05

3.63

3.30

4.32

4.38

5.10

3.90

3.22

15

Mass of root residues, t/ha

10.90

10.29

9.35

11.52

11.78

13.60

12.03

8.38

16

Return of biomass t/ha to soil

Breeding of Promising Winter Triticale Varieties with Increased … 51

52

A. M. Medvedev et al.

From a large set of various samples from the global gene pool of the FRC “VIR” and Russian research centers, genetic sources of valuable traits with increased yield, grain quality, and stress resistance were identified (Boguslav-k-4115, Sears17, k4012, Hortence, k-4012, Markiyan, k-4098, Efremovskaya, etc.). Promising varieties and lines resistant to bio- and abiotic stressors with high yields exceeding the Viktor and Hermes standards and excellent grain quality were identified from recent crosses (selection line from SP 2019, del. 1318, selection line SP 2019, del. 2312, selection line from the variety Hera, 2019, etc.). In the experiments conducted in 2016–2020, the created varieties and lines of winter triticale showed high productivity and grain quality, good environment-raising function of triticale in the form of the return of chopped straw with glume to the soil, plant root residues in the range from 11 to 12 t/ha (Nemchinovsky 56, Hera, lines 6414-25-15, 6355-26-2-26, and others). The resulting variety is quite competitive with foreign achievements in winter triticale breeding (Polish variety Grenado (k-4011), most common in the European Union, as well as Moderato (k-4013), and Kovcheg variety breeded in Belarus).

References 1. Dospekhov BA (1985) Methods of field experience (with the basics of statistical processing of research results): textbook for students of higher agricultural educational institutions of agronomic specialties, 5th edn. Agropromizdat, Moscow 2. Fedin MA (ed) (1988) Methods of state variety testing of crops: technological evaluation of grain, cereal, and leguminous crops. Moscow 3. Goncharov SV, Gorbunov VN (2018) Implementation of triticale breeding programs in Europe. In: Grib SI, Medvedev AM, Kovtunenko VY, Zinchenko VE, Krokhmal AV (eds) Triticale. Don Publishing Center, Rostov-on-Don, pp 61–66 4. Grabovets AI (2018) Selection of triticale in the Don. In: Grib SI, Medvedev AM, Kovtunenko VY, Zinchenko VE, Krokhmal AV (eds) Triticale. Don Publishing Center, Rostov-on-Don, pp 7–21 5. Medvedev AM, Medvedeva LM, Komarov NM, Sokolenko NI, Postovaya OV, Poma NG et al (2017) Winter and spring triticale in the Russian Federation. Moscow Research Institute “Nemchinovka”, Moscow 6. Merezhko AF, Udachin RA (1999) Methodological guidelines. VIR, St. Petersburg 7. Rosinformagrotech (2019, 2020) State register of breeding achievements approved for use. Rosinformagrotech, Moscow 8. Zhuchenko AA (2008) Problems of adaptation and scientific support in crop production. In: Increasing the sustainability of crops. Oryol, pp 3–20

Increasing the Competitiveness of Russian Agricultural Producers Using the “Economic Cross” Model Alexander V. Panin , Dmitriy V. Timokhin , Lidia A. Golovina , and Lyubov V. Degteva

Abstract In this study, we proposed the directions of developing Russian agriculture by integrating innovative technological solutions (including digital ones) into the production-logistics chains of domestic producers. We identified economicorganizational constraints for the development of Russian agriculture and examined foreign and Russian experience in addressing similar issues on a systemic basis. Moreover, we examined the economics of the innovation process in Russian agriculture, taken in the context of the current geo-economic situation and the emerging factors (i.e., COVID-19, sanction wars, and the growing attention of the government to national security, especially food security). According to the results, we suggested several ways of adapting our “economic cross” model to the organizational-economic needs of the Russian agricultural producers. Additionally, we developed a system of recommendations for managing the life cycle of agricultural innovation using the “economic cross” model for the innovative development of sectors in various forecasted environments. Keywords Economic modeling · “Economic cross” model · Agriculture · Innovation · Government support JEL Classification C00 · F12 · L50

A. V. Panin Russian State Agrarian University—Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Moscow, Russia D. V. Timokhin · L. V. Degteva Moscow State University of Humanities and Economics, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] D. V. Timokhin National Research Nuclear University MEPHI, Moscow, Russia L. A. Golovina (B) Federal Research Center for Agrarian Economy and Social Development of Rural Areas—All-Russian Research Institute of Agricultural Economics, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_7

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1 Introduction The current favorable economic environment for Russian agricultural producers is mainly caused by the introduction of Russian counter-sanctions against several foreign countries in 2014. These countries used to control a significant part of Russian agricultural markets. In conjunction with weak positions of the ruble and active import substitution in agriculture, this factor provided a short-term boost for Russian agricultural production. However, agriculture also faces various systemic constraints, which must be eliminated to ensure the long-term development of the industry. This study aims to adapt the method of “economic cross” (developed and published in our earlier works) to model the long-term development of Russian agricultural producers, accounting for the specifics of their institutional position in global value chains and the current market conditions.

2 Methodology The theoretical foundation of the study consists of statistical materials and scholarly literature on the dynamics of agricultural development under the influence of modern innovative technologies. Our conclusions and suggestions are based on Russian and foreign statistical data, presented in the reports of public authorities and non-profit organizations that study agricultural economics. The methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, and deduction were used in the study.

3 Results Analysis of the pre-pandemic dynamics of agricultural production development indicates a slow but progressive growth of production. The statistics on production volumes of livestock products are especially positive (Fig. 1). Crop production also demonstrates positive trends. Wheat harvesting was especially noteworthy. In the post-sanction period, it has become one of the most important export items for agricultural production and national exports, competing with a number of export categories of the oil and gas sector. One major positive effect of the current economic situation is the growth of the reserves for the development of the national agricultural producers. However, the producers usually fail to consolidate temporary competitive advantages, which is dangerous in the long term. Russian agriculture, as an aggregate participant in the global competitive market, has several disadvantages, namely: • Dependence on foreign manufacturers of agricultural equipment. In the long term, this will allow foreign companies to redistribute the consumer value of Russian agricultural products in their favor through the use of “price scissors”;

Increasing the Competitiveness of Russian Agricultural …

55

Fig. 1 Production dynamics of some categories of livestock products in Russia, thousand tons (live weight). Source Compiled by the authors based on [9]

• Weakness of the Russian market, which, combined with the control that global financial structures exert over prices and the deteriorating geo-economic situation, poses threats of systemic losses for Russian producers; • Mismatch between the investments of national agricultural producers and the demands of the global market. Foreign agricultural producers tend to introduce innovations into the production process, primarily by expanding the use of key technologies (digital, nano-, and eco-technologies) and forming closed-cycle facilities. Increased investment in innovative development is a major trend of global agriculture. This entails greater investment in both production-technological and marketinglogistical solutions. Quantitative indicators of global investment in innovative development of agriculture are shown in Fig. 2. The infographic from Fig. 2 allowed us to draw the following conclusions about the trends of innovative development of global agriculture:

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Fig. 2 Dynamics of global investment in innovative agricultural technologies in 2014–2019, sorted by technology type, bln. USD. Source Compiled by the authors based on [9]

• Investments in the innovative development of global agriculture are growing faster than global GDP. This indicating that the competition between the top global agricultural producers will become tougher, and the markets for the corresponding products will become more attractive in terms of the return-on-investment period; • Investors prefer the “shop-to-plate” direction (i.e., marketing and logistics). The core of this direction is comprised of the digital development of the consumer information space. Compared to global agricultural innovations, the Russian agricultural industry experiences a deficit of investments. The share of agricultural innovators in the total number of Russian agricultural producers, sorted by innovation types, is presented in Fig. 3. Figure 3 shows that technological innovations are prevalent among the types of innovations, which contradicts the global trends (Fig. 2). The discrepancy is

Fig. 3 Percentage of Russian agricultural producers that implement various innovation types. Source Compiled by the authors based on [15]

Increasing the Competitiveness of Russian Agricultural …

57

partly caused by import-substitution programs implemented by Russian agricultural producers in 2014–2020 to compensate for the technological lag in production itself and relevant services (machinery production, logistics, etc.). Moreover, Fig. 3 points to some imbalances in the structural development of domestic agriculture. For instance, most of all types of innovations are implemented by the suppliers of annual crops, which is connected to outstanding demand for Russian grain in global markets. Considering the mismatch between the trends in the innovative development of Russian and global agriculture, the tasks of sectoral development require using a methodology that allows linking global technological trends and sectoral investment programs. We propose the “economic cross” method (Fig. 4). Points 1.1–1.6 in Fig. 4 signify the stages of technological transformation in agriculture, while points 2.1–2.5—the stages of modernizing the structure of the innovation system. The “economic cross” model for agriculture is designed as a set of possible interactions between agricultural innovators and the global innovation environment. The main criterion of this interaction is consumer value, produced and

1.1

Reorganization

of

technological platforms 1.2

Reorganization

of

the

economic-logistics infrastructure 1.3 Reorganization of global demand structure 2.2

2.1

Modernization Designing of

state the

2.3 Designing agricultural

for investment

added

agricultural

process in

value

producers

agriculture

chains

support

Innovation process Modeling of interactions with the global market Modeling of interactions with partners in added value chains Calculation of parameters of

Re-

2.5

distribution of

Regional

added

clustering

2.4

value

with regard to

of

the interests of

agricultural

human capital

production

technology life cycle Estimation of parameters and dynamics of market coverage 1.4 Formation of alternative supply of agricultural products 1.5

Formation

of

market

preferences for product quality 1.6 Changes in the position of individual innovators in the global division of labor

Fig. 4 The “economic cross” model for the innovative development of Russian agriculture. Source Compiled by the authors based on [4, 7, 11, 16]

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distributed at the intersection of technological and logistical cycles. The costs of production are generated at the “ends” of the “economic cross.”

4 Conclusion The proposed model allows to: • Determine in advance the complex technological costs for each of the possible technological interactions; • Identify ways to hedge risks associated with time and currency asymmetry by using hedging assets included in the production chains of the “economic cross.” For example, farmers can use the obligations of the region purchasing their agricultural produce when dealing with equipment suppliers (since the region also receives payments from said suppliers); • Compare the economic efficiency between the basic models in the “economic cross” for agricultural production and the innovative models formed by replacing one or more parts in the value chain with the subsequent recalculation of the expected financial flows. The usefulness of introducing the “economic cross” method into the agricultural planning system is determined by the ability to automate the creation of “economic crosses” via algorithmic calculations of economic efficiency [6, 8, 12, 14]. We recommend parameterizing the initial data for more successful use of digital solutions in the framework of designing an innovative business model of agricultural production. When an analyst imposes data parametrization requirements on the tender bidders, the automated creation of an “economic cross” allows estimating the economic effect of replacing the conventional traditional value chain parts with innovative ones. Such automated processes allow minimizing time and financial losses [1–3, 5, 10, 13]. Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to Andrey Alexandrovich Polukhin (Acting Director of the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops; Doctor of Economic Sciences; Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences) for his advice on conducting this study.

References 1. Ghazalian PL, Fakih A (2017) R&D and innovation in food processing firms in transition countries. J Agric Econ 68(2):427–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12186 2. Golovina LA, Logacheva OV (2019) Reproductive situation in agricultural organizations: perspectives from the Orel region. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 274:012018. https://doi. org/10.1088/1755-1315/274/1/012018 3. Gong B (2020) Agricultural productivity convergence in China. China Econ Rev 60:101423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2020.101423

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4. Gromova E, Timokhin D, Popova G (2020) The role of digitalization in the economy development of small innovative enterprises. Procedia Comput Sci 169:461–467. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.procs.2020.02.224 5. Kondratiev DV, Ostaev GYa, Osipov AK, Bogomolova TP, Nekrasova EV, Abasheva OV (2020) Organizational and management mechanism for reforming agricultural organizations based on cooperation and integration of economic systems. Amazon Investig 9(25):376–388. Retrieved from https://amazoniainvestiga.info/index.php/amazonia/article/view/1083/993 6. Litvinenko IL (2020) The impact of innovation and digitalization on agriculture: Russian and foreign experience. Innov Dev Econ 1(55):19–25 7. Molchan AS, Frantsisko OYu, Ternavshchenko KO, Ostaev GYa, Tinyakova VI, Markovina EV (2020) Optimization of interaction of agrarian entities as an imperative of ensuring food security of the state. Amazon Investig 9(26):242–253. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2020.26. 02.28 8. Naeem MA, Balli F, Farid S, Hussain Shahzad SJ (2020) Hedging the downside risk of commodities through cryptocurrencies. Appl Econ Lett 28(2):153–160. https://doi.org/10. 1080/13504851.2020.1739609 9. Orlova NV, Serova EV, Nikolaev DV, Khvorostyanaya AS, Novikova Yu et al (2020) Innovative development of the agro-industrial complex in Russia. In: Orlova NV (ed) Agriculture 4.0: report of the Higher School of Economics. Higher School of Economics, Moscow. Retrieved from https://conf.hse.ru/mirror/pubs/share/361056435.pdf 10. Ostaev GY, Suetin SN, Frantsisko OYu, Alexandrova EV (2020) Assessment of the effectiveness of the management of agricultural organizations in management accounting. Amazon Investig 9(28):260–271. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2020.28.04.29 11. Ostaev G, Kondratyev D, Nechaev B, Romanova A (2020) Foresight research in management accounting: scenario forecasting and a comprehensive system of expert assessment methods in agricultural holdings. Amazon Investig 9(29):188–203. https://doi.org/10.34069/AI/2020.29. 05.22 12. Peng Y, Kong R (2020) An analysis of China’s reforms on mortgaging and transacting rural land use rights and entrepreneurial activity. Agric Financ Rev 80(3):377–400. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/AFR-08-2019-0094 13. Polukhin AA, Yusipova AB, Panin AV, Timokhin DV, Logacheva OV (2021) The effectiveness of reserves development to increase effectiveness in agricultural organizations: economic assessment. In: Bogoviz AV (ed) The challenge of sustainability in agricultural systems. Springer, Cham, pp 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72110-7_1 14. Shikhaliyeva JS, Mazurenko PA (2017) The mechanism of strategic management in agriculture: theory and practice. Univ Sci 1(3):72–74 15. Ternovykh KS, Kurennaya VV, Agibalov AV (2020) Development of innovation in agriculture: trends, prospects. Vestn Voron State Agrar Univ 2(65):98–102. https://doi.org/10.17238/iss n2071-2243.2020.2.96 16. Timokhin DV (2020) Strategic risk planning in accordance with the “economic cross” methodology. In: Bodrunov SD (ed) Production, science, and education in the age of transformation: Russia in a [de]globalizing world, vol 2. Witte Institute for New Industrial Development, Moscow, pp 201–208

Yield of Winter Soft Wheat Varieties, Elements of Its Structure, and Adaptive Properties in the Conditions of the Non-chernozem Zone Bagrat I. Sandukhadze , Ramin Z. Mamedov, Maria S. Krakhmalyova, and Valentina V. Bugrova Abstract Wheat is one of the main food crops. The authors present the data of the competitive variety testing for ten varieties of winter wheat for 2003–2017. In some years of the test, the productivity of the varieties reached the level of 100 c/ha; the maximum for the Nemchinovskaya 24 variety was 123.5 c/ha. The coefficients of plasticity and stability are calculated. The authors determine that the most plastic varieties are Galina (bi = 1.42) and Nemchinovskaya 24 (bi = 1.89). Stable varieties are Mironovskaya 808 (bi = 0.86, S 2 i = 0.10) and Moskovskaya 39 (bi = 1.07, S 2 i = 0.15). The authors calculate the coefficients of correlation of productivity with the elements of productivity. The varieties of winter wheat selected by the Federal Research Center “Nemchinovka” are high-yielding and adaptive. In favorable weather years, productivity reaches 80 and more centners per hectare. Over the years of the study, the highest average yield was shown by the varieties Moskovskaya 56 (68.5 c/ha) and Nemchinovskaya 57 (68.2 c/ha). The studied varieties are widespread in production and can be actively introduced into crossbreeding. Individual components and their complex manifestation play an important role in achieving high stable yields. Keywords Wheat · Yield · Variety · Plasticity · Stability JEL Classification Q16

B. I. Sandukhadze (B) · R. Z. Mamedov · M. S. Krakhmalyova · V. V. Bugrova Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “FITS” Nemchinovka, Novoivanovskoe, Moscow Region, Russia e-mail: [email protected] R. Z. Mamedov e-mail: [email protected] M. S. Krakhmalyova e-mail: [email protected] V. V. Bugrova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_8

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1 Introduction Winter soft wheat is one of the main food crops in the Russian Federation [9]. Federal State Budgetary Scientific University “Federal Research Center ‘Nemchinovka’” is one of the main breeding centers for breeding cereal crops, primarily winter wheat [12]. The total area under winter wheat varieties selected in the Center is more than 2 million hectares (according to the data of Rosselkhoztsentr for 2017–2019). It is impossible to obtain consistently high yields without using varieties adapted to specific soil and climatic conditions [5]. “Federal Research Center ‘Nemchinovka’” constantly conducts breeding work to improve the productivity and adaptability of winter wheat varieties. Breeders are faced with the task of increasing the gross yield of grain due to the genetic resources of the variety [11]. The main ways to increase productivity in winter wheat varieties are the creation of a denser stalk in the crops and the increase of the weight of grain per ear [6]. The number of ears per unit area depends on the productive business of the plant, winter hardiness, seed germination, and other factors [4]. A significant problem in the work of breeders is negative correlations that prevent the combination of a set of economically valuable traits and properties in one genotype [8, 10]. In this research, the authors differentiated varieties according to the level of yield, plasticity, and stability. The authors determined which elements of productivity were maximally expressed by varieties and which of these elements had a strong correlation with yield.

2 Materials and Methods The research considers the yield and productivity of winter soft wheat varieties and their contribution to the final yield of varieties. The data is presented for 2003–2017. The breeder of all varieties, except for Mironovskaya 808 (Mironovsky Institute of Wheat Breeding and Seed Production), is “Federal Research Center ‘Nemchinovka’” [3, 7, 10]. To calculate bi , the authors first determined the indices of environmental conditions Ij and calculated them using the method of Eberhart and Russell [1]. To compare the correlation coefficients, the authors chose the gradation developed by V. F. Dorofeev and A. V. Melnikov: r < 0.3—weak correlation; 0.31 < r < 0.50— moderate correlation; 0.51 < r < 0.70—significant correlation; 0.71 < r < 0.90—strong correlation; r > 0.90—very strong, near functional correlation [2].

Yield of Winter Soft Wheat Varieties, Elements …

63

3 Results and Discussion In the studied years, the average yield of varieties ranged from 56.1 c/ha (Zarya) to 68.2 c/ha (Nemchinovskaya 57) and 68.5 c/ha (Moskovskaya 56). Weather conditions considerably affected the productivity of varieties. The maximum yield was registered in 2015 and ranged from 81.0 (Zarya) to 123.5 c/ha (Nemchinovskaya 24) (Table 1). Plastic varieties include varieties with a coefficient of plasticity bi significantly greater than 1.0. In this work, these varieties include Galina (bi = 1.42) and Nemchinovskaya 24 (bi = 1.89). The stability coefficient (S 2 i) was used to assess the stability of the variety—the closer it is to zero, the more stable the variety is. The lowest coefficient was seen in Mironovskaya 808 (0.10) and Moskovskaya 39 (0.15) varieties. Together with the coefficient of plasticity close to 1.0, these varieties are genetically stable. According to the structural elements of the yield, the maximum expression was shown by the varieties Moskovskaya 56 (the number of ears per m2 was 528 pcs.) and Inna (Table 2). Accordingly, these varieties were used in crosses as donors of a considerable number of ears per m2 , high weight of 1000 grains, number of grains, and other traits. To assess the degree of influence of each studied structural element on the yield, the authors calculated the correlation coefficient. Different degrees of correlation were revealed for the varieties (Table 3). Under the studied conditions, the relationship between yield and ear length and yield and the number of spikelets differed significantly. The correlation coefficient ranged from −0.24 (Inna) to 0.46 (Moskovskaya 40). The highly plastic varieties Galina and Nemchinovskaya 24 have different ways of achieving high yields. Galina is marked with an equally significant effect on productivity, the number of ears per 1 m2 (r = 0.70), and the mass of 1000 grains (r Table 1 Yield of winter wheat varieties and parameters of its ecological adaptability, 2003–2017 Variety

Yield, c/ha

min

Mironovskaya 808

56.2

19.4

Zarya

56.1

20.5

bi

S2 i

83.4

0.86

0.10

81.0

0.79

0.50

max

Inna

67.5

18.6

89.1

0.80

0.30

Pamyati Fedina

62.5

14.1

98.4

0.84

0.70

Moskovskaya 39

57.6

18.9

90.7

1.07

0.15

Moskovskaya 40

62.5

30.6

90.0

0.81

0.74

Galina

62.4

13.9

103.3

1.42

0.52

Moskovskaya 56

68.5

20.9

94.9

0.73

1.02

Nemchinovskaya 57

68.2

29.2

89.9

0.79

0.80

Nemchinovskaya 24

64.4

16.3

123.5

1.89

1.13

Source Compiled by the authors

64

B. I. Sandukhadze et al.

Table 2 Characteristics of the structural elements of yield, 2003–2017 Variety

Mironovskaya 808 Zarya Inna Pamyati Fedina Moskovskaya 39 Moskovskaya 40 Galina Moskovskaya 56

Number of Ear ears per Length, m2 , pcs. cm

X

457

lim 112–772 X

465

Number of Number Weight of spikelets, of grain, g pcs. grains, pcs.

Weight of 1000 grains, g

8.4

13.9

26.4

1.2

44.7

7.2–9.9

12.7–15.2

30–31

0.8–1.51

29.9–52.9

8.6

14.1

25.4

1.2

45.3

lim 260–832

7.0–10.6 12.6–15.5

21–33

0.6–1.68

25.9–57.5

X

9.5

29.5

1.3

42.6

480

14.2

lim 276–851

8.1–11.2 12.8–15.7

24–38

0.6–1.63

24.3–54.3

X

8.7

30.4

1.2

40.2 25–50.7

437

14.2

lim 164–782

7.3–10.1 13.0–15.5

21–36

0.5–1.54

X

7.8

13.8

28.9

1.2

41.1

lim 116–766

6.6–9.2

12.2–15.0

24–34

0.7–1.52

28–50.4

X

456

7.0

14.4

29.2

1.3

44.2

lim 279–807

492

6.4–8.1

12.4–15.4

24–36

0.82–2.0

28.7–56.6

X

8.6

14.2

31.6

11.5

45.7

400

lim 82–842

7.4–9.6

12.8–17.3

27–38

0.7–1.87

24.6–38.0

X

7.8

14.1

29.0

1.3

44.2

6.9–9.4

13.2–15.3

25–36

0.66–2.01 25.3–55.8

8.8

14.4

528

lim 308–946 Nemchinovskaya X 490 57 lim 258–1123

7.6–10.4 12.6–16.5

32.3

1.3

40.8

26–44

0.86–1.9

30.2–47.2

Nemchinovskaya X 446 24 lim 138–1054

7.4

15.0

32.2

1.4

43.3

6.6–8.3

13.6–16.2

25–44

0.7–1.98

25–59.9

Source Compiled by the authors The significance of bold values is p = 0.05

= 0.76). In Nemchinovskaya 24, the main influence on the yield is the stems’ density (r = 0.84).

4 Conclusion Winter wheat varieties bred by “Federal Research Center ‘Nemchinovka’” are highyielding and adaptive. In years with favorable weather conditions, their productivity reaches 80 or more c/ha. Over the years of the study, the highest average yield was shown by the varieties Moskovskaya 56 (68.5 c/ha) and Nemchinovskaya 57

Yield of Winter Soft Wheat Varieties, Elements …

65

Table 3 Correlation coefficient (r) between yield and its structural elements in winter wheat varieties, 2003–2017 Variety

Yield Number of ears per m2

Ear length

Number of spikelets

Number of grains

Weight of grains per ear

Weight of 1000 grains

Mironovskaya 808

0.82

−0.02

0.16

−0.18

0.53

0.75

Zarya

0.66

0.04

Inna

0.63

−0.24

Pamyati Fedina

0.88

0.06

0.04

0.74

0.78

Moskovskaya 39

0.69

−0.18

0.12

−0.10

0.50

0.65

Moskovskaya 40

0.52

0.46

0.12

−0.08

0.33

0.53

Galina

0.70

−0.05

0

−0.07

0.59

0.76

Moskovskaya 56

0.67

0.39

0.53

0.53

0.71

0.67

Nemchinovskaya 57

0.51

0.16

0.06

0.04

0.36

0.52

Nemchinovskaya 24

0.84

−0.22

0.29

−0.06

0.31

0.45

0.34 −0.11 −0.27

0.28

0.63

0.72

−0.10

0.54

0.74

Source Compiled by the authors

(68.2 c/ha). In some years, the maximum yield reached 123.5 c/ha in the variety Nemchinovskaya 24. The analysis of the obtained data allows us to determine that the varieties Galina and Nemchinovskaya 24 belong to the plastic varieties and Moscow 39 and Mironovskaya 808 to the stable varieties. The studied varieties are widespread in production and can be actively introduced in crossing. Individual components and their complex manifestations play an important role in achieving high stable yields.

References 1. Eberhart SG, Russell WG (1966) Stability parameters for comparing varieties. Crop Sci 6:36–40 2. Konstantinova OV (2016) Comparative assessment of the adaptability and grain quality of winter grain crops in the forest-steppe conditions of the Kemerovo Region. Dissertation of candidate of agriculture, Kemerovo State Agricultural Institute, Kemerovo 3. Korovushkina MS (2012) Creation of initial material in breeding winter wheat for shortstemming and productivity using the semi-dwarf line L-982. Dissertation of Candidate of Agriculture, Federal Research Center “Nemchinovka”, Nemchinovka 4. Koshkin SS, Tsatsenko LV (2013) Ear morphogenesis of bread winter wheat: history and current state. Proc Kuban State Univ 4(43):117–120 5. Kovtun VI, Sukhareva AA (2020) Productivity and elements of its structure in new genotypes of bread winter wheat in the south of Russia. Agrar Sci J 11:16–19. https://doi.org/10.28983/

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asj.y2020i11pp16-19 6. Krupnov VA (2013) Genetic complexity and context-specificity of wheat yield traits in dry conditions. Vavilov J Genet Breed 17(3):524–534 7. Manukyan IR, Basieva MA, Miroshnikova ES, Abiev VB (2019) Assessment of the ecological plasticity of winter wheat varieties in the foothill zone of the Central Caucasus. Agrar Bull Urals 4(183):20–26. https://doi.org/10.32417/article_5cf94f63b4d0f7.46300158 8. Pleshakov AA, Tsatsenko LV, Savchenko DL (2021) Clustering of winter wheat collection varieties by ear productivity elements. Sci J Kuban State Agrar Univ 168(04):195–207. https:// doi.org/10.21515/1990-4665-168-014 9. Romanenko AA, Bespalova LA, Kudryashov IN, Ablova IB (2005) New varietal policy and varietal agricultural technology for winter. EDVI, Krasnodar 10. Sandukhadze BI, Bugrova VV, Krakhmaleva MS, Mamedov RZ (2020) Features of the genotype of winter wheat varieties cultivated in the non-chernozem zone of the Russian Federation. Russ Agric Sci 5:8–11. https://doi.org/10.31857/S2500262720050026 11. Sandukhadze BI, Rybakova MI, Kochetygov GV, Bugrova VV, Morozov AA, Sandukhadze EK et al (2016) Acceleration of breeding process of winter wheat while using the regulated conditions. Grain Econ Russ 48(6):39–42. Retrieved from https://www.zhros.online/jour/art icle/view/10/11 12. Tarasova LL (2016) Assessment of agrometeorological indicators of wintering conditions for winter grain crops in the central chernozem regions under climatic changes. Proc Hydrometeorol Res Cent Russ Fed 360:26–44

Effect of Different Levels of Mineral Nitrogen and Inoculation with Various Biological Preparations on Productivity and Quality of Spring Wheat Svetlana Kh. Khuaz , Sofya V. Kondrat , and Andrey P. Kozhemyakov

Abstract The paper studies the effect of various biopreparations of associative rhizobacteria on the productivity and quality of spring wheat at different levels of mineral nitrogen. The study examines the dynamics of biomass accumulation during the whole period of plant vegetation. It was established that biopreparations are most effective in the earing phase. The authors analyze the data on grain productivity and accumulation of basic nutrients in the grain and straw of spring wheat. The bacterial preparation KL-10 showed the best results. It was found that even with good cultivation of sod-podzolic soil, biopreparations obtained based on associative diazotrophs need small doses of mineral nitrogen. Keywords Nitrogen fixation · Diazotrophs · Inoculation · Productivity · Quality JEL Classification Q1

1 Introduction Global experience shows a real opportunity to increase the yield of nonlegume crops through associative nitrogen fixation. A considerable number of studies establish that rhizospheric nitrogen fixers can have a multidirectional effect on plants by improving nutritional conditions, suppressing pathogenic microflora, affecting plants with growth regulators, etc. [10, 12]. Most studies found that the use of biopreparations increases the yield of plants and generally improves their quality [2]. On sod-podzolic soils, the yield of wheat increased by 13–18%, and the yield of barley S. Kh. Khuaz (B) Saint-Petersburg State Agrarian University, Pushkin, Russia S. V. Kondrat Herzen University, Saint-Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] A. P. Kozhemyakov All-Russian Research Institute of Agricultural Microbiology, Pushkin, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_9

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increased by 13–19% without introducing nitrogen fertilizers [14]. Inoculation of seeds with biological preparations affects the coefficient of utilization of mineral fertilizer nitrogen by spring wheat, increasing it to 39–60% [1]. Moreover, it increases the payback of mineral nitrogen on sod-podzolic soils by 1.5–2.1 times [7, 13]. The use of associative diazotrophs allows for reducing the doses of mineral nitrogen fertilizers and ensuring environmentally safe production. Moreover, it promotes energy conservation in crop production [4, 6, 8]. Thus, seed inoculation with associative diazotrophic bacteria is one of the promising ways to solve the problem of increasing the productivity of agricultural plants. Nowadays, Russia produces about 30 different microbiological preparations for crop production, which are involved in the formation and functioning of soil and rhizosphere microflora, plant nutrition regime, and plant protection from diseases and pests [3, 5, 6]. At the same time, the effectiveness of interaction between bacterial preparations and plant species or varieties is related to their biological correspondence to each other and depends on the soil, climatic, and agrotechnical conditions [11]. The mechanical transfer of positive results of associative biopreparations from some species and varieties of plants in particular soil, climatic, and agrotechnical conditions to others often leads to inconsistent results, preventing the sufficient prediction of plant responses to inoculation. The works on identifying effective strains of rhizobacteria and the conditions of their application remain relevant. Therefore, our research aims to study the effectiveness of the inoculation of spring wheat seeds of the Leningradskaya 6 variety with various biopreparations on growth indicators, productivity, and chemical composition of grain and straw at increasing nitrogen nutrition level.

2 Materials and Methods Vegetation experiments were carried out on the experimental field of St. Petersburg State Agrarian University according to the recommendations [9]. During the experiment, we used spring wheat of the Leningradskaya 6 variety. Mineral fertilizers were applied according to the experimental scheme. The maximum dose was the recommended dose of N0.1 P0.1 K0.1 (0.1 g of the active ingredient of a fertilizer per 1 kg of soil) [9, 10]. Wheat was planted in plastic growing vessels with 5 kg of soil and pre-applied mineral fertilizers according to the experiment scheme. Twenty-four grains were sown into each vessel. Embedment depth is 1.5–2 cm. After 2–3 weeks, the number of plants was equalized, and 15 plants per vessel were left. Wheat plants were grown in a plant house with natural light and artificial irrigation. Soil moisture was maintained at 70–80% of full-field moisture capacity. The experiment used the biopreparations provided by the All-Russian Institute of Agricultural Microbiology (St. Petersburg—Pushkin), 17-1 (Pseudomonas sp. strain 17-1), and KL-10 (Pseudomonas sp. strain KL-10). Seeds were inoculated with microbiopreparations immediately before sowing, according to the manufacturer’s recommendations (300 g of preparation per hectare seed rate). In the control

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Table 1 Agrochemical features of soil Humus, %

pHKCl

Hg, mg-eq/100 g P2 O5 , mg/kg soil

K2 O, mg/kg

S, mg-eq/100 g soil

V, %

7.1

5.9

1.18

124

35.05

96.7

153

Source Compiled by the authors

variant, seed treatment with preparations was not applied. Vegetation experiments were carried out in four replications. The soil used in the study was sod-podzolic, medium-loam, well-cultivated, with a high content of mobile forms of phosphorus and increased potassium. The reaction of the environment is close to neutral (Table 1). Phenological phases of plants were recorded during the growing season. The growth dynamics of spring wheat were measured on days 10, 45, and 70 of the growing seasons, which corresponded to the phenological phases of wheat plants: tillering, earing, and wax maturity. The height and dry weight of the plants were measured. To account for the chemical composition of barley plants, we determined the gross content of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The analysis was carried out in extracts after wet ashing of plant material according to the method of Ginzburg et al. Quantitative determination of total nitrogen in plant samples was carried out by photocolorimetric method using Nessler reagent. Potassium was determined on a flame photometer. Phosphorus was determined using a spectrophotocolorimeter.

3 Results According to the results of our study, there was a different response of plants to the studied biopreparations and their combination with different levels of mineral nutrition in the tillering phase (day 10 of the growing season) (Tables 2 and 3). In the tillering phase, the biopreparation KL-10 with the addition of mineral nitrogen contributed to a significant increase in the dry weight of plants from 17% (at a relatively high level of nutrition) to 29–32% (at low and medium levels of nitrogen nutrition, respectively), while not affecting the height of plants. Biopreparation 17-1 showed no significant effect on the studied parameters in the tillering phase. The most active effect of seed inoculation on plant height and dry weight accumulation was observed in the middle of the growing season (day 45, phenaphase— earing—beginning of flowering). When seeds were treated with the biological preparation KL-10, a reliable increase in plant height by 9% was noted in variants with the application of mineral fertilizers; with the low and medium levels of mineral nitrogen, it increased to 13% (the difference between the variants is not significant) (Table 2). The same preparation provided a significant increase in the dry weight of plants by 15–17%.

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Table 2 Effect of biopreparation on the height of wheat in different vegetation phases Option

Tillering

Earing

Height, cm Increase Height, cm compared to the control, %

Wax ripeness Increase Height, cm compared to the control, %

Increase compared to the control, %

Control 16.3 Control + 17-1 15.8 Control + KL-10 16.0

0 −3 −2

74.5 74.0 73.8

0 −1 −1

85.1 80.0 86.8

0 −6 2

P0.1 K0.1 17.3 16.8 P0.1 K0.1 + 17-1 P0.1 K0.1 + KL-10 16.7

0 −3 −4

75.0 73.4 81.8

0 −2 9

86.2 81.6 86.4

0 −5 0

N0.025 PK N0.025 PK + 17-1 N0.025 PK + KL-10

17.7 17.8 18.0

0 0 2

73.2 82.2 82.8

0 12 13

86.5 83.1 85.2

0 −4 −2

N0.05 PK N0.05 PK + 17-1 N0.05 PK + KL-10

18.3 18.5 18.0

0 1 −2

72.7 80.0 80.9

0 10 11

88.3 82.5 86.5

0 −7 −2

0 1 2

70.8 77.8 75.9

0 10 7

86.5 83.6 86.1

0 −3 0

N0.1 PK 18.7 N0.1 PK + 17-1 18.9 N0.1 PK + KL-10 19.0 HCP05

1.2

5.7

4.2

Source Compiled by the authors

The application of biopreparation 17-1 in the earing phase also increased plant height with mineral nitrogen from 10% (high mineral nitrogen) to 12% (low nitrogen). Moreover, it stimulated the growth of the dry weight of plants by 14–21%. Maximum accumulation of biomass was observed in the variant with the minimum dose of nitrogen. At zero nutrition (without mineral fertilizers), a significant effect of inoculation on the height and dry weight of plants in the earing phase was not observed. Analysis of indicators at the next stage of development was carried out after harvesting (day 75 of vegetation—wax ripeness). In the phase of wax ripeness, there is a decline in the effect of inoculation with the studied biopreparations. There is no significant difference in height between control and inoculated plants (Table 2). The intensity of biomass accumulation in variants with biopreparations is reduced to 10–13% (KL-10 and 17-1 at the minimum level of nitrogen nutrition, respectively). In the variant with the application of only phosphorus and potassium fertilizers, the increase in biomass was 9–14% (17-1 and KL-10, respectively). Thus, the established advantage of the effect of inoculation with these biopreparations in the phase of active growth on plant height was not retained at the end of the growing season, which we attribute to earlier maturation of treated plants. Nevertheless, in the phase of wax

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71

Table 3 Effect of inoculation with biopreparations on the dry weight of wheat plants in different phases of vegetation Option

Tillering

Earing

Wax ripeness

Dry weight, g/vessel

Increase compared to the control, %

Dry weight, g/vessel

Increase compared to the control, %

Dry weight, g/vessel

Increase compared to the control, %

Control Control + 17-1 Control + KL-10

1.6 1.6 1.7

0 0 6

7.5 7.4 7.8

0 −1 4

15.1 12.9 14.7

0 −15 −3

P0.1 K0.1 P0.1 K0.1 + 17-1 P0.1 K0.1 + KL-10

1.9 1.9 2.0

0 0 5

15.0 17.1 17.2

0 14 15

21.8 23.7 24.8

0 9 14

N0.025 PK 2.1 N0.025 PK + 17-1 2.2 N0.025 PK + KL-10 2.7

0 5 29

15.5 18.8 18.2

0 21 17

25.4 28.8 27.8

0 13 10

N0.05 PK N0.05 PK + 17-1 N0.05 PK + KL-10

2.2 2.3 2.9

0 5 32

16.0 18.9 18.4

0 18 15

28.9 29.8 27.7

0 3 −4

N0.1 PK N0.1 PK + 17-1 N0.1 PK + KL-10

2.4 2.4 2.8

0 0 17

16.5 18.8 17.0

0 14 3

29.1 29.6 28.6

0 1 −2

HCP05

0.3

2.0

1.8

Source Compiled by the authors

ripeness, there is a tendency to increase plant biomass using each biopreparation on the phosphorus-potassium background and with the lowest nitrogen application. In the study of the effect of biological preparations with increasing doses of mineral nitrogen on plant productivity, it was found (Table 4) that inoculation with various biological preparations at zero nutrition level (without mineral fertilizers) did not increase the plant biomass of spring wheat and reduced the mass of grain under given soil and climatic conditions. The application of phosphorus and potassium at high soil fertility contributed to the increase in dry weight of plants under the influence of KL-10 biopreparation up to 13%. There is also a positive trend in biomass accumulation in the variant with the preparation 17-1. The increase in grain productivity in variants with inoculation was not established. The analysis of experimental data with the application of increasing doses of mineral nitrogen revealed its ambiguous effect on the formation of biomass and grain productivity of inoculated plants (Table 3). With a minimum application of mineral nitrogen, inoculation with the preparations contributed to a significant increase in plant biomass from 9% (17-1) to 14% (KL10). Grain weight increased by 16% (KL-10) relative to the control variant (without inoculation).

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Table 4 Effect of biological preparations on the productivity of spring wheat Option

Dry weight, g/vessel

Increase compared to the control, %

Weight of Increase compared to grain from the control, % the vessel, g

Bst a

1. Control 2. Control + KL-10 3. Control + 17-1

15.1 14.7 12.9

0 −3 −15

5.0 4.6 4.5

0 −12 −10

33.1 31.3 34.9

4. P0.1 K0.1 5. P0.1 K0.1 + KL-10 6. P0.1 K0.1 + 17-1

21.8 24.8 23.7

0 13 8

8.4 9.2 8.6

0 10 2

38.5 37.0 33.5

7. N0.025 PK 8. N0.025 PK + KL-10 9. N0.025 PK + 17-1

25.4 28.8 27.8

0 14 9

9.5 11.1 8.8

0 16 −7

37.4 38.5 31.6

10. N0.05 PK 11. N0.05 PK + KL-10 12. N0.05 PK + 17-1

28.9 29.8 27.7

0 3 −4

10.5 12.1 10.7

0 15 2

36.6 38.5 38.6

13. N0.1 PK 14. N0.1 PK + KL-10 15. N0.1 PK + 17-1

29.1 29.6 28.6

0 1 −2

10.8 10.6 10.5

0 −2 −3

37.0 35.8 36.7

HCP05

2.1

Note

a Grain

1.5

storage box. Source Compiled by the authors

Combining a medium dose of mineral nitrogen and inoculation with biopreparation KL-10 maintains the gain of grain weight by 15%. However, it does not affect the accumulation of plant biomass in general compared to the control variant (Table 3). At a relatively high level of mineral nitrogen, a significant effect on the formation of dry weight and grain productivity of wheat plants treated with biopreparations was not found. In the variants with the fourth and half doses of mineral nitrogen, bacterial preparations influenced the increase in the coefficient of economic efficiency. Its highest value was obtained using the KL-10 preparation at a half dose of nitrogen. We have studied the effect of inoculation on the accumulation of major nutrients in straw and grains of spring wheat with the KL-10 biopreparation (Tables 5 and 6). Data analysis showed that seed inoculation contributed to the accumulation of total nitrogen in the grain. The trend of increasing nitrogen was present in all variants. However, a significant increase (17–18%) was noted in the variants with the low and medium application of mineral nitrogen. Treatment with this drug did not significantly affect the accumulation of phosphorus and potassium in the grain. The analysis of experimental data showed that inoculation of wheat seeds with biological preparation KL-10 had a positive effect on accumulating basic nutrition elements in straw. The maximum increase in nitrogen content in straw (up to 64%) was observed at the medium level of nitrogen nutrition. The content of potassium in straw under the influence of inoculation combined with mineral nitrogen increased on average from 19 to 26%. The phosphorus content in the straw of spring wheat was not significantly affected by KL-10, although there is a positive trend in the nitrogen level of nutrition.

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73

Table 5 Effects of KL-10 biopreparation and different levels of mineral nitrogen on the accumulation of basic nutrients in the grain of spring wheat Option

N, % Increase P2 O5 , % compared to the control, %

Increase K2 O, % compared to the control, %

Increase compared to the control, %

1. Control 2. Control + KL-10

1.40 1.50

0 7

1.04 1.10

0 6

0.46 0.48

0 4

3. P0.1 K0.1 (background) 4. P0.1 K0.1 + KL-10

1.70 1.78

0 5

1.03 1.08

0 5

0.56 0.58

0 4

5. N0.025 PK 6. N0.025 PK + KL-10

2.00 2.33

0 17

1.05 1.09

0 4

0.57 0.66

0 15

7. N0.05 PK 8. N0.05 PK + KL-10

2.01 2.37

0 18

1.00 1.11

0 11

0.70 0.74

0 6

9. N0.1 PK 10. N0.1 PK + KL-10

2.10 2.27

0 8

1.10 1.17

0 6

0.78 0.80

0 3

HCP05

0.24

0.12

0.17

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 6 Effects of KL-10 biopreparation and different levels of nitrogen on the accumulation of basic nutrients in the straw of spring wheat Option

N, % Increase P2 O5 , % compared to the control, %

Increase K2 O, % compared to the control, %

Increase compared to the control, %

1. Control 2. Control + KL-10

0.33 0.43

0 30

0.12 0.13

0 8

0.75 0.70

0 −7

3. P0.1 K0.1 (background) 4. P0.1 K0.1 + KL-10

0.41 0.58

0 42

0.17 0.16

0 −6

0.98 1.17

0 19

5. N0.025 PK 6. N0.025 PK + KL-10

0.47 0.72

0 53

0.19 0.21

0 17

1.14 1.44

0 26

7. N0.05 PK 8. N0.05 PK + KL-10

0.55 0.90

0 64

0.21 0.27

0 22

1.21 1.44

0 19

9.N0.1 PK 10.N0.1 PK + KL-10

0.95 0.97

0 2.1

0.25 0.29

0 16

1.28 1.56

0 22

HCP05

0.26

0.08

0.22

Source Compiled by the authors

4 Conclusion Thus, the application of biological preparations KL-10 and 17-1 based on associative nitrogen fixers contributed to an increase in biomass and grain productivity of wheat

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plants and influenced the quality of products. The most active effect of biopreparations was found in the earing phase. Plant response to inoculation depended on the level of mineral nutrition and the biopreparation used. Combining the studied biological preparations and relatively small doses of mineral nitrogen contributed to the maximum increase in dry weight of plants and grain weight. Moreover, it increased the content of total nitrogen in grain and nitrogen and potassium in straw. From tested biological preparations (17-1 and KL-10), KL-10 was found to be the most effective in our studies. This preparation increased the dry weight of wheat plants by 14%, grain weight by 16%, nitrogen content in straw by 64%, and nitrogen content in grain by 16% relative to the control variant without inoculation.

References 1. Alferov AA (2017) Effect of agrochemical properties of sod-podzolic soils and meteorological conditions of the growing season on the effectiveness of biopreparations and nitrogen fertilizer on spring wheat. In: Proceedings of the all-Russian scientific and practical conference, devoted to 125th anniversary of organization of “special expedition of forest department on testing and accounting of different methods and methods of forest and water management in steppes of Southern Russia”. Voronezh, pp 227–236 2. Khuaz SKh, Efremova MA (2020) Influence of pre-seeding inoculation by biological products on productivity and accumulation of basic elements of two varieties. Izv Saint-Petersburg State Agrar Univ 59:33–38. https://doi.org/10.24411/2078-1318-2020-12033 3. Kozhemyakov AP, Laktionov YuV, Popova TA, Orlova AG, Kokorina AL, Vaishlya OB et al (2015) The scientific basis for the creation of new forms of microbial biochemicals. Agric Biol 50(3):369–376. https://doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2015.3.369rus 4. Kryuchkova EV, Burygin GL, Neshko AA, Grinev VS, Shchegolev SYu, Turkovskaya OV (2017) Role of rhizosphere bacteria in detoxification of complex pollutants. In: Reshetilova TA (ed) I Russian microbiological congress. Publishing House “Water: Chemistry and Ecology”, Moscow, pp 157–158 5. Lukin SM, Marchuk EV (2011) Influence of biological preparations of associative nitrogenfixing microorganisms on productivity of agricultural crops. Achiev Sci Technol Agro-Ind Complex 8:18–21 6. Petrova SN, Parakhin NV (2013) Microbial biofertilisers—the way of formation of effective plant-microbial systems. Legum Groat Crops 2(6):86–91 7. Shafran SA, Dukhanina TM (2017) Effect of complex agrochemical soil improvement on increasing efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers in wheat. Agrohimia 11:21–30. https://doi.org/10. 7868/S0002188117110035 8. Tikhonovich IA, Zavalin AA, Blagoveshchenskaya GG, Kozhemyakov AP (2011) The use of biopreparation—an additional source of power plants. Plodorodie 3(60):9–13 9. Vorobeikov GA, Tsarenko VP, Lunina NF (2014) Field and vegetation studies on agrochemistry and phytophysiology: textbook. Prospekt Nauki, St. Petersburg 10. Vorobeykov GA, Bredikhin VN (2018) Microorganisms in agrobiotechnology and environmental protection. Herzen University, St. Petersburg 11. Vorobeykov GA, Pavlova TK, Kondrat SV, Lebedev VN, Yurgina VS, Muratova RR et al (2011) A study of associative rhizobacteria efficiency for economic plants, vol 141. Herzen University Journal of Humanities & Sciences, Izvestia, pp 114–123 12. Zavalin AA, Almetov NS (2009) Application of biological preparations and biological nitrogen in farming of non-chernozem region. All-Russian Research Institute of Automation, Moscow

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13. Zavalin AA, Sokolov OA (2016) Nitrogen fluxes in the agroecosystem: from the ideas of D. N. Pryanishnikov to the present day. All-Russian Research Institute of Automation, Moscow 14. Zavalin AA, Alferov AA, Chernova LS (2019) Associative nitrogen fixation and the practice of application of biological products in agricultural crops. Agrohimia 8:83–96. https://doi.org/ 10.1134/S0002188119080143

New Varieties of Seed Peas for a Wide Area of Cultivation Maria S. Shakirzyanova and Nikita A. Shagaev

Abstract This article describes the work on the development of new varieties of peas, biological and economically valuable characteristics of the Sinbir and Tus varieties, and the results of their state variety testing. The purpose of this research is to create varieties of sowing peas, adaptable to soil and climatic conditions of the environment, with a high potential for productivity and seed quality indicators. The experiments were laid in the nursery of competitive variety testing for three years (2016–2018). The soil of the experimental field is a leached chernozem soil with a humus content of 5.65%. As a result of research on yield and useful economic traits, lines 433/05 and 403/08 were identified, which were transferred to the state variety trial under the name Sinbir and Tus. The increase in yield to the standard variety in the competitive variety testing was 0.17 t/ha for the Sinbir variety, 0.23 t/ha for the Tus variety. The varieties show that, depending on the soil and climatic conditions of cultivation, they are capable of forming high yields in various regions of the Russian Federation. The maximum yield of pea varieties Sinbir and Tus was reached at the Lipetsk State Statistical System and amounted to 6.2 and 5.57 t/ha. Sinbir is included in the state register of breeding achievements in the Volga-Vyatka, Central Black Earth, Middle Volga regions of the Russian Federation. Sorting pea variety Tus is distributed by Central, Volgo-Vyatsky, Central Chernozemsky, and Middle Volga. Keywords Variety · Yield · Hybridization · Morphotype · Competitive variety testing · State variety testing JEL Classification Q16

M. S. Shakirzyanova (B) · N. A. Shagaev Samara Federal Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture, Ulyanovsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_10

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1 Introduction Peas in Russia are the main grain crop. In many regions, it provides the greatest grain harvest and protein collection from a hectare. Its advantage is also high ecological plasticity, comparable resistance to diseases, the ability to improve soil fertility [8, 13, 18]. The cultivation of pea in mixtures with cereal crops allows providing animal husbandry balanced by the amino acid forage and Senage [4]. The value of the pea as a food culture in solving the problems of the deficiency of environmentally friendly vegetable protein in human nutrition is also very high. According to Professor Ivanova, the grain of pea consists of an average of up to 28.7% proteins, starch to 45.5%, up to 7% of sugars and many other nutrients [16]. The pea protein also consists of a large amount of lysine, which is a good addition to the protein of cereals [2]. National economic importance is determined by the diversity of its use and biochemical composition. In addition, peas, possessing symbiotic nitrogenation are of interest as a factor in the biological intensification of crop production, because it helps to increase the fertility of the soil, yield, and productivity of subsequent crops. The role of peas as a precursor for many skin grain and row crops is invaluable. Its use as a steaming crop in the cultivation of winter crops contributes to an increase in the yield of grain products per unit area with a high level of production profitability [19]. Recently, the selection of peas helps to increase real productivity by improving the morphotype of plants. One of the reasons for the rapid progress in pea breeding was a radical restructuring of the architectonics of the leaf apparatus. Modern varieties have a modified overall habit and architectonics, varieties with a yield potential of 5–6 tons per hectare have been created [7]. The development of the whisker-leaf varieties was a turning point that changed attitude towards peas. Their advantage is the ability to form a resistance to loneways, well ventilated with good penetration of sunlight, the production process in which functions in the most favorable mode [15]. A significant part of the products of photosynthesis is spent on the formation of seeds, but not on the vegetative mass. Therefore, varieties with a leaf tight are increasingly included in breeding programs while breeding new varieties [12, 17]. Due to the wide variety of highly productive varieties, the most adapted to the agroclimatic conditions of the region, the value of the choice increases. The right choice of grade allows maximizing the potential of its yield and, thus, increase the real output of products without increasing the cost of its production. A new, more modern and highly productive grade provides not only an increase in yield, quality, plant stability to stressful environmental factors, but also contributes to more efficient use of natural and anthropogenic resources, including potential for soil fertility, fertilization and protection [1, 9]. More than 80% of pea varieties included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements in 2021 are varieties with a leaf tight [5]. In recent years, breeders of the Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture have created pea varieties that combine a high productivity potential with a complex of economically valuable characteristics and properties (Table 1).

New Varieties of Seed Peas for a Wide Area of Cultivation

79

Table 1 Sorts of sowing peas created in the Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture and transferred to the Government Joint Tests in 2008–2020 No

Variety

Year of transfer of a Regions of new variety to SJT admission

Year of inclusion in the register

Features

1

Ulyanovets

2008

3, 4, 6, 7

2011

Non-crumbling seeds, leafy morphotype

2

Ukaz

2008

4, 6, 7

2011

Leaf tight, valuable for quality

3

Yubilyar

2014

3, 4, 7

2017

Leaf tight, non-crumbling seeds

4

Shevron

2016

4

2019

Leaf tight, valuable for quality

5

Kulon

2016

4, 5, 7, 9

2019

Leaf tight

6

Sinbir

2018

4, 5, 7

2021

Leaf tight, non-shattering seeds

7

Tus

2018

3, 4, 5, 7

2021

Leaf tight, black rib seeds

Source Compiled by the authors according to [5]

The main purpose of this research is to develop varieties of seed peas that are resistant to the influence of biotic and abiotic factors, possessing a complex of valuable traits with high productivity potential and seed quality indicators.

2 Materials and Methods The research was carried out in a competitive variety testing nursery for three years (2016–2018). The previous crop was soft spring wheat. The soil of the experimental field appeared to be leached chernozem soil with a humus content of 5.65% [14]. In 2016, the climatic conditions of the growing season were characterized by elevated average daily air temperatures and insufficient precipitation. The hydrothermal coefficient was 0.8 with a coefficient of 1.0. The sum of active temperatures above +5 °C, reached 2082 °C (1556 °C—average multi-year data). The growing season of 2017 was assessed by cool weather. In May and June, the temperature regime was 2 below the average annual norm, in August and September, the weather was arid. The most significant rains went in the first decade of July when the amount of precipitation was 151.6 mm, which exceeded two-month norms. As a result, the hydrothermal coefficient was 1.4 at a rate of 1.0.

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Analysis of the growing season of 2018 showed that the temperature regime was elevated, except for June, and moderate in terms of precipitation. The hydrothermal coefficient was 0.5 with a coefficient of 1.0. The sum of the active temperatures above +5 °C for the growing season reached 1999 °C, and on average, the long-term value is 1760 °C. Sowing of peas was carried out with a SN-10Ts seeder in four replications on plots with an area of 16 m2 . The calculated seeding rate was 130 pieces of seed chairs per 1 m2 . Organization of field experiments, assessment of samples, counts and observations were carried out according to the methodology of state variety testing of agricultural crops [11] and following the VIR methodology [10]. The Zoned Grade Ukaz was used as a normative standard. The protein content in pea grain was determined according to Kjeldahl [6], digestibility according to the method of Sosnina [3]. The data were processed using the AGROS computer program.

3 Results To breed peas of the sowing variety Sinbir, the authors used the method of individual selection from a hybrid combination obtained from crossing the varieties Batrak (Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops)—leafless, determinant, non-shattering and Talovets 60 (Voronezh FASC named after V.V. Dokuchaev) non-precious, non-switching type. The botanical variety is Ekadukum. Also, the Tus seed pea variety was bred by selection from a hybrid combination. Crossing of parental forms US-96 (Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops) was carried out—leafless, with a black scar and Talovets 70 (Voronezh FASC named after V.V. Dokuchaev)—selfiestical, without a sign of squeeziness. The botanical variety is mesomelan. The authors of the varieties are M. S. Shakirzyanova and N. A. Shagayev. Both grain areas are used for food and commercial purposes. Since 2019, stateowned varieties have passed. With the help of the dense weaving of plants, a spring stalk is formed, due to which it’s easy to carry out their cleaning directly. The grade of pea sowing Sinbir is a plant of a tight morphotype with a nonswitching shape of the seed. The variety of ecaducum is presented in Fig. 1. The variety has high productivity, resistance to plant lodging and shedding of seeds, and also excellent taste. The protein content in the grain of this type reaches 27%. The growing season lasts 73–79 days. Has a high resistance to shedding and lodging, which allows for direct cleaning (Table 2). Sinbir passed state variety testing in five regions of the Russian Federation: Central (3), Volgo-Vyatka (4), Central Chernozemsky (5), Middle Volga (7), Ural (9), and held a leading position in many regions of the Russian Federation, the highest yield— 6.2 t/ha—was obtained in the Lipetsk region [5] (Fig. 2). Pea variety Tus is a plant of tight morphotype with crumbling seeds, a variety of mesomelan (Fig. 3).

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The plant shape is compact. Stem green, no pubescence, without axillary spot. The total height is average, 60...80 cm. A peeling bean, with a strongly developed parchment layer, slightly curved with a blunt top. The number of beans per plant: average - 6-8, maximum - 14. Number of seeds in a pod: average - 4-5, maximum - 8.

The seed has a medium size, rounded, with yellow cotyledon. The scar is closed by an accrete seed stem. The weight of 1,000 grains is 220-260 gr.

Fig. 1 Sinbir pea variety. Source Compiled by the authors

Table 2 Characteristics of Sinbir variety, 2016–2018 years Indicators

Sinbir

Ukaz

Deviation from Ukaz

Grain yield, t/ha

2.12

1.95

+0.17

Vegetation period, days

76

77

−1

Weight of 1000 grains, g

240

228

+12

Protein content, %

19.9

20.0

−0.1

Digestibility, min

94

84

+10

Plant height, cm

77.9

69.8

+8.1

Stability, score: to lodging

4.8

4.8

0

Stability, score: to shedding

High

High

Defeat, %: moth

2.0

1.5

+0.5

Defeat, %: weevil

0.4

1.0

−0.6

Source Data from the Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture

This variety is recommended for food and feed purposes. It has a high production potential and produces a grain of good quality. The growing season lasts 73–76 days—mid-season. It also has high resistance to lodging and shedding (Table 3). The Tus also passed the State Joint Trials (SJT) in the Central (3), Volgo-Vyatka (4), Central Chernozemsky (5), Middle Volga (7), and Ural (9) Regions of the Russian Federation.

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Fig. 2 Yield of the Sinbir pea variety according to the results of the SJT (2019–2020 years). Source Compiled by the authors according to [5]

The plant shape is compact. Stem green, no pubescence, without axillary spot. The total height is average, 50...80 cm. A peeling bean, with a strongly developed parchment layer, slightly curved with a blunt top. Number of beans per plant: average - 5-7, maximum - 14. Number of seeds in a bean: average - 4-5, maximum - 10.

The seed is medium, round, with yellow cotyledons. The colour of the scar is black. Weight of 1,000 grains is 260300 gr.

Fig. 3 Pea variety Tus. Source Compiled by the authors

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Table 3 Characteristics of the Tus variety, 2016–2018 years Indicators

Unit measurements

Tus

Ukaz

Deviation from Ukaz

Grain harvest

t/ha

2.23

2.00

+0.17

Vegetation period

days

75

77

−2

Weight of 1000 grains

ha

282

218

+64

Protein content

%

21.6

21.1

+0.5

Digestibility

min

79

88

−9

Plant height

cm

70.5

65.8

+4.7

Resistance: to lodging

Score

4.8

4.8

0

Resistance: to shedding

High

High

Defeat: by moth

%

1.0

1.5

−0.5

Defeat: by weevil

%

0.8

1.0

−0.2

Source Compiled by the authors, according to data from the Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture

On average for two years, SJT pea variety Tus showed a positive increase in yield in 10 regions, the maximum seed yield—5.57 t/ha—was obtained in the Lipetsk Region [5] (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Productivity of the Tus pea variety according to the results of the SJT (2019–2020 years). Source Compiled by the authors, according to the data from [5]

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Table 4 Adaptability parameters of Sinbir and Tus varieties Variety

Yield, t/ha

bi

Sj 2

2016

2017

2018

Middle

Sinbir

2.46

2.39

1.52

2.12

1.01

0.72

Tus

2.54

2.65

1.49

2.23

1.03

0.75

Source Data from the Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture

The parameters of plasticity and stability of yield were determined for varieties Sinbir and Tus, according to the method of Eberhart and Rassell. Plasticity is calculated using the linear regression coefficient (bi). The change in yield corresponds to a change in growing conditions if the coefficient bi is equal and close to one. To assess the stability of yield, the value of the variance of deviations from the regression line (Sj 2 ) is used, so the sign is more stable if the value is less (Table 4). It should be noted that the Sinbir and Tus varieties have very high phenotypic stability, because the linear regression coefficient is close to 1 (1.01 and 1.03), and the Sj 2 value has rather low indicators (0.72 and 0.75). Such varieties have a high breeding value.

4 Conclusion Thus, the ongoing breeding work in the Ulyanovsk Research Institute of Agriculture gives positive results. New varieties of peas Sinbir and Tus can form a stable yield of good quality grain in different soil and climatic conditions, including in unfavorable years, and respond to favorable changes in cultivation very well. Sorting pea variety Sinbir, according to the results of the state variety test, has been included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements since 2021 and approved for use in the Volgo-Vyatka (Perm Territory, Nizhny Novgorod Region, and Sverdlovsk Region), Central Chernozemsky (Lipetsk Region, Tambov Region), and Middle Volga (Penza Region, Samara Region and Ulyanovsk Region) regions of the Russian Federation. The maximum yield in the SJT was 6.2 t/ha. After two years of state variety testing, the Tus pea variety has been included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements since 2021 and approved for use in the Central Region (Moscow Region, Tula Region), Volgo-Vyatka Region (Perm Territory, Nizhny Novgorod Region), Central Chernozemsky Region (Kursk Region, Tambov Region), the Middle Volga Region (Penza and Ulyanovsk Regions). The highest yield was obtained in the Lipetsk Region, 5.57 t/ha. The selection of new varieties ensures constant progress in the development of agricultural sectors by increasing yields, improving the quality of products and reducing energy costs for its production.

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References 1. Alabushev AV (2011) Variety as a factor of innovative development of grain production. Grain Econ Russ 3:8–11 2. Burstin J, Duc G (2007) Protein content and protein composition of pea seeds. In: The relationship between protein content and protein composition of pea seeds. Grain Legum 3. Device for determining the digestibility of grain legumes. Ecology reference guide. In: Determination of the digestibility of grains of cereals and legumes by taking into account the digestibility of each grain. URL: http://ru-ecology.info/pics/203653101520006/. Accessed: 1.02.2021 4. Fadeeva AN, Shurkhaeva KD, Fadeev EA, Abrosimova AN (2017) Competitive ability of components of mixed agrocenosis of peas with oats. Legum Cereals 2(22):67–73 5. Federal State Budgetary Institution. State Commission of the Russian Federation for testing and protection of breeding achievements. URL: http://www.gossort.com/docs/rus/REESTR2021. pdf. Accessed 04.03.2021 6. GOST 10846-91 (2009) Grain and products of its processing/method for determining the protein. URL: http://standartgost.ru/g/%D0%93%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A2_10846-91. Accessed 1.02.2021 7. Goncharenko AA (2005) On adaptivity and ecological stability of grain crop varieties. Bull Russ Acad Agric Sci 6:49–53 8. Goncharov SV, Titarenko AV, Korobova NA (2015) Some aspects of breeding programs for seed peas. Grain Farm Russ 3:10–14 9. Ivanov MV (2011) The main directions of modern breeding (concept). Sz scria, Saint Petersburg, 25 p 10. Methodological guidelines for the study of the collection of grain legumes (1975) VIR, London, 59 p 11. Methodology of state variety testing of agricultural crops (1971) Kolos, Moscow, 239 p 12. Shevchenko AM (1980) Inheritance of the sign of non-fallability of pea seeds during hybridization. Select Seed Prod 44:37–51 13. Stand PJ, Ya H, Pietrasik Z, Wanasundara PKJPD (2007) Physicochemical and textural properties of heat-induced pea protein isolate gels. Food Chem 102:1119–1130 14. Zakharov VG, Mishenkina OG (2020) Adaptive properties of new oat varieties in the conditions of the Middle Volga region. Sci Theoret J Bull Ulyanovsk State Agric Acad 4(52):100–107 15. Zelenov AN, Zadorin AM, Zelenov AA, Kononova ME (2020) Selection of mustachioed pea varieties in the Federal Research Center of Leguminous and cereal crops. Legum Cereal Crops 1(33):4–10 16. Ziyadov EO, Oripov DM, Vafoeva MB (2019) Indicators of the quality of varieties and cultivars of peas on bogar. Innov Sci 10:23–26 17. Zotikov VI (2020) Development of the production of legumes and cereals in Russia based on the use of breeding achievements. Legum Cereals Orel 4(36):5–23 18. Zotikov VI (2004) The role of grain crops in solving the problem of feed protein and the main directions for increasing their production. Scientific Support for the Production of S/B and Cereal Crops, Orel, pp 256–260 19. Zvyagintsev M (2015) Peas as a source of protein and the best precursor for cereals. Agrar Rev 5(51):28–36

Effect of Micronutrients on the Productivity of Medicinal Plants Zhanna M. Yakhtanigova , Irina V. Kulishova , and Alexander V. Afanasyev

Abstract Studies aimed at improving the technology for cultivating belladonna (Atropa belladonna L.) in the conditions of the Belgorod Region started in 2020 at the Belgorod branch of the “All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.” The experiment used Agromaster fertilizer. Experimental plots were treated during when the first five leaves appeared and after mowing on the fifth day. The use of fertilizers in belladonna crops in the first year of life contributed to an increase in the average height of plants in the experimental plots. Moreover, there decreased variation in plant height: in the variant with double application of fertilizers, stem growth averaged 7.6 cm; in the variant with a single application of fertilizers, stem growth averaged 12.8 cm; in the control variant, stem growth averaged 17.6 cm. The double treatment of belladonna crops provided an average increase in total yield of 0.79 t/ha of dry grass, which is the highest result. The total yield equaled 3.49 t/ha. Keywords Medicinal plants · Belladonna · Fertilizers · Phenological observations · Growth processes · Yield JEL Classification Q1 · P42

1 Introduction In recent decades, Russian and international pharmaceutical companies have shown increased interest in various sources of herbal raw materials to produce drugs. Belladonna (Atropa belladonna L.) is a well-known and popular medicinal plant with a wide range of pharmacological actions. In Russia, the main area for growing belladonna is the Crimea and the North Caucasus. Due to the limited distribution of this plant in natural conditions, research aimed at increasing its adaptability and productivity in northern regions of Russian is particularly relevant [1, 3, 5, 7, 14]. Z. M. Yakhtanigova (B) · I. V. Kulishova · A. V. Afanasyev Belgorod Branch of the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Belgorod, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_11

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The geo-climatic position of the Belgorod Region and its economic situation allow growing most species of medicinal and aromatic plants used in scientific medicine in Russia. The region is rich in thermal resources. In the region, there are 150–158 days with temperatures above 10 °C. The sum of temperatures above 10 °C ranges from 2450 in the north to 2700 °C in the region’s southeast. Summers are warm; the average temperature of the warmest month (July) is 19.5–21.0 °C [15]. The paper aims to optimize mineral nutrition to increase the yield of medicinal raw material belladonna (Atropa belladonna L.) in the conditions of the Belgorod Region. The main research objectives are to establish the effect of a fertilizer with a complex of chelates on the growth and development of belladonna, as well as to determine the yield of medicinal raw materials (herbs) of belladonna.

2 Materials and Methods Field experiments were carried out on the first-year crops of belladonna. The seeds were sown using a wide-row method with a row spacing of 70 cm. The seeding rate is 8.0 kg/ha, the depth of seeding—1.5–2.0 cm. The precursor was complete fallow. The experiment was repeated three times with a systematic placement of plots. The area of the accounting plot was 50 m2 . The experiment scheme included the following variants: • Variant 1—water treatment, control; • Variant 2—single treatment with Agromaster fertilizer; • Variant 3—double treatment with Agromaster fertilizer. Plants were treated during the phase when the first five leaves appeared and after mowing on the fifth day. In the experiments, we used a fertilizer Agromaster 13:40:13 in the dose of 2 kg/ha; the consumption of working solution—200 l/ha. During the growing season, we carried out meteorological and phenological observations, measured biometric indicators (plant height, number of generative shoots), and recorded plant mass of yield [2, 4, 9, 13].

3 Results In general, climatic conditions in 2020 corresponded to the average annual indicators. The winter was moderately cold, with average air temperatures of −2.1 to 6.4 °C in January–February. Precipitation for the period was 86 mm, which is slightly above the long-term average. Snow cover height averaged 40.2 cm, which helped prevent plants from freezing in January. March was marked with a rapid positive temperature rise; the temperature regime was 4.6 °C higher than the mean annual values. The average monthly temperature was 2.2 °C. The amount of precipitation for the month

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was 43.1 mm. Climatic conditions in April and May were also within normal limits, which provided a good supply of moisture and stable temperature conditions for the start of the growing processes of belladonna plants. Thus, the initial period of growth and development of belladonna was accompanied by favorable weather conditions. Field germination in the experimental variants was 74–75%. In the variants with the use of fertilizer, full sprouts appeared on the 20th day. In the control variant, full sprouts were formed on the 21st day. The high effectiveness of Agromaster fertilizer became more evident as the intensity of growth processes of belladonna plants increased. The fertilizer contributed to optimizing plant nutrition and significantly stimulated growth processes due to the balanced chemical composition with a complex of trace elements. This preparation feature contributed to the reduction of gaps between phases, which provided an intensive growing season. The duration of the growing season in the control plot was 159 days, 152 days in the variant with a single treatment, and 148 days in the variant with two treatments. In June, the average monthly air temperature was 3.7 °C higher than the longterm average, reaching 21.9 °C. Precipitation for the month was only 16.9 mm, which is 38.4 mm below the long-term average. An average monthly air temperature in July was 0.9 °C lower than the long-term average. Precipitation was 28.1 mm, which is 38.1 mm less than the long-term average. In August, the average monthly air temperature was 1.7 °C higher than the annual average and reached 18.5 °C. Precipitation for the month was only 12.6 mm, which is 42.7 mm lower than the average [6]. The height of plants refers to the varietal traits and is characterized by specific parameters [8, 10–12]. However, weather conditions and cultivation technologies can significantly affect the height of plants. In this regard, significant attention was paid to identifying the effect of Agromaster fertilizer on the variability of plant height in the conducted studies (Table 1). Before mowing, the height of belladonna plants ranged in 4 tiers from 40–50 to 71–80 cm. The control variant was mostly marked with the stability of the studied trait. The highest level of longitude varied within the first two groups, which were the lowest in the experimental conditions (40–50 and 51–60 cm). A small percentage of plants reached a height of 61 cm or more. In the variants with fertilizer application, the plant height covered mainly thirdorder tier, with a slight hit in the fourth tier, which included the highest plants (71– 80 cm). The most significant percentage of plants in the variant with a single fertilizer application was in the group of medium-growing plants (51–60 cm), which exceeded the control variant. The double treatment of the crops promoted the growth of plants in height. The level of short-growing plants in the variant decreased to 10.8%, which is almost four times lower compared to the control. This variant had the highest level of highgrowing plants (34.6%), which was the highest value in the experiment. In the control variant, the plants did not fall into this group.

90 Table 1 Effect of Agromaster fertilizer on the level of belladonna tiering, %

Z. M. Yakhtanigova et al. Crop tiering

Variant 1 (control)

Variant 2

Variant 3

First-order tier, 40–50 cm

45.7

27.3

10.8

Second-order tier, 51–60 cm

44.3

39.0

23.3

Third-order tier, 61–70 cm

10.0

28.2

31.3

Fourth-order tier, 71–80 cm

–

5.5

34.6

Total

100.0

100.0

100.0

First-order tier, 30–40 cm

30.2

24.1

15.3

Second-order tier, 41–50 cm

45.5

44.9

38.7

Third-order tier, 51–60 cm

24.3

26.2

30.5

Fourth-order tier, 61–70 cm

–

4.8

12.2

Fifth order tier, 71–80 cm

–

–

Total

100.0

100.0

Before mowing

After mowing

3.3 100.0

Source Compiled by the authors

After mowing, plant height in all variants decreased by one position. We identified a tier of the first order with a height of 30–40 cm. Plants with a stem height of 71– 80 cm were classified as fifth-order tier after mowing. This group included only the plants of the third variant, which amounted to 3.3%. In general, the trend of changes in the tiering of belladonna plants depending on the application of Agromaster fertilizer has a similar nature. The highest-growing plants were in the variant with the double treatment. The first order tier in this variant was the smallest—15.3%, which is 2–3 times lower than in other variants. Thus, the highest effect of the application of Agromaster fertilizer was detected with a double treatment. The changes were registered in quantitative and qualitative features of the plants. The leaf mass also increased, which had a generally favorable effect on increasing the yield of belladonna. The fertilizer application contributed to an increase in the average height of plants in the experimental plots. Additionally, the gap in plant height of maximum and minimum values decreased. Thus, before mowing, the variation in plant height in the variant with double application of fertilizers averaged 7.6 cm; in the variant with a single application—12.8 cm, and in control—17.6 cm (Table 2).

Effect of Micronutrients on the Productivity of Medicinal Plants Table 2 Biometric indicators of belladonna plants

Indicators

91

Variant 1 (control)

Variant 2

Variant 3

– Average

50.5

59.4

72.0

– Max

59.3

61.3

75.8

– Min

41.7

48.5

68.2

Before mowing Plant height, cm

Number of lateral shoots, pcs. – Average

4.5

5.5

6.5

– Max

6

6

7

– Min

4

5

6

– Average

41.3

44.0

49.7

– Max

46.0

50.1

55.0

– Min

30.4

35.6

41.2

After mowing Plant height, cm

Number of lateral shoots, pcs. – Average

3

3

3.5

– Max

4

4

4

– Min

2

2

3

Source Compiled by the authors

The analysis of the biometric measurements of belladonna plants showed that the application of Agromaster fertilizer had a favorable effect on the parameters of the leaf mass before and after the mowing. Indicators after the mowing did not reach the values detected before it. The data on yield are shown in Fig. 1. The variant with the double treatment of crops with fertilizer had the highest yield, ensuring its increase at the 1st mowing by 0.21–0.41 t/ha of dry grass on average. Belladonna plants continued to vegetate after the first mowing. The application of fertilizer had a positive effect on the regrowth of leaf mass. At the end of the growing season, the yield at the 2nd mowing was determined. Generally, growth was more intense in the third variant, which ensured its advantage in terms of yield after the mowing. The gain from the application of fertilizer averaged from 0.10–0.20 to 0.38 t/ha of raw material at the first mowing. Double treatment of crops with fertilizer provided an increase in yield after the second mowing compared to other variants. The increase was 0.29 t/ha. The positive effect of fertilizer on plant productivity is evidenced by the yield of dry grass in the second mowing in the second option, which also showed an increase of 0.19 t/ha. Thus, a single application of Agromaster increased the dry weight yield of belladonna by 0.48 t/ha. With the double treatment, the increase was maximum and amounted to 0.79 t/ha of dry grass.

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Fig. 1 Yield of dry grass of belladonna, t/ha. Source Compiled by the authors

4 Conclusion The application of a universal fertilizer Agromaster with a complex of microelements had a high effect. The growth and development of belladonna plants proceeded more intensively. The gap of interphase periods was minimal under the experimental conditions. Leafy mass had the highest indicators before and after mowing in the fertilized variants compared to the control. A higher effect was obtained when the crops were treated with the fertilizer twice. Rational distribution of nutrients in the soil ensured the rapid growth of the root system and vegetative mass of plants. Moreover, it contributed to intensive flowering and crop formation. Thus, we conclude that it is advisable to treat belladonna crops at a dose of 2.0 kg/ha at the beginning of germination and after harvesting plants.

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References 1. Batchaev RI (2015) Medicinal and poisonous plants: methodological instructions for practical exercises. North Caucasian State Academy, Cherkessk 2. Beideman IN (1974) Methodology of phenological observations in geobotanical studies. Kolos, Moscow 3. Bulaev VM, Shih EV, Sychev DA (2013) Safety and efficacy of medicinal plants. Practical Medicine, Moscow 4. Dospekhov BA (1985) Experimental case methodology. Agropromizdat, Moscow 5. Grechanyi IA (2015) A large illustrated guide to medicinal herbs and plants. Family Leisure Club, Moscow 6. Hydrometcenter of Russia (n.d.) Actual weather archive. Retrieved from https://meteoinfo.ru/ archive-pogoda. Accessed 23 Oct 2020 7. Ivanov SV (2013) Atlas of Russian medicinal plants. Voskresnyy den, Moscow 8. Kazancheva OD, Gerasimenko AS (2016) Search methodology of new biologically active pharmaceutical substances with receptor activity. Int J Appl Basic Res 48(8):522–525 9. Kislitsyna AA, Bykov AI (2017) Medicinal and essential oil-bearing plants: educational and methodical manual. Publishing House of the Kurgan State Agricultural Academy, Kurgan 10. Kurennov IN (2015) Encyclopedia of medicinal plants, 2nd edn. Martin, Moscow 11. Malankina EL, Tsitsilin AN (2016) Medicinal and aromatic plants. INFRA-M, Moscow 12. Maznev NI (2012) The great encyclopedia of highly effective medicinal plants. Eksmo, Moscow 13. Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation (2021) List of pesticides and agrochemicals permitted for use in the Russian Federation. Retrieved from https://mcx.gov.ru/upload/iblock/ 5d4/5d48d66be87f69d838a0f3b34a26a040.zip. Accessed 17 June 2018 14. Nature’s apothecary (2011) Reader’s Digest, Moscow 15. Yakhtanigova JM, Kulishova IV, Sidelnikov VI (2020) Medicinal plants in the Belgorod Region. In: Proceedings of the II international scientific and practical conference “current issues of science and education”. Publishing House of the Maikop State Technological University, Maykop, pp 159–160

Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn—A New Cultivated Buckwheat for Russia (Characteristics of a New Variety ‘Kurab’) Nikolay N. Fesenko, Ivan N. Fesenko, and Zorrida I. Glazova

Abstract Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn (Tartary buckwheat) is one of two buckwheat species cultivated in the World as a grain crop. The introduction of this species in Russian agricultural practice is restricted by the absence of, on the one hand, varieties adapted to local conditions, and, on the other hand, traditions to consume the buckwheat flour products. In the FSC of Legumes and Groats Crops, it has bred a variety of Tartary buckwheat ‘Kurab’ (the name of an ancient town in contemporary Orel Region), adapted to local conditions, for promotion to the fields of Russia. In terms of the growing season, this variety corresponds to the mid-season varieties of common buckwheat and, presumably, can be effectively cultivated not only at the latitude of Orel, but also in more northern regions. Keywords Fagopyrum · Tartary buckwheat · Breeding · Introduction JEL Classification Q01 · Q22

1 Introduction Buckwheat porridge made from common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) is one of the most popular products in Russia [1–3]. With the beginning of the atomic era (from the middle of the XX century), buckwheat became a strategic crop, because the presence of flavonoids (including rutin) in its grain makes it a medicinal product that reduces the destructive effect of irradiation. In addition, buckwheat has advantages over other leading food crops (rice, wheat, corn, etc.) due to the balanced composition of essential amino acids, trace elements, and the presence of some vitamins that are absent in cereals [7, 11, 15, 18]. The center of origin (diversity of species) of the genus Fagopyrum Mill is located in the mountainous regions of Southern China [9, 10]. In addition to common buckwheat, another (self-pollinating) species, F. tataricum Gaertn., or Tartary buckwheat, N. N. Fesenko (B) · I. N. Fesenko · Z. I. Glazova Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groats Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_12

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is widely cultivated there [6, 17]. Plants of the species do not depend on pollination by bees and usually give a higher yield. In addition, in comparison with common buckwheat, the seeds of Tartary buckwheat contain 70–100 times more rutin, which is why they have a bitter taste [14, 16]. This is probably why traditional Chinese medicine chose to deal with Tartary buckwheat, and contemporary Chinese medicine does not reject this experience. The characteristics of the Tartary buckwheat seeds (small size, deep grooves on the sides) make problematic their effective shelling, therefore, whole grains flour is the main product of their processing [4, 8]. Such flour contains a large number of plant fibers and calcium, which is almost absent in shelled common buckwheat grains. Such composition, together with a high content of flavonoids, vitamins, and essential amino acids, makes this flour a panacea for some metabolic disorders such as obesity, diabetes, osteoporosis, cardiovascular problems, the spread of which in the human population has reached the level of a pandemic [5]. Its effectiveness in cancer prevention is also being studied [12]. The movement of Tartary buckwheat from the southern mountains to the northern plains was much less successful compared to the common buckwheat: wild forms have adapted in some places [13], but the cultivation of varieties is still sporadic due to their late ripeness (partly as a reaction to a longer summer day in northern latitudes), and also due to the lack of skills in the production and consumption of products based on such flour. The team of FSC of Legumes and Groats Crops has bred a variety of Tartary buckwheat ‘Kurab’ (the name of an ancient town in contemporary Orel Region discovered by archaeologists), adapted to local conditions, for promotion to the fields of Russia. In terms of the growing season, this variety corresponds to the mid-season varieties of common buckwheat and, presumably, can be effectively cultivated not only at the latitude of Orel, but also in more northern regions. The objective of the paper was to describe the main characteristics of the new variety.

2 Methodology Plant material is a sample of F. tataricum, which has been selected for registration as a commercial variety. All tests were conducted in 2018–2020 according to the standard approach to a variety descriptions.

3 Results The variety ‘Kurab’ has been bred using a cross of two lines earlier selected from a morphologically polymorphic variety of Tartary buckwheat from China. A plant, which became a founder for the new variety had been selected from the F4 hybrid

Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn—A New Cultivated Buckwheat …

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Table 1 Characteristics of the new variety of Tartary buckwheat ‘Kurab’ Characteristics

2018

2019

2020

On average

Yield ability (t/ha)

0.93

2.26

2.45

1.88

Harvest index (%)

21.3

23.2

22.8

22.4

Grain volume-weight (g/l)

715

705

711

710

Husk share (%)

19.8

22.4

21.6

21.3

Thousand seeds weight (TSW) (g)

19.2

19.7

19.5

19.5

Vegetation period (days)

93

95

94

94

Plant height

120

119

115

118

4

4

4

4

5

5

5

5

Lodging resistance

Score on a 5-point scale

Suitability for mechanized harvesting Source Compiled by the authors

generation. Variety testing was conducted in 2018–2020. Yield ability together with some other characteristics of the new varieties are represented in Table 1. The variety matches the growing season of the Orel Region and, probably, more northern regions of Russia. It shows good lodging resistance despite the rather high plant height, and completely suitable for mechanized harvesting. Thousand seeds weight is low (it is typical for the species F. tataricum), but it is not critical, since this grain is intended for processing into flour. The yield was sufficiently high two years of three. So, grain harvesting does not seem to be the most difficult problem when introducing this variety, although F. tataricum is more capricious than common buckwheat. Its cultivation in the subtropics of Asia is confined to cooler mountain conditions, including high mountains (up to 4000 m above the level of sea). In addition, in the mountains, conditions are more sterile due to the increased solar ultraviolet radiation and less dense grass; therefore, getting into the lowlands, mountain species can be sensitive to infectious pressure. Also, Tartary buckwheat is capable to produce grain yield on poor soils. But it should be noted it has tested on the stony soils of mountainous China [6, 17], but not on the acidic and swampy soils of northern Russia. Therefore, some additional experiments are required.

4 Conclusion The first variety of Tartary buckwheat suitable for cultivation in Russia was bred. This variety is capable of producing an acceptable yield suitable for processing into flour and flour products. In Russia, there are almost no traditions of such use of buckwheat. In this regard, some comments are needed.

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So, it is known that products with a bitter taste (cocoa, coffee, tea, chicory) are widely used in confectionery, and, therefore, there is a wide range of possibilities for bitter flour: muffins, cakes, cookies, etc. As a healthy food, it is more advisable to use options without added sugar. In South-East Asia, the most common way to consume flour products is noodles, and most medical research with Tartary buckwheat is based on the consumption of this product, as well as crackers and biscuits. Bitter crackers and biscuits may be considered as ideal fast food. But when developing specific recipes, one should also take into account that when preparing various products (especially bread), wheat flour is often added to buckwheat flour [6]. Mastering the production of the listed products and their persistent advertising is a necessary element of the «acclimatization» of Tartary buckwheat in Russia.

References 1. Fesenko AN, Martynenko GE, Fesenko NV, Mazalov VI (2012) Buckwheat determinant varieties of a new generation. Agriculture 5:38–39 2. Fesenko AN, Martynenko GE, Selikhov SN (2012) Buckwheat production in Russia: current state and perspectives. Agriculture 5:12–14 3. Fesenko AN, Fesenko NN (2006) Vliyanie lokusa LIMITED SECONDARY BRANCHING (LSB) na razvitiye reproductivnoy sistemy i productivnost rasteniy grechihi [Influence of the LIMITED SECONDARY BRUNCHING (LSB) locus on the development of the reproductive system and the productivity of buckwheat plants]. Dokl RASHN [RAAS Rep] 3:4–6 4. Fesenko IN (2012) Genetic analysis of seed shape variability accessible for use in breeding of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.). Russ Agric Sci 38:183–185. https://doi. org/10.3103/S1068367412030068 5. Joshi DC, Chaudhari GV, Sood S, Kant L, Pattanayak A, Zhang K, Fan Y, Janovska D, Meglic V, Zhou M (2019) Revisiting the versatile buckwheat: reinvigorating genetic gains through integrated breeding and genomics approach. Planta 250:783–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00 425-018-03080-4 6. Kreft I, Chang KJ, Choi YS, Park CH (2003) Ethnobotany of buckwheat. Jinsol Publishing Co, Seoul 7. Kreft M (2016) Buckwheat phenolic metabolites in health and disease. Nutr Res Rev 29:30–39 8. Li C, Xie Z, Wang Y, Lu W, Yin G, Sun D, Ren C, Wang L (2019) Correlation and genetic analysis of seed shell thickness and yield factors in Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.). Breed Sci 69:464–470. https://doi.org/10.1270/jsbbs.18081 9. Ohnishi O (1991) Discovery of wild ancestor of common buckwheat. Fagopyrum 11:5–10 10. Ohnishi O (2010) Distribution and classification of wild buckwheat species. 1. Cymosum group. Fagopyrum 27:1–8 11. Raina A, Gupta V (2015) Evaluation of buckwheat (Fagopyrum species) germplasm for rutin content in seeds. Indian J Plant Physiol 20:167–171 12. Ren W, Qiao Z, Wang H, Lei Z, Li Z (2003) Flavonoids: promising anticancer agents. Med Res Rev 23:519–534. https://doi.org/10.1002/med.10033 13. Romanova O (2004) Northern populations of Tartary buckwheat concerning day length. In: Proceedings of 9th international symposium buckwheat, Prague, pp 173–178 14. Suzuki T, Morishita T, Mukasa Y, Takigawa S, Yokota S, Ishiguro K, Noda T (2014) Discovery and genetic analysis of non-bitter Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) with trace-rutinosidase activity. Breed Sci 64(4):339–343. https://doi.org/10.1270/jsbbs.64.339 15. Sytar O, Brestic M, Zivcak M, Tran LS (2016) The contribution of buckwheat genetic resources to health and dietary diversity. Curr Genomics 17:193–206

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16. Vogrinˇciˇc M, Kreft I, Filipiˇc M, Zegura B (2013) Antigenotoxic effect of Tartary (Fagopyrum tataricum) and common (Fagopyrum esculentum) buckwheat flour. J Med Food 16:944–952. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2012.0266 17. Wang YJ, Campbell C (2004) Buckwheat production, utilization, and research in China. Fagopyrum 21:123–133 18. Zhang ZL, Zhou ML, Tang Y, Li FL, Tang YX, Shao JR, Xue WT, Wu YM (2012) Bioactive compounds in functional buckwheat food. Food Res Int 49:389–395

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean Varieties Cultivated in the Conditions of the Central Black Earth Region Ekaterina V. Golovina

Abstract Thanks to the creation of cold-resistant soybean varieties of the northern ecotype, with a neutral reaction to day length, it became possible to advance its production in the northwest direction. The ability of soybeans to form an effective symbiosis with nodule bacteria determines its environmental-forming role in adaptive agriculture. In 2017–2019 seven varieties and two lines of soybeans have been studied in the field. The varieties Swapa, Lancetnaya, and Krasivaya Mecha have been studied for seven years. The following analyzes were carried out: registration of the above-ground mass and grain yield, the number and weight of nodules, nitrogen removal with the above-ground mass; calculation of the amount of fixed nitrogen in the air using the Hopkins–Peters coefficient; nitrogen content was determined by the Kjeldahl method. The symbiotic system of soybeans develops before the beans are filled, keeping nitrogen-fixing activity at a high level. In arid, unfavorable conditions for the symbiotic system, the number of nodules decreases compared with wet years by 39%, the weight of nodules—by 21%, and the weight of 1 nodule, on the contrary, increases by 68%. The close relationship between the productivity of soybeans and symbiotic indicators is confirmed by the values of the correlation coefficient at the medium and high levels r = 0.4–08. Under conditions of excess moisture, the intensive growth of nodules leads to competition with the generative organs for the distribution of assimilates, as evidenced by the negative correlation between the grain yield and the number and weight of nodules at the level r = − 0.623 to −0.751. A positive correlation r = 0.655–0.735 was established between the nitrogen content in leaves and nodules in the budding phase. Over the years of research, the removal of nitrogen with the aboveground mass in soybean varieties varied in the budding phase from 41 to 200 mg/plant, in the filling of beans from 277 to 498 mg/plant; the amount of fixed nitrogen during the budding period was 27–130 mg/plant, in the filling of beans 180–324 mg/plant, depending on the variety and conditions of the year. Keywords Soybean varieties · Symbiotic and nitrogen-fixing activity · Nitrogen content · Nitrogen removal with biomass · Productivity E. V. Golovina (B) Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_13

101

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E. V. Golovina

JEL Classification Q15 · Q16

1 Introduction Thanks to the creation of cold-resistant soybean varieties of the northern ecotype, with a neutral reaction to day length, the Central Federal District is currently one of the main territories of the Russian Federation, along with the Far East region, where soybean production is concentrated [5, 9]. The most important feature of plants of the legume family, and in particular soybeans, is the ability to endosymbiosis with nitrogen-fixing eubacteria—rhizobia. Due to nitrogen fixation, the plants satisfy the need for nitrogen, which makes it possible to cultivate legumes in the absence or with minimal use of expensive and environmentally hazardous nitrogen fertilizers. In the legume-rhizobial symbiosis, positive feedbacks are established between partners, who are determined by the exchange of C- and N-metabolites: fixation of nitrogen by bacteria stimulates plant photosynthesis, the products of which in nodules are used to maintain nitrogenase activity and for bacterial reproduction. Inoculation of seeds in soybean plants shows more intense photosynthetic activity [1, 3, 8, 10]. An analysis of the results obtained by domestic and foreign researchers indicates that environmental conditions play an important role in the realization of the potential capabilities of rhizobia and the formation of symbiotic relationships with the host plant. Exposure to unfavorable environmental factors (high and low temperatures, drought or excessive humidity, lack of oxygen) leads to partial or complete loss of nitrogen-fixing activity of the symbiotic system [2, 6]. The influence of weather conditions of the Central Black Earth Region on the symbiotic and nitrogen-fixing activity of new soybean varieties has not been sufficiently studied. The purpose of our work was to study the features of the formation of the symbiotic apparatus of soybean varieties and the fixation of air nitrogen in contrasting weather conditions in connection with productivity.

2 Methodology In 2017–2019 soybean varieties Zusha, Krasivaya Mecha, Lantsetnaya, Mezenka, Svapa, Osmon, Shatilovskaya 17, lines L-216 and L-85 of the selection of the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops were studied in the field. In long-term studies (2008–2011 and 2017–2019), the Krasivaya Mecha, Lantsetnaya, and Svapa varieties were tested. Soybean seeds were treated with strain 634b before sowing. The seeding rate is 600 thousand viable seeds/ha, the plot area is 9.4 m2 , the repetition rate is 4 times, the arrangement of the plots was randomized. Sampling for analysis was carried out in the budding and filling phases of beans, the aboveground weight, the number, and weight of nodules were taken into account [4]; the amount of fixed nitrogen in the air was calculated using the Hopkins–Peters coefficient [7]; The

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean …

103

nitrogen content was determined by the Kjeldahl method using a Velp Scientifica analyzer. The years of research varied in weather conditions (Table 1). 2017 was characterized by temperatures below the average annual by 2–3 °C and increased moisture during the period of seedling-budding, when the amount of precipitation exceeded the average annually by 60%, HTC (hydrothermal coefficient) = 1.9. Weather conditions in 2018 and 2019 differed from the norm in temperature and humidity values during the growing season. In 2018–2019 during flowering, the temperature was above normal by 3–4 °C, precipitation was 30% of the norm. In 2018, the phases of the beginning of fruit formation and the filling of beans proceeded in favorable conditions for soybeans: the temperature was 3–4 °C above normal, and the moisture supply was sufficient. 2018 is generally warm, slightly arid: the sum of effective temperatures for the growing season exceeds the average annual temperature by Table 1 Agrometeorological conditions, Orel Data

 t ≥ 10 °C

Months May

June

July

August

September

Hydrothermal coefficient =  precipit. effect. tt

Average air temperature for a month (°C) Average long-term

13.8

16.8

18.0

17.0

11.7

2008

12.9

16.5

19.5

17.2

13.0

1828.0

1.80

2009

13.7

18.8

19.8

16.5

15.2

1855.1

1.25

2010

17.2

21.0

25.4

24.0

13.7

2176.4

0.60

2011

15.6

19.4

22.1

18.3

12.6

1952.2

2.02

2017

12.6

15.8

18.1

19.9

13.7

1929.1

1.90

2018

17.0

18.0

20.4

19.8

16.0

2121.3

1.13

2019

16.1

20.7

17.3

17.2

12.8

1927.1 1.73  precipit (mm)

Monthly precipitation (mm) Average long-term

51.0

73.0

81.0

63.0

67.0

2008

30.9

54.6

131.0

33.9

43.8

334.4

2009

36.9

82.0

56.3

28.9

39.9

231.1

2010

43.8

31.9

19.8

25.3

62.7

146.2

2011

27.2

64.5

143.7

126.8

40.1

393.8

2017

54.0

59.8

142.2

87.2

16.0

366.0

2018

31.9

16.1

109.0

16.5

41.5

239.9

2019

105.9

37.6

85.9

37.8

43.9

334.6

Source Data from Weather Station city of Orel—www.pogodaiklimat.ru

× 10

104

E. V. Golovina

352 °C, hydrothermal coefficient = 1.1. In 2019, during the period of fruit formation, there was a lack of heat, and in the filling of beans—an excess of moisture, which negatively affected the formation of fruits. 2019 is quite moisture-rich, hydrothermal coefficient = 1.7. Weather conditions 2008–2011 are given in Table 1.

3 Results Nodules on soybean roots are formed 7–10 days after germination at a distance of 5–10 cm from the root collar; their size is within 2–8 mm. During the budding phase, the number of nodules in soybean varieties varied from 2.7 pcs/plant at Zusha in 2019 to 27.8 pieces/plant at L-85 in 2018 (Table 2). On average for varieties, the maximum number of nodules in wet 2017 is 19.5 pieces on a plant, minimal—in an unfavorable, with an uneven distribution of precipitation during the growing season of 2019—5.5 pcs on a plant; the highest weight of nodules in 2018, 55.4 mg/plant. On average, over 3 years in the budding phase, the largest number of 17.0–19.5 pcs/plant and the weight of nodules in L-85 and Shatilovskaya 17 55–56 mg/plant, the smallest—in Krasivaya Mecha, respectively, 7 pcs and 19.5 mg per plant. The soybeans symbiotic system continues to evolve until the beans are filled, keeping the nitrogen-fixing activity high. The number of nodules in the beans filling in comparison with the previous phase increases 1.5–2.0 times, the weight—3.0–9.0 times (Table 3). The maximum number and weight of nodules on a plant on average for 3 years during this period for L-85 is 46.0 pcs and 314.1 mg, respectively. On average, for varieties, the number of nodules in a humid 2017 is higher than in a dry Table 2 Number and dry weight of soybean nodules. Budding Variety

Nodules per plant

Dry weight of nodules (mg/plant)

2017

2018

2019

x

2017

2018

2019

x

Zusha

24.6

23.4

2.7

16.9

17.9

65.5

17.0

33.5

Krasivaya Mecha

7.1

9.2

4.3

6.9

7.9

18.7

31.8

19.5

Lantsetnaya

21.1

19.7

5.5

15.4

16.4

64.7

62.4

47.8

Mezenka

23.0

12.9

6.7

14.2

19.5

41.9

36.7

32.7

Osmon

11.4

19.8

4.8

12.0

10.7

43.2

40.2

31.4

Svapa

18.0

13.4

7.5

13.0

16.8

39.8

53.7

36.8

Shatilovskaya 17

26.4

17.2

6.4

16.7

33.0

73.1

61.0

55.7

L-216

18.3

13.2

7.0

12.8

13.2

52.9

54.4

40.2

L-85

25.9

27.8

4.7

19.5

29.2

98.9

35.6

54.6

x

19.5

17.4

5.5

18.3

55.4

43.6

LSD05

7.629

6.840

3.100

5.284

12.591

10.723

CV, %

34

34

28

45

42

35

Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean …

105

Table 3 Number and dry weight of soybean nodules. Beans filling Variety

Nodules per plant 2017

2018

Dry weight of nodules (mg/plant) 2019

x

2017

2018

2019

x 117.1

Zusha

32.6

28.1

8.7

23.1

81.3

182.0

88.0

Krasivaya Mecha

26.5

20.9

6.4

17.9

47.8

121.0

110.0

92.9

Lantsetnaya

32.0

22.1

14.1

22.7

90.1

140.0

146.0

125.4

Mezenka

35.7

25.9

8.4

23.3

186.9

193.0

89.0

156.3

Osmon

41.1

37.9

7.8

28.9

126.1

156.0

76.0

119.4

Cvapa

52.1

26.9

16.0

31.7

212.9

174.0

153.0

180.0

Shatilovskaya 17

42.0

24.4

15.0

27.1

230.6

182.0

232.0

214.9

L-216

38.3

29.4

17.4

28.4

84.1

153.0

95.0

110.7

L-85

91.7

32.6

13.7

46.0

461.3

272.0

209.0

314.1

x

43.6

27.6

11.9

169.0

174.8

133.1

LSD05

17.615

9.864

4.381

99.861

84.500

70.432

CV, %

45

19

34

75

25

42

Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

2018 and in an unfavorable distribution of precipitation in 2019 by 1.6–3.7 times. The largest weight of nodules was formed by soybean varieties in 2018—175 mg per plant. The coefficient of variation is a relative measure of variability. The values of the number of nodules and their weight are especially unstable in 2017 and vary at the level of 45 and 75% in the filling of beans. The average dry weight of 1 nodule in the budding phase was 4 mg, increasing to 7 mg for beans (Table 4). The weight of 1 nodule increases under conditions unfavorable for the symbiotic system. In 2019, the weight of 1 nodule is 8.8 and 2.5 times higher than in 2017 and in 2018 during the budding phase, 3.2 and 1.8 times higher for beans, respectively. The maximum weight of 1 nodule in 2019 for Krasivaya Mecha is 17.2 mg. On average, over 3 years, Shatilovskaya 17 and L-85 formed the largest weight of 1 nodule, 9.5 mg per beans. The largest number of nodules (44 pcs/plant) and the yield of the aboveground mass weight (8.2 t/ha) were observed in 2017 (Table 5). This year, a close positive relationship was established between the aboveground weight and the number (r = 0.595) and weight (r = 0.762) of nodules, and a negative relationship between the grain yield and the number (r = −0.751) and weight (r = −0.623) of nodules. That is, in conditions of excess moisture, the newly formed nodules are competitors of the generative organs in the distribution of assimilate. The maximum grain yield (3.3 t/ha) and dry weight of nodules (175 mg/plant) were noted in 2018. The weight of nodules this year correlated with grain productivity at r = 0.763, with aboveground weight at r = 0.759. In 2019, both the number and weight of nodules and the yield of dry matter (7.1 t/ha) and grain (1.8 t/ha) were the lowest in 3 years. The correlation coefficient

106

E. V. Golovina

Table 4 Dry weight of 1 nodule, mg Variety

Budding 2017

Beans filling 2018

2019

x

2017

2018

2019

x

Zusha

0.7

2.8

6.3

3.3

2.5

6.5

10.1

6.4

Krasivaya Mecha

1.1

2.0

7.4

3.5

1.8

5.8

17.2

8.3

Lantsetnaya

0.8

3.3

11.3

5.1

2.8

6.3

10.4

6.5

Mezenka

0.9

3.2

5.5

3.2

5.2

7.5

10.6

7.8

Osmon

0.9

2.2

8.4

3.8

3.1

4.1

9.7

5.6

Cvapa

0.9

3.0

7.2

3.7

4.1

6.5

9.6

6.7

Shatilovskaya 17

1.3

4.3

9.5

5.0

5.5

7.5

15.5

9.5

L-216

0.7

4.0

7.8

4.2

2.2

5.2

5.5

4.3

L-85

1.1

3.6

7.6

4.1

5.0

8.3

15.3

9.5

x

0.9

3.2

7.9

3.6

6.4

11.5

LSD05

0.286

1.201

2.773

2.345

1.534

4.825

Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

Table 5 Harvest of dry aboveground weight and grain of soybean varieties Variety

Dry aboveground weight (t/ha) 2017

2018

2019

Grain (t/ha) x

2017

2018

2019

x

Zusha

9.2

6.4

5.5

7.0

1.9

3.2

1.9

2.3

Kpac. Meqa

7.4

5.1

7.5

6.7

2.8

2.7

2.0

2.5

Lantsetnaya

7.4

10.2

6.3

8.0

2.7

3.1

1.8

2.5

Mezenka

11.2

8.4

5.6

8.4

2.2

3.7

1.5

2.5

Osmon

7.3

5.4

6.7

6.5

2.5

3.3

1.6

2.5

Svapa

6.4

7.6

7.7

7.2

2.4

3.1

1.9

2.5

Shatilovskaya

5.7

5.4

13.1

8.1

2.1

3.5

1.8

2.5

L-216

6.2

7.0

3.2

5.5

2.0

3.4

1.3

2.2

L-85

12.7

15.7

8.5

12.3

2.1

3.7

2.7

2.8

x

8.2

7.9

7.1

2.3

3.3

1.8

LSD05

1.975

2.010

2.880

0.389

0.320

0.568

Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

between the grain yield and the weight of nodules was r = 0.592, between the weight of dry matter and the weight of nodules r = 0.817. According to the data of long-term research, in the varieties Krasivaya Mecha, Lantsetnaya, and Svapa in 2008–2011, 2017–2019, at pods filling in dry years (hydrothermal coefficient 0.6–1.3), an average of 21 nodules are formed on the plant, the weight of which is 142 mg; in years with significant precipitation (hydrothermal coefficient 1.7–2.0)—30 nodules with a weight of 173 mg (Figs. 1 and 2). In years

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean … Fig. 1 Nodules per plant, pods filling. 2008–2011, 2017–2019. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

107

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Fig. 2 Dry weight of nodules per plant, pods filling. 2008–2011, 2017–2019. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

HTC 0,6-1,3

HTC 1,7-2,0

HTC 0,6-1,3

HTC 1,7-2,0

200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

with low moisture supply, the number of nodules decreases in comparison with wet years by 39%, the weight of nodules—by 21.4%. Dry weight of 1 nodule in dry years is 1.7 times higher and amounts to 12 mg, in wet years this figure is 7 mg (Fig. 3). It is more expedient for a plant to maintain and develop existing nodules under unfavorable conditions of lack of moisture than to form new ones. According to long-term data, in dry years, compared to wet years, the yield of aboveground mass is 31% lower, grain—by 22% (Figs. 4 and 5). In 2008–2011, grain and aboveground mass yields correlated with symbiotic indicators at an average level r = 0.347–0.639.

108

E. V. Golovina 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 HTC 0,6-1,3

HTC 1,7-2,0

Fig. 3 Dry weight of 1 nodule. Pods filling. 2008–2011, 2017–2019. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

10

Fig. 4 Aboveground mass harvest, pods filling. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

t/ha

8 6 4 2 0 HTC 0,6-1,3

HTC 1,7-2,0

HTC 0,6-1,3

HTC 1,7-2,0

2.5

Fig. 5 Grain harvest. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

t/ha

2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean …

109

The high nitrogen-fixing activity of nodule bacteria plays an important role in the formation of the protein complex of soybean plants. A correlation was established between the nitrogen content in leaves and nodules in the budding phase at the level r = 0.655–0.35 (Fig. 6). The total amount of nitrogen in a plant depends on the value of its biomass and the percentage of nitrogen in it. The maximum amount of nitrogen in the budding phase was accumulated by soybean varieties in 2017, 83.2 mg/plant (Table 6). On average, over 3 years, Zusha surpassed other varieties in nitrogen removal 81.7 mg/plant and N in leaves

5.5

N in nodules

5 %

4.5 4 3.5 3 2008 2009 2010 2011 2017 2018 2019 HTC 1,8 HTC 1,3 HTC 0,6 HTC 2,0 HTC 1,9 HTC 1,1 HTC 1,7 Fig. 6 Nitrogen content in leaves and nodules. Budding. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

Table 6 Activity of symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in soybean varieties. Budding Variety

Nitrogen removal with biomass (mg/plant) 2017

2018

2019

x

The amount of nitrogen fixed from the air (mg/plant) 2017

2018

2019

x

Zusha

85.5

53

106.1

81.7

55.6

34.8

69.0

53.1

Krasivaya Mecha

67.6

45.6

74.5

62.6

43.9

29.6

48.4

40.6

Lantsetnaya

82.3

73.1

81.4

78.9

53.5

47.5

52.9

51.3

Mezenka

75.2

76.7

75.4

75.8

48.9

49.9

49.0

49.3

Osmon

79.4

49.0

83.8

70.7

51.6

31.9

54.5

46.0

Svapa

98.5

55.7

49.5

67.9

64.0

36.2

32.2

44.1

113.5

51.3

67.7

77.5

73.8

33.3

44.0

50.4

L-216

61.6

69.1

52.4

61.0

40.0

44.9

34.1

39.7

L-85

84.4

51.8

88.4

74.9

54.9

33.7

57.5

48.7

x

83.2

58.4

75.5

54.0

41.0

49.1

CV, %

19.0

20.0

23.0

19.0

20.0

23.0

Shatilovskaya 17

Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

110

E. V. Golovina

the amount of fixed air nitrogen 53.1 mg/plant. The amount of nitrogen fixed from the air during this period ranged from 41.0 mg/plant in 2018 to 54.0 mg/plant in 2017. According to long-term data, nitrogen removal during the budding phase ranged from 41 to 200 mg/plant (Fig. 7). The maximum amount of fixed nitrogen (125 and 130 mg/plant) and nitrogen removal (130 and 200 mg/plant) was observed in 2009 and 2010 with low moisture availability. In the wettest 2011, these indicators decreased to 27 and 41 mg/plant, respectively. In pods filling, the amount of fixed nitrogen varied from 180 mg/plant in 2010 to 324 mg/plant in 2009, nitrogen removal—from 277 mg/plant to 498 mg/plant, respectively (Fig. 8). In 2010, extreme drought conditions negatively affected the development of plants, which affected the above indicators.

fixed N

250

removal N

mg/plant

200 150 100 50 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2017 2018 2019 HTC 1,8 HTC 1,3 HTC 0,6 HTC 2,0 HTC 1,9 HTC 1,1 HTC 1,7 Fig. 7 Activity of symbiotic fixation of air nitrogen in soybean varieties. Budding. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

fixed N

600

removal N

mg/plant

500 400 300 200 100 0 2008 HTC 1,8

2009 HTC 1,3

2010 HTC 0,6

Fig. 8 Activity of symbiotic fixation of air nitrogen in soybean varieties. Pods filling. Source The research results were obtained personally by the author

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation of Northern Ecotype Soybean …

111

4 Conclusion The symbiotic system of soybeans develops to the filling of pods, keeping the nitrogen-fixing activity at a high level. The number and weight of nodules increase from 14 pieces weighing 39 mg per plant in budding up to 27 pieces weighing 158 mg in pods filling. The L-85 line, on average over 3 years, formed the maximum number of 46.0 pieces in pods filling and the mass of nodules is 314.1 mg per plant. In arid, unfavorable conditions for the symbiotic system, the number of nodules decreases compared with wet years by 39%, the weight of nodules—by 21%, and the weight of 1 nodule, on the contrary, increases by 68%. The close relationship between the productivity of soybeans and symbiotic indicators is confirmed by the values of the correlation coefficient at the medium and high levels r = 0.4–08. In conditions of excess moisture, nodules are competitors of the generative organs in the distribution of assimilates, as evidenced by the negative correlation between the grain yield and the number and weight of nodules at the level r = −0.623 to −0.751. The high nitrogen-fixing activity of nodule bacteria plays an important role in the formation of the protein complex of soybean plants. A correlation was established between the nitrogen content in the leaves and the nodules in the budding phase at the level r = 0.655–0.735. Over the years of research, the removal of nitrogen with the aboveground mass fluctuated in the budding phase from 41 to 200 mg/plant, at pods filling from 277 to 498 mg/plant; the amount of fixed nitrogen during the budding period was 27– 130 mg/plant, in pods filling 180–324 mg/plant, depending on the variety and year conditions.

References 1. Denison RF, Toby E, Kiers EW (2004) Why are most rhizobia beneficial to their plant hosts, rather than parasitic? Microb Infect 6(13):1235–1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2004. 08.005 2. Golovina EV, Zotikov VI (2019) Production process and adaptive responses to abiotic factors of soybean varieties of the northern ecotype in the conditions of the Central Black Earth region of the Russian Federation. Kartush Publishing House, Orel, p 318 3. Hardy RWF (1977) Rate-limiting steps in biological photoproductivity. Genetic engineering for nitrogen fixation. In: Hollender AN (ed) Basic life science, vol 9, pp 401–408 4. Methodology for conducting field agrotechnical experiments with oilseeds (2010) Krasnodar, p 327 5. Nekrasov AYu (2020) Soybeans: sources from the VIR collection of genetic resources. Proc Appl Bot Genet Breed 181(1):48–52 6. Peoples MB, Brockwell J, Herridge DF (2009) The contribution of nitrogen-fixing crop legumes to the productivity of agricultural systems. Symbiosis 48(1–3):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/ bf03179980 7. Posypanov GS (1991) Methods for studying the biological fixation of nitrogen in the air. In: Handbook. “Agropromizdat”, Moscow, p 300

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8. Provorov NA, Onishchuk OP (2019) Ecological and genetic foundations for the design of highly efficient nitrogen-fixing microbial-plant symbiosis. Ecol Genet 17(1):11–18 9. Seferova IV, Perchuk IN, Boiko AP (2020) The results of the study of collecting samples of soybeans at the Adler experimental station VIR in 2016–2018. Zernobobovye krupyanye kul’tury [Legumes Groat Crops] 3(35):51–57 10. Til’ba VA (2012) The role of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in increasing the photosynthetic productivity of soybeans. RAAS Rep 5:16–18

Antioxidant Activity of Ground Grain (Flour) of Different Buckwheat Species and the Dynamics of Its Decrease During Heating Elena V. Klimova, Olga V. Rezunova, and Ivan N. Fesenko

Abstract Using DPPH (2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) it was assessed the dynamics of decreasing the AOA during heating up to 100 °C antioxidant activity (AOA) of whole grain flour of three buckwheat species. After water extraction the AOA was maximal for Fagopyrum tataricum flour; F. hybridum and F. esculentum manifested similar values with the same decline dynamics during heating. After ethanol extraction the flour of F. hybridum shown higher AOA compared to both cultivated species before temperature treatment (1.3 times) as well as after heating to 100 °C (1.2 times). The total antioxidant activity of ethanol extract from F. hybridum flour was higher even compared to F. tataricum. Water extract from F. hybridum flour manifested only 17% AOA of ethanol extract. Probably, minimal efficiency of water extraction may indicate protection from dissolution by water and, accordingly, from the destruction of the flavonoids by enzymes, but the alternative explanation about the higher activity of antioxidants degradation enzymes is not yet rejected. Keywords Buckwheat · Grain · Flour · Food industry · Antioxidant activity · Bioflavonoids JEL Classification Q01 · Q22

1 Introduction Buckwheat is cultivated as a grain crop used for the production of groats and flour. Only one species of buckwheat is cultivated in Russia—Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (common buckwheat) [3–5]. Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum Gaertn.) has not yet been cultivated in Russia, but there are prospects for its introduction [7]. One of the significant benefits of buckwheat is the high content in the grain of substances E. V. Klimova (B) Orel State University named after I.S. Turgenev, Orel, Russia O. V. Rezunova · I. N. Fesenko Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groats Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_14

113

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with antioxidant activity (AOA): rutin, quercetin, etc. [2, 8–11, 14, 17, 18]. Although some AOA is characteristic of many plants [1], buckwheat, especially Tartar buckwheat, contains an outstanding amount of antioxidants in grain. Tartary buckwheat, one more cultivated species of buckwheat [15], contains approximately 100 times more rutin in seeds than common buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench.) [2, 9]. An artificial species form F. hybridum, created using hybridization of F. tataricum with the wild species F. cymosum, is also considered as an object for cultivation [6, 7]. The producing bread and confectionery products are associated with heat treatment at some stages. Therefore, the thermal stability of the antioxidants contained in flour is essential. We assessed the dynamics of change in the antioxidant activity of extracts from the ground grain (flour) of F. esculentum, F. tataricum, and F. hybridum upon heating. The objective of this paper was to describe and discuss the results.

2 Methodology Evaluation of the antioxidant activity (AOA) of both alcohol and aqueous extracts was conducted using the reaction with the DPPH (2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical together with spectrophotometry [12]. Antioxidants were extracted from g of ground grain with 25 ml of 96% ethanol or water for 24 h with stirring. 0.0025% alcohol solution of DPPH had been prepared and 30 min later its optical density was evaluated using a spectrophotometer in a 1 cm cuvette (wavelength 515 nm). Then 0.1 ml of the filtered extract was added to 3.9 ml of DPPH solution, stirred, and placed in the dark for 5–10 min. The optical density of the resulted solution was measured using a spectrophotometer (wavelength 515 nm). The extracts’ AOA has been calculated as AOA = (A1 − A2)/A1 × 100%, where A1 and A2 are the optical densities of the DPPH solution before and after adding the test extract, respectively. To evaluate the thermal stability of the antioxidants, the extracts were gradually heated on a water bath (t = 20–100 °C), assessing the AOA at 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C. Plant material. F. tataricum: an accession k-17 from the collection of the N.I. Vavilov’s Federal Research Center of Plant Genetic Resources (VIR), St. Petersburg; F. hybridum: a new species form of hybrid origin, created at the Federal Research Center of Legumes and Groats Crops (Orel) [6]; F. esculentum: variety Devyatka (FSC of Legumes and Groats Crops).

3 Results Since ethanol extracts the antioxidants more efficiently than water, the ethanol extraction results more accurately reflect their content in various flours. The method used does not provide an accurate estimate of the ratio of flavonoids in seeds of different species. It is known that the differences in the content of flavonoids in seeds between

Antioxidant Activity of Ground Grain (Flour) of Different …

115

F. tataricum and F. esculentum can be 100-fold. However, these results rank the test samples correctly. According to the estimated parameter, F. hybridum exceeds F. esculentum by 2.2–2.3 times and F. tataricum by 1.3 times (Fig. 1). The efficiency of water extraction was maximal for F. tataricum: the AOA of the water solution was 71% of the AOA of the ethanol solution (Figs. 1 and 2). For F. esculentum, the AOA of the water solution was 25%, and for F. hybridum only 17%

Fig. 1 Change in AOA upon heating (extraction with ethanol). Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 2 Change in AOA upon heating (extraction with water). Source Compiled by the authors

116

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of the AOA of the ethanol extract. The AOA of water extracts may depend not only on the solubility of antioxidants in water but also on the activity of enzymes involved in their destruction [13, 16]. Decreasing AOA during heating was proportionally. The ranks of the samples did not change during heating, although the AOA everywhere decreased from 1.5 to 3.5 times (Figs. 1 and 2).

4 Conclusion F. hybridum shows paradoxical results. Its antioxidant activity was minimal compared to the other two species when the water extracts were evaluated, and maximal when the alcohol extracts were tested. It is sufficiently hard to explain. Probably, it is due to either poor water extraction ability in this case or to excessive activity of enzymes that destroy antioxidants in water. More research is required to make out it. It looks like the grain of F. hybridum contents maximum antioxidants concentration since the AOA of the ethanol extract is maximal. This species is probably the most suitable raw material for the health food industry.

References 1. Chua LS (2013) A review on plant-based rutin extraction methods and their pharmacological activities. J Ethnopharmacol 150(3):805–817 2. Fabjan N, Rode J, Kosir IJ, Wang Z, Zhang Z, Kreft I (2003) Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) as a source of dietary rutin and quercitrin. J Agric Food Chem 51:6452–6455 3. Fesenko AN, Martynenko GE, Fesenko NV, Mazalov VI (2012) Buckwheat determinant varieties of new generation. Zemledelije [Agriculture] 5:38–39 4. Fesenko AN, Martynenko GE, Selikhov SN (2012) Buckwheat production in Russia: current state and perspectives. Zemledelije [Agriculture] 5:12–14 5. Fesenko AN, Fesenko NN (2006) Vliyanie lokusa lokyca LIMITED SECONDARY BRANCHING (LSB) na razvitiye reproductivnoy sistemy i productivnost rasteniy grechihi [Influence of the LIMITED SECONDARY BRUNCHING (LSB) locus on the development of the reproductive system and the productivity of buckwheat plants. RAAS reports]. Dokl RASHN 3:4–6 6. Fesenko IN, Fesenko NN (2010) Fagopyrum hybridum: a process of the new buckwheat crop development. In: Proceedings of 11th international symposium buckwheat, Orel, pp 308–313 7. Fesenko NN, Fesenko IN, Glazova ZI, Gurinovich SO, Fesenko AN (2017) Evaluating grain productivity of Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn. (Tartary buckwheat) and F. hybridum in central Russia. Zernobobovye Krupyanye Kultury [Grain Legum Groats Crops] 1:41–45 (in Russian) 8. Holasova M, Fiedlerova V, Smrcinova H, Orsak M, Lachman J, Vavreinova S (2002) Buckwheat—the source of antioxidant activity in functional foods. Food Res Int 35:207–211 9. Jiang P, Burczynski F, Campbell CJ, Pierce G, Austria JA, Briggs CJ (2007) Rutin and flavonoid contents in three buckwheat species Fagopyrum esculentum, F. tataricum, and F. homotropicum, and their protective effects against lipid peroxidation. Food Resour Int 40:356–364 10. Kreft M (2016) Buckwheat phenolic metabolites in health and disease. Nutr Res Rev 29:30–39 11. Raina A, Gupta V (2015) Evaluation of buckwheat (Fagopyrum species) germplasm for rutin content in seeds. Indian J Plant Physiol 20:167–171

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12. Silva BA, Ferreres F, Malva JO, Dias ACP (2005) Phytochemical and antioxidant characterization of Hypericum perforatum alcoholic extracts. Food Chem 90(1–2):157–167 13. Suzuki T, Morishita T, Mukasa Y, Takigawa S, Yokota S, Ishiguro K, Noda T (2014) Discovery and genetic analysis of non-bitter Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) with trace-rutinosidase activity. Breed Sci 64(4):339–343 14. Sytar O, Brestic M, Zivcak M, Tran LS (2016) The contribution of buckwheat genetic resources to health and dietary diversity. Curr Genomics 17:193–206 15. Wang YJ, Campbell C (2004) Buckwheat production, utilization, and research in China. Fagopyrum 21:123–133 16. Yasuda T, Nakagava H (1994) Purification and characterization of the rutin-degrading enzymes in tartary buckwheat seeds. Phytochemistry 37(1):133–136 17. Zhang ZL, Zhou ML, Tang Y, Li FL, Tang YX, Shao JR, Xue WT, Wu YM (2012) Bioactive compounds in functional buckwheat food. Food Resour Int 49:389–395 18. Zieli´nska D, Turemko M, Kwiatkowski J, Zieli´nski H (2012) Evaluation of flavonoid contents and antioxidant capacity of the aerial parts of common and tartary buckwheat plants. Molecules 17(8):9668–9682

Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence of Environmental Conditions on Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in Pea Gennady P. Guryev and Mikhail T. Golopyatov

Abstract The paper presents a brief review of research on symbiotic nitrogen fixation on peas conducted at the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops during 1974–2017. Methods for assessing symbiotic nitrogen fixation included counts of the number and weight of nodules and measurements of its intensity using the acetylene method on a Color 106 chromatograph. Based on long-term data, it was found that mineral nitrogen at doses exciding 60 kg/ha in terms of the active substance inhibits the process of symbiotic nitrogen fixation; the stronger, the higher the dose of nitrogen. Straw, along with stubble and root residues, partially removes the negative effect of nitrogen, which is used for its decomposition followed by its gradual release into the soil with the plasma of cellulolytic microorganisms. The authors found that the presence of wild (spontaneous) strains of nodule bacteria in the soil is not a reason to refuse artificial inoculation of pea seeds. There is a positive trend of increasing symbiotic nitrogen fixation and yield with this method. The authors registered cases of complete suppression of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in the cultivation of peas on black fallow, especially in dry years with high temperatures during the growing season. In cases of uncontrolled reproduction of nodule weevil, there is a possibility of total destruction (eating) of nodules by the larvae of this pest. The reduction of active symbiotic nitrogen uptake due to early lysis of nodules was observed when plants were affected by root rot. Keywords Pea · Symbiotic nitrogen fixation · Biopreparations · Strains · Inoculation JEL Classification Q1

G. P. Guryev (B) · M. T. Golopyatov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia M. T. Golopyatov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_15

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1 Introduction The study of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legume crops and, in particular, in peas was initiated at the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat since the organization of the microbiology laboratory in 1970. Its first head was Kozyrev, the candidate of biological sciences, and then, from 1974 until 2005, the laboratory was headed by Orlov, the candidate of agricultural sciences [12]. The relevance of research on symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pea has not lost its importance due to the emergence of new varieties and their varietal responsiveness to new biopreparations, including nodule bacteria. Another critical factor is the rapidly changing climate far from the best for the normal process of forming symbiotic apparatus and atmospheric nitrogen assimilation. The research objectives are to study the effect of forecrop, mineral nitrogen, and seed treatment with biological preparations on symbiotic nitrogen fixation, emphasizing controllable factors, which can increase nitrogen fixation. Mishustin and Shilnikova, in their classic monograph, describe in detail the factors determining the symbiotic relationships of legume plants and nodule bacteria [8]. An important environmental factor affecting symbiotic nitrogen fixation is the presence of organic and mineral matter in the soil. Organics (e.g., straw) play a positive role by stimulating the infection process and formation of nodules on pea roots [10] while binding mineral nitrogen consumed for straw decomposition, which would have been uselessly lost as a result of leaching during the winter. Straw is also essential in improving soil structure. Normal and large nodules are formed in loose soil with good aeration. The contribution of symbiotic nitrogen to pea yields can reach significant values. According to our data [2], in field experiments in 1974–1977 in variants with straw plowing using the comparison method with a non-legume crop (oats), the share of symbiotic nitrogen reached 70% of the total. In experiments by other researchers, chopped spring wheat straw also increased the contribution of symbiotic nitrogen by 58 kg/ha (48%) and by 70 kg/ha (54%), depending on the mineral background N10 P20 K20 and N20 P20 K30 [11]. Nitrogen fertilizer reduces the duration of active symbiosis in peas by 18–30 days, inhibits the positive role of inoculation, and leads to a sharp decrease in nitrogen fixation and the transition to the autotrophic type of plant nutrition [3]. High doses of mineral nitrogen cause a significant delay in nodulation, although a complete cessation of nitrogen fixation is not observed [6]. The depressing effect of mineral nitrogen on nitrogen fixation is especially evident in dry years. Thus, in the forest-steppe zone, nitrogen doses of 30, 45, and 60 kg/ha in the active substance had a depressing effect on nitrogen fixation in dry years [7]. Under other moisture conditions, mineral nitrogen doses of 20–30 kg/ha are considered “starter” doses. The plant switches to a symbiotrophic type of nutrition at low doses of mineral nitrogen, and symbiotic nitrogen fixation activity increases significantly [9]. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is possible only if nodule bacteria are present. As a rule, all soils on which peas were previously cultivated have such bacteria. These

Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence …

121

bacteria are called wild or spontaneous bacteria. They are part of the same group of bacteria cross-infecting forage beans and vetch. However, their properties, such as virulence, competitiveness, efficiency, and variety specificity, do not always contribute to increased nitrogen fixation. Therefore, the search for new strains of nodule bacteria and artificial seed bacterization is a critical problem and a necessary element of pea cultivation technology [1, 4, 5].

2 Materials and Methods Research on the declared topics has been conducted from 1974 to 2016. Field experiments were carried out in different experimental fields of the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops. The experimental crop is peas of varieties and lines bred in the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops (e.g., Temp, Spartak, Orlovchanin, Pharaon, Sophia, and others). The soil at all sites is dark gray forest soil with humus content 4.8–5.3%, pHKCL —from −5.1 to −5.4, P2 O5 —9 to 26, K2 O—9 to 13 mg/100 g of soil. The technology of pea cultivation is standard. In 1974–1977, we used a planter SZN-3.6, in subsequent years—SKS-6-10 seeder with a working width of 1.5 m. Peas were harvested in all years using the Sampo-130 harvester. The area of experimental plots varied depending on the years of research from 6 to 50 m2 . The variants were repeated four times. All observations and analyses of phenological phases were carried out using laboratory equipment. The intensity of symbiotic nitrogen fixation was measured by the acetylene method on a Tsvet-106 gas chromatograph.

3 Results In the field experiments of 1974–1977, the formation of nodules on the roots of pea cultivar Uladovsky 303, expressed by their number (Table 1), was somewhat suppressed by mineral nitrogen (60 kg/ha). There was a slight decrease in the yield of pea grains in the variant with straw, which was compensated by adding nitrogen with an increase in yield to 2.2 t/ha. As shown in our previous work [3], the improved formation of a symbiotic apparatus in the presence of straw occurred due to the stimulation of the infection process and the formation of infection threads in the hairs of pea root. As an organic matter, straw significantly improves the agrophysical properties of the soil, which is also important for symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Under the right conditions, its size can reach significant values. In our experiments, the share of symbiotic nitrogen in variants with straw, calculated by the method of comparison with a non-legume crop (oats), reached 50–70% of total nitrogen [4]. The introduction of mineral nitrogen inhibited the formation of nodules, the more, the higher the dose of introduced nitrogen. The analysis of the nitrate content of the

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Table 1 Effect of the application of straw on nodule formation and yield of pea cultivar Uladovsky 303, 1974–1976 Variant

1974

1975

1976

Three-year average

Number Yield, Number Yield, Number Yield, Number Yield, of t/ha of t/ha of t/ha of t/ha nodules nodules nodules nodules pcs./plant pcs./plant pcs./plant pcs./plant P60 K60

59

1.5

85

1.8

46

3.1

63

2.1

N60 P60 K60

47

1.1

89

1.7

21

3.3

47

2.0

P60 K60 + straw

62

1.2

77

1.9

55

2.7

65

1.9

N60 P60 K60 + 54 straw

1.2

86

1.9

52

3.4

64

2.2

HCP05

0.2

0.2

0.3

Source Compiled by the authors

soil in which plant samples were taken showed that the more nitrates, the fewer nodules on the roots of plants (Table 2). The straw added to the soil contributed to the formation of nodules by partially binding the nitrate-nitrogen used for its decomposition. It should be added that soil samples and plant samples were taken in 1977 during budding. In 1995–1997, studies on symbiotic nitrogen fixation were carried out to determine the varietal responsiveness of peas to inoculation (Table 3). Peas of two varieties and four promising lines were used as test crops. As follows from Table 3, all varieties and lines responded positively to inoculation; the yield of pea grain was increased due to the application of this method. The leafy variety Orlovchanin, unlike the forms with tendrils, was the best one in terms of the ability to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen and the intensity of this process. Table 2 Dependence of the number of nodules on pea roots on nitrate content in the soil, 1977

Variant

Number of nodules pcs./plant

P60 K60

61

N60 P60 K60

33

7.0

N120 P60 K60

12

15.7

P60 K60 + straw

64

3.2

N60 P60 K60 + straw

37

6.4

N120 P60 K60 + straw

12

14.0

Source Compiled by the authors

Nitrate nitrogen mg/100 g of abs. dry soil 3.7

Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence …

123

In 2002–2004, different strains of nodule bacteria were tested for their effect on symbiotic nitrogen fixation (Table 4) in pea varieties Nord. The forecrop is oats. Table 3 Effect of inoculation on symbiotic nitrogen fixation and grain yield of different pea varieties and lines (average for 1995–1997)

Variant

Mass of crude nodules, mg/plant

Nitrogenase activity, nMol/plant/h

Grain yield, t/ha

67

84

1.92

73

86

2.23

54

65

1.27

65

72

1.47

55

76

1.95

70

95

2.27

46

44

2.18

52

45

2.33

49

52

2.28

69

61

2.37

77

72

2.08

80

79

2.21

Orlovchanin variety Control Strain

245a

Batrak variety Control Strain

245a

Line UP-804-01 Control Strain

245a

Line M-93-4 Control Strain

245a

Line UG-90-1500 Control Strain

245a

Line 90-14-82 Control Strain

245a

Source Compiled by the authors

Table 4 Effect of inoculation on symbiotic nitrogen fixation and grain yield of pea variety Nord (average for 2002–2004)

Variant

Budding phase Number of nodules, pcs./plant

Control N60

12

Yield, t/ha Nitrogenase activity, nMol/plant/h 93

1.80

5

8

1.94

Strain 245a

16

133

1.72

Strain 261b

17

180

1.77

262a

19

137

2.03

Strain 263a

16

313

1.78

Strain

Source Compiled by the authors

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In the experiment, it was found that treatment of seeds with different strains of nodule bacteria led to an increase in the number of nodules with high nitrogenase activity relative to the control and especially the variant with nitrogen. In 2009–2011, three varieties of peas (Pharaon, Spartak, Sophia) were tested (Table 5). The forecrop in 2009–2010 was black fallow. In 2011, the forecrop was barley. Sowing was carried out by row method using SKS-6-10 seeding machine. In 2009, the formation of nodules was practically suppressed. Only individual nodules and empty shells from them on the main root were observed. In 2010, the formation of nodules was suppressed. It should be noted that the growing season of this year was marked with abnormally high temperatures accompanied by soil and Table 5 Effect of nitrogenization on symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pea (budding phase), 2009–2011 Variant

2009 Number of nodules, pcs./plant

2010

2011

Nitrogenase activity, chromatograph peak length, cm

Number of nodules, pcs./plant

Nitrogenase activity, chromatograph peak length, cm

Number of nodules, pcs./plant

Nitrogenase activity, chromatograph peak length, cm

Control 3

0

0

0

6

82

Strain 245

5

0.2

0

0

12

145

Strain 261

3

0

0

0

17

134

Strain 263

4

0.1

0

0

10

82

Control 1

0

0

0

9

53

Strain 245

1

0

0

0

5

70

Strain 261

2

0.2

0

0

12

212

Strain 263

0

0

0

0

16

386

Control 4

1.0

0

0

10

120

Strain 245

2

0.3

0

0

11

138

Strain 261

5

1.0

0

0

22

480

Strain 263

0

0

0

0

13

323

Pharaon variety

Spartak variety

Sophia variety

Source Compiled by the authors

Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence …

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Fig. 1 Roots of Amior pea variety: 11—control, 12—N60 , 13—strain 245a , 14—strain 261b , 15— complex microbial fertilizer 500 kg/ha. The forecrop—winter wheat. Source Compiled by the authors

atmospheric drought. In 2011, all variants, including the control, formed few large pink nodules with high nitrogen fixation activity. When studying symbiotic nitrogen fixation on peas, we almost always introduced a variant with nitrogen (usually at a dose of 60 kg/ha) into the scheme of experiments, using it as a second control. In the vast majority of experiments, mineral nitrogen inhibited nodule formation. When sowing peas after winter wheat as a predecessor, nodules were formed in all variants, including the control (Fig. 1); on the black fallow, their formation was suppressed (Fig. 2). In the 2014–2016 experiments, winter wheat was also used as a forecrop. A nitrogen dose of 60 kg/ha had a slight stimulating effect on nodule formation (Table 6). The yield of pea grain in all variants tended to increase compared to the control. Among the three tested varieties, the highest number of nodules was observed in the leafy variety Temp. In the experiments of the laboratory of varietal technology and plant protection in 2017, nodules were formed in all variants on the line LU-153-06 (Fig. 3). The nitrogen dose of 63 kg/ha had a slightly depressing effect on the formation of nodules on pea roots (Table 7). According to Table 7, the maximum number of nodules was recorded in the stemming phase (7 leaves). However, the number of leaves significantly decreased in the phase of budding, indicating a shortened period of symbiotic nitrogen uptake. Root rot can also negatively influence the symbiotic apparatus. As can be seen in Fig. 4, the roots of the affected plants lacked nodules completely.

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Fig. 2 Roots of Amior pea variety: 11—control, 12—strain 245a , 13—strain 250b , 14—strain 260b , 15—strain 261b . The forecrop—black fallow. Source Compiled by the authors

4 Conclusion Based on many years of research with different varieties of peas, we can draw the following conclusions: 1. 2.

3.

Mineral nitrogen, except for small doses (starter doses), suppresses symbiotic nitrogen fixation with increasing inhibiting effect as the nitrogen dose increases; The presence of straw and crop-root residues in the soil improves the agrophysical properties of soil, enhances the process of pea root infection by nodule bacteria, and improves the conditions of symbiotic nitrogen fixation, prolonging its duration and increasing the proportion of symbiotic nitrogen in plant nutrition; Nitraguinization of pea seeds (including those regions where cultivation of this crop is traditional and soils have a sufficient number of spontaneous strains of nodule bacteria) is considered a justified method.

Retrospective Review of Studies on the Influence … Table 6 Effect of nodule bacteria preparations and complex microbial fertilizer (CMF) on the number of nodules and pea yield (average for 2014–2016)

Variant

127 Number of nodules, units/plant, budding

Yield, t/ha

Control

18

1.8

N60

23

2.1

Strain 245a

24

1.8

261b

24

2.1

Complex microbial fertilizer 500 kg/ha

20

2.0

Control

15

1.6

N60

22

1.8

Strain 245a

21

1.8

Strain 261b

21

1.7

Complex microbial fertilizer 500 kg/ha

20

1.6

Control

23

2.6

N60

26

2.9

Strain 245a

28

3.1

261b

32

2.8

Complex microbial fertilizer 500 kg/ha

30

2.9

Optimus variety

Strain

Amior variety

Temp variety

Strain

Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 3 Nodules on roots pea LU-153-06: 4—control, 8—P65 K91 , 12—N30 P65 K91 , 20— N63 P65 K91 , 24—rhizotorfin. Source Compiled by the authors

Table 7 Dependence of the formation of a nodule on pea roots on different levels of mineral nutrition for planned yield, 2017 Variant

Temp variety

Line LU-153-06

Number of nodules, pcs. per plant Stemming, June 5

Budding, June 14

Stemming, June 5

Budding, June 14

Control

55

32

56

19

P65 K91

77

27

54

32

N30 P65 K91

75

30

68

12

N63 P65 K91

22

20

21

15

Rhizotorfin

35

14

44

20

Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 4 Roots of the pea variety Temp, 2016: 6—root rot, 7—healthy plants. Source Compiled by the authors

References 1. Didovich SV, Alekseenko OP, Pas AN (2020) Symbiotic efficiency of nodule bacteria strains on legume crops. In: Pashtetsky VS (ed) Rational use of natural resources in agrocenoses. Research Institute of Agriculture of Crimea, Simferopol, pp 17–18. https://doi.org/10.33952/ 2542-0720-15.05.2020.08 2. Guryev GP (1980) The use of straw as an organic fertilizer: the effectiveness of using straw as an organic fertilizer. Nauka, Moscow 3. Kashukoev MV (1998) Nitrogen nutrition and productivity of legume crops in the foothill zone of the North Caucasus. Synopsis of the dissertation of doctor of agricultural sciences, Moscow 4. Kiselev AS, Popolzukhina NA (2018) Effects of inoculation on the photosynthetic and symbiotic activity of pea seeds. Bull Omsk State Agrar Univ 3(31):5–13 5. Kulinich RA (2020) The role of biopreparations in increasing pea yields. In: Pashtetsky VS (ed) Rational use of natural resources in agrocenoses. Research Institute of Agriculture of Crimea, Simferopol, pp 28–30. https://doi.org/10.33952/25-42-0720-15-05-2020-15 6. Lavrova EK (1974) Effect of mineral nitrogen on yield and symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pea and lupine. Synopsis of the dissertation of candidate of agricultural sciences, Moscow 7. Letuchiy AV (2015) Effect of fertilizers on the symbiosis of peas with nodule bacteria. In: Proceedings of the Vavilov readings-2015. Saratov State Agricultural University, Saratov, pp 45–60 8. Mishustin EN, Shilnikova VK (1968) Biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Nauka, Moscow 9. Omelyanyuk LV, Sidorova KK, Shumnyy VK (2013) Study of symbiotic traits of nodulation and nitrogen fixation in regionalized varieties and promising pea lines (Pisum sativum L) when growing plants on two nitrogen nutrition backgrounds. Vavilov J Genet Breed 17(3):424–429

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10. Shilnikova VK, Guryev GP, Mishustin EN (1978) The process of infection of the pea root system by nodule bacteria in the presence of straw. Proc USSR Acad Sci Biol Ser 4:635–639 11. Toigildin AL (2017) Comparative yield and productivity of symbiotic nitrogen fixation of legumes in crop rotations in forest-steppe of Volga area. Niva Povolzhya 4(45):144–151 12. Zotikov VI (ed) (2012) Federal scientific center of legumes and groat crops: history and modernity. Oryol

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Deep Processing of Pea Varieties Bred in the Federal State Budgetary Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops” Andrey A. Zelenov , Andrey A. Polukhin , and Anatoly N. Zelenov Abstract The paper focuses on the production efficiency of deep processing of pea varieties bred by the Federal State Budgetary Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops” (FSC LGC). The authors review the current world market for the processing of crop products, its spectrum, and, in particular, the cluster of protein components. Russian facilities and their offered products are analyzed. The role of peas in the formation of high-value market products is noted. The authors analyze the prospects and demand for components of the processing of this crop in Russia and worldwide. The analysis revealed preferable pea varieties of the FSC LGC for processing into particular products: Rodnik and Amior—protein isolate (20.0 and 20.3, respectively); Sophia and Jaguar—starch (41.4 and 39.6, respectively); Amior and Pharaoh—dietary fiber (14.8). An economic evaluation of the effectiveness of the complex sales of processed products of pea varieties bred in the FSC LGC (from sowing to the sale of finished products) showed high margins for the whole culture. The authors also identified certain most promising varieties: Rodnik with 356.2% of profitability and Jaguar with 370.3% of profitability. The pea variety Jaguar also showed the maximum net profit from one hectare—163,643.3 rubles. The varieties Rodnik and Spartak were slightly inferior to Jaguar, with the maximum net profit from one hectare 147,822.2 and 148,070.2, respectively. These results allow us to classify the bred varieties as highly effective in cultivation for complex processing. Keywords Pea · Protein · Processing · Variety · Functional nutrition JEL Classification Q10

A. A. Zelenov (B) · A. A. Polukhin · A. N. Zelenov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_16

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1 Introduction Contemporary global crop production switches its vectors towards the rational use of the main advantages of different crops. For example, oats and buckwheat are used in first-crop processing for flakes and groats; sugar beets are used for sugar, and potatoes—for starch. Nowadays, grain crops are used not only to produce flour but also in the alcohol industry, as well as to obtain bran, starch, etc. [2, 4, 16]. Nowadays, soybean (Glycine max) is the key crop in processing among all legumes [10]. The high protein and fat content have formed a steady demand for this crop. Consequently, there began an intensified breeding work aimed at expanding the area of cultivation of this crop [5, 8, 12, 16]. The demand for soybean is due to the versatility of its use. Soybean oil is the world’s second most-produced oil, after palm oil. It is used in the food and process industries. Soy protein is also in demand since its versatility is very significant. Soy isolates are mainly used in the meat processing industry. Additionally, soy proteins are used in the fat-and-oil, dairy, and confectionery industries, as well as for the preparation of baked goods and catering. Soybean proteins are also crucial in healthy diets (sports, therapeutic, preventive, and children’s) [7]. Protein from peas is currently an alternative in the production of plant-based protein products. Split peas (Pisum sativum L.) are mainly used for this purpose. Despite the lower protein content of pea grains than soybeans, the final product has several consumer advantages. These advantages include the speed of absorption, high content of essential amino acids, and hypoallergenicity [3, 9]. Considering pea as an object of deep processing, it is worth highlighting that the by-products also have their own production value. Pea starch is used in the food, process, and feed industries. Pea starch with high (above 60%) amylose content is considered unique. It is commonly used in the food industry, in medicine, etc. Moreover, pea starch with high amylose content is used as a raw material base to produce biodegradable plastics. Dietary fiber derived from the waste after extracting protein and starch can be applied in various fields, from feed to dairy products [1, 14]. The world leaders in producing highly processed products are American concerns Cargill, ADM, and Ingredion, Belgian company Cosucra, Austrian BRAG, American Hill Pharma, and others. In 2019, French company Roquette invested 40 million euros in Canada’s largest pea protein plant, where 30% of the world’s peas are grown [3]. For 2019, global sales of protein isolate totaled $265 million. It is one of the fastest-growing segments of the global market. From 2013 to 2016, the number of food products made with pea protein increased by 195%. In Russia, protein products are produced by the following companies: • “Partner-M” (Kaluga region) produces protein concentrates with a protein content of at least 55% and starch products with a starch content of 65%; • “Euro Technologies” (Samara Region) processes about 40 thousand tons per year and allows to get concentrate with a protein content of at least 53% [3].

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In 2021, there began the construction of a multifunctional pea processing plant in the Orel region with a planned capacity of 260 thousand tons per year [6]. The current global and Russian development of the pea processing industry makes it necessary to direct the vector of studying the effectiveness of existing varieties on the suitability for deep processing. Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops (FSC LGC) is currently one of the main institutions in the field of breeding pea varieties. Various phenotypic, biochemical, and technological properties of modern varieties formed the basis for assessing the economic efficiency of cultivation and subsequent deep processing of pea bred in the FSC LGC [11, 13, 15].

2 Methods The research objects are pea varieties (Pisum sativum L.) bred in the FSC LGC: Rodnik, Amior, Pharaoh, Sophia (with tendrils); Jaguar and Spartak (chameleon morphotype); Temp (leafy). Yields were determined based on seed crops after primary cultivation in the fields of the FSC LGC and its branches. The varieties were evaluated for their suitability for deep processing at the AllRussian Research Institute of Starch Foods—a branch of the Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “V. M. Gorbatov Federal Scientific Center of Food Systems” of RAS. The economic evaluation was carried out based on technological charts of pea field cultivation in the FSC LGC. Processing costs are assumed in accordance with the costs of the technological process of processing plants, taking into account the tariffs for basic energy resources in the Orel Region. The cost of sales is taken as a national weighted average [1].

3 Results Current pea varieties have a diverse morphology, which, in turn, affects the agrotechnological and biochemical characteristics. Leafless (with tendrils) varieties are the most common in Russia due to their manufacturability and yield. Special prospects for this crop are associated with chameleon morphotype, which has a high bioenergetic potential and, consequently, the potential for greater productivity. The key indicator for deep processing is not the grain content but their final yield. Pea varieties bred in the FSC LGC were analyzed for suitability for deep processing in the All-Russian Research Institute of Starch Foods (Table 1). This analysis showed no regularities between pea morphotypes. The highest yield of the most valuable product, protein isolate, was shown by leafless varieties Rodnik and Amior (20.0% and 20.3%). Thus, these varieties are the most promising for processing into protein products. The heterophyllous variety Jaguar and leafless variety Sophia are the most suitable for processing into starch

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Table 1 Evaluation of the suitability of pea varieties for deep processing according to the allRussian research institute of starch foods, 2019 No.

Variety

Output from deep processing of pea, % Protein isolate

Starch

Dietary fiber

1

Rodnik

20.0

34.8

12.0

2

Amior

20.3

37.7

14.8

3

Jaguar

18.0

39.6

13.2

4

Spartak

17.5

38.2

14.2

5

Pharaoh

16.2

38.6

14.8

6

Sophia

17.1

41.4

13.3

7

Temp

14.0

36.0

14.0

Source Compiled by the authors

with a practical yield of 39.6% and 41.4%, respectively. It is necessary to note the variety Amior. This variety has a high amylose starch, which is highly valuable when applied to functional and dietary foods. Moreover, a high amylose starch is used to create biofilms and medicines. In terms of dietary fiber, the varieties ranged from 12.0 to 14.8%. The highest yield of this component is noted in the Amior and Pharaoh varieties. The non-waste processing of peas for obtaining high-quality and environmentally friendly products is based on the barometric method, where the key products are protein isolate, starch, and dietary fiber. Let us calculate economic efficiency based on the calculation of costs for the production of pea grain, its subsequent processing, and potential sales (Table 2). Analyzing the data in Table 2, it is worth noting that, with the same cultivation technology, the variability of costs of grain production is due to the yield of varieties. The amount of grain received from one hectare also changed the cost of processing from this area. The main differences in economic indicators were formed due to different yields of processed products. Thus, the maximum yield of protein isolate from one hectare was shown by the variety Jaguar (0.8). The minimum yield of protein isolates from one hectare—Temp (0.4 t/ha). It is worth noting the yield efficiency of the Amior variety. At the lowest yield (45.0% of the variety Jaguar), the difference in the yield per hectare with the same variety equaled 37.5%. The variety Jaguar also showed the best starch yield (1.7 t/ha). The minimum results are noted in the varieties Amior and Temp (0.9 and 1.0 t/ha, respectively). The variation in the yield of dietary fiber was not high—0.3–0.6 t/ha in all varieties. The highest rates were observed in the varieties Jaguar, Spartak, and Pharaoh. The indicators of net income and profitability allow us to evaluate the final efficiency of the complete process. The leading position is noted in the highest-yielding variety Jaguar—net income 163,643.3 rubles and profitability 370.3%. The variety Rodnik showed higher profitability (356.2%) than the variety Spartak (343.3%). However, the situation is reversed in terms of net income: Rodnik—147,822.2 rubles,

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Table 2 Economic evaluation of the processing efficiency based on technological charts of cultivation in the FSC LGC Rodnik

Amior

Jaguar

Spartak

Pharaoh

Sophia

Temp

Yield, t/ha

4.1

2.6

4.7

4.5

4.4

4.0

2.9

Growing costs, RUB

29,148.3

26,614.6

30,090.4

29,716.8

29,570.6

28,937.2

27,118.1

Processing costs, RUB

12,349.7

7680.0

14,100.0

13,419.3

13,127.6

11,960.7

8610.0

Total costs, RUB

41,498.0

34,294.6

44,190.4

43,136.1

42,698.2

40,897.9

35,728.1

Yield of protein isolate, t/ha

0.7

0.5

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.6

0.4

Selling price 200,000.0 200,000.0 200,000.0 200,000.0 200,000.0 200,000.0 200,000.0 of protein isolate, RUB/t Income from 148,195.9 94,581.8 the sale of protein isolate, RUB

154,141.2 141,215.9 126,324.1 124,216.5 72,966.9

Yield of starch, t/ha

0.9

1.7

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.0

Selling price 25,000.0 of starch, RUB/t

25,000.0

25,000.0

25,000.0

25,000.0

25,000.0

25,000.0

Income from 32,232.6 the sale of starch, RUB

22,189.4

42,388.8

38,531.8

37,624.3

37,591.8

24,756.6

Yield of 0.4 dietary fiber, t/ha

0.3

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.4

Selling price 20,000.0 of dietary fiber, RUB/t

20,000.0

20,000.0

20,000.0

20,000.0

20,000.0

20,000.0

Income from 8891.8 the sale of dietary fiber, RUB

6895.6

11,303.7

11,458.7

11,540.7

9661.3

7296.7

1.3

Total income, RUB

189,320.2 123,666.8 207,833.7 191,206.3 175,489.2 171,469.7 105,020.2

Net income, RUB

147,822.2 89,372.2

Profitability, 356.2 %

260.6

Source Compiled by the authors

163,643.3 148,070.2 132,791.0 130,571.8 69,292.1 370.3

343.3

311.0

319.3

193.9

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which is 248 rubles less than the Spartak variety (148,070.2). This difference is due to the fact that despite the yield of Rodnik being lower than Spartak by 0.4 t/ha, the yield efficiency of the most valuable product of processing, protein isolate, was higher.

4 Conclusion The results of the analysis allow us to formulate the following conclusions: 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

The modern market of deep processing of plant products is diverse and dynamic; Despite the high volume of protein products from soy, the market has not been saturated, and the use of alternative sources allows to diversify it and create niche clusters; Pea is an alternative to soy in protein production. Pea is currently increasing in demand due to its advantages—hypoallergenicity, fast digestibility, and high content of essential amino acids; An optimally matched variety is important for efficient downstream production. In own full-fledged processing (the production of raw material base and its further processing), it is necessary to find a productive variety with high yields. However, in the absence of a base for grain production, the quantitative requirements for the output of final products come to the fore; The FSC LGC created varieties meeting the parameters of producers and processors. This fact allows forming various options for the implementation of projects for the deep processing of peas.

References 1. Avigan Engineering Office (n.d.) Processing peas into protein. Retrieved from https://www.avi gan.com.ua/page/pererabotka-goroha-v-protein/mp/23793/. Accessed 22 February 2021 2. Berezina NA (2002) Development of technology and research of bread quality from a mixture of rye and wheat flour with the addition of sugar-containing pastes from potatoes and sugar beets (Dissertation of Candidate of Technical Science), Orel, Russia 3. Business of Food Systems Online (2019) Global pea protein market: rapid growth. Retrieved from http://bfi-online.ru/aviews/index.html?msg=7178. Accessed 24 February 2021 4. Fesenko AN, Fesenko IN (2019) Buckwheat breeding and production in Russia during the past 100 years. Proc Appl Bot Genet Breed 180(1):113–117. https://doi.org/10.30901/2227-88342019-1-113-117 5. Krivoshlykov KM, Trunova MV, Lukomets AV (2019) Objective suppositions for strengthening of the state role in development of breeding and seed growing of oil crops in Russia. Oil Crops 3(179):79–84 6. Oryol News (2020) Orel region signed an investment agreement for almost 23 billion rubles. Retrieved from https://newsorel.ru/fn_658285.html. Accessed 15 February 2021

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7. Osipova GA, Samofalova LA, Berezina NA, Seregina TV (2019) Wasteless processing of soy: use soya okara in macaroni manufacture. Legumes Groat Crops 1(29):56–62. https://doi.org/ 10.24411/2309-348X-2019-11073 8. Polukhin AA, Panarina VI (2020) Main problems of selection and seed production of agricultural crops and ways to solve them. Legumes Groat Crops 3(35):5–11. https://doi.org/10. 24411/2309-348X-2020-11178 9. Shelepina NV, Parshutina IG, Polynkova NE (2015) Study of chemical composition and biological value of germinal products from peas grain. Ecol Environ Conserv 21:AS99–AS102 10. Tychinskaya IL (2016) Improving the efficiency of soybean cultivation by forming associations with ACC utilizing rhizobacteria (Synopsis of the Dissertation of Candidate of Agriculture). Orel State Agrarian University, Orel, Russia 11. Zadorin AM, Uvarov VN, Zelenov AN, Zelenov AA (2014) Perspective morphotypes of peas. Zemledelie 4:24–25 12. Zadorin AM, Zelenov AA, Mordvina MV (2019) Achievements of selection of federal scientific center of legumes and groat crops in the aspect of the growth of soybean production in Russia. Legumes Groat Crops 2(30):53–56. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X-2019-11088 13. Zelenov AN, Naumkina TS, Schetinin VY, Zadorin AM, Zelenov AA (2014) Advantages and prospects of use of the suprade odd-pinnate form of peas. Legumes Groat Crops 3(11):12–19 14. Zelenov AN, Shelepina NV, Mamaeva MV (2013) Peculiarities of aminoacid composition of proteins leaf pea mutants. Legumes Groat Crops 1(5):21–25 15. Zelenov AN, Zadorin AM, Zelenov AA (2018) The first results of creating pea varieties of the chameleon morphotype. Legumes Groat Crops 2(26):10–17. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309348X-2018-10009 16. Zotikov VI, Polukhin AA, Gryadunova NV, Sidorenko VS, Khmyzova NG (2020) Development of production of leguminous and groat crops in Russia based on the use of selection achievements. Legumes Groat Crops 4(36):5–17. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X-202011198

Interpretation of Features of Seed Productivity of Common Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L. Savi) of Different Ripeness Groups in Breeding for Early Ripeness Olga A. Miyuts, Maria P. Miroshnikova, and Pavel V. Yatchuk

Abstract Increasing the potential of seed production has always been a priority and a necessity in breeding programs. However, the productivity of common bean varieties is a complex trait. It depends on the genotype, its morphological features, and resistance to major diseases, pests, and abiotic stressors. The basis of our research lies in the targeted study of the main elements of productivity, their contribution to the seed yield, and the limits of their variability. Experiments were conducted in the rotation of the Laboratory of Legume Crop Breeding of the Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops” (FSC LGS) on the plots of 6 m2 . We carried out analyses, records, and evaluations following the methodological guidelines. The research objects are collection specimens of the Federal Research Center N. I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources and the varieties bred in the FSC LGS. The research results (2018–2020) allowed us to identify the main elements of the crop structure and their sources: by the number of beans and seeds per plant—Nerussa, k-15665, and Strela; by weight of seeds per plant—Dnepropetrovskaya bomba, k-15714, and k-15665; by weight of 1000 seeds—Rubin and Markiza. Based on the assessment of the vegetation period and following the “Classifier …, 1984,” we graded the plants into the following ripeness groups: mid-season (81–90 days)—46.7%, early-season (65–70 days)— 13.3%, middle-early (71–80 days)—20%, and full-season (91–100 days)—20%. The main criterion for evaluating productivity was the seed yield from the area (t/ha). In the three years of the research, the maximum yield of seeds was obtained in the mid-season variety Strela—2.95 t/ha, which is 0.55 t/ha higher than the standard (Heliada—2.40 t/ha). Keywords Seed productivity · Common bean · Variety · Sample · Seed yield · Elements of productivity · Vegetation period · Nature of variability JEL Classification Q1

O. A. Miyuts (B) · M. P. Miroshnikova · P. V. Yatchuk Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_17

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1 Introduction Beans are a valuable food crop, occupying the leading position in world agriculture in terms of the variety of species of the genus Phaseolus L. and the popularity of meals eaten. This crop is a rich source of vegetable protein, carbohydrates, B vitamins, potassium, magnesium, iron, and fiber. Unripe and mature seeds, as well as green spatulas, are used for processing. The individual vegetative parts of the plant are used in making preparations for the treatment of blood diseases, diabetes mellitus, and skin diseases. Additionally, bean flour is used as a protein additive in the feed and confectionery industries [7, 9, 11]. However, the range of distribution and cultivation of Ph. vulgaris L. Savi in Russia is limited. In the structure of the production of production leguminous crops (peas, chickpeas, lupine, and vetch), only 2% are beans (out of 74%). This does not meet the real needs of the population and producers. It is possible to satisfy the demand for raw materials by increasing the sown areas of grain bean varieties of Russian selection included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements Approved for Use [8]. Moreover, it is necessary to create new early-season genotypes with a qualitatively changed structure of seed yield [18]. In the Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops” (FSC LGS), bean breeding is carried out in several areas: early-seasonality, resistance to major pathogens and abiotic stressors, and morphological and biological diversity of traits and taste values. However, high seed yields remain a priority. Therefore, studying the degree of variability of seed production potential and its features of Ph. vulgaris L. Savi is currently relevant [12]. The research aims to identify sources of high seed production to create new, early-season recombinant genotypes of Ph. vulgaris L. Savi. The research objectives are as follows: • To study the duration of the growing season and carry out gradation according to ripeness groups; • To conduct a structural analysis of the elements of productivity and identify the main elements increasing the level of seed yield; • To determine the nature of the relationship between the main elements of productivity and seed yield.

2 Materials and Methods The study was conducted from 2018 to 2020 in the collection nursery of the Laboratory of Laboratory of Legume Crop Breeding of the FSC LGC on Ph. vulgaris L. Savi variety samples of different uses. The research objects were divided according to the status of selection into the following samples:

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• Samples from the collection of the Federal Research Center N. I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (VIR) (Saksa fiberless 615, Dnepropetrovskaya bomba, bunchy fiberless 85, k-15306, k-15665, and k-15714) • Samples bred in the FSC LGC (Gornal, Nerussa, Rubin, Shokoladnitsa, Heliada, 02-173, Uslada, Strela, and Markiza). The soil of the experimental field is dark gray forest. Humus content (Tyurin method) in the arable horizon is 4.6–5.0%. The degree of saturation with absorbed bases is 84%, and the pH of the saline extraction is 4.8–5.2. Sowing (inter-row width—45 cm) was randomized (selective seeding by SKS-6–10 seeder in two-fold repetition). The weight of seeds was calculated according to the following Formula [1]:   mln.ger minatedseeds pcs ∗ M1000seed (g) ha WR = , laborator ygermination% ∗ purit y%

(1)

Plot area (S)—6 m2 . The standard grain bean variety is Heliada. Selection and analysis of sheaves, records of seed yield, and phenological evaluations were conducted following methodological guidelines established by the VIR [16]. Plots were harvested in a single phase using Sampo 130 combine harvester. The years of the research differed in weather conditions (Figs. 1 and 2). In 2018, beans were sown in the second decade (May 11), which was 1.5 °C warmer than the average annual norm. Precipitation was 66.4% of the ten-day norm, which contributed to the rapid emergence of full sprouts. June was marked with contrasting air temperatures varying from 1.7 °C to 33.3 °C and insufficient soil moisture. July and August were favorable for plant growth and development. In 2019, beans were sown on May 19 under optimum temperature conditions but excessive 25

Air temperature, ºC

20

2018

15

2019 2020

10

Average 5

0 May

June

July

August

Fig. 1 Temperature histogram for the growing season, 2018–2020. Source Compiled by the authors

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O. A. Miyuts et al. 45 40

Precipitation, mm

35 30 2018

25

2019

20

2020

15

Average

10 5 0 May

June

July

August

Fig. 2 Histogram of precipitation distribution during the growing season, 2018–2020. Source Compiled by the authors

soil moisture (352.9% of the ten-day norm rainfall). Subsequent months were hot and dry, except for the third decade of July and the second decade of August. In 2020, seeding was done on May 13. Throughout the growing season, weather conditions promoted good growth and development of plants. The exceptions were the second and third ten-day periods of May, which turned out to be cold (the temperature at the soil’s surface dropped to 0 °C) and wet, which delayed the emergence of seedlings to more than 20 days compared to 2018 and 2019. All experimental data were processed according to Dospekhov [6] using the computer programs STATISTICA (data analysis software system) and Microsoft Office Excel.

3 Results Ph. vulgaris L. Savi is a thermophilic crop with a wide range of geographically diverse growing season lengths. The growing season range varies from 60 to 200 days depending on the features of the variety, weather conditions, and the area of growth. In Russia, middle-early and mid-season varieties are in demand in the areas recommended for cultivation. A short growing season solves many problems, including early and late frosts, drought, and damage from diseases and pests [13, 17]. In our study, the duration of the growing season for the experimental variants ranged from 65 to 98 days. On average, over the three years of study, we found that the varieties Saksa fiberless 615 and K-15306 had a short growing season (65–70 days). The maximum degree of the duration of the growing season was observed in the variety Dnepropetrovskaya

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Fig. 3 Ranking of varieties by ripeness groups, 2018–2020. Source Compiled by the authors

bomba (95–98 days). Varieties with a vegetation period of 78–82 days were optimal in growth and development and had an advantage over others with a shorter or longer vegetation period. Based on the results and following the “Classifier …, 1984” [4], we identified the following ripeness groups: • • • •

Early-season—65–70 days; Middle-early—71–80 days; Mid-season—81–90 days, Full-season—91–100 days.

Figure 3 shows the proportion of the percentage of variety compliance by the ripeness group. According to Table 1, the maximum share belongs to mid-season varieties (46.7%). Early-season varieties have the smallest share (13.3%). Middle-early and full-season varieties have equal shares (20%). According to the evaluation results, the middle-early varieties Heliada, Rubin, and 02-173 can be included in the program of obtaining new source material in breeding for early ripeness. The productivity potential of Ph. Vulgaris L. Savi is great. It produces up to 150–190 flowers per plant, but no more than 20–40% of them set beans. The beans wilt better in the first 10–12 days of flowering. The efficiency of seed formation also depends on the morphological and biological features of the variety (type of growth, size of flowers and seeds). Moreover, the size and intensity of leaf coloring and the development of the root system also play a significant role [3, 10, 14]. Seed productivity of beans is a complex trait that includes productive nodes, beans, seeds, beans per productive node, seeds in a bean (pieces), the weight of seeds per plant, and the weight of 1000 seeds (grams). The level of productivity depends on the variety and its growing conditions. Yield is determined by different combinations of the potential productivity, stability, and plasticity of the variety [2, 15]. In our study, the main criterion for evaluating the productivity of varieties was the seed yield from the reference area (Table 2). The yield of bean seeds for 2018–2020 was formed in the range of 2.10 t/ha– 2.95 t/ha. On average, over three years, the minimum yield was observed in the early-season variety k-15306 (2.20 t/ha), and the maximum was observed in the mid-season variety Strela (2.95 t/ha). The varieties k-15714, Uslada, Markiza, and

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Table 1 Duration of vegetation period of common bean, days, 2018–2020 No.

Variety

2018

2019

2020

Average

Early-season 1

k-15306

65

70

74

70

2

Saksa fiberless 615

65

70

74

70

Middle-early 3

Heliada, st.a

77

82

80

80

4

Rubin

77

78

80

78

5

02-173

77

80

82

79

Mid-season 6

Gornal

77

84

82

81

7

Bunchy fiberless 85

80

85

89

85

8

Uslada

82

78

82

81

9

Strela

82

80

85

82

10

Markiza

82

78

84

81

11

Shokoladnitsa

85

87

89

87

12

k-15714

82

84

86

84 93

Full-season 13

k-15665

85

94

98

14

Nerussa

92

88

98

93

15

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba

95

94

98

96

Note a Standard Source Compiled by the authors

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba reliably exceeded the standard. The main elements of productivity are the number of beans per plant (pcs.), seeds per plant (pcs.), weight of seeds per plant (grams), and weight of 1000 seeds (grams) (Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6). The number of beans per plant for three growing periods in the varieties fluctuated from 6 to 25 pieces. The minimum number of beans was laid in the early-season group samples k-15306 and Saksa fibreless 615, and the middle-early variety Rubin. The minimum number of beans was laid in the full-season varieties k-15665, Nerussa. The Gornal, Uslada, Strela, and Shokoladnitsa varieties proved to be optimal and stable by this indicator. The trait “number of seeds per plant” is marked with a wide range of intraspecific genotypic variability. According to Table 4, its variability was from 24 to 102 pieces. The varieties Nerussa, Strela, and k-15665 showed high wilting capacity. The Uslada, Markiza, Shokoladnitsa, and k-15714 varieties were marked with the average value to the standard. Seed weight per plant is an important element of yield structure. Particularly, seed weight per plant provides for the potential level of yield (Table 5). The degree of expression of the trait varied from 9.4 to 33.0 g, depending on the research variants.

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Table 2 Yield of bean seeds from the accounting area of the plot (t/ha), 2018–2020 No.

Variety

2018

2019

2020

Average

1

k-15306

2.15

2.10

2.35

2.20

2

Saksa fiberless 615

2.30

2.20

2.40

2.30

3

Heliada, st.a

2.30

2.25

2.65

2.40

4

Rubin

2.40

2.10

2.50

2.33

5

02-173

2.30

2.25

2.65

2.40

6

Gornal

2.25

2.20

3.05

2.50

7

Bunchy fiberless 85

2.30

2.35

3.00

2.55

8

Uslada

2.50

2.40

3.25

2.72

9

Strela

2.60

2.55

3.70

2.95

10

Markiza

2.45

2.40

3.25

2.70

11

Shokoladnitsa

2.30

2.35

2.40

2.35

12

k-15714

2.15

2.35

3.35

2.62

13

k-15665

2.40

2.10

2.85

2.45

14

Nerussa

2.30

2.20

2.45

2.32

15

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba

2.60

2.35

2.85

2.60

HCP0.05

0.20

a

Note Standard Source Compiled by the authors

The Dnepropetrovskaya bomba, k-15714, and k-15665 varieties showed the highest weight of seeds per plant. In the Strella (19.9 g) and Marquise (18.7 g) varieties, the value of the trait was stable over the years of study and, on average, exceeded the standard by 5.1 g and 3.9 g, respectively. The trait “weight of 1000 seeds” depends on growing conditions, genotype features, and breeding development. According to the “Classifier …, 1985” [5] and Table 6, the varieties are divided into the following groups according to seed size: 4—small (201–250)—1 pc.; 5—middle (251–300)—2 pcs.; 6—(301–400)—9 pcs.; 7—large (401–650)—3 pcs. By years of study, the character of genotypic variability of quantitative traits of seed productivity of varieties mainly depended on their morphological features and weather conditions of the growing season. Figure 4 shows the variability of productivity elements and their relationship. Seed yield depended largely on the weight of seeds per plant (more weight of seeds per plant, higher yield). Low seed yield (2.2 t/ha) was observed in the k-15306 variety (No. 1, Fig. 4) with the following indicators: average number of beans per plant—8 pcs., the average weight of seeds per plant—11.0 g, average number of seeds per plant—32 pcs. (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5). High seed yield (2.95 t/ha) was formed in the mid-season variety Strela (No. 9, Fig. 4) with the following indicators: average number of beans per plant—16 pcs., the average weight of seeds per plant—19.9 g, average number of seeds per plant—70 pcs. (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5).

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O. A. Miyuts et al.

Table 3 Number of beans per plant (pcs.), 2018–2020 No.

Variety

2018

2019

2020

Average

1

k-15306

6

6

12

8

2

Saksa fiberless 615

7

10

10

9

3

Heliada, st.a

13

10

15

13

4

Rubin

7

9

11

9

5

02-173

10

8

12

10

6

Gornal

12

10

23

15

7

Bunchy fiberless 85

10

12

14

12

8

Uslada

14

12

19

15

9

Strela

14

12

23

16

10

Markiza

12

10

16

13

11

Shokoladnitsa

17

12

15

15

12

k-15714

10

12

22

15

13

k-15665

16

10

25

17

14

Nerussa

16

14

22

17

15

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba

15

10

20

15

HCP0.05

3

a

Note Standard Source Compiled by the authors

The nature of variability and relationships between the productivity elements were revealed based on the following correlation coefficients: • Dependence of the number of seeds per plant on the number of beans on the plant r = 0.88 (strong direct correlation); • Dependence of seed weight per plant on the number of beans per plant r = 0.72 (medium direct correlation); • Dependence of yield on the number of beans per plant r = 0.51 (positive correlation coefficient, average dependence); • Dependence of the mass of 1000 seeds on the number of beans per plant r = − 0.49 (weak inverse correlation); • Dependence of seed weight per plant on the number of seeds per plant r = 0.64 (medium positive correlation); • Dependence of yield on the number of seeds per plant r = 0.59; • Dependence of the mass of 1000 seeds on the number of seeds per plant r = − 0.65 (medium inverse correlation); • Dependence of yield on the weight of seeds per plant r = 0.57 (medium positive correlation). The dependence of seed yield on the main elements of seed productivity for three years was as follows: r = 0.57—from the weight of seeds per plant; r = 0.51— from the number of beans on the plan; r = 0.59—from the number of seeds per

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147

Table 4 Number of seeds per plant (pcs.), 2018–2020 No.

Variety

2018

2019

2020

Average

1

k-15306

30

24

42

32

2

Saksa fiberless 615

30

26

48

35

3

Heliada, st.a

40

35

50

42

4

Rubin

30

27

48

35

5

02-173

33

28

48

36

6

Gornal

38

27

70

45

7

Bunchy fiberless 85

40

36

56

44

8

Uslada

48

43

68

53

9

Strela

60

53

98

70

10

Markiza

52

40

60

51

11

Shokoladnitsa

60

48

55

54

12

k-15714

36

48

78

54

13

k-15665

68

39

102

70

14

Nerussa

80

65

100

82

15

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba

54

32

68

51

HCP0.05

12

a

Note Standard Source Compiled by the authors

plant. These figures indicate an average degree of dependence of yield on the studied elements of seed productivity. The study of the correlation between the elements of seed productivity indicates their close direct relationship. The correlation coefficient between the number of seeds per plant and the number of beans on the plant for three years was r = 0.88. The dependence of seed weight per plant on the number of beans on the plant was r = 0.72. The average degree of dependence between mass and number of seeds per plant equaled r = 0.64.

4 Conclusion The conducted study is relevant and confirms that the seed yield is composed of four elements of productivity and depends on the breeding design of the genotype, the duration of the growing season, and crop growing conditions. The results of our research allow us to identify the following sources of high seed productivity: • Number of beans and seeds per plant—Nerussa, k-15665, and Strela; • Weight of seeds per plant—Dnepropetrovskaya bomba, k-15714, and k-15665; • Weight of 1000 seeds—Rubin and Markiza.

148

O. A. Miyuts et al.

Table 5 Seed weight per plant (g), 2018–2020 No.

Variety

2018

2019

2020

Average

1

k-15306

10.0

9.6

13.5

11.0

2

Saksa fiberless 615

9.4

10.8

14.8

11.7

3

Heliada, st.a

13.4

9.9

21.2

14.8

4

Rubin

12.7

10.6

22.4

15.2

5

02-173

12.3

10.5

16.8

13.2

6

Gornal

12.4

11.0

23.1

15.5

7

Bunchy fiberless 85

13.4

11.5

16.5

13.8

8

Uslada

13.0

12.8

17.6

14.5

9

Strela

18.5

15.9

25.2

19.9

10

Markiza

18.6

15.1

22.5

18.7

11

Shokoladnitsa

18.7

12.8

15.3

15.6

12

k-15714

15.5

20.0

33.0

22.8

13

k-15665

22.0

10.5

32.0

21.5

14

Nerussa

15.9

12.6

22.0

16.8

15

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba

21.8

12.8

27.9

20.8

HCP0.05

3.40

a

Note Standard Source Compiled by the authors

Based on the calculation of correlation coefficients, we determined the following relationships: • Between the number of seeds and beans per plant (r = 0.88)—strong direct correlation; • Between the weight of seeds and the number of beans per plant (r = 0.72)—strong positive correlation; • Between the mass and number of seeds per plant (r = 0.64)—medium positive correlation. It was found that the increase in seed yield is closely related to the number of seeds per plant and seed weight per plant. Varieties of the middle-early ripeness group (Rubin, Heliada, and 02-173) can be used in breeding programs to create early ripening and yielding recombinants. Highyielding varieties bred by the FSC LGS (Strela, Uslada, Markiza) with a growing season of 78–82 days are of interest to producers of seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Savi and can be recommended for cultivation in the Central Federal District of Russia.

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149

Table 6 Weight of 1000 seeds (g), 2018–2020 No.

Variety

2018

2019

2020

Average

1

k-15306

333

400

321

351

2

Saksa fiberless 615

313

415

308

345

3

Heliada, st.a

335

283

424

347

4

Rubin

423

393

467

428

5

02-173

373

375

350

366

6

Gornal

326

407

330

354

7

Bunchy fiberless 85

335

319

295

316

8

Uslada

271

297

259

273

9

Strela

308

300

257

288

10

Markiza

358

377

375

370

11

Shokoladnitsa

312

267

278

285

12

k-15714

430

416

423

423

13

k-15665

323

270

314

302

14

Nerussa

199

194

220

204

15

Dnepropetrovskaya bomba

404

400

410

405

HCP0.05

54

a

Note Standard Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 4 Dependence of common bean seed yield on basic productivity elements, 2018–2020. Note * The numbering of varieties in this figure corresponds to Table 1. Source Compiled by the authors

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Characteristics of the Protein Complex of Field Bean Seeds Tatyana N. Selikhova

and Kristina Yu. Zubareva

Abstract Field beans (Vicia faba L.) are a source of easily soluble and easily digestible protein marked with high content of the deficient lysine amino acid. Field beans are constantly used as a component in animal feed mixtures. Expanding the area, increasing yields, as well as breeding and seed development of Russian varieties of this crop can significantly influence the solution of the protein problem of Russia. The establishment of seed authenticity is a topical direction. It is proposed to use the polymorphism of the components of seed protein to determine the varietal identity of field beans. Nevertheless, the composition of the electrophoretic spectra in the proteins of the seeds of this crop is not studied sufficiently. Field beans are a cross-pollinated crop. Thus, the identification of varieties is complicated. The paper aims to conduct a comparative electrophoretic analysis of proteins in the seeds of new promising field bean varieties (Krasny Bogatyr, Universal, and the variety Yantarnye (standard)) to develop a method of variety identification. The analyzed varieties are bred by the Federal State Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops”. The ISTA arbitrage standard method was used for extraction and electrophoretic separation of proteins in feed bean seeds. Evaluation of protein spectra according to the presence of existing differences in the intensity of staining in the samples allowed us to identify three polymorphic components. Based on these components, six types of spectra were found in the variety Yantarnye, seven in the variety Krasny Bogatyr, and three types of spectra in the variety Universal. The data obtained allow identifying varietal material of this crop using the differences in composition and number of original types of spectra. Keywords Field beans · Electrophoresis · Spare protein · Protein components · Variety identification · Variety JEL Classification Q1 · Q10 T. N. Selikhova (B) · K. Yu. Zubareva Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia K. Yu. Zubareva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_18

151

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1 Introduction Deficiency and poor quality of protein are some of the main problems in providing humankind with food [10]. Currently, the growing areas of leguminous crops are a vital source of vegetable protein in the diet of people and farm animals around the world and in Russia [16]. Sustainable economic development, excluding the deficit of high-grade plant protein, requires an increase in the assortment of crops grown. Field beans (Vicia faba L.) are a valuable and significant source of protein (especially in Asian and Mediterranean countries) and fodder crops in animal husbandry, including Russia. Moreover, field beans are an essential element in the structure of world agriculture in the context of the need for total ecological safety of food production of plant and animal origin. Field beans were grown worldwide on the territory of 2.6 million hectares in 2019. From this area, 5.4 million tons of seeds were harvested. The crop productivity equaled 2.1 t/ha [5]. In Russia, field beans were grown on an area of 5465 ha. The yield was 8.04 thousand tons, with the yield productivity equal to 1.5 t/ha. The value of field beans is due to their ability to accumulate a considerable amount (25–36% in the seeds [14] and up to 22% in the green mass) of high-quality protein containing all essential amino acids, including lysine, methionine, and tryptophan [10]. The protein of field beans on 70% or more percent consists of easily soluble and easily digestible albumin and globulin [7]. Seeds of fodder beans are a frequent component of fodder products in animal husbandry since they contain 1.16–1.29 fodder units (an average of 245 g (or more) of digestible protein) in one kilogram of seeds. In one kilogram of dry matter of green mass, there are 9.6–10 MJ of exchange energy [12]. In this regard, the study of the protein complex of seeds of modern varieties of field beans is relevant. The fundamental condition for increasing the amount of yield and, therefore, the protein yield per unit of the cultivated area is the sowing of the best-zoned varieties of agricultural plants. The quantity and quality of protein in the seeds of all crops, including field beans, are significantly influenced by varietal characteristics [13]. In this connection, the polymorphism of the components of the electrophoretic spectra of seed proteins was proposed to identify the varieties of field beans. The electrophoresis of seed protein is used in Russia as a standard laboratory method to identify crop varieties [3–4, 6]. In this case, agricultural cultures with intra-population heterogeneity maintained at a high level by cross-pollination represent difficulties [8, 9]. This group of agricultural cultures includes field beans. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the high heterogeneity of the component composition of the electrophoretic spectra of seed proteins to develop a method of variety identification. The research aims to carry out a comparative electrophoretic analysis of seed proteins in three varieties of field beans grown in the Orel Region.

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153

2 Materials and Methods The research objective is new, promising varieties of field beans, selected mainly by the Federal State Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops” (FSC LGC). The variety Yantanye was used as a control. The research objects have the following features: • Yantarnye variety (standard) was included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements in 1983 (patent holder—the FSC LGC). Seeds contain 30.6% protein (20% in absolute dry matter of green mass). The maximum seed yield is 3.9 t/ha. Green mass is up to 52.5 t/ha; • Krasny Bogatyr variety was included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements in 2017 (patent holder—the FSC LGC). The maximum yield is 7.4 t/ha. Green mass is up to 8.2 t/ha. Protein content equals 30.6% [15]; • Universal variety was included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements in 2020 (patent holder—the FSC LGC). Seed yield equals 23.2 c/ha. The crude protein content is 31.6% [2]. The seeds were sown in plots of 8.25 m2 (Fig. 1) in the fields of FSC LGC. Repetition is four times. The placement of plots is randomized. The plots were sown using a plot seeder SKS-6-10 in the optimal time for the conditions of the Orel Region. Seeding rate and growing technology are generally accepted for the zone. Harvesting of field beans was carried out in the phase of full ripeness by direct harvesting. The varieties Universal and Krasny Bogatyr were grown in 2019–2020. In turn, the variety Yantarnye was grown in 2018 in the fields of the FSC LGC. Therefore, weather conditions varied, which affected the quality and quantity of the final yield of fodder beans.

Fig. 1 Field bean crops in different phases of plant growth and development (BBCH-scale) (left— branching, middle—flowering, right—development of fruit). Source Photographed by the authors

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The years 2018–2020 were marked with contrasting meteorological conditions (Table 1). In 2018, there was dry weather, especially at the beginning of the growing season. Soil moisture reserves compensated for the lack of precipitation in the first half of the growing season. In 2019, the average monthly air temperature in the first half of the growing season was 3.2 °C higher than the long-term average. In 2020, the average daily air temperature was higher than the multi-year average during the second vegetation period, which favorably influenced the formation of a high yield of field beans (Fig. 2). The years of research were diametrically different from each other by a hydrothermal coefficient (HTC): • In 2019, the HTC of the growing season was 1.26, which qualifies the period as slightly dry; • In 2020—the HTC of the growing season was 1.32, which qualifies the period as quite wet. Table 1 Hydrothermal conditions of the growing season of field beans in the years of cultivation of varieties Krasny Bogatyr, Yantarnye, Universal Research period

Indicator

Months of vegetation

2018

Average daily air temperature, °C

8.3

17.0

18.0

20.5

19.7

± to the average annual rate

+ 1.9

+ 3.2

−1.2

+ 2.5

−2.7

31.5

31.9

16.1

109.0

16.5

± to the average annual rate

−10.5

−19.1

−56.9

−28.1

−46.3

Average daily air temperature, °C

8.7

16.2

20.7

17.3

17.2

± to the average annual rate

+ 2.5

+ 2.4

+ 3.9

−0.7

+ 0.2

23.5

105.9

37.6

85.9

37.6

± to the average annual rate

−18.5

+ 54.7

−35.4

+ 4.9

−25.5

Average daily air temperature, °C

6.3

11.2

20.0

19.2

19.7

± to the average annual rate

+ 0.1

−2.6

+ 3.2

+ 1.2

+ 2.7

17.6

74.6

74.2

120.9

16.9

−24.4

+ 23.4

+ 1.2

+ 39.9

−46.2

April

Sum of precipitation, mm

2019

Sum of precipitation, mm

2020

Sum of precipitation, mm ± to the average annual rate

May

June

Source Data from the meteorological station of the FSC LGC [11]

July

August

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155

40 35 30 25 20

2019

15

2020

10 5 0 Universal

Krasny Bogatyr

Fig. 2 Yields of different varieties of field beans, c/ha. Source Calculated by the authors

The ISTA arbitrage standard method was used to extract and separate proteins of feed bean seeds [6]. We analyzed proteins from 100 individual seeds of each variety. To isolate proteins, individual seeds were milled, four mg of flour were taken, which were poured into 150 µl of electrode buffer (tris, glycine, and sodium dodecyl sulfate). Seed proteins were extracted from the flour for 20 h at 3–4 °C with electrode buffer, pH 8.3. The colloidal extract in a dose of 10 µl was transferred to a plate cell where it was mixed with an equal volume of buffer containing sodium dodecyl sulfate, trisHCl, glycerol, mercaptoethanol, and bromophenol blue. The concentration of the separating gel was 12.5%. The concentration of the concentrating gel was 5%. For vertical electrophoresis of proteins, we used a Helicon VE-4 chamber and reagents for SDS-PAGE electrophoresis. The spectra of the three varieties were compared with each other and with the Lancetnaya soybean spectrum. The scale of the spectrum components intensity is as follows: 1—weak, 2—intense, and 3—highly intense. The relative mobility of polypeptides was analyzed using the “soy” scale [6]. Protein content was analyzed by the Kjeldahl method (GOST 32,044.1-2012) [1] on a UDK-152 (Velp Scientifica, Italy).

3 Results The varieties Universal and Krasny Bogatyr responded equally to contrasting environmental conditions during growth. Since field beans are an agricultural crop that requires moisture during the period from the emergence of seedlings to the full filling of seeds in the beans of the lower tier [10], the year 2020 was more favorable for the growth and development of filed beans in the conditions of the Orel Region (Fig. 2). In terms of protein content in seeds, the highest rates are recorded in the new varieties Krasny Bogatyr and Universal. The average protein content in seeds is

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Table 2 Crude protein content in field bean grains by year of study No.

Variety

Year

Protein content, %

1

Yantarnye

2018

29.9

2

Krasny Bogatyr

2019

30.5

3

Universal

2020

32.7

2019

30.1

2020

30.9

Source Calculated by the authors

31.6% for the variety Krasny Bogatyr and 30.5% for the variety Universal. The average protein content for the Yantarnye variety was 29.9% (Table 2). We carried out a comparative study of the electrophoretic spectra of seed proteins in three varieties of field beans. The proteins of seeds of field bean separated by electrophoresis, like those of other dicotyledons, are represented by a multicomponent spectrum (Fig. 3). The evaluation of protein spectra according to the presence of existing differences in the intensity of staining in the samples allowed us to identify three polymorphic components (Table 3). We revealed six types of spectra in the variety Yantarnye, seven types of spectra in the variety Krasny Bogatyr, and three types of spectra in the variety Universal. The analysis of the electrophoretic spectra of field beans revealed three polymorphic positions with three intensity gradations (1, 2, 3) (Fig. 4). In the seeds of different varieties, protein components occur with different frequencies (Table 3),

Fig. 3 Electrophoretic spectra of proteins of seeds of field bean varieties: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7—Yantarnye; 8, 9, 10, 11—Krasny Bogatyr; 12, 13, 14—Universal; 15—Lancetnaya. Source Electrophoregram by Selikhova

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Table 3 Polymorphic components of field bean varieties Variety Yantarnaya

Krasny Bogatyr

Universal

Type of spectrum

Components 8

9

10

I

1

3

3

II

3

3

3

III

3

2

1

IV

3

1

3

V

0

3

3

VI

3

3

2

I

1

3

3

II

3

3

3

III

3

2

1

IV

3

1

3

V

1

1

3

VI

3

0

3

VII

3

3

1

I

1

3

3

II

3

3

3

III

3

3

1

Source Calculated by Selikhova

Fig. 4 Electrophoretic spectra of proteins in seeds of field bean varieties: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7— Yantarnye; 8, 9, 10, 11—Krasny Bogatyr; 12, 13, 14—Universal. Source Data by Selikhova

which is a criterion for determining the varietal identity of seeds by the characteristic spectra and frequency of their occurrence.

4 Conclusion The evaluation of protein spectra according to the presence of existing differences in the intensity of staining in the samples allowed us to identify three polymorphic components. We revealed six types of spectra in the variety Yantarnye, seven types

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of spectra in the variety Krasny Bogatyr, and three types of spectra in the variety Universal. The revealed polymorphic positions of the electrophoretic spectra allow for the identification of field bean varieties.

References 1. Feeds, mixed feeds and raw material. Determination of mass fraction of nitrogen and calculation of mass fraction of crude protein. Part 1. Kjeldahl method. (2014). (July 1, 2014 GOST R 32044.1-2012 [ISO 5983-1:2005]). Standardinform, Moscow, Russia 2. Voronichev BA, Zadorin AM, Tolkacheva MA, Zelenov AA, Yatchuk PV, Kononova ME (2020) Fodder beans. Universal (May 21, 2020 Author’s certificate No. 76540 RF; Patent holder Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops”). Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops”, Streletsky Village, Russia 3. Bobkov SV, Lazareva TN (2012) Band composition of electrophoretic spectra of storage proteins in interspecific pea hybrids. Russ J Genet 48(1):56–61 4. Bobkov SV, Selikhova TN (2015) Obtaining interspecific hybrids for introgressive pea breeding. Ecol Genet 13(3):40–49. https://doi.org/10.17816/ecogen133 5. FAOSTAT (n.d.) Crops. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. Accessed 8 February 2021 6. Konarev VG (2000) Variety identification and registration of the gene pool of cultivated plants by seed proteins. N. I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (VIR), St. Petersburg, Russia 7. Kurkina YuN, Tkachenko IK (2003) Fodder beans as a subject of selection investigations (review). Agric Biol 38(4):79–83 8. Lazareva TN (2007) Polymorphism of seed proteins in buckwheat species and varieties Fagopyrum mill (Dissertation of candidate of biological sciences). N. I. Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources (VIR), St. Petersburg, Russia 9. Lazareva TN, Pavlovskaya NE, Fesenko IN, Fesenko AN (2007) Seed protein polymorphism of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) varieties, revealed by SDS-PAGE. In: Yan C, Zongwen Z (eds) Advances in buckwheat research: proceedings 10th international symposium on buckwheat, Northwest University Press, Evanston, IL, pp 383–386 10. Lysenko NN, Voronichev BA (2015) Cultivation of field beans in the Orel region. Orel State Agrarian University, Orel, Russia 11. Orel Center for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (n.d.) Climate data for the city of Orel. Retrieved from https://www.cgms.ru/57/. Accessed 11 February 2021 12. Timoshkin OA, Timoshkina OYu (2012) Improving the efficiency of seed production of forage beans. Niva Povolzhya 1(22):58–62 13. Timoshkin OA, Ostroborodova NI, Ulanova OI (2013) Biological and economic estimation of sorts forage bobs in the conditions of Penza Area. XXI Century: Resumes Past Challenges Present Plus 1(9):33–38 14. Voronichev BA, Zadorin AM, Titov VN, Razumov VV, Tolkacheva MA (2020) On the issue of the possibility of expanding the range of herbicides for use in forage beans cenoses. Legumes Groat Crops 4(36):78–85. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X-2020-11208 15. Zadorin AM, Voronichev BA, Yatchuk PV, Kudryavcev AN (2016) A new variety of broad beans Krasny Bogatyr. Legumes Groat Crops 3(19):85–89 16. Zotikov VI (2010) Grain legumes are a source of vegetable protein. Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops”, Orel, Russia

Reaction of Isolated Fragments of Chickpea Seedlings to Hormone Composition of Nutrient Medium Galina N. Suvorova and Maria V. Donskaya

Abstract This study examines the primary reaction of chickpea seedling fragments (k-1029 and k-1507 genotypes) to auxin type and cytokinin concentration in vitro. We conducted a three-factor experiment, studying the influence of genotype (Factor A); auxin types—indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and α-naphthylacetic acid (NAA) (Factor B), and 6-benzylaminopurine content (BAP) (Factor C). Genotype had a significant effect on the number of shoots formed in primary explant cultures. The k-1029 sample formed 2.62 shoots per explant on average; the k-1507 formed 3.73 shoots per an explant. The maximum value of this index for both genotypes (5.3 for k-1029, 5.5 for k-1507) was registered in media with a minimum concentration of growth regulators. The total growth of isolated tissues was influenced by the genotype and the auxin type, as well as the interaction of these factors. Media with NAA-type auxin were more productive compared to media with IAA. The highest growth rate of 23.87 mg/day was achieved with the k-1507 genotype on medium with BAP and NAA. Cytokinin concentration had no significant effect on any of the studied parameters. For optimizing chickpea shoot development, we recommend a medium containing 5 μM of BAP and 0.1 μM of IAA. For the rapid growth of isolated tissues, we recommend a media with 5 μM of BAP and either 0.1 or 1.0 μM of NAA. Keywords Chickpea · Cicer arietinum · Nutrient medium · Explant · Shoot induction · Tissue culture · Growth regulators JEL Classification Q16

1 Introduction Like other legumes, chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the staple foods, especially in vegetarian diets of many countries. It has high nutritional value with low anti-nutritional content, providing a balanced amino acid profile for humans when G. N. Suvorova (B) · M. V. Donskaya Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_19

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G. N. Suvorova and M. V. Donskaya

combined with grains [18]. Global chickpea production has almost doubled in half a century, reaching 14 million tons in 2019 [6]. Over the past ten years, chickpea acreage in Russia has grown considerably, driven by increased demand on internal and external markets [19]. Chickpea breeding began in India in 1905. Since then, more than 350 varieties have been developed. Half of them are grown in India, which accounts for twothirds of global chickpea production [8]. In Russia, chickpea breeding began in 1913 at the Krasnokutskaya plant breeding station [9]. In the early stages of breeding, varieties were selected from local peasant farms, while most modern cultivars were created by hybridization [8, 9]. The main priority of chickpea breeding was improving drought tolerance, productivity, and resistance to Ascochyta blight. Plants produced for northern territories also required early ripening [9]. Increased chickpea acreage imposes new requirements on its varieties and, therefore, requires new breeding methods. However, the use of modern biotechnologies in chickpea breeding is still in its early stages. For example, scholars from Western Siberia published the results of their experiment on producing high-yield and early ripening varieties created by somaclonal variation [16]. Tissue culture techniques of chickpea have been developed over the past four decades. The first protocols described the process of micro-propagation from seeds with rather simple nutrient media compositions [5, 15]. Later on, regeneration methods were improved [2, 3, 11] new growth regulators were used in regeneration schemes [13, 17]; and the first studies on obtaining haploid plants in anther culture were published [1, 10]. Nevertheless, the data on in vitro cultivation of chickpea tissues remain contradictory. Some scholars believe that all issues of plant regeneration are solved [4]. Others believe that the developed protocols are largely non-reproducible and depend on the genotype or the particular laboratory conditions [2, 12, 13]. To facilitate the practical use of biotechnological methods, one needs simple and versatile protocols of chickpea plant regeneration from various explants in vitro. In this study, we aimed to investigate the primary response of isolated epicotyl fragments of chickpea seedlings of two genotypes to growth regulators in the medium. Another aim of the study is to determine the optimal medium composition for the development of isolated chickpea tissue cultures.

2 Methodology The studies were carried out on two chickpea accessions from the N. I. Vavilov AllRussian Institute of Plant Genetic Resources collection. Sample k-1507 has brown seeds; sample k-1029 has black seeds. The seeds were sterilized as follows: 70% ethanol for 1 min; rinsing with sterile distilled water; 0.5% solution of sodium chlorhexidine digluconate for 5 min; rinsing with sterile distilled water. The sterilization efficiency, in this case, was 91–100%. Sterile seeds were placed in tubes with agar medium and half of Murashige-Skoog mineral content (MS) [14]. At the

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161

Table 1 Composition of growth regulators in the induction media used for isolated explants of chickpea Growth regulators

Media M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

IAA, μM

1.0

1.0

0.1

–

–

–

NAA, μM

–

–

–

1.0

1.0

0.1

BAP, μM

20.0

10.0

20.0

10.0

5.0

5.0

Source Compiled by the authors

age of 1 week, the seedlings were removed from the medium and cut into several pieces. Epicotyl fragments of seedlings were inoculated onto induction media of different compositions. We subcultured the fragments of one seedling into one test tube. The number of repetitions was at least 10 test tubes per variant. The explant growth rate was determined by dividing tissue mass growth during the first subculturing by the number of cultivation days. Then, we counted the number of formed shoots per explant after one month from the beginning of cultivation. The experiment focused on six variants of nutrient media with different compositions and concentrations of growth regulators (Table 1). The used cytokinin variants were 5, 10, or 20 μM of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP); the used auxin variants were 0.1 or 1 μM of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or α-naphthylacetic acid (NAA). The nutrient media consisted of mainly the MS mineral salts [14], B5 vitamins [17], 6 g/l of agar, 30 g/l of sucrose, 2 mg/l of glycine. The experiment was a three-factor one. We studied the influence of chickpea genotype in two gradations (Factor A), auxin type in two gradations (Factor B), and cytokinin concentration in three gradations (Factor C). Analysis of variance was conducted using STATISTICA 7 application.

3 Results Chickpea epicotyl fragments developed on all the examined media. Depending on the medium composition, we observed: • Swelling of the primary explant; • Shoot growth induction; • Induction of cell division with callus tissue formation and shoot growth. Media with IAA auxin mainly induced shoot growth (Fig. 1a, b); media with NAA auxin induced shoot growth and callus formation (Fig. 1c, d). The average number of shoots was 3.2 per explant. The minimal value was observed for genotype k-1029 on medium M4 (2.0 shoots per explant); the maximum value was observed for genotype k-1507 on medium M6 (5.5 shoots per explant)

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Fig. 1 Development of primary chickpea explants on induction media, genotype k-1507: a shoot development on M1 medium with BAP and IAA; b shoot development on M2 medium with BAP and IAA; c callus and shoot induction on M4 medium with BAP and NAA; d callus and shoot induction on M6 medium with BAP and NAA. Source: Compiled by the authors

(Fig. 2a). The average daily growth of tissue mass in all variants was 11.32 mg. The minimum growth rate of 4.29 mg/day was observed in the k-1029 genotype on the M2 medium. The k-1507 genotype demonstrated the maximum value of 23.87 mg/day on the M5 medium. Genotype and interaction between the auxin type and cytokinin concentration significantly impacted the number of shoots developed from primary chickpea explants on induction medium (Table 2). While the accession k-1029 averaged at 2.62 shoots per explant, the accession k-1507 had 3.73 shoots per explant. This parameter was independent of either auxin type or BAP concentration, but these two factors in conjunction had a significant effect on the number of developing shoots. The maximum value of the parameter for both genotypes (5.3 for k-1029; 5.5 for k-1507) was observed on M3 and M6 media, respectively, which contained minimal concentrations of growth regulators. Although the effect of cytokinin concentration on the number of shoots was not significant, we noted that the shoot number tended to increase as the concentration decreased. Media containing the maximum amount of cytokinin 20 μM produced an average of 3.05 shoots per explant for both genotypes; media containing 10 and 5 μM BAP produced 2.94 and 3.54 shoots per explant, respectively. IAA media were preferable for the shoot morphology, compared to NAA media—the latter induced callus formation. Therefore, we believe that M3

Reaction of Isolated Fragments of Chickpea Seedlings to Hormone …

163

a 6 No. shoots/explant

5 4 3

k-1029

2

k-1507

1 0 M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

InducƟon media

Growth rate, mg/day

b 30 25 20 15

k-1029

10

k-1507

5 0 M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

InducƟon media

Fig. 2 Reaction of chickpea explants on media composition: a—No. of shoots per explant, b— growth rate of isolated tissue. Source Compiled by the authors Table 2 Analysis of variance for shoot induction of chickpea explants Effect

Sum of squares

Degrees of freedom

Mean of squares

F

P

Genotype (A)

34.445

1

34.445

12.8721*

0.000498

Auxin type (B)

7.322

1

7.322

2.8721

0.100911

BAP concentration (C)

7.835

2

3.917

A×B

9.293

1

9.293

3.4729

0.065026

A×C

8.452

2

4.226

1.5793

0.210712

B×C

19.072

2

9.536

3.5637*

0.031621

0.849

2

0.425

0.1587

0.853464

A×B×C

Note * significant at P05 Source Compiled by the authors

14.639

0.232765

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G. N. Suvorova and M. V. Donskaya

Table 3 Analysis of variance for the tissue growth rate of chickpea explants Effect

Sum of squares

Genotype (A)

Degrees of freedom

Mean of squares

F

P

1898.03

1

1,898.03

48.8929*

0.000000

Auxin type (B) 1535.04

1

1,535.04

39.5423*

0.000000

BAP concentration (C)

42.88

2

21.44

0.5523

0.577225

A×B

342.87

1

342.87

8.8324*

0.003629

A×C

128.34

2

64.17

1.6530

0.196156

B×C

16.13

2

8.07

0.2078

0.812676

A×B×C

10.87

2

5.44

0.1400

0.869492

Note * significant at P05 Source Compiled by the authors

medium containing 5 μM BAP and 0.1 μM IAA is optimal for the development of chickpea shoots. The growth rate of isolated chickpea tissues in vitro was significantly influenced by two factors: genotype and auxin type, as well as their interaction (Table 3). The daily growth rate of tissue mass in k-1029 averaged at 7.24 mg/day. In k-1507, the growth rate of isolated tissues was more than twice as high at 15.42 mg/day. Media with NAA were more effective compared to those containing IAA. The tissue growth rate was at 7.6 mg/day on the IAA variants, while on the NAA variants, it was 15.03 mg/day. BAP concentration did not affect the growth rate of chickpea tissues. The average growth rate for the variants was 11.4 mg/day on media with 20 μM BAP; 12.03 mg/day with 10 μM BAP; and 10.55 mg/day with 5 μM BAP. The maximum values of tissue growth rate were observed for the k-1507 genotype on the media containing NAA: M4—19.2 mg/day, M5—23.8 mg/day, M6—19.4 mg/day. For inducing a rapid growth of isolated chickpea tissues, we recommend using a medium with 5 μM BAP and either 0.1 or 1.0 μM NAA.

4 Conclusion In this experiment, we studied the primary response of isolated fragments of chickpea seedlings to growth regulators in the nutrient medium in vitro. We established that the genotype factor has a significant effect on the number of shoots formed in primary explants and the growth rate of isolated tissues. Both indicators were higher in the genotype k-1507 compared to the genotype k-1029. Low concentrations of growth regulators are important for the development of shoots with normal morphology. The total growth of isolated tissues was influenced by genotype and auxin type, as well as the interaction of these factors. The maximum growth rate was observed in the

Reaction of Isolated Fragments of Chickpea Seedlings to Hormone …

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k-1507 on media with BAP and NAA. Cytokinin concentration had no significant effect on any of the examined indicators. Among the studied concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 μM, we suggest using the minimum value of the BAP concentration. For optimal development of chickpea shoots, we recommend a medium containing 5 μM BAP and 0.1 μM IAA. For the rapid growth of isolated tissues, we recommend media containing 5 μM BAP in combination with either 0.1 or 1.0 μM NAA.

References 1. Abdollahi M, Rashidi S (2018) Production and conversion of haploid embryos in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) anther cultures using high 2, 4-D and silver nitrate containing media. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 133:39–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11240-017-1359-4 2. Amer A, Mohamed G, Pantaleo V, Moemen PL, Hanafy MS (2019) In vitro regeneration through organogenesis in Egyptian chickpea. Plant Biosyst Int J Dealing All Aspects Plant Biol 153(6):835–842. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2018.1549616 3. Ammar A, Ayyaz M, Irshad A, Bukhari SF, Yasin G, Mahmood S, Rehman SU (2016) In vitro direct organogenesis using mature embryo with cotyledons in chickpea. Turk J Agric Food Sci Technol 4(1):17–21. https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v4i1.17-21.471 4. Anwar F, Sharmila P, Saradhi PP (2010) No more recalcitrant: chickpea regeneration and genetic transformation. Afr J Biotechnol 9(6):782–797. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2010.000-3009 5. Brandt EB, Hess D (1994) In vitro regeneration and propagation of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) from meristem tips and cotyledonary nodes. Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 30:75–80. https:// doi.org/10.1007/BF02632124 6. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (n.d.) FAOSTAT. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. Accessed 1 March 2021 7. Gamborg O, Miller R, Ojima K (1968) Nutrient requirement of suspension cultures of soybean root cells. Exp Cell Res 50(1):151–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-4827(68)90403-5 8. Gaur PM, Gowda CLL, Knights EJ, Warkentin T, Açikgöz N, Yadav SS, Kumar J (2007) Breeding achievements. In: Yadav SS, Redden RJ, Chen W, Sharma B (eds) Chickpea breeding and management. Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, UK, pp 391–416 9. Germantseva NI (2019) The results and perspectives of chickpea breeding at Krasnokutskaya station. Agrarian Bull South-East 1(21):9–14 10. Grewal RK, Lulsdorf M, Croser J, Ochatt S, Vandenberg A, Warkentin T (2009) Doubledhaploid production in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): role of stress treatments. Plant Cell Rep 28(8):1289–1299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-009-0731-1 11. Jayanand B, Sudarsanam G, Sharma KK (2003) An efficient protocol for the regeneration of whole plants of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) by using axillary meristem explants derived from in vitro-germinated seedlings. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 39:171–179. https://doi.org/ 10.1079/IVP2002387 12. Kadiri A, Halfaoui Y, Bouabdallah L, Ighilhariz Z (2014) Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in vitro micro-propagation. Turk J Agric Nat Sci Special Issue 1:1304–1309. Retrieved from https:// dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/142263 13. Kumari P, Singh S, Yadav S, Tran L (2018) Pre-treatment of seeds with thidiazuron delimits its negative effects on explants and promotes regeneration in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 133:103–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11240-017-1365-6 14. Murashige N, Skoog F (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol Plant 15(13):473–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1962.tb0 8052.x 15. Polisetty R, Paul V, Deveshravar JJ, Khetarpal S, Suresh K, Chandra R (1996) Multiple shoot induction by benzyladenine and complete plant regeneration from seed explants of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Plant Cell Report 16(8):565–571. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01142325

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16. Rozhanskaya OA, Kurkova, SV, Gorshkova EM (2018) Somaclonal variability as a source of biodiversity for chickpea breeding (Cicer arietinum L.) in Siberia. In: Nekrasova EV (ed) Second international forum “cereal legumes, a developing direction in Russia”, Omsk State Agrarian University, Omsk, Russia, pp 143–147 17. Srivastava J, Das A, Soren KR, Chaturvedi SK, Nadarajan N, Datta S (2012) Ontogeny of in vitro shoot organogenesis from axillary meristem explants in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). J Crop Sci Biotechnol 15:245–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12892-012-0032-z 18. Wood JA, Grusak MA (2007) Nutritional value of chickpea. In: Yadav SS, Redden RJ, Chen W, Sharma B (eds) Chickpea breeding and management. Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, UK, pp 101–142 19. Zotikov VI, Polukhin AA, Gryadunova NV, Sidorenko VS, Khmyzova NG (2020) Development of production of leguminous and groat crops in Russia based on the use of selection achievements. Legumes Groat Crops 4(36):5–17. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X-202011198

Prospects for the Development of Soybean Production in Russia Irina L. Tychinskaya

and Nikolay V. Varlamov

Abstract The paper focuses on the main aspects of soybean production in Russia from the perspective of political regulation and food, feed, and technical industry. The authors carry out a comparative assessment of the production costs of protein products from soybeans and animal origin. The conducted assessment allows us to conclude that the production of protein products from soybeans is more economically efficient. The authors investigate the tendencies and priorities of developing the world market for soybeans and products of their processing. Moreover, the authors analyze administrative and economic processes affecting the efficiency of production of this crop depending on the geographical, climatic, and political characteristics of the countries that lead in its production. The paper notes the problems in soybean production in Russia to ensure food sovereignty and strengthen the Russian contribution to the world market of this crop. The authors formulate the requests for Russian science in the field of breeding solutions for creating new Russian soybean varieties adapted to dynamically changing weather and climatic conditions and not inferior to their Western counterparts. The authors also note the need to fully implement the final scientific product (variety) on Russian fields through a comprehensive study on creating optimal agricultural technology of cultivation, the efficiency of deep processing, and nutritional end products. The paper considers a new promising economic cluster for soybean production in Russia. This cluster should be associated with the production of environmentally friendly products, which will involve additional land resources not suitable for intensive farming. Suggestions on the marketing attractiveness of soybean products on Russian and world markets are formulated. Keywords Soy · Quality · Yield · Variety · Technology · Market · Food security JEL Classification Q10

I. L. Tychinskaya (B) · N. V. Varlamov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_20

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1 Introduction Soybean (Glycine hispida Max.) is a protein, oilseed crop that has food, fodder, and technical use [3, 13, 16]. There has been a significant increase in soybean production in the major top ten countries due to advanced cultivation technologies [7]. Soybeans are produced in more than 90 countries. Argentina, Brazil, and the USA dominate global soybean production and exports. Their combined share exceeds 80%. Simultaneously, the volume of soybean production in these countries significantly exceeds the volume of their domestic consumption. The USA, Brazil, Argentina, and India, account for more than 84% of global soybean consumption (Fig. 1). Soybean processing for oil and meal on a large scale is concentrated mainly in China, Argentina, Brazil, and the USA. That is, these countries are the leading soybean exporters and producers. Global demand for vegetable protein increases by an average of 107% annually. Global soybean production has increased by 400% in the last 30 years. China is the leading consumer of more than 100 million tons per year (30–35%) of the world’s food and feed soybeans. The country produces about 16 million tons of soybeans, while the consumption is 6–7 times higher than the country’s reserves. Most soybeans are grown in Heilongjiang province, near the Russian border. According to the provincial Agricultural Commission, soybean crops total more than 235 million hectares of land in this province. The second active consumer is the EU countries. In 2018, soybean production in these countries was 2.5 million tons, and consumption was 16.2 million tons, which is six times higher than own production. Russia

4

Canada

8

Paraguay

9

India

11

China

16

Argentina

55

Brazil

117

USA

121 0

20

40

60

80

million tons Fig. 1 Main countries producing soybeans, million tons. Source [7]

100

120

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Similar to Europe, Russia has a negative “balance” between the volume of own production and consumption of soybeans. More than 2 million tons of soybeans are supplied to Russia from Brazil, Argentina, and other countries every year.

2 Materials and Methods This research uses the analytical and statistical methods on the data from open sources: the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat), the Foodsmi portal of the food industry, an independent analytical company Alto Consulting Group, etc. The authors systematized facts and summarized and compared the results of various authors, which allowed them to formulate the results and conclusions.

3 Results Analyzing the market trends for soybeans and their processed products, we see an increase in supply: first, due to the increase in cultivated areas, and second, due to the development of technologies providing agronomic and economic advantages. The prospects for increasing soybean production in the world are evidenced by the increasing number of livestock. In turn, the increasing number of livestock increases the demand for soybean meal. New technologies for using soybean oil as biodiesel and the increasing demand for soy-based food products also contribute to the increasing demand for soybeans [16]. The average annual growth rate of soybean production over the past ten years was 2.7%. World soybean trade increased by 5.1%. Global soybean gross yield in 2019–2020 is estimated at 342 million tons (+31%) compared with 2009–2010. The volume of world exports in 2019–2020 is estimated at 152 million tons, which is 65% higher compared with the same period in 2009–2010. Comparing global and Russian average annual growth rates in soybean yields and acreage for 2009–2010 and 2019–2020, we notice that global soybean yields grew 1.0% per year with an average annual growth rate of 1.7% of the harvested area. Currently, the global harvested soybean area (2019–2020) is 122 million hectares, which is 19% higher than in 2009–2010. Thus, the area in 2019 increased 1.5 times compared to 2000 [4]. The 2019–2020 yield was 2.8 t/ha, which is 10% higher than in 2009–2010. The growth rate of the Russian soybean market was much higher than similar global indicators. Over the past decade, the average annual yield in relative terms was 2.8%, the gross yield was 17.3%, and the Russian crop area grew by 13.4%.

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The same figures for 2009–2010 to 2019–2020 in absolute terms are as follows: • Country’s soybean yield—1.6 t/ha (32% increase); • Area under soybean cultivation—3.08 million hectares (3.5 times higher). The use of seeds that are not genetically modified is the primary advantage of Russian soybeans in domestic and international markets [9]. This corresponds to national interests in the sphere of food security. It is confirmed by the Doctrine of Food Security of the Russian Federation until 2030, which states that it is necessary to prevent the import of genetically engineered organisms for their sowing, cultivation, breeding, and trafficking [11]. Despite significant positive changes in soybean production in Russia, the country is still significantly inferior to foreign countries in terms of crop area and yield compared. Compared to Russia, soybean yields are 2–2.5 times higher in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and the USA. Moreover, in Italy, soybean yields are almost three times higher than in Russian [12]. Prospects for possible growth for Russian soybean production in the short term should primarily be associated with an increase in cultivated areas (Fig. 2). Over the past ten years, the average annual growth of the country’s soybean area was 13.4%, yield growth was 2.8%, and the growth of the gross harvest was 17.3%. As a result, Russia registered a record sowing area, yield, and gross yield of soybeans in 2019. In 2019, the area planted with soybeans in Russia was 3.08 million ha (3.5 times higher than in 2009), and the yield was 1.6 t/ha (32% higher than in 2009). In 2020, the soybean harvest was negative for the first time in 7 years and was slightly below last season’s 4.28 million tons (−2.6%) due to droughts in South and Central Russia. It is important to note that this happened due to a drop in production in the European part of Russia (by 5.4%—to 2.64 million tons). However, agricultural

Fig. 2 Sown area, gross yield, and yield of soybeans in Russia. Source Rosstat [5]

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producers in the Far East managed to harvest 4.7% more soybeans (1.65 million tons) due to higher yields and a lower percentage of lost acreage. The share of raw materials in the West decreased from 64 to 61.5% of the total volume in the country [2]. Russian and international markets have seen a notable increase in demand and pricing for soybeans and their products. From 2017–2020, the average producer prices for soybeans rose 15.6%, from 21,827.2 rubles per ton to 25,231.9 rubles per ton. Soybeans of the new crop in September 2020 cost 34–35 thousand rubles per ton [1]. According to calculations, prices per ton of Russian soybeans in the first half of 2020 by exporters were as follows: • China—92 mln. USD/312 thousand tons = 294.872 USD/t • Belarus—48 mln. USD/131 thousand tons = 366.4 USD/t • Turkey—21 mln. USD/58 thousand tons = 362.0 USD/t Average export prices for soybeans to the USA, Argentina, and Brazil on FOB terms are $368.5 per ton, $371.8 per ton, and $375.0 per ton, respectively. Russia shipped 384 thousand tons of soybean oil worth $282 million for $734.375 per ton (282 mln. USD/384 thousand tons) [5]. Based on economic feasibility, it is necessary to develop domestic processing in Russia actively. The situation in this direction is not clear-cut by Federal Districts. For example, enterprises in the Far Eastern Federal District do not develop processing, and the main direction of soybean sales is export to China. In the Central Federal District, most of the soybean crop is processed by enterprises. Simultaneously, over the last five years, about 87% of Russian exports in the Federal District are soybeans. Russian production of soybeans provides only 50% of the necessary raw materials to the processing plants in the country. The production of soy concentrates, dietary supplements, soy flour, soy isolates, food composites, and other processed products is underdeveloped in Russia. Russia is currently a net importer of soybeans. According to the Federal Customs Service data for 2019, imports of soybeans in Russia amounted to 2028.5 thousand tons or 44% in relation to the gross yield of soybeans. Along with purchases, Russia exports soybeans. In 2019, export shipments totaled 895,000 tons of soybeans. Buyers of soybeans are Turkey (6.6%), China (81.7%), and other countries (11.7%) [8]. Global export prospects of Russia should be linked to China. China accounts for 4% (12.2 million tons) of the world’s soybean production. China’s demand for soybeans is more than 100 million tons. All Russian soybean exports account for less than 1% of the need of the Chinese market. Let us cite Rosstat data to determine the market opportunities for Russian soybean producers in China. In 2019, the gross harvest of soybeans in Russia was only 4.36 million tons. Thus, Russia needs to use the economic opportunities of exports of soybean and its sub-products more quickly to saturate the markets of neighboring countries. Political disagreements and customs wars between China and the USA

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Fig. 3 Top 10 regions by soybean harvest in Russia in 2020. Source Rosstat [5]

provide additional opportunities to promote Russian products in the Chinese soybean market. If politically desired, Russia’s agro-climatic opportunities can contribute to the growth of soybean production, primarily in the regions where this crop is grown. The top 10 Russian regions in terms of gross soybean yields are as follows (in ascending order): the Altai Territory (3.2%), Jewish Autonomous Region (3.8%), Orel Region (3.9%), Voronezh Oblast (4.3%), Tambov Region (4.4%), Krasnodar Territory (7.1%), Primorye Territory (7.5%), Kursk Region (11.9%), Belgorod Region (13.5%), and Amur Region (27.3%). Other Russian regions account for 13.1% (Fig. 3). In countries with developed soybean production, the reserve for increasing the volume of soybeans is the small allocation of new acreage for the crop. In this case, the extensive way (adapted technologies) of industry development has exhausted itself, and the cost of obtaining an increase in yield by intensive technology is unprofitable. In the USA, scientists and economists have concluded that the cost of soybean yield gains over 2.2 t/ha does not pay off with additional intensification of soybean cultivation technologies and prevailing prices for the means of production [6]. Over the past ten years, soybean surplus in the USA has declined to an average annual rate of 1.5%, compared to twice the rate of 3% in 2000–2010. This suggests that the global soybean market, due to the ever-increasing demand, will see new players with all necessary resources to increase the production of this product. With the state approach to soybean cultivation in Russia, it is possible to carry out production on 4.5 million hectares due to additional areas in the regions. This will provide the necessary volumes of high-protein soy raw materials, food products, and feed additives to the population and livestock. Taking into account the export opportunities, in accordance with the positive dynamics of the soybean industry for

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the previous ten years, there is a real possibility of increasing soybean production in Russia. Russian soybean producers can use extensive and intensive ways to develop this product. In Russia, soybeans can be cultivated in large areas, gradually replacing less profitable and non-exportable crops in crop rotations. With a balanced crop rotation, this crop can occupy up to 50% of the crop rotation without noticeable damage to the yield. The current dynamics of changes in weather, soil, and climatic conditions in the Central Federal District forms favorable conditions for soybeans. Therefore, it is possible to get higher yields in this Federal District, which is confirmed by many years of research of the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops (FSC LGC), Voronezh State Agricultural University, N. V. Parakhin Orel State Agricultural University, Belgorod State Agricultural Academy, and other experienced scientific and educational institutions of the Central Federal District of Russia [14]. In obtaining an increase in yields when changing varieties, the new variety accounts for one half, and the other half is achieved by agricultural technology. About 250 soybean varieties are currently allowed for production in Russia, of which 70% are domestic varieties. According to the Doctrine of Food Security of the Russian Federation, this figure should not be less than 75% [11]. The basis for achieving high soybean yields in specific soil and climatic conditions is the use of the varieties that are the most reliable and adapted to the specific local growing conditions. Currently, FSC LGC has eight soybean varieties of different ripeness groups with a growing season of 105–115 days: Belor, Lancetnaya, Svapa, Krasivaya Mecha, Zusha, Mezenka, Osmon, Shatilovskaya 17 [15]. The biological productivity potential of the cultivated variety of any crop, including soybeans, is the basis for increasing the yield. Its implementation is to ensure favorable conditions for the growth and development of the crop through compliance with the regulations of agricultural technology and the basic laws of farming. Mobilizing the natural bio-potential of productivity of a variety with the help of a particular agricultural method aimed at improving the conditions of agro-cenoses, we should consider that the level of its productivity greatly depends on the replenishment of the factor that is in the minimum. The excess of any factor negatively affects the productivity of the crop. The optimal content and ratio of all factors contribute to the maximum yields. Since 2013, the Union of Organic Farming operates in the Russian Federation. This organization will allow the Russian market to form a new economic niche. The key difference between resource-saving and organic farming is the strict control and legal registration of the cultivated areas and produced products. Soybeans should take one of the cornerstone roles in the realization of the organization’s ideas. As a soil-improving crop, soybeans can maintain a high level of fertility in crop rotation. Soybeans are also marked with the ability to form a profitable yield on the background of natural fertility at the expense of own and organic resources. There should be no

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strong competition for active areas, as in organic farming. It is possible to use the fields designated for reclamation [10].

4 Conclusion Improvement of qualitative and quantitative parameters of soybean varieties and cultivation technologies is a task that should be catalyzed and regulated at the state level. Thus, legal, organizational, and financial state support aimed at agricultural science and Russian producers must help activate internal reserves of Russian soybean and its processing products in the Russian market. This decision will allow the Russian market to form an advantage in the competition for influence in the global soybean market. The analysis of international production (supply) and markets (demand) of soybeans reveals unlimited opportunities the Russian soybean producers. Russia has a large reserve for the expansion of cultivated areas, including the fields designated for reclamation through the introduction of organic agricultural production, where soybeans should have a leading role. The development of the industry will ensure the food security of Russia and will increase exports to the world market of soybeans, thereby increasing the replenishment of the state budget. In this regard, it is necessary to create a unified state organizational structure for the development of soybean production in Russia for the period of active development of the industry.

References 1. Alto Consulting Group (ACG) (2021) Soybean market in Russia. Current situation and forecast. Retrieved from https://alto-group.ru/otchot/rossija/604-rynok-soi-tekushhaya-situaciyai-prognoz. Accessed 3 December 2020 2. BASF (2020) BASF signal issue. Retrieved from https://www.agro.basf.ru/Documents/Sig nals/!BASF-signal-soya-summer-2020_FINAL.pdf. Accessed 3 March 2021 3. Beregovaya YV, Tychinskaya IL, Petrova SN, Parahin NV, Puhalsky JV, Makarova NM, Belimov AA (2018) Cultivar specificity of the rhizo-bacterial effects on nitrogen-fixing symbiosis and mineral nutrition of soybean under agro-cenosis conditions. Agric Biol 53(5):977–993. https://doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2018.5.977rus 4. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (2019) Agriculture in Russia, 2019: statistical book. Rosstat, Moscow, Russia 5. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (2021) Area under crops, gross yields, and yields in the Russian Federation in 2020 (preliminary data). Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/document/13277. Accessed 3 March 2021 6. Fedotov VA, Goncharov SV, Stolyarov OV, Vashchenko TG, Shevchenko NS (2013) Soy in Russia. Agroleague of Russia, Moscow, Russia 7. Gorshenina E (2020) Analysis of soybean market. FoodSMI. Retrieved from https://foodsmi. com/a1184/. Accessed 5 February 2021

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8. Krasnaya Vesna News Agency (2020) Soybean prices rose 1.5 times in September 2020. Retrieved from https://rossaprimavera.ru/news/402946ab. Accessed 15 December 2020 9. Krivoshlykov KM, Trunova MV, Lukomets AV (2019) Objective suppositions for strengthening of the state role in development of breeding and seed growing of oil crops in Russia. Oil Crops 3(179):79–84 10. Mikhaleva ES, Torgashov VL, Polovinkin GA (2020) The effect of organic fertilizers on the nitrogen-fixing activity of soy plants. Bull Agrarian Sci 3(84):177–183. https://doi.org/10. 17238/issn2587-666X.2020.3.177 11. Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation (2020) Doctrine of food security of the Russian Federation (approved by the decree of the president of the Russian Federation in January 21, 2020 No. 20). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from https://mcx.gov.ru/upload/iblock/ 3e5/3e5941f295a77fdcfed2014f82ecf37f.pdf. Accessed 12 August 2020 12. OilWorld RU (2020) Russia. Soybean market: current and projected trends. Retrieved from https://www.oilworld.ru/analytics/exportimport/312729. Accessed 12 August 2020 13. Polukhin AA, Panarina VI (2020) Main problems of selection and seed production of agricultural crops and ways to solve them. Legumes Groat Crops 3(35):5–11. https://doi.org/10. 24411/2309-348X-2020-11178 14. Posypynov GS (2007) Soybean in the Moscow region: Northern ecotype varieties for the central Non-Chernozem region and their cultivation technology. Russian State Agrarian University— Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Moscow, Russia 15. Rosinformagrotekh (2020) State register for selection achievements admitted for usage (National list). vol 1 “Plant varieties” (official publication). Retrieved from https://gossortrf. ru/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/FIN_reestr_dop_12_03_2020.pdf. Accessed 1 March 2021 16. Zadorin AM, Zelenov AA, Mordvina MV (2019) Achievements of selection of federal scientific center of legumes and groat crops in the aspect of the growth of soybean production in Russia. Legumes Groat Crops 2(30):53–56. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X-2019-11088

Method of Physical and Chemical Assessment of Immunobiological Activity of Cow Colostrum According to Its Electronic Polarization Parameters Sergey N. Tsygankov and Alexander D. Levshin

Abstract The paper describes intensive methods and progressive technologies of waste-free breeding of healthy and highly productive calves. The improvement of culture, methods, and technologies is based on the development of rational bases of physical and chemical control of cows’ colostrum quality, its immunobiological activity, and efficiency of prevention of gastrointestinal diseases in newborn calves, as well as the depressive influence of these diseases on growth and functional condition of an organism. In this respect, an essential role is played, firstly, by the supposed dependence of the immunobiological activity of colostrum on the concentration of various amino acids in different types and fractions of its proteins. These proteins have different electronic polarization and thermodynamic parameters. Second, the essential role is played by the existing patterns of variability in the quantitative content and apparent polarity of various fractions and types of proteins depending on the breed and age of cows, as well as on their feeding and housing conditions. Third, the timing of colostrum feeding to newborn calves in the first hours and days of their lives also plays an important role. Keywords Immunobiological activity of colostrum · Parameters of electronic polarization · Catabolic and anabolic processes in the body · Physical and chemical assessment · The electron-energy state · Physical and chemical thermoregulation · Functional state · Embryogenesis JEL Classification Q16 · Q19

1 Introduction The introduction of physical and chemical assessment of the immunobiological activity of cows’ colostrum according to the parameters of its electronic polarization is a relevant direction in biological science. This is due to the following facts: S. N. Tsygankov (B) · A. D. Levshin Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groats Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_21

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• New approaches in objective analysis of immunological and biological properties of colostrum of cows; • Objective evaluation of immunological and biological properties according to the value of electronic polarization caused by the spatial displacement of electrons and deformation of electron clouds in the molecules; • Objective quantitative relationship of the parameters of electronic polarization of colostrum and the content of certain fractions and types of proteins in it, as well as their variability from breed, age, types of feeding, and conditions of maintenance of cows. The new methods of physical and chemical assessment of immunobiological activity of cow’s colostrum will allow to carry out a more profound technological control over the immunobiological properties of colostrum. Moreover, these methods will allow for the control of non-identicality in the manifestation of colostrum immunity in newborn calves associated with the prevention of gastrointestinal diseases and depressive effects on the following processes in newborn calves: • Growth, as an integral physiological and biochemical process with high sensitivity and lability to changes in the internal factors; • Chemical and physical thermoregulation; • Functional state of the systems conditioning catabolic and anabolic processes in the body of newborn calves. The regulation of these factors and processes will positively affect the technology for growing healthy and highly productive calves, increasing productivity, and reducing the cost of produced meat products. We can define new methodological approaches and principles following this promising research direction. These approaches and principles will become the basis for the statement of the problem, the definition of the purpose and objectives of its development, choice and justification of quantification, objects, place, means of measurement, and expected results, and the choice of method of product testing and implementation of the obtained data.

2 Materials and Methods For an objective assessment of immunobiological properties of cows’ colostrum received from different breeds of different ages at different hours and days after calving in the different conditions of feeding and maintenance, we used various tests and research methods. These tests and research methods allowed us to determine intermolecular electron-polarization and thermodynamic parameters of amino acids, their content and ratio in colostrum proteins, and the parameters of its electronic polarization. The level of electronic polarization of amino acids, the ratio of localized and delocalized electrons in their molecules, the relative atomic densities of chemical elements, and various thermodynamic parameters serve as a criterion and test of

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physical and chemical assessment of the biological activity and effectiveness of these amino carboxylic substances in nutrition and enhancing natural resistance as complex physiological and biochemical processes. Electronic polarization is a physical and chemical phenomenon associated with the spatial displacement of electrons and the deformation of electron clouds in the molecules of substances. If these electron shifts are taken per one mole of a substance, they are called the mole electronic polarization, and per one gram of substance—the specific electronic polarization. These assessment criteria are also characteristic of multiples of chemical bonds formed by delocalized electrons. Therefore, electronic polarization is related to the refractive indices of light and the dielectric permittivity and density of matter. Thus, it characterizes the level of its intramolecular electronic heterogeneity and chemical and biological activity. The electronic polarization of matter equals to: Pel =

4 π N αel 3

where Pel π N αel

electronic polarization, coefficient equal to 3.14; Avogadro constant; electronic polarizability.

As can be seen from this equation, the electronic polarization of matter is much greater than the electronic polarizability of its molecules and serves as its measure. The electronic polarization of matter manifests itself in the electromagnetic field of visible light since only light particles, electrons, are displaced due to the high frequency of oscillations of this field. According to Maxwell electromagnetic theory, the electronic polarization per mole of the matter is called the mole polarization. It equals to: n2 − 1 4 M π N αel = × , 3 n2 + 2 ρ where n M ρ

light refraction index, molecular weight of matter, matter density. It follows that Pel =

M n2 − 1 × n2 + 2 ρ

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The electronic polarization of a substance per one gram is called the specific (Rel ). It equals to: Rel =

P M

If we change Pel in this equation with this expression, we obtain the following: Rel =

M n2 − 1 × /M n2 + 2 ρ

This is the formula for determining the electronic polarization of any studied substance. The specific and molar electronic polarization of amino acids is established by analyzing their solutions, taking into account their percentage composition and pure solvents. The specific electronic polarization of colostrum and milk is determined by the refractometric method described by Budanov et al. [5]. The density of colostrum and milk is established according to the method outlined by Dalanyan [8]. The electronic structure of amino acids is determined by the methods described in several selected works [2, 4, 15, 17, 19, 23]. Simultaneously, it is determined whether the electrons belong to atomic cores, free non-shared electron pairs of atoms, or electron pairs forming equal and multiple chemical bonds within molecules. A higher stock of chemical energy in delocalized electrons than localized electrons of chemical bonds is established by the calorimetric method [10–14, 22]. The scientific and methodological approach to assessing chemical energy reserves and individual electron pairs underlying chemical bonds is based on the homological principle as a strictly scientific principle of objective comparative analysis of organic substances. This principle was scientifically substantiated by Butlerov [6, 7] and widely applied by Lotenkov et al. [13], Morkovnikov [16], and Zbarsky [25]. Therefore, the distribution of chemical energy between individual chemical bonds is made by comparing the formation energies of several compounds that differ from each other in a particular type of chemical bond since the formation energy of matter molecules is the sum of the formation energies of all chemical bonds present in the molecule. According to Stepanenko [20], this principle of energy distribution is of great importance for obtaining valuable research results on the energy of chemical bonds of certain species and their combinations in substances. The ratio between the atomic densities of different chemical elements and their content in amino acids is determined by the method outlined in the works of Ackerman [1], Stromberg and Semchenko [21], Wolkenstein [24]. The thermodynamic parameters (enthal, free energy, and entropy) of amino acids are calculated from the heat capacity of their constituent chemical elements [3, 9]. The amino acid composition of proteins and their fractions in colostrum isolated by electrophoresis is determined by the chromatographic method. The quantitative level of content of different forms of globulins, albumin, and casein in colostrum is determined by electrophoresis. The content of various fractions and species is determined in colostrum

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of black-motley breed cows in 1, 3, 6, and 12 h after calving; 1, 2, 3, and 5 days of lactation, and in 1, 3, and 5 months of lactation in milk. We established the indices of electronic polarization of colostrum and their correlation with the level of its preventive power against gastrointestinal diseases and their depressive effect on the growth of newborn calves. Additionally, the clinical manifestation of gastrointestinal diseases in calves is assessed by the disorder of their digestive tract, as well as changes in pulse rate, respiration, body temperature, food activity, and morphological and biochemical blood parameters. Gastrointestinal disorders are evaluated by the number of diseased calves and the number of days of their illness by comparison group. The frequency of the arterial pulse is counted by palpation of the submandibular artery. The respiratory rate is registered over time by recording the respiratory movements of the chest. The body temperature is measured with a thermometer placed in the rectum for 5 min. The nutritional activity of calves of compared groups is determined by observing the rate and size of consumption of colostrum, milk, and other feed in different periods of rearing. The assessment of morphological and biochemical changes in the blood of calves of compared groups is performed by the quantitative content of erythrocytes, leukocytes, hemoglobin, total and certain fractions of serum proteins, and the level of reserve alkalinity. Erythrocytes and leukocytes were counted in a Goryaev counter chamber. The level of hemoglobin was determined using the colorimetric method with a Sali hemoglobinometer. For determining the level of total serum protein, we used the refractometric method. To determine separate fractions of serum protein, we used the electrophoretic method. Reserve alkalinity was determined by the Nevodov method. The dynamics of the live weight of calves of compared groups is determined by weighing them individually at 1, 30, 60, and 120 days of age. The cost of feed per unit of growth of live weight of calves is set by the daily accounting of their consumption. Cost-effectiveness of colostrum use in different hours after the birth of calves taking into account breed, age, and types of the feeding of cows is determined based on the accounting data on experiments conducted. In this calculation, direct costs and additional production received by the compared groups of calves are considered. Biometric processing of the obtained data is based on the principles outlined in Roklitsky [18]. The research object is the physical and chemical assessment of the immunobiological activity of the colostrum of cows according to the parameters of its electronic polarization. In this case, the analyzed indicators are assessed, taking into account the age of cows, types of their feeding, and maintenance. To differentiate the use of colostrum when feeding newborn calves taking into account its controlled quality, there is a production need for theoretical and experimental justification of the mentioned new criterion and a new way to assess the immunobiological properties of colostrum, closely related to the parameters of its electronic polarization and the quantitative content of various fractions and types of proteins.

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3 Results and Discussion Colostrum is a biologically valuable food for newborn calves prepared by nature itself; it mobilizes all internal forces and reserves for external manifestation of high level and rhythm of the body’s growth. Therefore, feeding colostrum to calves in different hours after birth affects the growth dynamics of young animals to different degrees. The obtained experimental material (Table 1) shows that the formation of live weight of calves fed one hour after their birth by mother’s colostrum is significantly superior to the experimental groups of calves that received mother’s colostrum six hours and, especially, twelve hours after calving. This biological superiority is also evident by the age of four months of calves. Bulls reacted less intensively than heifers. Colostrum with higher electronic polarization increases the assimilation of nutrients and chemical energy of feed to synthesize the live body weight of calves. Colostrum with lower electronic polarization fed to calves six and twelve hours after birth has less inducing efficiency on the assimilation and synthetic of the body. Table 1 Effectiveness of colostrum of different electronic polarization on the bodies of newborn calves Indicators

Electronic Hours of feeding colostrum to calves after birth polarization of First hour Third hour Sixth hour Twelfth hour colostrum of cows, mm3 /g

Change in live weight, kg per head of heifers Day 1

232.9 ± 0.78

34.2 ± 0.23

34.4 ± 0.17

34.6 ± 0.21

34.5 ± 0.19

Day 30

231.7 ± 0.76

59.4 ± 0.42

57.9 ± 0.39

66.7 ± 0.38

54.2 ± 0.31

Day 60

231.2 ± 0.75

81.3 ± 0.63

78.2 ± 0.68

75.1 ± 0.68

72.4 ± 0.51

Day 120

228.7 ± 0.68

130.1 ± 1.11 123.8 ± 1.08 117.4 ± 1.06 103.6 ± 0.86

Change of live weight of bull calves Day 1

232.9 ± 0.78

37.4 ± 0.23

37.6 ± 0.22

37.8 ± 0.21

37.6 ± 0.24

Day 30

231.7 ± 0.76

63.7 ± 0.48

61.9 ± 0.43

60.1 ± 0.44

58.5 ± 0.42

Day 60

230.2 ± 0.75

87.4 ± 0.71

84.1 ± 0.76

80.5 ± 0.64

78.2 ± 0.56

Day 120

228.7 ± 0.68

142.2 ± 1.18 134.1 ± 1.09 126.5 ± 1.16 121.3 ± 1.12

Feed – consumption per one kg of live weight gain (in feed units)

4.56

4.98

5.27

5.87

Net income per head

–

1363

1330

1301

1261

Per one ruble of additional costs

–

11.3

11.0

10.8

10.5

Source Compiled by the authors

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Thus, the cost of feed units for growth in the live weight of these young animals is higher. The cost-effectiveness of colostrum with higher electronic polarization is high. Nevertheless, it decreases as the time between the birth of calves and the feeding of colostrum with lower electronic polarization lengthens. In this case, the net economic effect per head during four months of calf rearing reaches 1363 rubles, and net income reaches 11.3 rubles per one ruble of additional costs. The new way of physical and chemical assessment of the immunobiological activity of cows’ colostrum according to the parameters of electronic polarization is based on the development of rational bases of technological control of colostrum quality and its usage efficiency for prevention of gastrointestinal diseases in newborn calves while feeding them and also for prevention of depressing post influence of these diseases on the growth and functional state of the organism (Table 2). The number of immune bodies in the colostrum, which help newborn calves fight against pathogenic microbes entering the digestive tract in the first hours of their lives with poor feeding and fat content, is drastically reduced, negatively affecting the quality of colostrum at calving. Therefore, objective assessment of the quality of the colostrum of cows is dictated by the technological requirements of waste-free rearing of calves. It can be carried out according to the most universal parameters of the electron-energy state of biochemical components related to its immunological and biological activity. Electronic polarization can serve as such a universal parameter. The higher the level of specific electronic polarization of colostrum, the higher its immunobiological value. When fed to newborn calves, it has an adequate and positive effect on preventing gastrointestinal diseases and their depressed post effect on growth and development, chemical and physical thermoregulation, and functional state of systems serving metabolic and synthetic processes in the body (Table 1). The parameters of electronic polarization of colostrum are much higher than those of milk. The electronic polarization of colostrum synthesized in the cow’s udder during the first hour immediately after calving is marked with the highest values. Six hours after calving, the electronic polarization of the colostrum starts to decrease. The electronic polarizing index of colostrum noticeably decreases by the end of the first day of lactation of cows after calving. By the end of the fifth day of lactation, it reaches a significant decline. The level of biological activity and content of proteins, enzymes, lysozyme, and other metabolites in the colostrum of cows in the first hours after calving is the highest, and then it decreases markedly during lactation. This pattern is a vivid confirmation of the evolutionary adaptation of the maternal body to the preservation of offspring due to the highly pronounced immunological and codependent properties of colostrum rich in globulins, albumin, lysozyme, proteolytic, amylolytic, and other enzymes, as well as neurochemical compounds essential in the activation and formation of secretory, motor, protective, and other functions of the digestive tract of newborn calves. A higher level of electronic polarization of colostrum of the first hour of lactation after calving increases the effectiveness of prevention of gastrointestinal diseases of newborn calves, the functional state of their bodies, their physical and chemical thermoregulation, synthesis of live body weight, and the efficiency of assimilation of

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Table 2 Criteria for assessing the immunobiological activity of colostrum fed to calves at different hours after birth No. Assessment criteria

Unit of measurement Prophylactic efficacy of feeding cows’ colostrum to newborn calves after calving in

1

Electronic polarization of colostrum

m3 /g

232.9 ± 0.78 231.2 ± 0.75 228.7 ± 0.68

2

Content in milk B—lactoglobulins

%

11.64 ± 0.52 10.40 ± 0.49 9.81 ± 0.47

α—lactoalbumins

%

3.82 ± 0.12

3.76 ± 0.11

3.68 ± 0.13

Number of calves in a Animals group

20

20

20

Number of calves that Animals got sick

–

11

16

Number of sick days

–

35

182

First hour

3

4

5

Sixth hour

Twelfth hour

Gastrointestinal disorders

Animals

Changes in the functional state of the body of calves Pulse rate

per minute

73.4 ± 0.34

69.8 ± 0.19

64.3 ± 0.23

Respiratory rate

per minute

23.4 ± 0.42

21.6 ± 0.34

19.3 ± 0.50

Body temperature

t °C

36.6 ± 0.21

38.1 ± 0.18

37.7 ± 0.24

Changes in live weight of heifers 1 day

kg

34.2 ± 0.18

34.5 ± 0.21

34.5 ± 0.19

30 days

kg

59.4 ± 0.42

56.7 ± 0.38

54.2 ± 0.31

60 days

kg

81.3 ± 0.63

75.1 ± 0.56

72.4 ± 0.51

120 days

kg

130.1 ± 1.11 117.4 ± 1.05 103.6 ± 0.86

Changes in live weight of bull halves

6

1 day

kg

37.4 ± 0.23

37.8 ± 021

37.6 ± 0.24

30 days

kg

63.7 ± 0.48

60.1 ± 0.44

58.5 ± 0.42

80.6 ± 0.64

78.2 ± 0.56

60 days

kg

87.4 ± 0.71

120 days

kg

124.2 ± 1.13 126.5 ± 1.16 121.3 ± 1.12

Feed consumption per Feed units 1 kg of weight gain

4.56

5.00

5.87

Source Compiled by the authors

nutrients and chemical energy of the consumed feed. Colostrum with lower electronic polarization (obtained six and twelve hours after calving of cows) is less effective (Table 1). If calves are fed colostrum with high electronic polarization in the first hour after birth, the net economic effect significantly increases when calves are raised to four months of age. The increased time between the birth of a calf and its feeding with colostrum with a lower level of electronic polarization leads to a

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markedly lower economic effect. Therefore, the method of physical and chemical assessment of the immunobiological activity of cows’ colostrum according to the parameters of electronic polarization has scientific novelty and important practical importance in increasing the efficiency and technological culture of growing healthy and high-productive calves. The functional state of the body of calves associated with the pulse rate, respiration, physical and chemical thermoregulation, the activity of the hematopoietic organs, synthesis of live body weight, post-embryogenesis, formation of immunity, and assimilation of nutrients of the consumed feed depends on the level of electronic polarization of the consumed colostrum. In this respect, the experiments conducted in farms and wide implementation of their results in practice showed that the level of electronic polarization of colostrum and various indicators of the functional state of calves positively correlate with each other since electronic polarization of colostrum is caused mainly by the total sum of proteins in it, especially its high content of β— lactoglobulins, lysozyme, and other molecular components of protein and enzymatic nature (Table 3). Electronic polarization of colostrum synthesized in the cow’s udder during the first hour immediately after calving is marked with the highest values. Six hours of lactation after calving, the cow already tends to decrease electronic polarization of colostrum. This electronic-structural indicator of colostrum noticeably decreases by the end of the first day of lactation of cows after calving (226.7 mm3 /g). By the end of the fifth day of lactation after calving, it reaches a significant decline (217.7 mm3 /g). The level of biological activity of proteins, enzymes, and other metabolites of colostrum in the first hours of lactation after calving is the highest and further decreases during further lactation. This fact is a clear manifestation of evolutionary adaptation of cows to the preservation of their offspring due to the well-expressed immunological, electrokinetic, coagulation, and biotic properties of colostrum rich in globulins, albumin, lysozyme, proteolytic, and other enzymes, as well as neurochemical compounds essential for activation and formation of secretory, motor, protective, and other functions of the digestive tract of newborn calves. Additionally, a higher level of electronic polarization of colostrum of the first hour of lactation of cows after calving has a positive effect on the intensity of formation and stabilization of colostral immunity in newborn calves, associated with the high effectiveness of the preventive power of this mammary gland secretion concerning their gastrointestinal diseases. In this case, the functional state of the calves’ body during their growth and development significantly improves and becomes more effective in resisting the occurrence of disorders of their gastrointestinal tract. The improvement of the functional state of the body of calves also positively affects the frequency of their pulse and breathing, the processes of their physical and chemical thermoregulation, the activity of hematopoietic organs, and the narrowing of the synthesis of live body weight since, in this case, the intensity of anabolic reactions in these young animals is higher. This explains that calves that received colostrum with higher electronic polarization in the first hour after birth acquired the impulse for higher vitality and intensity of metabolic processes than calves that received colostrum with less electronic polarization in six or twelve hours after their birth. Moreover, bull

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Table 3 Prophylactic effectiveness of colostrum in relation to gastrointestinal diseases and their post effects on the functional state of calves Indicators

Unit of measurement

Hours of feeding colostrum to calves after birth First hour

Third hour

Sixth hour

Twelfth hour

Number of calves

Heads

20

20

20

20

Electronic polarization of colostrum

mm3 /g

232.9 ± 0.78 231.7 ± 0.76 231.2 ± 0.75 228.7 ± 0.63

Gastrointestinal Heads disorders

–

Days of illness –

3

11

16

11

35

182

per minute

73.4 ± 0.24

70.2 ± 0.21

69.8 ± 0.19

64.3 ± 0.63

Respiratory rate per minute

33.4 ± 0.41

32.8 ± 0.33

31.6 ± 0.36

29.3 ± 0.50

Body temperature

°C

36.6 ± 0.21

38.4 ± 0.19

38.1 ± 0.18

37.7 ± 0.24

Erythrocytes

mln/mm3

6.12 ± 0.08

5.96 ± 0.07

5.83 ± 0.04

5.67 ± 0.05

Leukocytes

thousand/mm3

7.43 ± 0.11

7.12 ± 0.09

7.56 ± 0.12

7.89 ± 0.10

Hemoglobin

% Sali

68.4 ± 0.12

66.5 ± 0.14

65.3 ± 0.11

64.9 ± 0.13

Reserve alkalinity

mg %

523 ± 12

515 ± 14

506 ± 11

492 ± 10

Total protein

%

7.89 ± 0.12

7.62 ± 0.10

7.41 ± 0.09

7.06 ± 0.08

Albumin

%

3.49 ± 0.16

3.16 ± 0.14

2.97 ± 0.11

2.73 ± 0.10

α—globulins

%

1.45 ± 0.04

1.34 ± 0.02

1.25 ± 0.03

1.18 ± 0.02

β—globulins

%

1.41 ± 0.03

1.72 ± 0.02

1.84 ± 0.04

1.89 ± 0.03

λ—globulins

%

1.54 ± 0.03

1.40 ± 0.02

1.34 ± 0.02

1.25 ± 0.01

Pulse rate

Serum content

Source Compiled by the authors

calves react less intensively to the consumption of colostrum with higher electronic polarization than heifers. The cost-effectiveness of using colostrum with higher electronic polarization for feeding newborn calves to prevent gastrointestinal diseases and their depressed post effects associated with stunted growth, development, and deterioration of functional status is quite important. The net economic effect per head at four months of rearing reaches 1363 rubles. Thus, electronic polarization of colostrum positively correlates with its protein content, immunological, electrokinetic, coagulation, and biotic activity. It is a new objective criterion and an express method of assessing its biological properties related mainly to the formation and stabilization of colostral immunity in newborn calves.

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4 Conclusion Electronic polarization is related to the spatial displacement of electrons, and the deformation of electron clouds in the molecules of matter belongs to the express methods. This method is not expensive and can be widely used for technological quality control of colostrum and the determination of its immunobiological activity level when introducing waste-free technology of growing high-yield calves. Electronic polarization of the colostrum of cows is determined using a refractometric method. In contrast to the traditional assessment of the quality of cows’ colostrum associated with the definition of the total sum of proteins and their fractions, especially β—lactoglobulins related to antibodies that provide a huge immunity in newborn calves, the method of electronic polarization is carried out in any production conditions without the organization of special chemical laboratories. This method allows spending only 3–5 min for analyzing one sample of colostrum. Additionally, this method establishes a positive correlation between the electronic polarization of colostrum and the amount of total protein and its individual fractions in it, which allows us to replace the more laborious electrophoretic method of determining the quantitative content of proteins and their fractions in colostrum with the above electronic polarization method. At the same time, studies carried out at different types of feeding and housing have shown that different proteins and their fractions of colostrum cause unequal manifestation of its electronic polarization parameters. Proteins with higher polarization increase electronic polarization of colostrum greater than proteins with weak polarization. However, the higher content of both types of proteins contributes to the indispensable increase in electronic polarization and immunobiological activity of colostrum. Thus, electronic polarization of colostrum positively correlates with protein content. Electronic polarization is a new objective criterion for assessing the quality of colostrum. Therefore, this method can be widely used in practice, replacing the electrophoretic method, since it is more laborious for determining the quality of cows’ colostrum. However, these aspects of the discussed problem have not yet received experimental justification and coverage in Russian and foreign literature. It especially concerns quantitative interrelation between parameters of electronic polarization of colostrum and the content of certain fractions of proteins in it, their variability depending on breed, age, feeding, and maintenance of cows, as well as hours and days of feeding newborn calves with colostrum. Therefore, the method of physical and chemical assessment of the immunobiological activity of different-quality colostrum according to its electronic polarization parameters will become especially relevant for waste-free technology of growing healthy and highly productive calves.

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References 1. Ackerman Y (1964) Biophysics (trans. from English: Atroshchenko VA, Soyfer VN, ed: Lukyanov SYu). Publishing house “Mir”, Moscow, USSR 2. Asatiani VS (1956) Methods of biochemical research: guide for laboratory physicians and biochemists. Medgiz, Moscow, USSR 3. Baron NM, Kvat EI, Podgornaya EA, Ponomareva AM, Ravdel AA, Timofeeva ZN (1972) Quick reference book of physical and chemical quantities. Publishing house “Chemistry”, Leningrad, USSR 4. Brachet J (1960) Biochemical cytology (trans. from English: Dorfman VA). Foreign Literature Publishing House, Moscow, USSR 5. Budanov VV, Vorobyov NK, Gostikin VP, Karapetiants MKh (1975) Practicum on physical chemistry. Publishing house “Chemistry”, Moscow, USSR 6. Butlerov AM (1880) A historical essay on the development of chemistry in the last forty years. St. Petersburg, Russian Empire 7. Butlerov AM (1959) Selected works in organic chemistry. Publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, USSR 8. Dalanyan ZK (1958) Dairy business. Selkhozgiz, Moscow, USSR 9. Ioffe VV (1974) Refractometric methods of chemistry, 2nd edn. Publishing house “Chemistry”, Leningrad, USSR 10. Lotenkov MI (1979) A new approach to analyzing the energy basis of the vital processes of the organism of farm animals. In: Dunayevsky DB (ed) New scientific achievements for agricultural production, Orel, USSR 11. Lotenkov MI (1981) Physical and chemical criteria for analysis and evaluation of biological processes and phenomena to improve the efficiency of production and quality of livestock products. In: Volodin VI (ed) Biochemistry in solving problems of agricultural production, Orel, USSR 12. Lotenkov MI, Ustinova VA, Podluzhnaya LI (1979) On the question of biotic energy and physical parameters of its manifestation. In: Dunayevsky DB (ed) New scientific achievements for agricultural production, Orel, USSR 13. Lotenkov MI, Ustinova VA, Podluzhnaya LI (1981) Study of the relationship between energy and molecular weight of organic nutrients of the animal organism. In: Volodin VI (ed) Biochemistry in solving problems of agricultural production, Orel, USSR 14. Medvedev JA (1963) Protein biosynthesis and problems of ontogenesis. Medgiz, Moscow, USSR 15. Mikhlin AM (1960) Biochemistry of cellular metabolism. Publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, USSR 16. Morkovnikov VV (1870) Materials on the mutual influence of atoms in chemical compounds. Chem Pharmacol 153:67 17. Pullman B, Pullman A (1965) Quantum biochemistry (trans. from English: Vanin AF, ed: Blumenfeld LA). Publishing house “Mir”, Moscow, USSR 18. Roklitsky PF (1967) Biological statistics. Publishing house “Higher school”, Minsk, USSR 19. Sinanoglu O (1966) Many-electron theory of atoms, molecules and their interactions (V. K. (trans. from English: Fedyanin VK, ed: Tyablikov SV). Publishing house “Mir”, Moscow, USSR 20. Stepanenko BN (1979) A course in organic chemistry: textbook for medical institutes, 4th edn. Publishing house “Higher school”, Moscow, USSR 21. Stromberg AG, Semchenko DP (1968) Physical chemistry: textbook for students of chemical engineering. Publishing house “Higher school”, Moscow, USSR 22. Vasilyeva EA (1987) Clinical biochemistry of farm animals. Rosselkhozizdat, Moscow, USSR

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23. Vecher AS (1966) Fundamentals of physical biochemistry. Publishing house “Higher school”, Minsk, USSR 24. Wolkenstein MV (1955) Structure and physical properties of molecules. Publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, USSR 25. Zbarsky IV (1964) Molecular mechanisms of protein biosynthesis and developmental problems. Issues Philos 9:17

Effective Management of the Agro-Industrial Complex as a Basis for Food Security Yulia V. Bykovskaya , Angelina F. Dyatlova , and Andrey V. Minakov

Abstract The paper focuses on the development trends of the agro-industrial complex of the Russian Federation, which is the basis for the country’s food security. Keywords Agro-industrial complex · National security · Food security · Agriculture · Economy · Economic security JEL Classification M38 · Q1

1 Introduction The relevance of the studied problem is due to the fact that the agro-industrial complex (AIC) of the Russian Federation is an essential component of the national economy and the basis for food security. The AIC forms the basic principles of maintaining state sovereignty by ensuring the independence of the food market from external supplies. It also becomes the basis for the development of rural areas in the country. Its development becomes the basis for the development of economic sectors, technologically related to the AIC. In the era of globalization, the clash of political interests of different countries in global politics, and instability of climate and ecology, the development of agriculture takes on additional importance and becomes an urgent task for the system of government regulation of the economy. Over the years, many authors considered various food security problems and suggested ways to improve the management of the AIC. For example, Vartanova believes that threats to food security include non-equivalence of price between the AIC spheres, inaccessibility of food markets for agricultural producers, and “unreasonable and unregulated import of food products, leading Russia to food dependence” [14, p. 37]. Polyanskaya points out the need to develop the AIC in the country. She says that it is necessary to strengthen the concentration of capital, create the necessary prerequisites for productivity growth, stimulate labor in the agricultural sector, and Y. V. Bykovskaya (B) · A. F. Dyatlova · A. V. Minakov Moscow University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia Named After V. Ya. Kikot, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_22

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increase the level of innovation. These measures are ultimately aimed at increasing the level of independence of the national food market [9, p. 80]. However, the scientific literature has no relevant studies on the problems of management of the AIC as a basis for food security. This paper will disclose this topic.

2 Materials and Methods The research involved a retrospective analysis of statistical data on the development of the Russian AIC. The authors analyzed the dynamics of sown areas in Russia, the dynamics of production of main crop products, the dynamics of production of main livestock products, the dynamics of livestock and poultry productivity in agricultural organizations, the dynamics of crop yield of crop products, and the dynamics of changes in the number of main types of equipment in agricultural organizations. Moreover, the authors paid attention to the food independence of Russia, the profitability of agricultural organizations, and imports of agricultural and food products. The economic and statistical method of research is based on the data of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat). The authors analyzed indicators officially published by Rosstat at the time of writing (the most recent data are the annual figures for 2019) and data from other sources on preliminary results for 2020 that were not published on the Rosstat website.

3 Results Economic security is the centerpiece of the national security system. The provision of economic security to the economic entities (country, region, industry, enterprise, household, and citizen) and creating the mechanism of economic security are constantly at the center of the attention of scientists. Scientific literature and publications provide different definitions of economic and food security. Thus, Vasilyeva points out that the state of the economy guarantees the steady growth of economic indicators, effective satisfaction of economic needs of the population, and the protection of state interests at the national and international levels. At the same time, she calls food security one of the most important elements of economic security because it involves ensuring physical and economic access to safe and sufficient food [16]. Bauch, defining food security, points out that it is also an element of a country’s economic security. He says that food security indicators belong to the category of economic security, which, in turn, is a component of the national security of the whole country [2, p. 173].

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Vlasov and his co-authors also closely link the economic security of the country and food security. In their view, food security is the socio-economic objective focusing. Food security allows ensuring and guaranteeing “the availability of food to the entire population in the required amount and quality” [17, p. 73]. Kulikova also considers food security as the most crucial element of economic security, reflecting the degree of independence from foreign countries in terms of food supplies and meeting the population’s demand for food [6, p. 360]. Panteleyeva and Vorontsova also link food security with economic security. They indicate that food security aims to ensure the harmonious development of the individual and a decent standard of living [8, p. 121]. Makeeva and Shirokova [7], Staroverov and Vartanova [12], Trotsuk et al. [13], Vartanova Drobot [15] indicate the high importance of food security as a component of economic security. They also say that the importance of food security consists of ensuring the availability of food and minimizing the dependence of the country or the region on foreign markets, price fluctuations for food, possible shortage, or a sharp rise in prices for certain types of food. Secondary literature rightly points out that food security is the most important object of government regulation and targeted actions to ensure the work of the AIC, including agriculture, support for Russian producers, and development of import substitution [11, p. 460]. The AIC and its development primarily provide economic security for the country. The AIC is one of the most critical components of the Russian economy, which provides food production, that is, vital products for people, without which a person cannot live. Therefore, the development of AIC in the economy provides a “solution to the problem of self-sufficiency in food in the country” [3, p. 32]. In general, the AIC aims to improve agriculture and its produce, bringing it to the consumer. The AIC includes several industries that only produce agricultural products and ensure their primary processing. Also included in the AIC also includes enterprises that serve agriculture, ensure the manufacturing of production means, etc. (Fig. 1). Agro-industrial complex (AIC) Food production Agriculture Processing of agricultural products

Maintenance and manufacturing of production means Agricultural machine building Servicing of agricultural enterprises Training of personnel for the AIC

Fig. 1 Industries included in the structure of the AIC. Source Developed and compiled by the authors based on the materials of Chekkueva [3], Sharoschenko and Cherkashina [11]

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Due to its high importance, the AIC is an object of government regulation. The basic principles of regulation in this area are laid down in the Federal law “On agricultural development” (December 29, 2006 No. 264-FZ). Strategic planning in the AIC is also quite important. Official directions of public policy in this sphere and its goals are stated in the “Doctrine of food security of the Russian Federation” (Doctrine) (approved by Presidential decree of January 1, 2020 No. 20). In accordance with current legislation and the Doctrine, the state program “On the development of agriculture and regulation of markets for agricultural products, raw materials, and food” was developed and approved by Government Decree No. 717 of July 14, 2012. This state program indicates the goals and objectives in this area, distributes financial support for the program by years, presents critical indicators to be achieved in the program’s implementation, and proposes the criteria for their achievement. In 2020– 2021, this state program was amended to reflect the provisions of the new Doctrine of Food Security of the Russian Federation. It should be emphasized that, in general, the prospect of ensuring the food security of the country depends on the effectiveness of the AIC development. The effective implementation of these programs is vital for the further socio-economic development of Russia. Let us consider the indicators of the development of the AIC in Russia and import substitution in this sphere. Figure 2 presents the dynamics of sown areas in Russia. The dynamics of grain crop production are shown in Fig. 3. The analysis shows that the total size of sown areas in Russia increased by 0.8% over the five years analyzed. The sown area of agricultural organizations decreased by 3.7%. The chart in Fig. 3 shows that there was a sharp decline in grain production in 2018 compared to 2016–2017. However, it increased again in 2019–2020. The production in 2020 is 10.6% higher than in 2016 and 17.8% higher than in 2018, which is significant. Wheat accounts for almost two-thirds (64% according to 2020 data) of the grain production structure. It is one of the important export agricultural products of the Russian Federation due to the high demand for this product in the world and the

Fig. 2 Dynamics of sown areas in the Russian Federation in 2016–2020, mln. ha. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

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140000 130000 120000 110000 100000

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135539

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Grain production, thousand tons Fig. 3 Dynamics of grain production in Russia in 2016–2020, thousand tons. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

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0 2016

2017 Potatoes

2018 Vegetables

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Fruits and berries

Fig. 4 Dynamics of production of major crop products (excluding cereals) in Russia in 2016–2020, thousand tons. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

relative ease of its cultivation in Russia, given the climatic conditions. The dynamics of production of other major crop products (potatoes, vegetables, fruits, and berries) are presented in Fig. 4. As shown in Fig. 4, there was a decrease in potato production in 2019–2020 relative to 2016. In 2020, there were produced 12.7% fewer potatoes than in 2016. A similar situation is observed with the production of fruits and berries. In 2020, compared to 2016, it was produced by 11.4% less than in 2016. Simultaneously, the production of other vegetables increased by 5.2% over the period under review compared to 2016. For the considered period, this indicator shows a gradual annual increase (except for 2020), which cannot be said about the production of potatoes, fruits, and berries. Here we observe both a gradual increase and decrease in the values of the indicators. Of interest is the data on the production of livestock products, the dynamics of which are presented in Fig. 5. Statistics show that in 2020, compared to 2016, there was an increase in production of all major livestock products: pigs—by 26.5%, poultry—by 11.2%, milk—by 8.2%, cattle—by 2.1%. At the same time, we can also note a trend of a gradual increase in the values of these indicators each year. The dynamics of livestock and poultry productivity in agricultural organizations are presented in Fig. 6 (data are published only up to 2019).

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29787

5032 2827

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5478 2835

0 2016

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2018

Cattle

Pigs

Poultry

2019

2020

Milk

Fig. 5 Dynamics of production of main livestock products in Russia in 2016–2020, thousand tons. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

10000 5000 0

308 2016 Milk yield per 1 cow, kg

6286

5945

5660

5370

311 2017

305 2018

311 2019

Average egg laying rate of 1 laying hen, pcs.

Fig. 6 Dynamics of livestock and poultry productivity in agricultural organizations in the Russian Federation for 2016–2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

Compared with 2016, there is an increase in milk yield per cow by 17.1% and the average egg production per laying hen by 1%. Official statistics also show an annual increase in the values of the indicators in question. The dynamics of crop yield are presented in Fig. 7. As can be seen from the chart in Fig. 7, by 2020, Russia significantly increased the yield of rye (20.2%), followed by wheat (11.2%), rice (10%), and vegetables (7%). The provision of agricultural machinery is also an essential prerequisite for the development of agriculture. The dynamics of the fleet of the main types of equipment in agricultural organizations are presented in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7 Dynamics of crop yields in Russia in 2016–2020, c/ha. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

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Fig. 8 Dynamics of the fleet of the main types of equipment in agricultural organizations in Russia in 2016–2020, thousand pieces. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

Statistical data show that the values of all indicators of the equipment fleet for the studied period significantly decreased, including tractors by 8.9%, seeders by 19.2%, and cultivators by 10.1%. Thus, this decrease reduces the efficiency of agricultural enterprises. It is a factor slowing the development of the AIC as a whole. Nevertheless, according to the data published by Rosstat for 2019, the thresholds of food independence (self-sufficiency) indicators of the Russian Federation for sugar, grain, vegetable oil, meat, and meat products were achieved or exceeded. Simultaneously, self-sufficiency remains below the thresholds established by the Doctrine for milk and dairy products, edible salt, vegetables and melons, fruits and berries, and seeds (Fig. 9). Agricultural imports are up 0.3% in 2019 and are down 0.9% in value terms in 2020, with physical volume growth of 0.6%. By the end of 2020, the share of food imports was only 12.8% of total imports [18]. Its decrease was ensured by the development of import substitution, the rise in the cost of imported agricultural products due to devaluation, and the imposed restrictions (including the restrictions on the import of agricultural goods from the EU and several other countries).

Fig. 9 Analysis of food independence of the Russian Federation in 2019, % of Russian products in the total volume. Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat data [4]

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Exports of agribusiness products also substantially increased. For 2020, exports of agribusiness products reached $29.1 billion versus $25.6 billion in 2019 (a 13.7% increase in dollar value), reaching their highest level since 2018, when they were $25.8 billion. More than 150 countries imported Russian agricultural products, with China in the lead ($4 billion or 13%) [10]. It should be noted that with imports of $29.1 billion and exports of $29.4 billion for 2020, the balance of trade in agricultural raw materials and food was $0.4 billion—a recent historic low. Nevertheless, imports still exceed exports, which is a negative indicator for food security. The analysis of the development of the AIC in Russia allows us to draw several conclusions. Positive trends include the following: • Increase in 2019–2020 relative to 2016 in such indicators as the total size of sown areas, the volume of grain and vegetable harvest, basic livestock products, milk yield per cow, average egg production per laying hen, vegetable yield, and rice yield; • Achieved or exceeded threshold values of food independence indicators of grain, sugar, vegetable oil, meat, and meat products. The negative trends include the following: • Decrease in the sown area of agricultural organizations, potato production, the yield of wheat, rye, buckwheat, leguminous plants; • Reducing the number of equipment in agricultural organizations; • Low self-sufficiency in milk and milk products, food salt, vegetables and melons, fruits and berries, and seeds; • Low profitability of agricultural organizations. At the same time, positive trends are seen in the recent growth of exports of agricultural products, a record for exports with a decrease in imports in 2020, and a slight increase for 2019. Nevertheless, there are problems here as well—imports still exceed exports of agricultural products. Evidently, it is necessary to improve the state regulation of agriculture to improve performance, change the balance between exports and imports in this area to a positive without infringing the rights and interests of consumers, for whom a decrease in imports could result in a significant increase in food prices. It must be said that there are different points of view on improving AIC management. According to Alishaeva, the Russian AIC requires stable investments in food production, interregional cooperation, and integration ties. At the same time, investments are also possible from foreign investors, who, having significant resources and advanced technologies worked out abroad, could significantly improve the sphere of agricultural processing in Russia [1, p. 10]. Ischuk believes that modernization of the AIC of the Russian Federation is required to ensure that all producers have access to modern technology. Lack and reduction of agricultural machinery is a pressing problem for the AIC. In turn, modernization requires government intervention and support for lending in this area, including investment loans at concessional rates. It is necessary to create a system to monitor food security in Russian regions, tracking the level of security in each

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region. The development of Russian AIC is hampered by the high capital intensity of the industry, long payback periods of equipment, specialized buildings, low profitability at the initial stage of production, and the reluctance of most banks to credit long-term agricultural enterprises and farmers working in this field since it involves high risks [5, p. 167]. Some problems can be solved with the joint efforts of business entities and constructive dialogue of stakeholders. It may be possible to attract foreign investors to the development and modernization of agricultural enterprises. Nevertheless, the excessive capture of the market by foreign companies can also weaken the country’s food security. Therefore, the government should become the main engine for developing the AIC and the improvement of processes occurring in it. It is necessary to focus the government’s attention and targeted support, encourage those who use land and other agricultural resources with the best, most effective return, and subsidize R&D and bank lending in this area. Of particular importance is the further development of the AIC in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic that affected almost all countries in 2020. Nowadays, all stakeholders need to realize that there are unprecedented threats that can instantly destroy the results that have been achieved for decades. It is necessary to be proactive at all stages and in all areas of public policy, from planning the directions of activity to measures to monitor and analyze the results.

4 Conclusion Summarizing the results obtained, we can draw several conclusions. The problem of improving the effectiveness of the agrarian policy of the country is becoming increasingly acute. The AIC of the country provides production security of the country. The AIC aims to develop agriculture, production, and deliver final products to the consumer. The main problems identified in the analysis of the development of the agricultural sector in Russia for 2016–2020 are the following: • Low profitability of agricultural organizations; • Low self-sufficiency in several basic food products (milk and dairy products, edible salt, vegetables and melons, fruits and berries, seeds); • Reduction of the sown area of agricultural organizations; • Reduction of the main types of equipment in agricultural organizations. Taking into account the problems identified, the authors formulated recommendations to improve the development of the AIC in Russia. The authors believe it is necessary to provide comprehensive support to agricultural producers, increase the availability of credit for them, and develop agricultural science. The most promising direction for further research in the plane of the AIC development is the study of the experience of leading countries of agricultural producers, which will allow determining the tools that are the key to the development of the AIC in Russia. In the future, it is important to consider the experience of the AIC during the pandemic,

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its pros and cons, and the measures taken by the Russian government at this time to support the agricultural sector. This will allow us to avoid mistakes in the future when developing and modernizing agriculture in Russia and ensuring its food security.

References 1. Alishaeva RA (2019) Food security—a component of the national security of the state. In: Esetova AM (ed) The mechanism of implementation of the strategy of socio-economic development of the state. Dagestan State Technical University, Makhachkala, Russia, pp 9–11 2. Bauch DA (2020) Food security and import substitution as part of economic security. Conf Collections Sociosphere Res Center 25:171–174 3. Chekkueva L (2016) Agro-industrial complex of Russia: problems and development prospects. Int Agric J 1:32–33 4. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (2021) Agriculture, hunting, and forestry. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/enterprise_economy. Accessed 17 May 2021 5. Ischuk AS (2020) Food security and import substitution in the context of economic security. In: Gulyaev GY (ed) Economics, business, finance: current issues and modern aspects, Nauka i Prosveshcheniye, Penza, Russia, pp 166–168 6. Kulikova NN (2019) The problem of food security as part of the economic security of the agricultural enterprise. In: Gorlov IF (ed) Promising agricultural and food innovations, SFERA, Volgograd, Russia, pp 359–364 7. Makeeva OA, Shirokova OV (2020) Food security of the Russian Federation: challenges and possible measures. Food Policy Secur 7(2):149–154. https://doi.org/10.18334/ppib.7.2.110182 8. Panteleyeva NV, Vorontsova EV (2020) Food security as part of national security: regulatory aspects. Mogilev State A Kuleshov Bull 1(55):120–124 9. Polyanskaya NM (2019) On the national food security of Russia. Soc Secur Insights 2(4):78–91. https://doi.org/10.14258/ssi(2019)4-06 10. RBC (2021) Russia in 2020 showed a record for food supplies abroad. Retrieved from https:// www.rbc.ru/business/09/03/2021/604217269a79471196c1131b. Accessed 15 May 2021 11. Sharoschenko IV, Cherkashina AV (2017) Food safety of Russia: contemporary understanding, measures of government regulation. Fundam Res 8–2:458–463 12. Staroverov VI, Vartanova ML (2019) Russia’s food security as an important component of the country’s demographic policy. J Int Econ Affairs 9(4):2851–2862. https://doi.org/10.18334/eo. 9.4.41461 13. Trotsuk IV, Nikulin AM, Vegren S (2018) Interpretations and ways of measuring food security in modern Russia: discursive and real contradictions. Univ Russ Sociol Ethnol 27(1):34–65. https://doi.org/10.17323/1811-038X-2018-27-1-34-64 14. Vartanova ML (2017) Selection of criteria for the priority development of the AIC. In: Yakovleva TV (ed) Economic science today: theory and practice, Center for Scientific Cooperation “Interactive Plus”, Cheboksary, Russia, pp 36–40 15. Vartanova ML, Drobot EV (2019) A study on the impact of internal and external threats to food security of Russia. Food Policy Secur 6(2):67–83. https://doi.org/10.18334/ppib.6.2.41385 16. Vasilyeva LP (2020) Economic security: definitions and essence. J Appl Res 3:6–14. https:// doi.org/10.47576/2712-7516_2020_3_6 17. Vlasov VA, Zhikulina AS, Rahvalova NA (2020) Food security doctrine 2010 compared to food security doctrine 2020. Int J Humanit Nat Sci 12–3:71–75. https://doi.org/10.24411/25001000-2020-11442 18. Zerno-online (2021) The balance of food imports and exports reached a historic low. Retrieved from https://www.zol.ru/n/32d1b. Accessed 18 May 2021

Investment Attractiveness of Russian Agricultural Holdings as a Factor in Improving National Food Security Elvira A. Divaeva , Olesya G. Kukharenko , and Aliya Sh. Gizyatova

Abstract Strengthening the investment attractiveness of Russian agricultural business allows strengthening national food security. The authors conducted a macroeconomic analysis of the Russian agricultural sector based on expert estimates. The authors concluded that despite the increase in the investment attractiveness of agroindustrial companies, their access to IPOs is limited due to the current conservative structure of financing. Keywords Investment attractiveness · Food security · Import substitution · Agricultural holdings · Depositary receipts JEL Classification Q13

1 Introduction The transition from the import substitution policy to export revenues is the recent development trend of the Russian agricultural industry. The Russian agricultural industry has been actively developing in recent years. It needs long-term investment. Innovative products emerging as alternatives to traditional agricultural products increase investment risks in the agricultural sector. Russian agro-industrial enterprises are very few on the stock exchange since they are not ready to meet the requirements imposed by stock exchanges on listed companies from the point of view of transparency and publicity.

E. A. Divaeva (B) State University of Management, Moscow, Russia O. G. Kukharenko · A. Sh. Gizyatova Moscow University for Industry and Finance “Synergy”, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_23

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2 Materials and Methods The research aims to assess the investment attractiveness of the national agricultural industry and identify the reasons for the low reaction of the stock market to the growth of financial and investment performance of enterprises of the agro-industrial complex (AIC). The primary method for assessing the investment attractiveness of the national agricultural industry is based on evaluating the profitability of securities of large Russian agricultural holdings. The research object is large Russian agricultural enterprises as representatives of the national agricultural industry. The research subject is the investment attractiveness of AIC enterprises. The investment attractiveness of any business is based on the analysis of profitability and risks. The perspective development of the AIC was assessed based on analytical indicators in the context of the following areas of analysis: • Importance of the industry in the economy (the share of products produced by the industry in GDP); • Sustainability of the industry to crisis phenomena in the economy (indicators of the dynamics of the industry’s production volume); • Level of export potential of the industry products and the level of its independence from imports (indicators of the dynamics of export volume, share of agricultural exports on the world market, and expansion of export geography); • Dynamics of production efficiency (yield indicators); • Level of state support for enterprises in the industry (volume of state investment, volume of state lending, tax incentives, etc.); • Availability of own financial resources. When assessing and forecasting the investment attractiveness of the national agricultural industry, it is crucial to consider its life cycle. During the research, the authors concluded that the Russian AIC is in the most attractive state in terms of investment potential since it is in the “Growth” stage of its life cycle. This conclusion was based on the analysis of the following indicators: • • • •

Increase in the number of new enterprises in the industry; Issue of new shares; Increase in dividend payments; Investment in new construction (greenhouses, deep processing plants, and personal farms); • Expansion of existing production facilities, primarily large agricultural farms diversifying their business; • Production of import-substituting products.

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The decision on investing in the Russian agricultural sector can be represented in the following ways: 1. 2. 3.

4.

Investing in own business and opening own farms; Investments in functioning agricultural business for receiving income in the form of dividends; Participation in investment projects and agricultural start-ups. For example, investors increasingly invest in the deep processing of wheat into gluten, native starch, glucose-fructose syrup, feed additives, glucose and its products, and amino and organic acids [1]. Investment in securities of large agricultural holdings.

In this article, the authors focus on investing in securities of large agricultural holdings to assess the investment attractiveness of the agricultural industry. The object of the investment analysis was PJSC Rusagro, whose depositary receipts are listed on the Moscow Exchange. The investment potential of PJSC Rusagro was assessed based on the following basic financial indicators for 2015–2020: revenue, EBITDA, net profit, and profitability.

3 Results Agriculture plays a significant role in Russia’s economy since it accounts for 4.1% of its GDP [2]. At the inter-regional agro-industrial conference “MAK—2021,” held on February 17, 2021, in Chelyabinsk, the head of Agroanalitika Center D. Aveltsev said that the volume of annual agricultural production in 2020 was 6.1 trillion rubles and increased by almost 7.5 times in value terms since 2000. In 2020, Russia produced 2 times more grain, 2.5 times more meat, 3.5 times more sugar, and 5 times more oilseeds than in 2000 [3]. Currently, the AIC in Russia is an export-oriented and competitive sector. The year 2020 set a record on the volume of exports of agroindustrial products; a positive foreign trade balance was achieved [4]. From 2000 to 2020, there was a tenfold increase in exports of the Russian AIC. In 2020, exports of agricultural products increased by $5.1 billion compared to 2019 [4]. In 2020, the sown area of grain and leguminous crops amounted to 47.9 million hectares (+2.7% compared with 2019), and the gross yield was 133.5 million tons of grain (+10.1% compared with 2019). In 2020, there was an increase in the yield of grain and leguminous crops in Russia (28.6 c/ha compared to 26.7 c/ha in 2019) [5]. In addition to traditionally exported grain and sunflower oil, Russian producers started exporting sugar and poultry. The main products of Russian exports are wheat, barley, sunflower seeds, and vegetable oil. In 2020, Russian exports of grain grew by 29.1% to $10.019 billion, shipments of oil and fat industry products increased by 20.3% to $4.707 billion, and meat and dairy products—by 41.1% to $1.146 billion. Russia exports agricultural products to more than 150 countries. The leader among importers of Russian agricultural products is China, which increased imports to $4.049 billion (26.5%) in 2020. China’s share in total imports of AIC products from Russia is

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13.7%. The EU takes second place with a share of 11.3%, which increased imports by 13.3% to $3.325 billion. The top ten consumers of Russian agricultural products also include Turkey, Egypt, South Korea, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Saudi Arabia [6]. In 2020, the Russian federal budget envisaged 319.5 billion rubles for state support of the AIC, which is 1.3 billion rubles more than in 2019. Of this support, 283.6 billion rubles were allocated to the state program of agricultural development, and 35.9 billion rubles were allocated for the comprehensive development of rural areas. The preferential crediting for the AIC was developing as well. In this direction, 90.9 billion rubles were allocated, of which 71.3 billion rubles were allocated for the investment crediting and 19.6 billion rubles for the short-term crediting [7]. Thus, guided by the targets of the Doctrine of Food Security of the Russian Federation, we can assume that the level of national food security has increased [8]. The competitive advantages of the Russian AIC are the following natural factors: • High agro-soil potential associated with the presence of black earth soils; • Large areas of crops, although many of them are located in the zones of risky agriculture and are marked with low fertility; • High availability of water resources, although most of the reserves are located within the northern territories and are not suitable for agriculture. The development of the Russian agricultural sector largely depends on the following global factors: • • • • • • • • • • •

Population, per capita income, and purchasing power; Demand for food, including consumption of livestock products; International food trade; Urbanization; Consumer literacy; Yields and productivity in agriculture associated with land depletion (degradation) requiring extensive implementation of innovative technologies (biotechnology, robotization, composite fertilizers, integrated biosecurity, digitalization, etc.); Reduction of traditional farming areas caused by drought or flooding of areas due to natural climatic changes; Erosion and loss of soil fertility, shortage of water for irrigation, and depletion of groundwater; Degradation of ecosystems due to agriculture; Increasing the volume of mineral fertilizers and introducing adaptive-landscape farming technologies to preserve and improve soil fertility in Russia; Strengthening the role of innovative technology in related industries: information and communication, biotechnology (genetic modification, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, cell cultures, microbiology solutions for the food industry, etc.), aerospace, nuclear, etc. [9].

Currently, the leading Russian suppliers of agricultural products are large agricultural complexes (agricultural holdings). The total revenue of Russia’s 50 largest agricultural holdings in 2019 increased by 11.4% compared to 2018 and amounted

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to 2.34 trillion rubles. It should be noted that Russian AIC companies have been rapidly growing over the past few years despite the changes in market conditions, crop yields, a saturation of domestic demand, and increased competition. Since 2014 (i.e., since the period of political sanctions), the revenues of the 50 largest Russian agricultural holdings have increased almost 2.4 times and amounted to 948 billion rubles. Taking into account the cumulative inflation rate for 2014–2019, 45% of the largest Russian agricultural holdings managed to increase their real revenues by 70%. Against the background of crisis phenomena in the economy, the result looks impressive [10] (Table 1). Of the above list, PJSC Rusagro is of investment interest because it is a public company whose financing structure depends on the reaction of the stock market. PJSC Rusagro is a leader in sugar production, crop farming, pork production, and the oil and fats business. The agricultural holding owns more than 675,000 ha of land and sells its products in more than 35 countries and 80 regions of Russia. The financial results of Rusagro PJSC for 2020 are as follows (Figs. 1, 2 and 3):

Table 1 Rating of the largest Russian agricultural companies in 2019 Place in 2019

Company

Specialty

Revenue in 2019 (mln. RUB)

Change in % (mln. RUB)

Net profit

1

Group of companies Sodruzhestvo

Processing of oil-bearing crops

202,000

15.6

n/a

2

Group of companies Rusagro

Production of 138,172 sugar, pork, fat and oil products, cultivation of agricultural products

66.5

9709

3

Group of companies Efko

Production of vegetable refined oils and fats

122,000

7.0

1800

4

Cherkizovo group

Pig and poultry breeding, processing, production of meat and feed

120,109

17.0

6651

5

Agricultural holding Miratorg

Livestock and 119,150 crop production, processing

6.8

Source Compiled by the authors based on the data of Expert analytical center [10]

n/a

206

Fig. 1 Rusagro’s revenue growth dynamics for 2010–2020. Source [12]

Fig. 2 Rusagro’s profit growth dynamics for 2010–2020. Source [12]

Fig. 3 Adjusted EBITDA growth dynamics for 2010–2020. Source [12]

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• Revenue for the period reached 158,971 million rubles, an increase of 20,799 million rubles (+15%) compared to 2019; • Adjusted EBITDA amounted to 31,984 million rubles, an increase of 12,613 million rubles; • Adjusted EBITDA margin increased from 14% in 2019 to 20% in 2019; • Net profit for the period amounted to 24,297 million rubles, an increase of 14,588 million rubles (+150%) [11]. In 2021, Rusagro expects capital investments of 18 billion rubles. Of this investment, 8 billion rubles will be spent to increase meat production capacity and 4 billion rubles to increase oils, fats, and sugar production. The agricultural holding conducted a public offering of its shares in April 2011 and listing on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) in November 2014. ROS AGRO PLC global depositary receipts were admitted to trading on the Moscow Exchange in the first (highest) quotation list. Depositary receipts of Rusagro PJSC are traded on the Moscow Exchange. Its shares (one share is equivalent to five depositary receipts) are listed on the London Stock Exchange. Thus, Russian investors consider the company a foreign issuer. This imposes certain restrictions on holders of securities. Given that the dividends on Rusagro depositary receipts are paid in dollars, and the broker is not a tax agent, the owners themselves will complete the completion, filing, and remittance of tax. Attractive annual report indicators, favorable price situation for grain and sugar, commissioning of new facilities for meat production, and increase in exports positively affected the value of the issuer’s securities. The price of depositary receipts (AGRO-GDR) from November 2020 to January 2021 increased from 750 to 935 rubles, providing a 24% return for two months (excluding) dividends [13]. Factors of investment attractiveness of the company include the following: • Operational growth. Over the past few years, the company has significantly expanded its production base through mergers and acquisitions (M&A) and increased exports; • Revenue growth over the last two years; • Large market shares in sugar, pork, butter, and fats, as well as the largest land bank; • Vertical integration. The agricultural segment provides sugar, meat, and oil and fat segments. It reduces logistics risks and improves profitability; • Final stages of major investment projects opening up prospects for improving operational and financial performance, improving cash flow dynamics, and reducing the debt burden. The investment program for 2021 has been reduced and provides for investments of about 15 billion rubles, compared to 24 billion rubles in 2019; • High share of export revenue from 50 countries, which accounted for about 25% of all sales in 2019. The export geography is wide, including China, Latin America, and Europe;

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• Income tax benefits, effective income tax rate (averaged about 6% over five years), and government subsidies; • Opportunity to increase market share and exports due to sanctions. Against the background of improved profit and cash flow, there was an opportunity for a significant increase in dividends for the year. In 2016–2019, approximately 50% of Rusagro’s IFRS profits were distributed as dividends, which is significantly higher than the norm (at least 25%) recommended by the company’s dividend policy, according to which dividend payments are made twice a year. The board of directors of Rusagro PJSC has recommended the annual general meeting to pay a dividend of $5.2 (379.84 rubles) per share or $1.04 (75.97 rubles) per global depositary receipt (GDR) for 2020. Based on the current price of GDRs of the agricultural holding (905 rubles), the dividend yield is 8.4%. The company will allocate 50.01% of its net profit for 2020 to pay its shareholders [14].

4 Discussion Despite the upward dynamics of sectoral indicators, there is low investment activity of individuals in agriculture, which is associated with high conjuncture risks. Risks and threats to food security can be classified into the following categories: economic, technological, climatic and agro-ecological, foreign policy, veterinary and phytosanitary, sanitary and epidemiological, and social risks. Additionally, threats emerge from the global market for innovative food products, which is now in its formative stage. Innovative projects related to the production of alternative proteins (substitutes for traditional animal foods) attract significant financial investment. According to experts, in the near future, alternative meat will create a competitive advantage over traditional meat in terms of cost and meet the nutritional needs of 10 billion people. The alternative meat market is divided into two groups: plant-based meat based on vegetable proteins (soy or peas) and cultured meat. According to the research center Deloitte Consulting, the market for alternative meat in Russia was 2.6 billion rubles in 2020. Analysts predict that this market will grow by at least 10% a year over the next five years. According to Deloitte Consulting, the market for alternative meat in Russia is 0.7–0.8% of the European. However, it has great potential. About 47% of Russians are willing to include plant-based meat in their diet. Deloitte Consulting estimates the global plant-based meat market estimated at $11.5–12 billion. By 2025, this market is supposed to reach $28 billion. Russian agricultural company Efko has invested 100 million rubles in the project on the production of meat from sunflower protein. By 2022, Efko plans to produce up to 40 thousand tons of artificial meat and cover about 0.4% of meat production in Russia [15]. Financing of Russian start-ups in the global market of innovative products follows the path of targeted state support [16]. Discussing investment in the agricultural sector, we cannot ignore the problem of the availability of shares of agricultural

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companies to private investors through stock exchanges. As mentioned earlier, about two-thirds of agricultural revenues are generated by agricultural holdings, which need investments for their development. A company’s public offering (IPO) is an effective way to raise capital and expand opportunities for agricultural business development. The IPO allows investors to buy shares of companies in the most accessible way—through the stock exchange. However, the status of a public company implies not only advantages but also establishes the following requirements: • Need to disclose information about the company and the obligation to publish financial reports on its activities. The information in these documents may affect the share price on the stock exchange; • Regulators (the Bank of Russia) closely monitor the activities of public companies, which requires high costs to meet such requirements; • Investors’ expectation of growth stocks affects the company’s performance. This influence can lead management to focus more on short-term goals rather than on tasks to ensure long-term growth [17]. The main obstacle to the placement of companies’ shares on stock exchanges is the insufficient level of their capitalization, which does not allow them to pass the listing procedure. There are only three companies in the agricultural (agricultural production) sector on the Moscow Exchange: PJSC Rusagro (AGRO), PJSC Cherkizovo Group (GCHE), and PJSC Russian Aquaculture (AQUA). Shares of PJSC Rusagro (AGRO) are listed on the London Stock Exchange, while the company’s depositary receipts are traded on the Moscow Exchange, which creates certain restrictions for Russian investors. Companies ready to IPO can choose sites for placing their shares: the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), the London Stock Exchange (LSE), the Singapore Exchange (SGX), the Hong Kong Stock Exchange (NKEH), and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange (FWB). The choice of site depends on the advantages and disadvantages associated with a public offering. Some Russian companies prefer foreign trading sites since the foreign market has greater investment opportunities, including a wider range of investors, higher liquidity of placed securities, and increased international reputation, including among consumers of products. The disadvantages of foreign trading sites include expensive placement and higher requirements for the financial performance of companies. The advantages of the IPO on the Moscow Stock Exchange include less stringent procedures for entering the market and less stringent requirements for information disclosure. The disadvantages are low placement price due to the limited financial capacity of Russian investors and low market liquidity due to lack of examples of such IPO of a particular (agricultural) industry. In our opinion, the issuer should consider the main consumer market of its products. Thus, Russian companies placing their shares on foreign sites take the risk of not finding a response among investors. Despite the complexities of the IPO procedure, some Russian agricultural companies have announced preparations for an IPO. For example, the group of companies

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Damate, which occupies a leading position in the Russian market of turkey meat, is working on IPO on the Moscow Stock Exchange. Sistema PJSFC also announced a possible IPO of its agricultural holding Steppe (engaged in crop farming, horticulture, vegetable farming, and dairy farming). Last February, Don-Agro, an agro-corporation engaged in the crop and dairy business, listed its shares on the Singapore Stock Exchange and managed to raise $3.6 million in trading.

5 Conclusion The main Russian suppliers of agricultural products in the domestic market are large agricultural complexes (agricultural holdings), which are powerful vertically integrated formations accumulating about two-thirds of the revenue of the Russian AIC. Due to their economic and resource concentration and integrated structure with a full cycle (from production, storage, and processing of raw materials to sales of finished products), the largest agricultural companies have significant competitive advantages in agriculture and excellent growth potential. Moreover, they are pretty actively developing their export direction. Despite the positive aspects in their development, agricultural holdings face global challenges requiring significant capital investments, the financing of which is possible through public offerings on stock exchanges. The agro-industrial sector is represented by a small number of companies on the Moscow Stock Exchange. Low issuance activity and the absence of large Russian agricultural holdings on stock exchanges limit the opportunities for investors focused on the Russian AIC.

References 1. Ganenko I (2019) Investments have changed drivers again. What projects were annotated in the agro-industrial complex in 2019? Agroinvestor. Retrieved from https://www.agroinvestor. ru/investments/article/32867-investitsii-opyat-smenili-drayvery/. Accessed 25 March 2021 2. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) National accounts. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/accounts. Accessed 24 March 2021 3. Center for Agroanalytics (2021) Dmitry Aveltsov: in 20 years, Russia has produced 5 times more oilseeds and 3.5 times more sugar. Retrieved from https://specagro.ru/news/202102/d-ave lcov-za-20-let-v-rossii-stali-proizvodit-v-5-raz-bolshe-maslichnykh-kultur-i-v-35. Accessed 23 March 2021 4. Center for Agroanalytics (2021) Exports of agricultural products from Russia in 2020 exceeded imports for the first time. Retrieved from https://specagro.ru/news/202102/eksport-selkhozpr odukcii-iz-rossii-v-2020-godu-vpervye-v-novoy-istorii-prevysil-import. Accessed 22 March 2021 5. Center for Agroanalytics (2021) Weekly bulletin on the state of the agro-industrial complex. Retrieved from https://specagro.ru/sites/default/files/2021-03/210312_byulleten_ ezhenedelnyi.pdf. Accessed 24 March 2021

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6. Economic Information Agency Prime (2021) Russia increased its agricultural exports by 20% over the year. Retrieved from https://1prime.ru/state_regulation/20210115/832814522.html. Accessed 21 March 2021 7. Ganenko I (2020) Most of the state support of the agro-industrial complex will go to concessional lending. Agroinvestor. Retrieved from https://www.agroinvestor.ru/markets/ news/33219-bolshaya-chast-gospodderzhki-apk-poydet-na-lgotnoe-kreditovanie. Accessed 20 March 2021 8. Presidential Executive Office (2020) Decree “on approval of the food security doctrine of the Russian Federation (January 21, 2020 no 20). Moscow, Russia 9. Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation; National Research University Higher School of Economics (2017) Forecast of scientific and technological development of the agro-industrial complex of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2030. Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from https://issek.hse.ru/data/2017/05/03/117142 1726/Prognoz_APK_2030.pdf. Accessed 22 March 2021 10. Klepcha K, Ogorodnikov E, Remizov M (2020) Leaders of the coming consolidation. Expert. Retrieved from https://expert.ru/expert/2020/47/lideryi-gryaduschej-konsolidatsii/. Accessed 25 March 2021 11. Rusagro Group of Companies (2020b) Rusagro’s financial results for 12 months of 2020 and Q4. Retrieved from https://www.rusagrogroup.ru/fileadmin/files/financial_statements/v2.1_4 Q20_RUS_Press_release.pdf. Accessed 24 March 2021 12. Rusagro Group of Companies (2020a) Annual report, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.rus agrogroup.ru/fileadmin/files/financial_statements/1503_3_RusAgro_AR2020.pdf 13. Investment Company Finam (n.d.) ROSAGRO stock quotes. Retrieved from https://www.finam. ru/quote/moex-akcii/gdr-ros-agro-plc-ord-shs/. Accessed 30 March 2021 14. Mazina M (2020) Rusagro holding announced its final dividend for 2020 of $1.04 per GDR. RBC. Retrieved from https://quote.rbc.ru/news/article/604f12ba9a79478139a40ebf. Accessed 22 March 2021 15. News Agency Infoline (2020) Review of “200 largest investment projects of agricultural complexes construction in the Russian Federation. Projects 2020–2023.” Retrieved from https:// infoline.spb.ru/shop/investitsionnye-proekty/page.php?ID=175241. Accessed 25 March 2021 16. Belotelova NP, Kukharenko OG, Gizyatova ASh (2019) Economy of the Russian agricultural sector: challenges and trends. In: Vinogradova MV, Tankovic AC, Pavelin G (eds) Economic and social development, Russian State Social University, Moscow, Russia, pp 506–512 17. Orekhov VD, Prichina OS, Gizyatova AS, Kukharenko OG, Blinnikova AV (2020) Development of the indicative system for assessing GDP per capita using cumulative indices, including human capital. J Adv Res Dyn Control Syst 12(S5):1139–1152. https://doi.org/10.5373/JAR DCS/V12SP5/20201867

On the Issue of Sustainable Development of the Russian Agro-Industrial Complex Mikhail P. Burov, Vasily I. Nilipovskiy , Omari N. Margalitadze, and Vladimir S. Gorbunov

Abstract The ambiguity of the transformation processes taking place in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation makes it possible to formulate a variety of concepts of directions for the further development of the agro-industrial complex. At the same time, the need to follow the principles of sustainable development of local communities and the entire territory of the country is indisputable. Strengthening Russia in the world economic and geopolitical space entails the need for appropriate internal transformations. It’s necessary to continue to improve many civil institutions, to increase the economic security of the regional space, to improve the system of elaboration, accounting and control of the most important state projects and development programs. The scientific article outlines some of the most significant aspects of the socio-economic development of the territories of the Russian Federation on which the rates of sustainable growth of business, state and society, built on the principles of the ESG concept, depend. Keywords Regional economy · Strategy of socio-economic development · Sustainable development · Economic policy · Demography · Labor resources · Agro-industrial complex · Rural areas · Investment Innovation · Public debt JEL Classification Q01 · R12 · O10 · P10

1 Introduction Where is the modern generation looking? What is Russian youth-oriented towards? What is needed for the successful sustainable development of Russia? The modern political and social position is largely dependent on the judgments of individual “iconic” people who are proclaimed a “sacrificial deer” and associate the “ideals” of forming not only social, but also industrial policy, which largely determines the economic achievements of advanced countries. The state will, based on socially M. P. Burov (B) · V. I. Nilipovskiy · O. N. Margalitadze · V. S. Gorbunov State University of Land Use Planning, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_24

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convenient pluralism, becomes hostage to the opinion of the illiterate majority, which forces lawmaking along the path of cyclical errors, plunging an already unfavorable dynamics into an even greater dependence on chance. Russia’s ability to achieve the declared rates of sustainable economic growth, including in the agro-industrial complex, will depend, among other things, on the fulfillment of the conditions of social compromises. After the presidential elections in 2018, a course for accelerated economic growth was declared, which was supposed to bring Russia into the five largest economies in the world. Resources were concentrated for this task, but lately more and more conservative assessments are appearing. This refers to the downward phase of the credit cycle. The fact that the world economy is on the verge of an economic recession, provoked, among other things, by trade wars, and aggravated by the introduction of restrictive measures aimed at countering the spread of coronavirus infection. Unfortunately, the agro-industrial complex may become the next “target” of the coronavirus, as a result of which the national economies in 2022–2023 will face even greater problems, including ensuring not only social and economic compromise, but also countering the threat to food security on a scale that people were able to avoid in the period 2020–2021. In these conditions, can it be considered that it’s not industrial growth that is coming to the fore at rates higher than the world average, but is preparing for stagnation or recession? It turns out that people didn’t really accelerate economic growth, they didn’t increase the regional development budget, and they must wait for a drop in economic growth rates, if there is not stagnation. What are the current main economic priorities of the state, at least for the medium term? The authors tried to perform the most significant aspects of sustainable development of the agro-industrial complex, and also possible solutions that need to be implemented at the current moment in the form of the following several key theses.

2 Materials and Methods The problem of the growing concentration of inequality in the country! According to the statistics, poverty is on the rise in a rich country. The widespread impoverishment of the province is a shame and a brake on Russia’s economic growth [1–3]. Rural territories of Russia are traditionally considered the most depressed, and the further away they are from the “central places of Kristaller,” the more distressed the living population is. One of the most common indicators of economic inequality is the Gini coefficient, which is measured in the range from zero to one and reflects the share of income concentrated in the hands of certain groups of the population. The greatest stratification in Russia is observed in the capital, the least of all people differ in income in the Crimean Federal District. The median value of the Gini coefficient, although insignificantly, is gradually decreasing, but it’s still very high—0.41 for 2019 (the ratio of 10% of the rich to 10% of the poor is 41%). On the example of the other

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Fig. 1 Dynamics of the Gini coefficient. Source Authors calculations according to Rosstat data: https://rosstat.gov.ru/ (accessed: 29.03.2021)

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countries, these indicators are: in Finland—21%, Belarus—26%, on average in the European Union—31%. The share of the population with incomes below the subsistence level has decreased by 5% over the past decade, but is still at about 15% of the total—Fig. 1. The most unfavorable situation has developed in the republics of Tyva, Ingushetia and Kalmykia (outliers and extremes values in plot, Fig. 2), where more than a third of the population permanently lives below the poverty line. The median value of the indicator for Russia, although it tends to decrease, is still high and amounts to 14%—about 1/7 of the permanently resident population. With all of these positive shifts in the social component of the development of society, attention is drawn to another dynamic that is gaining an irreversible trend—the volume of accumulated and available free funds. Residents of rural areas are traditionally considered to be less well-off, which is the basis for the urbanization of the rural population [4–6]. Along with the most acute demographic problem, this is a direct loss of labor resources for the agro-industrial complex. The gap in available liquidity between the capital

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and the rest of the territory of the Russian Federation continues to grow—from 5.6 times in 2011 to 8.1 times in 2018 (this is the latest available data), i.e., over the period under review, the gap has increased by almost one and a half times (by 44%). The measures taken in the last decade aimed at smoothing out social inequality are either ineffective or simply inefficient. It has to be admitted that the plan hasn’t been fulfilled in terms of many indicators of the implementation of national projects, including rural development.1 The deterioration of the general economic situation under the influence of external sanctions, as well as an exacerbation of the internal imbalance in the incomes and needs of people to have a normal lifestyle leads to another problem—in recent years, the process of lending to the population is gaining momentum. A quick response to the forced conditions of a withering away financial situation is to obtain a loan, which, after the policy of the Central Bank pursued in recent years, has become available and relatively cheap [7]. A lot of efforts at the government level are being made precisely to increase the incomes of rural residents. However, this expansionist policy of the Government conceals a serious danger—the growth of a “financial bubble”. The population is credited in the microcredit market. The volume of loans issued to the population and business entities is growing. The debt burden is growing not only on entrepreneurship, where the volume of debt on loans increased on average from 3 to 4 billion rubles in 2019–2020. The volume of lending to individuals is growing, including the share of overdue debts—Fig. 3. The absolute leader is Moscow, where the volume of household debt on loans at the beginning of 2020 amounted to more than 1.7 trillion, rub; Moscow region—1.2 trillion, rub; St. Petersburg—790 billion rub. The other regions are shown in the graph. The most difficult situation is in the Krasnodar Territory and the Sverdlovsk Region. This creates obstacles to the formation of a middle class of sustainable entrepreneurs and lowers the standard of living of Russians. 1

Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation of May 31, 2019 No. 696 “On Approval of the State Program of the Russian Federation” “Integrated Development of Rural Areas”.

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One of the urgent areas of sustainable development of the agro-industrial complex of Russia is the transition to digital technologies for managing the state, economy, production, and society [8–11]. The digital economy is worth more than 200 billion rub, annually, and at the same time, the gasification of Russia, which should serve as a starting point for the agro-industrial complex economy to reach sustainable development rates, is only about 60–70%. This means that the income from the expansion of gas will have an impact on the quality of life of Russians. The country doesn’t move away from the raw material economy in any way [12–14]. This is confirmed by the TurkStream projects, the gas pipeline to China, to Europe and other countries. The minority of society, secured and owning productive capital, doesn’t turn into socially responsible citizens. The country lives without an idea, without target orientation. A decent standard of living for Russians isn’t ensured. It’s important to understand that the digital economy isn’t a model, but a tool for improving the performance of existing industries. There are not only the methods of management and the speed of information flows changing. Modern business is changing the requirements for personnel [15, 16]. It’s necessary to determine what changes are coming in the labor market for the successful development of the Russian agro-industrial complex. In the era of universal automation, the role of the individual all over the world only increases, while in Russia the state places a social order on mid-level specialists. The decision looks rash, taking into account the chosen course towards the innovative component of development, but not to the resource one. If we turn to the profession of a person who must possess not only a complex of scientific knowledge, but also have the competence of its practical application in a specific area of labor and industrial relations, then there is no such specialists on the agro-industrial complex market in Russia. As there were no highly professional specialists in certain sectors of the Russian economy, so there are still no them. One of the factors of sustainable innovative growth is the training of highly qualified specialists with a broad outlook and a set of professional competencies. A modern young person should have a fairly extensive knowledge in a number of areas. One of the key skills is the successful application of advanced software tools and achievements in their activities. The use of software and modern information technologies for the purposes of analysis should be part of the practice of training bachelors and masters in the higher education system. At the same time, as a result of the ongoing reforms in Russia, higher education is largely discredited, especially in legal and economic specialties. As some time ago a personal computer entered the life of every person, so it’s unthinkable today to carry out any kind of work without the use of computer technology. Modern programs allow to simply and visually presenting data, find dependencies, and determine the end result. It’s necessary to acquire these types of skills more accessible to the wider population. Another danger that arises during the development of the labor market is the growing demographic problem, and one of its most acute economic aspects is the share of the working-age population in the total population. If the total number of

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employed people hasn’t changed relative to the last two decades, so this value has a depressive trend in relation to the number of the living population. Why are the rates of economic growth in Russia falling? It should be noted that this happens in many countries of the world, including in highly developed Western economies [17–19]. The world has entered the era of trade wars. This also strongly affects the prospects for economic growth, including in the agricultural sector. The dynamics of growth (decrease) in exports of the Russian Federation with non-CIS countries is shown in the graph without taking into account the Chechen Republic and the Republic of Kalmykia (data for which are not published). It’s obvious that the growth rate of the trade balance is unstable and subject to turbulence due to external shocks. The dynamics of trade ties in certain periods of time is approximately from −50 to +50%. This doesn’t allow building strong relationships with business partners and, as a result, the cost of contracts concluded is quite high, which affects both the quality of life and the profitability of domestic agricultural producers—Fig. 4. These processes are superimposed on a high degree of wear of fixed assets by sectors of the economy, a tendency towards an increase in their cost and a decrease in the volume of new construction. However, as can also be seen from the graph (Fig. 4), there has been an increase in the commissioning of new fixed assets since 2019, which is caused by the Government’s response to countering the stagnation processes due to restrictions during the period of the coronavirus infection. Because of the fact that this isn’t a quantitative assessment of changes, but a qualitative one, the importance of these straight lines is manifested in the centrifugal nature of the changes taking place in the economy. So, for example, it can be seen that the degree of depreciation of fixed assets is accelerating and there is a rapid growth of completely worn-out fixed assets. Why don’t young people go into entrepreneurship? How can an entrepreneur be made an engine of growth rather than an endangered species? What is happening with entrepreneurship in the agro-industrial complex? The answers to these and similar questions will make it possible to understand what the sustainable growth of the Russian economy depends on. The total number of individual entrepreneurs in

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Russia on average is declining. The greatest activity of entrepreneurship is observed only in the southern regions—Fig. 5. A conditional change in trend occurred after the introduction of the first and subsequent packages of economic sanctions against Russia, from 2011 to 2015. However, the general trend of business activity in Russia is characterized as depressive. The Russian economy needs points of growth. What industries could become the drivers of a scientific and technological breakthrough? An indisputable global fact is the development of biomedicine, nanotechnology, and information technology. The agro-industrial complex is of particular relevance in this regard due to the need to form a new framework for food security based on modern technologies and processes [20– 22]. However, before the formation of a new model of the agro-industrial complex, the regions of Russia are forced to overcome an avalanche of growing insolvency and build-up of domestic debt—Fig. 6. At the same time, if special attention is paid to the volume of regional debt in relation to the gross regional product, the dynamics will

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turn out to be even more unfavorable. The median value of the debt of the regions has been 5–7% in recent years, while in some regions the debt reaches over 20% of the GRP, for example, in the Chukotka Autonomous District, and other regions. Russia is traditionally considered a country with high agro-industrial potential. Therefore, the agricultural sector should serve as the basis for sustainable development. In other words, it is easier to implement breakthrough technologies in agriculture in Russia than in other sectors of the economy. How to stimulate the development of rural areas? Tomorrow will depend on the solution to this issue. What ideas will dominate the future state and society? This is the agenda for today. The expansion of the scale of ecotourism, as a cultural and educational journey that doesn’t harm the environment, is most consistent with the principle of sustainable development of the territory, and its protection under conditions of increasing anthropogenic pressures. Rural tourism isn’t just recreation in ecologically clean areas, but a responsible journey that contributes to the conservation of biological diversity and environmental sustainability of the environment, as well as contributing to the improvement of the well-being of the local population. Agritourism combining tourism and agriculture is successfully developing in Europe and the USA. The development of agritourism activities is represented by the following trends: nature-oriented, diversifying, historical, political, geopolitical, pricing, and consumer. The inclusion of agritourism in the list of priority areas for the development of the national economy by some countries indicates the importance of agritourism activities in solving macroeconomic problems of national economies. Rural tourism in Russia can be developed on the basis of an existing farm, where everything is in order with agricultural production, and it’s just need to take care of the level of consumer services. Foreigners are often discouraged by the lack of acceptable infrastructure. Moscow, Leningrad, Kaliningrad, Kaluga Regions, Altai, Baikal, Buryatia, Caucasus, Kamchatka, Karelia, Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories—these are the regions where tourism to the countryside is gradually gaining momentum, where ecotourism routes have already been laid. Among other things, it’s a source of additional financing for farming activities. The maximum effect can be achieved if rural tourism doesn’t develop spontaneously, but within the framework of programs of federal, interregional and regional significance. It’s no coincidence that the policy of supporting rural tourism in Europe is still focused on economically backward regions and is mainly of a social nature. Currently, social tourism has become a need for mankind, widely involving citizens with disabilities, pensioners and youth in the process of recreation.

3 Results 1.

For the purposes of sustainable development, it’s necessary to end the existing decentralized practice of land management, in which the functions of land and property regulation and control are distributed among many ministries and departments. At the origins of the formation of a system of effective land using

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should be a special institution of power. The authors consider that it’s important to emphasize the possibility of restoring for these purposes the previously liquidated state land management service, as an independent body of state executive power, which will take on personified responsibilities for the formation of design estimates in land management, the creation and improvement of standards, norms and rules for land use, control over the conduct of land management works, as well as the development of a policy for the management of the land and property complex not only at the federal, but also at the regional and municipal levels. It’s necessary to move from the practice of developing “points of growth” to planning the use of land and property potential throughout the entire territory of the Russian Federation. For this, it’s necessary to formulate a national concept for the management of the land and property complex on the basis of the relationship between national and regional priorities and programs. In many ways, this should be preceded by a system of measures aimed at a quantitative and qualitative analysis of available resources, a complete inventory of land and property assets of even the most remote regions of Russia, the establishment of property rights, their delimitation and consideration of potential options for using objects of municipal, regional and federal property, for purposes increasing production opportunities and the quality of life of the living population. It’s necessary to restore at the regional level state (public–private) design and survey organizations for land management and land use (land projects-hygrolands), create a system of research institutes of land resources at the regional level, which will become the basis for the formation of domestic innovative technologies in land management and land use. Steps in the scientific management of land resources will make it possible to adjust the existing methods, forms and methods of state regulation in the area of land use. A separate role in this process can be played by specialized universities of the country, such as the State University of Land Management (Moscow), whose qualified graduates will keep up with the times and have a set of necessary competencies. It’s necessary to make land administration efficient. The problems of land management, planning and organization of land management and cadastral activities have already been accumulating for decades in modern Russia. The existing land resource potential, and, first of all, of agricultural land, is estimated below the pre-reform period of the early 1990s. It has become obvious to many people that land reforms in our country have produced more negative than positive results. The adoption, as expected, of the fateful Real Estate Cadastre Law didn’t bring tangible results not in the quality of the cadastral work carried out, not in the social and economic efficiency of land use in general. The land has to become an independent factor of sustainable socio-economic growth of territories, the basis of a socially-oriented economy, an essential part of state regulation of the social development of society.

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4 Discussion Based on the results of the study of the issues of sustainable development of the agroindustrial complex, the authors submit the following five theses for general scientific discussion. Thesis 1—The problem of the growing concentration of inequality in the country. Thesis 2—The digital economy isn’t a model, but a tool for improving the performance of existing industries. Thesis 3—Why are the rates of economic growth falling in many countries? Thesis 4—What industries could become the drivers of a scientific and technological breakthrough? Thesis 5—How to stimulate the development of rural areas? The future of the Russian agro-industrial complex will depend on the compromise, which would be reached in modern society on these issues. A systematic solution to the accumulated problems is possible only by reaching a consensus between society, the state and business, which is the basis of the ESG concept (Environmental— ecology, environment, Social—social development, human capital, Governance— management, economics).

5 Conclusion Any changes in the management system of the agro-industrial complex must be carried out in accordance with the global laws of development, taking into account the significant historical experience of the public administration system, as well as with the awareness and recognition of the lower levels of management of such a system of responsibility, which will allow to implement on an effective basis all available in regions’ potential, and in particular—land and property, which should serve as a solid taxable base for sustainable development. The achievement of this task would depend not only on the choice of the correct political and doctrinal guidelines, but on the formation of a high-quality system of accounting and control over their implementation. The global goal of state policy at the federal level must be to overcome the centrifugal forces of depressive socio-economic dynamics. It’s necessary to create conditions for the self-development of local territories, to provide conditions for the growth of human capital, to increase labor productivity and to renew worn-out assets, to ensure a gradual decrease in the anthropogenic load in ecologically unfavorable regions, to determine the factors due to which it will be possible to influence the demographic situation in remote regions of Russia. The solution of these tasks will facilitate the inflow of internal and external investments into the country’s economy, increase its total capitalization, increase the added value of manufactured products, and import substitution.

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Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Professor Sergey N. Volkov, RAS academician, Rector of the State University of Land Use Planning for assistance in preparing materials for the research.

References 1. Denisenko M, Varshavskaya E (2017) Working life expectancy in Russia. HSE Econ J 21(4):592–622 2. Aganbegyan A (2012) Achieving higher levels of life expectancy in Russia. Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Economic Policy, pp 134–156 3. Fomin AA (2017) Teaching of reforms P.A. Stolypin. Int Agric J 2:6–7 (in Russ.) 4. Andreev EM, Shkolnikov VM, Begun A (2002) Algorithm for decomposition of differences between aggregate demographic measures and its application to life expectancies, healthy life expectancies, parity–progression ratios and total fertility rate. Demograph Res 7(14):499–522. https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol7/14/7-14.pdf. Accessed: 29.07.2018 5. Markova N (1996) Russia’s regions: the results of four years of economic reforms. Prob Econ Transit Taylor Francis J 39(6):6–20. https://doi.org/10.2753/PET1061-199139066. Accessed: 13.08.2018 6. Burov MP (2017) Regional economy and management of territorial development. Dashkov & Co, Moscow, p 446 (in Russ.) 7. Schrooten M (2003) Fiscal federalism and regional development in Russia. Reg et Dev 18:53–72 8. Halafyan AA, Borovikov VP, Kalaydina GV (2016) Probability theory, mathematical statistics and data analysis. URSS, Moscow, p 317 (in Russ.) 9. Borovikov VP, Ivchenko GI (2006) Statistica system forecasting in windows environment: basic theory and intensive practice on the computer. Finance and Statistics Printing House, Moscow, p 367 (in Russ.) 10. Klyueva IA (2008) Methods and techniques of data analysis tools package statistica: educational and methodical grant. Volgograd Institute of Management publishing house, Branch of RANEPA, Volgograd, p 91 (in Russ.) 11. Bock H-H, Chiodi M, Mineo A (2004) Advances in multivariate data analysis. Springer, Berlin, p 281 12. Burov MP (2018) State regulation of the national economy. In: Modern paradigms and mechanisms of development of Russian regions. Dashkov & Co, Moscow, p 342 (in Russ.) 13. Burov MP (2011) Country economy transformation throughout globalization: national and regional aspects. Dashkov & Co, Moscow, p 502 (in Russ.) 14. Margalitadze ON (2013) Investment climate and its value for attracting foreign investments. Curr Prob Soc Econ Dev Russ 1:49–55 (In Russ.) 15. Tsypkin YA, Ivanov NI, Kokorev AS, Fomin AA (2018) Applied management: study guide. Scientific Adviser, Moscow, p 440 (in Russ.) 16. Papaskiri TV, Nilipovsky VI (2009) The use of innovative technologies in land use planning education. E&M Euroeduc 2–3:27–32 17. Germanovich AG (2015) Development of cluster regional economy in the Russian Federation. Innov Invest 7:26–29 (in Russ.) 18. Chemodin YA (2018) On the question of land development in the Northern regions of Siberia and the Far East. Moscow Econ J 1 (in Russ.) 19. Chemodin JA, Gorbunov VS (2018) Methodological bases and mechanisms of sustainable development of the territory of Russia at the regional level. Moscow, p 160 (in Russ.) 20. Efremova LB, Efremov AA (2010) Balance of agricultural production—a necessary condition for foodstuffs security. Land Manage Inventory Monit Lands J 8(68):75–78 (in Russ.)

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21. Korostelev SP (2017) Sustainable development territories and taxation of real estate. Land Manage Inventory Monit Lands 5:32–39 (in Russ.) 22. Ivanov N (2009) Main issues of regional planning and organization of rational use of land and their protection. In: Regional economy: theory and practice, p 39 (in Russ.)

Methods of Increasing Potato Yields in the Yamal Far North Environment Anatolii N. Tikhanovskii

Abstract Potato greensprouting under light increased the yield by a factor of 1.26 in the conditions of the Yamal North, as compared to non-sprouted ones. Nitrogen fertilizers, both in pure form and as Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium mix (NPK), significantly increased potato yields. In contrast, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers in pure form had no significant effect on potato yields. Application of manure at the rate of 80–120 t/ha allowed to increase the potato yield by a factor of 1.9–2.2 on fresh soils, compared with the control group. On the old plots, the yield increase was higher at the rate of 80 t/ha. Further rate increase produced no significant results. Keywords Potatoes · Yamal · Fertilizer · Greensprouting · Feeding area JEL Classification Q16

1 Introduction Growing potatoes in the Yamal environment is complicated by several negative natural factors: late spring and early fall frosts (short growing season); extremely low precipitation in June-July; sharp temperature differences from day to night; and permafrost soils with low nitrogen content. However, Far North conditions prevent the most dangerous diseases and pests (e.g., phytophthora and Colorado potato beetle) typical for the southern regions. The exception is viral diseases that are present in potato crops. Since there is no need for repeated chemical treatments, potatoes produced in the Far North are much more eco-friendly [1]. Despite the harsh environment, potatoes have been grown in this zone for more than 70 years. Agroclimatic conditions of the region allow obtaining a high and stable annual yield of potato at 20 t/ha and more. This fact is evidenced by the experience of the Yamal Experimental Farm and “Gorkovsky” and “Muzhevsky” state farms. A. N. Tikhanovskii (B) LLC Research and Production Enterprise “Yamal Agrarian Science”, Salekhard, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_25

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According to statistics, in 1993, regional potato acreage amounted to 735 ha and the gross harvest to 7173 tons. However, in 2020, the acreage did not exceed 100 ha, and the gross yield was less than 1000 tons. The lack of pests and diseases allows one to propagate potato tubers, treated with meristem culture, in open ground without the risk of new contamination. Lower soil and air temperatures provide ideal conditions for berry formation. This allows to successfully use the decapitation method for breeding and seed-breeding in the open and protected ground. Nevertheless, potato productivity in Yamal remains (less than 10 t/ha). The unique conditions of the Far North demand new studies into the ways to increase potato yield. Far North environment requires farmers to take several mandatory measures if they wish to obtain high yields of potatoes, including the following [2]: • • • • •

Pre-planting treatment of tubers; Inducing chlorophyll production in autumn; Greensprouting under different light sources; Warming tubers; Treatment with biologically active substances.

Preparation of planting material begins with the selection of tuber size. Machine planting requires the tubers to be divided into three groups of 30–50, 50–80, and over 80 g. Each group should be grown separately. Experiments conducted in Yamal demonstrated that increasing the weight of planting tubers from 30 to 50 g improved yields by 50%. Therefore, using larger planting tubers is more advisable when growing early potatoes since it accelerates tuber mass accumulation and positively affects the growth and development of plants [3]. The author recommends using tubers of 50–80 g in production plantings, although a good yield can be obtained from 30–50 g potatoes with good agro-technical tools. When growing elite seeds on a virus-free basis, all tuber fractions can be used. In the conditions of the Yamal North, cutting of seed tubers is considered a last resort method if there is a shortage of planting material.

2 Materials and Methods This study was conducted in an experimental field located in the forest-tundra zone of the Yamal Peninsula at the Arctic Circle latitude (66°33 N). According to the average annual data, the growing season for this area is 80– 110 days. The sum of effective temperatures ranges from 900° to 1200°. Moisture availability plays an important role in potato yield formation. The correlation between productivity and precipitation during the growth period is high: r = 0.87–0.95 for early-maturing varieties, r = 0.90–0.94 for medium-early varieties [4]. The annual sum of precipitation is 300–400 mm during the growth period—100–200 mm. In June and July, precipitation is sparse—only 30–60 mm.

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The main method of research is the field-and-lab experiment method [5]. The used soil type was light loam, with potatoes also planted in the preceding rotation. The agro-technical method was shallow plowing followed by disc harrowing in 2–3 tracks (commonly used in the area). Planted potatoes were of the “Shestinedelny” variety.

3 Results During greensprouting under light, the tubers are placed in a warm, well-lit room on specially arranged racks. Potatoes on racks are arranged in a layer of two or three tubers. In this layout, one square meter houses 60–70 kg of potatoes. Alternatively, lattice boxes can be used instead of shelves. In the room, the boxes are stacked with a passageway between them. To provide uniform illumination, the boxes were moved 2–3 times during the sprouting period (placing the lower ones on top and vice versa). The room should be regularly ventilated. Greensprouting for 10–15 days prolongs the time gap between the appearance of seedlings and the onset of frosts. The experiments demonstrated that greensprouting accelerates the emergence of seedlings by 6–8 days and flowering by 2–11 days. The yield of the “Shestinedelny” variety increased by 26% or more (Table 1). Annual greensprouting of seed tubers did not reduce the yield in subsequent reproductions, provided a higher yield of physiologically mature tubers, thus increasing seed quality. Incandescent bulbs were used for lighting at 50 W/m2 of shelving. According to other data, it is recommended to use 75 W/m2 . One of the most important ways to increase potato yields in Far North soils is to apply manure. It contains all basic plant nutrients and has a complex effect on potatoes. Our research has established the norm of manure application: 40–80 t/ha on old plots and 80–120 t/ha on fresh soils (Table 2). Application of N40 P120 K120 on fresh soils increased potato yields by a factor of 1.34 compared to the control group. The application of 40 t/ha of manure did not lead to an increase in potato yield as compared to the normal rate for mineral fertilizers. However, the application of 80 t/ha of manure increased the yield by 1.49 times as compared to mineral fertilizers and by 1.86 times as compared to the control group. Table 1 Effect of greensprouting on yield and tuber quality in Yamal conditions (3-year average)

Method of tuber preparation

Yield, t/ha

Starch content, %

No sprouting

17.1

11.6

Greensprouting

21.5

12.7

LSD05 a

2.7

Note a Least significant difference Source Compiled by the author

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Table 2 Effect of organic and mineral fertilizers on potato yields in permafrost soils (3-year average) Fertilizer rate

No fertilizer

On fresh soils

On old soils

t/ha

Increase compared to control group, %

t/ha

Increase compared to control group, %

10.3

–

23.2

–

N40 P120 K120

13.8

34.0

26.0

12.1

Manure 40 t/ha

12.3

19.4

25.0

9.5

Manure 80 t/ha

19.1

86.4

26.5

14.2

Manure 120 t/ha

22.7

120.4

27.4

24.5

Manure 40 t/ha + N40 P120 K120

22.5

118.4

35.0

50.9

Manure 80 t/ha + N40 P120 K120

25.0

142.7

37.2

60.3

Manure 120 t/ha + N40 P120 K120

27.1

163.1

35.7

53.9

LSD05

2.4

Source Compiled by the author

These fertilizers were not as effective on old soils. For example, N40 P120 K120 only increased yields by a factor of 1.1 compared to the control group. Only the application of 120 t/ha of manure on these soils allowed for a significant increase in potato yields compared to N40 P120 K120 . The highest potato yield was obtained with an application of 80 t/ha of manure + N40 P120 K120 , although the increase was negligible as compared to 40 t/ha of manure + N40 P120 K120 . On the newly developed soils, the highest yield of potatoes was obtained with the 120 t/ha of manure + N40 P120 K120 . This was significantly higher than other variants. Substantial increases in yield were obtained by using nitrogen fertilizer at the rate of 90 kg of the active ingredient, as well as by combining nitrogen with phosphorus and potassium fertilizers (Table 3). Application of N90 increased yield by 16%. Application of P45 or K90 yielded no significant results, event at 90 and 180 kg rates. The application of mineral fertilizers had no significant effect on the starch content of potatoes (which fluctuated between 10.8 and 11.7%). Mineral fertilizers increased the ratio of commercial potatoes (84.3– 94.2%) compared to the control group (76.6%). The experiments on the feeding area of potatoes in the Yamal environment have shown that the feeding area of 70 × 35 cm produces the highest yield; increasing the width of the row gaps by crowding the plants resulted in lower yields (Table 4). The feeding area of 70 × 35 cm provides significantly higher yields than the other variants. Changes in the feeding area did not result in any significant variations in starch content.

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Table 3 Effect of different mineral fertilizers on potato yields (3-year average) Fertilizer rate

Yield from 1 ha, t

Starch content, %

Total

Compared to the control group, %

Commercial potatoes

Ratio of commercial to total, %

No fertilizer

19.3

100

14.8

76.6

12.2

N90

22.4

116.1

20.2

90.2

11.1

P45

19.8

102.6

16.7

84.3

11.3

K90

19.7

102.1

17.1

86.8

11.7

N90 P45 K90

22.9

118.6

19.9

86.9

10.9

N180

24.9

129.0

22.7

91.2

11.1

P90

20.7

107.2

19.5

94.2

12.2

K180

20.9

108.3

18.1

86.6

11.9

N180 P90 K180

24.5

126.9

21.4

87.3

10.9

LSD05

1.8

Source Compiled by the author

Table 4 Effect of feeding area on potato yield (3-year average) Feeding area, cm

Yield from 1 ha, t Total

Ratio to standard, %

Commercial potatoes

Ratio to standard, %

Starch content, %

70 × 35

18.2

100

14.6

100

11.2

80 × 25

16.3

89.5

14.2

97.5

11.1

90 × 20

15.5

85.2

13.2

92.3

11.4

LSD05

1.9

Source Compiled by the author

4 Discussion There are few studies on the use of fertilizers for growing potatoes in the Yamal environment. Most of them are incomplete and require further research. In this study, the author established that applying different types of mineral fertilizers, both in pure form and in combination with other types, has different effects on potato yields. In this case, the author observed the weak effect of potassium and phosphorus fertilizers that can be explained by the already high content of phosphorus and potassium in the old-tilled soils of Yamal. However, the positive effect of phosphorus on potato yields on cold soils was established in the works of Korovin [6].

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5 Conclusion As a result, the author established that greensprouting under lights increased the yield of potatoes by a factor of 1.26 and raised the starch content by 1.1%. The application of manure on fresh forest-tundra soils at the rate of 80–120 t/ha increased the yield of potatoes by a factor of 1.85–2.0, compared to the control group. The same rates of manure on old soils increased yield by a factor of 1.14–1.18. The combined application of manure and mineral fertilizers can increase the yield of potatoes by a factor of 2.2–2.6. The optimal rate of combined application is 80 t/ha of manure + N40 P120 K120 . Increasing the rate to 120 t/ha produced no significant effect. The same could be observed for phosphorus and potassium fertilizers. Nitrogen fertilizers (in pure form and together with phosphorus-potassium fertilizers) increased potato yield by a factor of 1.16–1.29. The author also established that the feeding area of 70 × 35 cm produced the highest yields of potatoes.

References 1. Tikhanovsky AN (2018) Potato disease resistance in the Far North. In: Efimov MV (ed) Current problems of potato production: fundamental and applied aspects. Tomsk, Russia, pp 72–76 2. Tikhanovsky AN (2016) A method of growing potatoes on forest-tundra permafrost soils. RU Patent No. 2,604,304 (C1). Rospatent, Moscow, Russia 3. Chernykh NI (1967) Main issues of agrotechnics and seed production of potatoes in the YamaloNenets Okrug. Dissertation of Candidate of Agriculture, Perm, Russia 4. Maltseva AV (2014) Yield and quality of potato tubers in the polar region of the Tyumen region. Dissertation of Candidate of Agriculture, Tyumen, Russia 5. Dospekhov BA (2012) Methods of field experiment (with the basics of statistical processing of research results): textbook. Alliance, Moscow, Russia 6. Korovin AI (1972) The role of temperature in plant mineral nutrition. USSR, Leningrad

Joint Use of Inoculants with Disinfectants Is an Essential Element in Intensive Technologies of Soybean Cultivation Kristina Yu. Zubareva , Irina L. Tychinskaya , and Andrey A. Polukhin

Abstract This article highlights the issues of using modern microbiological inoculants at the stage of pre-sowing treatment of soybean seeds in conjunction with chemical fungicidal disinfectants in order to optimize the technological process for obtaining a consistently high-quality yield with maximum economic efficiency. Analysis of the structure of soybean production regions in the Russian Federation allows speaking about a fairly wide area with different bioclimatic conditions for the distribution of soybean crops. In the production of soybeans, a pre-sowing treatment of seeds with inoculants and fungicidal disinfectants is an obligatory modern technique of intensive technologies with elements of resource conservation. An actual and always open question is the joint use of chemical disinfectants with microbiological fertilizers against the background of constant progress in the creation of new preparations. Laboratory studies were carried out to evaluate the growth of a streak of micro-cultures of the Bradyrhizobium species of modern inoculants in a mineral-vegetable medium with glucose based on soy flour with the addition of popular fungicidal disinfectants to the experimental versions. It was determined that pesticides don’t exclude the viability of rhizobacteria; in variants with the inoculant Highcoat Super Soy, some effect on the growth rate is observed. Keywords Soybean · Fungicides · Inoculants · Symbiosis · Chemicals · Bacteria JEL Classification Q1

1 Introduction Legumes are the most important and irreplaceable sources of vegetable protein for humans and animals.

K. Yu. Zubareva (B) · I. L. Tychinskaya · A. A. Polukhin Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_26

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Except for its significant nutritional value, they have a unique ability in the plant world to fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into the available ammonium form NH4 due to symbiosis with nodule bacteria [1], providing themselves with this macronutrient and leaving a sufficient amount of it in the soil solution for subsequent agricultural crops of rotation of crops within a specific sown area, which has an important agro-technical and agro-cultural significance. One of the main leguminous crops (in the biological sense) in the Russian Federation is soybeans, but, according to the generally accepted economic classification, it’s classified as industrial oilseeds. Soybeans, depending on the soil and climatic conditions of our large country, and the needs of many industries (animal husbandry, fodder production, food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries and others), as a demanded and marketable crop, is represented by a fairly wide growing area (Table 1) [2]. The undoubted leader in the production of soybean grain is the Amur Region (22.8% or 9786.3 thousand centners), a significant share falls on the Belgorod and Kursk Regions (13.0 and 12.6% or 5607.1 and 5464.4 thousand centners), the Primorye Territory also don’t stand aside (8.6% or 3770.2 thousand centners), Table 1 Share of regions of the Russian Federation in soybean production in 2020 Federal districts of the Russian Federation, including regions

Percentage

Gross harvest of soybeans (in weight after processing), thousand centners

Russian Federation, including:

100

43,075.9

Central Federal District, including: 47.1

20,312.1

Belgorod Region

13.0

5607.1

Kursk Region

12.6

5464.4

Orel Region

4.5

1887.4

Tambov Region

5.6

2410.2

Southern Federal District, including:

8.0

3493.4

Krasnodar Territory

7.0

3083.9

Volga Federal District, including:

5.2

2225.4

Penza Region

1.6

669.4

Samara Region

1.4

596.5

Saratov Region

1.0

454.1

Siberian Federal District, including:

5.1

2143.9

Altay Territory

4.0

1704.8

Far Eastern Federal District, including:

33.6

14,503.3

Primorye Territory

8.6

3770.2

Amur Region

22.8

9786.3

Source Rosstat [2]

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Krasnodar Territory (7.0% or 3083.9 thousand centners), Tambov and Orel Regions (5.6 and 4.5% or 2410.2 and 1887.4 thousand centners), and Altay Territory (4.0% or 1704.8 thousand centners). If some of the leaders, which were noticed above, have small fluctuations in the change in the gross yield of soybeans (in weight after processing) in the negative direction to 2019, then this trend was influenced by extremely unfavourable weather conditions during the sowing and growing season and the need to comply with a scientifically based crop rotation. However, the regions (especially, the Central, Volga and Siberian Federal Districts), which aren’t among the list of leaders, are increasing the production of soybeans, revising the structure of sown areas (Fig. 1). The maximum increase in gross harvests of soybean grain was distinguished by the Moscow Region (819.9%). Thus, the potential for growing soybean crops in various bioclimatic conditions of the Russian Federation is quite high. By optimizing the elements of the technological process of soybean production (especially the fertilizer system), it’s possible to obtain a consistently high-quality crop with the maximum economic return. At the present stage of development of the country in general, and science in particular, resource-saving, but increasing the productivity of agricultural crops, technologies for the production of crop production with the active use of techniques and methods of reducing or levelling the impact of negative technogenic factors on the environment come to the fore. Concerning leguminous crops, the most effective ecological way of solving the above development strategy is to use the potential of Amur Region Khabarovsk Region Primorye Territory Novosibirsk Region Irkutsk Region Altay Territory Chelyabinsk region Kursk Region Penza Region Orenburg Region Republic of Bashkortostan Krasnodar Territory Kaliningrad Region Tula Region Tambov Region Ryazan Region Orel Region Kursk Region Kaluga Region Belgorod Region -50

0

50

100

150

200

250

Fig. 1 Change in gross yield of soybeans (in weight after processing) in farms of all categories in 2020 relative to 2019, %. Source Rosstat [2]

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symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by nodule bacteria from the air and its mobilization in soil reserves [1, 3]. However, the native culture of specific bacteria that form symbiotic relationships with soybean plants, the genus Rhizobium of the species Bradyrhizobium, is absent in most of the territory of the Russian Federation, and in the places of constant cultivation of these agricultural plants, the formed local populations of nitrogenfixing bacteria are subject to the negative impact of intensive soil treatment and the constant use of pesticides. Therefore, in the cultivation of soybeans, the technique that allows artificially inoculating (inoculating) seeds with a micro-culture of nitrogen-fixing bacteria is presowing treatment with microbiological preparations [4, 5]. This agricultural practice allows forming of symbiotic relationships of leguminous crops with rhizobacteria, which, under favourable conditions, can fix in sufficient quantities of nitrogen available to the plants of the crop rotation of the current and next year of cultivation [6]. At the same time, the use of large areas for growing soybeans contributes to the accumulation of pathogenic micro-flora, causing various fungal, bacterial and viral diseases of this crop, in the soil, which significantly reduces the yield and commercial quality of grain [7]. Therefore, legume seed producers and the scientific community provide for the use of pest control methods in the form of chemical disinfectants with inoculation at the stage of pre-sowing treatment [8–10]. However, the progress in the creation of new chemical and microbiological preparations requires the study of issues in the area of complex application of modern fungicides and inoculants. In this regard, the main purpose of this research is to study the response of the beneficial micro-flora of popular soybean inoculants to the complex use with modern fungicidal disinfectants, which are used at the stage of pre-sowing seed preparation under laboratory conditions. The task of the research is to study the conformity of the composition of inoculants declared by manufacturers and to establish the compatibility of chemical preparations with microbiological ones.

2 Materials and Methods Experimental studies were carried out based on the Federal Scientific Center for Legumes and Groat Crops in 2021. The objects of research were microbiological fertilizers of two varieties: NitrofixP—dry inoculant based on gamma-sterilized peat, and also Argentine strains of rhizobia Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Bradyrhizobium elkanii (2.5 × 109 CFU/ml), Argentina; “Rizoform Soy”—a liquid inoculant based on a strain of the specialized soy bacterium Bradyrhizobium japonicum (2–3 × 109 CFU/ml), Russia; “Highcoat Super Soy” is a nutrient solution containing 10 billion Bradyrhizobium japonicum bacteria in 1 ml of liquid, UK. In the studies, we used fungicidal disinfectants for pre-sowing seed treatment, which were approved for use in Russia and on soybeans: Scarlet, ME, containing

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active ingredients at a dose of 100 g/l of imazalil, and 60 g/l of tebuconazole; Deposit, ME, containing active components at a dose of 40 g/l of fludioxonil, 40 g/l of imazalil and 30 g/l of metalaxyl, providing a long-term, and also the fast and high level of fungicidal activity against a wide range of pathogenic micro-flora causing diseases of various etiologies. The agar diffusion method was used to determine the compatibility of microbiological inoculants and chemical dressing agents [11, 12]. A sterile (autoclaving for 30 min at 1 atmosphere) agar soy mineral medium with the following composition, g/l, was used as a nutrient medium: K2 HPO4 —0.5, KH2 PO4 —0.5, MgSO4 — 0.1, CaSO4 —0.1, NaCl—0.2, scents of Mo7 O4 × 4H2 O, glucose—20, flour from 3-day-old germinated seeds of soybean variety Zusha—10, agar—20 [13, 14]. 10 mcg of the studied pesticide was added to the lower layer of the nutrient medium in Petri pots, and the studied preparations were applied to the surface of the upper layer of the nutrient medium (the dry inoculant was diluted with distilled water 1:6 before the study) in an amount of 30 µl with a Drygalsky spatula to ensure uniform inoculation without damaging the bed (Fig. 2). As a control, the authors used a nutrient medium without adding fungicidal dressing agents. The seeded Petri pots were incubated at a constant temperature of 27 °C for 10 days. To identify the timing of the appearance of colonies of rhizobia, Petri pots were examined every day. Thus, conclusions were drawn about the ability of the strains to be resistant to pesticides, based on the growth of colonies. Due to solutions of the studied microbiological preparations were immediately introduced, but not a 7–10 day old culture of the studied strains of rhizobia was sown, Fig. 2 Tab of studies on the compatibility of fungicides and inoculants in laboratory conditions. Source Photo by Kristina Yu. Zubareva

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but, identification was carried out by visual observation of the growth of colonies, followed by microscopy of the fixed stained according to Gram and a solution of the dye Azur-eosin to Romanovsky, a streak of bacterial culture using Mikmed-6.

3 Results In laboratory conditions, studies were carried out to determine the presence of bacteria in microbiological preparations declared by manufacturers, and the compatibility of inoculants and fungicidal disinfectants. The research results record the isolation of a pure culture from objects while sowing on an agar nutrient medium with a type of carbon nutrition in the form of glucose, based on a decoction of Zusha soy flour from 3-day-old germinated soybean seeds (control Petri pots without adding pesticides) by the appearance of rhizobacteria colonies at 6th day, which identifies them as slow-growing strains of Bradyrhizobium. Microscopic examination of the grown micro-cultures proves the presence of two species of rhizobia, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, and Bradyrhizobiu elkanii in the NitrofixP preparation (Fig. 3). The carried out studies also recorded the growth of bacteria of the Bradyrhizobium species on a nutrient medium with the introduction of fungicides. The tested pesticides didn’t interfere with the growth of bacteria (Table 2). Table 2 shows the qualitative determination of the presence of bacterial streak growth, but not its intensity. Microscopy of a fixed-line of grown micro-cultures of various inoculants on a nutrient medium with the addition of the toxic chemical Scarlet, ME using Mikmed-6 in transmitted light with bright field illumination is shown in Fig. 4. The figure presents that the titer of bacteria, in this case, is different for each microbiological preparation. Perhaps by improving this technique, it will be possible

Fig. 3 Micro-cultures of the inoculant NitrofixP during microscopy (left—gram stain, right— staining with a solution of Azur-eosin dye to Romanovsky). Source Photo by Kristina Yu. Zubareva

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Table 2 Presence of streak growth of micro-cultures of various inoculants while adding disinfectants to the nutrient medium on the 10th day of cultivation Variant

NirofixP

Highcoat Super Soy

Rizoform Soy

Scarlet, ME (100 g/l imazalil + 60 g/l tebuconazole)

+

+

+

Deposit, ME (40 g/l fludioxonil + 40 g/l imazalil + 30 g/l metalaxyl)

+

+

+

Source Data by Kristina Yu. Zubareva

NirofixP

Highcoat Super Soy

Rizoform Soy

Fig. 4 Microcultures of inoculants during microscopy (staining with a solution of Azur-eosin dye to Romanovsky). Source Photo by Kristina Yu. Zubareva

to talk about a quantitative accelerated method for diagnosing the compatibility of inoculants and fungicidal disinfectants in the future. Thus, in the study of the compatibility of microbiological preparations and fungicidal disinfectants intended for the pre-sowing treatment of soybean seeds, the possibility of combined use of NitrofixP, Rizoform Soy and Highcoat Super Soy with chemicals, in aggregate containing the following active substances: tebuconazole, fludioxonil, imazalil and metalaxyl. However, microscopic examination of a fixed and stained line of micro-cultures grown on nutrient media with the addition of fungicides suggests that the titers obtained (by visual inspection) of some inoculants (for example, Highcoat Super Soy) after combined use with disinfectants are very low in comparison with the control, so it can adversely affect the formation of the number and quality of nodules in a production environment [10], so we recommend increasing the dose of Highcoat Super Soy while using it with chemicals.

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4 Conclusion The research results indicate the possibility of joint use of modern soybean inoculants NitrofixP, Rizoform Soy and Highcoat Super Soy with chemical fungicidal disinfectants, such as Scarlet, ME and Deposit, ME, which are popular among soybean producers and approved for use in the Russian Federation. However, the microbiological preparation Highcoat Super Soy showed a slight decrease in the intensity of the growth of the micro-culture streak against the background of chemical fungicides in comparison with the control variants during visual examination and microscopy, which makes it possible to recommend an increase in the rate of application of the inoculant in production, in the condition of the joint use with pesticides.

References 1. Provorov NA, Onischuk OP (2019) Ecological and genetic foundations for the design of highly efficient nitrogen-fixing microbial-plant symbiosis. Ecol Genet 17(1):11–18. https://doi.org/10. 17816/ecogon17111-18 2. Federal State Statistics Service (2021) Gross harvests and yield of agricultural crops in the Russian Federation until 2020 (parts 1 and 2). Rosstat. https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/doc ument/13277. Accessed: 16 June 2021 3. Beregovaya YuV, Tychinskaya IL, Petrova SN, Parakhin NV, Pukhalskiy YaV, Makarova NM, Shaposhnikov AI, Belimov AA (2018) Variety specificity of the effects of rhizobacteria in relation to nitrogen-fixing symbiosis and mineral nutrition of soybeans under conditions of agrocenosis. Agric Biol 53(5):977–993. https://doi.org/10.15389/agrobiology.2018.5.977rus 4. Kots S, Mamenko P (2015) Soybean seed inoculation and incrustation: a review of application technology and drug market. Proposition (special issue):24–28 5. Zubareva KYu, Polukhin AA (2021) Evaluation of the effectiveness of using microfertilizers and biological drugs to increase the yield of new soybean varieties. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 650:012090. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/650/1/012090 6. Tilba VA, Sinegovskaya VT (2012) The role of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in increasing the photosynthetic productivity of soybeans. Rep Russ Acad Agric Sci 5:16–18 7. Piven VT, Bushneva NA, Dryakhlova AI, Saenko GM (2010) Protection of soybean crops from diseases, pests and weeds. Agriculture 3:30–33 8. Borzenkova GA (2014) Optimization of pre-seed dressing technology and the possibility of its combination with an inoculation to protect soybeans from seed infection. Legumes Cereals 1(9):22–30 9. Borzenkova GA, Vasilchikov AG (2014) The use of effective disinfectants and inoculants in the technology of cultivation of various varieties of soybeans. Agriculture 4:37–39 10. Saenko GM, Bushneva NA (2018) Compatibility of fungicidal soybean disinfectants with inoculants. Oilseeds 3(175):124–127. https://doi.org/10.25230/2412-608X-2018-3-175-124-127 11. Egorov NS (2004) Fundamentals of the doctrine of antibiotics. Publishing House of Moscow State University Science, Moscow 12. Maslienko LV, Kurilova DA (2012) Development of a microbiological method for reducing the harmfulness of fusarium on soybeans. Oilseeds 2(151–152):167–175

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13. Begun SA, Tilba VA (2005) Methods, techniques for studying and selecting effective strains of soybean nodule bacteria. Analytical selection methods. Zeya Publishing House, Blagoveshchensk 14. Bushneva NA (2019) The effectiveness of the combined use of inoculants and fungicides in the treatment of soybean seeds. Oilseeds 4(180):119–123. https://doi.org/10.25230/2412-608X2019-4-180-119-123

Modeling the Optimal Mode of Operation of the Harvesting and Transport Links if Grain Is Stored in Flexible Polyethylene Containers Alexander V. Panin , Andrey A. Polukhin , Svetlana P. Klimova , and Aleksey V. Kondykov Abstract The most important task in grain production is resources saving during harvesting and storage. In the current situation, the highest efficiency can be obtained from receiving points with grain storage in flexible polyethylene containers, which are located closer to the field conditions of agricultural producers. Profitability using this method increases by the sum of all costs associated with the services of third-party elevators (acceptance, additional processing, storage, depersonalization of grain, etc.). Research in the area of mathematical modeling of technological operations of this storage method is becoming relevant and important. This article discusses the issues of organizing the interconnected operation of all units that perform individual operations in the optimal resource-saving mode following the principle of continuous production. A multilevel systematic approach is proposed for the effective solution of the corresponding problem with the factors influencing the optimization results. Methodological solutions have been substantiated, which allows calculating the total optimal number of grain harvesting units, taking into account the random nature of their stay in different states, optimizing the work of various links of the technological complex, and minimizing yield losses, provided that the daily rate of a given mode of work and the optimal start time are met. Keywords Harvesting of cereals · Daily productivity · Link interaction model · Probability of downtime and failure · Polyethylene containers JEL Classification L66 · O13 · O32 · Q16

A. V. Panin (B) Russian Timiryazev State Agrarian University, Moscow, Russia A. A. Polukhin · S. P. Klimova · A. V. Kondykov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_27

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1 Introduction Resource conservation involves storing grain in flexible polyethylene containers in open areas in the field. With this storage method, the grain received from the combines is fed by a special loader into a grain packing machine (bagger), which operates from the power take-off shaft of the Minsk Tractor Works (MTW) tractor, which ensures dense filling of the container with grain. Unloading of grain from the container is carried out by a special auger unloading machine (any grain conveyor can be used). Taking into account the stochastic nature of both the working state of the combines and the interconnected work of the harvesting units with other elements of the harvesting complex, it is advisable to use the corresponding mathematical models of the queuing theory (QT) for optimal harvesting work. The purpose of this research is to make a reasonable choice of the methodology for modeling the optimal mode of operation of the units in the harvesting of grain crops when storing grain in flexible polyethylene containers, which allows increasing the daily productivity of the UTZ and reducing the operating costs of MTA.

2 Materials and Methods The main way to optimize production processes in this study is the method of mathematical modeling. The randomness of the nature of the functioning of the corresponding processes at each of its stages was taken into account while optimizing the operating mode of the harvesting and transport links. The mathematical apparatus of the presented models is described by the methods of queuing theory. During the implementation of these models, statistical information is collected and the data of time observations are used.

3 Results The task is to ensure that the interconnected work of all units performing individual operations is carried out in the optimal resource-saving mode in accordance with the principle of continuous production. A multilevel systematic approach is proposed to effectively solve the corresponding problem, the structural diagram of which is shown in Fig. 1. For all external factors affecting the optimization results (yield, transportation distance, etc.), the designation FV is adopted. At the first level of optimization, calculation actions are performed to justify the following:

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Fig. 1 Block diagram of multilevel optimization of the research problem. Source Compiled by the authors

• daily productivity (Wd), the number of serviceable working harvesting units (m), and the total number of harvesting units (m ); • the optimal calendar date for the beginning of harvesting (tm ), oriented relative to the initial moment of the best readiness of cereals. As an optimality criterion, we take the minimum yield loss during harvesting (Q → min). Numerical values Wd , m, and tm are determined from the next equalities [7]: Wd =

P·

 K1 2

· F2c +

P · [Q] · F +

·

Fc )2

(1)

Wd W · Td

(2)

FC · (P − Wd ) P · Wd

(3)

m= tm =

K1 2



K2 − Fc )2 2 (F F2c + K22 (F −

where F P K1 and K2 Fc

is the total harvested area, hectares (ha); is the rate of onset of the most favorable moment for harvesting, ha/day; are levels of intensity of crop losses during harvesting, respectively, before and after the optimal harvest time, 1/day; area harvested before time (topt ), ha;

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[Q]

permissible value of crop losses in case of deviation of the timing of work from the optimal, %; is hourly productivity of one harvesting unit, ha/h; duration of the working day, h.

W Td

The value Fc is determined from equality [7]: Fc =

K2 ·F K1 + K2

(4)

Next, in accordance with the structural diagram (Fig. 1), the actual value of the number of harvesting units is determined—a stochastic model of the interaction of the technological link with other links of the harvesting complex is used. The algorithm of this model is built on the mathematical apparatus of the Markov random process [1, 4, 10], which is graphically presented in Fig. 2. The states of the aggregates of the grain-harvesting unit: S1 S2 S3 S4

the average number of serviceable working harvesting units (m1 ); the average number of units in the state of technological maintenance (m 2 ); the average number of units in the state of troubleshooting (m 3 ); the average number of units, which are making a turn (m 4 ).

For this graph, the authors assume that the flow of events that transfers the aggregates of the harvesting link from the state Si to the state Sj is the easiest with the intensity of the flow of events λi j = const. Using the method of the dynamics of averages at a steady state of operation (t → ∞), from the differentiated Kolmogorov equations for a given graph of states, let us make a system of linear equations:

Fig. 2 Graph of states of the harvesting unit. Source Compiled by the authors

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⎧ m1 · λ12 − m2 · λ21 = 0 ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ m1 · λ13 − m3 · λ31 = 0 ⎪ m · λ − m4 · λ41 = 0 ⎪ ⎩ 1 14 m = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4

(5)

 λ12 λ13 λ14 m = m1 · 1 + + + λ21 λ31 λ41

(6)

And from which

Using equality (2), equality (6) takes the next form: (7) The required number of vehicles (n) for transporting grain to the storage point will be calculated from the condition of their interconnected flow operation with combine harvesters: n=

m · Wm · u Wn

(8)

where Wm u Wn

productivity of one combine harvester, ha/h; is the average grain yield, t/ha; vehicle productivity, t/h.

At the second level, the authors determine the optimal interconnected number of harvesting units and vehicles as part of the harvesting and transport link. As a model of the interaction of grain harvesters, as well as vehicles in the harvesting, and transport link, the authors take a closed system with expectation, a schematic diagram of which is shown in Fig. 3 [2, 8, 9, 11]. The flow of requests for loading vehicles is taken as the simplest one [10]. The density of this flow of requirements λ is defined in the following way: λ=

1 tcv

(9)

where tcv

is the average duration of the vehicle technological cycle (h).

The main characteristic of servicing harvesting units is the intensity of service, which is determined by the formula: μ=

1 ts

(10)

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Vehicle queue

The flow of requests for loading transport units

1

1

2

2

3

3

m

n

Loaded transport units

Harvesting units

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of the interaction of combine harvesters and vehicles in the harvesting and transport link. Source Compiled by the authors

where ts

is the average duration of service (filling the vehicle body) (h).

The criterion of resources saving of this level corresponds to the minimum costs from downtime in mutual expectations of vehicles and harvesting units [7]: Cmn = mo · Cm + no · Cn → min

(11)

where Cmn mo , no Cm , Cn

total costs from the idle time of vehicles and harvesting unit, rubles/h; the average number of vehicles and harvesting units at a standstill, units; costs per one hour of downtime, respectively, of vehicles and harvesting units, rubles/h.

Passing into equality (12) to dimensionless relative costs, the criterion takes the next form: Cmn =

Cmn Cm Cm = mo · + no = mo · εm + no → min; where εm = Cn Cn Cn

(12)

Numerical values mo and no in expression (12) are determined from equalities [2, 10]: mo =

m

(k − n) · m! · Lk · Po ; nk−n · n! · (m − k)! k=n+1

(13)

Modeling the Optimal Mode of Operation of the Harvesting …

no =

n

(n − k) · m! · Lk k=0

k!(m − k)!

247

· Po

(14)

where L=

λ μ

(15)

where is the probability of downtime of all harvesting units while waiting for vehicles; the total number of vehicles and harvesting units, respectively, used in the work of the harvesting and transport link, units.

Po m, n

 Po = 1/

n

k=0

m

m! · Lk m! · Lk + k−n k!(m − k)! k=n+1 n · n! · (m − k)!

(16)

By numerical solution of the iteration method based on (9)–(16), the authors determine the optimal number of interconnected vehicles mTopt and harvesting units nhart in the UTZ. The third level allows optimizing the interconnected operation of vehicles delivering grain to storage and posts with flexible polyethylene containers for storing grain. The authors consider the functioning of posts that ensure the reception of grain from vehicles and its dense filling into containers as an open queuing system (QS) with a limited number of places in the queue [2, 3, 5, 6, 10]. In this situation, arriving vehicles may be rejected if all waiting areas are occupied. The receiving point receives a probabilistic flow of requirements for unloading from the transport vehicles with grain. It’s assumed that this stream of requirements is the easiest, which obeys Poisson’s law [10]. The density of this flow of requirements λ is determined by the next formula: λ=

1 tat

(17)

where tat

is the average duration between the moments of arrival at the receiving point of vehicles with cargo, h.

The numerical value of tat is determined by timing data. To determine the level of intensity of service by one post of the flow of vehicles with grain, the authors use the following equality:

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μ=

1 td

(18)

where td

is the average duration of storing grain for storage at a post from one vehicle, h.

A schematic diagram of the functioning of the model under consideration is shown in Fig. 4. The main criterion at the third level of optimization is the minimum of total costs from downtime in mutual expectations of unloading and storage posts and vehicles loaded with grain, which in dimensionless relative costs, by analogy with (12), will take the following form: C mnn = n o + mo · εm → min

(19)

where n o , mo

the average number of idle unloading posts and vehicles, units;

εm =

Cm Cn

(20)

where Cn , Cm

losses per hour of downtime of the post and vehicle, respectively, rubles/h.

Queue

Unloading posts

1

1 Stream of demands

Serviced vehicles

2

2

Rejected claims

3

m

n

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of the functioning of open QS with expectation when there are limited places in the queue. Source Compiled by the authors

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An auxiliary criterion for the third level of optimization is the minimum probability of refusal to accept vehicles loaded with grain: Pr e f → min

(21)

For a receiving point with one unloading post, the optimality criterion (19) is written in the form [7, 10]: C mn = Po + mo · εm

(22)

where Po mo

is the unloading station downtime probability; is the average number of idle vehicles, units.

The numerical values of mo , Po and Pr e f for one unloading post on the basis of [10] are determined from the equalities: 1−L 1 − Lm+2

(23)

L2 · [1 − Lm · (m + 1 − mL)]

 1 − Lm+2 · (1 − L)

(24)

Po = mo =

Pr e f =

Lm+1 · (1 − L) → min 1 − Lm+2

(25)

where L= m

λ μ

(26)

is the number of vehicles in the queue.

Equalities (21–26) allow substantiating the optimal operating mode of the loading station. Optimization results obtained for one post can be extended to any required number of posts. The fourth level of optimization provides for the justification of the optimal mode of maintenance and elimination of failures of combine harvesters. The weakest link in terms of reliability, while harvesting grain, is combine harvesters. Therefore, this study is carried out concerning these units. In the process of harvesting, a probabilistic stream of requirements for the elimination of technical failures, obeying Poisson’s law, emanates from the combine harvesters [10]. The flux density λ is determined based on the equality: λ=

1 tref

(27)

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where tref

is the average time interval between two successive failures originating from one combine harvester, h.

Specialized links are created to eliminate failures. It’s necessary to establish an optimal ratio between the number of links and the number of harvesting units. Initially, the optimal number of combine harvesters serviced by one specialized link is determined, and then the result is extended to the total number of combines involved in the harvesting process. Closed-type QS with one serving link is taken as a model of such a service. The main characteristic of this specialized link for eliminating failures is the level of service intensity (μ), which is equal to: μ=

1

(28)

te.f.

where te.f.

is the average time to eliminate one technical failure of combine harvesters, h.

A schematic diagram of the work of a specialized link to eliminate technical failures of grain combines is shown in Fig. 5. The criterion for the optimality of the fourth level of the structural scheme is the minimum total costs from the mutual expectation of a specialized link, and combines harvesters [5, 7, 10]:

Queue

Stream of demands

2 3

Specialized link

1

Requirements Served

m

Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of the functioning of a closed single-channel QS. Source Compiled by the authors

Modeling the Optimal Mode of Operation of the Harvesting …

CTOP = mo · Cm + Po · Cln → min

251

(29)

where CTOP mo Po Cm , Cln

is the sum of losses in the mutual expectation of the harvesting units and the specialized unit, rubles/h; average number of waiting harvesting units, units; the probability of downtime of the specialized link; the cost of one hour of downtime of the harvesting unit and the specialized link, rubles/h.

In relative dimensionless costs, criterion (29) takes the next form: CTOP = mo · εm + Po → min

(30)

where εm = CC3Bm . The numerical values of mo and Po are determined based on [10] by the formulas:  1 mo = m − (1 − Po ) · 1 + L   Po = 1/ 1 + m · L + m · (m − 1) · L2 + · · · + m(m − 1) . . . 1 · Lm

(31) (32)

where L= m

λ μ

(33)

is the number of combine harvesters serviced by one specialized link.

Varying the value of m based on (30–33), the authors determine the optimal number of harvesting units that can be serviced by one specialized link.

4 Conclusion The proposed methodological solutions, firsts, make it possible to calculate the total optimal number of grain harvesting units, taking into account the random nature of their residence time in different states; second, to optimize the work of various links of the technological complex; and third, to minimize crop losses, provided that the daily rate of a given mode of work and the optimal start date are met. Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to the Acting Director of the Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution “Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops”, Doctor of Economics, Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences Andrei A. Polukhin for the advice during this study.

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References 1. Berezhnaya EV, Berezhnoy VI (2003) Mathematical methods for modeling economic systems. Financ Statist 368 2. Gnedenko EV, Kovalenko IN (1987) Introduction to the theory of queuing, 2nd edn. Nauka, p 336 3. Kremer NSh (2004) Probability theory and mathematical statistics. UNITI-DANA, p 523 4. Panin AV (2012) Model for calculating the cost of technological operations in crop production using imported equipment. Rationing Labor Compensation Agric 9:10–11 5. Pismenny DT (2008) Lecture notes on probability theory, mathematical statistics and stochastic processes. Iris-Press, p 285 6. Rodionova OA, Golovina LA (2020) Determinants of the design approach in the development of the best available technologies. Econ Agric Russ 5:64–70 7. Skorokhodov AN, Levshin AG (2016) Industrial operation of the machine and tractor fleet. Bitcom, p 474 8. Vasin AA, Krasnoshchekov PS, Morozov VV (2008) Operations research. Publishing Center “Academy”, p 464 9. Wentzel ES, Ovcharov LA (2000) Probability theory and its engineering applications. Higher School, p 480 10. Wentzel ES (1972) Operations research. SOV Radio, p 552 11. Wentzel ES (2004) Operations research. Tasks, principles, methodology. Drofa, p 208

Creation of Highly Effective Variety-Microbial Systems for Soybeans Andrey G. Vasilchikov and Alexander S. Akulov

Abstract The research was conducted at the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops in 2018–2020. The research aims to study the ability of new promising soybean varieties to create effective variety-microbial systems. The authors assess the response of three soybean varieties (Lancetnaya, L-85, LS-10) to inoculation with three rhizobia strains (634, 645, 650) from the collection of the All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology on dark gray forest soils. The results of research conducted in 2018–2020 provided the authors with experimental data on the effectiveness of the symbiosis of soybean variety-microbial systems. The most significant effect of inoculation was detected with strain 634. The increment to the control was 0.14 t/ha. The combination of strain 634 and the Lancetnaya variety (+ 0.22 t/ha) and the combination of strain 650 and the L-85 line were most effective in forming variety-microbial systems (+ 0.19 t/ha). Keywords Soy (Glycine max (L.) Meeril) · Inoculation · Biological nitrogen fixation · Strains · Increasing yields JEL Classification Q16

1 Introduction Increasing the production of plant protein to meet food and feed purposes is one of the priority tasks of agriculture in Russia. Increasing soybean production is one of the ways to solve the indicated problem. Currently, soybean production in Russia is about 1.5% of global production (4.5 and 350 million tons, respectively). The most promising solution is the expansion of cultivated areas in the central region of A. G. Vasilchikov (B) · A. S. Akulov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia e-mail: [email protected] A. S. Akulov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_28

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Russia [1]. In 2019, 49.6% of the total soybean crop was produced in the Central Federal District and 30.4% in the Far Eastern Federal District. The main reasons for the shift in production are the creation of early-ripening varieties that mature under Russian conditions and global climate change [9]. Despite breeding successes, climatic and, above all, temperature conditions play a decisive role in influencing soybean yields. While Russia’s 2020 yield was 1.65 t/ha, Ukraine’s warmer conditions allowed obtaining a yield of 2.15 t/ha, and the major soybean producers (Brazil, USA, and Argentina) had average yields of 3.3, 3.2, and 3.0 t/ha [2]. In this regard, introducing more productive varieties corresponding to the changing weather conditions has a considerable economic benefit [11]. Nevertheless, this method is limited because, despite the global warming, the climatic conditions of Russia allow cultivating varieties that can ripen, at most, by the first days of October. Therefore, to increase soybean yields, it is necessary to use advanced technological methods, which include the use of a new generation of inoculants based on symbiotic nitrogenfixing strains [7, 8]. The main biological feature of soybeans as a representative of the legume family is the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiosis with nodule bacteria. In this case, the formation of effective symbiosis increases plant productivity (on average by 10–25%) and the preservation or increase of soil nitrogen reserves [3, 6, 10]. It is possible to increase the efficiency of symbiotic nitrogen fixation and consequently soybean productivity by creating consortic variety-microbial systems consisting of strains of nodule bacteria complementary to the cultivated soybean variety. This research aims to identify the most effective variety-microbial systems for promising soybean varieties. The results presented in the paper were obtained personally by the authors.

2 Methodology The research is based on four experiments conducted in the experimental field of the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops in the Orel Region (Russia). The results of the experiments are analyzed from the standpoint of economic efficiency, which is estimated from the standpoint of average wholesale prices for February 2021: soybean seeds—32,000 rubles per ton, rhizotorfin—500 rubles per ha—portion, ammonium nitrate—1500 rubles per centner.

3 Results The weather conditions of the growing seasons 2018–2020 differed significantly from each other (Table 1). In 2018, the temperature regime exceeded the mean annual level by 1.1–4.0 °C. The distribution of precipitation during the growing season was favorable and

Creation of Highly Effective Variety-Microbial Systems …

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Table 1 Cost-effectiveness of inoculants and mineral nitrogen application on soybeans (average for 2018–2020) Variants

Yield, t/ha

Cost of gross output, RUB/ha

Production costs, RUB/ha

Production Net cost, RUB/c income, RUB/ha

Profitability, %

Actual economic effect, RUB/ha

Lancetnaya variety Control

2.22

71,040

25,500

1148.6

45,540

179

N60

2.41

77,120

28,050

1163.4

49,070

175

3530

Strain 634

2.44

78,080

26,000

1065.6

52,080

200

6540

Strain 645

2.30

73,600

26,000

1130.4

47,600

183

2060

Strain 650

2.36

75,520

26,000

1101.7

49,520

190

3980

Control

2.53

80,960

25,500

1007.9

55,460

218

N60

2.75

88,000

28,050

1122.0

59,950

214

4490

Strain 634

2.60

83,200

26,000

1000.0

57,200

220

1740

Strain 645

2.61

83,520

26,000

996.2

57,520

221

2060

Strain 650

2.72

87,040

26,000

995.8

61,040

235

5580

Control

2.72

87,040

25,500

937.5

61,540

241

N60

2.78

88,960

28,050

1009

60,910

217

−630

Strain 634

2.85

91,200

26,000

912.3

65,200

251

4290

Strain 645

2.80

89,600

26,000

928.6

63,600

245

2060

Strain 650

2.75

88,000

26,000

945.4

62,000

238

460

L-85

LS-10

Source Compiled by the authors

provided water consumption in critical periods of soybean development (109 mm or 136% of the norm in July). In 2019, the temperature pattern was multidirectional. At the beginning of the growing season, the increase in temperature was followed by a significant decrease in the middle and new warming at the end, which had an adverse effect on soybean development.

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Weather conditions in 2020 can be characterized as favorable for the development of soybeans. The main negative factor was the low temperature in May, which significantly prolonged the sprouting period. When sown on May 14, full sprouts were recorded on June 6. During the further vegetation period, average monthly temperatures significantly exceeded the climatic norm (by 0.6–3.6 °C), positively affecting plant development and yield formation. The sum of precipitation during the growing season (290 mm, or 100% of the norm) and the nature of their distribution were favorable for the formation of a high yield. The combination of these factors favored the development of soybeans and the formation of an effective symbiotic apparatus. To assess the formation of plant-microbe systems, the authors recorded the number of nodules formed on soybean roots and their mass in all variants of the experiment. It was noted that in the control variant without inoculation, the formation of nodules also occurred at the expense of spontaneous populations of nodule bacteria available in the soil of the experimental site. The ripening time of the evaluated varieties differed slightly depending on the conditions of the year. Next, let us consider the yield (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). The analysis of yield (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) obtained on different varieties in different years clearly shows the relationship between weather conditions and varietal differences in soybeans. While the Lancetnaya variety, positioned as a soybean variety of the northern ecotype, had a yield difference of 0.13 t/ha in 2019 and 2020, the difference for the later-maturing variety Leader-10 was 0.66t/ha. The main reason for this difference was the higher temperatures between July and August 2020 (1.9 and 0.5 °C higher than in 2019), which allowed for more productive potential to be

Fig. 1 Soybean yield with inoculation (t/ha), 2018–2019. Note *HCP05 for the variety—0.097, for the strain—0.125 t/ha (2018); **HCP05 for the variety—0.086, for the strain—0.110 t/ha (2019). Source Compiled by the authors

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Fig. 2 Soybean yield with inoculation (t/ha) 2020, average. Note *HCP05 for the variety—0.128, for the strain—0.076 t/ha (2020). Source Compiled by the authors

Fig. 3 Average soybean yield with inoculation (t/ha), 2018–2020. Source Compiled by the authors

realized. Comparing data on yields across the Orel Region, it should be noted that the average yield was 1.77 t/ha in 2019 and 1.96 t/ha in 2020 [4, 5]. In terms of strain factor, strain 650 was the most effective on the Lancetnaya variety (+ 0.13 t/ha) and the line L-85 (+ 0.19 t/ha). Quantitative traits (Table 1) changed more under the influence of varietal features. Rising prices for soybeans ensure a high level of profitability (up to 100%) already at yields of more than 1.0 t/ha. In this case, an increase in yield and, consequently, the

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profitability of production through the use of effective inoculants is more economically profitable compared to the introduction of high doses of nitrogen fertilizers. The highest profitability was obtained when the LS-10 line was inoculated with the strain 634–251%. When nitrogen fertilizer was used, there was a decrease in profitability of up to 217% on the LS-10 line and up to 175% on the Lancetnaya variety.

4 Conclusion The experiments conducted in 2018–2020 provided the experimental data on the effectiveness of soybean variety-microbial symbiosis systems. The strain 634 turned out to be the most effective strain on the three soybean varieties. The increase to the control was 0.14 t/ha. When forming varietal-microbial systems, the most effective was the combination of strain 634 and the Lancetnaya variety (+ 0.22 t/ha) and the combination of strain 650 and the L-85 line (+ 0.19 t/ha).

References 1. Grain market portal “zerno.ru.” (n.d.) Grain harvest in Russia in 2020. Retrieved from https:// zerno.ru/node/10943. Accessed 12 Dec 2020 2. Lysenko Y (2020, June 5) Top 10 soybean producers in the world. Latifundist Media. Retrieved from https://latifundist.com/rating/top-10-proizvoditelej-soi-v-mire-v-2019-godu. Accessed 19 Dec 2020 3. Moretti LG, Lazarini E, Bossolani JW, Parente TL, Caioni S, Araujo RS et al (2018) Can additional inoculations increase soybean nodulation and grain yield? Agronomy 110(2):715– 721. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2017.09.0540 4. News Aggregator “Seldon.News.” (2020, Dec 15) Alexander Shalimov: “The volume of exports of agricultural products amounted to $86.9 million”. Retrieved from https://news.myseldon. com/ru/news/index/242397024. Accessed 12 Dec 2020 5. OilWorld.RU Portal (2019, Nov 26) Orel region has increased production of soybeans and sunflowers in 2019. Retrieved from https://www.oilworld.ru/news/302841. Accessed 25 Dec 2019 6. Shabalkin AV, Dubinkina EA, Belyaev NN (2020) Influence of processing of soybean seeds and vegetating plants with microbiological fertilizers on yield and product quality in the Central Black Earth Region. Agrarian Russ 9:12–16. https://doi.org/10.30906/1999-56362020-9-12-16 7. Tikhonovich IA, Borisov AY, Vasilchikov AG, Zhukov VA, Kozhemyakov AP, Naumkina TS et al (2012) Specificity of microbiologic preparations for bean crops and features of its production. Legumes Groat Crops 3(3):11–17 8. Vasilchikov AG, Akulov AS (2018) Management of vegetation of promising soybean samples by high-effective inoculants. Zemledelie 4:19–21. https://doi.org/10.24411/0044-3913-201810405 9. Vasilchikov AG, Akulov AS (2019) Search for highly effective inoculants for promising soybean varieties. Legumes Groat Crops 4(32):66–71. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X2019-11134

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10. Yakimenko MV, Begun SA, Sorokina AI (2019) Biological assessment of rhizobial preparations used in soybean cultivation in the Amur Region. Nat Tech Sci 10(136):45–51. https://doi.org/ 10.25633/ETN.2019.10.05 11. Zaytsev NI, Bochkaryov NI, Zelentsov SV (2016) Prospects and directions for soybean breeding in Russia under implementation conditions of the national strategy of import substitution. Oilseeds Sci Tech Bull VNIIMK 2(166):3–11

Legal Regulation of Sustainable Development and Environmental Security

Features of the Legal Regulation of Unmanned (Autonomous) Transport in the Russian Federation Olga A. Serova

and Aleksandr T. Naniev

Abstract The article investigates the issues of normative regulation of highly automated transport in the Russian Federation. The development of the digital economy and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), which are the platform for the formation of unmanned (autonomous) transport is of great knowledge both for society and for the state as a whole. The development of unmanned (autonomous) transport requires the implementation of effective regulatory and legal regulation of this sphere, which involves the joint work of the state, research, and public organizations. The study aims to identify and determine the main legislative gaps in the legal regulation of unmanned (autonomous) transport in the Russian Federation. The scope of the study is an analysis of Russian and international legal acts regulating the operation of unmanned (autonomous) transport. It raises the problem of the lack of a legal framework for digitalization of highways, the presence of legal restrictions that prevent the operation of unmanned (autonomous) transport on highways in the Russian Federation. The problem of determining the legal status of highly automated transport is investigated. The results of the study are the identification and formulation of legal barriers to the development of unmanned (autonomous) transport in the Russian Federation and the formation of proposals for their elimination. Individual proposals for overcoming legal barriers to the development of autonomous transport in the Russian Federation are formulated. Keywords Highway · Transport infrastructure · Intelligent transport system · Unmanned transport JEL Classification K190

O. A. Serova Pskov State University, Pskov, Russia A. T. Naniev (B) Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_29

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1 Introduction Digital technologies are actively penetrating the transport sphere and they are the basis of the economic digitalization in the Russian Federation. Highly automated transport contains great potential for the development of the country’s transport system, increased mobility of the population and productivity in cargo transportation, development of all sectors of the economy, but most importantly, increased safety for vehicle drivers and passengers, and other highway users by reducing the number of accidents caused by the human factor. One of the strategic objectives outlined in the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 07.05.2018 No. 204 “On National Goals and Strategic Objectives of Development of the Russian Federation for the Period Until 2024” is the reduction of mortality due to highway accidents by 3.5 times compared to 2017, and striving for a zero mortality rate by 2030. Thus, the issue of building a unified digital platform for unmanned (autonomous) transport seems more relevant than ever. In addition to several advantages, the use of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles contains some risks, such as security, software failures, and software protection against cyber-attacks. Examples of imperfections in the software of highly automated vehicles we can see nowadays, as in Russia—August 10, 2019, in Moscow, a Tesla electric car with the driver assistant system on, at 100 km per hour caused a traffic accident with a parked car [1], and in the world—a self-driving Uber car in 2018 in Temple, Arizona knocked down a man to death [2]. To date, the legal framework for the digitalization of the transport system in the Russian Federation is only 5% developed [3]. The President of the Russian Federation in his message to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation on March 1, 2018, pointed out the need to develop the legislative framework in the field of ITS. The Federal Law of 31.07.2020, No. 258-FZ “On Experimental Legal Regimes in the Sphere of Digital Innovation in the Russian Federation” developed by the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation should not be overlooked. This law allows organizations within the framework of experimental legal regimes in the sphere of digital innovations to receive on a certain territory and for a certain period the opportunity to test in real legal relations technologies which, for various reasons, cannot be used, for example, this law allows developers of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles to conduct tests on their launch.

2 Methodology The methodology of research consists of the application of some interrelated research methods. First of all, these are general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, as well as private scientific methods: method of legal modeling and method of legal forecasting, structural-functional, dialectical-materialistic, comparative-legal, normative-logical, and systematic methods.

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3 Results The development of unmanned (autonomous) transport largely depends on the development of transport infrastructure and its compliance with modern realities. Highways must meet the technical requirements for the operation of unmanned (autonomous) transport. The Strategy for the Development of the Automotive Industry of the Russian Federation for the Period up to 2025, approved by Russian Government Decree No. 831-r of April 28, 2018, also noted the need to create new transportation infrastructure that meets modern requirements for the development of highly automated transport. Analysis of the current legislation in the field of transport shows that to date the current legislation does not meet the current trends and prospects for the operation of unmanned (autonomous) transport. The problem of legal regulation of transport infrastructure facilities is not new for legal science, because the legal definition of a highway, reflected in paragraph 1 of article 3 of the Federal Law No. 257-FZ “On Highways and Highways Activities in the Russian Federation and on Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation” does not link the characteristics of a highway with the characteristics of civil rights objects, which is the result of numerous disputes arising both in the scientific community and in law enforcement practice on. Concerning “smart” highways that count and analyze traffic, monitor weather conditions through the use of automated weather systems, autonomous control of traffic lights, etc., as well as highways suitable for unmanned (autonomous) transport, which include many objects of both movable and immovable property, in the absence of proper legal regulation by the legislator, the question of legal characteristics of this category of objects also arises. Imperfect terminology is one of the main problems in the regulation of any new technology [4]. Currently, Russian legislation lacks the concept of “highways designed for unmanned (autonomous) transport”, which hinders the development of ITS in Russia. In this regard, the necessary task is to form a new regulatory environment that provides a favorable legal regime for the emergence and development of modern ITS technologies [5], in particular the introduction at the regulatory level of the concept of “highways designed for unmanned (autonomous) transport”, containing the legal characteristics of these objects as objects of immovable property. To date, there are no uniform requirements for highways. Ensuring the connection of vehicles with the transport infrastructure is marked in the Directive of the European Union as a priority [6]. The current Russian legislation in the field of design, construction, and operation of highways does not contain any special requirements for highways designed for the movement of unmanned (autonomous) transport. Taking into account the fact that “smart” highways, in technical terms, are more complex structures compared to highways, it is obvious that there is a need to approve a list of mandatory technologies for highway design, construction, and operation in connection with the introduction of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles.

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The Russian Federation in 2021 together with some European countries in the framework of the UN Economic and Social Council (ESC) initiated the introduction of the concept of “automated driving system” in the convention—a hardwaresoftware system that dynamically controls the vehicle, which can be recognized as the driver of the vehicle if it meets the technical and operational requirements. In this regard, as part of the development of international cooperation, it also seems relevant to consider foreign legislation in the field of autonomous (unmanned) transport, which despite the active development of regulations in the field of unmanned (autonomous) transport is not particularly diverse. Among European countries, Germany is actively working on the development of the legal framework for the use of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles. The German Ministry of Transport has initiated the development of a bill that would allow the operation of autonomous (unmanned) vehicles with Level 4 autonomy according to the Advanced Driver Assistance System on the highways. There will be several fundamental principles in the legislative act under development: – priority of human life; – establishment of a surveillance system in an unmanned (autonomous) vehicle; – presumption of driver liability for harm caused by an unmanned (autonomous) vehicle, unless the harm is caused by system failure [7]. In the United States, the Highly Automated Vehicles Act was drafted in 2018. This draft provides definitions of the following concepts: • automated operation of unmanned (autonomous vehicles), which is the performance of dynamic driving tasks using an automated driving system; • dynamic automated driving, which means the real-time operational and tactical functions needed to control a vehicle in traffic conditions, including controlling lateral and longitudinal vehicle movement, monitoring driving conditions, responding to objects and events, planning vehicle maneuvers, and increasing vehicle visibility; • the operator of an unmanned (autonomous) vehicle, is an automated driving service provider that must be registered as a manufacturer of vehicles or vehicle equipment as required by the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The automated driving service provider is responsible for failure to comply with traffic laws while the automated vehicle is being operated as a driver or operator unless the vehicle would not have been under automated operation [8]. The introduction of highly automated vehicles predetermines the issues of liability for harm caused by a highly automated vehicle, the most relevant of which is the transfer of liability from the driver to the operator of the unmanned control system software. European states have developed an approach, according to which the liability for the damage caused by a highly automated vehicle should be borne by the driver, except in cases of interference of the software in the control of a highly automated vehicle and the driver’s inability to disable it [9]. Also, some authors allow the possibility of bringing to responsibility a person, in relation to unmanned (autonomous) vehicles with the degree of autonomy class 3–4 according to the classification of

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ASE International, the person who causes the failure of the software of an unmanned (autonomous) vehicle [10]. In our opinion, it seems much relevant to consider the liability of operators of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles as a provider of automated driving services.

4 Conclusions Unmanned (autonomous) road transport is the future. This thesis is not in doubt. But in the context of the development of unmanned (autonomous) road transport in the Russian Federation seems to be the solution to the following issues. First of all, it is necessary to form a new regulatory environment that provides a favorable legal regime for the emergence and development of modern ITS technologies, in particular the introduction at the regulatory level of the following concept of “highway designed for unmanned (autonomous) transport”, containing the legal characteristics of these objects as objects of immovable property. A clear and consistent definition and use of terminology are important for the development of unmanned (autonomous) transport. Secondly, the operation of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles is possible only on adaptive highways. Taking into account that “smart” highway, in technical terms, are more complex structures, compared to highways, it is obvious that there is a need to approve a list of mandatory technologies of highway design, construction, and operation in connection with the introduction of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles. Thirdly, the operation of highly automated transport also requires the state regulatory regulation of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles. It seems necessary to create a legal act regulating the development and use of programs for unmanned (autonomous) vehicles, in terms of the normative definition of concepts: “unmanned (autonomous) vehicle”; “automated control of the vehicle”; “unmanned (autonomous) vehicle operator”, as well as the establishment of requirements for the development and use of programs for automated control of the vehicle. Fourthly, it is necessary to develop regulations for the transition of liability for damage caused by a highly automated vehicle from the driver of a highly automated vehicle to an autonomous vehicle control system (software): • in the case where the autonomous driving system has an information and warning function and the driver independently controls the driving of the vehicle, liability in the case of damage must lie entirely with the driver, provided the autonomous driving system is working properly; • in the case where the autonomous driving system is capable of influencing the steering of the vehicle but the control of the vehicle, as well as the control of the system, is exercised directly by the driver, in the case of an injury the driver may be held vicariously liable;

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• in the case of full autonomous control of the vehicle by the system, and the inability of the driver of the vehicle to prevent the accident, the responsibility for causing damage should involve the operator of the unmanned (autonomous) vehicle. This classification—depending on the degree of autonomy of the vehicle, from a legal point of view, seems meaningful. At the same time, taking into account the sufficient number of tragic cases related to the operation of unmanned (autonomous) vehicles, the introduction of fully autonomous vehicles seems difficult to implement. The recommendations formulated in the research are preliminary and require detailed elaboration to actively develop unmanned (autonomous) transport in the Russian Federation. Acknowledgements This research article was prepared as part of the IKBFU 5-100 Competitiveness Improvement Program for 2016–2020.

References 1. Tesla electric car exploded in Moscow: new details (2019). https://www.zr.ru/content/news/ 918953-voditel-vzorvavshejsya-na-mkade. Accessed 10 Sept 2020 2. A self-driving car hit a man to death for the first time (2018). https://meduza.io/feature/2018/ 03/20/samoupravlyaemyy-avtomobilvpervye-sbil-cheloveka-nasmert-skoree-vsego-mashinane-vinovata. Accessed 08 Dec 2020 3. Belitskaya AV, Belykh VS, Belyaeva OA et al (2019) Legal regulation of economic relations in modern conditions of development of the digital economy. In: Vaypan VA, Egorova MA (eds) Monograph. Justitsinform, Moscow. ISBN 978-5-7205-1508-9 4. Neznamov AV, Naumov VB (2018) Regulatory strategy of robotics and cyber-physical systems. Law 2:69–89 5. Vaypan VA (2018) Legal regulation of the digital economy. Entrepreneurial law. Law Bus Append 1:12–17 6. Directive 2010/40/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010. On the framework for the deployment of intelligent transport systems in the field of road transport and interfaces with other modes of transport text with EEA relevance (2010). https://eur-lex. europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32010L0040. Accessed 11 Jan 2021 7. New auto rules approaching in the land of Das Auto (2017). https://www.theregister.com/2017/ 08/24/driverless_cars_ethics_laws_germany/. Accessed 07 Jan 2021 8. Draft Act on highly automated vehicles (2018). http://www.uniformlaws.org/legislation/legisl ativereports. Accessed 18 Nov 2020 9. Intelligent Transport Systems (2009) The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. Postnote. https://post.parliament.uk/research-briefings/post-pn-322/. Accessed 02 Dec 2020 10. Lee C, Meng S (2020) Noncontractual liability for harm caused by unmanned vehicles. Law 3:49–56

Current State of Criminal Legislation and Law Enforcement Practice on Parole in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Lithuania Olga V. Vasilenko-Zakharova

and Anatoly V. Zubach

Abstract The paper aims to reveal the features of the current norms of criminal legislation and the law enforcement practice on parole in Russia and the Republic of Lithuania. Some scholars (P. N. Panchenko, S. I. Kurganov, V. I. Radchenko, et al.) see the essence of punishment in coercion. This is fully consistent with Article 43 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, according to which punishment is a measure of state coercion. Coercion is a necessary feature of criminal punishment since it is usually carried out against the will of the punished person, who is obliged to obey the court’s decision. Another group of authors (M. V. Yuyukina, Yu. I. Skuratov, V. M. Lebedev, I. Ya. Kozachenko, and Z. A. Neznamova) indicate the presence of state coercion but do not highlight it as essential. The author analyzes the legal nature of parole, including a comparison with the positions of law enforcement. The author substantiates the position that parole terminates the legal relationship associated with the execution of the sentence and imposes obligations of probationary nature on the convicted person. Keywords Criminal law · Conditional early release from serving a sentence · Crime · Punishment JEL Classification K14

1 Introduction Describing the features of the current norms of criminal legislation and the law enforcement practice on parole in Russia and the Republic of Lithuania, it should be noted that the current criminal legislation (both Russian and Lithuanian) enshrines a O. V. Vasilenko-Zakharova (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia A. V. Zubach Institute of Public Administration and Law, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_30

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wide range of incentive rules that can be applied to convicts during their sentences. This approach is a consequence of the liberalization of criminal policy. It limits the scope of criminal-legal influence only on the subjects with remaining public danger. Simultaneously, in both legal systems (Russian and Lithuanian), the parole institution is quite popular and reflects the humanistic principles of the criminal law protection of social relations, which do not allow the excessive use of criminal repression. Parole has a constitutional, legal, and international legal basis [5]. The author investigates the legal features of the parole institution and assesses the relevant norms of the Russian and Lithuanian legislation on this criminal law institute. Despite the assertion on the inexpediency of debating on the legal nature of parole, this analysis seems essential because the regulation of the parole institution is entirely dependent on the specifics of the criminal policy pursued by a particular country. The legal nature of parole determines its place and role in the system of criminal law and, partially, in the criminal legislation of the country. Parole is closely related to the criminal law institution of punishment. In this regard, it is necessary to define the criminal-legal essence of punishment and identify its correlation with parole. The essence of punishment as a reaction to a crime is reflected in its content (i.e., deprivation (limitation) of certain rights of the convicted person and resocialization) and goals, especially in the correction of the convicted person. The legislation does not intend to cause suffering when implementing punishment, but it is inevitable since the punishment implies separation from the family and community, deprivation of freedom, and a sense of shame. However, there is no punitive element in parole. In this case, the obligations imposed on the convicted person are used to ensure control over his or her behavior. Failure to fulfill these obligations does not lead to the imposing of a new punishment but serves as the basis for cancellation of parole and returning to the criminal executive relations connected with serving a sentence. The essence of parole lies in the termination of the execution of the punishment. However, if the behavior of the convicted person does not indicate a positive change, the convicted person will be returned to the correctional institution. Despite the essential differences between punishment and parole, no unified scientific position on this issue has been reached. According to the author, deprivation of freedom cannot last long if a person is exempt from serving his or her sentence (albeit conditionally) and is actually at liberty. In essence, there are no corrective measures at the very moment of early conditional release, and the duties imposed on the convicted person are not punitive in nature. Legal doctrine has developed several classifications of exemption from punishment. Thus, in terms of legal features, release from punishment is divided into release after serving a sentence (criminal-executive), parole (criminal-legal), and release on procedural grounds (criminal-procedural) [6, 8, 10]. In this case, parole is placed in the system of criminal law grounds, which seems somewhat limited. The legal regulation of parole application is reflected in the three above-mentioned branches

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of law (Art. 79 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 175 of the Penitentiary Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 399 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 77 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Lithuania (terminated its force in 2012), Art. 157 of the Penitentiary Code of the Republic of Lithuania, and Art. 360 Criminal Procedure Code of the Republic of Lithuania), which provides a comprehensive assessment of the appropriateness of the relevant act releasing the convicted person from further serving his or her sentence. Another classification is based on criteria such as conditionality or unconditionality of the release from punishment. In particular, grounds reflecting the physical or legal impossibility of further execution of punishment (mental disorder or other serious illness, expiration of the statute of limitations) are considered unconditional, while all other grounds are considered conditional [7]. The deprivation or restriction of certain rights and freedoms of the convicted person is a necessary element of punishment, lasting until the goals of punishment are achieved. In Russia, criminal law allows for a waiver of such influence on the convicted person if their further correction is possible under conditions of supervision (control), and behavior when serving a sentence indicates positive post-criminal changes. In Lithuanian law, the punishment is intended not to correct but to change the behavior of the convicts and provide their resocialization, which prevents them from committing a new crime. On this basis, it does not seem entirely fair to say that parole has the features of punishment since it can limit all aspects of the legal status of the convicted person without acting as a punishment [4]. Parole is effective as long as the convicted person properly performs the imposed duties and refrains from socially dangerous behavior. The status of the convicted person is limited insofar since it is permitted by law in connection with the presence of a criminal record.

2 Materials and Methods The law-enforcement agencies also demonstrate our position. The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation emphasized that imprisonment implies the compulsory presence of a convicted person in a correctional institution. Studying the practice of the application of parole, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation identified the way the courts determine whether a convicted person needs further serving a sentence (i.e., whether to continue the criminal-executive legal relations or not). In its ruling of April 15, 2014, the Supreme Court of the Republic of Lithuania stressed that this is not a level of continued punishment. The judicial act of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Lithuania of January 19, 2007, indicates that parole cannot be called a criminal sentence [11]. Thus, the courts do not consider that parole is related to serving a sentence. The recognition of parole as a type of punishment is not based on the rule of law (e.g., neither Article 44 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation nor Articles 42–43 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Latvia refers parole to the system of punishment). Certain obligations imposed on the convicted person in connection

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with parole are, on the one hand, the assistance in resocialization and, on the other hand, a way of timely response to possible illegal actions committed after release. If we turn to the norms of sectoral legislation and law enforcement practice, we can see that parole lies outside the framework of legal relations arising during the execution of punishment. Thus, chapter 21 of the Penal Code of the Russian Federation is called “Release from serving the sentence,” and one of its articles is devoted to the termination of serving a sentence and the procedure for release (Article 173). Thus, persons released from punishment stop serving it. Russia has adopted the Federal Law “On administrative supervision of persons released from detention facilities.” The law applies to those serving sentences for grave or especially grave crimes. Legal relations arising during the implementation of administrative supervision have neither criminal-legal nor criminal-executive nature (i.e., they do not characterize parole as a type of punishment in any way). According to the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation [9], parole can be applied to those in need of a change of punishment. The Supreme Court of the Republic of Lithuania is of the same opinion. To emphasize the difference between the legal categories of punishment and parole, as well as their different legal nature, it is necessary to refer to the legal positions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (the constitutional control body of the Republic of Lithuania has not studied this issue). Thus, in Ruling No. 5-P of March 18, 2014, the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation stated that parole is the state’s refusal to fully implement a court-ordered punishment, if its further execution ceases to meet the goals of punishment [2]. In Ruling No. 19-P of December 8, 2009, the constitutional control body emphasized that people released on parole retain the status of convicts, and they must prove their correction, which is a condition for the release [1]. Ruling No. 12-P of April 19, 2016, states that parole is not equivalent to the period of incarceration since the subject is not being in a correctional institution [3].

3 Results The analysis of the above-mentioned legal positions allows us to conclude that parole terminates legal relations connected with how the punishment is executed. It also implies the imposition of probationary obligations on the convict. Thus, part 2 of Article 79 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation states that the person on parole shall be subject to the duties listed in part 5 of Article 73 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, which is executed by conditionally convicted persons. In legal science, they are categorized as a criminal-legal test. For comparison, the imposition of specific duties is an element of the restriction of freedom (Article 53 of the Criminal Code). However, their structure is significantly different from the list specified in part 5 of Article 73 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, and they have not only a probationary but also a preventive nature.

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4 Conclusion It is possible to conclude that the exemption from punishment characterizes legal relations arising outside the execution of punishment. Therefore, despite the imposition on the condemned of duties, the fulfillment of which serves as an indicator of the achievement of the goals of punishment, parole cannot be attributed to types of criminal punishment. Thus, parole is a structural element of the sub-institution of release from punishment. In this connection, when considering the place and role of parole in the Russian and Lithuanian criminal legislation, it seems logical to proceed from the general doctrinal provisions relating to the institution of release from punishment. Based on the above classifications of parole, the author can conclude that the current legislation establishes a list of early, conditional, and optional types of release from punishment, including parole. This means the termination of serving a sentence and the return of the convicted person to the social environment with the obligation to lead a law-abiding life and obey the established rules of supervision (control) over his or her behavior. According to part 1 of Article 79 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation and Article 157 of the Penal Enforcement Code of the Russian Federation, it is possible to apply conditional early release from punishment if the court recognizes that the convicted person has served the part of the sentence and does not need to continue serving it, since he or she does not represent a public danger. Thus, conditional release from punishment should be considered one of the means to stimulate the formation of a law-abiding attitude of convicts.

References 1. Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (2009) Decision “On the case of verification of the constitutionality of subsection 4 of article 15 of the Federal Law ‘On exit from and entry to the Russian Federation’ in connection with complaints of citizens V. F. Aldoshina and T. S.-M. Idalov”, 8 Dec 2009, no. 19-P, St. Petersburg, Russia 2. Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (2014) Decision “On the case of checking the constitutionality of Part 2.1 of Article 399 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation in connection with the request of the Ketovsky District Court of the Kurgan region”, 18 Mar 2014, no. 5-P, St. Petersburg, Russia 3. Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (2016) Decision “On the case of resolving the issue of the possibility of execution in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation of the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights of July 4, 2013 in the case of Anchugov and Gladkov vs. Russia in connection with the request of the Ministry of Justice of the Russian Federation”, 9 Apr 2016, no. 12-P, St. Petersburg, Russia 4. Gorbach DV (2012) Conditional release from serving a sentence of life imprisonment. Dissertation of Candidate of Laws, Ryazan, Russia 5. Makarova OV (2014) Release on parole from serving sentence and its application. J Russ Law 10:72–78 6. Malikov SV (2015) Terms of trial in the criminal law of Russia. In: Chuchaev AI (ed). Prospekt, Moscow, Russia

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7. Maltsev VV (2003) Problems of exemption from punishment and criminal liability in criminal law. Voronezh Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Volgograd, Russia 8. Nechepurenko AA (2009) Trial in the criminal law of the Russian Federation. Dissertation of Doctor of Laws, Omsk, Russia 9. Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (2009) Ruling “On Judicial Practice of Conditional Release from Serving the Punishment, Replacement of the Unpaid Part of the Punishment with a Milder Type of Punishment”, 21 Apr 2009, no. 8, as of 11 Nov 2015, St. Petersburg, Russia 10. Sheveleva SV (2012) Punishment: concept, purposes, ground of liberation. Southwest State University, Kursk, Russia 11. Supreme Court of Lithuania (n.d.) Official website. Retrieved from www.lat.lt

Jurisdiction in Cyberspace: American Law Versus International Law. Competition or Collaboration? Sergey N. Vinokurov

Abstract The Internet and cyberspace have long been a part of our lives. Internet technologies have created an opportunity for the exchange of information and the development of cross-border trade. Many IT companies and even small entrepreneurs have become subjects of international relations, carrying out their activities in various jurisdictions in conditions when they do not need to open a representative office in each country of their presence. In this regard, many questions have arisen regarding the definition of their jurisdiction, which has led to competition between different legal regimes (Illegal and Harmful Content on the Internet: Communication from the European Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions (visited Oct. 23, 1997); Cf. Global Information Networks, Ministerial Conference Bonn 6–8 July 1997, 22 (visited Oct. 23, 1997).). At the same time, because Internet technologies began to spread primarily in the United States, it is the American legal system that has become a kind of “trendsetter” in resolving jurisdiction disputes. However, such a state of affairs could not but cause a lot of controversy and suggestions that the prevalence of a national legal system on the Internet can have a negative impact on the development of information law. The determination of the international status of cyberspace and the regulation of issues of determining jurisdiction require the existence of compromise solutions within the framework of international law, taking into account the accumulated experience of national legal systems. Keywords Cyberspace · American law · International law · Personal jurisdiction · Lex mercatoria · Internet JEL Codes K10 · K15 · K24 · K33

S. N. Vinokurov (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_31

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1 Introduction The problem of the jurisdictions in cyberspace is one of the most acute in the modern world of legal science. The advent of the Internet has allowed humanity to return to the era of quasi-discoveries of new territories in which “wild mores” sometimes reign. However, as in the past centuries, the newly arrived “conquerors” establish their legal norms on the Internet. It just so happened that the world community at the initial stage could not fully understand the need to establish an international legal order in cyberspace through the development and adoption of international conventions that would take into account the specifics of Internet activities. If in matters of cybersecurity there are already any aspirations to create some kind of unification, then in matters of regulating trade and other private-legal relations, the rules that were created in the era before the Internet are largely applied. It is worth noting here that the need for the legal regulation of Internet activities was manifested primarily in countries with the system of American law, and this legal system has proved to be prevailing in cyberspace today. This state of affairs could not but cause the problem of a conflict of jurisdictions [1].

2 Methods The usage of the comparative legal method in the study of scientific data makes it possible to compare the hypothesis about the completeness of legal regulation in cyberspace by American law with the role of international law in the conflict of jurisdictions. Thus, this is allowing to identify the interrelationships and differences in approaches to solving this cross-border collision, as well as to recognize potential differences in the interpretation of this allegedly universal legal issue.

3 Results Speaking of American law, it is known that when considering issues of regulating legal relations, the principle of personal jurisdiction (in personam) is applied, which implies the presence of a resident in the United States and at the same time allows to use the long-arm statutes rule to a non-resident [2]. In parallel, in American law, there is the concept of “special jurisdiction”, which allows the American court to identify an additional connection between the parties to the private legal relationships, thereby giving the court the right to consider the dispute between them without taking into account their jurisdiction [3].

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Because the institution of personal jurisdiction arose in an era that existed even before the Internet, American courts began to apply it differently to the problem of the conflict of jurisdictions in cyberspace. For example, in the CompuServe lawsuit against a resident of Texas, the Ohio court considered that the claim was subject to trial in the court of the specified state since the defendant’s activities were carried out through a modem located in the state of Ohio [4]. At the same time, the Court of the Sixth Circuit considered this approach correct. However, this contradicted the decision of the US Supreme Court in the Asahi case, which states that the simple predictability, without “additional conduct”, that the flow of trade might move production into the forum, was not enough to assign jurisdiction over the defendant [5]. This approach has been reflected in several decisions. For example, in a dispute between Pres-Kap Inc. v System One Direct Access Inc., the court held that the principle of personal jurisdiction could not be applied solely based on the location of the defendant’s computer [6]. However, it is worth mentioning here that according to the decision in the Asahi case, the defendant may intentionally indicate in which jurisdiction he/she is operating, thereby changing his/her jurisdiction [5]. As a result, IT giants and social networks began to abuse this fact, imposing a convenient jurisdiction on their clients in the conditions of inequality of bargaining power. They create conditions under which the claimant does not have the opportunity to apply to the specified court due to its remoteness. Therefore, the prevailing view in legal doctrine is that cyberspace is a place where the usual principles of determining jurisdiction, including the rule of personal jurisdiction, cannot be used without their proper adaptation at the international level [7]. In connection with the above-mentioned issues concerning the difficulties in determining jurisdiction, some legal scholars suggest that cyberspace should be considered as one of the international territories, on a par with outer space, the high seas, or Antarctica [8]. As is well known, international law considers six bases of jurisdiction, such as objective territoriality, subjective territoriality, protective principle, nationality, passive nationality, universality [8]. It is generally understood that the exercise of jurisdiction must be reasonable [9]. Guided by these principles, it is proposed to establish the “citizenship” of the website based on the citizenship of its owner, without taking into account the jurisdiction of the persons who download or upload information using this website [8]. However, such a method of solving the problem of conflict of jurisdictions is questionable since the website may belong to a legal entity that can operate within different jurisdictions. This approach takes us back to the Middle Ages when cross-border trade to eliminate the problems of conflict of jurisdictions required extensive negotiations between the parties to the transaction [10].

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In 2021, the issue of the predominance of American law on the Internet and the issue of competition of jurisdictions in cyberspace were further developed after the blocking of the accounts of US President Donald Trump by social networks. It is known that the IT giants, which traditionally include Google, Facebook, Twitter, Amazon, YouTube, and so on, use their capabilities to determine their jurisdiction in the most convenient way for them. They resort to the method of increasing the maximum distance between them and the clients and at the same time rely primarily on the use of US law. Another negative aspect of the competition of jurisdictions between American law and International law, in the field of regulating activities in cyberspace, is the fact that American law, based on Title V of Telecommunications Act of 1996, provides IT giants with extremely broad immunity from prosecution [11]. The immunity clause was clarified in Zeran v America Online Inc., in which the court stated that the provisions of section 230 “create federal immunity to any claim that would hold service providers liable for information obtained from a third-party user of the service” [12, 13]. Speaking about the historical example of solving the problem of the predominance of any one legal system in the regulation of international activities and competition of jurisdictions, it is worth recalling, for example, Lex Mercatoria [14]. The creation of such an analogue in the field of cyberspace regulation is presumably long overdue. However, the approach to creating single international legislation to regulate cyberspace will certainly face the problem of protecting and preserving the sovereignty of countries [15]. Therefore, presumably a more effective way to regulate cyberspace would be to unify conflict-of-laws rules [12]. Another way to resolve the issue of competition of jurisdictions in cyberspace is to propose to determine the jurisdiction taking into account the territory in which the act is carried out and the places where significant consequences of these acts have occurred [16]. Thus, there is a return to some semblance of territorial jurisdiction. Accordingly, this conflict of jurisdiction resolution creates some specific difficulties, such as a large number of claims from states in whose territory the effect of the defendant’s actions in cyberspace was revealed [17]. At the same time, some legal researchers argue that cyberspace cannot be compared with all the territories known in the modern world, since it is not tied to any geographical location [14]. This property supposedly makes cyberspace quasi-free from issues of competition of jurisdictions, where certain quasi-political organizations create their legal regime, the limits of which are limited only by the Internet [18]. The predominance of American law in cyberspace, in this case, is due only to the freedom of choice of this legal regime by the participants of these communities and is characterized by “legal pluralism” . However, such an approach does not solve the problem of the conflict of legal regimes paradigm, since these communities and individuals quite often commit legal acts that fall under the regulation of the laws of different countries [17].

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An additional problem of regulating cyberspace is that the “subject” of regulation is information that does not have a physical location in the real world, which in itself complicates the issue of determining jurisdiction many times [19]. Against this background, for example, the US court, in the case, of American Library Association v Pataki ignored all the rules for determining jurisdiction, establishing the extraterritorial principle of liability for the dissemination of information [20]. Noteworthy, in this case, is the definition of the Internet as “analogous to a highway or railroad” crossing the borders of different states [20]. However, the approach of American courts to determining jurisdiction in cyberspace is not always so unambiguous, and they sometimes deny the right to appeal to an American court based on the norms of the international “reasonableness” standard [21]. But several problems have a significant impact on international law, limiting its influence on the regulation of activities in cyberspace, such as the fragmentation of international law, the increasing role of non-state actors in law-making, the increasing influence of soft law, disagreements for the adoption of the international treaty of cyber operations [22]. The breakdown of the unity of international law can be expressed in various types of such fragmentation. For example, it can be functional when there is a diversification of legal norms and the development of various international legal regimes [23]. Another form of fragmentation occurs for geographical reasons, due to the lack of uniform application and interpretation of international norms in different countries [24]. Speaking of non-governmental participants in the legislative process, it is worth mentioning that the emergence of these participants was facilitated not only by the development of modern technologies but also by the activities of the states themselves [25]. It is precisely because of such non-governmental legislative activity that such organizations as the Global Commission on the Stability of Cyberspace (GCSC), multinational corporations such as Microsoft or Google began to participate in the formation of legal norms in the field of regulating activity in cyberspace [5, 22]. However, it is worth noting that the activities of these organizations at this stage did not entail the adoption of strict legal norms, and their proposals and initiatives still belong to the sphere of soft law [22, 26]. As a result, since a fairly large number of Internet giants arose primarily in the United States, as well as the fact that for quite a long time this country acted as a monopoly on the development of cyberspace, the predominance of American law became natural in this area. At the same time, given the rather high flexibility of American case law and the ability to quickly adapt to new circumstances, its development to the regulation of activities in cyberspace has had a positive effect. Following the established practice in American courts, the personal jurisdiction of the subject of law should be determined following the standard of not only “reasonableness” perceived by international law, but also considerations of fair play and substantial justice [5, 27].

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Therefore, only an indirect attitude to the American legal system, for example, when concluding a contract or causing harm, will not be sufficient to resolve the issue of determining personal jurisdiction in favour of an American court, since such relations must be purposeful [12, 26]. Also, when entering into a contract, the issue of jurisdiction in cyberspace should take into account that transactions related to a particular legal system must be repetitive [27, 28]. For comparison, it is worth mentioning that the issues of determining jurisdiction in European legal systems have less procedural flexibility and are largely based on the American concept of minimum contacts [12]. Thus, the claim is filed at the location of the defendant, taking into account their intended participation in the transaction related to the relevant legal system, regardless of the location of the website or electronic device [28]. However, the concept of minimal contact can be applied to a simple publication of information, since such a publication can be relevant to many jurisdictions at once, provided that such a publication has nevertheless received significant distribution and/or it has caused significant damage to this jurisdiction [19, 29]. In turn, the methods of determining personal jurisdiction adopted in American law and international law and based on the concept of small contacts or the standard of reasonableness do not apply to defamation claims that use the “where the sting was felt” rule, which allows the claimant to go to court at their location [30]. At the same time, the absolute predominance of the regulatory role of any national law, including American law, in cyberspace hinders the fact that so far the enforcement of a foreign court’s decision is limited. For example, the United States has faced difficulties in signing such international agreements, even with its allies and partners [31].

4 Conclusion For many legal scholars, the Internet looks like a separate territory in which it is necessary to establish a strictly defined jurisdiction. But it seems doubtful that this task is feasible in our days. In this regard, it can be assumed that such a non-trivial task will require the search for new legal rules for determining jurisdiction, which are currently absent. However, international law has many traditional methods that allow at least partially to resolve issues of determining jurisdiction, since it is unlikely that states will allow cyberspace to remain independent [32]. At the same time, appeal to American law also helps to settle many issues of competition between jurisdictions. American courts currently use a variety of flexible approaches, avoiding a simple decision on the connection of an individual with American jurisdiction only based on the fact of using an Internet site in the United States [33]. Besides, the laws of different states may differ significantly from each other, while the use of the Internet occurs on a global scale, which means that uncertainty

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in matters of jurisdiction can have negative consequences [34]. On the other hand, the excessive imposition of jurisdiction provokes disunity in international cooperation, causing various diplomatic protests [35]. As known, international law is characterized by a significant number of abstract concepts, the development of which is determined primarily in the course of judicial practice. The typical problems of regulating activities in cyberspace, such as the lack of territorial binding, have not yet been properly developed [36]. Against this background, various international organizations, such as the Association of South-East Asian Nations or the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the European Commission, as well as individual countries offer various initiatives for international cooperation aimed at adopting various international treaties regulating cyberspace [37]. But all these initiatives have not yet been successful. It is worth noting that the United States does not show interest in the initiative to create an international regime for regulating cyberspace, preferring to conduct an informal dialogue with its allies and partners to resolve some issues, including the problems of determining jurisdictions [38]. The United States explains its approach with the fear that due to the lack of a uniform approach in international law, as a result, various national regimes will be established in cyberspace, which will act as disguised barriers to international trade [39]. However, some legal scholars argue that before attempting to resolve the problem of jurisdictions in cyberspace, it is necessary to first determine the uniform international status of this space, which will certainly allow us to resolve some issues at this stage [8]. To some extent, such recognition would make it possible in the course of judicial practice, including in American case law, to rely on a uniform international legal approach in determining jurisdiction, which is based on the consideration of nationality. The lack of such a status in cyberspace has already repeatedly been the cause of diplomatic scandals when American judges did not take into account the fact that Internet activity was carried out on the territory of a foreign state and to carry out this activity exclusively within this foreign state [40]. The problem of unlimited access to information or the possibility of making transactions on the Internet without taking into account borders should not automatically lead to the determination of jurisdiction in favour of any national law [41]. Nevertheless, despite the rather impressive experience of American courts in regulating the activities of cyberspace, the desire to implement the idea of extraterritorial domicile by establishing the “United States District Court for the District of Cyberspace” is hardly worth considering as a solution to the problem of competition of jurisdictions [42]. The most promising solution to the problem of competition of jurisdictions in cyberspace is still seen through the creation of an analog of Lex mercatoria. As discussed above, this form of law appeared as a natural reaction of entrepreneurs to the development of international trade in the Middle Ages, when there were similar problems [42]. This form of law primarily takes into account the interests of businesses

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and individuals in the first place and therefore is quite flexible in determining jurisdiction by allowing the participants in legal relations in many cases to independently decide which legal system they should apply to for the resolution of disputes. An additional advantage of Lex mercatoria is that the main source of this form of law is legal customs, which makes it similar to International Maritime Law, which is applied just on the high seas, with which cyberspace is sometimes compared, and therefore this form of laws go beyond exclusively national concepts [43]. Also, the creation of such a set of principles for cyberspace will allow involving many communities in this process, whose interests will be taken into account. In this regard, it becomes possible to find a compromise between the norms of international law and the experience gained in the course of case practice established in American law. Accordingly, it becomes clear that the existence of cyberspace does not change the content of the legal doctrine regarding the issues of determining jurisdiction [42]. The influence of American law in this case cannot reduce the role of international law or completely replace it in the issue of regulating activities on the Internet. Although it is worth recognizing that the international legal doctrine lags far behind in its development in comparison with the law enforcement practice of the United States. Acknowledgements This work has been financially supported by the Grant of the President of the Russian Federation No. NSH-2668-2020.6 “National-Cultural and Digital Trends in the SocioEconomic, Political and Legal Development of the Russian Federation in the 21st Century”.

References 1. Perritt HH Jr (1998) Will the judgment-proof own cyberspace. Int Law 32:1121 2. Allstate Ins. Co. v Hague, 449 U.S. 302, 307 (1981); Shaffer v Heitner, 433 U.S. 186, 215 (1977) 3. Von Mehren A, Trautman D (1966) Jurisdiction to adjudicate: a suggested analysis. Harvard Law Rev 79:1121, 1136–1163 4. CompuServe, Inc. v Patterson, No. C2-94-91, slip op. at 3-4 (S. D. Ohio 23 Mar 1995), rev’d, 89 F.3d 1257 (6th Cir. 1996) 5. Asahi Metal Industry Co. v Superior Court of California, 480 U.S. 102 (1987) 6. Pres-Kap Inc. v System One Direct Access Inc., 636 So. 2d 1351 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1994) 7. Flower SM (1997) When does internet activity establish the minimum contact necessary to confer personal jurisdiction? Missouri Law Rev 62:845, 851 8. Menthe DC (1998) Jurisdiction in cyberspace: a theory of international spaces. Michigan Telecommun Technol Law Rev 4(1):70, 74, 101–102 9. Restatement (third) of foreign relations law of the United States, § 403 (1987) 10. Hardy T (1994) The proper legal regime for “Cyberspace”. Univ Pittsburgh Law Rev 55:993, 1021 11. Cosponsors - S.314 - 104th Congress (1995–1996): Communications Decency Act of 1995. www.congress.gov 12. Juenger F (1984) Judicial jurisdiction in the United States and in the European communities: a comparison. Michigan Law Rev 82:1195 13. Zeran v. America Online, Inc., 129 F.3d 327 (4th Cir. 1997), cert. denied, 524 U.S. 937 (1998)

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14. Johnson D, Post D (1997) Law and borders—the rise of law in cyberspace. Stanford Law Rev 48:1367, 1389 15. Blum J (1994) The deep freeze: torts, choice of law, and the Antarctic treaty regime. Emory Int Lit Rev 8:667, 695–696 16. International Shoe Co. v Washington, 326 U.S. 310 (1945) 17. Stein AR (1998) The unexceptional problem of jurisdiction in cyberspace. Int Law 32:1167, 1171–1173 18. Perry D (1991) Maps of sovereignty: a meditation. Cardozo Law Rev 12:959, 992–998 19. Calder v Jones, 465 U.S. 783 (1984) 20. American Library Association v Pataki, 969 F. Supp. 160 (S.D.N.Y. 1997) 21. Smith v Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., 968 F. Supp. 1358 (W.D. Ark. 1997); McDonough v Fallon McElligot, Inc., 40 U.S.P.Q.2d (BNA) 1826 (S.D. Cla. 1996); Hearst Corp. v Goldberger, No. 96 Civ. 3620 (PKL) (AJP), 1997 WL 97097 (S.D.N.Y. 26 Feb 1997) 22. Delerue F (2020) Does international law matter in cyberspace? In: Cyber operations and international law, Cambridge studies in international and comparative law. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–50 23. (2006) Report of the study group on the ‘Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law’. International Law Commission, report on the work of the fifty-eighth session, chapter XII, pp 176–184 24. Pauwelyn J, Fragmentation of international law. Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (MPEPIL), pp 1–5 25. The legality of the use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict (Advisory Opinion) (1996) ICJ Reports 66, 74–75, pp 18–19 26. World-Wide Volkswagen Corp. v Woodson, 444 U.S. pp 295–296 27. Burger King Corp. v. Rudzewicz, 471 U.S. at 479–480 28. Anton AE, Beaumont PR (1995) Anton & Beaumont’s civil jurisdiction in Scotland, 5, pp 90–124 29. Keeton v. Hustler Magazine, Inc., 465 U.S. 770, 781 (1984) 30. Buckley v McGraw-Hill, Inc., 782 F. Supp. 1042, 1047 (W.D. Pa. 1991); Washington Nat’l Ins. Co. v Administrators, 2 F.3d 192, 195–196 31. Juenger F (1993) American jurisdiction: a story of comparative neglect. Univ Colorado Law Rev 65:1, 21–22 32. Barlow JP (1996) A declaration of the independence of cyberspace 33. Cendali DM, Arbogast JD (1996) Net use raises issues of jurisdiction. Natl Law J C7 34. Raysman R, Brown P (1995) Computer law: on-line legal issues. New York Law J 3 35. Born GB (1987) Reflections on judicial jurisdiction in international cases. Georgia J Int Comp Law 17:1, 29 36. Edzard S-J (1996, Nov) German minister of justice. In: Der NationaIstaat ist Oberholt [The national state is antiquated], Der Spiegel 37. Illegal and harmful content on the internet: communication from the European Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee of the Regions (visited 23 Oct 1997); Cf. Global Information Networks, Ministerial Conference Bonn 6–8 July 1997, 22 (visited 23 Oct 1997) 38. Clinton WJ, Gore A Jr (2019) A framework for global electronic commerce (visited 23 Oct 1997). CCDCOE, Trends in international law for cyberspace 39. Bryant H (1996) CompuServe stirs debate of censorship. San Jose Mercury News 40. United States v. Alvarez-Machain, 504 U.S. 655 (1992) 41. Commonwealth v. Woodward, 1997 WL 694119 (Mass. Super. 10 Nov 1997) 42. Perritt HH Jr (1996) Jurisdiction in cyberspace. Village Law Rev 41(1):100, 104, 113–112 43. Alaska Textile Co. v Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A., 982 F.2d 813 (2d Cir. 1992); Pribus v Bush, 173 Cal. Rptr. 747, 749 & n.5 (Cal. Ct. App. 1981); Mirabile v Udoh, 399 N.Y.S.2d 869, 870–871 (Civ. Ct. 1977)

Formation of New Legal Approaches to Regulate the Marriage and Family Relations in the PRC Natalia V. Ivanovskaya

and Yanan Li

Abstract The family in China is an important unit of society, marriage, and family relations are the most basic social relations. The historical evolution of marriage and family law in the PRC is also, to a certain extent, a microcosm of modern Chinese social changes. Legal approaches to the regulation of marriage and family relations in modern Chinese society should be formed taking into account new technologies due to the achievements of the digital industry. The active introduction of digital technologies into the daily life of people requires changes and the development of legal instruments for regulating public relations, including marriage and family. An attempt at a detailed analysis of marriage and family law in the PRC in the light of the reforms of various years will help not only to understand the laws and regulations of the party and government in the field of marriage and family but also to understand the historical trajectory of the development of marriage law after the founding of the new China. Based on the relevant research, this article analyzes the features of the formation of the understanding of marriage and family in Ancient China and the main legislative changes in the norms on marriage and family since the founding of new China. Materials and methods: the article is based on a comprehensive approach to the problems of research since it covers a wide range of issues underlying the identification of the dynamics and prospects for the development of Chinese legislation on marriage and family in different periods of historical development. To identify the features of the development of Chinese legislation on marriage and family, we use the methods of system analysis and synthesis, as well as the method of formal-logical method and theoretical generalization, functional-structural method, the method of quantitative and qualitative analysis. Modern legal researchers note that such an approach will make it possible to consider family legislation from the standpoint of its improvement, which is necessary for the context of globalization (Artemeva et al. in J Adv Res Law Econ 9:859–869, 2018; Ermakova et al. in Int J Eng Technol (UAE) 7:157–162, 2018) [1, 2]. In the process of research, logical and N. V. Ivanovskaya (B) · Y. Li Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia Y. Li e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_32

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historical methods of research are also used, as well as special legal methods: the formal legal and dogmatic method used to understand the external and internal forms of legal phenomena. The combination of the described methods allows the author to achieve the validity of the obtained scientific conclusions. Results of the study: the features of reforming the legislation on marriage and family in the People’s Republic of China at various stages of historical development are revealed. The modern legal norms on marriage and family in the PRC were analyzed and further prospects for the development of Chinese marriage and family legislation were assessed, taking into account the requirements of modern technological society, and the historical driving forces behind the legal changes were identified. The article also defines the historical process of the formulation and revision of the legislation on marriage and family and the context of its development, thus tracing the social changes of the formation of the new China for more than 60 years. The author determines the prospects for creating new legal approaches to understanding the institutions of family and marriage in the PRC. The author determines the prospects for creating new legal approaches to understanding the institutions of family and marriage in the PRC. Conclusions: Based on the conducted research, it is concluded that the legislation on marriage and family in the People’s Republic of China has the following characteristics: first, it applies to all citizens, which is what the legislators and rulers of the state pay attention to throughout all dynasties. Secondly, the legal content of marriage and family norms is not only mandatory but also ethical, emphasizing traditional virtues and strengthening family ethics. Third, legal, and cultural traditions in the field of marriage and family have a long history and heritage, and are a consequence of the traditional laws of the Chinese legal system, and not the need to implement laws that are not peculiar to the legal system, aimed at further protecting the rights of citizens to marriage and family. In the context of constant changes in socio-economic and domestic conditions, the provisions of the legislation on marriage and family are constantly reviewed and changed. As for the history of socialist marriage and family legislation of the People’s Republic of China, it can be divided into two periods of historical development: the period of the new democratic revolution and the period of the socialist revolution and modernization. The first is the embryonic form or the necessary stage of preparation of the second, and the last is the stage of inheritance and continuous improvement of the first in accordance with the needs of social development. Keywords Legislation on marriage and family · Development of legislation · Social and ethical norms · Marriage and family relations · Marriage · Divorce JEL Codes J12 · J13 · K36 · K38

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1 Introduction Until January 1, 2021, the Law of the people’s Republic of China on marriage, adopted 10.09.1980 year (hereinafter—the Law of the PRC from the marriage). Law of the People’s Republic of China on marriage [3] was the main criterion of the definition of marriage and family relations—important law aimed at legal regulation of relations within families and between families, between men, women, young people, and elderly people and to ensure the harmony of married life and progress of Chinese marriage and family relations in the social civilization. From 1 January 2021, the PRC Law on marriage has lost its force, and all the rules on marriage and family relations are now enshrined in the provisions of the new Civil code of the people’s Republic of China (hereinafter—the Civil code of the PRC) [4]. However, the change in the legislative approach to the procedure for establishing marriage and family norms has not changed the state’s approach to marriage and family relations, which is based on the system of norms on marriage and family. One of the important signs of the transition of human society from barbarism to civilization is the creation of systems and norms for marriage and the family. According to historical data, in ancient times, men and women were indistinguishable from each other. Taihao (Fu Xi) (the legendary first emperor of China (Celestial Empire), a deity with the body of a snake or the moon (Chinese dragon), but with a human head—the lord of the East), began to make marriages between people, using the skin of his wife for the ritual. According to the Fu Xi Book of Rites: “those who are married will have two surnames together: the ancestors and temples at the top, and the next generations at the bottom, so the man is the most important” [5–7]. Due to the constant changes in the social economy and living conditions, the norms of Chinese marriage law have also been constantly revised and changed in accordance with the needs of social development. However, in order to deeply understand the current marriage and family legislation and the spiritual essence of the People’s Republic of China, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the features of the reform of marriage and family legislation in various historical periods, paying special attention to the development of marriage and family legislation during the New Democratic Revolution and changes in marriage and family legislation after the founding of New China.

2 Materials and Methods The article is based on a comprehensive approach to the problems of research since it covers a wide range of issues that underlie the identification of the dynamics and prospects for the development of Chinese legislation on marriage and family in different periods of historical development. To identify the features of the development of Chinese legislation on marriage and family, we used the methods of system analysis and synthesis, as well as the method of formal-logical method and theoretical

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generalization, functional-structural method, the method of quantitative and qualitative analysis. In the process of research, logical and historical methods of research are also used, as well as special legal methods: the formal legal and dogmatic method used to understand the external and internal forms of legal phenomena. The combination of the described methods allowed the author to achieve the validity of the obtained scientific conclusions.

3 Results Marriage and family in China since the time of Ancient China has always been not only a matter of only two people—a man and a woman but also a matter of two families, so traditional family values remain the most important components of human life for the Chinese today. As for the reform of the law on marriage and family in the PRC through the prism of history, the most important fact here is the fact that the content of the norms on marriage and family in a particular period of historical development corresponded to the level and characteristics of the life of Chinese society. In ancient Chinese history, each dynasty and each generation had feudal rituals and rules that established the characteristics of the relationship between husband and wife, but the ancient marriage system in the PRC was not perfect. In the specialized literature devoted to marriage and family issues in the People’s Republic of China from the time of Ancient China to the present day, it is customary to focus on the rigid patriarchal system of Chinese society and the restriction of women’s rights in Chinese families [6, 8–16]. However, such unambiguous judgments are erroneous, since during the Zhou Dynasty, the husband and wife had equal rights in certain matters, and it was impossible to terminate a marriage just based on the husband’s desire alone. Even though in Ancient China there was no independent written law on marriage, all Chinese societies followed the general rules of marriage and divorce, fixed by each dynasty. It should also be noted that in the feudal Chinese society of that time, to a large extent, the protection of women’s rights was very humanized. It should be noted that by the time the Tang and Song dynasties came to power in the Chinese legal consciousness, the power of the husband in the family was constantly strengthened, which was reflected in individual acts, and subsequently, the woman in Ancient China was completely reduced to the state of the property, she was not only considered as a commodity for which her parents sell but also property that a man is going to buy. At the same time, polygamy was allowed. Nevertheless, marriage in ancient China has not yet risen to the height of the law. This is because in ancient times there was only criminal law, there was no civil law as such [14, 17]. Civil law, on the other hand, was mainly enforced by the law of etiquette. The humiliating status of women and polygamy in the PRC was allowed until the end of the Qing Dynasty (from 1644 to 1912). However, during the Qing Dynasty, the situation of concubines improved—marriage with a concubine was allowed in

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the event of the death of the first wife, if no sons were born in the family and if the concubine was the mother of the only surviving son [5, 6, 18–20]. The modern understanding of the Chinese in marriage and family was formed at the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the formation of the PRC. At this time, Chinese traditional feudal marriage began to change. In this historical period, the most typical event was often the dissolution of a marriage, and people began to pay attention to the marriage rules. In 1916, the Committee for the Revision of Laws under the Ministry of Justice prepared a draft of the Civil Code. About the marriage system, the third chapter of the draft Civil Code contained detailed provisions that undoubtedly played a role in helping to change marriage customs. In particular, it should be noted, norms focused on the execution of the marriage contract, similar in its effect to the modern marriage certificate, and this event (the creation of the Civil Code) in marriage and family relations of China can be called the epitome of civilization and modernization of married life. Contractual and legally based marriage, although it was a very individual phenomenon at that time since many citizens of the country still paid tribute to traditions and customs, but already significantly changed the situation of the inferiority of women in relation to men, formed over hundreds of years. Thus, we can say that started at the beginning of the last century in China, the policy of legislative consolidation of the marriage was the beginning of a journey of civilizational marriage in the history of marriage and family legislation PRC—right out of the middle ages and entered the new time legal civilization. The historical evolution of the law on marriage and family in China is evident not only in the revision and improvement of the text but in a deeper understanding of the use of state-legal means in different historical periods in order to standardize the integration of marriage and family relations and institutional mechanisms to promote socialist marriage. Fully-fledged institutional mechanisms that promote socialist marriage and family relations were formed during the founding of the new China. Since its inception, the Communist Party of China paid great attention to the issue of female marriage and the family, and in different historical periods of development of the revolution put forward the ideas against the feudal marriages, advocated freedom of marriage, practiced equality of men and women, monogamy and protect the interests of women and their children. The general program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference provides for the abolition of the feudal system that binds women, proclaiming that women have equal rights with men in all aspects of political, economic, cultural, educational, and social life. The freedom of marriage between men and women establishes the basic principles of the formulation of the first independent law on marriage in the PRC. Over the past 60 years, the law on marriage and family has been revised three times (in 1950, 1980, and 2001), and since January 1, 2021, it has been transferred to the provisions of the new Civil Code of the People’s Republic of China, which has allowed for constant enrichment and improvement of the legal text. Thus, the first marriage law, promulgated on May 1, 1950, as the “firstborn” of the independent family legislation of the People’s Republic of China, had a direct impact

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on the fact that the democratic legal order of marriage and divorce was first legislated in the country. This law reflected the use of legal means by the new people’s regime in the early days of the founding of new China to integrate marriage and family relations, to get rid of the old marriage system, to create and implement a new type of institutional mechanisms for marriage and family relations. In 1980, the Chinese legislation governing marriage and divorce was again revised and refined. Thus, the changes introduced in 1980 became a new integration and regulation of marriage and family relations by legal means at the early stages of the openness reforms. As for the changes of 2001, they can be called a response to some new problems arising in connection with marriage and the family during China’s economic transition, as well as the re-regulation of marriage and family relations by legal means at the beginning of the new century. In this process, the “marriage law” is increasingly moving out of politics, regulating marital behavior more from a legal point of view, and paying attention to the development of marriage and family problems, the trend of the need to solve them is becoming more and more obvious. The progress of the changes in the marriage law also shows that there is a long way to go to eliminate the old marriage practices in rural areas through the introduction of correctional registration: in the absence of official registration of marriage, a man and a woman will be able to go through the registration procedure. Currently, the academic community has studied in more detail the prerequisites for the formulation and revision of the law on marriage and the family and its main content, and some scientists have discussed and summarized the patterns and essence of this issue in the process of formulating and revising the law on marriage [9, 18, 21–26]. As a social norm formulated by the State, the law has the role of guiding, evaluating, predicting, educating, and enforcing norms. The Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China, adopted in 1950, embodies the new people’s regime’s use of legal means to integrate and standardize marriage and family relations, get rid of the old marriage system, and establish and implement a new type of institutional mechanisms for marriage and family relations. This law can be called part of the comprehensive transformation of society by the new regime, the new regime plans to free more than half of the population from the double oppression of the family and society by transforming the traditional marriage and family system and its concept, as well as the need to further expand the base of mass management. At the beginning of the formation of the new China, although the government took some measures to transform the old society, the remnants of feudalism continued to exist in the country, bearing the mark and stigma of the Old China. In order to develop all the beginnings of the new China and, in particular, to break all the shackles that bind the development of the productive forces, it was necessary to establish a new marriage system corresponding to the new social development, especially to free women from the shackles of the old marriage system. To this end, the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China of 1950 included the following provisions: “abolish the feudal marriage system of organized coercion, the inferiority of men and women, and disregard for the interests of children”. The new democratic marriage system proclaimed freedom of marriage between men and women, monogamy, equal

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rights for men and women, and protection of the legitimate interests of women and children. Bigamy and concubinage, as well as marriage with a female child, became prohibited. In addition, interference with the freedom of marriage of widows was also prohibited, and the use of family problems to obtain property was prohibited. The above-mentioned provisions of the first independent Chinese law on marriage and family not only show the strict position and firm attitude of the party and the government to the abolition of the old feudal marriage system but also reflect the concept of marriage and family under the new system. In 1980, the Chinese family law was again revised and finalized, and on 10.09.1980, a new Law on Marriage was adopted by the People’s Republic of China. The Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China of 1980 can be called a new integration and norm of marriage and family relations in the early years of reform and openness. Important elements of the PRC Marriage Law of 1980 were the new grounds for divorce, including the actual existence of problems in the relationship between husband and wife (emotional breakup). The inclusion of such grounds as the legal conditions for a divorce decision and the basic principle of family planning was largely a solution to the problems of marriage left over during the Cultural Revolution and a response to the new problems of marriage and the family in the early stages of reform and openness. Yet using an emotional breakup as a new legal basis for divorce has nothing to do with the Cultural Revolution’s impact on marriage. During the Cultural Revolution, political outlook and marital status became the focus of attention. After the openingup reforms, the political and economic life of the country was on the right track, and people’s demands for the quality of marriage and family were also increased, and the desire for feelings became the goal of people and the basis for marriage. Therefore, the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China of 1980 accepted the fact of lack of feelings and emotional separation as the legal basis for determining the need for divorce, reflecting the restructuring of marriage and family relations left over from the Cultural Revolution. The principle of family planning was also included in the provisions of the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China in 1980. The inclusion of the family planning principle in the marriage and family legislation is inextricably linked to the huge demographic pressure following the openness reform. According to statistics from the early 1980s, with an annual net increase in China’s population of more than 11 million people, each year it was necessary to increase the production of billions of pounds of food to provide rations for the new needs of the population. Of the nearly one billion people, 65% of teenagers and children were born after the country’s new policies were introduced. In the seven years from 1954 to 1960, more than 130 million people were born. Some of them were already married, and some had to marry in accordance with the provisions of the law on the age of marriage. The subsequent peak in the birth rate caused by this situation was expected to cause some social problems: food shortages, lack of resources for education, health care, limited housing conditions, depletion of natural resources, etc. In the light of the

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above situation, the adoption of a strict family planning policy was seen as particularly relevant. To this end, the Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China of 1980 spelled out the duties of the husband and wife to practice planning—and these duties have become the norm for every family in China. Changes in the Law of the PRC from the marriage also made mandatory official marriage registration, which has not previously been neglected in favor of national traditions, was installed, and a separate rule of marriage, annulment, and divorce. The revision of marriage and family law in 2001 was a response to some new problems in the field of marriage and family during China’s economic transition, as well as a response to the revision of marriage and family law at the beginning of the new century. With the deepening of reforms and the openness of the country, as well as taking into account the policy of transition from a planned economy to a market economic system, China’s economic structure, the concept of marriage and the family, the concept of the rule of law have undergone great changes and are reflected in the relationship between marriage and the family. In the context of multiple new values, some traditional marriage and family values began to be seriously challenged: some people began to want to marry earlier, the divorce rate began to grow from year to year, extramarital affairs became a problem, and the problem of domestic violence is becoming more and more noticeable. According to statistics (Fig. 1), in 1990, 340,000 couples divorced in China; in 1997 this figure was 1.19 million couples, and two years later in 1999, about 1.2 million couples divorced in China. When the law on marriage and family was amended in 2001, it added provisions that spouses are prohibited from cohabiting with other persons, domestic violence is prohibited, and that couples must be faithful and respectful to each other, and family members must respect the old and raise the younger generation in love, help each other and maintain an equal, harmonious and civilized marriage and family relations. Another important change in the law is the introduction of clearer and more specific provisions on the division of property during divorce, maintenance, and

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Fig. 1 Dynamics of divorce in the PRC before the reform of the law on marriage and family in 2001 [4]

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upbringing of children after divorce, and legal liability for violations of the provisions of the law on marriage and family. This was because since 1980, that is, in the 20 years since the last reform of marriage and family relations in China, the savings of urban and rural residents have increased significantly, and the composition of the property has become more diverse. Due to the large volume, complexity, and concealment of the amounts of property in the marital property relations and the dissolution of marriage, problems arose. The Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China, adopted in 1980, did not clearly define common property, personal property, and contractual property in the context of marital and family relations. There were no corresponding instructions in the norms of civil legislation. In practice, it is not uncommon for one party to conceal, transfer, sell, or damage the joint property of the husband and wife, or to forge debts in an attempt to encroach on the property of the other party, in divorce cases. However, the divorce process also created some new problems, such as the maintenance of children and the inheritance of property. To this end, amendments to the law on marriage and family in 2001 included the procedure for securing the property rights of both spouses, which more clearly ensured the protection of the rights and interests of children after divorce, which reflected the state’s response to new social problems and phenomena and became a new norm for the formation of healthy and stable family relations. Almost 20 years have passed since these changes, and it has become quite obvious that certain provisions of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Marriage no longer allow the Chinese to keep up with the times, in addition, the statistics also showed negative points—the number of marriages began to decline, and the number of divorces to grow exponentially (Figs. 2 and 3). The state thought about the need for new reforms in the field of marriage and family at the end of 2017. If you pay attention to the statistics presented in Figs. 2 and 3, you can see that the number of registered marriages is growing every year, and the number of divorces is increasing. So, in 2017, 5.58 million couples got married,

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Fig. 2 Dynamics of divorce in China before the reform of the law on marriage and family in 2020 [4]

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Fig. 3 Dynamics of marriages in China before the reform of the law on marriage and family in 2020 [4]

and 1.85 million couples divorced. The highest data on the divorce rate in China in 2019—4154 million couples [15]. These statistics formed the basis for the need for a new reform in which the norms of special legislation on marriage and family are abolished, and all issues of legal regulation of marriage and family relations are fixed in the provisions of the new Civil Code of the People’s Republic of China [9, 27]. The new provisions of the Chinese Civil Code are aimed at a number of improvements in the legal regulation of family relations. So, some improvements have been made to such issues as the annulment of the principal benefits of the adopted person in adoption, the order of marriage, and assumptions of marriage only as a union between a man and a woman, consolidate the “cooling-off period” during the dissolution of marriage (to make couples more informed and balanced decisions about divorce), property of the spouses. This new policy in the field of marriage and family, according to Chinese experts, reflects the philosophy to keep up with the times-oriented approach and respect public opinion in PRC law [28].

4 Discussions Legal adoption, marital and family relations in China, which began in the early twentieth century, as the history of the reform of the PRC law on marriage and the family, is an important part of the history of the modern Chinese legal system that allowed China to take the path of legal civilization. For a long time in the People’s Republic of China, there was no special law that establishes marriage and family relations, and many issues about marriage and family were left to the mercy of traditions and customs. However, only by understanding the past can one successfully plan for the future. That is why the reforms of the law on marriage and family in the

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People’s Republic of China are still being implemented. It can be said that the PRC is moving forward step by step, eliminating the old system of the patriarchal way of life that has been laid down in the minds of people—with the passage of time and the progress of society, the legislation on marriage and family becomes more and more sound and oriented to the needs of society. The three major legislative changes in marriage law since the founding of new China reflect the state’s institutional mechanisms for integrating and standardizing marriage and family relations through legal means in various historical periods, and also reflect the government’s policy choices to lead society to establish a moral style and healthy marriage and family relations in accordance with the needs of social development and light of the prevailing circumstances. The socialist legislation on marriage and family, which began to develop since the time of the new China, is an important and relatively independent aspect of all socialist legislative activity, which is of great importance for ensuring the legitimate rights and interests of citizens in marriage and family relations, creating, strengthening and developing the socialist marriage and family system. Under the capitalist system, marriage law was largely subordinated to civil law [29]. The socialist legislation on marriage and family, which began to develop since the time of the new China, is an important and relatively independent aspect of all socialist legislative activity, which is of great importance for ensuring the legitimate rights and interests of citizens in marriage and family relations, creating, strengthening and developing the socialist marriage and family system. Therefore, at the beginning of the founding of the PRC, the first Marriage Law of the PRC of 1950 was promulgated and put into effect, which was replaced by the Marriage Law of the PRC of 1980. The PRC Law on Marriage in 1950 was fully consistent with the structure of society and the principles, which were proclaimed by the party at the time of the founding of new China—that is consistent with the spirit of the time. The transformations taking place in public life led to the fact that in 1980 a new Law on Marriage was adopted in the PRC, the norms of which were already rewritten to take into account the newly changing needs of society and the political situation that was observed inside the country. Similar reasons led to the reform of the marriage and family law in 2001. The problem of divorce in the PRC, which has become global in the last few years, as well as the need for more detailed regulation of issues in the field of property, led to the need for a new reform in which the issues of legal regulation of marriage and family relations were directly fixed in the provisions of the new Civil Code of the PRC. Such provisions are aimed at addressing the problematic issues in the field of marriage and family that Chinese society is facing in the new realities [30]. Yet assess the effect of the new provisions of the Civil code of China is difficult, because they started to get a little more than a month ago, but now, given the past experience of China in the reform of the legislation on marriage and the family, it can be concluded that the new rules will improve the situation of families, since they correspond to the needs of social development in a particular historical period.

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5 Conclusions Based on the conducted research, it is concluded that the legislation on marriage and family in the PRC has the following characteristics: first, it applies to all citizens, which is what the legislators and rulers of the state pay attention to throughout all dynasties. Secondly, the legal content of marriage and family norms is not only mandatory but also ethical, emphasizing traditional virtues and strengthening family ethics. Third, legal, and cultural traditions in the field of marriage and family have a long history and heritage, and are a consequence of the traditional laws of the Chinese legal system, and not the need to implement laws that are not peculiar to the legal system, aimed at further protecting the rights of citizens to marriage and family. In the context of constant changes in socio-economic and domestic conditions, the provisions of the legislation on marriage and family are constantly reviewed and changed. As for the history of socialist marriage and family legislation of the People’s Republic of China, it can be divided into two periods of historical development: the period of the new democratic revolution and the period of the socialist revolution and modernization. The first is the embryonic form or the necessary stage of preparation of the second, and the last is the stage of inheritance and continuous improvement of the first in accordance with the needs of social development.

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Certain Aspects of the Law Enforcement Practice of Determining the Status of Persons Responsible for Copyright and (or) Related Rights Violation on the Internet and Determining the Parties Involved in the Dispute Dmitry A. Lepeshin and Tatiana V. Dautia Abstract The article aims at studying specific aspects of violations of the rights of copyright holders of works on the Internet to determine the parties involved in the disputes and their practical consideration in court. The article discusses the peculiarity of violation of copyright and related rights utilizing a video streaming service and the possible consequences for the site owner where the violation was committed using this service. The authors conclude that it is necessary to determine the status of the video streaming service in the national legislation to ensure legal regulation. Establishing the rule on the exemption of a video streaming service website owner from compensation for damage to the copyright holder or recovering compensation for a violation is unacceptable since it does not comply with the general principles of protecting rights. The authors believe that an effective way to prevent violations and identify the perpetrators of the distribution of “pirated” content will be mandatory registration with user identification on the site, a video streaming service. In this case, the site owner will provide an opportunity to identify the person who posted the content without the copyright holder’s consent and, as a result, to filing him as a respondent in the case. For the owner of the information platform (video streaming service), it is proposed to establish a norm that in case of refusal to establish rules for registration and identification of persons posting messages on the service, ensuring the identification of those responsible for the placement of “pirated” content, the owner of the site (information platform), will be found liable including in terms of payment of compensation for violation of copyright and (or) related rights committed on the service. Keywords Copyright and related rights · Video streaming service · License agreement · Site user · Information intermediary D. A. Lepeshin (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia T. V. Dautia First Court of Appeal of General Jurisdiction, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_33

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JEL Codes O34 · K12 · K15 · K22 · K39

1 Introduction Protecting copyright and (or) related rights to audio and video works on the Internet is currently a topic issue. With the development of technologies, the methods of distributing objects on the Internet are diversified: posting the work offline on the site page, or placing an active link to the work, or uploading the work in the cloud storage with the provision of an active link, opening access to third parties to the resource that contains legal copies of the work [1]. One of the new forms of posting work is its online broadcast by users of a video streaming service. Within the framework of this study, an attempt was made to analyze the existing law enforcement approaches to individual cases of violation of copyright and related rights to works on the Internet and to determine the prospects for improving the protection of rights considering the national norms of Russian legislation.

2 Methodology The research is based on general research methods such as analysis, synthesis, and generalization. Based on the formal legal method, the existing law enforcement approaches to individual cases of violation of copyright and (or) related rights to works on the Internet were analyzed, the prospects for improving the protection of rights at the level of national norms of Russian legislation were determined. As a statutory framework of the study, international legal norms [2–7], Russian federal legislation [8, 9], clarifications of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation on law enforcement [10], as well as court decisions on specific cases [11–14] were used.

3 Results Establishing the legality of using works on the Internet is inextricably linked with checking the consent of the author or other copyright holder. Under Art. 9 of the Berne Convention [7], authors of literary and artistic works protected by this Convention enjoy the exclusive right to authorize the reproduction of these works in any way and any form. The WIPO Treaty [2] enshrines the exhaustive right of authors to authorize any communication of their works to the public on the Internet.

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Despite the transboundary nature of using works on the Internet, the procedure and methods for protecting copyright and (or) related rights are largely determined by national legislation. The appeal to national legislation for the protection of copyright and related rights is conditioned by the provisions of the Berne Convention, which refers to the national regime for the protection of works (Art. 5 (3)), the national regime for the protection of copyright (Art. 6 (3)). The Civil Code of the Russian Federation [9] establishes that the exhaustive right to the result of intellectual activity or a means of individualization consists in the possibility of its rightsholder to use it in any way that does not contradict the law, including permitting or prohibiting the use of such a result by other persons (para 2 of Art. 1229). The author of a work or other rightsholder has the exclusive right to use the work in any form and in any way that does not contradict the law (exclusive right to work): only the copyright holder can dispose of the exclusive right to work. Part 2 of Art. 14 of the WIPO Treaty [2] stipulates the obligation of the parties to provide effective mechanisms in their national legislation for both the restoration of violated rights of authors and preventive measures against corresponding violations. The difficulty in imposing a fine on the guilty person for using work on the Internet without the copyright holder’s consent lies in the fact that it is not always possible to establish the site’s owner that forms the content and directly uploads the work on the site. Besides, it is not always the site owner who has posted the site’s work in violation of copyright and (or) related rights [15]. As an example, we will mention the case KHL-Marketing LLC versus Midian LLC, considered by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (hereinafter referred to as VS RF) in cassation in 2020 (case No. 5-KG20-96-K2) [11]. The dispute consisted of the fact that the claimant, KHL-Marketing LLC, being the exclusive right holder to TV programs of KHL TV and KHL HD TV channels, revealed that the website, owned by Midian LLC, is broadcasting the TV mentioned above programs by users of the site. The respondent’s website was focused on computer games and computer sports. With the help of the respondent’s technical means on the website, users could video broadcasts in real-time so that other viewers could see. The respondent provided these services to any user registered on its website through a video streaming service. The respondent, for his side, provided a set of software and hardware for organizing video broadcasting: server facilities, an Internet channel, a software video player. Even though the first instance’s court satisfied the claims of the rightsholder (the claimant in the case) to recover compensation from the respondent for the violation, VS RF disagreed with the lower courts’ position and drew attention to the following. Under part 3 of Art. 1250 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the principle of bringing to responsibility for violation of intellectual rights is established only for the culpable actions committed by the violator that entailed a corresponding violation unless an exception to this rule is established by law. An information intermediary is an entity that only provides the opportunity to post material or information to users and does not independently form content on the site. It is not held liable if it does

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not participate in the completion of the content or its processing, does not initiate the transfer of this information and does not determine its recipient, was not notified of the posting of the content without the consent of the legal rightsholder. Upon receipt of a claim from the rightsholder on the violation of his rights by the site users, he promptly took measures to stop the violation. VS RF found that the system for registering users on the respondent’s site does not allow to reliably establishing a specific person who registers as a user on the site, his identifying data, and therefore the site owner, according to the court, is responsible for violation of exclusive rights as a result of posting video objects’ broadcast on the website. As indicated in para 77 of the Plenum Resolution No. 10 [10], the competence to establish the status of an information intermediary belongs to the court. As a general rule, it is the owner of the site who has the authority and the technical ability to determine the procedure for the functioning of his site, which is why the burden of proving the offense on his site by a third party (user) rests with him. Having determined the legal nature of the legal relationship between the owner of the site and users, considering the provision of a video streaming service on the site, through which it was the users who organized the broadcast of TV broadcasts in real-time, VS RF indicated that the current legislation does not prevent the site owner from being classified as information intermediaries under certain circumstances. Establishment of circumstances related to the nature of the activities carried out by the respondent, the procedure for using the site, including determining who has the right to post information on the site and should be responsible for disseminating information on it, who initiated the placement of controversial materials and whether changes were made to the specified materials are legally significant for the consideration of the dispute. The video streaming gaming service allows users to download audiovisual works and perform online broadcasts in real-time, and therefore content placement is carried out mainly by the users of the service and not by the site owner himself. Real-time broadcasting is a fundamental difference between a video streaming service and video hosting services (YouTube, Mail, Google, and others). The initial thoughts require establishing an exceptional approach to combating the corresponding violations, making it impossible to hold a video streaming service site owner liable by analogy with hosting providers as information intermediaries [16]. It is necessary to determine the status of a video streaming service in national legislation to ensure legal regulation. Establishing a rule on releasing a website’s owner from compensation for damage to the copyright holder or the recovery of compensation for a violation in his favor is unacceptable since it violates the general principles of protecting the violated right. However, it seems that an effective way to prevent violations and identify those responsible for distributing “pirated” content will be mandatory registration with user identification on the site providing video streaming service. In this case, the video streaming service owner will provide an opportunity to identify the person who posted the content without the copyright holder’s consent and, as a result, to involve him as a respondent in the case.

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For the owner of the video streaming service, it is proposed to establish a rule that in case of refusal to establish the rules for registration and identification of persons posting messages on the service, ensuring the identification of those responsible for the placement of “pirated” content, the owner of the site is liable for the posting of such material, including part of the payment of compensation for the violation of copyright and (or) related rights committed on the service. In the event of disputes related to the unlawful use of work on the Internet, the court must establish such circumstances as: • the applicant has the rights to the work, the basis for the emergence of such rights and their scope; • the fact of the use of the work by the respondent on the website on the Internet; • the respondent’s role in the formation of the site’s content, on which the unlawful use of the work took place, and the status of this person. The copyright holder of the exclusive right to work, and, consequently, the person requesting its protection from infringement on the Internet, may not be the author of the work but the licensee. A license agreement is the most common type of agreement to transfer the rights to use a work, including commercial purposes. Ruzakova and Stepkin raise the topical issue on the peculiarities of protecting rights to television broadcasts and broadcasting sports events [17]. The list of powers that make up the content of the exhaustive right to radio or television broadcasts, as defined by para 2 of Art. 1330 of the Civil Code is not exhaustive. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) (Clause 3, Art. 14) [3] defines the authority of broadcasting organizations to prohibit, without their prior consent, the recording, reproduction, and retransmission of such recordings. At the same time, the exhaustive right to radio and television broadcasts may belong to the broadcasting organization and the authors participating in the creation of individual parts of this broadcast as a complex object. Ruzakova and Stepkin note the similarity of the use of the broadcast recording through its reproduction with the reproduction of works, performances, and phonograms. The transfer of rights to record broadcasting is carried out through the alienation of the material carrier containing this recording. The right to retransmission of broadcasts is broader and implies the reception and simultaneous communication on the air or by cable of the unchanged version of the program in full or in its essential part [17]. The content of the retransmission right is also enshrined in international norms [6 (Art. 3 (g))]. The peculiarity of the distribution of the work on the Internet, as indicated by Novosyolova [17], is expressed in the impossibility of applying to it the principle of “exhaustion of rights” (or the rule of the first sale), which is characteristic of recordings of radio television broadcasts, the exclusive right to which is transferred with the right to the material medium (original or copy) in which the object to related rights is expressed. The above is consistent with the provisions of international agreements [5 (Art. 9); 4 (preambular para 28 and Art. 4)].

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In Russian legislation, a similar rule is enshrined in Art. 1272, 1325 of the Civil Code, which determines the possibility of distributing the original or copies of works without obtaining the consent of the copyright holder and the obligation to pay him remuneration if the corresponding original or copies of the work, phonograms were legally sold on the territory of the Russian Federation. The preceding thoughts show that the difficulties in protecting the rights to works from violations on the Internet are multifaceted, including identifying the persons involved in the case, determining their role in the violation, and, as a consequence, the possibility of bringing them to justice in the face of changing ways of misusing works. Deryugina points out several others in her work [18].

4 Conclusion 1.

In the event of disputes related to the unlawful use of work on the Internet, the court must establish such circumstances as: • the existence of the applicant’s rights to the work, the basis for the emergence of such rights and their scope; • the fact of the use of the work by the respondent on the website on the Internet; • the respondent’s role in the formation of the site’s content, on which the unlawful use of the work took place, and the status of this person.

2.

3.

A special place in the legal regulation system of protecting copyright and related rights is occupied by violations using information platforms, which are video streaming gaming services since they provide streaming of various events in realtime. This type of service provides users with the ability to download audiovisual works and carry out online broadcasts, and therefore the content is placed mainly by the users of the service and not directly by the owner of the site. Real-time broadcasting is a fundamental difference between a video streaming service and various video hosting services (Youtube, Mail, Google, and others). To ensure the establishment of the video streaming service’s legal regulation, it is proposed to determine its status in national legislation. It seems that an effective way to prevent violations and identify the perpetrators of the distribution of “pirated” content will be the mandatory registration with user identification on the site providing video streaming services. In this case, the video streaming service owner will provide an opportunity to identify the person who posted the content without the copyright holder’s consent and, as a result, to involve him as a respondent in the dispute.

For the owner of the video streaming service, it is proposed to establish a regulation that in case of refusal to establish the rules for registration and identification of persons posting messages on the service, ensuring the identification of those responsible for the placement of “pirated” content, the owner of the site is responsible for its

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placement, including the payment of compensation for violation of copyright and (or) related rights committed on the service.

References 1. Matytsin DE, Rusakova EP (2021) The strategy of quality management in industry 4.0 and formation of a cognitive economy based on industrial and manufacturing engineering in the Russian Federation and countries of the EU. Int J Qual Res 15(4). https://doi.org/10.24874/ IJQR15.04-03 (Q2) 2. Agreement of the World Intellectual Property Organization on Copyright (1996). https:// www1.fips.ru/documents/international-documents/dogovory/dogovor-vois-po-avtorskomupravu.php. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 3. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). https://sumip. ru/wp-content/docs/trips_eng.pdf. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 4. Directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001, on the harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society. https://wipolex.wipo.int/ru/legislation/details/1453. Accessed: 24 Mar 2021 5. Directive 2006/115/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 Dec 2006, on rental right and lending right and on certain rights related to copyright in the field of intellectual property. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A3200 6L0115. Accessed: 26 Mar 2021 6. International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations, Rome, 26 Oct 1961. https://wipolex.wipo.int/ru/treaties/textde tails/12656. Accessed: 25 Mar 2021 7. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works of 09 Sept 1886 (as amended on 28 Sept 1979). https://legalacts.ru/doc/bernskaja-konventsija-po-okhrane-literaturnykh-ikhudozhestvennykh/. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 8. Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. https://legalacts.ru/kodeks/GPK-RF/. Accessed: 20 Mar 2021 9. The Civil Code of the Russian Federations (parts one to four). https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lex docs/laws/en/ru/ru083en.pdf. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 10. Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated 23 Apr 2019, No. 10 “On the application of Part four of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation” posted on the official website of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. https://www.vsrf.ru/doc uments/own/27773/. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 11. Determination of the Judicial Collegium for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated 01.12.2020 No. 5-KG20-96-K2 case on the claim KHL-Marketing LLC vs. Midian LLC. https://legalacts.ru/sud/opredelenie-sudebnoi-kollegii-po-grazhdans kim-delam-verkhovnogo-suda-rossiiskoi-federatsii-ot-01122020-n-5-kg20-96-k2/. Accessed: 22 Mar 2021 12. Determination of the Judicial Collegium for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated 19 May 2015, No. 84-KG15-1 A. B. Boytsov. vs. LLC “Stroy-guide”. https:// www.vsrf.ru/stor_pdf.php?id=1338138. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 13. Determination of the Judicial Collegium for Civil Cases of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated 26 May 2015, No. 84-KG15-4 A.B. Boytsov. vs Furnichenko T. N., and Kolosov S. A. https://www.zakonrf.info/suddoc/0b4e797a7fab7198fd46baedb45a20ba/. Accessed: 29 Mar 2021 14. Review of judicial practice in cases related to resolving disputes on the protection of intellectual rights, approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation on 23 Sept 2015. Posted on the official website of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. https:// www.vsrf.ru/documents/thematics/15153/. Accessed: 21 Mar 2021

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15. Inshakova AO, Goncharov AI, Smirenskaya EV, Dolinskaya VV (2017) Modern communication technologies in notification of notarial actions in Russia. J Adv Res Law Econ VIII, 7(29):2144–2151 16. Kalinina AE, Inshakova AO, Goncharov AI (2019) Polysubject jurisdictional blockchain: electronic registration of facts to reduce economic conflicts. In: Popkova EG (ed) Ubiquitous computing and the internet of things: prerequisites for the development of ICT. Studies in computational intelligence, vol 826. Springer Science + Business Media, Cham, pp 205–213 17. Intellectual Property Law (2017) Copyright. Textbook. In: Novosyolova LA (Gen ed) Doctor of law, vol 2, Moscow 18. Deryugina TV, Inshakova AO, Sevostyanov MV (2019) Systemic issues of legal regulation for information aggregator operation. Stud Comput Intell 826:27–34

Fundamentals of the Effectiveness of the Development of Technological Capabilities of Production in the Context of the Formation of Complex Integration Interactions of the Participants in the Process Ekaterina P. Garina , Alexander P. Garin , Yana V. Batsyna , Alexander Yu. Nechushkin , and Elena S. Gaylomazova Abstract The purpose of the article is to systematize and generalize approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the product development process within the framework of the network interaction of system participants. The authors have systematized approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the formation of complex integration interactions of participants in the product development process. Firstly, the choice of approach to the implementation of a product development system depends on the initial conditions for the formation of complex integration interactions between process participants based on the stage of the PLM product cycle. Secondly, early selection of the product cycle of system effectiveness is often replaced by the category effectiveness. Thirdly, it is necessary to take into account the interdependencies of the system elements, a unified understanding of performance, such as: functionality, cost, labor productivity, equipment productivity, product quality, by all participants in the integration system. Interpretation of the practice of managing the integration system for product development based on performance indicators (performance) by periods has shown that there are prospects for expanding approaches to assessing efficiency at the level of product conceptualization and the development of technological systems. The analysis shows that it is possible to increase the potential for increasing the efficiency of the development of technological capabilities of production at the level of product conceptualization in the context of the formation of complex integration E. P. Garina (B) · A. P. Garin Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia A. P. Garin e-mail: [email protected] Y. V. Batsyna Institute of Food Technology and Design, Nizhny Novgorod State University of Engineering and Economics, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia A. Yu. Nechushkin · E. S. Gaylomazova K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Technologies and Management (the First Cossack University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_34

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interactions between the participants in the process; but there is a problem of forming the initial data for the project. Keywords Efficiency · Technological capabilities · Effectiveness · Integration interaction JEL Code O32

1 Introduction The formation of significant technological production capabilities is most often achieved through the formation of complex integration interactions between process participants (opposing distributed product development), where technological production capabilities are [1]: (1) formed production systems; (2) main structure/platform/module is the result of R&D activities; (3) innovativeness of processes (technological, production, business processes) is the result of R&D activities; (4) technological content of cooperation at the level of the federation of systems in the development and implementation of technologies; (5) R&D activities for the development of specifications, structures, equipment, production organization; high involvement of innovative processes in the production process of the product line. The importance of the development of technological capabilities of production is enhanced by the condition of the attainability of a positive increase in the performance. Integration systems have the potential to increase profitability, functionality creates additional benefits for the consumer. However, their high complexity leads to higher costs, so it is important to balance the costs and benefits of implementing these systems early in the product development phase of the project. Methods for choosing a solution based on efficiency, effectiveness, performance indicators are proposed for this.

2 Methodology The methodology for the development of integration technical systems is determined by the interdisciplinary approach. The boundaries of the environment system, the environment model are determined at the first planning stage in the process of creating a product. The main solutions for the product are being worked out at the second stage. Solution options are evaluated and selected for further consideration. The selection process is supported by a business case system. At the next stage, conflicting goals of the system are determined for the developed solution. At the last stage of concept integration, the main solutions are integrated at the general level and at the level of subsystems, the system is assessed in terms of reliability, dynamics, economic efficiency. The result of this stage is a model of the system.

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3 Results Scientists suggest that efficiency and effectiveness are equally important based on the stage of the PLM product cycle [2]. If we consider the issue using the example of the first stages of the cycle, then we conclude that the effectiveness of the system of integration interactions between process participants at the product development stage is determined as the ratio of the volume of production to the cost of the company’s costs. At the same time, the difference between absolute (income exceeds expenses) and relative economic efficiency (the ratio of income to the cost of alternative solutions) is given in the literature. An alternative solution is relatively more economical if it involves less cost for the same income [3]. Productivity (as technical savings) reflects the ratio of the outcome to the use of resources [4]. If the result is a measure of profit (for example, operating profit) and the denominator is a measure of cost, then the quotient is called profitability. The cost of creating a product is understood as the monetary consumption of goods (for example, consumption of materials, depreciation), as well as services (for example, salaries, social expenses), sales costs, which can be estimated in monetary terms and, therefore, are comparable and compensated [3]. In the context of the first stages of the PLM cycle—product development and conceptualization, definitions are used: (1) development costs (investments), which include all the one-time costs of developing a new product variant, they can be directly allocated to the production of the variant, such as: investments in new machines and systems, infrastructure, assembly aids and tools. Size is influenced by product concept [5]. Refers to «indirect», «management» costs; (2) complexity costs—one-time implementation costs, reflect the additional costs arising in connection with the production of new products (introduction of new system elements). Each new version of the system leads to the emergence of new components, assemblies, etc. and the associated indirect costs [6]. Based on this, the total cost of a product solution includes: Total cost = direct manufacturing costs + investment + complexity cost Effectiveness is understood as the ability of product development processes (PDprocesses) and systems to achieve specific goals, regulations or project requirements [7]. Project regulations can be built using: 1.

2. 3.

balanced scorecard (BSC), complementing the traditional financial perspective (EVA—an assessment of the financial performance of an enterprise), indicators: «customers» (CSI—customer satisfaction score), «business processes» (RIC — assessment of the effectiveness of the use of innovative and RCOM —scientific and technological potential) and «labor force» (IIP —assessment of the use of intellectuality) [8]. product innovation management (PIM) scorecard using Likert scale; «technical value», estimated according to the methodology of the VDI 2225 directive [3]. Evaluation is based on scores ranging from zero (poor) to four

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(ideal). Indicative value—a product that represents an ideal technical and economic solution. Technical deficiencies can be identified based on the score (score from 0 to 2). Production costs are compared with «ideal» and «acceptable» production costs for economic evaluation. The corresponding technical and economic value is the achieved balanced value. The dynamics of the system are not taken into account in the assessment. key performance indicators (efficiency) KPIs used to monitor personalized target indicators set for individual groups of employees as part of «achieving strategic and operational goals of the company» quantify critical success factors.

KPIs—reflect: (a) the result of the project, for example, sales, profits, labor productivity, equipment productivity, product quality indicator, mean time before failure (MTBF) and mean time to repair (MTTR); (b) degree of achievement of project improvement goals, such as the total number of employee training cycles, the total number of employees passing the state certification exam, and the total number of kaizens, etc. [9]. The requirement for the developed system of integration interactions of participants in the development and production of a product is classically acts as [10]: (1) common understanding of performance, such as: functionality, industrial design, cost by all participants in the system; (2) accounting of product costs from the perspective of the PLM cycle, determined by the basic solution of the system. Often, in product development, in addition to the classic costing, the following are determined: (a) cost-effective design guidelines accompanying the development of cost accounting procedures, cost information systems, upstream systems; (b) customer orientation requirements, also manifested in various forms, including emphasis on quality (QFD—Quality Function Deployment), individualization (for example, mass customization), inclusive design; (c) design guidelines suitable for manufacturing and assembly; (3) taking into account the interdependencies of system elements. For example, understanding the impact of product diversity on productivity, fixing causal chains of «productivity deficits», reasons for ineffective work (Table 1). Qualitative or non-monetary criteria; leading (measure factors affecting the process), lagging (outcome indicators) and coincident indicators [11] are also used for decision making, in addition to quantitative criteria focused on economic efficiency, when assessing the effectiveness (efficiency) of product development. At the same time, the existing indicators of the PD-process: (1) are often limited by the achievement of design goals (product–result), and not by the actions necessary to develop a product (process); (2) sketchy and not systemic (Table 2). Expanding the perspective of evaluating the effectiveness (efficiency) at the level of product conceptualization is presented in the works of a number of authors in the areas of: 1.

finance, where efficiency is defined as maximizing the quantified return on investment in R&D. The challenge of the financial perspective is to anticipate the return on investment in R&D, product development. Quantitative indicators based on actual values and using well-defined calculation algorithms prevail: «Total R&D expenditure», «Profit attributable to R&D and NPD efforts», «R&D

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Table 1 Factors of low productivity of integration interactions between participants in the development and production of a product (causes of losses in product development) in accordance with lean Factor

Reasons for poor performance

Strategy for the development of technological capabilities of production

Inappropriate corporate strategy, product strategy, project strategy

Design of a system of integration interactions between participants in the development and production of a product

Lack of common process standards, methods among stakeholders, non-working procedural instructions, non-compliance with the process

Project management, performance measurement

Insufficient planning, resource use, project tracking, performance measurement

Communication between participants in the integration process of product development and production

Insufficient information flow between projects, closed system architecture. Insufficient adherence to document management standards

Management, corporate culture, team design

Lack of development of performers’ competence, illiterate distribution of tasks between participants in the integration process of product development and production. Insufficient understanding of tasks by performers

Infrastructure

Lack of unified project management tools, process management, non-working equipment

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

2.

3.

financial performance index» as a ratio of increased profits from new products, to investment in R&D. Comparison between «planned and actual project costs» and «planned and actual project revenues» is often done to improve the quality of forecasts. customer satisfaction, where high performance is seen as a customer satisfaction perspective, customer «benefit», acquired utility. In monetary terms, it can be determined through the calculation of productivity, profitability, revenue, turnover, profit. In non-monetary terms—as the sum of all contributions to the value of utility (multiplying the weight by the degree of fulfillment). The potential customer benefit is assessed using indices of customer satisfaction, «degree of interaction between marketing and R&D». It is also proposed to take into account the manufacturer’s benefit in addition to the customer benefit: (1) at the stage of product conceptualization (understanding consumer expectations), (2) after market entry, tactical decisions about price promotion and distribution have an important impact on the perceived value and competitiveness of the product. strategic management perspective, where performance means achieving any goals of strategic planning. The strategic management perspective takes into account the contribution of R&NPD to business strategy and the ability of R&NPD to initiate new strategic orientations. A performance metric that reflects a strategic perspective is «an assessment of annual business opportunities

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Table 2 Experience in practical application of management of an integrated product development system based on indicators by periods (% of indicators used by industry manufacturers for a period of their total number) Product development system indicators

In the 1990s In the 2000s In the 2010s

P@D expenses, % of sales

–

79

79

Intellectual property indicators (patents/trademarks (filed, issued))

61/21

63/–

61/–

Total number of R@D personnel

–

60

67

% of increase, decrease in the number of R@D personnel

–

31

% of sales of new products in the total range

–

56

New product release volume

51

54

58

% of products/projects in active development

–

49

53

% profit from new product launches (product vitality index)

–

49

38

% of the product at the stages of conceptualization, planning and evaluation

29

36

–

Average project efficiency (return on investment, project payback)

34

32

48

62

% of investment in new product development

56

48

41

product portfolio value (set of aggregated indicators)

–

–

35

ROI (profitability of innovation, calculated using a combination of methods)

–

–

32

50

79

EBITDA (a measure of the level of current operating – profitability of a business), profit of a business unit or company before deducting any interest payments, taxes, depreciation for the final accounting of income and expenses Source Developed and compiled by the authors

4.

generated by research and development», such as penetrating new segments or markets, improving market positioning, entering into strategic alliances or partnerships. Quantitative indicators (market share, percentage of R&D results accepted by the company, etc.), qualitative indicators (importance of an alliance partner) are calculated. Measurement translates the correspondence between R&D results and the strategic goals of the company, such as: «alignment between technology and business strategy». Strategic measures require identification of some result (knowledge, applied technology, product prototype, etc.). It is recommended to carry out phased peer reviews of achieving the strategic goal after the start of product development (R&D process moves to product planning). process management in terms of optimizing quality, lead time and cost, project progress. R&D operational performance indicators such as quality, cost, and lead time are rooted in processes. In fact, the entire lean paradigm emphasizes

Fundamentals of the Effectiveness of the Development of …

5.

6.

7.

313

process improvement in terms of multi-functional teams and complex (concurrent) design in high-tech project management. Indicators for evaluating the performance of processes in R&NPD are proposed in works on lean manufacturing such as: «development time», «labor productivity and overall product quality», «communication efficiency», determining leadership in operational R&D processes, process efficiency in the framework of quality audit. Process assessment is performed at the team, project, department, and functional level, and the results are aggregated sequentially until the highest management level is reached. technology management, where high performance is understood as efficient product technology management to create a continuous stream of competitive products. Long-term dynamics of changes in the variety of products, updating their basic technical architecture of products, synergy of technologies and interactions between technical subsystems are assessed. The focus is on the impact of technology on R&D productivity considering that each new derivative product can be developed at a relatively low cost compared to the development cost of the original product architecture. Performance metrics derived from this perspective represent the «newness embodied in core technologies» of new products compared to previous products, «platform effectiveness» that is a measure of the degree to which products based on a product platform generate revenue for the manufacturer. compared to the development costs of these products, calculated over time as new platform versions are introduced. The dynamics of technology and innovation is measured at the levels of: individual products; the aggregate level for the product family as a whole. Measuring platform effectiveness and efficiency means measuring the cost of developing and selling a product over time as the architecture of the platform evolves and derivative products are developed. innovation management, where efficiency is seen as the successful transformation of research efforts into new products, as well as the creative application and combination of new or existing knowledge into new products. Innovation is one of the main goals of R&D. From this point of view, the effectiveness of creating new knowledge, applying new knowledge or creating new combinations of existing technologies in products is assessed. Performance indicators include «the number of patents generated within a single project or within a certain predetermined time period», «the number of patented discoveries per c. u. spent on R&D», «% of products developed in the last n years», and «% content of new technologies in new products». The «level of project innovation» (LPI) is quantitatively measured, it expresses the relative age of a certain technology implemented in a project, providing a measure of innovation in terms of introducing new technologies into new projects. Efficiency is mainly measured either early in the R&D process, where the feasibility of transferring technical innovation to business units is assessed, or after the completion of the project in resulting estimates (for example, the number of patents per project). knowledge management. The effectiveness of R&NPD is related to either improving the quality of knowledge or improving the ability of R&NPD to

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transform knowledge into added value. The following indicators are used: «efficiency in staffing» in the form of optimizing intellectual capital in a specific project, «speed of transfer of new knowledge and technology into product development», «improved understanding of phenomena», expressed in expanding the knowledge base, and «efficiency of transfer of knowledge and technology between projects», which is expressed in the effectiveness of cross-project training. Scientists distinguish «intellectual support» (human capital), «categorical support» (prototypes, products, equipment that includes knowledge), «process support» (rules of thumb, procedures, tools) and «documents» (knowledge in paper or electronic form). The effectiveness of transferring new knowledge into concrete product ideas suitable for operation can be assessed at the initial stages of PD activities, in post-project evaluations.

4 Conclusion The system of indicators for assessing the effectiveness of the initial stages of the PLM cycle of a product takes into account the peculiarities of the functioning and development of high-tech enterprises within the framework of the formed system of integration interactions of process participants at the stage of product development and allows assessing the effectiveness of the development of their technological capabilities. The system of performance assessment indicators includes the relationship of financial and non-financial, monetary and non-monetary indicators. The research results are presented in the form of proposals for the formation of a system of key performance indicators, can be used in the development of a strategic map for the development of technological capabilities of process participants at the stage of product development. The systematization of efficiency (effectiveness) assessment opens up an opportunity for a further research task—the operationalization of metrics, implemented on the example of the best practices in the industry, taking into account the PLM cycle, in the «macrosystem» of the entire integration network of interactions between participants in the product development and production process.

References 1. Tolstykh TO et al (2020) Scenarios for the development of industrial complexes in the digital economy. In: Growth poles of the global economy: emergence, changes and future perspectives. Part: Lecture notes in networks and systems. Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Luxembourg, pp 1255–1261 2. Garin AP et al (2020) Research of the tools of influence on the behavior of market subjects. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 91, pp 156–162 3. VDI: Technical-economic construction—Technical-economic evaluation (1998) VDI construction manual, VDI guideline 2225, sheet 3, Beuth-Verlag, Berlin

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4. Bohr K (1993) Profitability. In: Chmielewicz K, Schweitzer M (ed) Concise dictionary of accounting, 3rd completely redesigned and supplemented edition. Schäfer-PoeschelVerlag, Stuttgart, pp 2182–2188 5. Ehrlenspiel K, Kiewert A, Lindemann U (2007) Cost-effective development and construction—cost management in integrated product development, 6th revised and corrected edition. Springer, Heidelberg, 214 p 6. Vasholts M (2015) A systems approach to economically-oriented conceptual design of intelligent technical systems. Dissertation, Heinz Nixdorf Institute, University of Paderborn, Paderborn, p 247 7. Pulm U (2004) A system-theoretical consideration of product development. Doctoral engineerapproved dissertation. Technical University of Munich, submitted and submitted by the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, 262 p 8. Verevka T (2018) Key performance indicators of high-tech enterprises. In: SHS web of conferences, vol 44, 00077, CC-TESC2018. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20184400077 9. De Felice F, Petrillo A, Monfreda S (2013) Improving operational productivity with worldclass manufacturing technology: a case study in the automotive industry. Oper Manag. https:// doi.org/10.5772/54450 10. Garina EP, Kozlova EP, Sevryukova AA (2016) Study of alternative strategies and methodological tools for the development of complex systems in the context of the product being created. Azimuth Sci Res Econ Adm 5, no. 2(15):58–62 11. Silifonova EV (2016) Assessment of the development of economic systems in the context of transformation: monograph. In: Barysheva GA. STT, Tomsk, 128 p

Prevention of Religious Terrorism in the Execution of the Penal Sanction of Incarceration Marina A. Davidenko

Abstract The ideology of terrorism, which is based on a distorted understanding of religious values and a misinterpretation of conceptual theological dogma, is being actively promoted. Such radical ideologies are the basis for the formation of many terrorist organizations. These organizations can be compared to state-like entities in terms of the number of participants and organization degree. One of the means of countering the ideology of religious (Islamic) terrorism is the penal sanction of incarceration. According to the current law, applying this sanction to the convicted person will ensure the prevention of committing new crimes. In fact, the penitentiary practices of the penal systems in Russia, the U.S., and other countries show the opposite. Places of confinement are a platform for effective recruitment to participate in terrorist activities. Many terrorist Islamist groups are formed by people who have previously served prison sentences. Given the threat of spreading Islamic terrorism through the penal system, the author presents the rationale for including a specialized penitentiary institution for convicted of crimes of a terrorist and extremist nature in the Russian penal system. Taking into account the current penal policy of Russia and the American penitentiary experience of 2001–2010, the author argues that the core of the correctional process should consist of intensive psychological influence and religious training of prisoners as effective means of private prevention. Keywords Criminal prevention · Incarceration · Islamism · Religious terrorism · Specialized penitentiary institution · Penal system JEL Codes K14 · K19 · K38 · K39

M. A. Davidenko (B) Moscow Institute of Modern Academic Education, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_35

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1 Introduction In any civilized country, criminal and penal law has a preventive purpose—to prevent the future commission of crimes. This goal is quite ambitious. Nevertheless, the entire law enforcement and judicial system is mobilized to achieve it. All national criminal laws currently in force include incarceration as a form of punishment. The term of its execution and the detention conditions are directly related to the severity of the crime committed. A comparative analysis of the provisions of these normative sources allows us to establish a worldwide view of the process of achieving the preventive goal of criminal punishment. The more dangerous the crime committed and the personality of the offender are, (1) the more severe must be the punishment; (2) the more time is required for its execution; (3) the more significant must be the deprivations and rights restrictions determined by the regime of the correctional institution. The priority of preventing the commission of new crimes over other stated purposes of criminal punishment has theoretical and practical justification presented in the modern criminological literature. Thus, preventing the commission of a crime is the best option for protecting the rights and legitimate interests of potential victims of criminal encroachment since the punishment for a crime already committed will never provide full compensation for the harm caused. Crime prevention involves influencing the causes and conditions contributing to the spread of a particular type of crime. Consequently, as opposed to the punitive, preventive activity will lead to positive results of the general counteraction to crime. Finally, the prevention of a crime represents a substantial economic benefit since there will no longer be a need, for example, to finance the activities of investigative, judicial, and penitentiary authorities, ensuring the prosecution of the perpetrator and the execution of the punishment imposed. There is no doubt about the validity of the above statements regarding terrorist crimes. The prevention of these crimes represents the primary task of law enforcement agencies. However, the above statements on preventing the commission of new crimes by applying long incarceration to a terrorist leading a criminal way of life based on religious beliefs bring the opposite result. According to experts, convicts adhering to religious terrorism carry out a relatively successful mass recruitment of other convicts. As a result, various terrorist organizations, including the Islamic State (IS, ISIS), regularly receive replenishment from persons released from penitentiary institutions due to the expiration of their sentence. This trend has been steadily observed in penitentiary institutions in Russia [9, p. 11] and many other countries: Australia [13], Germany [1], France [3], other European countries, Africa, North America, and Latin America, which is confirmed by scientific research and official analyses prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Counterterrorism [4]. Since international religious (Islamic) terrorism and extremism are relevant to most countries, it is now necessary to develop scientifically based proposals for criminal and penal prevention of crimes of a terrorist nature.

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2 Materials and Methods The information base of this research includes official statistics on the number of persons serving prison sentences for terrorist crimes. These statistics were processed using statistical accounting, analysis, and synthesis. During the research, the author also applied the methods of observation and questionnaires to clarify the opinion of Russian civil society on the acceptable and approved forms and methods of preventive criminal law in relation to those convicted of terrorist crimes with Islamic motives. The materials contained in scientific, scientific-publicistic, and other sources were evaluated using general ideas about the dialectical method of scientific knowledge and the formal-logical and system-structural methods of research. The same methods were used to formulate the conclusions and suggestions for achieving the goal.

3 Results The tremendous social danger of terrorist crimes and the perpetrators of these crimes is beyond any doubt. Therefore, Russian criminal law prescribes long terms of incarceration for these acts without the possibility of imposing alternative forms of criminal punishment. This position of legislators is strongly supported by the population, which is confirmed by the results of a survey conducted during the research. More than 75% of those surveyed indicated that convicted Islamists should be sentenced to long-term incarceration (more than five years) or life incarceration for crimes of a terrorist nature. Nevertheless, the incarceration of a terrorist does not guarantee the effectiveness of criminal punishment, as has been proven in various social and legal studies [16, p. 28; 7, p. 339]. The penitentiary legislation of Russia and many other countries establishes several types of institutions for the execution of imprisonment. Each of them is marked with specific conditions of detention of convicts. According to part 7 of Article 74 of the Penal Enforcement Code of the Russian Federation (PEC RF), persons found guilty of committing crimes under Art. 205, 205.1, and 206 of the Criminal Code of the RF (CC RF) serve their sentence in prison. Prison is a correctional facility, the regime of which implies the most significant number of legal restrictions imposed on convicts when serving a sentence, which is confirmed by Articles 130 and 131 of the PEC RF. The current legislation does not provide for a change in the type of correctional facility as a reward for those convicted of terrorism (paragraph “a” of part 2 of Article 78 of the PEC RF). The legislative provisions listed above evidence the officially recognized public danger of people committing terrorist crimes. Currently, there is a general rule (part 1 of Article 73 of the PEC RF), according to which convicts sentenced to imprisonment serve their punishment in a corresponding correctional colony located in the subject of Russia where the convicted person lived before committing a crime or was prosecuted (convicted). Exceptions to this rule apply to certain categories of persons, including those convicted of terrorist crimes.

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According to part 3 of Article 73 of the PEC RF, certain categories of convicts (including those found guilty of terrorism, adherents of terrorist ideology, and people teaching, advocating, or disseminating ideas of radical religious and other teachings, including among suspected, accused and convicted persons) serve prison sentences in prisons located in the territory of a subject determined by the decision of a federal body of the Russian criminal-executive system. As a rule, the bodies of the Russian Federal Penitentiary Service, when deciding on the place of incarceration of those convicted of terrorist activities, choose the subjects of the country maximally remote from the perpetrator’s permanent residence or place of conviction [10, pp. 43–67]. This exclusion from the rule (part 4 of Article 73 of the PEC RF) is due to several reasons. First, it is done for the personal safety of the person convicted to exclude the possible revenge by other convicts whose close ones may have suffered due to terrorist acts and other terrorist crimes. Second, transferring a convicted person to serve a prison sentence on the territory of another subject would ensure a partial interruption of the socially dangerous ties with people holding radical Islamist ideas about the benefits of terrorist activity and providing material and ideological support to the convicted person. Official data from the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia show that, from 2013 to 2015 [6], the number of people serving sentences for crimes of a terrorist nature increased steadily but at a low rate of annual growth: + 9.8% in 2014 and + 13.3% in 2015. However, since 2016, we can see a significant increase in the number of people serving accused of terrorism. According to the Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia (Form: 2-UIS. Report on the state of crime among persons held in penitentiary institutions for 2013–2020), in 2016, this figure increased by 20.2%, and the total number of those convicted of terrorism increased by 209%. The rapid increase in the number of convicts of this group poses a threat of spreading Islamic ideology among the incarcerated and forming a pool for terrorist groups, including ISIS. In this case, of particular interest is the American experience in the operation of a similar institution called “prison for the worst of the worst.” This institution is established in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The results of such anti-terrorist activities at Guantanamo are known. Violations of international jus cogens norms by the U.S. government officials have been the subject of numerous lawsuits, which have been ruled mostly in favor of former prisoners. In the 2006 report, the United Nations Special Commission stated that the Guantanamo Bay detention camp should be terminated immediately [12]. A similar assessment of the activities of U.S. authorities at Guantanamo Bay was made by B. Obama [16, p. 110]. Nevertheless, the activity at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp has not ceased to date. The results of preventive work carried out by “peculiar” methods in the prison for terrorists were also not so significant. U.S. intelligence agencies estimate that at least 100 of the 603 prisoners at Guantanamo Bay are engaged in terrorist activities after their release and that 74 more are suspected of such activities [5]. Despite the listed negative consequences of abusive counter-terrorism methods, a significant percentage of American society (66% of respondents) currently opposes closing the prison at Guantanamo Bay. They see this prison as a means of protecting themselves

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from the terrorist threat and preventing a repeat of the tragedy of September 11, 2001. Another 5% of respondents did not insist on closing the institution [2]. Attention must also be paid to the circumstances that have prevented the U.S. Federal Bureau of Prisons from achieving the desired results in preventing further crimes by Guantanamo detainees. The severity of the crime committed, the significant number of victims of terrorist attacks, and the substantial material losses create a mass fear of terrorist threats. Under such conditions, the natural reaction of society is to demand that the authorities impose stricter penalties on representatives of terrorist organizations. Some researchers note that fear and insecurity have created a conviction that crime can be reduced only by imposing extremely harsh penalties and creating extremely difficult conditions for convicts to serve their sentences [15, p. 32]. The American experience shows the opposite. The excessive application of measures to convicted persons, which develops into brutality, does not prevent new crimes and may even arouse sympathy among the population. Moreover, the violation of legal requirements in the execution of punishment reinforces the belief of the convicted person in the truth of radical religious attitudes about the need for terrorist activity against the government and the population loyal to it. Therefore, the activities of the institution specializing in the imprisonment of persons who have committed terrorist crimes should be carried out strictly within the legal framework, including international normative acts on guarantees of the rights and legitimate interests of prisoners, the rules of their detention in the correctional institution, etc. Deprivation of liberty is one of the most severe types of modern criminal punishment systems. The execution of this punishment in prison involves the creation of special conditions of detention of convicts. Thus, the responsibility for terrorism is defined as the most severe of all possible options under the current criminal and criminal-executive legislation. It assumes the maximum deprivations and law restrictions, which is the essence of criminal responsibility. It is unacceptable to increase the severity of restraints on convicts further, as was the case at Guantanamo Bay. Otherwise, this will lead to the implementation of a purely punitive activity, which excludes the achievement of the preventive purpose of criminal punishment since the convicted person will be limited in their natural rights, which should not be affected in the imposition of punishment and during its execution [14, p. 38]. A specialized penitentiary institution must differ in the number of prisoners and the means of educational influence on them to prevent the commission of new crimes. This means of educational influence is spiritual education, which consists of studying the basics of Islam and the true interpretation of its values. It appears that an awareness of the real religious values of Islam and Islamic culture will ensure that convicted Islamists voluntarily refrain from continuing their terrorist activities and from attempts to justify the criminal actions of other members of Islamic criminal associations. To ensure the effectiveness of religious and educational work, it is necessary to attract highly qualified teachers of Islamic universities since unprofessional, poor-quality classes, the unpreparedness of teachers, and their inability to convince based on the Quran postulates can lead to negative consequences— strengthening the belief of the convict in the truth of radical Islamist ideas about the social benefits of terrorism. In this case, the results of the preventive activities of the

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specialized correctional facility would be comparable to those of the U.S. authorities at Guantanamo Bay. Another argument for the necessity of creating a specialized correctional facility for persons convicted of terrorism is the virtual impossibility of providing an individualized approach to the correctional process of these convicts in the conditions of a modern prison. According to experts, even though the penal and correctional system has different types of correctional institutions providing isolation from society when executing punishment, the means and methods of influence on prisoners in each institution do not differ much from each other. This fact leads to a “one-size-fitsall” correctional impact and its weak effectiveness due to ignoring the criminogenic features of the personality of the convicted person [8, pp. 13, 22; 11, p. 104; 15, p. 162].

4 Conclusion The author proved the social need for a special prison for the detention of persons convicted of crimes of a terrorist nature. This penitentiary institution will ensure the achievement of private and general prevention since the convicted terrorist will be isolated from society for a long time. This isolation will deprive the convicted person of the ability to carry out criminal activity and negatively influence other persons to induce them to commit crimes of a terrorist nature. A specialized correctional facility for those convicted of crimes of a terrorist nature will provide a versatile construction of the correctional process. During this process, different methods of influence could be applied to the leaders, ideological leaders, and ordinary participants of terrorist groups. Such differentiation in the execution of incarceration will provide additional psychological impact increasing the effectiveness of educational work. In this case, it is assumed that the correctional process will involve the representatives of Islamic religious schools and other spiritual educational institutions, who can provide qualified teaching of the true tenets of Islam, revealing the content of good and justice in society and rejecting terrorism in any of its manifestations. The solution of these problems will increase the effectiveness of correctional impact on those convicted of crimes of a terrorist nature, which will positively impact the achievement of the preventive objective of criminal punishment. The questionnaire survey confirmed our assumptions. Eighty-six percent of the respondents, with total work experience in the legal profession exceeding five years, confirmed the need for a specialized correctional facility to imprison persons convicted of committing terrorist crimes or professing radical Islamist ideas.

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References 1. Aerne M (2018, Mar20) Germany: evolution of national counter-terrorism measures to tackle Islamist terror threat. Retrieved from http://www.esisc.org/publications/briefings/13777. Accessed 31 May 2021 2. American Institute of Public Opinion (2014, June 14) Poll: 66% of U.S. residents oppose closing Guantanamo. gazeta.ru. Retrieved from https://www.gazeta.ru/social/news/2014/06/ 14/n_6228465.shtml. Accessed 31 May 2021 3. Belkin P (2015, Nov 18) France: efforts to counter Islamist terrorism and the Islamic State. CRS Insight. Retrieved from https://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/IN10301.pdf. Accessed 31 May 2021 4. Bureau of Counterterrorism of the U.S. Department of State (2019) Country reports on terrorism 2019. Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism2019/. Accessed 31 May 2021 5. Evans SJ (2013, Sept 11) At least 100 of the 603 freed Guantanamo Bay prisoners have returned to terrorism, U.S. intelligence report reveals. Retrieved from https://www.dailymail. co.uk/news/article-2417226/Guantanamo-Bay-One-ex-Gitmo-inmates-return-terrorism.html. Accessed 31 May 2021 6. Federal Penitentiary Service of Russia (n.d.) Report on the state of crime among persons held in penitentiary institutions. Retrieved from https://fsin.gov.ru/statistics/. Accessed 31 May 2021 7. Foucault M (2016) Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison (trans from French: Naumov V). Ad Marginem Press, Moscow, Russia (original work published 1975) 8. Kabidullinov EA (2012) Theoretical and applied aspects of crime prevention in correctional institutions. Dissertation of candidate of legal sciences. Kostanay, Republic of Kazakhstan 9. Leskova IV, Seleznev IA (2019) On the issue of countering the spread of religious extremism among prisoners in Western Europe, Russia, and the CIS. Ser Sociol Philol Cult Stud 10(2):11– 23 (World of Science) 10. Nikolaev DG (2018) The case of Polyakov and others v. Russian Federation: complaints to the European Court of Human Rights No. 35090/09, 35845/11, 45694/13, and 59747/14. Bull Eur Court Hum Rights 8(194):43–67 11. Nuzhdin AA (2020) Theoretical aspects of the prevention of crimes committed by convicts in correctional institutions. Bull Moscow Univ Ministry Intern Aff Russ 2:103–106. https://doi. org/10.24411/2073-0454-2020-10079 12. Radio Svoboda (2006, Feb 14) UN Commission demands closure of Guantanamo Bay prison. Retrieved from https://www.svoboda.org/a/131618.html. Accessed 31 May 2021 13. Rubinsztein-Dunlop S, Dredge S (2016, Oct 10) Islamic state: counter-terrorism officials fear Supermax prison further radicalizing inmates. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/ news/2016-10-10/supermax-prison-to-be-overhauled-due-to-radicalisation-fears/7918782. Accessed 31 May 2021 14. Uporov IV (1998) Legal regulation of human rights in places of detention. In: Melentiev MP (ed). Ryazan Institute of Law and Economics, Ryazan, Russia 15. Uvarov IA (2007) Penitentiary prevention: theoretical rationale and problems of implementation in the context of achieving the goals of criminal punishment. Ileksa, Moscow, Russia 16. Vavilov A (2009) Middle East: a hard legacy for Barack Obama. Observer 5(232):109–119

Legal Policy and Legal Culture in the Field of Unification of Legal Terminology, Reforms in Criminal Proceedings in the Conditions of the Sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan Gulnara B. Aidarbekova , Ainura D. Urmatova , Baktybek S. Batyrbaev , Tolkun S. Salybekova , and Kadyrbek A. Umetov Abstract With the acquisition of the sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan and the transition to new social relations, the country’s legal policy is characterized by the adoption of the main Law—a new Constitution, state strategic programs for the development of domestic and foreign policy, a significant array of regulatory legal acts as a complex of political and legal means with the aim of transforming society and the implementation of phased legislative reforms. Purpose: The subject of this article is consideration of a complex of problems and trends in the development of legal policy and legal culture in the field of legislative reforms, the processes of applying legislative techniques and principles of unification of normative legal terminology in the Kyrgyz Republic from the period of sovereignty. Methodology: In accordance with the purpose and objectives of the article, we used the following methods of scientific knowledge of political and legal phenomena: logical, historical, formal legal, comparative legal, structural and functional, predictive, while observing the overall systemic approach. Findings: In conditions of sovereignty, the problems of reforming the legal system are being solved to meet new needs. Originality: Obviously, the vast majority of the problems of the development of our society that we face in modern conditions are associated with the need to improve the quality level of legal culture as a whole. Keywords Unification · Litigation · Law · Policy · Sovereignty · Kyrgyzstan JEL Codes K3 · O5 · P4

1 Introduction With the acquisition of the sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan and the transition to new social relations, the country’s legal policy is characterized by the adoption of the main G. B. Aidarbekova (B) · A. D. Urmatova · B. S. Batyrbaev · T. S. Salybekova · K. A. Umetov Kyrgyz National University name J. Balasagyn, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_36

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Law—a new Constitution, state strategic programs for the development of domestic and foreign policy, a significant array of regulatory legal acts as a complex of political and legal means with the aim of transforming society and the implementation of phased legislative reforms. In addition, legal policy in the narrow sense means the development and adoption of normative legal acts and various forms of their legal implementation [1]. Unfortunately, political instability in the republic and frequent changes in state power have led to inconsistent interaction of the activities of government bodies with civil society, which did not contribute to the full provision of the rule of law, the implementation of constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens, social justice. State sovereignty is characterized by a set of sovereign rights that qualify it as a principle that predetermines the content of other principles of the unitary state structure [2]. Therefore, responsibility for the implementation of the goals set by the state, reflected in the concepts, state strategic development programs, is imposed on all subjects of the political system, including representative authorities, as well as civil society [3]. The next tendency in the development of the legal policy of the Kyrgyz Republic is the incompleteness of the judicial and legal reform, the reason is the repeated postponement since 2009 of the What kind of democratic institution—the jury, which would be contrary to the Basic Law—the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan. The main reason for this is not only the long-drawn-out reform of the judicial power system, primarily associated with frequent constitutional reforms and the unpredictable political situation in the republic over the past decades, but also uncertainty about the possibility of forming a qualitatively functioning jury from the standpoint of practicing lawyers [4]. In addition, the reform of the criminal legislation regarding the liability of legal entities, which was first reflected in the norms of the Criminal Code of the Kyrgyz Republic as a new institution of law, has not yet been implemented as corporate criminal liability in law enforcement practice [5]. Without a high level of professional legal awareness and knowledge of legislative technology, especially in the modern conditions of dynamic development of legal integration, it seems very difficult to achieve this, therefore the first adopted Constitutions and codes from the moment the republic gained sovereignty were edited, revised and modified several times. It is necessary to constantly improve and improve the level, means and methods of legislative technology, which determines the quality of the developed normative legal acts and, in general, the level of culture of work with legal document circulation in the state apparatus [6]. Therefore, legal terminology most authors consider the most important means of legal technology, which, in accordance with the requirements of modern society, should be applied in unity in all branches of legislation, not limited only to the framework of individual laws, and this is noted in the scientific works of A. K. Magomedov, A. V. Cherekaeva, A. S. Shaburova.

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Of great importance for achieving compliance of the texts of normative legal acts with the rules of legislative technology is the correct and reasonable use of linguistic means of expression to the content of legal norms, since it is language as a universal sign system that is designed to ensure interaction between subjects of lawmaking and law enforcement process. The use of the unification of regulatory and legal terminology is relevant if, under different options, the same term has a single legal meaning, that is, where the use of a different term or semantic expression should entail different legal consequences. In this regard, A. S. Magomedov in his scientific work prioritized for the legislator’s language such a property of the language as accuracy, despite repetitions calls for the same terms to strengthen their semantic content. Achieving the unity of the use of vocabulary complexes in all parts of the legislation is a rather difficult task. But it is precisely this that should be that super task, the scientist believed, «to which the legislator should strive to solve» [7]. This means that the more general legal and industry terms in the legislative text, the more they should be laconic and precise. At present, a large number of normative legal acts are regularly adopted by the legislative body in the Kyrgyz Republic, but more and more often there is such a problem as the quality of interpretation of such normative legal acts. In this regard, it is especially important to have a unified system of forming legal terminology in the lawmaking system of legislation to ensure an integral, stable, legal space throughout the territory of the Kyrgyz Republic [8]. As B. S. Batyrbaev, the task of criminal policy as part of the legal policy of the state at the present stage is the adoption of precisely qualitative laws regulating the stability of the development of a sovereign state, the improvement of legal proceedings and the humanization of criminal legislation [9]. It should be noted that the present stage of development of rule-making activity is characterized by entry/introduction into the process of term creation—general legal terminology of foreign terms and concepts. This is a foreign-language legal vocabulary that goes back mainly to the origins of the terminology used in Roman law (disposition–disposition, amnesty–forgiveness; analogy–similarity; identity, conformity; referendum–popular approval; discrimination, segregation–isolation, distinction; convention–contract, agreement; document– certificate; pension–payment; loan–debt, contribution, etc.)., the reception of which is caused by the need to bring the domestic legal vocabulary into compliance with international and European legal standards [10]. Strengthening of integration processes in the development of legal science and interdisciplinary relations in general will contribute to the development of an adequate integral, synthetic approach to the modern special linguistic terminological fund of a natural type to the conceptual apparatus of science. In general, this led to an increase in cross-sectoral legal terminology uniting independent structures. Thus, the unification of normative legal terminology is a combination of all methods and means aimed at achieving its unambiguity by eliminating unnecessary synonymy, eliminating contradictions and discrepancies in spelling meanings of terms [11].

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2 Methodology The research methodology is based on the idea of the need to form and improve legal policy and legal culture in the field of legislative reforms, mastering knowledge of legislative technology, legal and linguistic competence of the language and unification of terminology, since today it is these aspects the professional activity of a lawyer is the most demanded and least developed in scientific and methodological terms [12].

3 Results The scientific article also discusses the issues of practice and problems of using industry terminology. According to the authors, sectoral terminology serves a special branch of legislation, forms a sectoral terminological legal field that does not coincide with either general legal or inter-sectoral terminological fields, broader in content and functionality. The Constitution as the basis of legal policy proclaimed the Kyrgyz. The republic is a legal and sovereign state, implying a civil society with a high level of legal culture. Through the organization of state power, sovereignty receives organizational and legal forms of expression, is provided by the system of state and legal institutions [13]. The etymology of the concept of «credit» indicates that it is synonymous with the word «trust», the word «solvency». In economic turnover credit is a universal concept that includes an indication of an expanded range of relations of funds borrowed in any form with a subsequent return, with certain distinctive features, and items of the same type of equal quality in quantities received with a deferred fulfillment of other property obligations [14]. Proceeding from this, the category «credit» is presented as an independent legal relationship, even included in another concept. On the basis of the obtained scheme, it is necessary to select linguistic and verbal means for the development of normative concepts, giving priority to the terms and expressions already existing in the language with a clear and stable meaning. Speaking about the existing problems of using general legal terminology that complicate the process of understanding the legal text, allows us to conclude that legislators often do not give clear definitions of concepts and terms. In addition, legislators do not comply with the requirement establishing the adequacy of the definition of the term, i.e. strict compliance with the volume of the concept expressed by it, and consistency, indicating the place of the term in a given conceptual system. Lack of legal definitions of such terms complicates the use of a large number of them [15].

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4 Conclusion Qualitative renewal of the state society is carried out in the form of social modernization, legal policy in the field of raising the level of legal culture, culture of lawmaking, in the light of recent reforms that cover all spheres of society. Frequent change of declared projects that clearly do not correspond the historical mission of the Kyrgyz Republic, given its past, present and future, do not contribute to this. Many reforms—economic, legal, social, educational, health care—have been and are being carried out in a largely detached form from the population, and ultimately take place in the interests of not the majority [16]. Each new government in Kyrgyzstan itself initiated changes in the political and legal system, not taking particular into account the reaction of the population, which gives rise to the problem of perception of legal institutions, a decrease in the value and authority of law as a regulator of social relations, as a result, the policy of the state is represented by the opposition, a source of misconduct, alienation of citizens from law, which is fraught with the leveling of the main principle of the rule of law—the rule of law, as determining the legal state of civil society [17]. Legal terminology is currently characterized by the presence of trends in the globalization of integration processes. New general legal, intersectoral and sectoral terms are formed not only from the common terms of the national language, but also from foreign language vocabulary. At the same time, the formation of new concepts and terms is accompanied by a semantic deepening of existing legal concepts and their enrichment with new essential features. Legal culture, the culture of lawmaking, being an integral product of human culture, directly or indirectly affects the formation of ordinary or professional legal consciousness of citizens in various spheres of life, especially in the legal one. Behavior of each member of society needs to understand the direction of their own development and development of society [18].

References 1. The Criminal Procedure Code of the Kyrgyz Republic dated 2 Feb 2017, No. 20. http://cbd. minjust.gov.kg/act/view/ru-ru/111530 2. Law of the Kyrgyz Republic «On National Security» dated 26 Feb 2003, No. 44 (in the last edition of 1 Dec 2017, No. 197). http://cbd.minjust.gov.kg/act/view/ru-ru/1168?cl=ru-ru 3. Chapchikov S. Legal policy of modern Russia in a crisis. Law Manag XXI Century 130–134. http://pravo.mgimo.ru/sites/default/files/pdf/22.pdf 4. Umetov KA (2019) State sovereignty: some theoretical aspects. Bull KNU J Balasagyn Bishkek 40–46 5. Ganieva TI (2019) Reforms in the system of public administration in the Kyrgyz Republic. Bull Sci Pract 5(6):376–385. https://doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/43/50 6. Aydarbekova GB, Karypov BK (2017) Issues of improving legal culture within the legal policy of the Kyrgyz Republic. Bull KRSU 17(11):106–109

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7. Batyrbaev BS (2016) Formation of the jury in the courts of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic: general, special. Probl Mod Sci Educ 43(01). https:// ipi1.ru-/s/350-formirovanie-kollegii 8. Salybekova TS (2016) Criminal liability and participation of a legal entity in criminal proceedings of the Kyrgyz Republic. Probl Mod Sci Educ (5):79–82 9. Aydarbekova GB, Askanbekov N (2017) Issues of legal culture of legislative authorities in the Kyrgyz Republic in the context of humanization of legal consciousness. Sci New Technol Innov Kyrgyzstan (6):142–144 10. Magomedov SK (2004) Unification of normative legal terminology and a unified legal space of Russia. J Russ Law (3):23–29 11. Batyrbaev BS (2013) Legal issues of the criminal policy of the Kyrgyz Republic at the present stage. Bull KGYu (4):148–151 12. Urmatova AD (2017) Unifications of normative legal acts of the Kyrgyz Republic. Izvestia Univ Kyrgyzstan 2(19):84–86 13. Umetov KA (2019) State sovereignty: some theoretical aspects. Vestnik KNU J Balasagyn 40–46 14. Aydarbekova GB, Karypov BK (2017) Issues of improving legal culture within the legal policy of the Kyrgyz Republic. Bull KRSU 17(11):106–109. https://www.elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=323 60906 15. Gadzhiev GA (2018) On understanding and legal thinking in constitutional law. J Const Justice (6):46–60 16. Urmatova AD (2017) Normative legal terminology. Tavricheskiy Sci Educ (2):99–102 17. Urmatova AD (2017) Legal term in the regulatory legal system of the Kyrgyz Republic: in the collection: «Modern problems of the humanities and natural sciences». In: Materials of the XXXIII international scientific-practical conference, 2 parts, pp 126–133 18. Urmatova AD (2017) Legal term in the regulatory legal system of the Kyrgyz Republic: in collection of articles: «Modern problems of the humanities and natural sciences». In: Proceedings of the XXXIII international scientific-practical conference, 2 parts, pp 126–133

The Use of Legal Intersectoral Terminology in the Process of Improving Legislation, Legislative Innovations on the Responsibility of Legal Entities in the Conditions of the Sovereignty of Kyrgyzstan Ainura D. Urmatova , Tamara I. Ganieva , Edil E. Moldoev , Tolkun S. Salybekova , and Kadyrbek A. Umetov Abstract The recent legislative reforms in Kyrgyzstan in the judicial, law enforcement, economic and educational spheres testify to the increased role of the state in the development of legal policy on the way of building a sovereign, rule of law state. Purpose: The purpose of the research is a comprehensive theoretical study of the problems and mechanisms of structuring regulatory legal acts; in the analysis of the basic principles of ensuring the unambiguous correspondence of the system of concepts and terms with the system of normative legal acts through unification, partly reforms in the criminal legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic, which contributes to the improvement of the rule-making activity of law-making bodies during the period of sovereignty of the Kyrgyz Republic. Methodology: Conceptual approaches and dialectical method of scientific knowledge of objective reality served as the methodological basis of the article. Findings: In these conditions, the value of the purposeful formation of legal and linguistic competence in the creation of a normative legal act is actualized—a creative process that covers not only cognitive, but also content, technical, legal and procedural aspects. Originality: When building the structure of a normative act, it is advisable for the legislator to differentiate the generic character and species distinction, in order to simplify the form of the legal term in the legal act without listing its features, which will ensure the stable nature and quality of the law and the uniform focus of law enforcement practice. Keywords Legislation · Innovation · Sovereignty · Kyrgyzstan JEL Codes K3 · O5 · P4

A. D. Urmatova (B) · T. I. Ganieva · E. E. Moldoev · T. S. Salybekova · K. A. Umetov Kyrgyz National University name J. Balasagyn, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic T. I. Ganieva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_37

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1 Introduction The Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic, for the first time outlining the general doctrine of the sovereignty of the statehood of the Kyrgyz Republic and strengthening genuine state principles in it, predetermined the need to ensure a single legal space throughout its territory. Undoubtedly, the entry of the Kyrgyz Republic into the international community requires identification and observance by the subjects of the law of legislative initiative and other rule-making bodies of the Kyrgyz Republic of the basic principles of construction and unification of normative legal acts and mastery of knowledge of legislative techniques [1].

2 Methodology The concept of the study is to consider the legal interdisciplinary terminology as a creative process, covering both cognitive and substantive, technical, legal, procedural aspects, as well as issues of sovereignty, reflecting the organizational and legal forms of expression and powers of law-making bodies, and concerning the responsibility of legal entities under the legislation of the republic. Modern trends in integration processes and the emergence of interdisciplinary strata determined the emergence of interdisciplinary terminology intended for the use of concepts and terms within several branches of law, which predominates defines a clear definition of the subject differentiation of normative legal acts in order to unify them and comply with the requirements and principles of legislative technology. In accordance with the purpose and objectives of the scientific article, the following general scientific research methods were used: historical, logical-legal, comparative-legal, functional, modeling method, comparative method and systemic approach. The method of legal interpretation consists of ways of understanding the content of legal acts. This method is mainly distinguished by its special purpose—the practical implementation of legal norms, methods of cognition of law [2].

3 Results The subject of this article is the unification and use of the terminology of the texts of normative legal acts by the rule-making bodies of the Kyrgyz Republic and the responsibility of legal entities in the context of the renewal of reforms and the sovereignty of the Kyrgyz Republic. Thus, the problem of popular sovereignty as an integral part of the general problem of sovereignty is a complex political and legal phenomenon and can be considered as:

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actual supremacy and sovereignty of the people in society and the state (sociological aspect); political and legal property of the people in public and state life (legal aspect); political and legal principle (physical and ideological aspect); category of legal science (epistemological aspect). With the direct participation of state power, people’s sovereignty receives organizational and legal forms of expression, is ensured by the system of state and legal institutions (including law-making bodies) in the fact that state power belonging to the people is exercised exclusively in their interests in practical activities organs of the state, finds its manifestation in the unity of national and state sovereignty [3]. Thus, lawmaking forms the specifics of legal thinking, which reflects the specific normative needs of public life, a normative attitude to real objective reality, mediated by the institutions of public power. This type of legal thinking is due to the fact that the “legal method of thinking” creates and uses special (legal) concepts through which some normative needs are expressed [4]. Thus, legal concepts are a variety of social concepts that determine the specifics of legal thinking as a normative method reflecting real ways of mastering legal, social needs. At the same time, the definition of the essence of a phenomenon is carried out through its understanding. A rational approach to truth is impossible without defining concepts that we can define. If legal concepts are not sufficiently developed, they cannot be clearly articulated and clearly expressed in terminology. A provision that is not appropriate for justice, in which the term appears first, and then the concept according to it. This or that concept has normative quality only if it is established by a legislative act with an appropriate terminological designation. In other words, normative legal terms are formed as a result of a normative act of the legislative body along with the corresponding concepts [5]. Analysis of legislative and other regulatory legal acts of the Kyrgyz Republic, laws of the Kyrgyz Republic, decrees of the President of the Kyrgyz Republic, decrees of the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, etc.) confirms that in a number of cases the normative terminology concerning the same subject of legal regulation is not unified and differs from that used in other normative legal acts of the Kyrgyz Republic. New concepts-terms are introduced in the texts of laws, often not legally defined, which leads to conflicts of law governing the same or similar social relations. It has a particularly negative effect on the legal application. Therefore, legal terminology is a kind of social concepts, the peculiarity of which is predetermined by the specifics of legal thinking as a reflection of legal consciousness, a method and method of normative development of legal reality, reflecting the social needs of civil society [6]. So, in legal science, the problems of the use of legal terminology, its ordering and unification are considered as problems of the language of law—state legislation. Being the most significant part of the lawmaking process, lawmaking in general The system of the rule-making process occupies the main niche, despite the fact that the share of laws in the total array of existing normative legal acts does not exceed five percent.

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The rest of the lawmaking process in the Kyrgyz Republic is devoted to the development of other legal acts that are adopted in the implementation of the Basic Law—the Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic, constitutional laws, codes of other bylaws and local acts of the sovereign Kyrgyz Republic. The processes of uniform formation and use of a unified system of concepts of general legal, intersectoral and sectoral terminology should correspond to and follow the basic methods and means of legislative techniques and be used in a unified form in various branches of legislation. Meanwhile, in order to determine the essential feature of any phenomenon, it is necessary to have a concept about it, and for a rational attitude to existing reality, it is then necessary to know the definition of the concepts that we operate with ourselves. Insufficiently developed and undefined by subjective characteristics of legal concepts cannot pretend to perfect and accurate terminology, if would be acceptable in lawmaking the position initially arises a term, and then a concept. In legislative texts without legal definitions, new concepts and terms are often introduced; as a result, this leads to contradictions, collisions of the norms of law regulating the same or identical social relations, which is negatively reflected, especially in law enforcement practice. Note that the language as a special, universal sign system is designed to ensure the consistency of the actions of the subjects of lawmaking, as well as the processes of law implementation, and therefore a great role can be assigned to the compliance of the texts of normative acts with the rules and techniques of legal technology. Therefore, the rulemaking practice requires language means that would clearly define legal concepts and competently express the ideas and thoughts of the legislator. This explains the constant interest of lawyers in the language of the law. An essential functional feature of the terms used in normative acts is that they express the official expression of the will of the legislator, thereby exerting a certain directional legal impact on the subjects of legal relations. Only legal terms are capable of objectifying this will by information means for the necessary perception [7]. However, in a number of cases, the classical definitions are inapplicable, since it is impractical or impossible to accurately indicate the genus and distinctive species characteristics of too broad or, conversely, the simplest concept. When constructing a specific definition, it is necessary to choose the form that turns out to be the most suitable, which will affect the stability of the law and the unified direction of law enforcement practice in the future. According to T. I. Ganieva, a law is a legal act as a form of expression of a legal norm. The law establishes the most general clear rules of conduct for citizens and on this basis differs from a court decision, the force of which is exhausted by one case. As a form of expression of a legal norm, a law (in the material sense) goes through the legislative procedure of such stages as: development, approval (for example, when alienating state property, approving a budget, approving a loan), etc. [8]. As a rule, a term generally performs two functions: nominative (that is, it serves as the name of a concept) and the function of reflecting the content of a concept. Any definition of a legal concept is necessary so that they also contain sufficient features that reveal its physical essence or the technical idea of a given concept. The term in

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this respect should conditionally reflect the necessary and sufficient features of the concept, creating, on the one hand, the generality of the given concept, on the other hand, its specificity. This requirement also includes cross-sectoral legal terminology [9]. There are examples where definitions of terms placed in sectoral laws apply to other sectors or legislation in general. At present, due to the uncertainty and discrepancies in the concept of «legal entity», there is a need to improve the relevant provisions of regulatory enactments. The problem of differentiating the concepts of «legal entity», «enterprise», «entrepreneur» is very relevant, since these concepts are defined differently in regulatory legal acts of various levels. However, it is necessary that the legislator, when implementing the rule-making process, takes into account the peculiarities of the national mentality, the national specifics of such a unique phenomenon of legal culture—the customary law of the Kyrgyz, which, in the process of centuries-old development of the legal history of nomads, regulated collective relations that met the needs of the nomadic image life, as the norms of traditional society, which are still applied today, only in a modified form. The problem of responsibility, carried out by researchers of the customary law of the Kyrgyz, in particular the customary legal practice of the courts of biys, district courts, testified that the main importance was not responsibility in relation to a specific violator, but the collective responsibility of the nomadic community. Likewise, in the new edition of the criminal legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic, the concept of «liability of legal entities» is introduced, which will require the compliance of new norms, characteristic only of criminal law, with the rules and techniques of legislative technique [10]. Formation of collective criminal liability of legal entities—new institute in the criminal legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic, enacted in 2019. To design new rules governing the mechanism of criminal liability of legal entities, they must correspond to both general structures for all branches of law, and specific ones, i.e. characteristic only for criminal law, the rules and techniques of legislative technology. So, until recently, the concept of «enterprise» was identified with the concept of «legal entity». It is necessary that these concepts be brought into conformity with the current civil legislation, where the «enterprise» is the object of civil relations, and the «legal entity» is the subject. In the Civil Code of the Kyrgyz Republic, the term «legal entity» is defined as «an organization that owns, manages/operates separate property, is responsible for its obligations with this property, and is capable of acquiring and exercising property and personal non-property rights on its own behalf, bearing duties, to be a plaintiff and a defendant in court» [5], while in a number of laws of other branches of law, a legal entity is understood as all organizations and legal entities in their own sense, state bodies and public associations. This testifies to the technical incompleteness of the relevant laws, inattention to their verbal expression. Therefore, it is so important to harmonize the terminology used in the project with the terminology of current acts, as well as other projects that are similar in content.

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As noted above, it is advisable to define a legal term in a legal act by indicating a generic trait and species differences, and not by listing its features, which complicates its presentation, and also ignores certain features of the corresponding legal concept that have meaning for enforcement. However, in a number of cases, the classical definitions seem inapplicable, since it is impractical or impossible to accurately indicate the genus and distinctive species characteristics of a too ambiguous or, conversely, a simple concept. Nevertheless, despite the fact that the efforts of legislators to comply with the principles of legislative technique and the language of law, sometimes when forming the texts of normative legal acts, they do not strictly adhere to the principles of using intersectoral legal deficits, when it was possible to construct homogeneous definitions in a lightweight version for them. Therefore, building a specific definitive form, the legislator needs to choose the form that will be the most clear and convenient, which will ensure the stability of the law in the future and lead to a unified direction of law enforcement practice. A specific feature of industry terminology is subject-logical connections and relations of concepts identical to normative acts, reproducing a specific sphere legal relationship. Sectoral terminology as a special branch of legislation and with broader content and functionality reflects the sectoral terminological field, which cannot coincide with the general legal or cross-sectoral terminological field. Special terms, which are rarely and not often used in the language, should be endowed with clearer definitions of such terms, but if the term is used for the first time in a regulatory legal act and is applied simultaneously in several branches of legislation, then it is necessary to understand them in a narrow and a broad meaning compared to the traditionally understood term, since several branches of legislation will be regulated by it [11].

4 Conclusion In conclusion, it should be noted that the terminology of special, profiled in the subject content and purpose of legal norms complements the basic, industry differentiation and should not contradict it. To achieve proportionality of the texts of normative legal acts with the rules of legislative technique, the correct use of linguistic means for the semantic definition of the content of the norms of law, since it is language as a universal sign system that is designed to ensure interaction between the subjects of lawmaking and law implementation. The concepts and terminology and norms of complex legal acts may be specific in nature and may have exceptions to the general rules, the legislator should not ignore these rules or be canceled. When designing and developing new norms governing the mechanism of criminal liability of legal entities, they must comply with both

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general structures for all branches of law, and specific ones, i.e. characteristic only for the norms of criminal law, the rules and techniques of legislative technology. Whatever goal the scientists set themselves, they all agree that the language of law is quite specific and needs constant development and improvement. In the scientific developments of lawyers dealing with linguistic issues, there is a noticeable lack of specific conclusions on ways to improve the texts of regulatory legal acts through unification. The unifying nature of law without science disclosing its essence and mechanism of action, in any particular area of knowledge, cannot give the desired results. It should be noted that the legislator, when forming and developing the language of texts of normative legal acts in a number of cases, they do not adhere to any principles for the exact use of intersectoral legal terms, which would be convenient for building homogeneous definitions [12].

References 1. Law of the Kyrgyz Republic «On the Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic» dated 5 May 2021, №. 59. http://cbd.minjust.gov.kg/act/view/ru-ru/112215?cl=ru-ru 2. Civil Code of the Kyrgyz Republic dated 8 May 1996, No. 15 (with amendments and additions dated 16 Dec 2016). http://cbd.minjust.gov.kg/act/view/ru-ru/4?cl=ru-ru 3. Umetov KA (2019) State sovereignty: some theoretical aspects. Vestnik KNU J Balasagyn 40–46 4. Urmatova AD, Ryspaeva GS (2019) Legal terminology. Bull Sci Pract T.5(9):318–324 5. Ganieva TI, Urmatova AD, Ryspaeva GS (2019) Legal terminology and term creation in the process of preparing regulatory legal acts in the Kyrgyz Republic. Bull Sci Pract T.5(9):318–186 6. Urmatova AD (2016) Some issues of unification of terminology used in legislation. The science. New technologies and innovations of Kyrgyzstan B, №12, pp 157–160 7. Urmatova AD (2017) Unification of regulatory legal acts of the Kyrgyz Republic. Science. New technologies and innovations of Kyrgyzstan B, №13, 157–160 8. Arenberg GM (1948) On the issue of legal terminology. In: Methodological materials. M.: VYUZI, 122 p 9. Moldoev EE, Abakirova AA (2016) On the issue of the national legal system of the Kyrgyz Republic. Bull KSLA (2):71–74 10. Salybekova TS (2016) Criminal liability and participation of a legal entity in criminal proceedings of the Kyrgyz Republic. Probl Mod Sci Educ (5):79–82 11. Ganieva TM (2012) Features of the civil law of Kyrgyzstan during its stay in the Russian Empire. Science, New technologies and innovations of Kyrgyzstan, № 3, pp 206–209 12. Ganieva TI, Urmatova AD, Ryspaeva GS (2019) Legal terminology and term creation in the process of preparing regulatory legal acts in the Kyrgyz Republic. Bull Sci Pract 5(9):318–186

The Problem of Student-Centered Learning of IT Specialists for Education Sphere Elena Yu. Novikova , Elena V. Popova , Tatyana A. Andreeva , Victoria Yu. Garnova , and Aglaya D. Busalova

Abstract The main purpose of this article is to determine the features of training IT specialists for creating the electronic educational environment in an economic university. The research methodology is based on the analysis of the basic category “computer communication” and modern approaches to the design of electronic space. The selected research method is a sociological survey conducted at the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics during the period of distance learning. The results of the study showed that computer communications for the educational space are most fully described based on the personality paradigm, in which a person is presented as an integral subject with cognitive, affective, praxeological, and motivational-value qualities. Therefore, the training of IT professionals should include an expanded range of disciplines that consider personality in different possible contexts. The training of IT specialists for higher education should proceed from the need to design complex electronic educational products that perform multiple functions, based on the unity of the competence and personal approaches in the system of modern education. The dynamics of higher education and the need for its constant adaptation to new realities and challenges requires the formation of innovative qualities of IT specialists. The originality of the work consists in determining the possibility of applying the principles of “emotional design” for the construction of an electronic educational space in an economic university. Training of IT specialists for the education system should take into account modern trends in electronic design, reflected in the paradigms of “emotional design”, which give the most complete picture of the individual as a

E. Yu. Novikova · E. V. Popova (B) · T. A. Andreeva · V. Yu. Garnova · A. D. Busalova Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] T. A. Andreeva e-mail: [email protected] V. Yu. Garnova e-mail: [email protected] A. D. Busalova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_38

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subject of computer communications. The conclusions of the work are based on empirical research and sociological data, which are obtained by the authors. Keywords Electronic education · Training · Personnel · Computer communication · User · Personality · Cognitive processes · Education · Motivation JEL Codes A10 · A20 · A22

1 Introduction The expansion of distance education poses new challenges for the creators of the electronic space of universities in accordance with various goals and facets of education, which requires improving the quality of training for IT specialists in this area. The features of the electronic educational environment are considered in sufficient detail in relation to the level of education and disciplines. However, many problems remain in the area of training IT specialists, which ultimately lead to ineffective use of the electronic educational space. The motivational, personal, as well as emotional aspects of students’ work in the electronic space and the role of IT specialists in creating conditions for their implementation haven’t been sufficiently studied.

2 Materials and Methods The interaction of IT specialists, computers, and users in the electronic educational space is considered based on various paradigms, as well as basic concepts. The general category for the analysis of computer communications is “communication”, the content of which is determined based on a synthesis of approaches of various sciences—psychology, sociology, linguistics, social anthropology, etc. But the concept of communication isn’t unambiguous, and several approaches to the analysis of this phenomenon can be distinguished in modern researches. The first approach to computer communications can be described as cognitivetechnocratic. Its feature is the representation of subjects of computer communications, based on the concepts of artificial intelligence and neural network systems for solving pedagogical problems. However, the socio-cognitive approach prevails in the process of characterizing communications. The cognitive approach also prevails in the training of IT specialists working in the area of education. The features of computer communications are called multimedia or hypertextuality. According to the authors, these factors determine the process of using electronic text. The dominance of visual forms of computer communication is indicated [15]. Multimedia is realized through the connection of textual information with its other forms—graphic, sound, animation, video communication, etc. An expanded understanding of computer communications is associated not only with the analysis

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of various modalities of information perception but also with its different sources. In particular, text design is also viewed as a medium one through graphics, type, visuals, and colours. Personal educational space is considered in pedagogical and technological aspects, the question of its application in the conditions of formalized education is raised. The researchers note the complexity of semiotic texts of computer communications, including the use of several codes simultaneously with the use of texts, visual images, as well as musical accompaniment, which are also reflected in terms of “polycode”, “creolization” [4]. The description of communication is based on the information paradigm. In the number of works on informatics, multimedia is considered as a means of informing the user. Visual and audio components are aimed at changing the form of information presentation to make the message more understandable, simple, and accessible to the audience, logical, reasonable, as well as convincing. The relationship between verbal and non-verbal components of communication can be complementary, they can also duplicate information, accentuate it, and be on “background”, when, for example, colour-neutral plot design helps to mentally separate one page of the presentation from another. At the same time, assimilation of information is allowed at the rational and sensory levels, in conscious or subconscious forms, which differ in their activity. The second approach to computer communications takes into account the broad context of their dialogues and develops mainly in linguistics. To express personality attitudes in linguistic Internet communications, the following forms are used: a. b. c. d.

Emoticons, which are special graphic elements created to express emotions; Capital letters accentuating a fragment of the text that evokes emotions; Variations in the colour design of the font; Combination of uppercase and lowercase letters for highlighting terms.

Hypertext is viewed as a sphere of personal dialogues. As an essential feature of computer communication in the “man-computer” and “man-computer-man” systems, dialogics is indicated, and this also can differ from dialogics of oral free speech in its forms. In this regard, the functions and content characteristics of the subjects of computer dialogue are considered. In the works of the authors, the substantiation of the position of the respondent as the main subject of the dialogic speech is given. Prepared texts are viewed as generators of meaning, and conversational, largely spontaneous texts are interpreted in the aspect of generating meaning. Computer-mediated communication is based on written coding but is aimed at reproducing the dialogic characteristic of oral speech, which differs from written book communication [7]. Except for the linguistic factors, computer-mediated discourse forms nonlinguistic factors—worldview, thoughts, value system, and goals of communicating subjects. Computer communications affect the reproduction environment of the individual and society, which requires a rethinking of the function of the components of information and the computer environment. The tension in the process of working with computers is explained by psychological and personal factors [2, 6, 8].

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The third approach to computer communications is based on a holistic understanding of the human as a person. The polyphenomenological approach takes into account the personality in all its manifestations—motivation, interests as a subjective expression of motives, attitudes, values, orientation, etc. Technological, cognitive, motivational characteristics of the virtual environment are considered in unity with its philosophy and value context. The definition of communication as the transmission of mental information through language is complemented by other facets of understanding the phenomenon of communication. The content of the category “communication” is determined based on a synthesis of approaches of various sciences—psychology, sociology, linguistics, as well as social anthropology. The advantage of the personal paradigm in understanding communications is the ability to study the social functions of distance education. The personal paradigm of education is of particular importance in economic universities. In recent times, interest in the personal-value, cultural, and spiritual aspects of economic processes has sharply increased, which is associated with the growing role of subjective activity in the world, active and controlled implementation of economic reforms, as well as intercultural interaction. At the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, teaching economic disciplines is associated with their value context. The studies show that spiritual values, especially the values of trust, honesty, and debt, have a great impact on investment activity, on the implementation of innovative projects in the area of economics, as well as on the characteristics of tax activities, which, in turn, affects the development of models of regional governance and public administration [1]. Business ethics also largely affects its efficiency, which, in turn, requires the development of models for teaching ethics to students in economics [5]. Economic management in the area of the sports industry should take into account the cultural foundations of sports, the values and motives for choosing sports activities because this is associated with the development and implementation of a competence model for training managers of the sports industry in economic university [12–14]. The personal paradigm in the understanding of computer communications, in the author’s opinion, fully describes the behaviour of a person as a subject of education. But for its practical implementation, it’s necessary to know the design principles of an electronic educational space, where human communications affect the personal level. The concept of “emotional design” is also of interest for the development of methodological foundations for the study of computer communications. “Emotional design” is a direction that has become quite widespread over the past decade in foreign literature. The emotional impact of a design object on a person has been known for a long time, especially in art. But in the sphere of emotional design, the creation of technical means—industrial facilities, interfaces, and websites is considered. Cognitive emotional design is based on the following principles: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Focusing not only on the user’s knowledge but also on external information; Presentation of tasks in the simplest form; Clarity, the use of prompts; The use of limiters in case of errors;

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Reliance on traditions and standards, while creating innovations [11]. Krug [9] puts forward the following principles for creating websites:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The use of contrast to delineate sections; The use of cultural standards, while working with texts, for example, established classifiers, familiar signs and symbols, as well as reading from left to right; Clear delimitation of the page by its fragments; Reduction of visual interference and distracting background; Bright highlighting of the most popular buttons [9].

Navigation methods on the site must comply with the rules of the social and communicative space. In the concept of Marcott [10], “responsive design” and “smart design” are considered. With regard to the design of websites, it’s unacceptable to create tension in the mental processes of the user, to require him to perform unnecessary operations and solve unnecessary intermediate tasks. It’s also advisable to use “mobile support”, extended layout, flexible images, “modular grids”, and vivid visual prompts. From the standpoint of personological theories of “emotional design”, positive emotions, while working on a website, are conditioned by the unity of social values, and due to them the site is perceived as “human”, “charming”. Computer communications based on the principles of “emotional design” give the user an experience similar to contact with a close friend. According to Walter [16], the principles of emotional design are: 1.

2. 3.

The individuality of site designs evokes a feeling of empathy in the user, recognition of “oneself”. From this point of view, the technique and the site should be perceived as “humanized”, which is achieved by the selection of special fonts, symbols, as well as colour and sound design; Retransmission of social values by means of constructions; Presence of individualized images on the site, which emphasizes the personality traits [16].

Cooper et al. [3] implement a personal approach in interface design. Cooper builds his concept based on his practice—the creation of Visual Basic, the management of Cooper Interaction Design, who created interfaces for Sony, IBM, and Ericsson. A necessary condition for successful communication between the user and the computer is, according to [3], the unity of the personal attitudes of the user and the creator of the interfaces.

3 Results The authors carried out a sociological study to determine the directions of training IT specialists at the university, using the method of an expert survey. The research was aimed at identifying the most significant factors affecting computer communications in the context of distance education. The study involved students (70 people)

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and teachers (40 people) of the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics. The list of factors was taken from works on emotional design, the subjects had to rate the frequency of occurrence of the factor in the electronic educational space on a scale of up to 100%. Three platforms for conducting classes were studied—ZOOM, MOODLE, and LMS (Learning Management System) (Table 1). As the results show, the disadvantages of the electronic environment noted by users can be conditionally divided into two groups—those related to Internet communication and to the design of electronic space. Users pointed out the presence of extraneous Table 1 Assessment of psychological factors of the electronic educational space No. Psychological factors of the electronic educational space

ZOOM

1

Lack of contrasting visual cues on the site

2.5%

2

MOODLE

LMS

Students Teachers Students Teachers Students Teachers 6.5%

7.3%

10.3%

28.4%

37%

Ability to quickly view 67.6% the presentation

69%

55.7%

27.2%

54.2%

28%

3

Insufficient contrast 1.5% selection of frequently used fragments

1.8%

2%

4.5%

73.2%

76%

4

“Freeze” on the site

49.5%

52%

3.5%

3.7%

43.7%

51%

5

External interference on the site

44.3%

44%

1.2%

1%

–

–

6

Unsatisfactory audio quality

47%

45%

–

–

–

–

7

Lack of usual ways of action when working on the site

1.5%

10%

4.4%

7%

83%

84%

8

“Extra” steps and operations

1.3%

2%

1.7%

2%

85%

87%

9

Unsatisfactory font and character quality

0.5%

2%

6.4%

8%

36.4%

56%

10

The ability to see the 57% face of the interlocutor

59%

–

–

–

–

11

Using personalized avatars

53%

27%

–

–

–

–

12

Website design customization

–

–

5%

6%

–

–

13

Visualization of values 78.5%

77%

3%

1%

–

–

14

Using personal symbols

1%

–

2%

–

15

Use of jokes and metaphors

67%

60%

7%

1%

2%

1%

Source Compiled by the authors

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interference on the site, “freezing” with the disappearance of the visible image and sound, as well as unsatisfactory audio broadcast quality. There was a lack of vivid visual prompts, while working with ZOOM and MOODLE on the screen, the small size of signs, and symbols. The assessment of the negative influence of emotionogenic factors on the educational process was higher among teachers than among students. The study revealed several problems in the use of the electronic educational space, which poses new challenges for IT specialists. First of all, this concerns the problem of communication. Manifestation of communicative factors was difficult exactly in distance learning. The implementation of pedagogical, didactic tasks sets goals for IT specialists to create new, complex developments in the area of electronic educational space, harmoniously combining text, audio, and visual forms of communication in a fairly fast, as well as limited mode of use, which, in turn, requires amendments to the training programs for specialists in universities. During the training of IT specialists, it’s necessary to focus on creating positive user emotions in the educational space.

4 Conclusion 1.

2.

3.

4.

Computer communications are fully described based on a personal paradigm, in which a person is presented as an integral subject with cognitive, affective, praxeological, and motivational-value qualities. Therefore, the training of IT professionals has to include an expanded range of disciplines that consider personality in different contexts. The creation of an electronic educational space should take into account the development trends of modern education. The training of IT specialists for higher education should proceed from the need to design complex electronic educational products that perform multiple functions, based on the unity of the competence-based and personal approach in the system of modern education. The dynamics of higher education and the need for its constant adaptation to new realities and challenges requires the formation of innovative qualities of IT specialists. Training of IT specialists for education should take into account the current trends in electronic design, reflected in the paradigms of “emotional design”, which give the most complete picture of the individual as a subject of computer communications. The training of specialists in the area of education also requires expanding the general outlook base by including disciplines of a systemic profile, which can be, for example, “Philosophy of Science and Technology”, “Psychology and Sociology of the User”, “Fundamentals of Modern Design”, etc.

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References 1. Bogomolova EV, Selezneva LY, Izmalkova IV, Popova EV, Troyanskaya MA (2017) Development of modern entrepreneurship: competition and cooperation. Eur Res Stud J 20(3):539–547 2. Charlton JP, Kappas A, Swiderska A (2015) Does computing anger have social elements? A comparison with driving anger. Behav Inf Technol 34(3):294–303 3. Cooper A, Reiman R, Cronin D, Nossel K (2019) Interface. Interaction design basics. Peter, 719 p 4. Doroshenko EG, Ivkina LM, Pak NI, Khegai LB, Yakovleva TA (2020) Selection of the content of the teacher training program for the mega-lessons based on a cognitive approach. Bull Moscow State Pedagogical Univ Ser Inf Inf Educ 2(52):53–66 5. Galukhin A, Gusejnov F, Malakhova E, Novikova E (2017) Conceptual frameworks of business ethics. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on contemporary education. Advances in social science education and humanities research, vol 124, pp 709–712 6. Hadlington L, Scase MO (2018) End-user frustrations and failures in digital technology: exploring the role of fear of missing out, internet addiction and personality. Heliyon 4(11):8–72 7. Ionova SV (2016) Linguistics of new linguistic consciousness and information technologies. Bull Volgograd State Univ Ser Linguist 3–15:7–11 8. Kosinski M, Stilwell D, Gaepel T (2013) Private traits and attributes are predictable from digital records of human behaviour. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110(15):5802–5805 9. Krug S (2017) Don’t make me think. E, Moscow, 253 p 10. Marcott I (2012) Responsive design. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 163 p 11. Norman D (2019) Design of familiar things. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 380 p 12. Novikova EYu, Kornilova IM, Malakhova EV, Galukhin AV (2018) Student sport managers’ attitudes to professional competencies. Theory Pract Phys Cult 6:81–82 13. Novikova EY, Malakhova EV, Galukhin AV, Kostin PA (2017) Role of physical culture values in the professional growth of economics students. Theory Pract Phys Cult 9:102–104 14. Novikova EY, Malakhova EV, Galukhin AV, Kostin PA (2017) Physical culture values in economics students’ professional education system. Theory Pract Phys Cult 5:29–30 15. Voevudskaya OM, Shurlina OV (2019) Computer-mediated communication: characteristic features and specific features. Art Logos 1(6):99–111 16. Walter A (2012) Emotional web design. Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 99 p

From Previous Economic Order to New Economic Reality Olga V. Brizhak

and Elena S. Chikanova

Abstract The main purpose of this study is to determine the content of the phenomenon of the new economic reality and its problem areas, as well as to determine the target guidelines for the development of the Russian economy at the present stage. In the process of studying, the nature of the new economic reality, the possibilities of political-economic theory, the theory of socio-economic transformations, systemic economic theory, and the theory of the knowledge economy are used to reveal the various sides of the phenomenon of new economic reality. The work is carried out based on dialectical, reproductive, evolutionary, and interdisciplinary approaches. It has been determined that the new economic reality is a certain stage in the development of the capitalist system, which is highlighted by history to resolve the accumulated socio-economic and environmental problems that pose risks for the development of the economy. They are also generated by deep and dynamic transformations. The results of the research, which are carried out in the article, consist in the development of the systemic quality of relations that are formed in the conditions of the new economic reality. They make it possible to determine the nature of the new economic reality, problem areas, and requirements for the development goals of the Russian economy. Keywords New economic reality · Qualitative changes · Constraints · Previous economic order · Competition · Development trajectory · Intellectual capital JEL Codes A12 · A13 · F01 · F60 · F63 · O11 · O15 · O33 · P26

O. V. Brizhak (B) Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia E. S. Chikanova Krasnodar University of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, Krasnodar, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_39

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1 Introduction Modern trends in the ongoing transformations reflect the destruction of the previous economic order at the national and world level, as well as the emergence of a new economic order, a new organization of the economy, a new reality, as a result of a qualitative change in the modern capitalist system. Osipov notes that the organization of the new reality is based on: “a certain economic order is constantly born by creating chaos with help of the effect of synergetic consciousness, overcoming the initial chaos and not reaching a stable order”. As part of such changes, many countries turn out outside the area of access to financial, intellectual, and technological resources of world markets, which weakens the competitive advantages of dependent countries and becomes a means of manipulating disloyal subjects. In conditions of external restrictions, the countries that have come under their influence, including Russia, are revising political and economic processes, suspending large projects, concentrating more on internal, national resources for the development of their economies, as well as the implementation of national interests. The issues of economic and national security, the protection of the country’s sovereignty, the problems of neo-industrialization, the transition to a new technological order, information intoxication, etc., are becoming increasingly important now. The result of such qualitative changes in the economic system at the macro- and mega-levels was the formation of a new economic reality, characterized as a new stage in the development of social and economic processes. The purpose of this study is to determine the content of the phenomenon of the new economic reality, its problem areas, as well as to determine the target guidelines for the development of the Russian economy in a given reality. Among the tasks, which consistently realize the set goal, the following ones should be noted: substantiation of the nature of economic reality; development of a method and methodology for the problem under study; identification of problem areas of the new reality; proposing target guidelines for the development of the Russian economy in the new reality.

2 Materials and Methods The article uses the theoretical aspects of the study of the concept of a new economic reality, disclosed in the works of [1–19]. The research is based on the possibilities of the dialectical approach, which allows revealing the essential aspects of the new economic reality. The results of the need to use the integration of methodological approaches to assess the nature of the new economic reality are presented in Table 1. The use of a systematic approach allows analyzing the key components of the new reality and developing ways to resolve the accumulated problems; transformational theory helps to assess the prevailing forms of economic relations in the process of

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Table 1 Assessment of the potential of methodological approaches in revealing the content of the new economic reality Methodological approach

Assessment of the theoretical potential in the disclosure of the new economic reality

Systems approach

Allows exploring the essential links between integrity and its components and designing the stages of solving the problems of the new reality

Dialectical approach

Allows revealing the essential aspects of the new economic reality

The theory of socio-economic transformations Allows analyzing the forms of economic relations that arise in the course of socio-economic transformations Knowledge-Economy Theory

Allows determining the key factors of production of the knowledge economy in the new reality

An evolutionary approach

Allows forming a system of ideas about a constantly changing object

Source Compiled by the authors based on the research materials

modern transformations; the theory of the knowledge economy helps to determine the range of the new economic reality claiming to be the main factors of production of resources.

3 Results At present, the most popular constructs among scientists and politicians, within the framework of the investigated problem area, are “new economic reality”, “new normality”, and “new economic format”, which indicate the emergence of something new, different from the previous way of economic and public life. On May 22, 2012, at the General Meeting of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the President of the Russian Federation stressed that the world is on the verge of the new economic reality, which is characterized by global turbulence, the formation of globalized capitalism, a new world order, and also new geopolitical centers that are fundamentally changing old life. The ongoing transformation processes at the present stage require comprehension, assessment, and development of solutions corresponding to them. Today, not only the scenarios for the development of economic systems and their subjects in the present and the future but also scientific values and paradigms are changing. A doctrinal revolution is taking place in the scientific world, a transition from a neo-conservative doctrine to a neoliberal one, according to which the welfare of society can be achieved through a policy of economic growth based on the principles of self-regulation of the economy market. The new reality has demonstrated the inconsistency of the policy of neoliberalism in modern conditions. Free pricing and

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non-interference of the state in the economy, according to the theory of neoclassicists and the rules of the Washington Consensus, don’t provide a market economy with effective competition, adequate “rules of the game”, a favorable investment climate, prosperity, as well as well-being of society. The application of such a doctrine for the Russian economy during the period of reforms turned out to be disastrous, leading to stagnation of the economy, negative economic growth, loss of part of the production potential, the disappearance of some industries in industry, a decrease in the welfare of citizens, and the outflow of financial, as well as intellectual capital from the country. However, in the context of the new economic reality, the Russian economy was able to adapt to external circumstances by actively realizing its internal resource potential and the policy of import substitution. The new economic reality allowed the Russian economic system to find its possibilities for embedding into the flows of ongoing socio-economic transformations. Let’s reveal the nature and content of the “new reality” phenomenon. Qualitative changes are actively taking place in the world, due to growing transformations, new technologies, new forms of capital movement, competition, the specifics of the investment process, monopolization of various sectors of the economy according to the technological principle, etc. All of these factors can be defined as a certain stage in the formation of a new economic system, which is formed historically. It also differs from the previous types of coordination of economic systems. Modern transformations are being carried out so quickly, so, the things, which were seemed previously unrealizable, are real now. Qualitative transformations are taking place in all spheres of activity, which signify a leap to the next level of development of society, nature, and cognition processes. As a result of profound technological shifts, there is a need to master digital technologies, new knowledge, and new competencies, meet the new requirements of professional activity and find a new format for organizing, as well as coordinating production processes. Modern transformations have become a kind of challenge for man, society, and nature. They have marked the transition to the new quality of socio-economic trends. New technologies have brought new achievements into people’s lives, advanced results in science and technology, but, at the same time, they have highlighted some problems that require immediate solutions. The first challenge of the new economic reality consists in solving the problems of interaction between society and nature. The aggravated natural and climatic phenomena have become a consequence of the processes of global warming on the planet. On the agenda of many large public forums, congresses, and conferences, the problems of environmental pollution, the unrestrained exploitation of natural resources, the low social responsibility of large corporations to nature and society, the use of primitive technologies to protect the environment, or their complete absence are discussed. In this regard, the role of the human factor in the reproduction process must radically change, each individual and organized group of people must increase their responsibility in matters of ecology, the development of a “green economy”, waste recycling, creation of a circular economy model (National Project “Ecology” sets a goal to recycle 60% of SMW (solid municipal waste) by 2024. Today this indicator is in the range of 5–7%). Moreover, Russia

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has competitive advantages—this is the largest forest area in the world, a significant share of hydroelectric generation in the energy balance, and achievements in reducing the volume of burning natural gas. The second challenge in the new reality is the problem of irrational use of national wealth, including an unwillingness to support and develop elements of production and social infrastructure; the desire to live in debt, increasing it at different levels of the economic system; the uneven development of territorial spaces; the formation of “lagging funnels”, which are leading to the absence of goals to transfer depressed regions into attractive areas for investment and development. The third challenge of the new reality is the polarization of models of social and economic development, which arise in connection with the uneven development of capitalist production and the dominance of large corporate capital. This trend has spawned risks of loss of integrity and conditions for the further development of society, depriving social groups, peoples, and countries (Africa, Syria, Iran, Iraq) of any prospects, the concept of “extra people” and the promotion of the policy of “unconditional income” has also begun to appear in public sources. These challenges of modern transformations will have to be resolved in the context of the new economic reality shortly. Let’s summarize: the new economic reality is a stage in the development of the capitalist system, which is highlighted by history to resolve the accumulated socioeconomic and environmental problems that carry certain risks for the functioning of the modern economy and are generated by the growing transformations. The new economic reality dictates its conditions, and mercilessly destroys everything that doesn’t fit into its context, including the processes of globalization, conditions of competition, and new collective values. It turned out that the system of open, mutually beneficial, partnerships isn’t a reference point for the whole world, and the use of force pressure from developed countries and large corporations is often a means of achieving their goals. There will be no return to the old principles of integration interaction, as well as to the old economic order. “The new world will not be the same”. In such conditions, it’s necessary to determine the most adequate ways of coordinating the system of economy, which would make it possible to determine the relationship between the role of the state and the market. The new economic reality relies on technologies, the creative potential of the economy, flexible organizational forms, and mechanisms, i.e. on the spheres, which provide active transformations without pressure from the state. The new economic reality confirms the importance of the targets for the development of the Russian economy. One of the ways to put forward a system of goals for the development of the Russian economy was the development of national projects. The idea of such projects is in full accord with the spirit of the new reality, but the way they are developed and implemented doesn’t correspond to the challenges of modern development. According to the rating agency Expert RA, among the problems in the implementation of national projects in Russia, the next ones can be singled out: ineffectiveness of management, non-transparency of national projects, which in turn prevent the efficient execution of costs and the transfer of a multiplier effect on economic growth, as well as low level of execution of costs. In addition, the Accounts

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Chamber pointed to the inconsistency of goals of the national projects, their nomination without the consent of the civil and scientific community. The new economic reality confirms the need to develop a system of targets that form a systemic image of the future of the national economy.

4 Conclusion Summing up all of the text above, it can be concluded that in modern conditions it’s necessary to correlate development goals with the challenges of the new economic reality caused by technological, organizational, institutional, and communicative transformations. External constraints determine the importance of transformations in the Russian economy and Russian society, and they also determine development goals for the future, taking into account the intense competition and the world’s reaction to the impulses of transformations. In the process of forming the development goals of the Russian economy in the new reality, a rational approach is needed, which is based on: • The systemic nature of the set goals; • Harmonization of the economic interests of subjects of the economic system; • Strategizing goals, ensuring the certainty of promising development goals and promoting the economic system along the chosen development path. The correspondence of the goals to the specific tasks of the new economic reality ensures the unity of the receptivity to changes and stability of the economic system. On the contrary, ignoring these tasks dooms the economy and society to risky projects, failures of the state and the market, and loss of development resources. The thin line of the balance of continuity concerning the past and appeal to the future—seems to be the main problem of the present economy.

References 1. Barkhatov V, Benz D, Pletnev D (2020) Trust in the Russian economy and business environment. In: Collection: E3S web of conferences “Innovative technologies in science and education”, ITSE 2020, pp 13–30 2. Brizhak O, Klochko E, Adamenko A (2020) The neo-industrial paradigm of Russian corporation’s integration into the economic system under the conditions of transition to the sixth technological order. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 111, pp 619–626 3. Brizhak OV, Romanets II (2021) Creative potential in the development of national ecosystems. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 689:102–107 (International conference Germany and Russia: ecosystems without borders) 4. Chikanova ES (2022) A new reality: the close interaction between economic theory and practice. Re-imagining socio-economic development in Russia: new directions, theory and practice. In: Advances in research on Russian business and management

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5. Ermolenko AA, Brizhak OV (2017) The concept of conformism: new opportunities in the study of the transformation of economic relations. Terra Economicus 15(3):92–105 6. Ermolenko AA, Brizhak OV, Digtyar OYu (2019) New forms of relations arising in the capital flow. In: Marx and modernity. A political and economic analysis of social systems management, Charlotte, pp 299–320 7. General meeting of the Russian Academy of Sciences (2012). http://kremlin.ru/transcripts/ 15401. Accessed: 06 June 2021 8. Jalal AQ, Essa Allalaq HA, Shinkevich AI, Kudryavtseva SS, Ershova IG (2019) Assessment of the efficiency of energy and resource-saving technologies in open innovation and production systems. Int J Energy Econ Policy 9(5):289–296 9. Klochko E, Adamenko A, Brizhak O (2019) Human potential as a factor of dynamic and competitive development of the regional economy. Adv Econ Bus Manag Res 83:447 10. Levashov VK (2012) New reality: the economic crisis and the choice of society. SOCIS 12(344):12–22 11. National projects: expectations, results, and prospects (2020). https://www.raexpert.ru/resear ches/national_project_2020/. Accessed: 18 Aug 2020 12. Novikov V, Brizhak O, Klochko E, Digtyar O (2019) Digital economy: human capital, technology, communications. In: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on economy, management, law and education (EMLE 2019) and will be submitted to Web of Science (CPCI-SSH) for indexing, pp 198–204 13. Osipov YuM (2017) New economic reality: onto and gnosis (philosophical reminiscences). Econ Strat 4:110–121 14. Popkova EG, Saveleva NK, Sozinova AA (2021) A new quality of economic growth in a “smart” economy: advantages for developing countries. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 155, pp 426–433 15. Popkova EG, Sergi BS (2020) Human capital and AI in Industry 4.0. Convergence and divergence in social entrepreneurship in Russia. J Intellect Capital 21(4):565–581 16. Shinkevich AI, Kudryavtseva S, Chikisheva NM, Korotun N, Fatikhova LE, Gainullina RR, Ostanina SS (2017) Scientific and technical potential of Russia as a factor of economic growth in the knowledge economy. Int J Environ Sci Educ 12(1):47–56 17. Talbot M (2011) The holographic universe: the revolutionary theory of reality. Harper Perennial, 352 p 18. Yan J, Feng L, Steblyanskaya A, Kleiner G, Rybachuk M (2019) Biophysical economics as a new economic paradigm. Int J Public Adm 42:1395–1407 19. Zinovieva IS, Savin AG, Brizhak OV, Shchinova RA (2020) Natural management of a modern region: assessment of effectiveness and perspectives of improvement. In: Growth poles of the global economy: emergence, changes and future perspectives. Collection: Lecture notes in networks and systems. Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Luxembourg, pp 717–723

Improving the Quality of Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners in Russia, Mongolia, and China Lkhagvatsend Tserensuren Abstract Purpose: This paper assesses the balance between anti-money laundering reporting obligations and the principle of lawyer-client confidentiality for lawyers in Russia, Mongolia, and China. Methodology: The methodology adopted for this research is secondary research and analysis. Findings: The principle of confidentiality between lawyers and clients and reporting obligations according to the anti-money laundering regime are relevant issues today more than ever. The equitable principle of confidentiality seeks to protect confidential information provided by one party to another in circumstances that import a responsibility not to disclose that information or to use it for unauthorised purposes. The Constitution guarantees a fair trial. Money laundering is a threat that should be upheld in all areas. Self-regulation is the leading bet to apply money laundering for lawyers. Russia, Mongolia, and China— is an eternal neighbourhood. Regarding these cities with these returns and business activities are common. A lawyer in these countries are responsible for constant or regularly storing client’s secrets. But the revised National Legislation on anti-money laundering has changed the duties to keep client’s secrets. Therefore, improving the quality of regulations between anti-money laundering reporting obligations and the code of confidentiality for legal practitioners in Russia, Mongolia and China. Originality/value: This paper is the effort of the author and has not been submitted for publication to some other place. Keywords Money laundering · Reporting obligations · Advocate-client confidentiality · Mongolia · Russia · China JEL Codes K1 · K14

L. Tserensuren (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_40

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1 Introduction Mongolia’s foreign policy provided that “friendly relations with the Russia and China are a priority of Mongolia’s foreign policy, and we will maintain balanced relations with them and develop broad cooperation as good neighbours” [4]. Accordingly, Mongolia has a comprehensive strategic partnership with both Russia and China [11]. In addition, relevant projects are being implemented under the Mongolia-RussiaChina Economic Corridor Program [10]. On top of that, Mongolia, Russia, and China are focusing extensively on combating money laundering crimes and are active members of the FATF which conducts regular assessments of the progress of activities [6]. In this context, our three countries have started including a professional lawyer in the number of professionals responsible for reporting certain transactions to the Financial Information Unit in order to combat money laundering on a broader level. In doing so, the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism stipulates that a lawyer’s obligation to report transactions shall not be considered a disclosure of the lawyer’s professional activities. This necessitates a comprehensive analysis of the coherence between anti-money laundering and the legal profession, and whether there are difficulties in its implementation, and then to draw relevant conclusions and recommendations.

2 Materials and Method Regulations between anti-money laundering reporting obligations and the code of confidentiality for legal practitioners in Russia, Mongolia and China. This section discusses how the laws and regulations of Mongolia, Russia, and China deal with the obligation to disclose information related to money laundering and how all information related to the provision of legal assistance is classified as a lawyer’s professional activity. Proper analyses on these topics will be provided in this section.

2.1 Mongolian Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners Mongolia allowed to the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (Terrorism Financing) in 2003 and attached the APG (Asia/Pacific Group on Money Laundering), a branch of the FATF that defines international policies to combat as well as deter money laundering and terrorist financing, in 2004 and the country is committed to complying with international standards for combating such crimes.

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Fig. 1 Lawyers supporting money laundering. Source Compiled by the author

Case Study 1. Lawyers Supporting Money Laundering Drug traffickers smuggled 24 kg of narcotic substances from Country A to Country B covertly hiding in their luggage. Drug buyers paid a total of more than $2 million, splitting the total amount deliberately by making some small electronic transfers using several different parties. Drug exporters, on the other hand, sought investment advice from a lawyer in Country B to buy real estate in the country in order to make the dirty money earned from the crime look legitimate in the public eye. Investigators found that drug traffickers were involved in money laundering using the guidance of financial and legal advisors (Fig. 1). Case Study 2: Interacting with an influential person in politics To buy a football club, a client turned to a law firm for legal advice. The client is a wealthy individual from the mining industry who was involved in politics before starting his or her business. The law firm has investigated their clients out of suspicion and identified them as politically influential. They found out that the purchase of the football club will be financed by the proceeds from the sale of the mining company, which he previously owned. The law firm began providing legal services to that individual, and during that time, the client was accused of making a fortune by bribing a mining concession agreement. He was also charged with embezzlement during his tenure in politics but was acquitted during the investigation. When asked about this, the client explained that his opponent did it for political purposes to discredit him. The law firm notified the compliance officer and, on his advice, refused to provide services to the client. A few years later, a foreign court convicted the client of corruption, including bribery in connection with a mining license, and confiscated all of his assets. There have also been reports in several media outlets that previously investigated crimes involving the client have not been properly investigated (Fig. 2). Therefore, the revised version of the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism in Mongolia was approved on May 31, 2013 [12]. When amending this law on April 26, 2018, Article 4.1.9 was added, stating that

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Fig. 2 Interacting with an influential person in politics. Source Compiled by the author

a lawyer is obliged to inform the Financial Information Unit about the transaction specified in Article 7 of this law if he or she has prepared, performed, or participated in the following activities related to his/her client: • • • •

sale and purchase of real estate; managing the client’s assets; managing bank, savings, and securities accounts; organizing to raise funds for the establishment, operation, and management of a company; • establishing a legal entity, to conduct and manage its activities, or to conduct or manage any specific activities based on an agreement, or to sell or purchase a business entity [1]. In this regard, the Law on the Legal Status of Lawyers added a section “33.7. The fact that a lawyer has fulfilled his or her duty to report according to the Law on Combating Money Laundering and Countering the Financing of Terrorism shall not be considered as a disclosure of a lawyer’s professional activity” [2]. According to the law dated October 10, 2019, part “63.11. The Professional Responsibility Committee shall monitor and ensure the implementation of the reporting obligations outlined in Article 4.1.9 of the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism” was added. However, this regulation was repealed by the State Great Khural on January 15, 2021, when the revised version of the Law on Courts of Mongolia was approved [3]. This shows that a new regulation has been introduced in Mongolia to include lawyers in the battle against money laundering since 2018, and the practice of how to implement it has not been clearly established and is already difficult. For example, the Mongolian Bar Association, the Ministry of Justice and Internal Affairs, and the Financial Information Unit under the Bank of Mongolia jointly conducted training

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on “Anti-Money Laundering/Combating the Financing of Terrorism and prevention measures” for more than 100 lawyers on November 7, 2019 [13]. However, compared to the total number of more than 6000 lawyers in Mongolia, the number of lawyers who attended the training was insufficient. In addition, a remote questionnaire on countering money laundering and terrorist financing was organized to be completed by all advocacy groups by August 17, 2020. This indicates that the training of lawyers responsible for combating money laundering is slow and inadequate. It is also unclear what structure or unit of The Mongolian Bar Association will oversee and enforce through its reporting obligations under Article 4.1.9 of the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism, due to the removal of the functions of the Professional Responsibility Committee of the Mongolian Bar Association from the relevant law. Furthermore, a lawyer might choose from the following choices, each with different responsibilities: (1)

(2)

a. Fulfil your legal reporting obligations under the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism, b. Disclosure of client secrets. a. Non-fulfilment to comply with the reporting obligations according to the Law on Combating Money Laundering and Countering the Financing of Terrorism, b. The client’s privacy is protected (Table 1).

2.2 Russian Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners The Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On the practice of law and the legal profession in the Russian Federation” was approved in 2002 and has been amended several times [7]. According to Article 8 of this law, any information relating to the provision of legal assistance by a lawyer and advocate his/her client shall be deemed by a lawyer and advocate’s secret. Russia’s Federal Law on Combating Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing was adopted in 2001 and amended in 2002 and 2004, respectively [8]. Article 7.1 of this law stipulates the duty of a lawyer to report. Specifically, Federal Law shall extend to lawyers and advocates pursuing entrepreneurial activities in the area of provision of legal or accountancy services in cases when they prepare or accomplish the following transactions in amounts of money or other assets in the name or on behalf of their clients: • • • •

transactions in immovable assets; the management of funds, securities or other client’s assets; the management of bank accounts or securities accounts; fund-raising to form organizations, maintain their operations or managing them;

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Table 1 Potential choice made by a lawyer and his or her legal responsibility for compliance with the reporting obligations under the Law on Combating Money Laundering and Countering the Financing of Terrorism The potential choice made by a lawyer and his or her legal responsibility for compliance with the reporting obligations under the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism Regulation by the law Fulfil your reporting obligations Confidentiality of clients are under the Law on Countering revealed Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism Criminal law

There is no liability involved

Shall be punishable by the termination of the right to practice law for a period of up to 5 years, a fine of an amount equal to 5400–27,000 units MNT, or restriction of movement for a period of 1–5 years, or imprisonment for a term of 1–5 years. (Article 21.14)

Regulation by the law Failure to disclose money The client’s privacy is protected laundering and terrorist financing offences under the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism Criminal law

Shall be punishable by imprisonment for a range of 6 months to 1 year (Article 18.6)

There is no liability involved

Source Compiled by the author

• the formation of organizations, maintenance of their operations or management thereof as well as the purchase/sale of organizations. If lawyers and advocates have any grounds to believe that the transactions or financial transactions are being accomplished or can be accomplished for illegalizing incomes received by the way of crime (money laundering) or financing terrorism they shall be obliged to inform the empowered body accordingly. The lawyers and advocates are entitled to pass on this information either on their own or via a chamber of lawyers and advocates if the chamber has an agreement on cooperation with the empowered body. The procedure for lawyers and advocates to pass the information on the transactions or financial transactions shall be established by the Government of the Russian federation. The lawyers and advocates and the chamber of lawyers and advocates shall not be entitled to disclose the fact that they have provided the information to the empowered body. This suggests that in Russia there is a lack of coherence between a lawyer’s obligation to maintain the client’s confidentiality and his or her obligation to report

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under anti-money laundering legislation, creating a choice and challenge as to which role a lawyer should prioritize.

2.3 China: Regulations Between Anti-money Laundering (AML) Reporting Obligations and the Code of Confidentiality for Legal Practitioners Lawyers in China are an indispensable part of a law firm. It is estimated there were 325,500 lawyers in China at the end of 2016 and 26,200 law firms. Lawyers consider that the AML Law and some business regulations require the implementation of due diligence, record keeping and the reporting of suspicion; however, the understanding of such requirements is lacking. Only lawyers apply limited customer identification and record-keeping requirements for regular business purposes risks; however, the implementation is not effective. Designated non-financial businesses and professions (DNFBPs) generally do not refuse business, except when basic identification measures could not be performed. Almost all key deficiencies are the verification of identity for DNFBPs, due diligence towards beneficial owners, and ongoing due diligence. Record protecting is limited to transaction records and client identity records [5].

3 Results From the examples mentioned above (Figs. 1 and 2), it can be seen that a lawyer sits in an important position or role to play in deterring and combating money laundering and terrorist financing. Therefore, it is important for a lawyer to have a high level of professional ethics and to take measures to prevent money laundering and terrorist financing involvement, and report suspicious transactions when necessary [9]. As is shown in Table 1, a lawyer has the following pool of choices, and responsibilities for each vary: (1)

(2)

a. Fulfill your reporting obligations under the Law on Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing, b. Disclosure of customer secrets. a. Failure to comply with the reporting obligations under the Law on Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing, b. Confidentiality of the client.

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4 Conclusion Russia, China, and Mongolia are eternal neighbours geographically, geopolitically, and diplomatically. This is reflected in the fact that these countries have a comprehensive strategic partnership and are implementing a program to establish a MongoliaRussia-China Economic Corridor. However, this poses a risk of transnational money laundering and terrorist financing. One mechanism to prevent this risk is for a lawyer to buy or sell real estate related to his or her client; manage the client’s assets; to manage the bank, savings, and securities accounts; to organize the raising and raising of funds for the establishment, operation, and management of a company; and if the legal entity establishes, operates, manages, or prepares, conducts, or participates in the sale or acquisition of a business entity based on an agreement is to establish an obligation to report to the Financial Information Unit about the relevant transaction and implement it effectively. This side regulation is relatively innovative for the three countries mentioned above and its lawyers are in the beginning stages of making them aware and capable of this. One of the reasons this work is not rapid and slow is that it is regulated to ensure that reporting obligations following the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism are not deemed to be confidential by a lawyer’s professional activities, which may be due to contrary to the professional role of lawyers or create questionable circumstances. Therefore, to eliminate the obstacles to the implementation of the abovementioned legislation, the Mongolian, Russian, and Chinese Bar Associations and the Ministries of Justice should provide new training and information to lawyers regularly. In this context, it is important to discuss real facts and previous examples and report further on their solutions. Lawyers’ associations and organizations with special responsibilities to combat money laundering should inform not only attorneys but also other lawyers about the fact that a lawyer should report and monitor suspicious transactions and actions as follows: • • • •

Identify suspicious activity Notify their management about identified suspicious activity Decide whether to report suspicious activity to the Financial Intelligence Office Accurately complete the Suspicious Transaction Report Form of the Financial Intelligence Office • To further monitor the activities of the reported person and legal entity. Furthermore, as a lawyer, you must comply with your reporting obligations under the Law on Countering Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism, or alternatively the decision to keep the client’s identity private may cause uncertainty, therefore the law must logically approach this problem.

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References 1. Amendments to the law on countering money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism, 26 Apr 2018. https://www.legalinfo.mn/additional/details/3321?lawid=9242. Accessed: 20 June 2021 2. Amendments to the law on the legal status of lawyers, 2018.04.26. https://www.legalinfo.mn/ additional/details/3329?lawid=8661. Accessed: 20 June 2021 3. Amendments to the law on the legal status of lawyers, 2021.01.15. https://www.legalinfo.mn/ additional/details/3919?lawid=8661. Accessed: 20 June 2021 4. Annex to the 10th resolution of the state Great Khural of Mongolia “Foreign Policy Views of Mongolia”. https://www.legalinfo.mn/annex/details/3362?lawid=6340. Accessed: 20 June 2021 5. China’s measures to combat money laundering and terrorist financing. Mutual Evaluation Report of China—2019. https://www.fatf-gafi.org/publications/mutualevaluations/documents/ mer-china-2019.html. Accessed: 02 Aug 2021 6. FATF—Russian Federation. https://www.fatf-gafi.org/countries/#Russian%20Federation. Accessed: 11 Aug 2021 7. Federal Law “On the practice of law and the legal profession in the Russian Federation”, 2002. https://fparf.ru/en/documents/federal-legislation/federal-law-on-the-practice-oflaw-and-the-legal-profession-in-the-russian-federation/. Accessed: 22 Aug 2021 8. Federal Law No. 115-FZ “On countering money laundering and the financing of terrorism” (2001 as amended 2004). https://www.legislationline.org/documents/id/4294. Accessed: 17 Aug 2021 9. Financial Information Unit (2020) A guideline for lawyers implementing risk-based approaches to combating money laundering and terrorist financing, Ulaanbaatar. https://mglbar.mn/news/ 3733. Accessed: 02 Aug 2021 10. List of projects under the Mongolia-Russia-China Economic Corridor Program. http://mfa.gov. mn/35087. Accessed: 28 June 2019 11. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mongolia. Neighbouring countries. http://mfa.gov.mn/. Accessed: 10 Aug 2021 12. State Information Bulletin, 2013, No. 24. https://www.legalinfo.mn/law/details/9242. Accessed: 14 Aug 2021 13. Training on anti-money laundering and anti-terrorism financing, 2019, Mongolia. https://mgl bar.mn/news/3518. Accessed: 30 Nov 2020

A Debate on Artificial Intelligence in Area of Law and the Legal Professions Yucel Ogurlu , Rosalina V. Shagieva , and Alexander S. Bersanov

Abstract In recent years, Artificial Intelligence has become a constantly evolving topic that attracts scientists and significantly influences the development of many subfields in different sciences. As a new and emerging subject, AI influences and intersects almost every field, from the natural, social, legal sciences to the humanities. From the point of view of social and legal scientists, artificial intelligence as a new field was initially seen only as tools such as machines, computers, internet technologies for social scientists and lawyers. At the same time, it has attracted the attention of almost all social science disciplines in recent years. Therefore, it is not surprising that artificial intelligence has recently come to the fore in the field of law and has begun to be elaborated with its positive and negative effects. This study aims to draw attention to the key intersections in the fields of law and artificial intelligence. Keywords Public Law · Private Law · Civil Law · Personality Law · Intellectual property · Machine learning JEL Classification K15 · K24 · K39

1 Introduction Traditional sectors of the economy are not considered fully sufficient for modern states to survive or compete in international markets. Instead, countries tried to gain an edge in global competition by using innovations such as computer and internet technologies that accelerated their progress and development. This development has Y. Ogurlu (B) Istanbul Commerce University, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] R. V. Shagieva Russian Customs Academy, Moscow, Russia A. S. Bersanov Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_41

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been further strengthened by the proliferation of mobile phones and their new functions, which are not limited to the ordinary daily communication function. When electronic tools met with information technologies and internet technologies, the (e) and (m-) stages started to be applied immediately in commerce and public services [1]. However, these advances were another area of IT different from AI. On top of these developments, smartphones with some Artificial Intelligence tools have started to take on different functions beyond being an ordinary communication tool such as voice-to-text conversion. Now, AI technologies are used in all areas of life, from aviation, sports, health, banking [2], psychology, philosophy, linguistics, medicine [3], to search engines, social networks, higher education [4], public administration, in e-Government [5], international business logistics and e-commerce to increase competitiveness and advantage [6]. These developments take place in the social field, even in the field of Law, which is considered one of the most conservative fields. Currently, the legal field also appears to be benefiting from AI, and this impact will likely be higher and deeper in the future. This article aims to make a general determination and compact recommendations by outlining the areas where the law and AI fields cross paths or may cross in the future. Junction areas and some of the problems that may arise are related to these issues. Different levels of practice and concrete solutions should be put forward in the intersection of law and AI. These areas of intersection: The first critical intersection area between Law and Artificial Intelligence is which branches of Law will be affected by AI. The second important area of intersection between law and AI is the extent to which AI opportunities will be used in current and future applications of the legal profession. However, this subject is broad enough to be another academic study on its own. It seems that this new technological development has led to new discussions in almost all legal disciplines. The third intersection area is the issues that the Legislature should pay attention to when making legislation on artificial intelligence and is extremely important.

2 Methodology To obtain reliable results in their study, the authors used the materials of official sources containing current and developing normative acts, reporting materials and statistical data. In addition, we analyzed the data presented by independent internet portals and media resources. To determine the degree of effectiveness of the implemented state-legal impact on AI, the criteria for assessing the direct and indirect forms of government impact were specifically developed by us. The results of the study were obtained based on the method of comparative data analysis.

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3 Results 3.1 AI Debates in Legal Sub-disciplines Artificial Intelligence affects almost every sub-discipline (branch) of legal science that needs to be further elaborated. When evaluated in terms of legal fields, it is clear that current AI has created discussions and quarries in all disciplines of Law. The use of AI for several legal disciplines and practices raises different legal issues. Thus, making a complete list is somewhat tricky as it is continuously developed. However, we can identify that the most controversial legal issues consist of the following [7]: • • • • • • • •

AI’s personality, AI’s legal, judicial, criminal, financial, administrative, civil liability, Competition issues, Consumer law disputes, Intellectual property ownership, Data ownership, Security, Information privacy.

These topics represent, as for now, the main issues that must be discussed at the very beginning. There are legal disciplines where all these issues come across in both Public and Private Laws [8]. Confidentiality, legal liability, criminal liability, legal personality, cybersecurity, consumer protection, product safety and liability, Intellectual Property Law, Labour Law, Insurance and Tax Law [9], Administrative Law are the major ones have been discussed concerning AI issues. Recently, there has been increasing scientific debate about AI’s jurisdiction and AI’s participation in decision-making rather than humans. One study says AI tools will not replace humans, but will collaborate to standardize, systematize, package and commodify legal services [10, 11]. While we are aware of this aspect, we will try to summarize the big picture by only outlining the main topics of this exciting topic due to the scope of the subject: Due to the widespread use of AI, these intersections of both Private and Public Law are more than expected, while there is a huge impact. Since it is not possible to examine all intersection areas in detail here, it will be sufficient to draw attention to the discussion by giving a general picture and perspective.

3.1.1

The AI Debates in Public Law

Deep or general connections can be made between artificial intelligence and many disciplines such as theology, philosophy and psychology. Almost every discipline seems to have a more or less weak or strong link with AI. It is possible to establish deep, intense and above all practical connections in the fields of law. Moral and

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ethical issues are at the forefront of the Public Law problems brought up by artificial intelligence [12]. However, it should be noted that this issue is not just a matter of Law [7]. However, if it is needed to associate these two terms with any branch of Law, it can be associated with the branches of law dealing with “philosophy” such as “Legal Philosophy” or “General Public Law”. It should be underlined that disciplines such as “Administrative Law” that deal with moral and ethical issues as an element of “public order” remain within their area of interest. Beyond this general and sophisticated link, it can be seen more issues emerging in the functional areas of public law. Further, it should be noted that AI issues might cause problems in constitutional rights. In an opinion paper published in 1985, it was stated that the legal distinction between humans and computers would become impossible in the future due to the progress of computers in consciousness, understanding and learning, as well as their behaviour and increasing behavioural capacities. It is emphasized that when it comes to a point where the human and AI robot can be inseparably alike physically, both the Civil Law dealing with personality and the Constitutional Law approaching the subject in terms of personal rights will have to recognize some computer systems as “persons” legally [13]. Although the issues related to “person”, “personality” and their rights is a common issue concerning Private Law and Constitutional Law, it is needed to be those other issues to be discussed in the field regarding the Constitution and General Public Law. Actually, “Big Data” and continuously collected data are a matter of authority such as what can be collected, how and for what purposes this data can be shared with AI. It is among the hot topics legal discussions that the widespread use of AI may cause conflicts in private lives, privacy and data security. The regulations on protecting personal data causes new discussions on to what extent and by whom the collected information will be protected. Besides, the ambiguity of the limits of protecting and sharing the related data while using AI increases the concerns. The concerns will come to the fore and continue whether the approach of an artificial intelligent robot or a human be better and completely legal while they are evaluating the interests harmed by the violation of personal data. The issues that are being discussed alongside and beyond AI’s enjoyment of fundamental human rights or privacy and data security encompass [14, 15]: • The discussion of AI robot’s dignity as human dignity, • Whether they can benefit from workers and civil servant rights, • The consequences of their damage in terms of Criminal Law and who will be responsible for their acts. Besides, although there are areas such as AI and Tax or Criminal Laws that are relatively better processed, even if they are seen as fancy, there are issues that have not yet been examined sufficiently, such as the possibility of damages caused by AI robots operating on behalf of the administration concerning the administration’s responsibility. It should be noted that the agenda and debates in AI discussions about Tax Law in the early stages were quite different. For example, if it is checked the examples

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of benefiting from AI in Tax Law in Canada in 1989, it could be seen a very low expectation of today’s AI expectations. It should be stated that AI discussions and expectations in this period were regarded as only facilitating tools like new IT technologies that have gone one step further than e-government tools. In fact, the attention was drawn to the easing of monitoring and maintaining AI approaches in this area since the Tax Law is based on transactions calculated on more precise and measurable values. However, upgrading the system to a more advanced practical level at that time was quitely distant goal. Studies from that period, show that the expectations from AI were briefly [16]: • Providing a computer-aided training (CAI) courses in the training of taxes; • Creating tax procedures documentation; • A “document modelling” which advise the lawyer or users/taxpayers on handling tax transactions and their effects. (This program is also programmed in a traditional IT language); • Using a “prototype expert system” showing the relationship between Income Tax legislation and tax-related transactions and relations; • Creation of a “Hyper Card stack” for citizens to learn about taxation on educational and practical matters. As can be seen, today’s agenda is quite different from the issues discussed only 20 years ago. When it is looked at the pace of development, there is no doubt that some legal problems that seem as a dream even today will be in daily lives soon. Today, more and more different issues are discussed in terms of Tax Law regarding to AI. Like many other legal disciplines, it can be discussed on the questions such as AI’s personality, whether it can become a taxpayer, whether it can be subject to tax penalties, whether AI robots can replace tax officers or tax inspectors and moreover whether AI can be a judge in tax jurisdictions. As can be seen, apart from all the areas it has drawn attention to above, to regarding the fields of Public Law, which have been exemplified above, realistic or fanciful discussion topics stand on the table in every conceivable field of Law.

3.1.2

The AI Debates in Private Law

In terms of Private Law and its sub-branch Civil Law, whether robots with Artificial Intelligence have “personalities” like humans or regarded as an animal or an object of the property or similar ongoing discussions. No doubt that AI machines differ in their so-called autonomy, self-awareness, or autonomy than animals. Since animals have different natures than humans and can be more “autonomous” in some aspects. An AI machine, a human-made product, and a living animal are absolutely different in these respects. However, both are still only “objects”, not “subjects” in Law [17]. The debates are more sophisticated and widespread [18–21]. Besides, “robot rights” such as human rights in Public Law is one the core questions of the debates still. Having or not a personality raises the issue of the existence of “right to capacity” or “capacity to act” in the context of their ability to exercise civil rights. Accordingly,

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it has been discussed even whether they can be seen as an object/tool, worker or slaves under Roman Law [22, 23]. Nowadays, it started to bring up issues such as who will be responsible for the damage caused by them [17, p. 176]. Applying to the classical legal approach, a shortcut solution may be to regard AI robots as a “tool”, and therefore always a “human” will always be deemed the addressee as liable and responsible for their damaging actions. Nevertheless, in this sense, the subject of responsibilities and responsibilities arising from the Law of Obligations will remain to be one of the most debated issues, unless the problem of “personality” of AI robots is resolved. In these areas, it has been gone beyond imaginary, scientific or sophisticated discussions today and legal disputes, caused by AI machines and robots have started to emerge and are waiting for solutions. Besides, it should be stated that AI raises different issues outside of this Private Law area. For instance, the legal disputes regarding the use of AI in e-commerce, or generally in Commerce Law or regardless it can be a company stakeholder or manager. However, those may seem like fantasy problems; however, these are more likely possible problems that will arise soon. Moreover, quite suspensive topics such as ownership rights and AI right ownership on intellectual property are deeply examined in relatively new studies [24, 25].

3.1.3

Intersection of AI with Legal Professions

According to a new study [26] in the USA, the possibility of computerization in 702 low-skilled and low-wage jobs was investigated to evaluate how current jobs are affected by technological developments. The study was based on a new methodology and ultimately found that approximately 47% of employment in these subjects in the US falls under the high-risk category within the next one or two decades. The study findings indicate that, over time, low-skilled employees can return to tasks that do not require computerization or “tasks that require more creative and social intelligence”, provided they acquire creative and social skills [26, p. 268]. Against this, it is argued that it will affect even qualified professions such as insurers, lawyers, dermatologists, seismic testers, sports journalists and financial reporters, regardless of whether all professions are low or qualified [27]. In fact, the imagination that Artificial Intelligence can be used in any field for every profession that people do, creating almost no need for “human” is also criticized [28]. Taking advantage of AI in every field of law is no longer a dream and imagination; thus, the professions of “lawyer academics”, “attorney in law’s”, prosecutors, and judges are now operated at the Judiciary service with practical examples. It can already be predicted that today’s rapid technological developments will have more severe effects than human labour’s transition to automat/robot workers’ serial production. Now, simple Artificial Intelligence products have been included in the market and our daily lives with applications that expand and expand to mobile phone applications and simple home robots [15]. In general, considering the relationship between Artificial Intelligence and professions, it is now possible to use Artificial

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Intelligence in more qualified areas, including physicians, teachers, lecturers, lawyers and judges, beyond the physical work such as assembly work or babysitting in the workplaces. It creates concerns that there will be no need for “human” even in any respected profession in the future [28]. Today, if we need to evaluate which of the works done by “human lawyers” can be done by AI, it is seen that progress has been made in the use of AI in every field where there is a human lawyer. Therefore, AI can be used in followings [29]: • • • • • • • •

Finding of legal sources and case law via artificial intelligent search. Providing legal data analysis support in making the decision. Analysis of contracts. Automatic document analysis in e-discovery. While doing this, document analysis is performed using predictive coding or statistical model analysis. Online resolution of legal disputes. The preparation of a smart form that adapts the laws, Recommendations to any person such as preparing a will draft, ending the financial relationship, Legal regulations after divorce by evaluating their particular situations.

Beyond these possibilities, the use of developments and capacities of artificial intelligence machines in different fields surely will bring new possibilities and opportunities. Smart technologies such as NLP and machine learning have started to conduct legal research in the USA. For example, ROSS and CARA robots are the most known for using legal research tools in the USA. They can benefit from the system’s automatic answering and scanning functionality to ROSS users’ questions in “native language”. They can leave a case summary or complaint to the AI machine called CARA, asking it to find relevant cases that fit the legal case [30]. Traditional legal research companies, such as LexisNexis and Westlaw, also work on AI developments. They made their traditional products smarter by upgrading their models with new technology tools such as “Westlaw Edge” [31] and “Lex Machina” [32] models. For instance, Lex Machina mines litigation and jurisprudence data and gives opinions to judges, lawyers, and parties about the cases. Nevertheless, these developments do not mean that judges, prosecutors and lawyers are now being replaced by AI machines or that they will be able to do so in the near forthcoming. One of the main problems here is whether AI machines will remain at the Judiciary’s disposal or will be a rival to it… Undoubtedly, the facilities and risks in the legal profession’s practice, that AI can provide for lawyers, prosecutors, judges, notaries and legal academics need to be considered at length. There may be different AI utilisation layers in Artificial Intelligence tools by a jurist academic, lawyer or a notary. I want to point out that AI should be observed as a source of opportunity, authority or power that can be seen as an auxiliary or competitor in the legal professions, given the issues used to enable specific sequential automated solutions.

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4 Conclusion Although the subject of Artificial Intelligence so far continues to be the attractive scenario of science fiction movies that they will pose a threat to humanity, AI robotic entities should be elaborated scientifically from different sciences’ perspectives, regardless on the assumption and perception with academic impartiality. Dizzying developments on AI, which took place relatively quickly, created agendas ranging from philosophical debates to practical debates in law, strengthening the concerns and scepticism. First of all, AI machine tools as human beings’ products are not the essential “subjects” of law still. While AI tools should continue to be developed as tools, and servants useful to humans, this development should be carried on without overlooking ontological-ethical-moral objections to scenarios that will disable people. Just two decades ago, it was unimaginable that artificial intelligence applications would be so effective in life, and it was unpredictable that there would be such a broad impact, especially in a conservative field such as law. Secondly, classical and basic law concepts and institutions, meaning confidentiality, legal liability, criminal liability, legal personality, cybersecurity, consumer protection, product safety and liability, led to different AI era discussions. Discussions on these basic concepts have been and are still being held. Indeed, over the past 20 years, AI has been the subject of discussion in all areas of law. Several branches of law e.g., such as Philosophy of Law, Constitutional Law, Tax Law, Administrative Law, Intellectual Property Law, Labour Law and Insurance Law, have to deal with AI, which is an undeniable new field give AI a new meaning. However, these discussions are now mostly completed, and scientific solutions need to be found to newer practical problems that will arise from AI tools in practice. While AI was the subject of discussion in all areas of law, it will also open the door to discussions about the future’s legal professions. The replacement of humans in the legal profession will open the possibility of recognising this new field with more or less content and suggestions of all legal fields without exception. Whether Artificial Intelligence tools, which will affect all these areas of law, can fully replace human beings will continue to be a matter of debate. Nevertheless, for now, Artificial Intelligence tools are at the point of being a tool that facilitates and helps people to make decisions. The success and failure of AI tools in their assistants or decisionmaking processes, the concern to replace those in the legal profession are now the subject of discussion and will most likely be discussed for a long time.

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Eurasian Technological Platform “Technologies for Sustainable Ecological Development”: Organizational and Functional Aspect Elena S. Ratushnyak

Abstract Eurasian technological platforms (further—ETPs) are meant to be a modern tool of innovative cooperation development based on dialogue, relevant research and results in implementation by science, state, business and society under the conditions of a sustainable and digital agenda for economic development. In the context of introducing environmentally effective and energy-saving technologies, solving environmental problems, and ensuring environmental safety it is important to work out an appropriate organizational structure. In this paper of designed organizational structure, its actors and base of principles of the Technological Platform “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” are investigated. The primary data sources for analysis were the Technological Platform Strategic Research Program, technological platform open data, and the Eurasian Economic Union official documents. It is defined that ETP is a joint project, realized based on Russian TP. Its structure includes a new operational body, legal entity Nonprofit Partnership, which realizes middle- and lower-level of management. In one’s turn, it has its appropriate functions: coordination of the participants’ works, support for expert and advisory activities, rising earmarked funding, and information platform. Only one of the two participant types, Business Partners, gives the possibility to have member rights and obligations. The status of Media Partner has more information support. The main principle of functioning TP is an inclusive one that means prioritizing scientific and technological development in ecological aspects based on strong cooperation of the stakeholders. By 2030 on the base of this ETP structure it is indicated to achieve a creation of different ecological technologies. Keywords Ecological innovation · EAEU · Industrial development · Industrial policy · Innovation infrastructure · Sustainable growth · Technological platform JEL Codes F02 · O3

E. S. Ratushnyak (B) MGIMO University, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_42

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1 Introduction The environmental impact caused by human activities is a topic of enormous relevance today and directly related to development issues. The global trend towards sustainability within the world economy demands innovative technologies. This is due to most of the developed and developing economies having to find out the most proper and applicable tools and mechanisms both to decrease the adverse environmental impact and realize the policy of “green economy” whilst fueling the growth and creating innovative infrastructure. Realizable in European countries tool since 2004 is a technological platform (further—TP) [7]. The concept and the characteristics of the TP are explored in Working Paper No. 34 “Technology Platforms in Europe: an empirical investigation”. The TP is considered as a set of key enabling and bridging technologies, generating intra- and inter-sectoral technology spillovers, which is cleared up by Lisa De Propris, Carlo Corradini. They defined technology platforms as technological bases characterized by the high level of technological development bringing into being favoured technological outwards across different sectors so that it makes it possible to heighten inter-sectoral interconnection within the innovation system [3, 6]. The TP is considered the modern tool for developing eco-innovation and green technologies [10]. It is supposed that eco-innovation has great potential as a driver of jobs and growth so that the TP has an economic impact. Besides the TP are assumed to be the new sustainable development tool. The one has three dimensions: economic, social and environmental [4]. It is highly important to realize TPs within integration unions that have among other such key-note challenges as the necessity of implementing a resource-efficient, ecological economic progress mechanism. To achieve these goals, it is necessary to realize some new technologies and approaches to business, while different innovative ideas will in turn make companies more competitive and help drive their growth. As a result, economies could create the initial base for sustainable consumption and production. In that vein for continued integration development of the Eurasian Economic Union (further—EAEU) industrial cooperation is the heart of union policy. At the centre of the industrial policy is innovative modernization of the industrial facilities based on integrated innovation infrastructure gently alignment within the single market. Making arrangements of the TP in EAEU is also one of such innovation infrastructure elements. In the context of Eurasian economic development, the TP in the ecological sector is supposed to be one of the keys to creating jobs tools in the “green economy” [1, 2]. Besides the TP is a new method for developing an innovative economy [9]. The Eurasian Technology Platforms (further—ETPs) are developed to realize competence centres. They are necessary for the EAEU countries for arranging incessant technology change and global competitiveness upturn of the different industrial sectors.

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The ETPs are created by different firms, hence the question of its participation importance of ETPs as the industry drivers. In other words, ETPs appealed for being one of the tiers that create the conditions for both the EAEU Industry’s digital transformation and sustainable development [5]. The role of the TPs as a special organizational form for framing science-industry activities are investigated by Merz and Biniok [8]. They argued that the TP creation to make a stronger partnership between science and industry does not promote it. They indicate such a problem as the following. The creation of TPs only redounds to the realization of the connection between academia and industry within a new institutional framework. But meanwhile, the TP does not help to strengthen research collaboration in effect. It is highly important to investigate the organizational and functioning aspects of the TP to understand the way of collaboration between ecological sector stakeholders. Among the current ETPs is one that concerns matters of natural resource use and ecological safety based—the ETP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development”. The research attempts to address the ETP structure at this point. To address key areas of the TP organization it is important to have the answers to several questions. These questions are as following ones. What are the main functions of the ETP for developing innovative infrastructure? What specific features does the ETP organization structure have? What opportunities do its participants have? What strategic technologies are developed on its base? For our purpose in this paper, it could be separated into three parts. The first part addresses the concept of ETP following the economic integration policy in EAEU and the context of innovative development. The second one depicts the organizational structure of the Russian TP and the main objectives of its creation in the ecological field. Finally, the third one characterizes the proposal of new markets that are assumed to create as strategic goals of its development.

2 Methodology The paper contains an analysis of the data obtained from an official document, concerning the organizational aspects of the TP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development”, open official resources of the governing bodies of the TP, the Strategic research program, and open data of the supranational executive of the EAEU Eurasian Economic Commission. Alongside this, it contains the data from Eurasian Economic Commission reports, official presentations and newsletters.

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3 Results Industrial policy of the EAEU includes such strand as innovative infrastructure facilities, which lead to a nascence of additional possibilities, for example, an adaptation of the best practices of state support, new standards introduction in accordance with the international best practices, and organization the interaction between the innovative and industrial infrastructure facilities. Among the new tools and mechanisms of the innovative infrastructure in the EAEU are the Eurasian system of industrial cooperation and ensuring the industrial sector digital transformation conditions. The final goal is defined as the creation of the EAEU industrial sectors common digital space. The result of this is to have innovative products. The innovative products could be adopted through the setting up some interstate programs and projects, which are supposed to include innovation aspects. The ETPs as one of the cooperation tools are to be used by the EAEU countries in different fields: industrial, research, technical, and innovative ones. The ETPs are developed through the growth of enabling environment for increasing the interaction of different stakeholders in the specialized area. Among such stakeholders are different entities, state authorities and local government bodies. They are blue-ship businesses (industry-specific production firms, state-owned companies), scientific establishments (various research and educational institutions), various state bodies, and different public organizations. The ETPs are the systemic tools in an innovative sphere of the EAEU integration through the realization of collaboration projects. The ETPs could be formed as a legal entity or without. Its members could be legal and private entities, which includes prosperous businesses, scientific institutions, state, and public organizations, including those that are not from the EAEU countries. ETPs are financed by participants, investors, foundations, public organizations, and other interested parties. Besides it could be financed by relevant state authorities, international financial organizations, and could take in transfer from the budget, the EAEU budget funds. The Eurasian Economic Commission realizes the interaction coordination between member states on issues of ETPs formation and operation. The tools of the member states interaction coordination in the field of the ETP realized by the Eurasian Economic Commission are the following ones: – Roundtable discussion, meetings and conference; – Proposal development to improve ETP performance; – Taking decisions on performance improvement and incentive, based on the drafting of an annual performance report; – Establishing ETP document review. By the end of 2021 in the EAEU, there are indicated 14 areas, developing based on different ETPs. One of these areas is ecological development.

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The ETP Technology platform “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” is a collaboration project, represented in 2016 according. Initially, it is based on the Russian TP, established in 2011. Initiating organizations are Russian State Hydrometeorological University; M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University; HSE University. At the moment the TP has more than 300 participants: business and administrative organizations, scientific organizations and educational establishments, and environmental non-governmental organizations. Among the participants of this TP, there are different leading design organizations, consulting, engineering or service companies: Deloitte, EY, High Technology Park of Ugra, Shaneco Desing Institute, EKOLEND LLC, etc. Industrial companies-participants of the TP are Public Joint Stock Company “Surgutneftegas”, SUEK, RAO Energy Systems of the East, Russian Copper Company, Gazprom Geotechnologies LLC, and ECOSTAR Expert Laboratory. Apart from different companies it also includes a large number of unions and associations, amid which are the Russian Geographical Society, All-Russian Public Organization “Union of Machine Builders of Russia”, Ecosphere Union, Interregional inter-branch construction association of self-regulatory and professional industry organizations “Security”. Other participants of the TP are Russian research and educational centres: HSE University, High-Mountain Geophysical Institute, Gubkin University, Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology, MIREA—Russian Technological University and others. Financial and credit institutions, state development institutions, investment companies and funds are also active participants of the TP. Key TP international connection is presented by cooperation with the European Environment Agency (EEA). As an organization, this TP has its mission. The mission here is “formation of the mechanism to ensure the efficiency and competitiveness improvement of the Russian Federation economy through the coordination of the science, government, business and society efforts to introduce environmentally effective and energy-saving Russian technologies, solve environmental problems, and ensure environmental safety”. The functioning TP is realized through its organizational structure (Fig. 1). Strategic management includes the TP-members General Meeting, the TP Supervising Board and the TP Steering Committee. The Non-Profit Partnership Technological Platform “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” (further—Partnership) realize operational functions, as well as make arrangements for legal, organizational, technical, informational and infrastructural activities. In all but name the Partnership is the only and key body that realizes the development of the ETP on the markets and in the economy as a whole. The Partnership has such main objectives of its creating like: – creating the management body for administrative and organizational activities; – supporting the expert and advisory activities of the TP;

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TP-members General meeting (annual meetings)

TP Supervising Board TP Expert Board

Nonprofit Patnership "Technological platform "Technologies of Ecological Development" Fig. 1 The TP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” structure. Source Compiled by the author

– ensuring the Strategic Research Program development; – organization and participation in various competitions, special fundraising; – information platform building. The participation in the TP is conducted by its organization charter, according to which the number of its participant is not limited. The copartners of the NP Partnership “Technological Platform “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” have their rights and liabilities within the framework of their participation. It concerns only all aspects of developing the Partners as a business unit on the market. Participation in the NP Partnership “Technological Platform “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” as one of its Partners, doesn‘t mean participating in all ecological activities, which are developing on its base (Fig. 2). Its Partners have various statuses. On the current stage, the TP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” business profile includes: – the technology of rational natural resources use and new environmental human life standards; – climate-friendly waste management technology, including the accumulated environmental damage elimination; – environmental conditions monitoring, assessment and forecasting, natural and man-made disasters, and the consequences of climate change; – the technology of the securement of the Russian Arctic zone environmentally sustainable development; – climate-friendly production technology; – the environmental services market development.

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Media Partner Gives a member status and the possibility for taking different advantages. Among these advantages are:

Business Partner Gives NP Partnership “Technological Platform for “Sustainable Ecological Development Technologies” copartner status, giving the following possibilities:

− access to expertise and actual information; − getting newsletters about ETP performance and market on the regular basis; − getting an invitation to different events (forums, conferences, seminars, exhibits, international meetings); − placing special offers and promotions for TA partners in the regular thematic newsletter; − company logo placement on the official website techno-eco.ru; − information layout on social media.

− participation in shaping a working plan; − taking part in all holding on TP events, and committees and working groups; − all advantages of Media Partners; − research and development costs optimization through the access to the TP expert network, and researchers participation from the best 50+ Russian universities; − fundraising and innovative environmental projects grant support; − taking part in international TP projects; − gain in performance of “green marketing” and PR, promoting the company's eco-products and technologies (including the audience of leading business publications such as RBC, Forbes and Kommersant) and − quarterly TP digest information block; − priority right to place special offers and promotions for TP partners in the regular thematic newsletter; − placement of the company's logo on the website techno-eco.ru in the list of business partners.

Fig. 2 The ETP participation different types. Source Compiled by the author

The TP is one new tool of ecological activity coordination. This coordination realizes through the cooperation projects. In the EAEU one of these projects is the ETP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development”. On the interstate base, the participants of the ETP are three countries: Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan. These countries are represented by the following organizations: Non-Profit Partnership “Technological Platform “Technologies for sustainable ecological development”, V. I. Lenin Belarusian State University, and Republican Public Association “Kazakhstan National Geographic Society”. In a raft of going TP projects, there is one that concerns the process of development Eurasian integration in the field of innovative technologies—creating the ETP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” following Eurasian Intergovernmental Council Decision of April 13, 2016. Developing this ETP has its specific and important objectives (Fig. 3). In a loose sense achievement of all of the objectives mentioned above should support the ecological development of the EAEU on the new technological level, implementing innovative technology for environmental safety problem solving, and maintenance ecological safety.

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1. Solving significant problems of environmental protection and ecological safety, creating modern monitoring and forecasting disaster emergency system 5. High- tech manufacturing development

4. Breakthrough technology development, сreating a high-tech environmental services market

2. Technological modernization and implementing ecological cutting-edge solutions for improving competitiveness industries of the EAEU economy 3. Resource- intensiveness reduction of the base material sectors, and boost reoperation

Fig. 3 The ETP “Technologies for sustainable ecological development” creation objectives. Source Compiled by the author

As is seen from Fig. 3 this process includes several basic results which could be arranged from a top level to a lower one. It is proposed to carry treat steps one and two to the top level as the elements realized the macro-level—economy as a whole. Step three is supposed to be the meso-level, presented by industries. Steps four and five are rated at the lower level, comprising businesses. So here it is that this ETP is the universal tool for innovative infrastructure with respect to the current ecological problem. The idea “universal” means potential for using its results for different objectives (ecological policy administration on the interstate level EAEU, finding government bodies in actual information for policy setting and programs, concerning ecological aspects, ensure that business growth has suitable conditions with allowances made for environmental concerns) and by different stakeholders (intergovernmental body, state authorities, businesses, society as a whole). One more important conclusion is that the ETP promotes inclusive administration, meeting all stakeholders’ interests in ecological aspects, and consolidating business and society influence on the process of the identification of the main scientific and technical directions. The main preliminary TP results The planning horizon of the TP strategic research program includes the period from 2015 to 2020 as a medium-term, and the year of 2030 is a strategic one. According to this period, it could be given prominence to three steps of the TP development: the TP establishment, TP drawing up the strategic research program and the final one is realizing the scientific and technological base for the environmental development technologies dissemination.

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The preliminary TP results on the current stage could give the evidence only within its first two steps. They include: – – – –

the TP members foundation meeting; the strategic research program preparation; the expert environment formation; proposals preparation, based on TP participants applications to define subjects and funding allocation under the Federal Target Programs; – the cooperation development with key Russian regions, various TPs, front rank foreign organizations of the TP priority areas. The next step of TP development is the practical one and includes promoting different new markets in the ecological sector in EAEU. It demands to realize collaborative projects. The main prospective markets could be divided into three groups (Fig. 4). These markets include both products and services, for example, environmental monitoring equipment, automated monitoring systems for state environment, environmental management approaches, information management and analysis services of the environmental safety, equipment of disposal, recycle and waste landfilling, environmental consulting, auditing, certification, insurance, eco-education, and the others. Many markets mentioned above are in their infancy state (for example, environmental services). The markets are difficult to assess. A promising markets analysis of environmental management is complicated because the official statistical data lacks most indicators. Therefore, it is not possible to estimate their volume correctly on the one hand. TP should consolidate efforts to promote them, on the other.

Monitoring and forecasting environmental conditions, including emergencies

Efficient and rational reproduction mineral-raw material base

Environmental pollution prevention and elimination, including natural and industry-related emergencies

Promising markets in the environmental management area

Fig. 4 The Promising markets, promoting by the TP. Source Compiled by the author

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Prospective markets always ride on the external market factors and the socioeconomic development general level. During a mid-crisis, the businesses refuse to use third-party innovative services and products in the first place. It substantiates the necessity to develop TP to promote new national markets.

4 Conclusion From a business perspective, understating the TP structure could be important from the point of view of finding new sources of funding, access to new modern practices, participation in international projects, advertising and promoting a brand, having educational supporting and participating in government projects. The ETP as a new mechanism is realized on different levels: supranational, state and firm levels so that it has a complex nature. At the moment all organization aspect is over, and the further steps of its development conclude searching for priority scientific and technical projects, then the development and implementation of specific industrial projects. The formation of the ETP is realized gradually and it could be pointed out as the main step. Understanding these formations of the ETP step is important for sighting the essence of the TP economic application. The other main new perspectives expected as a result of developing the ETP are formulation tools of state policy for boosting innovations, supporting scientific and technological activities and businesses modernization, and evolvement of new co-partnerships in the innovation sector.

References 1. Abramov V (2012) Technological platform “Technologies of ecological development’ as a tool for solving social and ecological problems caused by the involvement of Arctic resources into the global economy. In: Proceedings of the conference: the Arctic in the process of globalization changes, 5 June, St. Petersburg. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.1716.7041 2. Abramov VM, Karlin LN, Kasimov NS, Morgunov BA (2012) The urban component of the technological platform “Technologies of ecological development. In: Ecological and hydrometeorological problems of the large cities and industrial areas proceedings of VI international conference, St.-Petersburg. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2503.1367 3. De Propris L, Corradini C (2013) Technology platforms in Europe: an empirical investigation. Working Paper, No. 34. forEurope_WPS_no034_MS67.pdf (econstor.eu). Accessed 15 Sept 2021 4. Directorate-General for Research and Innovation (European Commission) (2020). Research & innovation for sustainable batteries. https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/ 682933cb-39d5-11eb-b27b-01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-231574920. Accessed 15 Sept 2021 5. Eurasian Economic Commission (2015) The main directions of industrial cooperation within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Union. http://www.eurasiancommission.org/ru/act/

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prom_i_agroprom/SiteAssets/broxra%20angl%20OK%20NEW.pdf. Accessed 10 Sept 2021 Gitelman LD, Sandler DG, Kozhevnikov MV, Tretyakov VS (2015) Technology platform as a tool for transformation of university science and education activities. Univ Manage: Pract Anal 4:31–42 Grebenyuk A, Pikalova A, Sokolov A, Shashnov S, Kaivo-oja J (2016) STI priority setting in the EU countries and the Russian Federation: Best Practices. National Research University Higher School of Economics, 76 p Merz M, Biniok P (2010) How technological platforms reconfigure science-industry relations: the case of micro- and nanotechnology. Minerva 48:105–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024010-9146-y Rudchenko VN (2012) The technological platform “technologies of ecological development” as a necessary condition of the innovation economy of Russia. Economy. Proceedings 26:197– 205. http://www.rshu.ru/university/notes/archive/issue26/uz26-197-205.pdf. Accessed 19 Sept 2021 The Eco-Innovation Action Plan (2021) https://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecoap/about-actionplan/objectives-methodology_en. Accessed 19 Sept 2021

Accessibility of Register Information as an Element of Smart Regulation of Entrepreneurial Relations in the Digital Society Marina Yu. Kozlova

Abstract The paper aims to establish the importance of disclosing legally significant information contained in registers in the intelligent regulation of property relations. Additionally, the paper aims to identify the necessary attributes and features of such disclosure in a digital society. The author uses dialectical, comparative-legal, analytical, and predictive methods of research. The paper reveals the need to apply smart regulation and its basic elements. It identifies the means necessary to regulate entrepreneurial relations as a type of private relations. The signs of smart disclosure of legally relevant information are explored on the example of registers. The question of the possibility of using blockchain technology in the registers is investigated. The authors establish that disclosure is highly important among the means of smart regulation for entrepreneurial relations. Legally significant information about business entities and ownership of property by a particular person is necessary to conclude contracts. It ultimately affects the sustainability of civil circulation. The disclosure of information contained in various registers maintained digitally or with the use of advanced technologies will allow business entities to make reasonable decisions if the information is publicly available and reliable while creating conditions that encourage obtaining such information. Keywords Smart regulation · Registers · Disclosure of information · Stability of civil circulation · Digital society JEL Classification K150

1 Introduction Classical economics presents the human being as a rational and predictable individual guided solely by self-interest. Such an understanding does not consider the peculiarities of human thinking. Therefore, models built on this approach do not always reflect M. Yu. Kozlova (B) Volgograd State University, Volgograd, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_43

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the real situation. Behavioral economics assumes that people are irrational and make “non-ideal” decisions influenced by emotions, misjudging information, and poorly imagining risks. State regulation considering this starting point must be structured so that the subject makes reasonable and informed choices when making decisions. The so-called smart regulation is proposed, which involves creating conditions to nudge individuals to make economically sound and rational decisions. It has been established that people make decisions automatically or consciously, engaging a particular system of thought (According to the classification proposed by D. Kahneman, System 1—automatic and System 2—arbitrary) [10]. System 1 operates based on three principles—automatic thinking, social thinking, and thinking based on mental models. Automatic thinking (intuitive thinking) can be contrasted with conscious thinking (reflective thinking). The automatic system is based on associations, requires no efforts, and involves simplification and a narrow view of the subject. Missing information is supplemented based on the existing ideas about the world, and the situation is evaluated based on automatically occurring associations and beliefs not subjected to criticism. Conscious thinking is based on reasoning and connected with efforts. The subject of consideration is a wide range of relevant factors [15, p. 5]. The principle of social thinking means that, in decision-making, one strives to conform to social expectations, given his or her embeddedness in a social context. Decision-making based on mental models involves using stereotypes, worldviews, and concepts shared by individuals in society. Mental models form a kind of behavior framework, which may not be conscious but can still limit decision-making [11]. Thus, one or another choice depends on the particular setting and the social institutions that have influenced the formation of an interpretative system of a particular person [15]. Understanding a person’s thought system can be used in regulating certain relationships to help the subject make informed and rational choices. This approach has been called choice architecture or nudging. Nudging does not limit the autonomy of the will and freedom of choice; it offers to structure the choice so that the subject chooses the most reasonable and rational option [12, p. 11]. The architecture of choice can conflict with the autonomy of will and freedom of choice, which are fundamental features of private relationships. K. Sunstein suggests that human beings, in any case, live and act in a context involving the architecture of choice. For example, work environments are organized to encourage certain behaviors deemed desirable for productivity, department stores display their products to encourage consumption, and luxury stores are planned and decorated to offer refined taste and exclusivity [14, p. 22]. The tools precepted as nudge tools include the following: • Application of “default rules” (e.g., automatic participation in health care programs); • Simplification (including forms and rules); • Use of social norms (e.g., reference to the experience of the majority of a community);

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• Making choices easier (eliminating unnecessary barriers); • Disclosure of information (e.g., the full price of credit cards); • Attention-grabbing risk warnings (i.e., large print, bold letters, and bright colors can be effective in getting people’s attention, with warnings suggesting specific steps to reduce the risk being the most productive); • Pre-commitment strategies (e.g., steps to achieve the desired goals or the definition of an action plan); • Reminders (e.g., reminders about overdue bills and upcoming commitments or meetings by email or text message); • Identification of intentions to carry out certain behavior (e.g., participation in elections); • Informing about the consequences of the past choices (e.g., health care costs or electric bills) [13]. Many of these means can be used in state regulation, including private relations. First, it is necessary to name such a tool as information disclosure. It is necessary to find out the cases when disclosure can be seen as an element of smart business regulation and the peculiarities of such disclosure in the digital society.

2 Materials and Methods The achievements of behavioral economics have been recognized at the global community level and the level of particular countries. The possibilities of smart regulation and nudging are explored by scholars and widely implemented in practice. The works of Kahneman [10] and Sunstein [13, 14] served as the basis for the concepts of smart regulation, nudging, and libertarian paternalism. The possibility of using such an approach in state regulation is discussed in science, including in Russian economic and legal literature [11, 12]. There are works studying the possibilities of using digital technology in government regulation, including maintaining registers [4, 9]. There are questions about the specific nudge tools that can regulate entrepreneurial relations in a digital society. To solve these questions, the authors used dialectical, comparative-legal, analytical, and predictive research methods.

3 Results The regulation of private legal relations is based primarily on the need to ensure the stability of civil circulation. According to the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, civil circulation must meet the features of stability, predictability, and reliability and correspond to the individual, collective, and public rights and legitimate interests of its participants [2].

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Civil circulation is a dynamic system, which includes property relations, contracts, and legal facts. Stability can be defined as an equilibrium state that ensures the system’s stability. Non-exposure to various negative phenomena of civil circulation depends on many factors, including the certainty of legislation and predictability of the judicial system, the integrity of the behavior of participants in circulation, and the state of the economy. Civil circulation will be stable if the vast majority of contracts are not challenged and the interests of owners and rightsholders are not violated. Stability of circulation can be promoted by considering the peculiarities of human behavior in the legislative regulation. In this case, the basic assumption of civil law is the human capacity for rational (reasonable) thinking and behavior. It is assumed that a person gradually forms the ability to participate in civil circulation and the responsibility for the consequences of their actions, gaining total legal capacity with the onset of adulthood. Moreover, the reasonableness of the actions of participants in civil legal relations is assumed, and, in some cases, a duty to act reasonably is established—for example, for persons authorized to act on behalf of a legal entity. Legislation on the protection of consumer rights proceeds from the opposite approach. It is assumed that the consumer is prone to erroneous choices; they may not pay attention to any significant details when buying. Therefore, the consumer is entitled to exchange the purchased goods for another (or rescind the contract if similar goods are missing). The consumer is also protected from such a form of unfair competition as the mixing of goods, services, and business entities. The legislator considers that the consumer can make a mistake. Thus, if there are outward signs of similarity of subjects or goods, the consumer is likely not to study the details and purchase counterfeit goods. The regulation of private (including entrepreneurial) relations can be built to minimize the risks of abuse of rights and the invalidation of contracts. It is necessary to achieve activation of the arbitrary thinking system (System 2) so that the information can be realized and applied when making contracts. Disclosure plays an essential role in this process. According to the World Bank report, the adjustments to what information is provided and the format of its provision can help people make more informed decisions [15, p. 6]. Registers are a convenient and effective tool for systematizing legally relevant information. The status and legal meaning of registers can be quite different. Registers can be state-authorized or formed by state-authorized entities (e.g., notaries) and private persons (e.g., the registrar of the joint-stock company). The registration in the register can have a recording or title character. One of the conditions for ensuring the stability of civil circulation is the publicity of data from registers, which contain legally important information. Informational openness aims to reduce the risks associated with the conclusion of contracts and thereby ensure the stability of civil circulation. Thus, one of the greatest difficulties in the decision-making is the risk assessment, which is conducted based on information of limited reliability processed according to heuristic rules (e.g., representativeness, availability, binding, and correction), which lead to systematic biases (cognitive distortions) [11].

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Can openness of data be considered as an element of smart regulation, and what are the requirements for the procedure of information disclosure in this case? On the one hand, the information contained in the register should be accessible and easy to understand. On the other hand, participants in civil circulation should be aware of the need to resort to registers to reduce risks (i.e., to include in the work of System 2). D. Kahneman notes that it is necessary to create a cognitive tension to mobilize System 2, which will ensure the transition from a casual and intuitive approach to a more active and analytical one. According to D. Kahneman, when one feels tension, they are likely to be alert and susceptible to suspicion, put more effort into their occupation, feel less comfortable, and make fewer mistakes, but they will use their intuition and creativity less than usual [10, p. 48]. The mechanism of challenging the contract in the legislation seems to be more developed than the procedure for providing and obtaining information necessary to conclude contracts. If the legislator is to avoid abuse without sanctions, it is necessary to form the context for the decisions. Often the basis for abuse can be an imbalance in the subjects’ awareness of the contract. Therefore, it is possible to establish an obligation to provide certain information or follow a certain procedure for performing actions. The duty to inform helps fill the knowledge gap between the parties and allows these parties to make better-informed decisions through better knowledge of the relevant facts of the case [11]. The minimum necessary information, the possession of which will reduce the risks associated with the conclusion of the contract, includes information about the subjects of the contract and the status of the subject of the contract (e.g., its ownership, the presence or absence of encumbrances, etc.). Such information may be available from various kinds of registers. The task of regulation is to ensure the publicity and the reliability of registers. Moreover, it is necessary to draw the attention of contract participants to the need to study the information. Information about counterparties (i.e., legal entities or individual entrepreneurs) is available from the relevant register maintained by the Federal Tax Service. Registration in the register indicates the legal capacity of created legal entities and individual entrepreneurs. The register includes information that gives a fairly complete picture of the legal entity and allows one to draw a preliminary conclusion as to whether this entity can be trusted. In particular, it contains information about the founders, the sole executive body, legal address, share capital, etc. If there are changes in the composition of the participants, the identity of the director, etc., they are also recorded in the register. If a representative makes the contract, it is crucial to ensure that this representative has the authority necessary. A register of notarial powers of attorney is maintained, which includes data on powers of attorney that have been revoked. If the subject of the contract is real estate, it is vital to refer to the relevant register data. An effective registration system allows confirming (to acquirers or creditors) the fact that property belongs to a certain person and ensuring the rights of participants in civil circulation if the register turns out to be inadequate. The register contains information about the object of law and (or) contracts with this object. The register

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of property rights should be public (i.e., open and transparent); interested parties should be able to obtain information from the register at any time. Data on the pledge of movable property is entered into the register, through which one can verify the presence or absence of encumbrances on the item being purchased. The register of pledges of the movable property has been maintained since June 1, 2014, when the relevant rules have been established by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Before that, there was no such register, which allowed unscrupulous individuals to get a loan secured by a car, sell this car, and not pay back the loan. The banks foreclosed on the pledged property, and the courts of general jurisdiction upheld their claims, even though that the acquirer of the car may have been acting in good faith. A pledge is terminated if the pledged property is acquired on a gratis basis by a person who did not know and should not have known that the property was the subject of the pledge. Good faith can manifest itself in referring to the register, which is considered due diligence. Publicity by itself is not enough for the needs of circulation and for solving the problem of choice—the information in the register must be reliable. Public reliability of the register means that (1) the facts and rights recorded in the register are deemed to exist for third parties in good faith, and (2) the facts and rights not recorded in the register are not deemed to exist for those persons. Accordingly, there is positive and negative reliability of the register. According to R. S. Bevzenko, the very essence of establishing a registration regime is not so much registration for the sake of registration itself as to give the registered rights the property of reliability for all third parties [1]. The information contained in these registers concerns subjects of civil relations and property and may affect the contract’s validity. For example, if the buyer, before buying the property, has not checked what subject it belongs to, whether the seller can dispose of the object, and whether the power of attorney of the seller’s representative is valid, the contract may subsequently be declared invalid. The procedure to invalidate a contract is associated with significant costs to the parties and the burden on the judicial system. Moreover, it destroys the stability of civil circulation. The entry in the register may be unreliable, and the allowance of such a possibility reduces its importance, undermining the confidence of participants in civil circulation. However, guarantees are usually established to ensure the rights of participants in civil legal relations in case the register is unreliable. For example, if there are conditions for vindication, the owner may seize the good from a bona fide purchaser, and the latter has the right to rely on compensation from the government. On the contrary, if there are no conditions of vindication, the owner can receive compensation for the lost residential property. Nevertheless, this compensation cannot be regarded as a sufficient guarantee for the participants of civil circulation because it concerns only residential premises, has a minimal amount and requires action to be taken to sue the direct infringer of the right. Usually, obtaining information from the register is considered as the minimum necessary and sufficient condition to consider the acquirer bonafide and his or her actions—prudent. However, increased requirements may be imposed on the diligence

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of the contract subjects (e.g., an inspection of residential premises when purchasing or clarification of the seller’s competence). However, even the creation of a transparent and reliable system of registers containing legally significant information necessary to conclude a contract is not enough. The government or communities of entrepreneurs must form the architecture of the contract procedure when obtaining information before the conclusion of the contract is a simple and automatic but necessary action. It is necessary to offer a choice architecture that leads to conscious decisionmaking in entering contracts to overcome the automatism of thinking and engage the arbitrary system. For example, communities of entrepreneurs (various guilds and associations) should form the practice of using such information from registries. Additionally, the law should establish a default rule that relevant extracts from the registers must be submitted, but this rule can be changed by the parties by agreement. Another area of ensuring the accessibility of legally significant information is the form of its provision (e.g., using new register technologies). These technologies allow for access to the necessary information at any time and affect its reliability. Public administration uses technologies that have already become traditional for the digital society (i.e., data processing and analysis technologies, blockchain, big data and predictive analytics, and real-time management of national infrastructure using the Internet of Things) [4]. Registries are maintained electronically and accessed via the Internet, free of charge (in most cases), and without time limitations. For example, the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation has a unified state register of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs on its website [8]. Regardless of whether there is a legitimate interest in obtaining information, any person may request an extract certified by an electronic digital signature of the tax authority. The extract reflects the most important data on the legal entity (i.e., name, legal address, registration, director, participants or founders, types of activities, availability of licenses, etc.). The tax authority also provides an opportunity to check the counterparty using the service “Transparent Business” [3], which allows finding out whether the director of the organization is the head of several legal entities, whether the director is not in the register of disqualified persons, whether the legal address is the place of mass registration of legal entities, etc. The Rosreestr website [7] allows getting information about a real estate object—its characteristics, holders of rights, and the transfer of rights. The search is performed by the address of the object or its cadastral number. There is a fee for receiving statements. The service is available 24 h a day. The Federal Chamber of Notaries of the Russian Federation maintains a register of notarial powers of attorney [6]. It also maintains the register of powers of attorney certified by employees of consular offices and local government officials. Additionally, there is a register of revoked powers of attorney executed in simple written form. The Federal Chamber of Notaries of the Russian Federation also maintains a register of notices of the pledge of movable property [5], which is available to anyone

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with a pledge notice number. There is no need to confirm the interest in the information. Only a minimum amount of data is necessary to make a request. The data from the registries is provided immediately. Thus, the disclosure is quick, unobstructed, accessible, and reliable for contracts. The digital society raises the question of the use of advanced technologies in public administration. Blockchain technology is primarily used in the work of government agencies that maintain the register of rights to real estate. Blockchain is a method of recording data in a digital register or a distributed database using cryptographic techniques to store contract records and blocks available to all computers operating under the same protocol. The use of a distributed register allows for reliable and transparent data and security for the contract parties. Rosreestr uses blockchain technology to register contracts of participation in shared construction. The developer’s contribution is reflected in the blockchain service for subsequent reservation and write-off to the fund’s compensation account of the developer’s funds. In the United Arab Emirates, blockchain is used to create registration records [16, p. 26]. The Swedish Land Registry (Lantmateriat) uses a blockchain-based system that integrates smart contracts into real estate acquisitions. The system is available only to the parties to the contract and allows controlling all stages—from signing the contract to the transfer of ownership. A mobile application allows signing documents and getting digital copies of them [16, p. 54]. However, there are opinions that blockchain is not always an appropriate tool for registering real estate rights and contracts. It is not appropriate to use public blockchain alone because, in this case, the information stored in the register on the blockchain cannot be considered reliable as it is checked only by users (miners), not by authorized state bodies. A private blockchain system implies that only authorized entities can make entries. Accordingly, a combination of public and private blockchain capabilities is required to maintain the real estate rights register. The cadastre cannot be equated with a simple database, and land transfer is much more complicated than the purchase of inexpensive consumer goods. Consequently, blockchain can be applied if it is adapted to the existing registration architecture. The conditions to be met in this respect are the limitation of the access to the blockchain system, the reduction of the number of miners to those meeting certain qualifications, the provision of proper identification of users, and the definition of the rules of liability [9, p. 354]. In the context of information accessibility, the development of services (including public services that provide reliable information about the subjects, movable, and immovable property) seems promising.

4 Conclusion For making contracts, it is necessary to provide all third parties to ascertain the subject’s right to dispose of a particular property or property rights. Information

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about the subjects and subject matter of the contract should be presented in such a way as to reduce the risks of invalidation of the forthcoming contract, which is especially important for business relations. This kind of information is available from various registers—legal entities and individual entrepreneurs, real estate rights, notices of pledge, powers of attorney, etc. Smart disclosure implies that information is presented in a convenient form, easy to obtain, publicly available and reliable, and can be relied upon when making contracts. The digital society uses the Internet and technologies (e.g., blockchain) to access information. However, to consider disclosure from registries to be smart, it is necessary to create conditions in which the parties to a contract turn to data from registries, are aware of that information, and actually use it when making contracts. The architecture of choice in contracts should be designed so that not only do the registries contain accessible and reliable information necessary for contracts, but this information is also a necessary element of every contract to reduce the risks of the contract’s invalidation. It is necessary to influence the decision-making process, for example, by establishing a default rule that the parties to the contract confirm their status or the status of the subject of the contract by presenting extracts from the registers. Business communities should form the practice of verifying information before entering into a contract. Acknowledgements The study is financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation, project No. 21-18-00484 (https://rscf.ru/project/21-18-00484/).

References 1. Bevzenko RS (2011) State registration of rights to real estate: problems and solutions. Bull Civ Law 11(5):4–30 2. Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (2003) Resolution “On the case of verification of the constitutionality of the clauses 1 and 2 of Article 167 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation in connection with the complaints of citizens. In: Marinicheva OM, Nemirovskaya AV, Sklyanova ZA, Sklyanova RM, Shiryaev VM, 21 Apr 2003, No. 6-P. Saint Petersburg, Russia: ConsultantPlus. Retrieved from http://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_ 41943/. Accessed 22 June 2021 3. Counterparty verification service “Transparent Business” by Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation (nd) Official Website. Retrieved from https://pb.nalog.ru. Accessed 22 June 2021 4. Engin Z, Treleaven P (2019) Algorithmic government: automating public services and supporting civil servants in using data science technologies. Comput J 62(3):448–460. https:// doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/bxy082 5. Federal Notarial Chamber of Russia (n.d) Register of notices of pledge of movable property. Retrieved from https://www.reestr-zalogov.ru. Accessed 22 June 2021 6. Federal Notarial Chamber of Russia (n.d) Verification of a notarized power of attorney. Retrieved from https://www.reestr-dover.ru/. Accessed 22 June 2021 7. Federal Service for State Registration, Cadastre, and Cartography (Rosreestr) (n.d.) Providing information from the Unified State Register of Legal Entities. Retrieved from https://rosreestr. gov.ru/eservices/request_info_from_egrn/. Accessed 22 June 2021

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8. Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation (n.d.) Get information from business registers (USRLE/USRIE). Retrieved from https://egrul.nalog.ru/index.html?t=1634884662195. Accessed 22 June 2021 9. Kaczorowska M (2019) Blockchain-based land registration: possibilities and challenges. Masaryk Univ J Law Technol 13(2):339–360. https://doi.org/10.5817/MUJLT2019-2-8 10. Kahneman D (2011) Thinking, fast and slow. AST, Moscow 11. Oliveira LJD, Brunello SS (2021) Nudge e informação: A tomada de decisão e o “homem médio”. Revista Direito GV 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-6172202114 12. Ponomareva S, Yushkova T (2017) Normative program of behavioral economics: balancing individual and public good. J New Econ 1(69):5–15. Retrieved from http://jne.usue.ru/dow nload/69/1.pdf. Accessed 22 June 2021 13. Sunstein CR (2014) Nudging: a very short guide (Discussion Paper No. 799 11/2014). Harvard Law School, Cambridge. Retrieved from http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/olin_center/ papers/pdf/Sunstein_799.pdf. Accessed 22 June 2021 14. Sunstein CR (2016) The ethics of influence: government in the age of behavioral science. Cambridge University Press, New York 15. World Bank (2015) World development report 2015: mind, society, and behavior. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-14648-0342-0 16. World Bank (2018) Competing in the digital age: policy implications for the Russian Federation. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, DC. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/russia/publication/competing-in-digital-age. Accessed 15 June 2021

Digital Transformation of the Financial Sector in Russia and Its Regions Tatiana V. Kushnarenko

and Natalia S. Braun

Abstract The article substantiates the need for digital transformation issues, which deals a powerful blow to traditional banks. Despite the huge pressure on margins, the legacy of the financial crisis, changing consumer behaviour and strict regulatory requirements, banks need to invest more in digital technologies. Introduction to the digital potential should be carried out primarily to create value for each client in the field of online banking. Established banks need to evolve into a digital, platformbased ecosystem and at the same time impartially consider possible strategic alliances with external providers of financial and technological services. This development, combined with the high innovative dynamics of the digital era, will lead to the successful creation of international intersectoral architectures represented by a seamless digital environment that ensures the interconnected activities of its own and partner organizations, called the name of digital ecosystems. Keywords Digitalization of financial services digital ecosystem · Digital transformation · Online banking · Crowdfunding · Peer-to-peer network · Fintech startup JEL Codes R01 · O16

1 Introduction Digital transformation in the financial sector is a challenge for traditional banks. The progress of digital technologies over the past decade is simply amazing, digital transformation does not stop and is in full swing in all sectors of the economy in constant interaction with the forces of globalization. In many places, it is still underestimated—and in the traditional banking sector, too, and in full force.

N. S. Braun—Deceased. T. V. Kushnarenko (B) · N. S. Braun Don State Technical University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_44

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The strategies used and transmitted continue to develop in accordance with the traditional, but no longer relevant, principle of fragmentation or “data silo”. But this is not enough. Banks will not succeed this way. It is not enough to equip individual business lines or individual sales channels with modern Internet technologies in isolation. An adequate digitalization strategy can lead to success only with a holistic approach. It is necessary to cover all areas of the company’s activities and ensure appropriate internal and external adaptation of new technologies [1]. This includes such departments of the company as R&D, sales, service, quality management, legal department and compliance department, as well as the personnel and marketing department. All internal administration and backup processes are also taken into account.

2 Methodology The financial crisis made its contribution, which resulted in a lot of pressure on margins, which, in turn, affected the behaviour of customers of consumer services, but despite this and more demanding regulations, banking structures still need to try to make large investments in the digitalization of financial services, as well as adaptation to modern changes in the Internet. The problems lie primarily in the fact that established banks, first of all, turn themselves into a digital, platform-forming ecosystem and simultaneously, without bias, think about possible strategic alliances with external suppliers of financial and technological services throughout the entire value creation structure [1]. The markets are penetrated, first of all, by barely regulated new suppliers of digital platforms, as well as numerous financial technologies or fintech startups for short [2], which are based on the pro-functional interaction of implemented hardware and software. Due to the optimized connection and use of aggregate and complementary standards/technologies, customers, or platform-driven customers are served and get access to the services and products of interest, which is very convenient, global, and most importantly from a single source. It is worth noting that many innovative technologies are being developed at the same time, and the growth of potential business models is steadily continuing and is being carried out on an experimental basis. This development, combined with the high innovative dynamics of the digital era, has led to the successful creation of international intersectoral architectures represented by a seamless digital environment that ensures the interconnected activities of its own and partner organizations, which have been called digital ecosystems. These platforms are known as “fenced garden” concepts [3, 4]. This business model is available only to a certain group of customers, and the longer consumers stay on the same platform and convert various monetization strategies into profitable income according to their needs, the longer they stay on this platform.

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3 Results As many digital transactions require a certain sequence in their solution, IT security is becoming increasingly dominant in all spheres of life. There are several general main trends of digitalization (Table 1). The traditional financial sector could take advantage of this imbalance in the development of modern Internet services, on the one hand, and the security gaps that have become known in IT systems and data protection, on the other [5]. Banks have access to many valuable behavioural models (payment behaviour, consumer behaviour, propensity to save and invest, risk aversion, travel preferences, etc.) of their customers. In this regard, the management of banks needs to pay serious attention to this and apply the same strategies for analyzing customer base data that are used by large digital platforms [6] in order to offer their customers as many valuable financial basic and additional services from one source as possible. This is relevant both in the medium and long term since based on data mining it becomes possible to: 1. 2. 3. 4.

maximize the benefits of customers and make them leaner; ensure accessibility to the world of financial innovations; ensure access to a unique financial service; organize access to new types of services online: payment cards, bills, loans, etc.

Dank employees can study the relationships of certain groups of customers and identify the usefulness of their actions. Based on this, it is necessary to identify groups with similar behaviour and apply an individual approach to providing access to various financial services to the clients of these groups [7]. The use of cognitive, self-learning subsystems can be successfully used in the field of risk management, of course, following mandatory regulatory requirements and regulations. Let’s take for example legal requirements that can be automatically checked for the subject of their action and execution. In the future, automated changes will follow, and then the application of changing regulatory requirements or even new ones in certain areas of activity [8]. The processes of digitalization of the economy most actively affect both all financial and credit institutions in general and the activities of banks in particular, which, in turn, determines the main components of the target ontogenesis of the banking sector, the elements of its gradual digitalization [9] (Fig. 1). The introduction of digital technologies requires a fundamental change in the business strategies of all sectors of the economy. The highly effective application of innovative solutions is forcing the financial sector to transform both to strengthen its market position and to increase the level of interaction with customers and market participants. The transition of the banking system to a digital platform is a complex and timeconsuming mission. Today, the creation of a digital platform for the banking sector should be considered as the basis for further modernization of one’s own business in the entire digital ecosystem. In order to conquer an additional niche in the financial services market, more advanced digital ecosystems vigorously collaborate with

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Table 1 Main trends of the digital national economy Trend

Justification

Cybersecurity

It is obvious that with the increase in the volume of Internet space, the issue of data security of the client database is reaching a fundamentally new level. In this situation, banks need to improve and systematically update the resources that ensure the protection of information, taking into account the regularity of cyberattacks, strive to maximize security and minimize losses, both financial and temporary

B2B marketplaces

The existing need to create conditions for the purchase of goods and services for business, as well as for the retail buyer, led to the creation of a new digital platform SberB2B by Sberbank in 2018. This platform provides transactions for the purchase and sale of consumed products and services by all kinds of consumers and sellers

Digitalization of public services

Provision of public services in an online format. In this version, the entire document flow is aimed at a digital platform, which will ensure the interaction of the state and society on various online portals In addition, this allows you to reduce the corruption factor, as well as save time and money

Cross-border cooperation

Investing in projects of international companies creates a great advantage in the future. Promotion of the interests of the domestic financial sector in the economy of other countries, participation in the development of large-scale financial regulation, familiarization with the best international practices

Creating common communication IT platforms Multicomponent IT platforms are a necessary factor that communicates the creation of common digital solutions that allow optimizing the number of transactions and consumer costs. One of them is ERA-the 3rd generation blockchain platform DATACHAINS. world, which has become a solution not only for individuals but also for commercial companies, government agencies Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Digital Transformation of the Financial Sector in Russia …

BUSINESS 1. The digitalization process will reduce costs by 10-15%; 2. Systematization of a larger amount of information (Big data); 3. More accurate assessment of creditworthiness, reduction of force majeure situations; 4. Expanded implementation of banking services and non-banking products.

401

CLIENT 1. Based on digital transformation, increasing the speed of transactions; 2. A wide offer of banking and non-banking services in one place (the principle of “one window”); 3. Personalization.

DIGITAL BANKING SECTOR

ABOUT The Bank of Russia / large banks within their own ecosystems / medium and small banks which activities can become a starting point for the innovative development of other industries / IT companies offering assistance in solving banking services / General banking infrastructure - implementation of the use of mobile digital platforms; - conducting discussions and joint research in the field of digitalization; - exchange of financial messages; - interactive use of information data

Fig. 1 Aspects of digitalization of the Russian banking sector. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

telecommunications companies, credit and savings card providers, as well as fintech startups and niche providers, and carry out strategic partnerships that contribute to the further development and improvement of the banking sector [10]. Today, there is already online access to both internal and external products and services. For this purpose, there are many applications such as the Banking App Store, the Mevvy platform, the Product Hunt website, and others [11]. The work of banks, in the background, allows you to interact not only with each other but also with all kinds of external financial service providers such as fintech, insurance companies or retailers. These interactions are carried out economically through contracts, technologically through software interfaces. The offered services of banking applications allow customers to independently, and most importantly quickly and conveniently, solve the issues of obtaining access

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to the necessary services or products. By analogy with social network platforms, modern online banks will be able to individualize and creatively design the service. At the same time, freely selected and frequently used services can move to the foreground, that is, to a personal and safe zone [12]. Subject to the client’s consent, various networks with a local connection can be offered, of course, taking into account regulatory provisions (for example, bank secrecy), carried out within the framework of a home bank. For example, it is possible to create networks of various sizes with the services of local and regional entrepreneurs, artisans, doctors or realtors offering their products and services to customers through the banking ecosystem. Another attractive network may have the character of a crowdfunding platform. Some financial projects can be implemented despite the refusal of the boards of directors of financing organizations or classical financial institutions because the crowd or peer-to-peer network (peer-to-peer mechanism) considers the project worthy of support and promotes it. Bankers and lenders, being clients of the banking ecosystem, organize their activities on the platform that belongs to their bank [13]. The bank, in turn, acts as a network and only provides infrastructure. He is not responsible for any risks that arise, since the Crowd capital is distributed not by the bank, but by the clients (peer-to-peer) who support an overlay computer network based on the equality of all participants. The scenario of financial nanotechnologies (Fintech) is more interested in cooperation than in confrontation. Digital ecosystems are increasingly colliding with each other. A likely scenario for future development is the growing willingness of players to enter into further strategic alliances with each other or with third-party suppliers on the appropriate software interfaces in the value creation network. The most famous achievement of Apple Pay and Samsung Pay, as well as cooperation with other various credit card providers, is proof of the development of new alliances. In future strategic alliances that will develop, for example, in the field of digital payments and mobile financial services, international card and payment providers (for example, MasterCard, Visa, PayPal) will certainly play no less important role than well-known telecommunications companies (Telekom, Vodafone, AT&T, Verizon, etc.) [14]. Overall, collaboration creates synergy and duplication in terms of size, reach, customers, and opportunities for integration and internationalization. This cooperation expands the bank’s opportunities for cooperation not only with internal employees but also with external colleagues, with other larger Internet platforms, with small niche providers or often discussed fintech startups, which, of course, organize their activities in the digital market based on data and algorithms of banking services. Here, too, we should not make an exception for possible strategic partners who can help expand the range of financial services, both mobile and digital. The flexible corporate architecture of the digital banking ecosystem can link all possible competencies existing in the financial market into a single system. Consequently, the bank’s Internet-trained client has the opportunity to receive a wide range of financial services and products based on data and algorithms from a single source by their needs. The multi-level structure of the software of a certain platform can overcome the tiers of hierarchical boundaries and suboptimal principles of “data

Digital Transformation of the Financial Sector in Russia …

403

silo” in traditional banks, and guarantee the integration of software and hardware communications. Digital network interaction means that these innovations occur not only in some isolated segments of the economy. These innovations cover many sectors and areas and are increasingly based on appropriate open (software) interfaces. It is necessary to understand that shortly, in the conditions of closed markets, not the rich experience and high competencies of one participant in financial relations will become relevant, but a rational combination of various infrastructures, abilities, skills and skills of various participants in the market relations.

4 Conclusion In conclusion, I would like to note that digital ecosystems with their digital infrastructure and the harmonious integration of implemented hardware and software are already successfully operating on the market. These banks and companies, quickly oriented in the present and thinking about the future, have received a huge opportunity to use modern technologies that allow them to freely enter into strategic alliances and interact with identical market participants. Of course, the key to success in this matter is an interface policy with a suitable open application programming interface (API). Thus, it is possible to guarantee a flexible enterprise architecture in the long term, to be able to better respond to today’s unimaginable technological advances in the future. Rewriting the software or programming an additional interface will probably still be the key to connecting modern technologies with their value creation structure. One of the legislative problems is the regulatory framework. For banks, there are so-called “Chinese walls” that restrict data processing. It should be noted that this fact does not play a special role for applicants from the non-banking sector. And this once again underlines the information advantages of the digital ecosystem. In order to keep up with further digitalization, the banking sector must constantly develop and improve its activities, implement clear regulation of processes that create a legal and balanced regulatory framework. And this is the most important condition for attracting financial market participants, their rejection of the services of a traditional bank. If the banking sector guarantees the preservation of information about the client, the exclusion of monetization of personal data to third parties, not selling them for other purposes outside the organization, then, in this case, in agreement with the consumer of financial services, in the future it will be possible to conduct an inter-business analysis using the available data. All this can be done by signing a consent, which is discussed and documented in advance with the client, provides the necessary and confidence-building transparency in matters of compliance of information self-determination with data protection.

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References 1. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1632-r of 28.07.2017 “Program for the development of the digital economy in the Russian Federation” 2. Abdrakhmanova GI, Vishnevsky KO, Gokhberg LM (2019) What is the digital economy? Trends, competencies, changes: report to the XX Apr. In: International scientific conference on the problems of economic and social development. Moscow, 9–12 Apr 2019, Moscow: Publishing House of the Higher School of Economics, pp 82–87 3. Alikaeva MV, Aslanova LO, Tkhazeplova ZM (2018) The influence of financial technologies on the banking sector. Breakthrough development of the Russian economy: conditions, tools, effects. In: Collection of articles of the international scientific and practical conference. Nalchik, pp 7–13 4. Belous AP (2017) The vector of development banks in the flow of the digital revolution. Banking 10:16–19 5. Bespalova OV, Khokhlova MM (2019) Development of the banking sector of the Russian Federation in the conditions of digitalization of the economy. Sci J Econ Sociol The right 2(14):21–26 6. Dolgushina AY, Poltoradneva NL (2016) Digital model of banking services. Sci Tech Bull SPbPU Econ Sci 6(256):206–209 7. Dyudikova EI, Kunitsyna NN (2018) Development of non-cash payment methods in the conditions of digitalization of the economy. Financ Econ 7:162–169 8. Korolev VA, Penkova IV et al (2018) Digital economy: information technologies and models. Monograph. In: Apatova NV (ed) Series “Digital Economy”, Simferopol, IP, pp 306–311 9. Magomaeva LR (2019) Modern challenges of digital transformation of banking activity. SUE “Book Publishing House”, pp 230–235 10. Pertseva SY (2020) Digital transformation of the financial sector [Electronic resource]. https://mgimo.ru/upload/iblock/2ef7Innovacii%20v%20menedmente.pdf. Accessed 25.09.2021 11. Yuryeva O, Pudeyan L, Medvedskaya T, Zaporozceva E, Zemlyakova N (2020) The impact of the digital revolution on the Russian financial sector development and the results of economic transformation. E3S Web Conf 210:02006 12. Mikhailova VA, Medvedskaya TK, Vladivostok SV, Korsakova TV (2019) Global regulation of the economy: modern potential and opportunities for transformation, etc. Acad Entrep J 25(Special Issue 2):1–6 13. Tkach V, Makarenko E, Kushnarenko T, Eremenko V (2019) Digital accounting and management of economic processes in the agricultural sector, etc. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 403(1):012135 14. Progress in the implementation of the program “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation” [Electronic resource]. http://government.ru/rugovclassifier/614/events/. Accessed 10.09.2021

Economic Security of Regions and Green Innovations in the Management of Natural Resources

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities: A Methodological Approach to the Security Tools Selection Svetlana V. Solonina, Maria E. Konovalova , Ekaterina V. Lisova , Olga V. Savvateeva, and Natalia I. Lavrikova

Abstract In this study authors systematize the problems of ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities in Russia. The study of the existing methodological approaches allowed the authors to justify their position on the selection of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities in the face of increasing threats. The authors grouped the tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities, and also formed a model for choosing a set of tools that is adequate to the specifics of the region. The authors emphasize that the previous stage of the implementation of the proposed model is the monitoring of the economic security of the region, the study of existing programs to ensure economic security, as well as the analysis of the implementation of the consolidated budget of the region. The authors conducted a practical approbation of the proposed model for selecting tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities using the example of the Russian region. Keywords Economic security · Tools for ensuring economic security · Region · Regional economic entities JEL Classification R11 · R 13 · R58 S. V. Solonina (B) Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia M. E. Konovalova Samara State University of Economics, Samara, Russia E. V. Lisova Autonomous Non-profit Organization of Higher Education “Institute of Business Career”, Moscow, Russia O. V. Savvateeva Tambov State University Named After G.R. Derzhavin, Tambov, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Linyi University, Linyi, China N. I. Lavrikova Russian Federation Security Guard Service Federal Academy, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_45

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1 Introduction All regions of the Russian Federation are characterized by problems of ensuring economic security. Ignoring them can have a negative impact not only on certain economic entities and the well-being of the regional economy and the social sphere, but also reduce the comprehensive economic security of the state. The solution of problems in ensuring financial, technical and technological, socio-demographic, environmental, investment and innovation, food, and energy security of the territory determines the state of the region’s economy, household incomes, and financial results of enterprises and organizations. In the Krasnodar Territory, the problems of the investment and innovation component of the economic security of regional economic entities are signaled, for example, by the annual decrease in the number of researchers engaged in innovation and scientific development (in 2017, there were 3,570 such researchers in the region [6], in 2018—3350 people [7],and 2019—2848 people [8]. Meanwhile, employees with R&D expertise are an integral part of the region’s innovation potential due to their high skill levels, creative ideas, and contributions to scientific knowledge and R&D [5]. There are also problems in other components of the economic security of the region, especially in the technical and technological component of economic security (depreciation of fixed assets in the region in 2019 amounted to 26.5% [8]. It is the state of the components that determines the economic security of a particular region and Russia as a whole. Therefore, ensuring the economic security of the region’s subjects is a priority task for state authorities. Its solution depends not only on specific individuals but also on the tools they use to ensure the economic security of the region. In this regard, it is necessary to develop methodological approaches to the formation of tools for the economic security of regional economic entities. This problem is also relevant on a global scale, which dictates the need for further research in this area.

2 The Theoretical Basis of the Study Russian and foreign scientists are interested in studying the tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities. Among the foreign classics of economic thought, it is worth noting the fundamental works of Friedman [4], Oiken [17], Luttwak [10]. Luttwak [10] adapted the logic of military competition to the field of international trade. The author understood the tools of economic security as measures to counter other states, and the tools of ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities as a set of tools to counter threats (mainly from the economic entities of other states). Cable [2] does not agree with the proponents of the idea of “geo-economics”, the researcher believes that the choice of tools to ensure the economic security of the subjects of the region is due to the need for cooperation (for example, to protect domestic supplies, technologies, and markets),

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities …

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and not confrontation with other subjects. The author argues that economic security is a general condition, and not the goal of individual states, their regions, or regional economic entities. Maximova [13] presents tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities as a set of ways and methods of influencing regional economic entities on the economic security of the region. Ovchinnikov [21] proposes to classify the tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities according to the degree of controllability of negative impacts on the managed and unmanaged ones. The objects of influence in both cases are the population and economic entities. Makarova [12] does not indicate the signs of classification of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities. However, such tools include monitoring and indicative planning. Makarova believes that monitoring and indicative planning are not tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities, but rather mechanisms for their assessment, which allow making decisions on the use of appropriate tools. Bespamyatnov [1] considers fiscal, organizational and investment, environmental and innovation, and information and infrastructure tools to be tools for ensuring economic security.

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to develop a methodological basis for the selection of differentiated tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities in the face of increasing external and internal threats. Research objectives: (1) to reveal the specifics of the tools used to ensure the economic security of regional economic entities in the face of increasing external and internal threats; (2) to propose the author’s approach to the classification of tools and to form a model for selecting adequate tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities; (3) to carry out a practical approbation of the proposed author’s model for selecting tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities on the example of the Russian region. Research methods: the method of theoretical analysis, the grouping method, the methods of mathematical analysis, expert survey.

4 Results Regional authorities should use the most effective tools to ensure economic security to manage the development of the territory that is, reducing emerging threats. The authors define the threat to the economic security of a region as a combination of external and internal environmental factors that create an objective probability of negative changes in the region’s economy. The concept of a threat to the economic security of the regional economy is closely related to the term “risk to the economic security of the region” (a choice characterized by alternatives, uncertainty,

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and probability, carried out by the subjects of regional economic management, which may affect the economy of the subject of the Russian Federation). According to the authors, the tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities can be classified as follows (Fig. 1). The classification proposed by the authors will be of great practical significance for the authorities that use certain instruments of economic security of the subjects of the regional economy. For example, if it is necessary to influence the price level in the regions of Russia in the short term (within 12 months) then the authorities can use one of the tools of short-term influence. For example, setting a higher percentage, reducing the issue of money by 3–5% per year can lead to an increase in GNP by the same 3–5% (Friedman’s Law) [4]. In 2019 The GNP of the Russian Federation amounted to 1646. 52 billion US dollars, while the absolute increase could be 49.40– 82.33 billion rubles (respectively, it would be higher than the GRP of the country’s regions) [16]. Grouping the tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities according to the classification criteria proposed by the authors could significantly speed up the process of choosing a particular tool, depending on the regulatory objectives. The authors developed a model for selecting tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities to improve the methodological approaches (Fig. 2). Regional governments can apply differentiated tools of regional socio-economic policy to minimize the negative impact of increasing external and internal threats on the region’s economy [24]. This applies to maintaining the growth of the gross regional product, increasing the income of the population, and implementing other goals for the development of Russian regions. The definition of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities requires an analysis of the dynamics of structural indicators of the economic security of the region. Russian authors approach the definition of a set of such indicators with varying degrees of completeness and detail. Their composition depends on the specific region and its goals in the short, medium, and long term, as well as on the influence of other factors [9, 14, 25, 26]. Such goals may be to conserve resources (especially those that are scarce and subject to sharp price fluctuations); expand business opportunities and increase the number of enterprises in the region; create innovative, resource-efficient regional enterprises that produce and export environmentally friendly products and services; solve the problem of waste accumulation and the need to expand landfills for their placement (activate local communities in solving the problem by introducing a separate method of collecting solid waste), etc. When state authorities analyze the economic security of a region, they usually focus on the indicators of the strategy of socio-economic development of the region and specific programs (for example, the gross regional product, the index of regional competition, investment attractiveness, etc.). When choosing an instrument for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities, the authorities proceed from the list of instruments of the Strategy for ensuring the economic security of Russia. Therefore, the legislator should prescribe them in more detail in regulatory legal acts [3]. Public administration bodies can use fiscal instruments to replenish the federal budget and the regional budget system, stimulate the growth

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Tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities By the method of exposure Direct exposure

Indirect impact

By time of impact on the economic security of regional economic entities Short-term impact tools

Long-term impact tools

By the direction of impact Tools that comprehensively affect the economic security of regional economic entities

Tools that primarily affect a particular component of economic security

financial

technical and technological

sociodemographi c

ecological

innovation and investment

food

energy

other

By spheres of influence Tools that affect the subjects of the real sector of the economy

Instruments affecting financial sector entitiesэкономики

Medium-term impact tools By impact level Macroecono mic tools

Microeconom ic tools

By frequency of exposure One-time impact tools

Periodic tools

Permanent impact tools Fig. 1 Classification of tools for ensuring economic security of regional economic entities. Source Compiled by the authors

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S. V. Solonina et al.

External threats to the economic security of the region Economic security of the regional economy Internal threats to the economic security of the region

Indicators of economic security of the regional economy (setting adjustment coefficients)

Technical and technological

Financial

Innovation and investment

Fiscal instruments (tax rates, customs duties, tax incentives)

Sociodemographic

Energy

Food

Licensing, antitrust bans, quotas, minimum wage, registration

Tariff and nontariff instruments Government loans, orders, compensation

Refinancing rate, loan benefits

Ecological

Other

Sanctions and countersanctions Special protective measures Other tools

Tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities (in the areas of components) Selection of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Sources of funding Taxes

Non-tax income

Other income

Selection of funding sources Program for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Monitoring the economic security of regional economic entities

Fig. 2 Model of selection of tools for ensuring economic security of regional economic entities. Source Compiled by the authors

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities …

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of the number of enterprises and create favorable conditions for the development of entrepreneurial activity (for example, with the help of tax incentives, the development of innovation, and other important activities is stimulated). In addition to the innovation and investment policy, each region is interested in territorial marketing, managing the sustainability of the economy, and implementing a policy of social responsibility. The authorities use the tools to influence the population of the region, enterprises, organizations, etc. However, business entities themselves should strive to ensure their economic security, since the economic security of the region is directly related to the economic security of enterprises operating in the territory of this region. The stronger and more stable these enterprises are, the more revenue they have, the higher the gross regional product, revenues to the regional budget, and, accordingly, the higher the economic security of the region. The authors consider the effect of this mechanism in the Krasnodar Territory (Table 1). The choice of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities is based on the results of preliminary monitoring of the economic security of the region, analysis of the implemented programs for ensuring economic security, as well as data on the implementation of the consolidated regional budget for at least the last 3 years. In addition, it is necessary to determine the average value of the performance indicators of income and expenses. Preliminary monitoring of the economic security of the region is necessary to identify weak components of the economic security of regional economic entities and determine the correction factor (to increase the cost of a particular component of the economic security of regional economic entities). The methodology of the analysis of the economic security of the region is reflected in the works of Madatova and Medvedeva [11], Pavlova [22], Roshchupkina [23], Skorobogatyi [27]. The researchers prove that the weakest elements in the Krasnodar Territory are the investment and innovation, food, and environmental components of the economic security of the subjects. The authors propose to adjust the costs of economic security of regional economic entities for 2022, according to the investment, innovation, food, and environmental components, in proportion to the size of the assigned income in the next year, taking into account the share of average expenditures over the past three years, adjusted by a factor of 5.0 (it is proposed to ensure a balanced budget, i.e. expenditures should be equal to income, there should be no deficit or surplus). It is necessary to reduce the expenditures on socio-demographic security of the Krasnodar Territory by the specified amount (in proportion to their share in the total cost of ensuring socio-demographic security of the subjects of the regional economy) since the average share of expenditures on the implementation of instruments of this component of the economic security of the subjects of the regional economy in 2018–2020 is too large and amounts to 64.73%.

2

316,239

265,169

59,190

87,521

24,713

24,713

58,750

10,426

40,644

1

Income—total, including:

– Tax income

From them:

Personal income tax

Taxes on goods and services

Of these, excise taxes

Property tax

– Non-tax income

– Other income

Expenditures on 300,332.72 ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities, of which the provision of mainly:

2018

Indicator

335,042.19

48,475

10,840

57,908

30,046

30,046

112,131

69,883

307,258

366,573

3

2019

440,483.57

95,291

10,929

56,247

29,325

29,325

97,524

61,760

280,864

387,084

4

2020

35,861,949

61,470.00

10,731.67

57,635.00

28,028.00

28,028.00

99,058.67

63,611.00

284,430.33

356,632.00

5

Million rubles

100.00

17.24

3.01

16.16

7.86

7.86

27.78

17.84

79.75

100.00

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

301,501.05

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

301,501.05

7

Correcting coefficient

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

9

(continued)

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Table 1 Justification of the choice of tools and the number of expenditures to ensure the economic security of the subjects of the Krasnodar Territory (according to the consolidated budget of the region for 2018–2020)

414 S. V. Solonina et al.

5500.27

4398.42

44,239.73

9838.86

157.43

729.87

3098.9

30,808.09

Mobilization preparation of the economy

Overal economic issues

Other issues in terms of the national economy

Servicing of state 5852.66 internal and municipal debt

36,611.75

– The financial component

– Technical and technological component

Road funds

36,754.98

955.56

167.69

11,021.94

3

2

1

2019

2018

Indicator

Table 1 (continued)

37,316.06

45,023.31

3014.68

5961.13

932.78

188.51

10,097.1

4

2020

34,959.71

41,958.26

4421.92

4853.43

872.74

171.21

1,031,930

5

Million rubles

9.75

11.70

1.23

135

0.24

0.05

2.88

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

29,391.57

35,275.44

3717.63

4080.41

733.73

143.94

8675.71

7

Correcting coefficient

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

(continued)

Tools that primarily affect the technical and technological component of the economic security of regional economic entities

Tools that primarily affect the financial component of the economic security of regional economic entities

9

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities … 415

2018

2

2796.38

3007.28

201,125.31

719.48

11,644.18

42,608.32

15,076.32

2072.62

Indicator

1

Communications and computer science

Transport

– Socio-demographic component, including:

Pension provision

Social services for the population

Social welfare of the population

Protection of family and childhood

Other social policy issues

Table 1 (continued)

2198.26

17,895.14

43,036.93

12,808.68

800.28

221,428.24

3814.12

3670.63

3

2019

2276.06

35,631.05

47,148.21

13,884.98

861.49

273,833.79

3733.02

3974.23

4

2020

2182.31

22,867.50

44,264.49

12,779.28

793.75

232,129.11

3518.14

348,041

5

Million rubles

0.61

6.38

12.34

3.56

0.22

64.73

0.98

0.97

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

1771.10

18,558.60

35,923.76

10,371.29

644.18

195,157.19

2957.79

2926.08

7

Correcting coefficient

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

(continued)

Tools that primarily affect the socio-demographic component of the economic security of regional economic entities

9

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

416 S. V. Solonina et al.

2018

2

8415.45

833.73

169.8

298.96

24,881.87

38,572.8

8182.98

5487.8

270.5

4.57

Indicator

1

Physical culture

Mass sports

High-performance sports

Other issues in the field of physical culture and sports

Pre-school education

General education

Additional education for children

Secondary vocational education

Professional training, retraining, and advanced training

Youth policy

Table 1 (continued)

2159.11

303.82

5878.35

9198.97

42,020.7

28,051.73

288.93

187.46

901.16

8540.99

3

2019

1772.13

400.4

6357.29

9155.85

50,813.07

28,508.84

300.6

175.54

920.04

10,206.31

4

2020

1311.94

324.91

5907.81

8845.93

43,802.19

27,147.48

296.16

177.60

884.98

9054.25

5

Million rubles

0.37

0.09

1.65

2.47

12.21

7.57

0.08

0.05

0.25

2.52

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

1064.73

263.68

4794.61

7179.10

35,548.58

22,032.10

240.36

144.14

718.22

7348.16

7

Correcting coefficient

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year 9

(continued)

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities … 417

2018

2

4298.92

10,814.24

31.49

863.75

14,678.91

5968.29

250.04

593.95

575.6

Indicator

1

Other issues in the field of education

Culture

Cinematography

Other issues in the field of culture, cinematography

Inpatient medical care

Outpatient care

Emergency medical care

Health and wellness assistance

Procurement, processing, storage, and safety of donated blood and its components

Table 1 (continued)

568.4

633.28

242

2787.02

18,994.56

876.93

27.41

11,378.53

4307.85

3

2019

604.44

659.67

244.83

8640.84

22,418.78

925.33

39.97

11,910.62

5133.65

4

2020

582.81

628.97

245.62

5798.72

18,697.42

888.67

32.96

11,367.80

4580.14

5

Million rubles

0.16

0.18

0.07

1.62

5.21

0.25

0.01

3.17

1.28

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

472.99

510.45

199.34

4706.07

15,174.28

721.22

26.75

9225.77

3717.11

7

Correcting coefficient

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

(continued)

Tools that primarily affect the socio-demographic component of the economic security of regional economic entities

9

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

418 S. V. Solonina et al.

433.71

350.81

52.06

23.47

3787.27

307.01

29.02

Other health issues

– The environmental component, including:

Protection of flora and 229.7 fauna and their habitat

48.29

Applied scientific research in the field of healthcare

Other issues in the field of environmental protection

Sanitary and epidemiological well-being

30.84

7312.89

28.86

3

2

1

2019

2018

Indicator

Table 1 (continued)

26.56

42.68

256.5

325.74

14,808.09

35.71

4

2020

28.81

47.68

279.00

355.49

8636.08

29.35

5

Million rubles

0.01

0.01

0.08

0.10

2.41

0.01

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

121.09

200.42

1172.83

1494.34

7008.79

23.82

7

Correcting coefficient

5.00

5.00

5.00

5.00

x

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

(continued)

Tools that primarily affect the environmental component of the economic security of regional economic entities

9

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities … 419

0

Fuel and energy complex

47.28

47.28

0

– Energy component

4.18

60

7810.96

4.2

Applied scientific research in the field of the national economy

7594.29

28

Fundamental research

64.18

Agriculture and fisheries

32.2

– Innovation and investment component

3

7810.96

2

1

2019

– The food component 7594.29

2018

Indicator

Table 1 (continued)

48.19

48.19

7523.59

7523.59

9.98

48.78

58.76

4

2020

31.82

31.82

7642.95

7642.95

6.12

45.59

51.71

5

Million rubles

0.01

0.01

2.13

2.13

0.00

0.01

0.01

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

26.75

26.75

32,128.15

32,128.15

25.73

191.66

217.38

7

Correcting coefficient

x

x

5.00

5.00

5.00

5.00

5.00

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

(continued)

Tools that primarily affect the food component of the economic security of regional economic entities

Tools that primarily affect the innovation and investment component of the economic security of regional economic entities

9

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

420 S. V. Solonina et al.

2

1

49,996.15

3

2019

103,573.09

4

2020

Source Compiled by authors based on [7, 8, 15, 18–20]

– Other components 44,823.3 (including those for which it is impossible to determine the preferred direction of strengthening the component of economic security)

2018

Indicator

Table 1 (continued)

66,130.85

5

Million rubles

18.44

6

Share (%)

The average value of the indicator

63,801.52

7

Correcting coefficient

x

8

Calculation of expenditures on the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year

All tool groups

9

Group of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities

Economic Security of Regional Economic Entities … 421

422

S. V. Solonina et al.

5 Conclusion The authors found that the economic security of each region of Russia is a criterion for the effectiveness of the regional economic policy. The level of economic security of the regional economy depends on the availability of tools to ensure the economic security of the subjects of the region. The authors prove that the choice of tools for ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities should be preceded by monitoring the economic security of the region, analysis of its threats, research of existing programs to ensure economic security, analysis of the implementation of the consolidated budget of the region over the past 3 years. The practical approbation of the model proposed by the authors was carried out on the example of the Krasnodar Territory. Next, the average value of the performance indicators of income and expenses is determined. Preliminary monitoring of the economic security of the region is aimed at identifying problematic components of the economic security of regional economic entities and serves as the basis for calculating the correction factor for increasing the cost of economic security in the future period. After calculating the costs of ensuring the economic security of regional economic entities for the next year, it is necessary to select the tools from the appropriate group (the choice determines the direction of ensuring and the number of costs for ensuring economic security).

References 1. Bespamyatnov R (2017) Tools for ensuring the economic security of a large city. Bull Russ Acad Nat Sci 1:99–101 2. Cable V (1995) What is international economic security? Int Relat (R Inst Int Relat) 71(2):305– 324 3. Collection of Legislation of the Russian Federation (2016) Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 13.05.2017 No. 208 “On the Economic Security Strategy of the Russian Federation for the Period up to 2030”, No 1 (Part II), Article 212 4. Friedman M (2020) Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Benjamin J. Montoya, Chicago 5. Khan B, Falkenheim1 J (2013) Regional concentrations of scientists and engineers in the United States. NSF 1–6 6. Krasnodarstat (2018) Krasnodar Territory in numbers. 2017: a brief statistical compendium, Krasnodarstat, Krasnodar 7. Krasnodarstat (2019) Krasnodar Territory in numbers. 2018: a brief statistical compendium, Krasnodarstat, Krasnodar 8. Krasnodarstat (2020) Krasnodar Territory in numbers. 2019: a brief statistical compendium, Krasnodarstat, Krasnodar 9. Lisova E, Petrov I, Koryakina T, Kalombo Mulamba V, Karpunina K (2020) The well-being of Russian regions under threat: economic and social impact assessment of COVID-19. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, Granada, Spain, 4–5 Nov 2020, pp 7603–7616 10. Luttwak E (1990) From geopolitics to geo-economics: logic of conflict, grammar of commerce. Natl Interest 20:17–23

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11. Madatova O, Medvedeva E (2019) Assessment of the state of indicators of economic security of the Krasnodar Territory. In: Economic growth: problems, patterns, prospects proceedings of the III international scientific and practical conference, 2019, pp 156–160 12. Makarova T (2019) Improving the mechanism of development of economic security of the region based on resource potential. Ph.D. thesis, Vyatka State University, Kirov 13. Maksimova M (2020) Tools for ensuring economic security of the region. Young Sci 15(305):337–338 14. Mejokh Z, Korolyuk E, Sozaeva D, Pilipchuk N, Karpunina E (2020) Economic security of Russian regions: risk factors and consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, Granada, Spain, 4–5 Nov 2020, pp 8197–8205 15. Minfinkubani (2021) Information on the execution of the consolidated budget of the Krasnodar Territory as of January 1, 2021. https://minfinkubani.ru/budget_isp/detail.php?ID=88588&IBL OCK_ID=20&str_date=29.01.2021. Accessed 01 Apr 2021 16. Nonews (2020) Gross national product (GNP, GNI) of the countries of the world. https://non ews.co/directory/lists/countries/gni. Accessed 01 Apr 2021 17. Oiken V (1959) Fundamentals of political economy. W Kohlhammer, Berlin 18. Openbudget23 (2019) Open budget of the Krasnodar Territory. Distribution of budget expenditures (information as of 01.01.2019). https://openbudget23region.ru/index.php/analitika/isp olnenie-byudzheta/raskhody/raspredelenie-raskhodov-byudzheta. Accessed 01 Apr 2021 19. Openbudget23 (2020) Open budget of the Krasnodar Territory. Distribution of budget expenditures (information as of 01.01.2020). https://openbudget23region.ru/index.php/analitika/isp olnenie-byudzheta/raskhody/raspredelenie-raskhodov-byudzheta. Accessed 01 Apr 2021 20. Openbudget23 (2021) Open budget of the Krasnodar Territory. Distribution of budget expenditures (information as of 01.01.2021). https://openbudget23region.ru/index.php/analitika/isp olnenie-byudzheta/raskhody/raspredelenie-raskhodov-byudzheta. Accessed 01 Apr 2021 21. Ovchinnikov A (2019) Economic security of regions. Russian Open Academy of Transport, Moscow 22. Pavlova Y (2019) The main provisions of the economic security of the Krasnodar Territory. In: Educational system: innovations in the field of modern scientific knowledge proceedings of the international conference, Kazan, pp 280–283 23. Roshchupkina A (2019) Monitoring the state of economic security of the Krasnodar Territory based on the threshold values methodology. In: Actual issues of law, economics and management proceedings of the All-Russian scientific and practical conference, pp 57–61 24. Rupert M (2007) International relations theory. Oxford University Press, Oxford 25. Sergeev D, Karpunina E, Savvateeva O, Cheremisina, N., Shugaeva, O (2019) Practical application of the theory of constraints in the economic security of enterprises on the example of critical chain project management (CCPM). In: Proceedings of the 34th IBIMA conference, Madrid, Spain, 13–14 Nov 2019, pp 3820–3829 26. Simanavichene J (2015) Economic security and national competitiveness. Publ Saf Publ Order 15:126–143 27. Skorobogatyi R (2018) Implementation of a programmatic approach in the field of ensuring economic security of the Krasnodar Territory. In: Proceedings of the All-Russian scientific and practical conference, pp 233–237

Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor Roads from Subsidence Loams in Mountainous Areas Erkinbek M. Karimov

Abstract This article presents the results of a study of the experimental determination of the actual density of the subgrade soil and an assessment of the degree of soil compaction. This result revealed a fairly common problem—under-compaction. On sloping sections of highways, insufficient soil compaction causes big problems in terms of the integrity of the road structure. The subgrade is a kind of foundation on which the base and road surface are erected, and at the same time it serves as the load-bearing structural layer. The task has also been set to compare the values of the results of determining the maximum density and optimal moisture content of loamy soil, artificially compacted soils from the Batken and Osh regions located in the V road-climatic zone of Kyrgyzstan. The main parameter that determines the stability of the subgrade is the degree of soil compaction. The current norms of the soil compaction coefficient differ depending on the road and climatic zones; they don’t fully take into account the specific features of the natural, climatic conditions of individual regions, and require clarification. Improving the quality of road design, due to a more substantiated, as well as complete consideration of regional natural and climatic conditions is especially important and relevant in the design and construction of highways. In general, it has been found that an increase in density increases the strength and reduces the deformability of the soil while ensuring the quality of the subgrade of highways in mountainous areas. Keywords Density · Under-compaction · Ground surface · Optimal humidity · Loam · Deformation JEL codes L 74

E. M. Karimov (B) Osh Technological University, Osh, Kyrgyzstan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_46

425

426

E. M. Karimov

1 Introduction Workers of the Osh Technological University named after Adyshev carried out longterm studies on various sections of the Osh-Isfana highway in southern Kyrgyzstan to identify the causes of the destruction of the subgrade and clarify the physical and mechanical properties of clay soils of the road structure. The sections of highways under consideration are located in the southern region of Kyrgyzstan, on the territory of the Nookat district of the Osh region. The relief of the region refers to the foothills located at an altitude of 1200–1700 m above sea level. Automobile transport is well-developed in the region; therefore, all transportation is carried out by road. Thus, many factors depend on the quality of roads, which is associated with the continuity of traffic flows and traffic safety. The quality of road surfaces is directly related to the roadbed. Weak soils are mainly used while erecting the subgrade because the soil structure consists of loess-like loams. The sections of roads, which were investigated by the author and were intended for road transport, are located in the southern region of Kyrgyzstan, on the territory of the Nookat district of the Osh region. The relief of this area belongs to the foothills, located at an altitude of 1200–1700 m above sea level. In this area, due to its inaccessibility, all transportation is carried out by road only. The quality of the roads under construction also affects traffic safety with a continuous traffic flow. The quality of the roadbed is directly related to the subgrade of the roads. Mainly weak soils are used in the process of building the subgrade due to the fact that the soil structure consists of loess-like loams. As to the landscape, the investigated zone is characterized by a stepped structure, more specifically, and vertical fenestration. The investigated road sections belong to the V road-climatic zone (RKZ) of the Kyrgyz Republic. Turanian gray soils, prevailing in the parent rocks of inter-mountain valleys, comprise loess-like loams, conglomerates, and pebbles of the Quaternary period, containing carbonates, as well as salts that are susceptible to dissolution. All flat areas and foothills of the Fergana Valley contain gray soils [7]. More than 90% of the territory of Kyrgyzstan is mountainous. Studies have shown that, despite the large volumes and cost of the work performed, numerous defects and destruction of various nature can be observed in the roadbed of the Osh-Isfana highway.

2 Materials and Methods In the course of research, considerable attention was paid to the experimental determination of the actual density of the subgrade soil. Assessment of the degree of soil compaction revealed a rather typical problem—under-compaction. This is the main cause of deformations in the road structure from other technological factors. On sloping sections of highways, insufficient soil compaction causes big problems in terms of the integrity of road structure.

Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor …

427

To ensure the strength of the subgrade in the foothill areas, various methods can be used for improving the soil properties. The mechanical method of compaction is one of the most widely used methods for economic reasons of road construction. The strength of the subgrade can only be guaranteed by applying various methods of improving the quality of soil. The principle of mechanical compaction is to use the potential of natural soil as a building material. The cost of mechanical compaction is about 1.5–4.0% of the total cost of the road. Therefore, the construction of roads with high-quality soil compaction should become an indispensable element of effective technology for the formation of the subgrade [2]. In the 2015–2018 timeframe, soil samples in the studied areas were taken by drilling, while the values of their physical and mechanical parameters were determined in laboratory conditions. It should be noted that during the reconstruction of the Osh-Isfana highway, its parameters were brought up to modern requirements. At the same time, during the operation of the object on the sloping sections of the widening of the existing road, subsidence generally appeared due to the difference in the values of the physical and mechanical indicators of the old and new soil. The analysis of the test results of the selected samples made it possible to establish that in places where the soil was under-compacted during the reconstruction of the road and the operation of the facility, its additional compaction occurs under the influence of vehicles and natural factors. The soil significantly changes its properties (Table 1). Table 1 shows the results of data from field experimental studies that were carried out by the author (workers of the Osh Technological University) on a section of 21 km of the Osh-Isfana highway [8, 9]. The natural moisture content was demonstrated in columns 4–5 of Table 1; the density of soil sampled at different depths from the slope of the upper and lower parts of high embankments was shown in columns 5–7. Study of the physical and mechanical properties of the soil is required at an average depth of 1.5–2.0 m while repair work is designed; therefore, the indicators of samples from a depth of 0.7–1.7 m of the soil layer were also shown in column 5–7 of Table 1. The tests were carried out in line with All-Union State Standard 23161-2012 “Soils. Method of Laboratory Determination of Subsidence Characteristics” on soil samples of undisturbed structure, with natural moisture and with soaking them with water at a pressure that is successively increased in steps. The lower part of high embankments has a higher soil density than the slope part. By the nature of the manifestation of deformations, it can be seen that the stability of high embankments largely depends on the soil density. Until 2018, restoration work was carried out annually on the investigated area after the subsidence of the subgrade. In 2018, the repairs were carried out under the author’s recommendations [8, 9], and this significantly improved the situation. It was noted that the stabilization periods of the subgrade begin when the density of the dry soil of the unconsolidated slope of the high embankment reaches (in different seasons of the year) 1.12–1.40 g/cm3 . The process of structure formation of loamy soil with the acquisition of structural strength took place from 2014 to 2018.

428

E. M. Karimov

Table 1 Moisture and strength characteristics of the soil of the sloping part of the Osh-Isfana highway Year

Month

Depth (m)

Upper part of the slope

Lower part of the slope

Natural moisture (%)

Natural moisture (%)

Dry soil density (g/cm3 )

Dry soil density (g/cm3 )

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2018

March

0.7

22.9

1.20

21.9

1.36

1.2

20.02

1.18

19.4

1.29

1.7

19.3

1.18

16.3

1.40

0.7

16.8

1.33

15.9

1.48

1.2

7.2

1.15

16.1

1.40

1.7

7.0

1.23

14.4

1.40

0.7

9.7

1.17

11.9

1.35

1.2

7.9

1.12

13.2

1.36

1.7

10.1

1.19

13.0

13.7

0.7

14.7

1.13

16.7

1.43

1.2

14.1

1.4

15.1

1.40

1.7

12.5

1.22

14.5

1.32

0.7

20.5

1.30

15.4

1.40

1.2

11.1

1.40

4.6

1.34

1.7

14.0

1.33

9.6

1.52

April

May

June

November

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Natural soils are compacted mainly under pressure from higher layers. Compaction can also occur under capillary pressure, which leads to drying out of the soil, or a decrease in the groundwater level. Compaction brings soil particles closer and forms water-colloidal bonds between them. A sufficiently long existence of soils under certain conditions contributes to the emergence of brittle crystallization bonds in them. In total, these bonds form soil of some structural strength [4, 11]. The relationship between solid soil particles and liquid soil moisture is expressed primarily in the fact that some of the moisture can be firmly bound by the surface of soil particles, forming a shell around them [15]. The stability of the high embankment is ensured only if the water regime is observed, from that moment. The relative rate of occurrence of deformations of subsiding loess-like loams during moistening can be estimated by the value of A| A| =

Wnat Wp

where Wnat is natural moisture; W p is the lower limit of plasticity.

Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor … Table 2 X-ray spectral analysis of K , N a, Ca, Mg, Pb, Cu, N i, Al, Fe, C2 [4] No. Shale P/p clay

K

Na

Ca

Mg

Pb

1

First test

0.14 0.16 8

2.4

2

Second test

3

Third test

clay,

percentage

of

elements

Fe

Al

C2

Cu

Ni

Si

0.10 0.18

9

24

0.4

0.06

0.04

58

0.13 0.15 8.5 2.6

0.11 0.18

9.5 24.5 0.42 0.06

0.14 0.16 8

0.10 0.175 10

2.5

In

429

25

0.4

0.045 60

0.056 0.45

58.5

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

So, if the rate of destruction of soil aggregates is lower, the soil at the moment of moistening is drier, and the smaller the value of A| is the smaller, then deformations will occur sooner, and they also will be more intense. Due to condition A| > 1, there will be no deformations under the influence of its weight, because they should have already occurred earlier [5]. Loess soils in a dry state can maintain a significant vertical slope [12]. Studies have shown that calcium and magnesium carbonates affect the structure formation processes, causing the appearance of aggregates, the nature of the packing of which determines the loose structure of loess-like loam [1]. Table 2 shows the results of X-ray spectral analysis of the content of chemical elements [10]. Table 2 shows the results of X-ray spectral analysis of the content of chemical elements, and the results of one of the survey work [9].

3 Results The results of assessing the maximum density and optimal moisture content of loamy soil are reflected in Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 and Figs. 1, 2 and 3. The maximum density and optimum moisture content of the soil were assessed using the method, which is regulated by All-Union State Standard 22733-2016. The task was to compare the indicators of the maximum density and optimal moisture content of soils from the Batken and Osh regions, located in the V road-climatic zone of Kyrgyzstan. Special equipment and instruments were used to test the soil: SoyuzdorNII - a device for standard compaction, a set of sieves with cells with a diameter of 5– 10 mm, laboratory scales according to All-Union State Standard 24104, earthenware mortar with a pestle according to All-Union State Standard 9147, desiccators E-250 according to All-Union State Standard 23932, and a vernier caliper according to All-Union State Standard 166. The purpose of the laboratory study was to determine the maximum density value at the optimum moisture content of samples taken from various places located in the V road-climatic zone. Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 present the results of laboratory experiments to determine the density of the soil depending on

430

E. M. Karimov

Table 3 Determination of soil density depending on its moisture content (loam, Sulukta city, Batken region) Parameters

Test number 1

2

3

4

Added water amount (g)

240

120

120

120

Weight of a container with wet soil (g)

6840

7050

7245

7145

Container weight (g)

5180

5180

5180

5180

Wet soil weight (g)

1660

1870

2065

1965

Wet soil density (g/cm3 )

1.66

1.87

2.07

1.97

(g/cm3 )

1.53

1.67

1.76

1.64

Dry soil density

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Table 4 Determination of soil moisture (loam, Sulukta city, Batken region) Parameters

Test number 1

2

3

4

Weight of wet soil with a glass and a lid (g)

50.12

48.65

52.35

51.23

Mass of the dried soil with a glass and a lid (g)

47.15

44.71

46.56

44.85

Empty glass weight with lid (g)

12.35

12.38

13.35

13.03

Dried soil mass (g)

34.80

32.33

33.21

31.82

8.53

12.19

17.43

20.05

Soil moisture (water content) (%) Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Table 5 Determination of soil density depending on its moisture content (loam, Aravan district, Osh region) Parameters

Test number 1

2

3

4

5

6

Added water amount (g)

240

90

90

90

90

90

Weight of a container with wet soil (g)

7300

7400

7475

7610

7640

7600

Container weight (g)

5585

5585

5585

5585

5585

5585

Wet soil weight (g)

1715

1815

1890

2025

2055

2015

Wet soil density (g/cm3 )

1.72

1.82

1.89

2.03

2.06

2.02

Dry soil density (g/cm3 )

1.58

1.64

1.66

1.74

1.71

1.64

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

its moisture content, carried out by the author. Figures 1, 2 and 3 show the graphs for determining the optimal moisture content and density of the soil skeleton, sampled from various regions of southern Kyrgyzstan. For the loam sample sampled in the area of Sulukta and Batken region, the maximum density is 1.76 g/cm3 with an optimum moisture content of 17.43%, for a

Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor …

431

Table 6 Determination of soil moisture (loam, Aravan district, Osh region) Parameters

Test number 1

Weight of wet soil with a glass and a lid (g)

2

3

4

5

6

31.22 31.58 37.09 45.11 44.6

The mass of the dried soil with a glass and a lid 29.83 2978 (g)

39.62

34.19 40.61 39.36 34.61

Empty glass weight with lid (g)

13.03 12.86 13.29 13.73 13.44 13.02

Dried soil mass (g)

16.80 16.92 20.90 26.88 25.92 21.59

Soil moisture (water content) (%)

8.27 10.64 13.88 16.75 20.22 23.21

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Table 7 Determination of soil density depending on its moisture content (loam, Kara-Suu district, Osh region) 1

2

3

4

5

Added water amount (g)

240

90

90

90

90

Weight of a container with wet soil (g)

7225

7340

7490

7625

7590

Container weight (g)

5585

5585

5585

5585

5585

Wet soil weight (g)

1640

1755

1905

2040

2005

Wet soil density (g/cm3 )

1.64

1.76

1.91

2.04

2.01

Dry soil density (g/cm3 )

1.52

1.58

1.67

1.74

1.67

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Table 8 Determination of soil moisture (loam, Kara-Suu district, Osh region) 1

2

3

Weight of wet soil with a glass and a lid (g)

37.74

36.25

42.33

41.3

39.34

Mass of the dried soil with a glass and a lid (g)

35.91

33.91

38.72

37.26

34.98

Empty glass weight with lid (g)

13.03

12.86

13.29

13.73

13.44

Dried soil mass (g)

22.88

21.05

25.43

23.53

21.54

8.00

11.12

14.20

17.17

20.24

Soil moisture (water content) (%)

4

5

Source Compiled by the author based on his research

sample from the Aravan region of Osh region—1.74 g/cm3 and 16.75%, for a sample from the Kara-Suu district of the Osh region—1.74 g/cm3 and 17.17% respectively.

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Fig. 1 Graph for determining the optimum moisture content and density of the soil skeleton (Sulukta city, Batken region). Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Fig. 2 Graph for determining the optimal moisture content and density of the soil skeleton (Aravan district, Osh region). Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Fig. 3 Graph for determining the optimal moisture content and density of the soil skeleton (KaraSuu district, Osh region). Source Compiled by the author based on his research

Features of Ensuring the Quality of the Subgrade of Motor …

433

4 Conclusion Thus, it can be concluded that an increase in soil density leads to an increase in the strength and a decrease in the deformative properties of the soil to a limit that corresponds to certain moisture content, but under certain conditions, the tendency to increase the density can give the effect of over-consolidation associated with a change in the aggregate composition of the soil [3, 6, 13, 14]. Analysis of the results of the study of the causes of deformations of embankments in the mountainous terrain of the V road-climatic zone of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan indicates the urgent need to ensure the required degree of compaction of clay soils, and take into account the regional features of the water-thermal regime of the subgrade.

References 1. Abelev YM, Abelev MY (1968) Basics of design and construction on subsidence macro-porous soils. Stroizdat 430 2. Afinogenov OP, Efimenko SV, Afinogenov AO (2015) Improvement of methods of designing highways based on differentiation of zoning. LLC “Offset” 364 3. Chapovsky EG (1975) Laboratory work on soil science and soil mechanics. “Nedra” 4:304 4. Dalmatov BI (1981) Soil mechanics, foundation engineering. Stroizdat, 1981-313 5. Denisov NI (1972) Nature of strength and deformation of soils. Stroyizdat 277 6. Fundamentals of rationing and ensuring the required degree of compaction of the roadbed. SoyuzdorNII, 2002, 53 7. Karimov EM (2020) Influence of water-heat regime on the technical condition of the roadbed in the conditions of the V road-climate zone of Kyrgyzstan. Bull Tomsk State Univ Archit Civ Eng 1:193–204 8. Karimov EM, Mirzaliev M (2016) Precipitation of the roadbed in areas with complex engineering and geological conditions. Bull Kyrgyz State Univ Constr Transp Archit 2(52):21–26 9. Karimov EM, Teshaev EA, Ercoliuulu U (2018) Assessment of stability on mountain slopes. Bull Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic Univ 18(12):93–95 10. Karimov EM (2018) Use of bentonite clay as a waterproofing material for the Foundation and slopes of the southern region of Kyrgyzstan highway. Don’s engineering Bulletin. http://www. ivdon.ru/ru/magazine/archive/N2y2018/4957. Accessed 15.05.21 11. Kayumov AD (1999) Substantiation of the calculated characteristics of the working layer of road embankments from loess soils in the conditions of arid zones. Abstract of Doctor of Technical Sciences 38 12. Krupina NV, Afinogenov OP, Afinogenov AO (2019) Normalizing and controlling the density of clay soils of the subgrade. Bull Kuzbass State Tech Univ 186 13. Kuzminov MP (1976) Mechanics of loess soils of Central Asia. Association “Uzbekgidrogeologiya” 143 14. Lisov VY, Yazov VN (2013) Experimental determination of the maximum density. Optimal humidity and precipitation of forest soil. Bull Volga State Technol Univ 4(20):50–56 15. Rode AA (1963) Water regime of soils and its regulation. Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences 117

Oil Spill Statistics as a Call for Green Innovation Ksenia V. Kozhaeva

and Igor F. Kantemirov

Abstract The paper focuses on the need to introduce environmental technologies in the oil and gas complex of the country since Russia ranks first on the number of cases of accidental spills of oil and petroleum products. The paper aims to ensure the maximum protection of the environment from oil and petroleum product spills through the rational implementation of environmental innovations. The authors analyzed the cases of spills of oil and petroleum products and established their causes, which allowed them to classify environmental innovations by the necessity and time of their use. The authors also proposed to classify environmental innovations as priority inventions and consider special conditions of patentability. It is also proposed to provide an accelerated procedure for state registration and examination of the application on environmental innovations. As part of effective measures to prevent oil spills and their possible elimination, the authors proposed several effective measures to punish organizations that allowed a spill of oil and petroleum products. Keywords Environmental protection · Elimination of spills · Penalties · Oil spill · Spill prevention · Priority inventions · Environmental innovations JEL codes O3 · Q510 · Q550

1 Introduction Nowadays, the spills of oil and petroleum products in Russia are particularly acute since the country ranks first on the number of accidental spills of oil and petroleum products. Therefore, taking into account the current environmental situation in the country, it is necessary to possess a clear plan for creating and implementing environmental technologies in the economy and turn this plan into action.

K. V. Kozhaeva (B) · I. F. Kantemirov Ufa State Petroleum Technological University, Ufa, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_47

435

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In this regard, this paper aims to ensure the maximum protection of the environment from the spills of oil and petroleum products through the rational implementation of environmental innovations. The research objectives are as follows: • To analyze the statistics of the spills of oil and petroleum products and identify their causes; • To develop recommendations for the creation and implementation of environmental technologies in production as a current priority; • To develop a classification of green innovations according to the need and time of their use; • To propose effective penalties for organizations that have allowed oil and petroleum product spills.

2 Materials and Methods Modernization of the oil and gas complex is one of the priority directions of the development of Russia. This is stated by Potapova and Kiryushkina [6], who propose possible mechanisms for financing such innovations. Environmental innovation or green innovation is a relatively new and promising area of economic development directly related to environmental protection. M. O. Zhurba examines the application of this direction in other countries, and the success achieved [11]. Based on international and domestic data analysis, M. V. Tereshina and E. V. Tereshin offer their structural model of the regional environmental innovation system [9]. The problems of innovative development of Russian regions are discussed in Mityakov et al. [4]. The most environmentally hazardous situation concerning oil and gas facilities is an oil spill. Currently, the greatest danger of spills of oil and petroleum products is posed by pipelines since they are more than 75,000 km long. Over the past 30 years, dozens of pipeline accidents have occurred in Russia, causing thousands of tons of oil spills: • In 1994, 94,000 tons of oil were spilled on the pipeline “Vosey-Headworks” located in the Komi Republic; • In 1997, 71,500 tons of oil were spilled on the pipeline “Samara-Tikhoretsk” in the Saratov Region; • In 2003, 10,000 tons of oil were spilled on the pipeline “Druzhba” in the Penza region, etc. In more than 90% of cases, the leading cause of an oil spill is external and internal corrosion. The remaining percentage is due to the following reasons: • Defects in construction and installation work and pipe defects; • Mechanical damages;

Oil Spill Statistics as a Call for Green Innovation

437

• Malfunction; • Natural disasters or catastrophes; • Other reasons [10]. No one was left indifferent to the situation in the city of Norilsk in May 2020 [8]. Over 20 thousand tons of diesel fuel were spilled due to the depressurization of a tank owned by Nornickel. This situation went down in statistics as the largest oil spill in Russia. The Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation (Rosprirodnadzor) estimated the damage caused to the environment at 150 billion rubles. The reason for this situation was worn out and obsolete equipment that had not been overhauled. It seems that organizations do not even try to limit the life of such equipment due to the high costs. It is easier for them to pay for the damage caused by the accident. After the accident in Norilsk, the government started to consider and approve a law on preventing oil spills. According to this law, enterprises would be obliged to clean up the spill and compensate for the damage to the environment, health, life, and property of citizens connected with oil spills. In other countries, this practice has been approved at the legislative level long ago (e.g., in the USA). According to statistics, in recent years, Russia had 3.2 times more oil revenues than the USA, but there were 6.7 times more accidents [1]. Russian companies do not want to spend money on environmental protection; hence the income is higher, and, accordingly, the number of accidents increases. This confirms the fact that businesses in the USA allocate enormous funds to environmental protection, thereby reducing their income. In reality, the spills of oil and petroleum products occur every day, but it is not made public. The publicly available statistics do not give us any accurate figures since failures and damage at particularly hazardous facilities that do not result in an emergency are considered incidents and are not included in the statistics of the Federal Service for Environmental Technological and Nuclear Supervision of the Russian Federation (Rostechnadzor). As mentioned above, trunk and field pipelines are significant targets for spills of oil and petroleum products. Nowadays, about 75 thousand oil and oil product pipelines are operating in Russia; most of them are more than 30 years old. Russian companies (Gazprom Neft, Tatneft, Transneft, Rosneft, Lukoil) recently started implementing various programs to prevent and eliminate oil spills. These programs include the following: • • • • •

Replacement of old pipes; Reconstruction of pipes; Increase in the volume of in-line diagnostics; Use of corrosion-resistant pipes or double-insulated pipes; Application of new technologies for corrosion protection, etc. [7].

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Companies’ reports show billions of rubles. However, accidents are still a reality. It can be concluded that investments do not fully solve environmental problems. In other words, enterprises save money on the environment.

3 Results As part of measures to prevent oil spills and their possible elimination, it is advisable to apply environmental innovations that can be classified according to the need and timing of their use (Fig. 1) [2, 3, 5]. The Civil Code of the Russian Federation regulates the use of the results of intellectual activity in the interests of national security (Article 1360 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). It would be fair to propose a similar article in the interest of environmental security. For example, the government could classify environmental innovations as priority inventions, consider special conditions of patentability, and provide an accelerated procedure for state registration and examination of the application (Fig. 2). Since it is

Preventive environmental innovations

Operational environmental innovations

Eliminating environmental innovations

Inventions and technologies that must be used to prevent accidents (e.g., new ways to protect against corrosion [5])

Inventions and technology that must be used to prevent the occured emergency (e.g., devices to prevent leakage from a pipeline [2])

Inventions and technologies that must be used to eliminate the consequences of accidents (e.g., ways to clean up the surface of water bodies from oil spills [3])

Fig. 1 Proposed classification of environmental innovations. Source Compiled by the authors

Conditions for patentability: 1) Novelty; 2) Invention level; 3) Industrial applicability; 4) Environmental interest

The time for consideration of the application on the environmental invention should be cut in half

Priority invention (environmental invention) The term of the exclusive right to the environmental invention should be doubled

Facilitate the search for an environmental invention by creating a separate chapter in the registry of inventions

Fig. 2 Proposed scheme of allocation of priority invention (environmental invention). Source Compiled by the authors

Oil Spill Statistics as a Call for Green Innovation

439

Criminal Code of the Russian Federation

Imprisonment should be imposed for causing harm to a health of a person or thier death

The amount of fines should be at least doubled

Articles 246, 247, 250-252, 254, and 255 Fig. 3 Proposed effective penalties for organizations that have allowed a spill of oil and petroleum products. Source Compiled by the authors

not always possible to understand from the name of the invention whether it belongs to environmental technology, it would be more rational to create a separate chapter for them in the register of inventions. As for the effective measures to punish the businesses that allowed spills of oil and oil products, we can offer several recommendations (Fig. 3). The essence of these recommendations lies in revising the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation (Articles 246, 247, 250–252, 254, and 255) with a further increase in the fine and imprisonment term. In the case of injury or death, a fine should not be considered at all; in this case, it is necessary to impose criminal liability only in the form of imprisonment.

4 Conclusion 1. 2. 3.

The statistics on the spills of oil and petroleum products in recent years prove the need to take severe penalties for the organizations that allowed this situation. The main causes of the spills of oil and petroleum products can be eliminated by introducing environmental technologies into production. It is necessary to consider environmental technologies as priority technologies with further revision and inclusion in the legislative documents of the Russian Federation.

440

4.

K. V. Kozhaeva and I. F. Kantemirov

It is necessary to revise criminal liability for oil spills at the legislative level so that it would be cheaper for companies to prevent accidents (e.g., to introduce environmental innovations or replace equipment) than to eliminate them (e.g., to pay fines and damages).

References 1. Alykova Y, Uzhvak P (2020, October 15) Oil accidents happen every half hour: a study of the real scale of nature’s pollution. ISTORIES. Retrieved from https://istories.media/investiga tions/2020/10/15/neftyanie-avarii-sluchayutsya-kazhdie-polchasa-issledovanie-realnikh-mas shtabov-zagryaznenii-prirodi/. Accessed 09 Feb 2021 2. Kozhaeva KV, Azmetov KhA, Zagitov AZ (2018) Sealer device to prevent leakage from the pipeline (Patent RU 183920 U1, October 9, 2018). Ufa State Petroleum Technical University, Ufa, Russia 3. Meshcheryakov SV, Eremin IS, Zaitseva EA (2020) Use of sorbents when eliminating oil spills aftereffects. Environ Protect Oil Gas Complex 2(293):21–25. https://doi.org/10.33285/24117013-2020-2(293)-21-25 4. Mityakov SN, Mityakova OI, Mityakov ES, Alenkova IV (2018) Innovative development of the regions of Russia: environmental innovations. Innovations 3(233):72–78 5. Mustafin FM, Shammazov AM, Kutsenko KV, Glazkov AS, Chen C, Mustafin TR, Ostapchuk AE (2011) Structures for the protection of underground metal structures against corrosion (Patent RU 111665 U1, December 20, 2011). Ufa State Petroleum Technical University, Ufa, Russia 6. Potapova EA, Kiryushkina AN (2018) Innovative development of oil and gas complex as a necessary condition of preserving the country’s ecological safety. Azimuth Sci Res: Econ Admin 7(2(23)):275–279 7. Stepanov VV, Isaev EA, Stavitsky DI (2020) Automation of emergency response management group operation at major pipeline facilities. Sci Technol: Oil Oil Prod Pipeline Transp 10(1):106–114. https://doi.org/10.28999/2541-9595-2020-10-1-106-114 8. TASS Russian News Agency (2020) Chronology of the largest oil and petroleum product spills in Russia. Retrieved from https://tass.ru/info/8641491. Accessed 09 Feb 2021 9. Tereshina MV, Tereshin EV (2018) “Green” innovations in the regional economy: architecture, dynamics, and development factors. Controlling 70:30–41 10. Vladimirov VA (2014) Oil spills: causes, scale, consequences. Civ Defense Strategy: Issues Res 4(1):217–229. Retrieved from https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/razlivy-nefti-prichiny-mas shtaby-posledstviya 11. Zhurba MO (2014) Green innovation or environmental innovation. In: Barysheva GA, Borisova LM (eds) Russia’s economy in the 21st century. Tomsk Polytechnic University, Tomsk, Russia, pp 363–367

Key Determinants of Regional Land Policy in the Area of Agricultural Land Use (Based on Materials from the Orel Region) Andrey A. Polukhin , Svetlana P. Klimova , Aleksey V. Kondykov , and Alexander A. Titkov Abstract The land management system in agricultural production is determined by the aggregate work of management subjects, where a special role is assigned to the issues of state regulation, as a fundamental vector in the system of management actions. The set of measures of state influence in the context of the studied regions is considered as an element of the regional land policy, the directions of work in which, and also the main tools, are determined by the specifics of the work of the region and the main results in the agricultural land-use sector. The regional land policy, along with the developed set of measures, operating rules, and restrictions, acts as a guarantor of food security, which is especially important in the context of the sanctions impact and the difficult external economic situation, complicated by the unfavorable epidemiological situation characteristic of the last year in the context of the entire world economy. The study of the key determinants of regional land policy allows determining the level of development of regulatory issues and analyzes the key areas of work to improve the current management system aimed at ensuring the growth of agricultural production in the region with the activation and development of the land market. The final result of this study is practical recommendations for the development of regional land policy in the context of point impact on the identified key determinants of the regulation of regional land use. Keywords Agricultural economics · Land use efficiency · Regional land policy · Increase in land yields JEL Code Q15

A. A. Polukhin (B) · S. P. Klimova · A. V. Kondykov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia A. A. Titkov Orel State Agrarian University named after N.V. Parakhina, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_48

441

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1 Introduction Agricultural production is the key to the successful development of the region in terms of ensuring food security, the formation of the share of the gross regional product, and ensuring the employment of the population. A key aspect of the existence and development of agriculture is the provision of the region with land resources, which are the subject of labor and means of labor in the agrarian sphere. A significant dependence of the volume of agricultural products and the available land resources persists under the conditions of the intensification of agriculture, which indicates the need to organize rational land use concerning the analyzed area of activity. ZasyadVolk in his work “Factors of Effective Land Policy in the Region” notes: “Rational use of land is a function of self-preservation of any state” [1]. The limitation and irreplaceability of this resource in physical manifestation determine the need for strict restrictions and rules of use, expressed in the implementation of aspects of land policy.

2 Materials and Methods This study is based on the works of domestic and foreign scientists, as well as the practical experience of the authors of the study on the organization of management, and effective use of land in the agricultural sector. The sources of information are statistical reporting data on the level of land resources in the agricultural sector in the Central Federal District, and the volume of agricultural production. This article uses the results of the cadastral assessment carried out in the region in the last three reporting periods. It’s also based on the use of a systematic approach in terms of applying the principles of hierarchy and structuring. Statistical research methods were used in this work, in particular, the methodology for summarizing and grouping statistical observation materials was also used. The scientific novelty of the research is based on the study, identification, and systematization of the key determinants of regional land policy in terms of the development of the current management system in agricultural land use. The authors also used the materials from the Real estate portal of Orel city [2] in this study.

3 Results Land policy is a set of measures of state regulation on the ownership, use, and disposal of land, the purpose of which is to increase the efficiency and organize the rational use of land [3]. The complex of measures of land policy is determined by the integration of elements of economic regulation, development and improvement

Key Determinants of Regional Land Policy in the Area …

443

of the legal framework for land use, protection and conservation of the land fund, as well as the development of turnover and redistribution of land to the most responsible users with the attraction of investments in the area of agriculture. Regional policy in the area of land use, first of all, is based on the key aspects of the uniqueness of a separate constituent entity of the Russian Federation in conjunction with the basic principles of management in the area of agricultural land use, which should include: • Complexity, in terms of the implementation of a systematic approach to management; • The validity of the decisions; • Preservation of the structure of the land fund in the conditions of preventing a reduction in the share of the most valuable lands; • The legality of the decisions; • Compliance with the current land policy at the federal level; • Taking into account the specifics of natural and climatic conditions and geography of the location. The formulated principles of regional land policy determine the need to study the structure of the land fund of the region, the territory of its location, and the prevailing areas of work, in order to establish the key vectors of activity in the area of land use of the subject under study.

4 Discussion The Orel Region is part of the Central Federal District, occupying an advantageous geographical position in conjunction with developed transport infrastructure, as well as well-established logistics, and development of the processing industry, along with a steady pace of agricultural production. The available land resources, material, and technical components, and human potential provide a stable increase in agricultural production, comparable in pace with the leaders of the district. Other regions also show positive dynamics, which is a necessary condition for ensuring food security in the face of foreign policy sanctions pressure (Table 1). Statistical analysis shows an increase in production volumes in the whole district by 29% in the period from 2017 to 2019, which indicates the development of agricultural production, this is quite significant for the central part of Russia given the high concentration of the population, and, accordingly, increased demand for agricultural products. Being within the administrative boundaries of the Central Federal District, the Orel Region in its activities is closely integrated with the central black earth economic zone, partially surpassing individual subjects in terms of the level of agricultural land provision. The structure of the region’s land fund is characterized by the superiority of agricultural land, determining the agrarian orientation of the region and the nature of the land policy. The structure of the region’s land fund is represented by a set of land categories, the total area of which is 2465.2 thousand hectares, including 0.1

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Table 1 Agricultural product for all categories of farms in the subjects of the Central Federal District (in actual prices; million rubles) Subject of the Central Federal District

2017

2018

2019

2020

Belgorod Region

227,268.9

257,038.0

265,692.5

266,005.5

Bryansk Region

84,470.0

851,46.0

91,846.3

99,884.4

Vladimir Region

28,911.4

29,650.7

30,620.3

32,773.0

Voronezh Region

193,876.1

219,151.4

221,943.9

213,958.9

Ivanovo Region

14,887.4

16,084.8

17,244.2

18,636.6

Kaluga Region

38,538.4

43,850.7

51,216.1

53,950.2

Kostroma Region

15,645.2

15,929.0

16,764.2

17,511.1

Kursk Region

130,890.9

146,703.3

158,870.4

164,512.1

Lipetsk Region

101,595.7

119,304.0

134,785.8

162,761.3

Moscow Region

87,545.5

108,423.2

118,481.6

118,936.2

Orel Region

60,456.3

72,247.1

82,455.2

91,631.5

Ryazan Region

51,871.5

56,894.6

656,47.0

77,019.4

Smolensk Region Tambov Region Tver Region

22,820.7

24,146.8

26,740.6

26,701.2

111,331.8

127,308.0

136,207.2

167,322.7

34,890.8

38,926.9

40,384.4

40,661.6

Tula Region

57,236.1

65,785.1

80,032.2

90,417.7

Yaroslavl Region

31,824.7

34,072.1

36,535.0

391,71.9

8,517.4

7,308.2

7,310.4

4,708.0

Moscow city

Source Agricultural products for all categories of farms in the subjects of the Central Federal District (in actual prices; million rubles) [4]

thousand hectares of prohibitive use on 01.01.2020. The basis of the land fund of the Orel Region is agricultural land, which accounts for 2035.8 thousand hectares (82.6%), lands of settlements and forest lands are of significant importance for the region, the area of which is 197.9 thousand hectares and 169.8 thousand hectares, respectively, 23.3 thousand hectares fall on the land of industry, transport, and other purposes, 35.5 thousand hectares—specially protected areas [5]. The ongoing land reforms determined the volatile nature of the structure of the land fund of the Orel Region, ensuring changes in the designated purpose of land within the framework of transfer to other categories. A significant loss is characteristic of the most valuable agricultural lands, which ensure the food security of the region and the country. So in the period from 1990 to 2020, 260.8 thousand hectares were removed from the agricultural land [5]. The predominant importance of agricultural land in the general structure of the land fund, the territorial location of the region in the structure of the Central Federal District with elements of state support, characterize the directions of land policy in the region, the main purpose of which should be to increase the efficiency of resource use within the identified areas of work [6].

Key Determinants of Regional Land Policy in the Area …

445

Table 2 Comparative analysis of the results of the cadastral assessment in the Orel Region Average value for the region (rub/m2 )

Year of cadastral valuation 2007

2014

2019

2.597979

11.82667

5.055417

Source Decree of the Government of the Orel region of March 24, 2020, No. 171 “On Approval of the Average Level of the Cadastral Value of Agricultural Land in the Municipal Districts of the Orel Region” [7]

It is advisable to consider the improvement and development of elements of regional land policy in the context of the work of the organizational and economic mechanism of land management, according to the identical practice of Western countries. In particular, the management system, and land policy of the region should be considered in terms of regulating the key determinants of the administrative and economic mechanism, which includes the following components: • Turnover of land in terms of the redistribution of rights between the subjects of land relations in the region; • Assessment of the value of land in terms of the organization of property turnover and taxation; • Functional zoning of the territory, development, and approval of land use and development rules, determination of the types of permitted use; • General planning and organization of space. The declared elements of the regional land policy are the key aspects of the impact in terms of increasing the efficiency of land use in the region. It’s advisable to pay special attention to the economic component of land policy, expressed in the valuation and taxation system given the changing nature of the taxable base and the procedure for calculating the tax. Comparative analysis of the results of the cadastral valuation used as the basis for calculating the tax reflects the differential nature of the final values (Table 2). The differential nature of the average cadastral value across the territory of the Orel region demonstrates the imperfection of the procedure. These circumstances additionally confirm the information of Rosreestr concerning the procedure for challenging the results of the cadastral valuation in the past periods. Thus, the analysis of the actions of citizens and legal entities on the settlement of disputes regarding the cadastral value indicates the initiation of about 695 disputes regarding the value of the cadastral value entered in the unified state register of real estate concerning 2073 objects only for the period from 01.01.2021 to 31.01.2021 (as a whole for the Russian Federation). Significant attention should be paid to the total value of the reduction in the value of the cadastral cost, which is about 43% only based on court decisions for the analyzed period. Accordingly, the primary aspect of the development of the regional land policy of the Orel region is the normalization of the value of the cadastral cost of agricultural land. An important step towards solving the question posed to improve the region’s land policy was made in terms of transferring powers to determine the cadastral cost to municipal authorities, which has already made it

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possible, based on the results of the 2019 assessment, to optimize the costs of land users in terms of tax burden [8]. A significant criterion for an effective land policy in the region is the nature of the market development, which determines the turnover of land plots. Despite the increased attention to the industry on the part of the state, the availability of grants and subsidies for the sphere of activity, and also growth in the volume of agricultural products, the agricultural land market in the region is poorly developed, which is confirmed by the relatively small number of public offers for objects. The cost of agricultural land has minor changes in the context of 5 years of research. At the moment, the average value of the agricultural land cost in the region is on average 32,500 rubles/ha (29,000–30,000 rubles/ha in 2014), which indicates a slight increase in the value of the land of this category in the region in the context of other real estate objects. The 2020 year had a significant impact on the region’s land market as a whole, characterized by unfavorable external economic conditions, and an unstable epidemiological situation in the world. These factors in terms of cumulative impact were reflected in the value of land as an object of turnover, showing the minimum value of the cost over the last three years of the study. So, the data of the information portal https://orel.restate.ru/ testifies to the differential nature of the cost of land in the region, reflecting a sharp drop in demand in the second half of 2020, and the activation of the market by the beginning of 2021 (Fig. 1). The analysis of the regional market for agricultural land reflects the weak nature of development. The presented situation indicates a low interest of land users concerning the acquisition of land for use and concentration of the bulk of resources in the hands of main land users. The efficiency of the use of land resources within an undeveloped market decreases, due to the lack of transfer of land rights to the most responsible owners and determines the need to stimulate land turnover in the region, determining the nature of management actions. An important aspect of the regional land policy is the differentiation and zoning of the region’s territory with the approval of land use and development rules that characterize the format and legal regime of land use in conjunction with the target division. Together with the legal aspects of the development of land policy, it’s

Fig. 1 Dynamics of the value of land in the region (rubles/hundred m2 in all categories). Source Agricultural products for all categories of farms in the subjects of the Central Federal District (in actual prices; million rubles) [4]

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necessary to pay attention to the issues of land management, which is aimed at organizing rational land use and protection of land resources [6]. The existing difficulties in financing land management issues in the region determine the presence of problems associated with the lack of land management work, including: • There is no work to create land management schemes for municipalities within the region (about 20% of all work has been completed); • There is no study of the soil composition, and there are no geo-botanical surveys; • The formed economic entities don’t carry out work on the creation of projects for on-farm land management; they also don’t take into account the previously developed and approved schemes of land management of municipalities in order to scientifically substantiate crop rotations. As a result, it becomes necessary to develop duty cards of restrictions and encumbrances (easements) for the use of land resources, the development of programs (schemes) for protecting lands from loss of humus and deterioration of the soil structure, as well as other negative phenomena, in conjunction with the clarification and placement of the boundaries of settlements in nature.

5 Conclusion The study reflects the nature and direction of the development of land policy in the region, aimed at organizing the efficient and rational use of land resources. The identified structural components of the land policy concerning the Orel Region made it possible to determine the current state of the system for regulating the use of agricultural land resources. The results, which were obtained in the process of study, reflect the need for additional work in the areas of determining the final value of the cost within the framework of the state cadastral valuation, stimulating the development of the land market, and organizing land management in the region, along with the development and clarification of land use and development rules. Carrying out the indicated measures will allow transferring the actual state of the regional land policy to a new qualitative level, and will provide additional stimulation for the development of the sphere of activity in conjunction with an increase in the investment attractiveness of the sector.

References 1. Zasyad-Volk VV (2007) Factors of effective land policy in the region. Manage Consul 2:62 2. Real estate portal of the Orel Region. https://orel.restate.ru/. Accessed 03.05.2021 3. Titkov AA (2019) Land management in agriculture: current state and elements of improvement. Econ Labor Manage Agric 9(54):47–52

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4. Agricultural products by all categories of farms in the subjects of the Central Federal District (in actual prices; million rubles). https://rosstat.gov.ru/enterprise_economy?print=1. Accessed 11.03.2021 5. Regional report on the state and use of land in the Orel Region for 2019 6. Titkov AA, Titkova EA (2014) Perspective directions of formation of economic stability of rural municipalities based on optimization of land relations. Agrarian Land Law 8(116):14–20 7. Decree of the Government of the Orel Region of March 24, 2020, No. 171 “On Approval of the Average Level of the Cadastral Value of Agricultural Land in the Municipal Districts of the Orel Region”. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/570729455. Accessed 02.02.2021 8. Polukhin AA, Titkov AA (2019) Agricultural land management: the genesis of the concept and fundamental functions. Bull Agrarian Sci 3(78):122–129

Potential for Growth of Legume Production in the Orel Region Andrey A. Polukhin , Vladimir I. Zotikov , Andrey A. Zelenov , Veronika I. Panarina , and Natalia G. Khmyzova

Abstract In this study, we examined the production of legume crops in the Orel Region. The paper outlines the role of diversified use of legume products, both in local industrial production and in regional exports. We distinguished key and niche crops by production volumes, sales, and productivity. Moreover, we noted the significant contribution of the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops (FSC LGC) to legume production in the region, especially for soybeans and peas. The study presents a comparative analysis of FSC LGC achievements in crop breeding, as well as other Russian and foreign varieties. The analysis of qualitative characteristics allowed us to note the most adaptive varieties of legumes for cultivation in the Orel Region. Using economic indicators, we provided a retrospective of changes in the sown areas and yields. In addition, the study identified the driving factors of stabilization and demand growth for peas and soybeans. Finally, we provided several suggestions regarding the network interaction of scientific, manufacturing, and administrative clusters. Such a system would help to improve the efficiency of legume crop cultivation in the Orel Region. Keywords Legumes · Sown areas · Gross yield · Productivity · Profitability JEL codes Q13 · Q11 · Q16

1 Introduction The agro-industrial complex is a major branch of the Russian economy in which the key element is the crop production sector. Currently, the sector is changing due to internal and external organizational, economic, legal, and societal conditions. However, the issues of economic development and the improvement of productivity and efficiency are still important, especially within the framework of the Food Security Doctrine of the Russian Federation. The doctrine implementation A. A. Polukhin (B) · V. I. Zotikov · A. A. Zelenov · V. I. Panarina · N. G. Khmyzova Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groats Crops, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_49

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depends on the use of agricultural reserves and capabilities [4]. One of such reserves is legumes—they are invaluable to human nutrition and livestock feed [5, 6, 11]. Legumes serve as an important environment-forming component. They are widely used as a preceding crop for grains, providing increased yields and significantly improving protein content and gluten in grains [1, 2, 8]. Using the biological potential of new legume varieties at the various agricultural enterprises of the central Russian regions will allow to increase the profitability of agricultural production, yield per unit of area, and labor productivity, as well as reduce the consumption of energy and resources by 30–40%.

2 Materials and Methods In this study, we employed a set of economic research methods, general scientific methods, and modern data analysis methods. Statistical data of the Federal State Statistics Service (ROSSTAT), relevant academic publications of Russian scientists, data from different ministries and government bodies, and secondary periodical literature were used as the informational basis of the study. In the study, we examined the legume crop varieties that are most commonly cultivated in the Orel Region. Statistical analysis was used to determine potential yields. Statistical accounting will help ensure stable growth in the gross production of grain in the Orel Region via the use of high-potential adapted varieties created by the Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops (FSC LGC).

3 Results The three most widely grown legumes in the Orel Region are peas, soybeans, and lupines. Common vetch, lentils, common beans, and chickpeas are also used, but to a lesser extent. In 2020, about 143 thousand hectares of land were used for legume crops. Of these, soybeans accounted for about 100 thousand hectares, peas—for 21 thousand hectares, and lupine—for slightly more than 21 thousand hectares. The distribution of cultivated lands used for legume crop production is shown in Fig. 1. In 2020, 24.8 thousand tons of legume seeds were sown in the Orel Region. Out of those, approximately 2.0 thousand tons of seeds were of elite and breeder grades; 20.3 thousand tons of reproduced seeds; and 0.8 thousand tons of off-grade seeds (Table 1). However, the quality of seeds used for sowing does not always meet the necessary requirements. As of February 11, 2021, only 87.0% of seeds in the region qualified for sowing (according to the Russian Agricultural Center data) (Table 2). Despite the mixed dynamics of soybean and pea areas in recent years, the yields of these crops were 17 and 28.3 centner/ha, respectively (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 1 Distribution of legume croplands in the Orel Region, 2020. Source Compiled by the authors according to ROSSTAT data [3] Table 1 Volume of sown legume seeds in the Orel Region in 2020 (in tons) Crop

Seeds sown

Seed grades Breeder seeds

Peas Soybeans Lupines

Off-grade seeds Elite seeds

Reproduced seeds (1–4)

6492.2

151.0

598.8

4939.9

73.5

13,080.3

170.4

549.8

11,057.7

406.5

4942.4

71.0

349.8

4218.6

230.0

Common vetch

154.6

24.5

17.0

34.1

39.0

Common bean

13.0

2.0

–

–

11.0

Chickpeas

74.0

–

–

–

74.0

Lentils

2.0

2.0

–

–

–

Beans

28.0

10.0

18.0

–

–

430.9

1,533.4

20,324.3

760.0

Total

24,786.5

Source Compiled by the authors according to data from the Department of Agriculture of the Orel Region Table 2 Quality of grain and legume seeds in the Orel Region according to the Russian Agricultural Center data, as of February 11, 2021 Qualified for sowing (%)

Not qualified (%) Total

Due to dockage and infestations

Due to low germinability

Due to moisture content

87.0

13.0

12.9

0.05

0.05

Source Compiled by the authors according to Russian Agricultural Center data

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Fig. 2 Productivity of the main legume crops in the Orel Region, 2018–2020. Source Compiled by the authors according to ROSSTAT data [3]

Soybeans have higher protein content (35–45%) than peas (22–25%), but preserving pea crops is a priority for Russian agricultural producers. In 2018, the Orel Region was in the top-10 regions by gross pea production and ranked 1st in the country by productivity (30 centners/ha). The productivity on some farms even reached 40–45 centners/ha (e.g., at Dubovitskoye LLC, where growth management and foliar fertilizers were used) [12, 13]. Besides higher productivity, peas can be used raw for food and fodder, while soybeans require heat or extrusion treatment because of the higher anti-nutrient content [10]. Soybean and pea production is heavily influenced by the market price of commercial grain and the seeds of the most adaptive varieties, in particular. The price volatility for peas in 2020 was 15–17 thousand RUB per ton. For the soybeans, the volatility doubled and fluctuated between 35 and 45 thousand RUB per ton. Seed prices were nearly twice as high. This factor contributed to the reduction of pea acreage and a sharp increase in soybean cultivation. Shortage of pea seeds and commercial grain has led to an increase in prices. Since January 2021, they fluctuate between 50 and 70 thousand RUB per ton of pea seeds and 30–35 thousand RUB for commercial grain, respectively. The market environment requires producers to react quickly, although not all of them are able to. A driving factor in increasing demand for peas can be the construction of a deep processing plant for peas. This will significantly increase demand and stabilize prices at the level acceptable to pea producers. The government of the Orel Region has signed an investment agreement worth almost 23 bln. RUB to build a processing plant for dry peas [7, 14]. In the Orel Region, different crops vary in economic efficiency from year to year. Table 3 shows the statistical ranking of crops by profitability in the Orel Region. The data shows that grain crops are more profitable, for the most part. However, we note that soybeans are consistently present in the top-9 most efficient regional crops. This

Potatoes

Sunflower

Wheat

Sugar beet

Barley

Rapeseed

Oats

Rye

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

Soybeans

Wheat

Barley

Peas

Sugar beets

Potatoes

Rapeseed

Sunflower

Buckwheat

Crop

35.2

50.5

55.1

72.8

75.4

78.9

92.8

114.8

174.3

Profitability (%)

2018

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

No.

Potatoes

Sunflower

Wheat

Rapeseed

Rye

Barley

Sugar beet

Soybeans

Greenhouse vegetables

Crop

37.2

43.3

43.9

44.2

48.5

53.3

56.7

61.0

142.7

Profitability (%)

Source Compiled by the authors based on the consolidated statements of agricultural enterprises in the Orel Region

6.74

13.99

28.8

35.76

37.83

41.78

53.64

55.56

1

Soybeans

1

61.25

2015

No.

No.

Profitability (%)

Crop

2013

Table 3 Rating of the major crops by profitability in the Orel Region 2019

Rapeseed Peas

9

Rye

Soybeans

Sunflower

Barley

Sunflower

Buckwheat

Wheat

Crop

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

No.

24.4

28.8

37.6

48.8

58.3

58.5

61.0

62.0

62.6

Profitability (%)

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14 12 10 8 6 4 2

12 10 8

7 5

4 1

4 1

0

Fig. 3 Number of FSC LGC-produced varieties included in the SRBA and allowed for use in the Russian Federation. Source Compiled by the authors according to [9]

fact owes to the market price and lower growth cost, especially of crop protection agents. Currently, the potential and real yields in crop production differ significantly. Variety seeds are an important and cost-effective means of increasing crop productivity. At present, FSC LGC produced 52 varieties of legumes, all of which are included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements (SRBA) and allowed for use in the Russian Federation (Fig. 3). The Orel Region has all the necessary conditions to increase pea and soybean production. Scholars and researchers at FSC LGC developed technologies of legume crop production and new promising high-tech varieties that are included in the State Register of Breeding Achievements. These varieties include eight pea varieties: Rodnik, Sophia, Pharaoh, and Amior varieties of leafless peas, as well as Spartak and Jaguar of new “chameleon” type, created by the Orel Region breeders. These varieties have high productivity potential, are adaptable to weather changes, and resistant to plant lodging (this allows harvesting them via direct harvesters). The SRBA includes eight soybean varieties with a growth period of 95–110 days that mature in the first and second decade of September. This fact allows using soybeans as preceding crops for winter crops via precision farming (no-till or striptill). Russian varieties yielded less than foreign ones in some years and contain 2–3% less protein; however, this negative correlation is typical for all crops. Foreign varieties mature later—in the first and second decade of October or in September–October in favorable climatic conditions. The last five years in the Orel Region were favorable, but it will not always be so. In this case, risks are too significant to be ignored. Therefore, we recommend using FSC LGC varieties in the region since they have economically valuable traits and are adapted to the area. Indices of FSC LGC varieties and other varieties, as tested in the Orel Region, are presented in Table 4.

Potential for Growth of Legume Production in the Orel Region Table 4 Productivity of different soybean and pea varieties in the Orel Region environment, 2020

Soybeans

455 Peas

Variety

t/ha

Variety

t/ha

Mezenka

1.87

Madonna

3.10

Zusha

1.82

Eso

2.14

Lancetnaya

1.94

Rocket

3.00

Svapa

2.43

Impulse

3.50

Alaska

2.08

Pharaoh

2.58

Amphor

2.50

Slovan

2.75

OAC Prudence

2.38

Dzhekpot

2.25

Kofu

2.40

Fokor

3.30

Lider 1

2.60

Sophia

2.84

Lissabon

2.60

Belmondo

2.67

Cordoba

2.20

Salamanca

2.43

ES Comandor

2.90

Rodnik

3.30

Lira

2.40

Oressa

2.20

Source Compiled by the authors according to Russian Agricultural Center data varieties highlighted in bold selection FSC LGC

The most productive soybean varieties were ES Comandor (2.90 t/ha; France), Lissabon (2.60 t/ha; Austria), and Lider 1 (2.60 t/ha; Kursk, Russia). Among the pea varieties, Impulse (3.50 t/ha; Lipetsk, Russia), Fokor (3.30 t/ha; Rostov, Russia), and Rodnik (3.30 t/ha; Orel, Russia) were leading in productivity. Pricing is the most important factor in modern market conditions. The interaction between price and demand for seeds is predetermined by the economic uniqueness of this resource. The interaction between supply and demand contributes to the effective functioning of the legume crops market. The price volatility depending on the crop and seed grade for 2021 sowing is presented in Table 5. Table 5 Prices on seeds of peas and soybeans for 2021 sowing

Crop

Seed grade

Price, in thousand RUB

Peas

Breeder

60.0–65.0

Elite

35.0–45.0

Soybeans

Reproduced (1)

30.0–33.0

Breeder

90.0–100.0

Elite

60.0–80.0

Reproduced (1)

35.0–55.0

Source Compiled by the authors according to FSC LGC data

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4 Conclusion In conclusion, improving the efficiency of legume production in the Orel Region requires the following: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Selecting varieties by their adaptability to natural and climatic conditions. This is especially important since variety traits can contribute up to 70% to total yield. Using scientifically sound recommendations for agro-technological methods of cultivation and timings of measures. This element is important to sustainable legume yields. Observing the basics of crop rotation. The yield and soil fertility depend on crops, their rotation, and soil fertility. Legume crops should occupy at least 20% of sown areas, excluding soybean acreage. Switching to digital agriculture, which will increase productivity, reduce production costs. Moreover, it is important to continuously train professional workers so as to provide them with competencies necessary for the digital economy.

References 1. Akulov AS, Vasilchikov AG (2018) Studying of some agro methods of cultivation of new soybean varieties. Legumes Groat Crops 1(25):36–40. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X2018-10003 2. Davletov FA (2015) Pea breeding and production technology in Bashkortostan. World of Printing, Ufa, Russia 3. Federal State Statistics Service (ROSSTAT) (2018–2020) Bulletins on the state of agriculture (electronic versions). Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/document/13277. Accessed 1 Mar 2021 4. Ilyina IV, Sidorenko OV, Morozova EV (2010) State and trends in the development of productive capacity of agriculture in the region. Reg Econ: Theory Pract 34:62–66 5. Kuzmicheva YV, Shaposhnikov AI, Petrova SN, Makarova NM, Tychinskaya IL, Puhalsky JV, Parahin NV, Tikhonovich IA, Belimov AA (2017). Variety specific relationships between effects of rhizobacteria on root exudation, growth and nutrient uptake of soybean. Plant Soil 419(1–2):83–96 6. Molchanova EN (ed) (2018) Topical problems of development of public catering and food industry. Belgorod University of Cooperation, Economics, and Law, Belgorod, Russia 7. Oryol News (December 21, 2020) Orel Region signed an investment agreement for almost 23 billion rubles. Retrieved from https://newsorel.ru/fn_658285.html. Accessed 1 Mar 2021 8. Parakhin NV, Petrova SN (2006) Agricultural aspects of symbiotic nitrogen fixation. KolosS, Moscow, Russia 9. Rosinformagrotekh (2020) State register for selection achievements admitted for usage (National list), vol 1 “Plant varieties” (official publication). Retrieved from https://gossortrf. ru/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/FIN_reestr_dop_12_03_2020.pdf. Accessed 1 Mar 2021 10. Samofalova LA, Safronova OV (2018) Development of innovative products from Oryol soybean varieties. In: Temiraev RB (ed) Functional nutrition and the problem of specific diseases. North Caucasus Mining and Metallurgical Institute (State Technological University), Vladikavkaz, Russia, pp 129–131

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11. Zapometov MN (ed) (1986) Chemistry and biochemistry of leguminous plants (K. S. Spectrova Trans. from English). Agropromizdat, Moscow, USSR 12. Zelenov AA, Polukhin AA, Anisimov PV (2021) Efficiency of soybean cultivation in the north of Central Russia. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 650:012108. https://doi.org/10.1088/17551315/650/1/012108 13. Zotikov VI, Sidorenko VS, Matveichuk PV (2020) Productivity and grain quality of winter wheat and soybean varieties at LLC “Dubovitskoe.” Legumes Groat Crops 1(33):92–98. https:// doi.org/10.24411/2309-348X-2020-1116 14. Zubareva KY, Polukhin AA (2021) Evaluation of the effectiveness of using microfertilizers and biologic drug to increase the yield of new soybean varieties. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 650:012090. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/650/1/012090

The Agrarian Sector of the Central Federal District: The Nature of Land Use in a Pandemic Andrey A. Polukhin , Svetlana P. Klimova , Aleksey V. Kondykov , and Alexander A. Titkov

Abstract The level of development of the country’s economy, the importance of macroeconomic indicators and the prospects for further existence are closely correlated with the state of affairs in separate sectors of the economy, which must include the agricultural sector. The unfavorable economic situation, sanctions pressure and restrictions related to the epidemiological situation are reflected in the final indicators of the country’s development as a whole, and also in territorial units separately. The widespread decline in the gross domestic product is an inevitable consequence of the stagnation of economic processes caused by a complex epidemiological situation. Under the stated conditions, urgency is acquiring support for agriculture, maintaining production capacities in terms of the main resource of agrarians—land and further intensification of agricultural production in zones of the most favorable natural and climatic conditions, the Central Federal District belongs to which. Keywords Agricultural complex · Gross domestic product · Land fund · Agricultural land · Epidemiological situation JEL Codes Q15

1 Introduction The agricultural complex of the Russian Federation is one of the fundamental sectors that shape the country’s economy, and at the same time, it’s simultaneously ensuring food security. As an element of the national economy, agriculture has a significant impact on the gross domestic product (GDP), reflecting the specifics of the state’s activities and the level of provision of agricultural products. In particular, for countries with an agrarian orientation, agriculture is the basis of the gross domestic product. A. A. Polukhin (B) · S. P. Klimova · A. V. Kondykov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia A. A. Titkov Orel State Agrarian University named after N.V. Parakhina, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_50

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2 Materials and Methods The information base of the study was made up of normative legal documents of the federal and regional legislation, statistical materials of the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia, Rosstat and Rosreestr in the Central Federal District, statistical information on the level of development of agricultural production in the world. In the course of the study, the following methods were used: comparison, analysis, monographic and calculation. The study is based on the use of a systematic approach in terms of applying the principles of hierarchy and structuring. The object of the study was agricultural land, the nature of the use of land resources in agricultural production, and the share of agriculture in the structure of GDP.

3 Results The study of the share of agriculture in the structure of GDP of individual countries of the world identifies as individually agrarian states (the share of agriculture in the structure of GDP >30%: Sierra Leone, Somalia, Chad, Guinea-Bissau, Comoros, Central African Republic, Mali, Niger, Sudan, Burundi) and states with minimal participation of agricultural production in GDP (Monaco, Luxembourg, Qatar, Singapore, etc.). The geography of the studied states determines the basis for the location of agrarian-type countries on the territory of the African continent, which accounts for 12% of the cultivated area [1]. However, the type of agricultural production on the mainland is extensive, and the revealed superiority in the share of agriculture in the structure of GDP is due to the actual absence of other types of economic activity, which is also confirmed by the GDP, which is about 500 billion dollars, 20% of which falls on South Africa. The low share of agriculture in the GDP of individual countries of Europe and the Middle East is because of the relatively small areas of location and the lack of the main means of subsistence and development of agricultural production—land resources. Comparative characteristics of the share of agriculture in the structure of GDP are shown in Fig. 1.

4 Discussion The Russian Federation accounts for a significant amount of the world land fund, which allows organizing agriculture on a large territory and ensuring the participation of agricultural production in the country’s GDP. Comparative analysis with the main world agricultural producers (China, India, Brazil, USA, etc.) reflects the prospects for the growth and development of agriculture in Russia, however, it should be noted

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San Marino Luxembourg United Kingdom Japan Canada France Italy Portugal Russia Brazil Turkey Turkmenistan China Belarus Iran Serbia Argentina Cambodia Benin Sudan Niger Sierra Leone 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Fig. 1 The share of agricultural production in the structure of GDP by country of the world, %. Source G20 countries: Agriculture in GDP [4]

that, despite the significant land areas of the country, most of it is located in the zone unsuitable for the agricultural production. The total aggregate of the most valuable lands is about 11% of the total land fund, a significant share of which is distributed among the fundamental “leaders” of agricultural production. An identical indicator of the share of cultivated land is typical for Africa, the CIS countries, and North America. The percentage of agricultural land in the structure of the land fund is much higher in European countries, where the average value of the share of land in this sector is about 29–30%. At the same time, Australia and South America have the minimum share of cultivated land in the structure of the land fund—5–7%. The uneven distribution of land resources in general, cultivated areas, and also arable land in particular forms the nature of the work of individual states and determines the share of agriculture in the country’s GDP [3]. The differential character of natural and climatic conditions determines land use and individual subjects on the territory of the Russian Federation. Legally, the land fund of the country is divided into seven categories, according to the intended use (Table 1) [3]. Agricultural lands are in the dominant sector, characterizing the presence of a significant share of agriculture in the country’s economy [6]. According to the State National Report on the State and Use of Lands in the Russian Federation in 2019,

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Table 1 Structure and functional ownership of land in the land fund of the Russian Federation №

Category name

Functional affiliation

Share in the total area (%)

1

Forestlands

Ensuring the maintenance and restoration of the country’s forestry

65.8

2

Agricultural land

Agricultural production, educational, and research purposes

22.3

3

Stock lands

State reserve

5.2

4

Specially Protected Lands

Lands of specially protected objects of the Russian Federation and territories (including reserves)

2.9

5

Industrial and other special-purpose lands

Land zones where various enterprises and buildings for special and auxiliary purposes are located: energy, industry, radio broadcasting, transport, etc.

1

6

Water fund lands

Areas underwater objects, and also all adjacent lands

1.6

7

Lands of settlements

Infrastructure facilities and buildings for human habitation are located on these lands

1.2

Source Land Code of the Russian Federation (dated 25.10.2001, No. 136-Federal Law) [3]

the total area of land in this category as of January 1, 2020, is 381,673.0 thousand hectares. In the context of the data of the previous reporting period, the area of the category is decreased by 836.8 thousand hectares. The study of the structure of the land fund of the federal districts reflects the uneven distribution of agricultural land throughout the country. The largest share of the land of the analyzed category is in the Siberian and Far Eastern Federal Districts (Fig. 2). The Central Federal District occupies an average position in terms of the share of agricultural land in the total land fund, which determines the possibility of active agricultural production [6]. Favorable natural and climatic conditions contribute to the existence and development of agriculture. An additional incentive for the development of agricultural production in the Central Federal District is the large-scale consumption of agricultural products, because of the concentration of the population in the European part of the country, and also the existing developed transport network and highly fertile soils that determine the level of productivity and efficiency of the agricultural sector [7]. Analysis of statistical data indicates an increase in agricultural production in the central part of Russia (Fig. 3), which indicates a low negative impact of the current unfavorable situation associated with COVID-19 on the agricultural sector.

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Fig. 2 Agricultural land in federal districts in% of the total area of the district. Source Land Code of the Russian Federation (dated 25.10.2001, No. 136-Federal Law) [3] 2000000.0 1500000.0 1000000.0 500000.0 0.0

2017

2018

2019

2020

Fig. 3 Dynamics of agricultural production for all categories of farms (in actual prices; million rubles). Source State National Report on the State and Use of Land in the Russian Federation in 2019 [2]

The revealed positive trend in the growth of agricultural production in the Central Federal District, including within the framework of a pandemic, is associated, first of all, with the specifics of the agricultural sector, characterized by the continuity of work, which does not allow for a temporary stop. The stable operation of the agricultural sector and the existing production volumes made it possible to provide the consumer market in full and to minimize the percentage of GDP decline in the country. Thus, the intermediate value of the fall in the annual GDP of Russia for 9 months of 2020 was at the level of −3.4%, significantly exceeding the indicators of other European countries and the G20 countries (except China). A special feature of modern agricultural production is its intensification, reflecting the growth in production volumes in the context of a general widespread reduction in the area of agricultural land. However, the study made it possible to determine that the volume of production is closely related to the cultivated areas (R2 = 0.79891), defining the fact of the need to preserve the existing land fund with the intensification of work on the land [8].

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Sustainable development of the agricultural sector is a result indicator that determines, in the short term, the improvement of the quality of life of the rural population and the development of agricultural land turnover, which is fully consistent with the Strategy for the Development of the Agro-Industrial and Fisheries Complexes of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2030 [5]. Thus, the state policy in the agro-industrial complex takes into account an increase in the quality of life of the rural population through the implementation of measures to creating new small and medium-sized businesses, improving housing conditions, and increasing the availability of social infrastructure facilities [5].

5 Conclusion The Central Federal District has significant land resources with a high degree of fertility and actively used in agricultural production. The results of the analysis of the development of the agrarian sector of the economy indicate an increase in the volume of agricultural production in the district, despite the widespread reduction of the most valuable lands. Being a significant part of the economy that forms the country’s GDP, agriculture is under the influence of external influences expressed by global trends, sanctions and an unfavorable epidemiological situation, which has stopped the development of the world economy, stagnated large areas of business, and completely stopped production. The negative impact of the pandemic had a global impact on the change in the world economy. The current situation has intensified the work of transport communications, transferred a significant number of business processes to an online format, contributed to the introduction of blockchain technologies and digital currency, which determined the further prospect of existence after the end of the pandemic. Along with the undoubted digital breakthroughs, the state of the world economy will be in decline for a long time. The stated conditions contributed to a widespread decline in the macroeconomic indicators of Russia as a whole, at the level of partial or complete stoppage of the functioning of individual industries. In this situation, agricultural production in the Central Federal District not only hasn’t stopped but reached new volumes of finished products in the context of intensified production activities and the need to provide residents of central Russia with the necessary goods. The current state of affairs defines agriculture as a separate sphere of activity, energetically functioning in the changing conditions of the external environment. The identified criteria for the relationship between the volumes of agricultural production and the cultivated areas indicate the need to preserve the land fund and prevent the reduction of the areas of the most valuable lands by transferring to other categories or withdrawing from circulation. It’s advisable to use the result of the study in terms of the conceptual position of the existence of the agricultural sector in the analyzed district and individual regions.

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References 1. Agriculture in Africa. https://geographyofrussia.com/afrika-selskoe-xozyajstvo. Accessed 04.01.21 2. State National Report on the State and Use of Land in the Russian Federation in 2019. https:// rosreestr.gov.ru/upload/Doc/16-upr/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0% BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%20%20%D0%B7%D0%B0%202019%20%D0%B3% D0%BE%D0%B4.pdf. Accessed 07.01.21 3. Land Code of the Russian Federation (Dated 25.10.2001, No. 136-Federal Law). http://base.gar ant.ru/12124624/. Accessed 20.01.21 4. G20 countries: Agriculture in GDP. https://www.economicdata.ru/economics.php?menu=mac roeconomics&data_type=economics&data_ticker=AgricultureGDP. Accessed 04.01.21 5. On Approval of the Strategy for the Development of the Agro-Industrial and Fishery Complexes of the Russian Federation for the Period up to 2030. http://docs.cntd.ru/document/564654448. Accessed 14.01.21 6. Titkov AA (2019) Land management in agriculture: current state and elements of improvement. Econ Labor Manage Agric 9(54):47–52 7. Titkov AA (2014) Perspective directions of formation of economic stability of rural municipalities based on optimization of land relations. Agrar Land Law 8(116):14–20 8. Polukhin AA, Titkov AA (2019) Agricultural land management: the genesis of the concept and fundamental functions. Bull Agrar Sci 3(78):122–129

Funding the Management of Municipal Solid Waste Through Public-Private Partnerships Alexey M. Gubernatorov , Dmitry V. Kuznetsov , Irina V. Makunina , and Irina E. Bystrenina

Abstract The paper aims to review the current global trends in municipal solid waste (MSW) management and identify the main financial mechanisms of funding this sector. Over four billion tons of solid waste is produced globally every year, negatively affecting both the ecological state of the planet and the quality of life and health of every person. The study revealed that Russia falls far behind developed countries in terms of recycling, mainly dumping waste in landfills (often unauthorized ones). In Russia, the main tools of financing MSW management are municipal fees paid by households and enterprises and budgetary allocations in the form of subsidies based on non-tax levies—recycling and environmental fees. A popular mechanism of bringing non-budgetary funds to MSW management is the public-private partnership. In the study, we analyzed worldwide and Russian experience in applying publicprivate partnership mechanisms to MSW management. Keywords Municipal solid waste · Financing the system of municipal solid waste management · Circular economy · Public-private partnerships JEL Classification Q53

A. M. Gubernatorov (B) Vladimir State University, Vladimir, Russia D. V. Kuznetsov Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia I. V. Makunina Tver Branch of RANEPA, Tver, Russia I. E. Bystrenina Russian State Agrarian University—Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_51

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1 Introduction As part of the updated Sustainable Development Concept, the government, society, businesses, and citizens have to understand the irreversibility of transition to new standards of sustainable development in waste management. The linear take-make-waste economic model is unsustainable due to rapid population growth, scarcity of resources, and urbanization [12]. It no longer ensures water and air safety for humans and leaves more and more areas contaminated by waste and unavailable for public use. The concept of circular economy (or closed-cycle economy) becomes increasingly more important. A circular economy is based on the “take-make-reuse” chain, using waste to produce new goods [8]. Consequently, a circular economy aims to minimize the consumption of raw materials, decrease waste disposal, and reduce landfill areas [12]. The circular economy concept cannot be examined separately from other modern theories on the interaction of ecological, economic, and social interests. This means that the linear system of municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Russia must be modernized. Currently, 86% of countries have adopted laws on MSW management. In the world practice, the technological stages of MSW management are presented by waste management hierarchy (Lansink’s ladder)—a diagram ranking MSW management measures from most to least favorable: • • • • • •

Prevention; Reuse; Recycling; Composting; Burning (with energy recovery); Disposal [3].

Developed countries that follow sustainable development principles are at the top of the ladder, while less developed countries (including Russia) are at its bottom [6]. Currently, developed countries impose recycling and reuse requirements and prohibit the disposal of MSW [1]. For example, as early as 2008, the EU developed the basic principles of the MSW management system (Directive 2008/98/EC on waste and repealing certain Directives) [5] that contains requirements for collection, recycling, and disposal of waste, aiming for a 65% recycling ratio of total waste and a 10% ratio of waste disposal. To date, the EU has adopted nearly 20 directives on various waste management aspects [14]. According to the Russian Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources (Rosprirodnadzor), landfills cover over 4 million hectares of the country, equal to the size of the Netherlands or Switzerland. The landfill areas are growing by 400 thousand hectares annually. If this growth rate continues, approximately 1% of the Russian land area will be occupied by landfills in 2050. According to the Russian State Statistics Service, the Russian economy will generate 7.3 billion tons of waste in 2020. It would take a freight train of 1.5

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million kilometers to transport all of it at once—approximately four times the distance between the Earth and the Moon. About 60 million tons of MSW are produced in Russia annually. MSW production is growing, having doubled in the last twenty years. Rosprirodnadzor claims that the growth is caused by the active use of packaging materials: polyethylene, plastics, paper, etc. An average Russian produces about two cubic meters of waste per year: about 400 kg or 1.1 kg per day. Food waste accounts for over a quarter of all waste; paper and cardboard—for about 20%; and glass—for 17%. This varies greatly from country to country: in China and Brazil, most of the waste is food waste; in the United States—paper; in the United Kingdom—plastic. In the EU, about 60% of all MSW is recycled. Currently, 67% of MSW in Germany is recycled, 49% in Sweden, 35% in the USA, 21% in Japan, 7% in Russia. About 32% of MSW in Germany is burned, 50% in Sweden, 16% in the USA, 69% in Japan, 3% in Russia. Less than 1% of waste in Germany is disposed and buried, 1% in Sweden, 49% in the USA, 10% in Japan, and 0% in Switzerland [4]. In Russia, 90% of waste is buried. However, the number of unauthorized landfills in Russia is constantly growing—between 2010 and 2015, more than 170,000 such landfills were exposed [11]. In 2015, EU countries approved the Action Plan for a circular economy. The plan aims to minimize waste generation by 2030 through various waste management technologies. Figure 1 presents information on ten countries that recycle waste. For example, Slovenia, Belgium, and the Netherlands are constantly supporting resource reuse via the measures of comprehensive waste recycling.

Fig. 1 Waste recycling ration, excluding major mineral waste. Source [5]

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Waste management is a series of activities related to documented (including passported) organizational-technological procedures for regulating waste control operations, including prevention, minimization, and accounting of waste generation, accumulation, collection, disposal, recycling, neutralization, transportation, storage, disposal, destruction and cross-border movement of waste [1, 15]. The main issues faced by the state, the real sector of the economy, and society in MSW management are the following: • Lack of an effective financial management model for MSW management; • Low population coverage by the scheduled waste collection and disposal system; • Lack of necessary number of container sites and the poor state of materialtechnical basis; • Inefficient and insufficient reuse of secondary raw materials from waste and its recycling. Most capital-intensive technological processes involve treating and disposing of MSW [10]. The private sector and regional authorities cannot attract significant investments for such facilities.

2 Materials and Methods Public-private partnership (PPP) tools remain an effective way to attract investments to MSW management. These tools are mainly based on the concession agreement with non-state pension funds (NSPF). Over the past ten years, concession agreements in waste management have totaled about 50 billion rubles. Investments in potential projects can total to the same figure. Concession is by no means a novel form of economic relations. In the first ten months of 2020, six concession agreements worth more than 100 million rubles were concluded in the sector. The total amount of investments was 9.4 billion rubles, while the previous record for investment volume (8.7 billion rubles) was set in 2016. In 2017, the stagnation was caused by a pre-election “freeze” on riskier projects; in 2019—by adaptation to the waste management reform [9]. Although the sector is regarded as a difficult one, it can still be can still successfully developed. This would require strong competencies and experience of both public and private parties in launching projects. Concession agreements on the MSW management include the following elements: the Grantor—the Subject of the concession agreement—the Concessionaire. NSPFs act as investors (Grantors) in the MSW investment projects. The Concessionaire (responsible for timely return on investment) acts as the legal representative of the investor. An institutional investor requires additional guarantees for a return on investment and is willing to invest more money over a longer period. The concession agreement model allows the investor to obtain such guarantees. The difficult economic environment in Russia demanded the involvement of NSPFs in MSW investment projects, both at the federal, regional, and municipal

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levels. Moreover, organizations that previously entered into a concession agreement with the regions and municipalities on MSW investment projects can purchase special bonds. This feature is specific to MSW investment.

3 Results Infrastructure projects require long-term investments, which are generally unappealing to businesses. However, institutional investors are willing to invest in longterm projects; therefore, concession agreements may become the most important tool for infrastructure development. To attract institutional investors, one can use special securities—concession bonds. Concession bonds are securities issued by the project company to finance the Subject of a concession agreement. Bond interest is redeemed under the terms and conditions of the bond issue. Since financing of MSW project is a socially significant project, investors are more often choosing Green Financing (investment via environmental and social bonds, including green bonds) [13]. The main purpose of green bonds is financing environmental projects. The model of financing the MSW management projects via PPP and environmental bonds is presented in Fig. 2. Upon entering into the concession agreement, the Grantor and the Concessionaire agree on the parameters of the financing model that stipulate unconditional return on investment within seven years (the average term of return on MSW investment projects), as well as coverage of all production costs and return on investment via established long-term rates and extra fees (taking into account the interest rates). The

Fig. 2 Model of financing the MSW projects via PPP. Source Compiled by the authors

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parameters of the financing model are integral to the concession agreement and may not be revised without the consent of the Concessionaire. The Russian Federation prioritizes public utility system modernization projects; they are subject to state support through subsidizing part of the investment as per Federal Law No. 185-FZ “On the Fund for Assisting the Reform of the Housing and Utilities Sector” dated July 21, 2007 [2]. Means used to finance PPPs constitute a combination of debt and capital; their overall effectiveness is determined by the WACC criterion (Weighted Average Cost of Capital) [7], whose value should be minimized. The efficiency of MSW investment projects is assessed by comparing the volume of investment in the project with the total discounted cash flows resulting from the project, according to the following formula: T T 6   NI + I + T i=1 K T + k = T (1 + wacc) (1 + wacc)t t=0 t=0

where: NI + I + T KT T (1 + wacc)t k

generated positive cash flow, entailing a return on investment at all stages of MSW process chain; required investments for each t; expected lag; discount multiplier; coupon yields on green bonds, which are generally established by the inflation rate and the investment risk.

4 Conclusion The feasibility and effectiveness of PPP are determined by the development of the institutional environment, the balance of fare system, and the experience in attracting the private sector to MSW management. MSW management projects in Russia require developing a normative-methodical base for PPP types and increasing the extended producer responsibility via agreements. This may be accomplished both by a standalone federal law and by normativemethodical guidelines on the use of PPP in MSW management projects. On the federal level, it is necessary to establish a regulatory basis for implementing various types of PPP in the regions. Development of the normative-methodological base, reform of the fare system, and accumulation of experience in cooperating with the private sector will allow utilizing the advantages of PPP for large investment projects in MSW management. Currently, the main problems associated with the development of MSW management are the following: non-transparent fare policies, insufficient involvement of the private sector in MSW, and predominant placement of PPP projects in large

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cities of Russia. Foreign experience shows that PPP has considerable potential in the implementation of MSW management projects.

References 1. Resources saving. Waste treatment. Basic principles (GOST R 52108-2003, ed. January 1, 2012). Gosstandart, Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://docs.cntd.ru/document/120003 2450 2. Russian Federation (2007) Federal law “On the Fund to assist the reform of the housing and utilities sector” (July 21, 2007 No. 185-FZ). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://www.con sultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_69936/ 3. Aleksandrova I, Gubernatorov AM (2020) Tools for implementing the financing mechanism for the waste processing industry. In: Proceedings from MLSD’20: 13th international conference “management of large-scale system development”, Moscow, Russia, pp 1–5. https://doi.org/ 10.1109/MLSD49919.2020.9247835 4. Badalov LM, Sedova NV, Mishagina MV (2017) Realization of SPP-projects in the sphere of the address with smw as the mechanism of attraction of long-term investment. Qual Innov Educ 5(144):49–56 5. Google-Info (2020, May 16) Waste management and recycling. Directive 2008/98/EC. Retrieved from https://yandex.ru/turbo/google-info.org/s/7110947/1/direktiva-2008-98-ec. html 6. Gubernatorov AM (2020) Structural and target analysis of the solid municipal waste management financing system. Bull Altai Acad Econ Law 12–2:279–283. https://doi.org/10.17513/ vaael.1507 7. Hargrave M (2021, March 9) Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC). Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/w/wacc.asp 8. InfoGraphica.kz (2013, January 16) The concept of circular economy. Retrieved from https:// yvision.kz/post/314585 9. InfraOne Research (2020) Investments in infrastructure: why are solid waste management projects of renewed interest to the market? Retrieved from https://news.solidwaste.ru/wp-con tent/uploads/2020/12/Investitsii_v_infrastrukturu_obraschenia_s_TKO.pdf 10. JSC “Waste Management” (2017) On the experience of the concession project to create an intermunicipal system for recycling and utilization of MSW in the Chuvash Republic. Retrieved from http://conf.rg-techno.ru/assets/files/conf_docs/yurij-malov-uo-koncessionnyjproekt-v-chuvashii.pdf 11. Mochalova LA, Grinenko DA, Yurak VV (2017) The management of solid municipal waste: domestic and foreign experience. News Ural State Mining Univ 3(47):97–101. https://doi.org/ 10.21440/2307-2091-2017-3-97-101 12. Pakhomova NV, Richter KK, Vetrova MA (2017) Transition to circular economy and closedloop supply chains as driver of sustainable development. St Petersburg Univ J Econ Stud 33(2):244–268. https://doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu05.2017.203 13. RBC (2019, August 26) Mosbirzha opened Russia’s first platform for “green” bonds. Retrieved from https://trends.rbc.ru/trends/green/5d6422b19a7947efa673ac48 14. Sedash TN (2021) Foreign and Russian practice of using financing mechanisms in the municipal solid waste system. Econ Taxes Law 14(2):109–118. https://doi.org/10.26794/1999-849X2021-14-2-109-118 15. solidwaste.ru (n.d.) Waste Management. In solidwaste.ru dictionary. Retrieved from https:// www.solidwaste.ru/dict/dictionary.html?termin=557

Cluster Development of the Economy: Regional Aspect and Mechanisms of Financial Support Natalia G. Varaksa , Maria S. Alimova , Elena S. Rozhdestvenskaia , and Sergey A. Alimov

Abstract Purpose: The purpose of the study is to analyze the tools of cluster development of the region, to compare them with the best practices of clustering the economy, and to develop promising directions based on generalizing modern achievements in this area. Design/methodology/approach: The methodological research toolkit includes economic and statistical methods of analysis, comparisons, analogies, graphical interpretation tools, as well as a systematic approach that allows revealing the main reasons that restrain the cluster development of the region, and priority areas of development. Findings: The article concludes that it is necessary to assess the effectiveness of each implemented measure for cluster residents based on the analysis of measures to support cluster development and funding sources used in domestic practice. The problems are highlighted and the directions for their solution, contributing to the achievement of predicted strategic indicators of the effectiveness of the activities of enterprises-residents of clusters, are proposed in the analysis of the best regional practices of cluster development. Originality/value: The implementation of the selected promising areas of cluster development and elements of financial support will contribute to the accelerated build-up of the infrastructure and human resources of the region, and will also contribute to the growth of competitiveness indicators. Keywords Cluster · Region · Support measures · Financing · Economy JEL Classification O18 · G32 · R11 · R58

N. G. Varaksa (B) · M. S. Alimova · E. S. Rozhdestvenskaia · S. A. Alimov Orel State University named after I.S. Turgenev, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_52

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1 Introduction Innovative and breakthrough technological development of regions and the state as a whole depends on the consistent, constant, and intensive growth of indicators such as the number of new business entities in the territorial economy, the number of available and created jobs, investment potential, and competitive advantages, the creation of a unique brand in the region, including a set of products and technologies that have a high reputation among consumers of both this entity and the whole country, and is ensured by the development of clusters. Comprehensive and systematic development and subsequent implementation of socio-economic tasks for the development of regions, which determine the growth of the synergetic effect within the framework of the mechanisms of territorial development, determines the specificity of clustering, and the preference for using its tools. The unstable socio-economic situation, the presence of external challenges requires the use of effective mechanisms to support the implementation of cluster policy at the regional level. In this regard, the importance of financial instruments for the development of territorial clusters, for the implementation of cluster initiatives, for stimulating the creation of new small and medium-sized businesses is increasing.

2 Methodology The methodological research toolkit includes a set of general scientific approaches and methods, in particular, methods of analysis, comparison, comparison, and classification were used in obtaining results and formulating conclusions in the field of development of territorial clusters, and identifying mechanisms for financial support. The study of clustering indicators of the regional economy was carried out based on graphic interpretation tools and using economic and statistical methods of analysis. The provisions of the research are also reasoned using a systematic approach and specific scientific methods. If we consider the theoretical basis of the study, we note that many domestic and foreign scientists raise issues of cluster development, assess the effectiveness of building a cluster structure, economic support measures. Bortnik et al. [1] focus on the study of areas of support for Russian pilot innovative territorial clusters and analyze the quality of management in the regions. Veselovsky et al. [2] give recommendations for improving the mechanisms for stimulating and financing regional innovation clusters based on an analysis of the directions of their development. Njøs and Jakobsen [3] investigate the scale of development of cluster policy at the regional level. Dyrdonova et al. [4] reveal the system of cluster formation in the industrial sector of the region. The problems of managing and accounting for

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compulsory expenses in the regions and Russia as a whole are reflected in the work of Konstantinov and Valiev [5]. Zedgenizova and Ignatyeva [6] consider clustering as a priority way of economic development, substantiate the advantages of the cluster approach in the implementation of the socio-economic development of the region and highlight the prerequisites necessary for an effective and efficient process of building a cluster structure. The cluster approach as the basis for the strategy of innovative development of regions is revealed in the work of Kookueva and Tsertseil [7], the authors compare cluster models depending on their industry affiliation. The study of foreign experience in the implementation of clusters was carried out by such scientists as Kuznetsova and Vorobyova [8], Melnikova [9], Yakovchuk [10], proposing to take certain directions within the framework of increasing the competitiveness of territories. Konstantinov et al. [11] describe the features of development and modeling of economic tools for managing regional innovation clusters. Petrova et al. [12] give recommendations for the formation of a new cluster policy in the region based on the transformation of existing instruments and also highlight some recommendations for the implementation of cluster development programs. Works related to the study of measures to support cluster development, as well as financial support, deserve special attention: scientists Ageeva and Ezagina [13] identify sources of funding for innovation clusters and bring them into groups in the context of the economic crisis; Khmurova et al. [14] emphasize the role of the state in the development of territorial clusters, their regulatory support, and the financing process, highlight some problems as a result of the participation of commercial banks in regional clustering; Konyakhina [15] explores the problems and possibilities of effective integration of the potential of the state and business, taking into account the use of mechanisms of public-private partnership. According to Petrikova et al. [16], institutional forms of cluster financing through participation in state programs and national projects are a tool for the socio-economic development of the territory. The contribution of the implemented measures to support the cluster development of the economy has not been adequately assessed in detail, and the cluster policy of the regions requires further research to identify best practices and initiatives that contribute to overcoming barriers to development and increase the competitiveness of regions, despite the available research by scientists.

3 Results Studies have shown that the state takes an active part in the implementation of programs for cluster development of territories in domestic and foreign practice, and today there are colossal socio-economic, financial, investment, scientific, and technological results of the implemented projects to intensify public-private partnership.

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The results of the analysis of the cluster development of individual territories are presented in Table 1, they reflect the indicators already achieved, as well as the prospects for further development to achieve sustainable growth of the produced and commercialized aggregate innovative product. Table 1 Analysis of the development of advanced clusters operating on the territory of the Russian Federation Cluster name and location

Functioning specifics

Major achievements

Planned development

1. SEZ “Dubna” includes several clusters, including the Medical and technical cluster (Moscow Region)

Development in priority areas—information, bio and medical, nano and nuclear physics technologies, composite materials, design of complex technical systems

169 companies received resident status (the largest economic zone on the territory of the Russian Federation in terms of this indicator). Residents’ investments in projects amounted to 30.6 billion rubles. Products output amounted to 46.09 billion rubles. 4432 jobs were created

Growth in the number of residents to 300, in the number of jobs to 8000, construction of new facilities, including for the production of ultrasonic equipment, dialysis equipment, gas distribution equipment, etc.

2. Pilot innovative cluster of pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and biomedicine (Kaluga Region)

Conducting preclinical and clinical studies, development, synthesis, and introduction into production of pharmaceutical substances and radiopharmaceuticals, industrial production of finished pharmaceutical product (FPP) and pharmaceutical substances, infusion solutions, and parenteral nutrition

The cluster includes more than 70 participants. It is included in the list of innovation clusters—participants in the priority project of the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation “Development of innovation clusters—leaders in the investment attractiveness of the world level”. More than 60 billion rubles of private investments have been invested in the activities of the cluster. The number of employees is over 9000 people. The volume of production by the cluster is more than 39 billion rubles

Opening of new enterprises for the production of FPP of the Russian companies “Pharm-Sintez”, “Sfera-Pharm”. Obtaining a gold certificate “Cluster Excellence” of the European Secretariat for Cluster Analysis. Creation of a research and production valley with the main priority on pharmaceuticals and nuclear medicine

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Cluster name and location

Functioning specifics

Major achievements

Planned development

3. Innovative territorial cluster of mechanical engineering and metalworking “Valley of mechanical engineering” (Lipetsk Region)

Manufacture of machinery and equipment (including machine tools and special equipment, lifting and hydropneumatic equipment, robots), metallurgy, metalworking, and production of finished metal products; manufacture of machines and equipment (including machine tools and special equipment, lifting and hydropneumatic equipment, robots)

The cluster includes 120 participants. The number of employees of organizations participating in the cluster is 19,090. The volume of production by the cluster is more than 80 billion rubles. International cooperation with countries such as Switzerland, Belgium, Germany, USA, Italy, Norway, China, Japan. The volume of production of goods and services per capita is about 650 thousand rubles. (one of the highest in Russia)

The share of innovative and high-tech products of the cluster members in the domestic markets and markets EurAsEC is at least 10–15%. Implementation of 4 key cooperation projects that ensure the formation of a single technological chain: “Stanina”, “Fluidmash”, “Genborg”, “Intermash”

4. Kama innovative territorial-production cluster “Innokam” (Republic of Tatarstan)

Oil and gas processing and petrochemistry, automotive industry, including the production of diesel fuel, gasoline Euro-5 class, production of olefins, plastics, synthetic rubbers, production of trucks, engines internal combustion, metallurgical products

The cluster includes 300 member organizations. 110 thousand employees of the organizations were attracted. Finished products were shipped for 700 billion rubles. The volume of investments in the activities of the cluster is 110 billion rubles. An active member of the international cluster network TCI Network. Launch of the innovation project “INNOSCOPE”. International partnerships have been established with the following brands: Ford, Mercedes, Marcopolo, 3 M, Air Liquide, FUSO, etc.

Development of the portal “Russian center for open innovations” “INNOSCOPE”. Achievement of the main indicators: ethylene production—600 thousand tons/year, polyethylene—300 thousand tons/year, polypropylene—250 thousand tons/year, polystyrene—200 thousand tons/year, car production—85 thousand tons/year, and engines—185 thousand tons/year, TPA production—210 thousand tons/year, bottled PET—250 thousand tons/year, attracting 120 residents and 360 billion rubles of investments

Source Compiled by the authors based on [17–21]

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Cluster development of the regional economy

The analysis included advanced regional clusters located and operating on the territory of the Russian Federation, including those with the attraction of foreign investment and foreign partner corporations. The level of formation and stability of industrial, economic and financial, investment, innovation, communication ties between all members of the cluster, which is determined primarily by a high percentage of transformation of scientific inventions into innovative products or technologies, and later innovations into competitive advantages, was used as the main indicator for inclusion in the list of the most progressively developing clusters. An analysis of the cluster policy of a specific constituent entity of the Russian Federation—the Orel Region, which revealed the factors of improving the investment climate, contributing to the attraction of financial resources for solving the economic and social problems of the region, was carried out (Fig. 1). The implementation of the cluster policy of the Orel Region is carried out through mechanisms such as infrastructure development, information, and consulting support, assistance in the implementation of joint cluster projects, and their support.

Light industry cluster 24 participants, 20 of them are SMEs Anchor resident - JSC “Gamma”, IE Ivanov V.V. - Amadeusfamily factory, LLC “Mar”

Cluster of information technologies (IT-technologies) 53 participants, 47 of them are SMEs Anchor resident - LLC “Inventos”

Glonass cluster 36 participants, 26 of them are SMEs Anchor resident Group of companies “Navigator”

2015

2016

development prospects 2019

2017

Tourist cluster 107 participants, 89 of them are SMEs Anchor resident - a branch of JSC “Corporation “GRINN” TMK “GRINN”

Instrumentation and electronics cluster 29 participants, 21 of them are SMEs Anchor resident – JSC «Proton» Period

Fig. 1 Cluster development of the economy in the Orel Region. Source Compiled by the authors based on [22]

Cluster Development of the Economy: Regional Aspect … Tourist cluster; 5.98

7 Financing volume, mln rubles

481

6

IT-cluster; 5.97

5 Glonass cluster; 3.1

4 3

Instrumentation and electronics cluster; 0.46

2 1 0

Fig. 2 Amount of funding for regional clusters. Source Compiled by the authors based on data from the Center for cluster development of the Orel Region [22]

Volume of products sold by the cluster, billion rubles

The coordination subsystem of the cluster infrastructure was formed based on the Center for cluster development, which is a structural subdivision of the non-profit organization “Entrepreneurship support fund of the Orel Region” (Fig. 2). The key elements of financial support for the development of clusters have been identified: direct financing (funds from the federal and regional budgets, subsidizing part of the costs), indirect financing (tax preferences, reducing rental payments for the use of state property). A model of the relationship between the indicators of the gross regional product of territories with the volume of manufactured and sold products by the clusters are shown in Table 1 and the GLONASS (K-57) cluster of the Orel Region is presented (Fig. 3).

800

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Lipetsk region Kaluga region

100 0 0

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1000

1500

2000

2500

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Fig. 3 Model of the relationship between GRP indicators of territories with the volume of produced and sold products by clusters. Source Compiled by the authors

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According to the constructed model, we can conclude about the most effective work of the Kama innovative territorial-production cluster “Innokam”, which is justified by the following factors: historically established preconditions for the accelerated development of the cluster; a set of support measures, and significant subsidies from the state concerning this territory; industry specialization of the cluster—oil and gas processing and petrochemistry, automotive industry; priority attention of the regional leadership to cluster socio-economic development. The most acute problems facing the participants of cluster development, which can affect the achievement of the forecast indicators of the growth of production capacities, indicators of the efficiency of the enterprises-residents of the clusters, indicated in the strategy, are summarized, and possible ways of solving them, leveling the negative consequences, are highlighted (Fig. 4). Financial support for marketing promotion of cluster residents, property support, and professional training of personnel, which is possible due to the involvement of educational institutions and centers in clusters, are effective types of support for cluster development of the economy.

4 Conclusion Thus, the creation of innovative clusters in the regions allows to optimize the process of forming the value chain of products and technologies being developed and sold and makes it possible to accelerate the building up of infrastructure and human resources, contributes to the growth of indicators of the competitiveness of manufactured goods and services. Property support, financial support, including for marketing and promotion of products and services, and support in the professional training of qualified production personnel, remain effective types of support for cluster residents, allowing them to increase their competitiveness. The effective functioning of clusters is based not only on active financial support from the state but also on attracting private investment and developing public-private partnership mechanisms to actively promote the best regional practices of cluster development.

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Problems of cluster development, considering the current level of socio-economic development of the state reduction of tax preferences, a complication of the procedure for obtaining tax benefits by cluster participants the state policy of stimulating residents of economic zones today is mainly aimed at the development of production activities, which will contribute to a reduction in the number of research and development projects implemented by residents with a shift in the specifics of the cluster's functioning in the industrial and production direction with an increase in the share of utilitarian industries in the future use of the right to reimburse the «import» VAT in full by foreign manufacturers of medical devices, which leads to the presence of competitive advantages over domestic enterprises insufficient number of support programs of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation implemented by project clusters focus on recipients of support - mostly higher educational institutions today's education in the IT-sphere does not correspond to global trends in the development of this scientific field, which does not allow Russian clusters and products (technologies) developed and implemented by their participants to become competitive in relation to similar foreign innovations insufficiently built, well-developed inter-cluster interaction within the framework of the creation, implementation, production, and commercialization of innovative products and technologies insufficient high rates of demand for innovative products and developments within clusters and in general by Russian enterprises that prefer to work with already approved and widely studied products imported by foreign competitors

reforming tax policy in relation to cluster members; the synergy of support for innovative activities within the framework of the functioning of industrial clusters, initiated by state development institutions and provided within the framework of the creation of special economic zones; to involve in communication the heads of enterprises and heads of universities in order to build long-term interaction (opening specialized basic departments, centers together with enterprises) in order not only to train specialists for future employment at these enterprises but also to carry out research work within the cluster; state support for digital transformation carried out within the framework of the functioning of clusters of business, technological, industrial production, innovation, investment processes, etc.

Fig. 4 Problems of cluster development in Russia and the most preferable, promising ways of solving them. Source Compiled by the authors

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References 1. Bortnik IM, Zemtsov SP, Ivanova OV, Kutsenko ES, Pavlov PN, Sorokina AV (2015) Formation of innovation clusters in Russia: results of the first years of support. Innovations 7:26–36 2. Veselovsky MY, Pogodina TV, Idilov II, Askhabov RY, Abdulkadyrova MA (2015) Development of financial and economic instruments for the formation and management of innovation clusters in the region. Mediterr J Soc Sci 6(3):116–123. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n 3p116 3. Njøs R, Jakobsen S-E (2016) Cluster policy and regional development: scale, scope, and renewal. Reg Stud Reg Sci 3(1):146–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2015.1138094 4. Dyrdonova AN, Shinkevich AI, Fomin NY, Andreeva ES (2019) Formation and development of industrial clusters in the regional economy. Espacios 40(1):21–28 5. Konstantinov V, Valiev I (2018) Investigating the supply chain problems of imputed economic goods in the modern Russian institutional economy. Int J Supply Chain Manage 7(5):711–719 6. Zedgenizova I, Ignatyeva I (2017) Problems of creation and development prospects of regional clusters. J Eur Stud XX(4A):578–595. https://doi.org/10.35808/ersj/856 7. Kookueva VV, Tsertseil JS (2018) Clustering as a basis for an innovative development strategy. Eur Res Stud J 21(4):818–830 8. Kuznetsova NV, Vorobieva NA (2016) Clustering the economy: foreign development experience and Russia’s prospects. Econ Sci 2(2):130–137 9. Melnikov AE (2017) Cluster policy as an effective tool for the development of territories: a study of foreign experience. Reg Econ Issues 32(3):50–56. https://doi.org/10.21499/20784023-2017-32-3-50-56 10. Yakovchuk AA (2018) Comparative analysis of the practice of applying the cluster approach in Europe and the Russian Federation. Socio-econ Manage: Theory Pract 4(35):189–191 11. Konstantinov V, Sakulyeva T, Makeeva V (2019) Development of economic tools for managing regional innovation clusters. J Entrep Educ 22(1) 12. Petrova EA, Kalinina AE, Lapina MS (2019) Regional cluster policy in Russia: methods and practical results. Bull Volgogr State Univ 21(3):48–59 13. Ageeva TV, Ezangina IA (2016) Financing innovative territorial clusters in the context of the economic crisis. Econ Soc 12–1(31):71–76 14. Khmurova TV, Dzhudzhuev MF, Ezangina IA (2016) The role of commercial banks in financing innovation clusters in Russia. Control Bus Power 2(11):72–76 15. Konyakhina EM (2018) Using the mechanism of public-private partnership in financing territorial clusters. Russ Econ Internet Mag 4:55 16. Petrikova EM, Artamonova YS, Golovanov YS (2020) Institutional forms of cluster financing as a tool for socio-economic development of territories. Financ Manage 5:46–56 17. Development strategy of the Innovative territorial cluster of mechanical engineering and metalworking of the Lipetsk Region “Valley of mechanical engineering” for the period until 2020 and for the future until 2025 (2021) http://map.cluster.hse.ru/file/2242/1_%D0%A1% D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%20%D0% BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%20%D0%9B% D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%20%D0%BE%D0% B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%20%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BB% D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0% BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.pdf. Data accessed 01.02.2021 18. Kama innovative territorial-production cluster “Innokam” (2021) http://www.innokam.ru/. Accessed 01.02.2021 19. The medical and technical cluster of the Moscow Region (2021) https://mtcmr.ru/. Accessed 01.02.2021 20. Pharmaceutical cluster. Cluster “Pharmaceuticals, Biotechnology, and Biomedicine” (2021) http://airko.org/clusters/farma-cluster. Accessed 01.02.2021

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21. Strategic session “Implementation of strategies of territorial clusters and modern tools to promote the acceleration of technological development of regions” (2019) https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=gX507BRqlqs&list=PLil-Qdsp4o1Xg-HxGWvGZXZnNE5iHQ5U5&ind ex=1. Accessed 01.02.2021 22. Center for cluster development of the Orel Region (2021) https://ckr.msb-orel.ru/. Accessed 01.02.2021

Fundamentals and Principles of Islamic Finance Irina A. Aidrous

and Braijie Morsi

Abstract The paper aims to analyze the current stage of development of Islamic finance and define the concept of Islamic finance, the importance of which is gradually increasing in the world. The authors relied on the methods of analysis, synthesis, induction, and expert evaluations. The study revealed the progressive development of Islamic finance in the world and the growing interest of countries outside the Organization of Islamic Cooperation in the models of Islamic finance, especially during and after the global financial crisis. The prospects for Islamic finance in Western markets are due to the need to finance infrastructure investments and ensure the reliable and secure functioning of the global financial environment. Islamic financial institutions have proved this reliability during the global financial crisis. The rapid development of Islamic finance in various jurisdictions offers excellent opportunities for Islamic finance and its continued prosperity in the world. The progressive development is based on several factors, including the most important ones—the advancement of global financial integration and the natural development of the Islamic finance industry. Keywords Islamic economics · Islamic finance · Islamic securities · Sukuk · Islamic banks JEL Classification F30 · G0

1 Introduction The consequences of the financial crisis struck many countries worldwide, especially the largest ones, led to great panic and prompted thinkers and other economists to reconsider the existing rules and used instruments to find out the true causes of I. A. Aidrous (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia B. Morsi Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_53

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the default. There began a search for a more effective, less dangerous, and harmful alternative. Consequently, many scholars turned to Islamic finance as an innovative and new experience that could help find new solutions. This idea has been discussed in many sources. In this research, the authors try to shed light on this concept and emphasize its features and principles. The financial crisis of 2008 showed that one of the most important causes is the speculative behavior of financiers dictated by greed, panic, and widespread unethical practices in financial institutions and markets (e.g., corruption, misinformation, lies, and fraud). In other words, the real reason is moral. Therefore, the principles of Islamic law will help reduce financial speculation. The British finance minister and the mayor of London joined global experts and investors at the Islamic Development Bank Sukuk Summit in London, where Alistair Darling said on March 5, 2018, “You cannot solve the budget deficit without using Islamic tools.” In turn, the mayor of London, Sadiq Khan, said, “I am proud that London has been chosen to host this summit, which reflects the capital’s emergence as a powerhouse in the Islamic Finance sector—an area which is driving positive and ethical change around the world” [9]. In 2008, France’s supreme financial supervisory authority, which monitors banking activities, issued a decision allowing dealers in financial markets to work with Islamic Sukuk securities in the regulated French market. Two decades ago, French economist and Nobel Prize-winning economist Morris Elly mentioned the structural crisis in the world economy and proposed a way out of the crisis by changing two conditions, namely: (1) bringing the interest rate to zero and (2) revision of the tax rate, bringing it closer to 2%, which is similar in structure to the Islamic financial system—the abolition of usury and a percentage equal to the amount of zakat, as described in the canons of Sharia. During this crisis, Islamic banking had the perfect opportunity to present its business model to the world as an alternative to traditional banking and clarify the basics and principles of this industry through conferences, seminars, and workshops. The President of Islamic Development Bank, Dr. Ahmed Muhammad Ali, argues that Islamic banking caught the world’s attention during the crisis that has affected and threatened major global financial institutions because it has made many achievements in recent decades and still has a lot ahead. Moreover, the Central Bank of England created special deposit accounts for Islamic banks without interest. This means that Islamic banks in Britain can also benefit from separate support measures offered to other banks [4]. In 2007, the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) recognized the Islamic Financial Services Board (IFSB) recommendations as a useful contribution to maintaining the safety and soundness of the international financial system. The BIS and the Basel Committee have been actively supporting the IFSB since 2003. In December 2007, the BIS CEO pointed out the need for strict requirements on risk management and requirements on reasonable capital adequacy as critical components in ensuring the safety and soundness of any financial system. The growing integration of Islamic financial services into the global financial system reinforces this point [10].

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The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has long been interested in Islamic finance due to its implications for global macroeconomic and financial stability. The IMF played a vital role in the creation of the IFSB. As Islamic finance developed, a working group was established at the IMF to coordinate with stakeholders and analytical activities. The IMF has also established an External Advisory Group consisting of standard setters for Islamic finance and leading international experts [7]. In 2018, the IMF Executive Board agreed that the growth of Islamic finance offers significant opportunities for expanding access to financial services, deepening financial markets, and mobilizing funds for development. The IMF Executive Board also endorsed the Core Principles for Islamic Finance Regulations and Assessment Methodology (CPIFR) and its methodology for assessing the financial sector and compliance reporting [6]. The World Bank has its own strategic vision for the use of Islamic finance. The World Bank’s strategy of participation in Islamic finance is directly linked to reducing poverty, increasing access to finance, and ensuring the sustainability of the financial sector in recipient countries. The World Bank promotes the increased use of Islamic finance, believing that it promotes economic growth, finance agriculture, contributes to food security, and increases access to the population’s financial resources, which helps to strengthen financial stability. The 2008 global financial crisis devastated financial systems around the world. However, Islamic financial institutions remained relatively untouched, protected by their fundamental operating principles of risksharing and avoidance of leverage and speculative financial products [15]. In this research, the authors try to assess the development of Islamic finance and shed light on this concept, emphasizing its features and principles.

2 Materials and Methods The authors apply the analysis method to show the dynamics of the development of Islamic finance and the ratio of the shares of different types of Islamic financial assets by activity, region, and country. Expert assessments by representatives of the financial industry and Islamic finance, the media, and heads of international and regional financial organizations emphasized the relevance of the research, development, and dissemination of Islamic finance practices in developed countries. The method of synthesis and induction revealed the basics of Islamic finance, its fundamental principles, and its types.

3 Results In recent decades, there is a positive trend in the development of Islamic finance. In 2019, Islamic financial assets increased 14% to $2.88 trillion, the highest level since

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the beginning of the global financial crisis. Islamic financial assets are projected to reach $3.7 trillion in 2024. The average annual growth rate in 2020 and 2021 is expected to be 5% [8]. Islamic banking accounts for the bulk of Islamic financial assets (73%), followed by Islamic securities (Sukuk) (17%), Islamic funds (3%), and Islamic insurance (takaful) (2%). In terms of the regional structure, the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council play a dominant role, having succeeded through economic transformation and diversification policies [13]. Some of them were the first to standardize Islamic financial activities. A special role here belongs to Bahrain, which has several advantages, primarily the availability of qualified personnel and a developed educational system [3]. In total, Gulf countries account for 46% of the world’s Islamic financial assets, followed by other countries in the Middle East and North Africa and Southeast Asia (about 25% and 24%, respectively). Europe accounts for about 5%. South Asia accounts for a slightly smaller share. Sub-Saharan Africa and North America come in with very modest shares [14]. Nowadays, there are 1462 Islamic financial institutions in the world. The value of Sukuk in circulation has reached $536 billion, of which $137 billion are managed by Islamic funds. The leading countries for Islamic financial assets are Iran ($698.2 billion), Saudi Arabia ($629.4 billion), Malaysia ($570.5 billion), the UAE ($234.2 billion), Qatar ($143.9 billion), Kuwait ($132.3 billion), Indonesia ($99.2 billion), Bahrain ($95.6 billion), Turkey ($62.9 billion), and Bangladesh ($44.9 billion) [12]. The year 2020 was a test of the global economy and finance. Under the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Islamic finance sector saw the intensification of mergers and acquisitions of banks and insurance companies. Digitalization has intensified, and new financial technologies (digital banks, online platforms, and app-based investment platforms) have been introduced at an accelerated pace. A total of 38 investment projects worth $5 billion were completed in 2019–20, including fourteen in Indonesia, seven in the UAE, and five in Kuwait. One of the biggest deals was the takeover of Noor Bank by Dubai Islamic Bank, which became one of the most prominent Islamic banks with $75 billion in assets. New fintech-oriented investment funds were launched. An important trend was the strengthening of regulation due to the attempts of several countries to create a unified global regulatory and legal framework for Islamic finance. Islamic financing is a type of financing (or rather a method of financing) based on a legal rule that Sharia profit is deserved by the owner of the funds and the executor. Thus, the labor element can affect the economic activity and the result of profit. Therefore, the trader with experience in commercial work can enter the market without money, start working with other people’s money and share the profit at the agreed rate. The bank’s profitability depends on giving the money owned. Hence, the profit belongs to the financier and the performer, which means that Islamic finance depends on the property as the basis for profit. This rule requires that whoever owns something deserves any increase that occurs in it. For example, if a merchant buys a product at a certain price and then sells it at a higher price, the increase in the amount of money they have is also his or her property [5].

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In Islam, all money is from God, and human is nothing but his successor on this earth. Thus, a person must act following God’s commands and purposes [11]. The main characteristics of Islamic finance are as follows: • • • • •

Exclusion of transactions related to usury; Directing money to real investments; Directing money to legitimate expenses following Sharia norms; Focus on directing human behavior toward a virtuous morality; Focus on a person’s energy, skills, and creativity.

The methods of Islamic financing are varied. There are methods of financing based on donations, righteousness, and charity (e.g., good loans, voluntary charity, zakat, and donations), methods based on joint participation ending in joint ownership of profits, methods without speculation, methods based on mudaraba, and other financing methods based on commercial credit (e.g., sale of salam (advance payment), sale of Istisna’a (installment), and operating lease). The difference between Islamic finance and other methods lies in the following: • Ownership of capital: ownership of capital continues with Islamic financing of the owner for the entire period of the loan; • Profit and loss: both parties share profits to a lesser or greater extent according to their agreement. In Islamic finance, profit is a real profit since it results from an increase at the expense of production factors. • Nature of investment activities: Islamic financing is limited to investment business expected to bring profits. It is limited to Sharia-compliant production. It is required to focus on projects that combine elements of production. • Nature of financing: Islamic financing is done with cash or fixed assets. The methods of bank Islamic finance are marked with the following: 1.

2.

3. 4.

Plurality. It is not limited to one mechanism (e.g., the existing traditional loans) but is represented by several mechanisms providing more opportunities for their use. It is suitable for different situations and agencies, be it producer financing, mortgage financing, keeping balance. It is necessary to provide fairness in the distribution of benefits and risks between the two financiers, as opposed to the loan method, in which the borrower bears all the risks and makes the benefits possible. Mutual work to reduce risk by adopting appropriate safeguards. Evasion of usurious interests prohibited by law.

In practice, these mechanisms have proven successful in real estate financing [1]. A distinctive feature of Islamic finance is the observance of Sharia norms. The subject of financing contracts is goods and services. Islamic banks are essentially investment banks [16]. In Islamic finance, there are many standards and controls that must be followed. We can distinguish three groups of controls and standards. They are as follows:

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Sharia standards implying compliance with two conditions: • Not dealing with interest; • Financing projects permitted by law. Thus, it is forbidden to finance projects forbidden by Sharia law.

2.

3.

Technical standards: standards of financial security depending on the financial capacity of the client, the strength of its financial position, the determination of liquidity and cash flow status, and the verification of legal and supporting documents. Administrative standards: • Standards relating to the person seeking funding include an assessment of the owner of a small business in terms of religious commitment, ethics, integrity, strength, competence, and experience; • Criteria of project feasibility study include the feasibility of the project, elements of project costs and revenues, and the period required to recoup the investments; • Standards of accompaniment and supervision are essential criteria of Islamic finance since the finance provider (especially in investment and public finance) should not be limited to providing finance but rather should monitor and evaluate activities. By its nature, Islamic finance is more like financing projects in which elements of production are mixed. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that that these projects succeed and achieve results; • Criteria for financial guarantees: Islamic financing formulas do not require a guarantee of profit or loss. Rather, the guarantee is intended for the conditions of breach and default that must be established.

Sharia has its principles, goals, and objectives. It revolves around public issues and aims to preserve them among people and achieve their interests so that they can succeed in life, benefit other people, prevent harm from them, and purify society from corruption. There are the following levels: necessity, preservation of spirituality, preservation of religion, preservation of reason, preservation of posterity and honor, and preservation of money. Needs is what the Ummah needs to improve its conditions and maintain good traditions and morals. Considering that money is a means (a means to a person’s life and pension) and not an end, Islam regulates the law in a way that does not lead financing to the tyranny of the borrower. The other purposes of saving money include clarity (documentation and testimony), fairness in money (in terms of equality between people), incentives regarding the expenditure of obligatory donations, stopping censured disputes, and prohibiting stinginess, and the resolution and compensation of complaints where there has been encroachment with robbery, theft, embezzlement, usurpation, and waste of money.

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There is a need to invest in good deeds and avoid malice: • • • •

Commitment to financial ethics in transactions; Compliance with the rule to exclude penalties during the warranty period; Inalienability of property or finances during the financing period; Connection between finance and the physical side of the economy. The Shari’a rules are as follows:

• • • •

No reciprocal harm by either party; Profit and loss; Meaning with its purposes of doing good; Public control over the application of funding to preserve the traditions and norms of Sharia; • Guarantee of performance of obligations concluded in the contract. The rules of Islamic finance are as follows: • • • •

No deal with interest; Compliance with Islamic law; Acceptance of the principle of profit and loss sharing; Conscious choice of money management methodology.

This model differs much from others accepted in the world. Practices and applications on the ground still can develop it and turn them into fertile ground for innovation and best practices [2].

4 Conclusion The global financial crisis has brought Islamic finance to the attention of economists due to its stability, progressive development, and reliability. Initially, support for the spread of Islamic finance outside the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries was sporadic in discussion and practice—by individual politicians, economists, analysts, and heads of financial institutions. Later, Islamic finance first received the approval and interest of international financial institutions (BIS, IMF, World Bank) and regional banks. Later, this support translated into the implementation of joint financing projects and initiatives related to the development of standards and regulations of the industry. Over the past decade, Islamic finance has been steadily improving its position—the assets have grown, the number of financial institutions has increased, the geography of distribution in the world has grown, and the range of Islamic financial products has expanded. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Islamic fintech saw a breakthrough, despite slowing asset growth. The number of socially oriented projects supported by the OIC states (green and environmental Sukuk emissions, social financing, state zakat, crowdfunding, and support for small and medium-sized businesses) has increased.

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New Islamic banks are to appear in Tajikistan, Uganda, and the Philippines. Moreover, digital Islamic banks are to be opened in Kazakhstan and Malaysia. The results demonstrated by Islamic financial business in the COVID-10 pandemic further reinforce the conceptual relevance of Islamic finance in the current context of global finance. These results allow us to predict the further growth of Islamic finance, including through the digitalization and harmonization of regulations and standards. Acknowledgements The paper was prepared within the framework of the project No. 203367-0000 “Global Transformation of World Finance” (RUDN Universiy, 2021).

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13. Shkvarya LV, Frolova ED (2017) Transformations in socio-economic development of the Gulf Group States. Ekonomika regiona [Economy of Region] 13(2):570–578. https://doi.org/10. 17059/2017-2-21 14. The City UK (2019) Global trends in Islamic finance and the UK market. Retrieved from https://www.thecityuk.com/assets/2019/Report-PDFs/7357b6cb9c/Global-trends-in-Isl amic-finance-and-the-UK-market-2019.pdf. Accessed 23 Apr 2021 15. The World Bank (2015) Islamic finance. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ financialsector/brief/islamic-finance. Accessed 23 Apr 2021 16. Zaatari A (2010) Asasiyat alamal almasrifi alislami [Fundamentlas of Islamic Banking]. Dar Alhadisa. Egypt

The Impact of Regulation Methods with Shadow Economy on Sustainable Development: The Case of Kazakhstan Diana P. Niyazova , Saltanat K. Kondybayeva , and Nazarbay Yerkin

Abstract The shadow economy is one of the most burning issues in the modern world causing many negative consequences for the economic system when there is no proper control over it. Consequently, states develop a whole range of measures intended to reduce the shadow economy scale and negative effects. The article describes the manifestation features of the unofficial economy in Kazakhstan, and, besides, it studies the experience of how to combat this phenomenon. Keywords Shadow economy · Informal economy · Fictitious economy · Underground economy · State control · Methods of measuring the illegal economy JEL Classification K420 · H710

1 Introduction Development and formation of the unofficial economy in Kazakhstan illustrate the general trends in the middle 80s within post-Soviet space. It can be seen during the period of active restoration and implementation of market regulation mechanisms, which was blocked due to outdated regulatory and legislative frameworks, as well as the state trade monopoly. It was an arduous historical period for the Republic of Kazakhstan, which was sustained and characterized as an unprecedented radical process of reforming the political and economic system caused by the collapse of the USSR in the early 90s. At the same time, the establishment of a market economy based on the active development of shadow economic, with important influence on the country’s economy in D. P. Niyazova (B) · S. K. Kondybayeva Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan S. K. Kondybayeva e-mail: [email protected] N. Yerkin School of Political Science and Public Administration, Wuhan, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_54

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general, as well as on the economic security of the state. This period was conditioned by intensive criminalization and its penetration into the sphere of industry and trade. The government of Kazakhstan did not pay strict attention to the shadow economy as a priority until 2000 year, which became a prerequisite for gaining great influence of this sphere and led to an increase of this problem. According to statistics, the share of the unofficial economy in Kazakhstan decreases annually. However, the questions “Why businesses hide assets and activities from official taxes?” and “What new methods should be applied to eliminate illegal business?” remain. Nowadays, the fight against the “shadow economy” in Kazakhstan is one of the priority areas. Since the acquisition of independence, the Republic of Kazakhstan has applied many measures to reduce the influence of the shadow economy. However, according to statistics the level of illegal activity stables and remains. The article will present and discuss the dynamics of the shadow economy and methods capable to deal with negative impacts.

2 Literature Review The visible (observable) and invisible (unobservable) economies are two sides of the modern economy. The unobservable economy is a complex phenomenon and combines qualitatively heterogeneous activities that are completely or partially not subordinate to formal economic institutions. The unobservable economy includes shadow, informal, and criminal economic activities. Even if all types of informal economic activity pose a certain problem from the point of view of state regulation of the economy, the most urgent tasks are those aimed at removing economic activity from the “shadow” and suppressing criminal economic activity. Foreign economists began to study the problems of the informal economy in the 1930s of the last century under the influence of institutionalism, that is, the direction in economic thought, whose representatives paid special attention to the social aspects of the real economy. In 1939, the American criminologist Sutherland proposed the concept of “whitecollar crime”, according to which any hidden, illegal activity is an integral part of the daily business practices of “big business”. The “breakthrough” in the study of the economics of crime is associated with the name of the famous American neo-institutionalist Becker: in 1968, he published an article entitled “Crime and Punishment: an economic approach”, where he analyzed crime as the activity of a rational individual who maximizes his profit. In the late 1970s, deep, detailed descriptions of the informal sphere at the macro level began to appear in the scientific literature. Empirical studies of gray activity conducted under the leadership of the International Labor Organization and the World Bank were a breakthrough of sorts. In this regard, it is necessary to note the scientific works of Hart, who was the first to present the term “informal sector” into scientific

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circulation Hart discovered that the majority of the citizens in the “third world” have no relevance to the official economic system. In 1977 Gutmann published the work “Underground Economy” in the USA where he drew attention to the inadmissibility to ignore the shadow economy scale and role. Further progress of the unofficial economy problem, attempts to determine its scale were made in the works of such foreign economists and statisticians as Blades, de Soto, Dilnot, Dallago, Morris, Contini, McAfee, Feig, and Casimier. Hernando De Soto in his work “Another Way” (1989) defined the grey (shadow) economy as a spontaneous and creative reaction of the people to the inability of a corrupt state to meet the main needs of the deprived masses. He also proposed a classification of transaction costs based on the “legality—extra legality” criterion. In the second half of the 1970s and early 1980s, scientists and politicians in industrial Western countries began to realize that actual economic activity was higher than officially recorded. One of the first estimates of the shadow economy in the United States at a third of the official GDP, made by Feig in the late 70s, caused such a strong response that a special hearing of the Economic Committee of the US Congress was devoted to this issue. Dallago uses the irregular economy concept to designate grey (shadow) economic processes that refer to the economic agents’ activities that do not follow regular rules and laws or are somehow hidden from government authorities and control [2, 8, 11, 14]. Kaufman and Kaliberda also made a significant contribution to the study of the phenomenon of the grey economy in the theoretical aspect, its scope, and socioeconomic consequences for the economic development of the country. In 2004, scientific work was published by Schneider where the author shows the shadow sector size in 140 countries of the world. He concluded that the shadow sector in developed countries tends to shrink, and in developing countries, on the contrary, to expand. In 2004, the scientific work of [11] was published. In which the author shows the size of the shadow sector in 140 countries around the world. He concluded that the grey sector in industrial countries tends to shrink, and in developing countries, on the contrary, to expand. Empirical studies of the global illegal economy have grown at a rapid rate. Various scientists, such as Gerxhani, Buehn, Schneider, Williams, Hassan have used the MIMIC model to evaluate the size of the grey economy.

3 Results 3.1 Structure and Sources of the Shadow Economy The shadow economy could not be the subject of scientific research in Soviet economic science, for obvious reasons (however, attempts to analyze the grey

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economy in the USSR were undertaken by some Western Sovietologists). The shadow economy problem in our country has become the subject of a sharp scientific discussion only from the end of the 80s with the following positive aspects: • recognition of the existence of the problem itself and the threatening scale of the shadow economy in Kazakhstan; • identification of the direct connection between the shadow economy and ineffective state policy; • use of extensive factual material under this issue. Kazakhstan introduced price liberalization, legalizing private property, national currency, legalizing private property, and mass privatization in 1992–1993s. On the other hand, privatization has become the main source to develop illegal capital, since the main methods were to transfer facilities to trust with subsequent redemption or closed tenders with certainly low prices caused an immeasurable leak of capital in the illegal sector. During the privatization period, Kazakhstan received 2.7 billion US dollars. According to the balance of payments data, imports amounted to 5–6 billion dollars and exports approximately 7–8 billion US dollars. In the middle of the 90s, the illegal sector appeared the features of a well-organized area. At the same time, the main steps of the government were aimed at consolidating and stabilizing the national currency, macroeconomic stabilization, developing an appropriate legal framework for regulating relations in the tax, budget, and banking spheres, attracting foreign investment, and aimed at foreign economic activity and the customs system. This feature of the period is associated with the growth of corruption in management. Since corruption was seen as a factor in the growth of the shadow economy, a special State anti-Corruption commission was established in 1998. Moreover, corruption is one the most important factor of the inefficiency of each government apparatus and many economic problems, indeed bribes and embezzlement are a repartition of wealth rather than value creation [1, 5, 6]. As for misuse of public funds and funds of state companies, these expenses are often spent publicly as well as companies and businessmen involved in such processes pay taxes.

3.2 Struggle with Illegal Activities The government methods intended to influence the shadow economy are closely related to its scale. The problem to assess the grey economy size is urgent since the grey economic turnover is naturally inaccessible to official statistics. Certainly, all the shadow economy origins are intertwined in actual life, and they cannot always be delineated without special methods intended to verify the reliability of information about economic processes. To do this, the following approaches are used:

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• the monetary method, based on the fact that only cash is used in out-of-court settlements; • the balance method of accounting for expenses and income, where the income that is declared is compared with the number of expenses, the actual volume of consumption of goods and services; • the employment analysis shows that the existing high level of unregistered unemployment for a long time indicates that there are great opportunities for employment in the non-legal sector; • the method of technological coefficients, which allows you to obtain data on the actual volume of production based on known technological cost coefficients;- a method intended to interview households and business leaders providing expert estimates of the informal sector size; • a sociological method consisting of the analysis of the special norms used for extralegal transactions, their prevalence in the society, the frequency of use during transactions. According to official reports, the “illegal sector” in Kazakhstan extends about 30–40% of GDP (Figs. 1 and 2). Furthermore, various estimates, up to 15% of the economically active country population is engaged in concealed entrepreneurial GDP, billion dollars US 250

221.42 184.39

200

166.81

179.34

181.67

2018

2019

137.29

150 100 50 0 2014

2015

2016

2017

Fig. 1 GDP indicators of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Source [10]

32.00% 30.00%

29.88%

29.80% 29.00%

27.00%

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Fig. 2 The share of the grey economy in Kazakhstan (% of GDP). Source Calculation made according to with MIMIC method [9]

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Table 1 Statistics of the shadow economy of countries according to development level through 1991–2015 No.

Developing country

Average level (%)

1

Albania

32.72

2

Kazakhstan

38.88

3

Russian Federation

38.42

4

Republic of China

5

Argentina

No.

Developed country

Average level

1

Australia

12.06

2

Finland

13.49

3

Germany

11.97

14.67

4

United Kingdom

11.08

24.14

5

United States

8.34

Source [4]

activity. As a consequence of this situation, that’s why social and property stratification of population, expansion marginalized groups and as whole population’s living standard decreases [12]. There is a straight correlation between the level of country development and the size of the illegal sector. For instance, the level of the shadow economy in the USA is only 8%, in Germany 12%, in Singapore 9.2% (Table 1—detailed comparing). The first reason for a high level of the shadow economy is misunderstanding and ineffective combat method with the underground economy problem, as mentioned before, corruption and shadow economy were combined until 2018 in Kazakhstan. This situation indicates the inefficiency of political and economic institutions. Proper determination of forms and methods of confrontation in the illegal economy results in the establishment of mechanisms reducing lack to a possible minimum [3]. The problem of illegal trafficking has become a national problem, and the issue of legalization and use of illegal capital was first brought to a wide public discussion in 2000. Currently, the total amount of illegal capital in Kazakhstan is about 6–7 billion dollars per year. During the last 15 years, three major actions to legalize the capital (2001) and property (2006–2007 and 2014–2016) took place. In 2001, about 3000 Kazakhstan is credited to special bank accounts about 480 million dollars. Five years later, citizens were allowed to legalize not only money but also movable and immovable ownership. As a result, according to the Ministry of Finance, in 2006–2007 in the country was legalized cash and property worth 840 billion tenges. In 2016–2017 was legalized 5.7 trillion tenges, including 4.1 trillion tenge—in cash and 1.6 trillion tenge—in a property. About 151 thousand real estate items and 213 participating interest parts in legal entities were lawfully registered. Legalization is just one of the instruments to confront an illegal business. The Government of Kazakhstan has granted tax amnesty to legal entities and individuals several times: penalties are written off when paying the principal tax debt. The last tax amnesty was granted in August 2019. The total number of taxpayers subject to tax amnesty amounted to 44,397, the amount of paid arrears was 18.4 billion tenges, written off penalties and fines—6.5 billion tenges. Information on results of amnesty for SMEs launched from October 2018: out of 90 thousand subjects with a debt of 341 billion tenges, at the date of October 1, 2019 - 42 thousand subjects paid a debt totaling 12.5 billion tenges in a year [7, 13].

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3.3 High Coverage, but the Modest Result Single Comprehensive Payment (SCP) impacted as a positive incentive, which was designed to identify informal self-employed: as at quarter III of 2019, there were approximately 563 thousand independent workers in Kazakhstan. The Ministry of Labor of Kazakhstan reported that 190 thousand people are in this category in October 2019. Implementation of the “Astana-1” information system was a positive moment whereby the customs process was automated and the money of bona fide importers was saved. Unifying government systems should increase the synergy effect. At the same time confrontation against smuggling from China, share of which in Chinese imports (in 2018—11.3 billion US dollars—according to Chinese data, 5.4 billion dollars—according to Kazakhstan data) was estimated by experts of Transparency International Kazakhstan to be 60–90% for textile products, furniture, and vehicles. The State Revenue Committee revealed facts of smuggling and fined importers 3 billion tenges. The government is actively considering options to create conditions for all types of business everyone will pay taxes, and transactions will be as transparent as possible. The current government plan to reduce the illegal economy was approved in 2018. As a part of this plan, the government has introduced a comprehensive transition of trade to online cash registers that transmit information on purchases/sales to the tax authorities in real-time, and the abolition of patent work since 2020. Both instruments are aimed at raising public finance. According to the State Revenue Committee, the number of registered online cash registers in 2019 was 342,000, or 72% of the total number of cash registers in the country. Also, according to the State Revenue Committee, as a result of this innovation, 14 billion tenges of taxes were received. However, the application of online cash registers and abolition of patent work create an incentive to withdrawing into the illegal of small businesses operating in small retail outlets. Cancellation of patent work model for most types of activities (the patent will apply to only 32 types) increases the tax burden on entrepreneurs (instead of 2% tax they will pay 3%) and it will be accompanied by the mandatory installation of online cash registers and the fee for their service (up to 30% of revenue), which lead to additional costs for entrepreneurs. The load on small businesses in transition from a patent to a special regime with a simplified declaration or a generally established order will increase, so government should think about incentives for entrepreneurs, otherwise, because of risks expanding underground economy.

3.4 Prospect Estimated Measures The Kazakh government plans to launch a general income declaration in 2025, they believe it will deliver a decisive effect on the illegal economy. The general declaration system will be used as a tool to define social support, fair taxation, and informal employment. In addition, it would reduce corruption by increasing the efficiency of

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control over the illicit enrichment of individuals. Despite it should be pointed out that income declaration is meaningless without an expenditure declaration. Moreover, expenditures declaration is more important than income declaration because conclusions about the financial condition of a single person or family can only be drawn based on their expenses. The general declaration has been postponed more than once; the main reason was information systems’ unwillingness and lack of Internet connection in rural areas. There are also serious political reasons for disabling the launching declaration during the current period. The low level of confidence in government policy and volatility with income situation of citizens can become factors of social upheaval.

4 Conclusion Most shadow economy in Kazakhstan is informal. It includes 25.19% of the country’s GDP (15.6 trillion tenges), 1.83% of GDP i.e. 1.1 trillion tenges is the illegal economy. The implementation of measures to limit the underground sector should be systematic, involving practically all areas of social and economic life. The standard approach engages a balance of severe prohibitive and punitive measures and incentives, which make economic agents’ lives easier. Thus, for the equilibrium of the situation, the government is using some contradictory solutions that can stimulate growth in the illegal sector. Nevertheless, it is necessary to note positive aspects of applied measures in the struggle against the shadow economy, which indicate that the Kazakhstan government recently found a serious scientific decision on the problem with the shadow economy and relatively struggle against it.

References 1. Amnesty-evil for good. Is it worth returning shadow capital to Kazakhstan? Republic of 2000, Nov 16 2. Dilnot A, Morris C (1981) What do you know about the Black Economy? Fiscal Stud 2 3. Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan: 1995–1998 (2000) Almaty 30 4. IMF Operating document. Medina, Schneider, F. (2018) 5. Karagusova, G. (2000). Some aspects of the shadow economy in the countries of the transit period, 8–9, 14 6. Kulekeyev ZA (1997) Shadow economy in Kazakhstan. Econ Kazakhstan 1:76–77 7. Kulekeyev ZhA (1997) Shadow economy in Kazakhstan. Econ Kazakhstan 2:76 8. Lasko M (2000) Hidden economy an unknown quantity? Comparative analysis of hidden economies in transition countries, 1989–1995. Econ Transit 8(1):117–145 9. Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan (http://stat.gov.kz/) 10. Ministry of National Economy of Kazakhstan Republic (http://stat.gov.kz/) 11. Schneider F, Enste D (2000) Shadow economies: size, causes, and consequences. J Econ Lit 38(1):77–114 12. Small enterprises in Kazakhstan: 1996–1998 (1999) Statistical review. Almaty 39–51

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13. Standard of living of the population in Kazakhstan (1999) Statistical Collection. Almaty 14. Sutherland E (1983) White-collar crime. Foreword by D.R. Cressey. Greenwood Press, Westport

The Mechanism of an Integration Solution in the Financial and Economic Activities of Construction Organizations Natalia S. Andryashina , Zhanna V. Smirnova , Elena V. Romanovskaya , Ekaterina P. Garina , and Svetlana N. Kuznetsova Abstract This article discusses the mechanism for the integration of financial and economic activities of construction organizations. It is necessary to constantly improve its own efficiency; construction companies are required to increase the efficiency of construction by introducing the achievements of scientific and technological progress and effective forms of management of production and construction. The author carried out a theoretical substantiation of financial analysis in construction as a system of indicators and their assessment, which reflects the presence, structure and dynamics of all property (assets) of a construction company, financial stability, the level of liquidity and solvency, as well as other economic issues of interest to an economic entity allowing to increase production efficiency. The goals of the financial analysis of the construction organization have been determined. Management decisions, which indicate that financial analysis in market conditions of integration of activities is an element of management, are highlighted as a result of analytical procedures. Let’s consider the financial analysis of organizations as a mechanism of analytical procedures. The types of analysis of the financial condition of construction organizations as a whole were identified based on the results of the study of the mechanism of financial and economic activity. The main directions of the mechanism for analyzing the financial situation of a construction company have been determined. The conclusion that an excess of income indicators, a constant increase in cost over time will be considered a positive effect for construction organizations was made based on the results of the study.

N. S. Andryashina (B) · Z. V. Smirnova · E. V. Romanovskaya · E. P. Garina · S. N. Kuznetsova Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Z. V. Smirnova e-mail: [email protected] E. V. Romanovskaya e-mail: [email protected] S. N. Kuznetsova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_55

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Keywords Integration of financial and economic activities · Mechanism · Construction organizations JEL Classification R12 · Q13

1 Introduction In a market economy, industrial enterprises are required to constantly improve their own efficiency, including construction companies are required to increase the efficiency of construction by introducing the achievements of scientific and technological progress and effective forms of production and construction management. It is required to conduct an analysis of the economic activity of the enterprise in order to realize this task. The strategy of the construction company is developed, plans are substantiated, managerial decisions are made, control over their implementation is carried out, reserves for increasing production efficiency are discovered and the results of activities are assessed with the help of such analysis [2, 5]. The main goal for almost any commercial organization is to increase profits, because only public enterprises, which are financially supported by the state (if the organization is budgetary) or some other sponsors, can function without making a profit. The development of integration solutions in organizing the activities of service enterprises is of decisive importance [1]. The efficiency and competitiveness of service enterprises will depend on the mechanism of financial and economic activities. We have analyzed the indicators of industrial production of a construction organization in Nizhny Novgorod in the study of the integration process in the field of financial activities of the enterprise. This study is relevant for identifying the features of the services provided.

2 Methodology If a construction company pays insufficient attention to its economic problems, it can receive considerable losses in the cost of material resources and wages [4]. Uneven growth of market prices for certain types of structures and materials can also lead to additional material costs. Therefore, modern construction is in dire need of a well-functioning management system, which is based on objective economic laws. Financial analysis in construction is a system of indicators and their assessment, which reflects the presence, structure and dynamics of all property (assets) of a construction company, financial stability, the level of liquidity and solvency, and also affects other economic issues of interest to an economic entity, which make it possible to increase production efficiency [6].

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Thus, financial analysis will be the scientific basis for decision-making, in particular, in the construction business. Therefore, it is necessary to identify and predict the problems that exist now or may arise in the near future, financial and production risks, and then to determine how the decisions will affect the level of income and the level of risks of the business entity. The methodological basis of the research is the methods of expert assessments, comparative analysis, statistical comparison and research theory. The purpose of this analytical study is to consider the mechanism of financial and economic activities of construction organizations in the city of Nizhny Novgorod to improve the efficiency of the enterprise. The value of the financial position of a construction organization turns into a defining element of the activity of this subject in market conditions [3]. The theoretical substantiation of the mechanism of economic activity of the enterprise was carried out, the main problems of organizing the economic activity of enterprises were identified, the main ways to improve the efficiency of management of economic activity were proposed in the process of research.

3 Results In the course of the research, we carried out an analysis that determines the necessary values of the working capital of a construction organization to determine the effectiveness of the performance indicators of the enterprise. Also, the financial results are analyzed. The main tasks of financial analysis include: • • • • •

fulfillment of plans for financial results; calculation of own working capital [7]; establishment of timely settlement operations with the customer; correctness of money transfer; disclosing the directions of accelerating turnover, etc.

After the theoretical substantiation of the integration approaches to the financial and economic activities of construction organizations, it was revealed that the conditions for the organization’s activity in modern market conditions of the economy are necessary. The theory says that the accounting statement of financial results is the main source of financial analysis in organizations [9]. Thus, it is necessary to study the reporting forms containing information on finance in order to draw up a mechanism for an integration solution in the financial and economic activities of construction organizations. Practice shows that construction organizations consider each of the balance sheet items. In this case, the balance itself is associated with each accounting account [8, 10]. The indicators of the balance sheet themselves can be considered up to the primary document including for business transactions. The mechanism of financial

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Fig. 1 Objectives of the financial analysis of a construction organization. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

and economic activity is defined as the goal of financial analysis in a construction organization (Fig. 1). Bottlenecks at construction sites, which we should pay attention to and develop measures to eliminate certain shortcomings in terms of financial indicators, can be identified based on the results of a financial analysis in selected construction organizations in Nizhny Novgorod. Management decisions can be made as a result of analytical procedures. This indicates that financial analysis in the market conditions of the integration of activities is an element of control. Let’s consider the financial analysis of organizations as a mechanism of analytical procedures. Each studied indicator, obtained during the analysis by parameters and standards, is normalized to a specific construction company: • • • •

specific factors; calculation of optimal changes; planning the necessary indicators for the future work; the relationship of the existing financial indicators of a construction entity with the efficiency of construction.

The main types of financial analysis are presented in Fig. 2. The following types of analysis of the financial condition of construction organizations as a whole can be distinguished according to the results of the study of the mechanism of financial and economic activity. One of the main directions of the financial position of a construction company is the analysis of financial results of activities, profitability of projects of a construction entity (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 2 Types of financial analysis in a construction organization. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Fig. 3 Directions of analysis of the financial situation of a construction organization. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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The main indicators of the analysis of financial stability in the construction industry can be considered by the following indicators: 1. The ability of an organization to pay, as measured from a going concern perspective: • Total liquidity ratio; • Current liquidity ratio; • Absolute liquidity ratio. 2. Ability to maintain solvency in the future: • Coefficient of autonomy; • Private working capital. After analyzing liquidity and financial ratios, an assessment of property status, solvency, business activity and financial stability can be carried out. We have found that the property status of construction firms is analyzed using a variety of indicators, specifically through: • • • •

share of non-current assets in capital; share of net assets; share of fixed assets of a firm; wear factor.

Thus, the study of the dynamics in the calculations is possible in comparable prices, taking into account the inflation rate.

4 Conclusion After analyzing the mechanism of the integration solution in the financial and economic activities of construction organizations, we can conclude that an excess of income indicators, a constant increase in cost over time will be considered a positive effect for construction organizations. The profitability of organizations also plays an important role. This is where equity capital reflects the amount of profit and characterizes the efficiency of its use. There are regulatory indicators—profitability ratios. The analysis boils down to calculating the correlation of the amount of profit (the difference between the contractual prices and the actual costs of work) of construction and installation companies and the proceeds of the work performed. The calculation of profitability is carried out for all commissioned construction and installation objects for greater detail of its indicators; recalculations of such economic indicators as contract prices, costs, profit, etc. are carried out. The study of data in the construction industry occurs for each specific operation, including a thorough assessment of services and material auxiliary production, the cost of implementation.

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References 1. Garina EP, Kuznetsov VP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Trifonova EY (2020) Increase of the efficiency of the industrial enterprise management system by the example of separate projects of contract production. Lect Notes Netw Syst 73:453–462 2. Garina EP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Kuznetsov VP, Shpilevskaya EV (2020) Organizational and economic foundations of the management of the investment programs at the stage of their implementation. Lect Notes Netw Syst 91:163–169 3. Garina EP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Kuznetsov VP, Tsymbalov SD (2021) Methodology for creating a product development system based on complexity management strategy. Stud Syst Decis Control 314:1661–1669 4. Garina EP, Kuznetsov VP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Efremova AD (2018) Research and generalization of design practice of industrial product development (by the example of domestic automotive industry). Qual-Access Success 19(Suppl 2):135–140 5. Kozlova EP, Morozova GA, Kuznetsov VP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS (2021) Interaction of human and smart technologies in modern conditions. Lect Notes Netw Syst 155:609–618 6. Kuznetsova SN, Kuznetsov VP, Kozlova EP, Potashnik YS, Tsymbalov SD (2020) Transformational period of Russian development in the digital economy. Lect Notes Netw Syst 91:663–669 7. Kuznetsova SN, Romanovskaya EV, Artemyeva MV, Andryashina NS, Egorova AO (2018) Advantages of residents of industrial parks (by the example of AVTOVAZ). Adv Intell Syst Comput 622:502–509 8. Lizunkov VG, Morozova MV, Zakharova AA, Malushko EY (2021) On the issue of criteria for the effectiveness of interaction between educational organizations and enterprises of the real sector of the economy in the conditions of advanced development territories. Vestnik Minin Univ 9(1) 9. Lvov VV, Smirnova ZV, Artemova EI, Averianova TA, Aleksiuk IO, Tonkikh AP (2019) State of university–employer interaction models in Russia. J Entrep Educ 22(4) 10. Myalkina EV, Sedykh EP, Zhitkova VA, Vaskina AV, Isaikov OI (2018) University resource center as an element of social development of the region. Vestnik Minin Univ T.6. 3(24)

Economic Integration as a Mechanism for Managing Service Activities Elena V. Romanovskaya , Zhanna V. Smirnova , Natalia S. Andryashina, Marina V. Artemyeva , and Svetlana N. Kuznetsova

Abstract The article discusses the issue of economic integration as a mechanism for managing service activities in an organization. The development of comprehensive integration of service activities has radically changed the situation for increasing the efficiency of the investment process. The author analyzed the main features of the organization management system. The scientific hypothesis of the research, which is based on the development of an integration mechanism and regulates the development of services, is determined. The purpose of this work is to study the integration processes in the management of the organization of service activities. To achieve this goal, the author studied the theoretical foundations of integration processes in the management of service organizations; the analysis of the mechanism of integration processes in management was carried out on the example of LLC «Registration Agency». The role in the design of the organization is defined in the research process. One of the important factors in the relationship of units is differentiation. The author highlighted the main forms of interaction between companies: Concern, Conglomerate, Consortium, Syndicate, Association, Trust. The analysis of technical and economic indicators of LLC «Registration Agency» has been carried out. A conclusion on the integration processes used in the management system of LLC «Registration Agency» has been made, the results of a comparative analysis of the organizational forms of the merger of companies have been provided.

E. V. Romanovskaya (B) · Z. V. Smirnova · N. S. Andryashina · M. V. Artemyeva · S. N. Kuznetsova Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Z. V. Smirnova e-mail: [email protected] N. S. Andryashina e-mail: [email protected] S. N. Kuznetsova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_56

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Keywords Economic integration · Management mechanism · Service activities JEL Classification R12 · Q13

1 Introduction The experience of service organizations shows that the use of new integration management mechanisms: accounting, consulting, recruitment and other business services increase the efficiency of the enterprise [2, 4, 9]. A special place in the management of market economy is due to the role of processes in the organization. After analyzing the experience of developed countries in the process of managing service organizations [1]. Effective organization integration is needed to leverage the positive outcomes of organizations. With this approach, the activities of the organization will allow you to see more clearly the development of the enterprise in the future and thereby take into account the interests of the needs of the population. The work of a leader in such integration environment should facilitate a constant flow of new ideas, proposals and inventions. The main features of the organization management system are considered in the works of T. Danko, L. Dashkova, M. Darbinyan, A. Orlov, and others. But at the same time, there is a need to study and research integration approaches in service organizations. The scientific hypothesis of the study is substantiated by the development of an integration mechanism that regulates the development of services. Thus, this study of economic integration as a mechanism for managing service activities is due to the implementation of new approaches to effective management through the integration mechanism.

2 Methodology To achieve this goal, it is necessary: to study the theoretical foundations of integration processes in the management of service organizations; to analyze the mechanism of integration processes in management on the example of LLC «Registration Agency». The study is aimed at identifying integration processes for the organization management mechanism as an element of increasing the efficiency of economic indicators in the provision of services. The study used comparative and systemic approaches, as well as general theoretical methods of analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison.

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3 Results The theoretical justification of the integration process is understood as the combined efforts of the organization’s subsystems to achieve the set goals. Today, economic integration is widely developing in service organizations as a regulated process of mutually beneficial cooperation ties aimed at a modern highly efficient management structure [3, 5]. The problem of relationships between organizational units plays an important role in the design of the organization [7]. This approach to designing organizational processes is called differentiation and integration. There are some basic forms of interaction in the practice of combining the integration of spheres of economic activity: • • • • • •

Concern; Conglomerate; Consortium; Syndicate; Association; Trust.

Each form has its own characteristics of interaction and content of the stages of work [6]. Let’s consider the organizational management processes at LLC «Registration Agency». The main activity of LLC «Registration Agency» is «Consulting on the issues of commercial activities and management», conducting the main accounting documentation in the field of accounting, reports and estimates [11]. Consulting on the issues of commercial activity and population management has a number of features: the basis of the activities of consumer services enterprises is the provision of services to a specific customer in accordance with his individual requests. Industry workers have to perform two interrelated functions when providing a service: work production and customer service [10]. The duality of the tasks solved in this case is due to the presence of two contradictory aspects of economic activity. On the one hand, they must strive to improve customer service, on the other hand, they must strive to improve the efficiency of the production of services [8] (Table 1). In general, the dynamics of the main indicators (revenue, expense, profit) can be presented in the form of the following diagram (Fig. 1). The effectiveness of the organization also depends on the integration methods used for organizing the management mechanism, which were used by the enterprise management. Thus, the integration processes used in the management system of LLC «Registration Agency» are understood as a number of measures of organizational forms of

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Table 1 Technical and economic indicators of entrepreneurial activity of LLC «Registration Agency» Indicator

2019

2020

Deviation

%

Revenue (thousand rubles)

238235.5

313404

75168.5

131.55

Material costs (thousand rubles)

37504.5

62508

25003.5

166.6

Expenses for staff pay (thousand rubles)

56000

84000

28000

150

All gatherings (thousand rubles)

93504.5

146508

53003.5

156.6

Profit (thousand rubles)

144731

166896

22165

115.3

Person number (people)

7

7

–

–

Average wage (rubles)

8000

12000

4000

150

Profitability

0.60

1.87

1.27

311.6

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Fig. 1 Dynamics of the main performance indicators of the enterprise for 2019–2020. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

cooperation between the divisions of the organization in the process of which the efficiency of work increases.

4 Conclusion The company’s management needs to constantly make decisions in choosing the optimal strategic planning options. The result of the analysis of economic integration as a mechanism for managing service activities shows not only the efficiency of the enterprise for the provision of services, but also the integration of economic activities when using forms of relationship between divisions and companies as a whole.

Economic Integration as a Mechanism …

519

Table 2 Comparative analysis of the integration of spheres of economic activity Field of activity

Concern

Consortium

Syndicate

Association

Trust

Provision of services

+

−

−

−

+

Marketing

+

−

−

+

+

Finance

+

+

−

−

+

Accounting

+

+

−

−

+

Business planning

+

+

+

+

+

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

In conclusion, the results of a comparative analysis of organizational forms of company mergers can be presented (Table 2). The main indicators are the presence of centralization of this field of activity within the organizational form of integration of companies (+) and the lack of decentralization of this field of activity within the framework of the organizational form of integration of companies (−).

References 1. Andryashina NS, Garin AP, Romanovskaya EV, Kuznetsova SN, Kozlova EP (2020) Analysis of reserves for effective development of production. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 73, pp 403–414 2. Garina EP, Kuznetsov VP, Egorova AO, Romanovskaya EV, Garin AP (2017) Practice in the application of the production system tools at the enterprise during mastering of new products. In: Overcoming uncertainty of institutional environment as a tool of global crisis management. Contributions to economics, pp 105–112 3. Garina EP, Kuznetsov VP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Efremova AD (2018) Research and generalization of design practice of industrial product development (by the example of domestic automotive industry). Qual Access Success 19(S2):135–140 4. Kozlova EP, Kuznetsov VP, Garina EP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS (2020) Methodological bases of the assessment of sustainable development of industrial enterprises (technological approach). In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 91, pp 670–679 5. Kuznetsov VP, Mizikovsky IE, Garina EP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS (2020) Structuring the information base on production losses in the conditions of effective production management. In: Leading practice of decision making in modern business systems: innovative technologies and perspectives of optimization, pp 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1108/9781-83867-475-520191018 6. Kuznetsova SN, Romanovskaya EV, Artemyeva MV, Andryashina NS, Egorova AO (2018) Advantages of residents of industrial parks (by the example of AVTOVAZ). In: Advances in intelligent systems and computing, vol 622, pp. 502–509 7. Lizunkov VG, Morozova MV, Zakharova AA, Malushko EY (2021) On the issue of criteria for the effectiveness of interaction between educational organizations and enterprises of the real sector of the economy in the conditions of advanced development territories. Vestnik Minin Univ 9(1) 8. Romanovskaya EV, Kuznetsov VP, Andryashina NS, Garina EP, Garin AP (2020) Development of the system of operational and production planning in the conditions of complex industrial production. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 87, pp 572–583

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9. Smirnova ZV, Katkova OV, Golubeva OV, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS (2021) Innovative technologies in the training of university specialists. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 155, pp 352-359 10. Smirnova ZV, Vaganova OI, Gruzdeva ML, Golubeva OV, Kutepov MM (2020) Social and economic efficiency and quality of providing services to the population in the form of service activities. Lecture notes in networks and systems. vol 73, pp 1029-1039 11. Smirnova ZV, Kamenez NV, Vaganova OI, Kutepova LI, Vezetiu EV (2019) The experience of using the webinar in the preparation of engineering specialists. Amazonia Investiga 8(18):279– 287

India on the Global Market of Energy Resources: Issues of Energy Security Yulia A. Konovalova , Nikolay P. Gusakov , Sayar Ahmad Reshad, and Svetlana E. Kiryukhina

Abstract The purpose of the chapter is to find out the position and the role of the Indian Republic in the global market of energy resources. One of the most important and significant question of this chapter is the issue of energy security and independence of India in the context of national economic security. The authors tried not only to determine the position and the role of the Indian Republic on the global market of energy resources but also to identify the sharpest and the most cornerstone issues of the Indian dependence on energy import in the context of economic and energy security. The 1990s in India are known as the period of economic reforms, that have been aimed at liberalization of the Indian economy (especially, foreign trade and the sphere of foreign direct investment) and implementation of economic transformation and orientation on the market basis. The key idea of economic reforms was to decrease government control and regulation under the market. At the same time, implementation of FDI policy liberalization allowed to attract foreign capitals to almost all the sectors of Indian economic activity, to set up joint ventures, increase the level of employment, develop the basis of infrastructure transformation and so on. For instance, the “Mining and petroleum and natural gas” sector was liberalized for FDI, and the level of entrance to the sector was almost totally 100% under automatic and government route (except petroleum refining by the Public Sector Undertakings (PSU), without any disinvestment or dilution of domestic equity in the existing PSUs—49% under automatic route). According to the last published data by “BP”, India took 5.4% of the global consumption of crude oil in 2019 (by thou. barrels daily), took 7.9% of the global import of crude oil in 2019 (thou. barrels daily), took 11.8% of the global coal consumption in 2019 (by exajoules—EJ) and 16.1% of the global import of coal in 2019 (by EJ). All these indicators tell us about the certain dependence of India on mineral resources and import supply, and interrelation with the issues of economic and energy security. So, in the context of IEA prospects, it is rather important to understand the current situation of the global market of energy Y. A. Konovalova (B) · N. P. Gusakov · S. A. Reshad · S. E. Kiryukhina Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] S. E. Kiryukhina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_57

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resources, the position of India on it and the importance of energy and economic security. Keywords India · Energy security · Energy policy · Oil · Gas · Coal · FDI JEL Classification F52 · F6 · N7 · O1 · Q3 · Q48

1 Introduction Despite the global tendencies such as the growing interest in alternative energy resources and transition to green energy, traditional energy resources (coal, natural gas and crude oil) are still the main basis for industrial production and economic growth. The dependence of some countries on high-level consumption and import of mineral resources on one hand, and the relative dependence of other countries on mining, production and export of raw materials on other hand, show us interdependence on each other. At the same time, the process of globalization and integration to the system of international economic relations discover not only the interdependence of the global economy subjects but the problem of unequal and disproportional integration to the global economic wealth and development. That is why it is rather important to understand the connection between economic policy and issues of economic security in the context of dependence on energy resources supply. It needs to pay much more attention to the countries and regions with a high level of the population such as China and India (about 1.4 bln. people and 1.3 bln. people). The Indian Republic, especially, is implementing the policy of transformation of the national economy to the global industrial hub, but it is clear that such transformation is not possible not only without the great value of capital and investment but the great volume of mineral resources. According to the Department of Commerce (Export Import Data Bank) in 2019–2020, the main importers of the HS Code “27” (Mineral fuels, mineral oils and products of their distillation, bituminous substances, mineral waxes) to the Indian Republic are Iraq (15.4% of the total import of mineral resources to India), Nigeria (6.5%), Saudi Arabia (15%), United Arab Emirates (10.5%). Taking into account the fact that all of these countries are members of OPEC it means that India depends on the supply and oil prices fluctuation, that is why it is necessary to understand the importance of economic and energy security policy development and implementation, and diversification of mineral resources suppliers [7–9, 12].

2 Methodology Methodology of the scientific topic is based on the traditional methods of economic analysis such as deduction and induction, comparison and retrospective analysis.

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At the same time, there are a lot of investigations dedicated to the issues of the Indian Republic’s position on the global market of energy resources [2, 3, 6, 10, 13, 15], issues of economic and energy security [1, 4, 5, 11, 14]. Even though the scientific community pay great attention to these mentioned topics, we have to say that the issue of the over-dependence of the national economy on mineral resources would be under the process of investigation for a long time.

3 Results First of all, it needs to underline that nowadays there is the process of transition named “Energy transition” caused by the issues of environment pollution and direction to the green energy and alternative energy resources. Developed and developing countries are voting for the step by step transition to the using of alternative energy resources and gradual rejection from using traditional energy resources. It needs to understand that the process of transition should not be immediate due to the fact of the issues of technology and infrastructural development, features and specifications of the production process, the dependence of the broad set of industries on traditional energy resources, the necessity to get rather great value investment and so on. The present level and technology features of the production process depending on the cheap and uninterrupted supply of energy recourses. At the same time in the context of developing countries issues of energy transition are connected with the problem of economic growth and economic development provision, and overcoming of energy dependence and energy «poorness». The price and the availability of alternative energy resources lift the problem of economic growth provision and the possibility of economic backwardness in the future for these countries. Thus the issue of the energy transition for the developing countries is the most important. Talking about the Indian Republic we have to say that the key idea of the energy policy of India of provision of the national economy and industries by the cheap and available resources in conditions of the energy recourses deficit, and development of alternative energy recourses (atomic energy, solar energy, wind energy and so on). Experts said that on the government and legal level there is no official document named “Energy policy of India”, there is only a set of laws and regulatory and legal acts, such as Hydrocarbon Vision-2025, Electricity Act-2003, National Energy Plan, National Action Plan on Climate Change-2008, New National Electricity Plan-2018, India Cooling Action Plan-2019.1 Nowadays India’s share of total proved recourses by oil made up 0.3%, share of total oil production (in thou. of barrels per day) made up—0.9%, share of total oil production (in mln. tonnes) made up—0.8%, share of total oil consumption (in thou. Of barrels per day and EJ) made up 5.4 and 5.3%. The first and the second places by the indicator of oil consumption belong to USA and China, that are connected 1

Energy policy. Energy policy of India in the period of the energy transition. 2020. URL: https:// energypolicy.ru/a-mastepanov-a-sumin-energeticheskaya/energetika/2020/16/10/.

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with the value of GDP, number of population, the value of produced goods and so on. According to the latest data, the main suppliers of crude oil on the Indian market are Iraq, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait. On the global market of natural gas, the Indian Republic share made up 0.7% by the indicator of total proved reserves (in tln. cub. feet). By the indicator of natural gas production, the share of India amounted to 0.7% (in bln. cub. metres), by the indicator of natural gas consumption, the share of India—1.5% (in bln. cub. metres), and the main suppliers of natural gas to India are Qatar, Angola, Nigeria. On the global market of coal, the Indian Republic took on of the leading places. Coal continues to be the largest domestic source of energy supply and electricity generation. In categories of total proved reserves, the shares of India made up 9.9%. At the same time, the share of India in categories of production made up 7.6%, in categories of consumption—11.8%. The first place is taken by China—51.7%, India took the second one place. The analysis and summarizing of the Indian Republic data on electricity generation by fuel, the greatest place and role for India is taken by coal, first of all. But the first place of this indicator concerning coal is taken by China. Of course, it has to be said that using of coal in the process of electricity generation by China and India is connected with the high rate of environmental pollution and the necessity to transform and change environmental policy, to attract more attention to the problems of the environment, animals, air, climate-changing, human health and related deceases and so on. The Indian energy policy (the set of directives and initiatives) is aimed at the provision of economic security and independence from the energy supply. At the same time, the Indian energy policy has to be connected and implemented in the context of FDI policy: attraction of FDI to the mining and refinery sector to develop and renew technologies and infrastructure. Following the Indian consolidated FDI policy, the “Mining and petroleum and natural gas” sector was liberalized for FDI, and the level of entrance to the sector was almost totally 100% under automatic and government route (except petroleum refining by the Public Sector Undertakings (PSU), without any disinvestment or dilution of domestic equity in the existing PSUs—49% under automatic route). The policy allows “Coal and Lignite mining for captive consumption by power projects, iron and steel and cement units and other eligible activities permitted under and subject to the provisions of Coal Mines and the Mines and Minerals”. FDI investors can set up coal processing plants, with the restriction that “the company shall not do coal mining and shall not sell washed coal or sized coal from its coal processing plants in the open market and shall supply the washed or sized coal to those parties who are supplying raw coal to coal processing plants for washing or sizing”. At the same time there are some rules and restrictions for the FDI, for example, for titanium industry connected with the transfer of technology, “FDI will not be allowed in the

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525

mining of “prescribed substances”, and so on. FDI to the titanium industry has to be connected with conjugated industries to promote the growth and output.2 In the context of economic security, the dependence of the Indian economy on energy supply and FDI to the sector—are serious issues. Per an experts’ opinion, there are several reasons to invest in the Indian energy sector: “the growing economy and population growth are the main drivers for oil and gas demand, increasing every year; India is one of the fastest-growing energy consumers; There is Supportive Government Regime that allows easing of doing business moved to industry-specific policy HELP (Hydrocarbon Exploration & Licensing Policy); With the launch of the National Mineral Policy 2019, India presents a major opportunity for investors; India has vast mineral potential with mining leases and so on”.3 At the same time, there are some sectors prohibited for FDI, such as: “Lottery Business including Government/Private lottery, online lotteries etc.; Chit Funds; Trading in Transferable Development Rights; Manufacturing of Cigars, cheroots, cigarillos, and cigarettes; Gambling and betting including casinos; Nidhi Company; Real Estate Business or Construction of Farm Houses; Sectors not open to private sector investments—atomic energy, railway operations”. One of the key problems of the Indian economy is industrial backwardness, especially, when we are talking about the most remote regions, villages and cities. At the same time, the Indian Government is implementing the policy of diversification of energy resources suppliers, so the Russian Federation is discovering as the potential partner in the context of the supply of energy. The government of India has laid out an ambitious vision to bring secure, affordable and sustainable energy to all its citizens, ensuring Indian citizens have access to electricity and clean cooking has been at the top of the country’s political agenda.4,5

4 Conclusion The energy sector stays one of the most significant and important for the Indian economy and the process of economic development and growth. Achievement of relative energy independence, diversification of energy resources suppliers and modernizations of the Indian infrastructure (especially in the energy sector) are the main goals of the Indian energy and economic policy nowadays. 2

Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade. Ministry of Commerce and Industry Government of India. Consolidated FDI Policy. URL: https://static.investindia.gov.in/2020-10/FDIPolicyCircular-2020.pdf. 3 Make in India. URL: https://www.makeinindia.com/sector/oil-and-gas; https://www.makeinindia. com/sector/mining. 4 International energy agency. India 2020. URL: https://www.iea.org/reports/india-2020. 5 Policy challenges 2019–2024. Charting a New Course for India and Navigating Policy Challenges in the 21st Century. The Key Policy Questions for the New Government and Possible Pathways. URL: https://cprindia.org/sites/default/files/Policy%20Challenges%202019-2024.pdf.

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Diversification of mineral suppliers that has been started in the 2000s—is the logical process in the pursuit of decrease the dependence on determining countries and types of resources. At the same time, it still needs to develop documents that would lay down on the Indian energy security on the government level. Acknowledgements This paper has been supported by the RUDN University Strategic Academic Leadership Program and Grant of RUDN University No. 060119-0-000

References 1. Andronova IV, Gusakov NP (2014) Conceptual approaches to the development of a new strategy of economic security. Natl Interests Prior Secur 10,46(283), 2–14 2. Bezrukikh PP et al (2020) On the electricity generation balances worldwide and in Russia. Bulletin of MPEI 4:1–28 3. Filimonov FY (2020) The role of coal in the international energy trade. MGIMI Rev Int Relat 13(6):228–234 4. Gaur P, Zholdasbekova A (2019) New silk road diplomacy: India’s challenges and responses. Central Asia Caucasus 20(1):56–61 5. Gusakov NP, Trofimova AA (2018) The energy component of the economic security of Ukraine. Microeconomics 6:124–127 6. Kharitonova DV (2020) India’s energy sector: current state and development prospects. Geoecon Energy Sector 11(3):44–63 7. Konovalova YuA (2017) Russia-India: modern features of common trade. RUDN J Econ 3(25):295–308 8. Konovalova YuA (2021) India on the international market of pharmaceutical goods: problems and prospects. Bull MIRBIS Int Res J 1(25):170–180 9. Konovalova YA, Gusakov NP (2017) The current state and prospects for Russia-India cooperation in high technology industries. Finance Credit 23, 5(725):295–308 10. Linnik YuN et al (2020) Coal market: analysis and forecast. Coal 5(1130):34–38 11. Rastyannikova EV (2019) BRICS: trends in the economic growth of the extractive industry in the XXI century. Bull Stat 6(5):43–52 12. Simonov AG, Lavrov SN (2021) Gas industry—a factor on international cooperation. RUDN J Econ 1(29):164–172 13. Tebekin A (2020) Analysis of options for Russia’s foreign economic strategy on the world oil market. J Econ Stud 6(1):73–81 14. Yurchenko NY (2020) Analysis of the development of nuclear energy in India. Innov Invest 3:88–92 15. Zhukov SV, Reznikova OB (2019) Iran in the world oil market. World Econ Int Rel 63(11):26– 37

Global Market of Oil and Gas Fields’ Services: Current Development Trends Inna V. Andronova

and Ivan O. Khabarov

Abstract The article is devoted to the study of the situation in the world market of oil and gas fields’ services and the identification of the main trends and features of its development. The country and corporate structure of this industry are considered. In addition, the subject of the analysis of this article is the relationship between the results of the work of oil and gas service companies and the general situation in the oil and gas market over the past decade. Keywords Oil and gas fields services · Oil and gas fields services market · Oil and gas fields services industry · Oil and gas sector · Oil and gas industry JEL Classification F23 · L71 · F17 · F63 · E32

1 Introduction In the modern world, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the oil and gas market in the overall structure of the global economy. National and private companies, public authorities of different countries and international organizations are directing their efforts to increase stability, expand influence and control over the situation on the global hydrocarbon market. Despite the trend for the substantial reduction of the world economy dependence on the raw materials sector, a structural decline of the oil and gas industry in the coming decades seems unlikely, due to the continuing relative high cost of alternative energy, which, in turn, makes it impossible to abandon traditional energy sources due to their higher profitability. One of the important elements of the oil and gas industry is the segment of oil and gas fields services.

I. V. Andronova (B) · I. O. Khabarov Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_58

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2 Methodology The market of oil and gas field services has the following general structure: • the segment “oil and gas fields services”, which includes geological exploration, geophysical and seismological research, drilling services, capital and current well repairs, integrated management of oil and gas projects; • the segment “equipment and petrochemicals”, which includes the main and auxiliary oil and gas field equipment, tools and mechanisms necessary for conducting geophysical and seismological studies, equipment for good operation and carrying out current and major repairs of oil and gas wells, as well as equipment involved in oil and gas processing (this category also includes “chemical” support of the oil and gas business, including solutions, etc.); • the “technologies” segment, which includes software and information equipment that supports the production, transportation and processing of oil and gas; • the “infrastructure” segment, which includes goods, works and services for general construction, road construction, etc. for the needs of oil and gas production, transportation and processing; • the “transport” segment, which includes general (road, sea, air) and specialized (pipeline) transport serving the oil and gas industry. In this article, we will focus our attention directly on the segment of “oil and gas fields services”, however, while studying them, we should also consider the supply of equipment and technological solutions, because a significant number of contracts in the oil and gas fields services industry involve the execution of turnkey works. Many service contracts include the supply of equipment, spare parts, and materials, and EPCI (Engineering, Procurement, Construction, and Installation) contracts in the acronym itself imply “procurement”—the supply of materials and equipment. An active scientific discourse is being conducted on the topic under the study in the works [2–6, 10, 12, 13, 16], which determine the theoretical basis of this research.

3 Results Companies operating in the oil and gas fields services industry provide a wide range of services, works and goods required by oil and gas companies as part of the exploration, drilling, production, and operation of fields, significantly simplifying the business process for economic agents operating in the oil and gas market. The total global turnover of this market is about 335 billion US dollars in 2020. In terms of the regional distribution of demand, the structure of consumers is not undergoing significant changes—in 2020, the US and Canada account for 94 billion US dollars, Asia and India—70 billion US dollars, the Middle East—42 billion US dollars, according to Deloitte estimates [11]. In this regard, it is worth considering the dynamics of

Global Market of Oil and Gas Fields’ Services …

529

Table 1 Value of the global market of oil and gas fields’ services Year

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 (estimates) 2021 (predictions)

Value of the 510 global market of oil and gas fields’ services (in bln USD)

355

300

357

384

412

335

344

Source [11]

changes in the total volume of the world market of oil and gas fields’ services by year. Analyzing the information presented in Table 1, we can observe a significant decrease in the volume of the global oil and gas fields’ services market in 2015 compared to 2014, which may be due to the deterioration of the overall oil and gas market conditions during this period. Failure of the OPEC deal in the fall of 2014 provoked a decline in oil prices more than twice: on June 30, 2014, the price of Brent crude oil was 111.51 US dollars, and on January 19, 2015—48.63 US dollars [7]. This correlation is understandable—the global oil and gas service market is in any case a part of the oil and gas industry and directly depends on the general situation of demand for hydrocarbons. We can explain the significant reduction in market volumes in 2020—in April 2020 in the same way: with the background of the COVID-19 pandemic, the price of Brent crude oil fell below 16.00 US dollars, which was due to a significant decrease in the volume of fuel consumed in the world, required for road, shipping, rail, and air transport. There was also a significant decline in industrial production due to the “lockdown” regimes imposed by the state authorities of many of the most developed and developing countries, which also had a negative impact on the volume of demand for products produced and sold by the global oil and gas industry. The decline in prices affects the oil and gas service industry as a whole, but the directions of this negative impact vary: • the decrease in the volume of service contracts and agreements related to ongoing repairs of wells and oil and gas equipment is due to a short-term decline in oil and gas production, which can be triggered by both decline in demand and a reduction in production volumes regulated by OPEC + agreements; • a significant decline in the oil price also leads to a reduction in the number of investment programs of oil and gas companies (forming forecasts about the future market situation, based on the current situation), which negatively affects the volume of orders for the development of new fields, drilling new wells, etc. In Table 2, we consider the dynamics of changes in the value of investment programs of the largest private and state oil and gas companies in the world. From Table 2, it is clear that the reduction in the volume of capital expenditures of oil and gas companies is generalized and does not depend either on the company’s

6.9

January–June 2020 (in bln USD)

Source [11]

11.3

January–June 2019 (in bln USD)

BP 7.7

10.3

Shell 7.7

10.0

Chevron 4.7

5.8

Total 2.3

3.8

Eni 2.5

3.4

Conoco Phillips

Table 2 Value of investment programs of the largest private and state oil and gas companies in the world

13.6

14.5

Saudi Aramco

4.4

4.9

Petrobras

4.2

4.9

Equinor

530 I. V. Andronova and I. O. Khabarov

Global Market of Oil and Gas Fields’ Services … Table 3 Largest oil and gas fields’ services companies by revenue

531

Company

Headquarters

Revenue in 2019 (in bln USD)

Revenue in 2020 (in bln USD)

Schlumberger

Houston (USA)

32.92

23.6

Baker Hughes

Houston (USA)

23.84

20.71

Halliburton

Houston (USA)

22.41

14.44

Weatherford

Geneva (Switzerland)

5.22

3.69

Source [9]

ownership (private or public) or on the region in which the company carries out its main activities. The global oil and gas fields’ services market is a significant sector of the oil and gas business, subject to a high level of monopolization, which initial process of formation took place within or near oil and gas companies, but later these structural divisions, subsidiaries or affiliated companies were transformed into independent business units. Some of such companies and organizations turned into the largest multinational corporations that formed the modern landscape of the oil and gas fields’ services market. In Table 3, we look at the four largest oil and gas fields’ services companies by revenue in 2019 and 2020. Attention should be drawn to the fact that this market is dominated by companies from the United States, which may be due to both the dynamic expansion of American business into foreign markets after the end of World War II, and the high technological potential of the US economic complex, which was finally formed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Before proceeding to the examining of current trends in the market of oil and gas fields’ services, we will consider the general trends that have formed the studied sector of the world economy. Many reasons and situations have contributed to oil and gas fields’ services companies in the period of the formation of their initial and high potential, which has brought, among other things, the companies reflected in Table 3 to the world leaders of the studied industry by nowadays: • the global oil and gas market has repeatedly experienced a situation where the short-term demand for oil and gas fields’ services exceeded the existing supply on the market that shaped “seller’s market”. Thus, against the background of the growth of production capacity in China in 2005–2006, there was a significant expansion in demand for hydrocarbons, which significantly increased the demand for oil and gas fields’ services. At the same time, Saudi Arabia launched some oil and gas megaprojects focused, in particular, on meeting the growing demand for raw materials, which implementation also required the purchase of a significant

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amount of goods, works, and services. In such conditions, taking into account the time lag needs for the oil and gas fields’ services industry to increase production capacity, to produce the required oil and gas equipment, and to train the necessary personnel, there was a significant increase in prices for services and works provided, which was due to a temporary but acute shortage of necessary personnel and equipment. This situation allowed the existing leaders of the oil and gas fields’ services sector not only to gain a permanent foothold in some foreign markets but also to enjoy additional financial advantage to form technological superiority; • one of the possible ways to form the existing largest oil and gas fields’ service companies is to enter new markets, the political and economic situation of which is unstable. An example of this is the entry of the largest oil and gas service players into the markets of the post-Soviet countries. The dynamically changing regulatory framework, the destruction of a significant amount of established economic, political, administrative, and cultural ties made the markets of these countries extremely unpredictable for both internal and external players. However, the dynamic penetration of foreign oil and gas fields’ services companies into the oil and gas industry of the former USSR countries has allowed these economic agents to gain a foothold on new frontiers and gain significant benefits from new buyers of the works and services they offer. It is also worth giving an example of the active expansion of many oil and gas service companies, including Schlumberger and Halliburton, into the oil and gas production market in Iraq, after the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime. The penetration of a large number of international oil and gas companies into the Iraqi market caused a significant increase in demand for the work and services of the studied sector. Leaders of the oil and gas and oil and gas fields’ services industries for many years previously worked as established contractors with each other, the choice of performers for drilling, field development, related infrastructure and geological and seismological research was obvious. In this regard, we can mention the significant expansion of global oil and gas service companies in the Romanian market after the fall of the regime of Nicolae Ceausescu; • one of the factors that create added value in the oil and gas fields’ services industry is the use of the latest technological achievements to implement the tasks set. The work and services provided by the oil and gas service sector of the global economy are similar to complex civil or industrial construction, which is also true for EPCI contracts, but directly added value in oil and gas fields’ services is added by technologies that help oil and gas companies increase the return on each well drilled, from each field developed. Services for seismic exploration, logging in an open well, directional drilling in combination with logging during drilling, services for geo navigation and analysis of rocks and liquids—these are just an incomplete list of those services that directly affect the productive capacity of the oil and gas sector, contributing to the efficiency of oil and gas production. The use of research and mining equipment underground, the pressure per square centimetre of which can exceed 1 ton, and the exposure temperature is 300 °C-is akin to working in outer space, due to a similar lack of access. Such services become more and more relevant as the cost of operating a particular field

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increases, as they allow the operating oil and gas company to decide the economic profitability of further production at the field. It can be assumed that the factor of the technological superiority of the leaders of the oil and gas service industry may be due to the first of the described factors (the description of historical situations when the demand for oil and gas service services exceeded their supply on the market) since this stage gave oil and gas service companies sufficient financial leverage for large-scale investment in scientific and industrial research. When considering the current situation in the oil and gas fields’ services market, we cannot help taking into account the significant damage that the industry suffered as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent economic crisis. As can be seen from Tables 1, 2 and 3, the damage from the negative economic environment is noticeable, both at the industry level and at the level of individual companies and corporations. In this regard, it is worth noting that companies specializing in cooperation with oil and gas companies on the most high-tech projects, including offshore drilling, experienced the largest drop in demand. Thus, the market of specialized vessels intended for offshore oil and gas production, shipyards and shipbuilding companies focused on the construction and equipment of vessels for the oil and gas industry, is at one of the lowest points is connected to the COVID-19 pandemic. In general, the industry under study experienced significant changes and forced transformations during the period of restrictions associated with the new coronavirus infection. The positions of the largest companies participating in the market, such as Schlumberger, Halliburton, Baker Hughes, and Weatherford, were the most protected. A stable financial position, coupled with the continued significant number of service contracts, allows such companies to feel relatively confident in the conditions of the industry and general economic crisis. In a much weaker position were highly specialized companies that offer individual, sometimes high-tech services to the market. Such highly specialized companies, design bureaus, and firms engaged in certain types of work for many years acted more as subcontractors to the leaders of the oil and gas service industry and were less likely to be contractors under direct contracts with oil and gas companies. The market structure is organized in the way that the list of works and services required by oil and gas players to maintain current activities and to perform planned and ongoing repairs of specialized equipment can be executed by the leaders of the oil and gas fields’ services industry on their own. On the other hand, the development of new oil and gas fields, new onshore drilling, and offshore projects require the involvement of a significant number of subcontractors, those small and medium-sized companies. As can be seen from Table 2, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, investment programs were reduced, which provoked a wave of bankruptcies and forced consolidations – small and medium-sized enterprises were forced to agree to be sold to historical industry leaders.

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4 Conclusion Analyzing the possible trends in the development of the market of oil and gas fields’ services, we can distinguish two directions: extensive and intensive. The movement towards reducing the environmental damage caused by the activities of oil and gas companies can be regarded as intensive. Thus, some investors who have traditionally financed oil and gas operations are now increasingly focusing on programs to reduce carbon emissions. For example, the Oil and Gas Climate Initiative consortium, which includes BP, Equinor, ExxonMobil and Occidental Petroleum, announced in July 2020 its plans to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 36 million tons and bring this figure to 52 million tons per year by 2025 [8]. The oil and gas fields’ services industry will have to find new ways to adapt to a low-carbon future. One potential destination for drillers is geothermal development. About 800 geothermal wells are expected to be drilled in 2020–2029 with an installed capacity of about 25 GW, compared to 15 GW of installed capacity in the 2010s, according to Rystad’s forecast [14]. In addition, in the long term, digitalization and automation technologies can contribute to the survival of market leaders, such mechanisms help to reduce costs and increase the environmental efficiency of the oil and gas production process. Therefore, in 2019, a partnership agreement has been signed between Schlumberger, Chevron, and Microsoft, aimed at developing a cloud environment that increases the efficiency of providing oil and gas fields’ services [15]. A similar example is a collaboration between Baker Hughes and an artificial intelligence software provider C3.ai on deep learning platforms [1]. Rystad estimates that initiatives to automate and digitalize production processes in the oil and gas service industry can contribute to market growth of more than $100 billion during the 2020s. Speaking about the extensive development path of the industry, the analysis boils down to the expectation of the recovery of pre-crisis demand volumes and their subsequent increase, this will contribute to the expansion of the number and value of contracts for both operational services for the oil and gas industry and the expansion of investment programs. In modern conditions, and taking into account the trend towards creating a “low-carbon future”, it is difficult to predict a significant sharp recovery in the oil and gas sector. The statements of the largest auto giants about the termination of research programs in the field of internal combustion engines in favour of cars powered by electricity, speaks in favour of this theory. However, analysts at major investment banks JPMorgan Chase and Goldman Sachs predict a surge in prices after the COVID-19 pandemic is defeated. Now analysts present the rise in Brent crude oil prices to values in the region of $100 per barrel as part of a new cycle of oil price growth. Such a forecast may be connected to the significant amount of fiscal stimulus measures that have been taken by government authorities in developed and developing countries. Significantly reduced investment in exploration and development of new fields against the background of lower oil prices in 2020 will contribute to a decrease in the supply of oil and gas against the background of increased demand due to the above-mentioned incentive measures. The widely

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applicable system of direct payments to citizens also has a positive impact on the oil and gas market, as it increases the propensity to consume among the lower and middle classes, one of the notable items of expenditure is fuel for cars. It may be premature to talk about the beginning of a new supercycle of oil prices—the average daily oil consumption was about 100 million barrels in 2019, while in 2020 this figure was about 90 million barrels. According to forecasts of economists and analysts, this indicator has no prospects of recovery to the level of 2019 before 2022. However, if we assume that the volume of demand for hydrocarbons will recover and the corresponding growth in oil prices, we should assume that the investment programs of oil and gas companies will be restored, and the preserved wells will be put back into operation, which will certainly have a positive impact on the market of oil and gas fields’ services. It is worth noting that the industry discussed in this article is to a certain extent an “appendage” of the oil and gas industry as a whole, following a generalized trend that guides the development of economic agents, the main consumers of these services, works, and goods. A feature of the development of the oil and gas service industry is the time lag caused by the speed of decision-making by the administration of oil and gas companies, both at the strategic level, in terms of investment programs, and at the operational level, in terms of regulating production at individual fields. At the same time, as the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic has shown, at the moment the speed of decision-making at the management level of oil and gas corporations is quite high, and the oil and gas service industry has entered the crisis virtually synchronously with the entire oil and gas market. Acknowledgements This paper has been supported by the RUDN University Strategic Academic Leadership Program and Grant of RUDN University No. 060119-0-000

References 1. BakerHughesC3.ai (n/a) Introducing BakerHughesC3.ai. Official website. https://bakerhugh esc3.ai/company/ 2. Brogan A (2019) How oilfield services consolidation transforms the value chain. https://www. ey.com/en_gl/oil-gas/how-oilfield-services-consolidation-transforms-the-value-chain 3. Candina J, González Fernández D, Hall S, Verre F (2020) Reinventing upstream oil and gas operations after the COVID-19 crisis. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/oil-and-gas/ourinsights/reinventing-upstream-oil-and-gas-operations-after-the-covid-19-crisis 4. Cannon K, Price D (2020) Why outlook for oilfield services sector is down, but not out. https:// www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/why-outlook-for-oilfield-services-43784/ 5. Corrigan J (2020) COVID-19 and the oil price collapse: the impact on oilfield services. https://www.pwc.com/us/en/industries/energy-utilities-mining/library/covid-19-imp act-on-oil-field-services.html 6. Delacroix C, Haskell T (2020) How to future-proof the oilfield services workforce. https:// www.ey.com/en_gl/oil-gas/how-to-future-proof-the-oilfield-services-workforce 7. Dynamics of prices for the Brent oil futures contract (MOEX, USD per barrel). https://yandex. ru/news/quotes/1006.html

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8. Esau I (2020) Oil giant group agrees on emissions cuts to “support goals of Paris Agreement”. https://www.rechargenews.com/transition/oil-giant-group-agrees-emissi ons-cuts-to-support-goals-of-paris-agreement/2-1-844278 9. Hussein AA (2021) Here is how bad was 2020 for oilfield services companies. https://oilind ustryinsight.com/oil-gas/insights/here-is-how-bad-was-2020-for-oilfield-services-companies/ 10. Jaganmohan M (2021) Global spending on oilfield services by segment 2019–2023. https:// www.statista.com/statistics/1126854/oilfield-service-yearly-demand-worldwide-by-segment/ 11. Oilfield services market of Russia-2020 review (2020) JSC “Deloitte & Touche CIS”, Moscow, 19 p 12. Paraskova T (2020) The road to recovery is long for oilfield services. https://oilprice.com/Ene rgy/Energy-General/The-Road-To-Recovery-Is-Long-For-Oilfield-Services.html 13. Podobedova L (2020) The oilfield services market in Russia to fall by 25% due to coronavirus and OPEC+. https://www.rbc.ru/business/04/12/2020/5fc8bc789a7947f295b765c9 14. Rystad Energy (2020) The oilfield services industry is already starting to feel a new downturn. (n/a). https://www.rystadenergy.com/newsevents/news/newsletters/OfsArchive/ofs-april2020/ 15. Schlumberger, Chevron, and Microsoft will unite to digitalize the oil industry, Rambler reports (2019). https://news.rambler.ru/other/42851673-schlumberger-chevron-i-microsoft-obedinyat sya-dlya-tsifrovizatsii-neftyanoy-otrasli/ 16. Sheppard D (2021) Oil ‘supercycle’ predictions divide veteran traders. https://www.ft.com/con tent/f87ce114-f437-4c3f-bb73-fa38ca78146b

Conceptual Framework for Solid Waste Management Olga V. Titova , Yuri V. Shenshinov , and Tatiana K. Naplyokova

Abstract A conceptual framework is needed to gain a deeper understanding of the various terminologies used in research. In this part, the various terms and definitions associated with the research topic are essential for a basic understanding of the research. There are also many terms associated with solid waste management. Different terms are defined depending on the source, origin, and type of waste. In addition to food waste, all households dispose of bulky waste such as furniture and large household appliances that can’t be repaired or reused. Municipal waste is usually used in a broader sense to include municipal waste, institutional waste and commercial waste. Keywords Environmental management · Solid waste · Commercial waste · Externalities · Stock effects JEL Classification Q5 · Q52 · Q58

1 Introduction Commercial waste is a category that includes solid waste generated in all organizations, industries, and departments. These include waste, which is classified as garbage, as well as waste that is considered hazardous to public health and the environment. Garbage is a term applied to animal and plant waste arising from the handling, storage, sale, cooking, and serving of food. Such waste contains putrefactive organic O. V. Titova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Y. V. Shenshinov Ural State University of Economics, Ekaterinburg, Russia T. K. Naplyokova Kemerovo State University, Novokuznetsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_59

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matter that produces a strong odour and attracts rats, flies, and other parasites. It requires immediate attention during storage, handling, as well as disposal. Garbage is a general term applied to solid waste generated by households, commercial establishments, and institutions, excluding garbage and ash. The bulky waste category includes bulky household waste that can’t be placed in regular household containers. For this reason, they require a special collection. In developed countries, bulky waste includes large household appliances, such as stoves, refrigerators, and washing machines, as well as furniture, crates, car parts, tires, timber, trees, and branches. Bulky metal waste is sold as scrap metal, but part of this is disposed of at sanitary landfills. Waste is generated in large quantities and dumped, as a rule, in remote areas in low-lying areas, where a landfill site (landfills) is set aside, which are determined by local authorities [2, 12]. The industrial waste category includes discarded solids from manufacturing processes and industrial operations. They cover a wide range of substances, which are unique to each industry. For this reason, they are treated separately from municipal waste. However, it should be noted that solid waste from small industrial plants and ash from power plants are often disposed of in municipal landfills. In some cases, the active substances can be liquid or gaseous, so they are classified as solid waste because they are contained in solid containers. Typical examples are solvents, paints, and pesticides, whose used containers are often mixed with municipal waste and become part of the municipal waste stream. Some hazardous waste causes incineration plant explosions and landfill fires. Others, such as pathological waste from hospitals and radioactive waste, require special handling at all times. Good management practices should ensure that hazardous waste is stored, collected, transported, and disposed of separately, preferably after appropriate treatment to make them harmless. Solid by-products of wastewater treatment are classified as waste. They are mostly organic and come from the treatment of organic sludge from raw and treated wastewater. The inorganic fraction of untreated wastewater, such as sand, is separated in a preliminary purification step, but it must be immediately removed due to it entrains rotting organic matter that may contain pathogenic microorganisms. The bulk of refined, dewatered sludge is useful as a soil conditioner, but invariably use of it is uneconomical. Solid sludge enters the municipal waste stream if special measures aren’t taken to remove it.

2 Materials and Methods Solid waste management has a typical feature of private and public goods. Some households are willing to pay for the disposal of solid waste, some have already used this service; but people often don’t know what is happening with waste, or they don’t even interest in knowing what is happening with waste, they are just conscious of not letting waste accumulate. Although people pay to dispose of waste, they pay less,

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including the final disposal of the waste. When a person pays for a waste collection service that looks like a private good or service, he believes, that he is doing it in the right way. Some environmental problems arise when solid waste is simply dumped into lowlying areas. This waste remains untreated, causing air and water pollution, green gas emissions and remains a hazard to human health in the area. It’s damaging to the environment, which is less understood as these issues aren’t widely considered and analyzed. Proper disposal of municipal solid waste is very expensive. The treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste is a boon to society, but it must be taken into account that it needs to be financed as other public goods. Several by-laws must be introduced in order to invest in solid waste disposal. This could improve and increase the revenues of city local governments/municipalities, while requirements for cleaning and waste disposal are completely ignored. Municipalities are unable to finance these additional costs [7, 13]. Unfortunately, the degree of compliance with the rules for handling municipal solid waste leaves much to be desired. While most municipalities are improving their waste collection systems, there is little or no compliance with waste treatment and disposal requirements. Properly handling and disposing of municipal solid waste in an environmentally friendly manner doubles the cost to local authorities. There are four ways to finance local public goods, which are as follows: • • • •

Local taxes such as property tax; Subscription fees, which are collected from various city services; Grants from higher levels of government; Capital market loans received from government/financial institutions or international agencies.

Many economists believe, that, since property taxes don’t increase in the same proportion as taxes on economic activities, for example, sales tax or personal income tax, public goods should be financed from user charges to the greatest extent possible. Some households may be willing to pay a duty or pay to remove waste from their premises. In some developed countries, the amount and weight of the waste generated are determined by the amount and weight of the waste generated in order to reduce the amount of waste at the source and to motivate citizens to recycle it. Operating costs can be supported through conservation taxes and user charges, while the capital costs of collection, handling, and disposal may require external funding. The main purpose of subsidies is to develop and promote technologies that might otherwise be rejected for financial reasons [1, 6]. Waste-to-energy plants have created many problems because the design assumptions were flawed. Although waste generally has a high proportion of compostable material, and it also has a high proportion of inert material. Consequently, composting and biomethanation plants don’t produce as much compost and energy as planned. Due to these are income-generating products for a private firm, financial viability is severely compromised. It’s recognized that private businesses will not pay royalties on waste, because composting can’t cover operating costs now.

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At present time, so many products create negative externalities, and they aren’t taken into account in the production of products, which create negative externalities. If the polluter is obliged to compensate for the damage, then profitability, the supply of the product, and demand decrease even more, as the price rises to cover the additional costs. This ultimately reduces the overall production that results from pollution exposure. The market is unable, in the event of positive and negative external influences, to capture all the effects associated with transactions; the market prices of goods aren’t able to reproduce all the costs and benefits associated with the good. The only possibility in both cases is government intervention, for a negative external effect, the government must take measures to restrict the production of these goods and impose taxes on the production of those goods that cause a negative external effect. For goods with positive externalities, the government must take measures to stimulate the production of these goods by providing subsidies in a way that compensates the producer for all the benefits they bring to others. In this case, an economic and political analysis of externalities is presented. With regard to the economic implications of the theory of externality, it’s believed that redistribution should occur from those, who receive positive externalism, to those, who experience negative externalism. The solution for negative externalities is that the cost of getting rid of them must also be considered, and the costs incurred by the guilty party mustn’t be greater than the damage caused. With regard to the politics and economics of externality, the authors conclude that when rights are consistently protected, this leads to the existence of a market economy and also to the highest productive potential, the standard of living, as well as level of satisfaction that is possible [4, 5]. Everyone understands that pollution slowly builds up over time, along with the supply of pollution, and it’s caused damage. An important characteristic of stockpile contamination problems is that contamination usually accumulates over long periods, resulting in stocks varying with climate or decreasing when a time comes when it’s desirable or necessary. A key aspect of environmental problems is a high degree of uncertainty. Issues closely related to uncertainty are risk, stochasticity, and irreversibility, so, perfect knowledge of these issues could provide a perfect solution for the regulation of them. The traditional analysis focuses on externalities and their control (including through taxation), concentrates on the effects on distribution efficiency, ignoring the effects on organizational effectiveness. Therefore, it’s necessary to analyze externalities, considering the distributional effects and the organizational effects of external phenomena in production and taxes on these externalities using the inframarginal externalities. It’s known that externalities can cause not only inefficiency in the allocation of resources at the level of the division of labour and the market level but also organizational inefficiency. External costs lead to high or low levels of efficiency, or an inefficient division of labour. The introduction of taxes that cause external costs eliminates inefficiencies, which is almost impossible. Externalities in the public economy are explained in two ways: • The traditional line, which claims that the tax is the only remedy that will be applied to people, who generate negative externalities [10, 11];

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• Another line is connected with the theory of endogenous externality, which condemns the traditional line of public goods. It recommends that the degree of external dependence is dependent on an effective balance of trade-off between measurement cost and distortion caused by inaccurate measurements. Uncertainty is a fundamental property of external environmental factors. Since the effect of these externalities and the cost of control haven’t been adequately studied, two aspects of the problem of externalities are presented by the authors: • Stock effects and uncertainty lead to the tension between control gain and control delay. Even before the issue of climate change had been well understood, society strove to control greenhouse gas emissions; • Society insists on delayed control until the problem will be clearly understood, and only after this, preventing the waste of control capital can be avoided. At present, society focuses on irreversibility as opposed to risk aversion behaviour using a simple two-period model. It shows that decisions can come from irreversibility when it’s desirable to negatively emit or not invest bias in today’s control. There is also no irreversibility effect because today’s actions only affect tomorrow’s costs and don’t limit the choice [3, 14]. The concept of externalities as actions of producers or consumers aimed at external influence on another producer or consumer can be broken down into: • • • •

External factors, which are of 2 types: positive; negative; Positive externalities occur when the action of an individual or group benefits others. So, negative externalities occur, when the action of an individual or group has a detrimental effect on others. This leads to a distinction between social and private goods.

If the activity generates a positive external effect, the social benefit is higher than the private benefit, and if the activity generates a negative external effect, the social cost is higher than the private cost. Market failure occurs because markets for environmental goods and services don’t exist or market prices understate their social value of scarcity. Difficulties in defining, allocating, and enforcing property rights and the high cost of creating and generating markets are two important reasons for the lack of a market. The concept of externality is an issue of the smoke emissions of enterprises, which is detrimental to its business. In order to improve the environment, it’s necessary to introduce a tax per unit of production, which must be equal to the difference between the price of social marginal costs corresponding to the price of social optimal output, and the output must satisfy the condition in such a way that the price is equal to the social marginal cost. The introduction of this tax would raise the price of its products, reduce demand, and help to some extent internalize environmental costs in decision-making by producers and consumers of the product.

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The authors face the problems, which deal with actions that have harmful consequences; they don’t only limit those, who are responsible for them. The decision depends on whether the benefit from the prevention of harm is greater than the loss incurred in other places, as a result of the cessation of the harm-producing activity. It requires standards for tax collection to correct externalities, and the government must define and enforce ownership of environmental resources and mitigate transaction costs [8, 9].

3 Results At present time, attention is paid to the information problem—this is the knowledge of the functions of marginal damage and marginal social costs, as well as the determination of the socially optimal output and its uniqueness during implementation. The solution to this problem is the following two-step approach: • Firstly, the ambient standard is determined based on available scientific knowledge and social preferences. • Secondly, one of the following options is selected, i.e., the standards and charges approach or the standards and units approach. Taking into account the standards, the fee can be determined based on knowledge of the marginal abatement cost function. An alternative way, using the standards and baseline pollution information, tradable quotas could be allocated per unit of output, and unit prices would be determined by market forces. The development of externality theory focuses on the rise and fall of monetary externality. In this case, everyone is in favour of a political solution to the problem of external factors, which are so widespread, due to external factors can be considered as hindering the improvement of the efficiency of market operations, so, the property rights are endogenous to the market process, and it’s also assumed that the system of property rights, where rights develop and are carried out by private actions and private law. The study of externalities only began after Marshall’s debureaucracy showed that competitive industries, which are increasing and decreasing in value, can produce suboptimal investments and products. They argue that businesses, while entering a growing cost-competitive industry can, for several reasons, be a reason for rising or falling of raw material prices for existing enterprises [15]. This change in the prices of input resources is externally imposed by some enterprises on others. The discrepancy between private and social networking products can’t be corrected by private contractual agreements. Only government intervention can resolve these external consequences.

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4 Conclusion Different concepts related to solid waste management, different types of pollutants, and concepts related to different options for solid waste treatment have helped to understand these issues, which addresses the theoretical background of research concerning the theory of externality, which also helps to highlight the appropriate methodology and different variables. A large number of studies have been conducted on solid waste management over time, focusing on the economic, environmental and management aspects of solid waste management. Past research on solid waste management has focused on the economic, environmental or management perspective in a truncated manner. This study aims at the holistic integration of solid waste from the next three dimensions: • Economic; • Ecological; • Managerial. They all relate to the impact on conservation workers and the clean development mechanism, which are still underdeveloped.

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Formation and Development of a Waste Management System in the Region Viktoria V. Vorobyova , Natalia A. Diesperova , and Natalia A. Torgashova

Abstract The main problems in the area of waste management in urban areas of Russia are identified in this article. Monitoring of the sources of waste generation and the existing system of collection and accumulation and facilities for processing, utilization, neutralization, and disposal of waste in the Altay Territory is carried out. A model of interaction of the regional executive authorities with business entities operating in the area of waste management is also proposed in this study. Keywords Solid municipal waste · Waste storage · Waste sorting · Waste processing · State administration · Altay territory JELClassification Q53 · Q55 · Q150

1 Introduction In Russia, the volume of solid utilities disposed of at municipal landfills is increasing annually, with an average annual growth exceeding 13.0 million m3 . At the same time, in the structure of solid municipal waste, the proportion of non-decomposable waste is steadily increasing, which requires large tracts for storage. At the same time, there is a significant overload of the existing areas for storing waste (dumps), as well as a violation of existing environmental safety standards. In many countries of the world, a solid waste management mechanism, which includes mandatory sorting of garbage, is actively promoted and implemented predominantly in places of its formation and V. V. Vorobyova (B) Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia N. A. Diesperova Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia N. A. Torgashova The Altai Branch of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_60

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recycling of garbage. Storage and/or burial are carried out only for those wastes that can’t be further sorting and processing. Unfortunately, in terms of waste sorting, recycling and utilization criteria, Russia lags significantly behind many countries of the world, even though a significant step has been taken in improving the basic elements of the mechanism for managing solid utility costs in recent years: an appropriate regulatory framework has been created, and informational propaganda of separate collection of household waste has been also carried out. However, most of the waste continues to accumulate in the places of their official disposal, i.e. at landfills, as well as at spontaneous dumps. Stepkin [9] connects this problem with insufficient elaboration of the regulatory framework and ineffective regulatory policy of the state in the area of waste management, including at the regional level. Along with the increase in the area of waste storage, significant factors of violation of environmental safety and environmental pollution in urban areas are the release of leachate, waste combustion, and also the release of biogas. Filtrates, which are characterized by a high content of organic substances in a soluble form, seep through the soil and, in an insufficiently filtered form, enter groundwater and surface waters. In addition, several scientists note increased background radiation at waste storage sites [8, 10]. In this regard, the areas of research in the area of waste prevention by sorting, secondary using, composting, recycling, and reducing the content of hazardous substances in waste in absolute and relative terms, as well as environmentally safe disposal of waste are relevant.

2 Materials and Methods The study aims to systematize the problems in the waste management system in Russia, analyze the regulatory framework for the management of municipal solid waste, monitor their generation, collection, processing, and storage in the Altay Territory. The sources of information on the volumes of newly generated and accumulated solid municipal waste, including by hazard classes, waste composition, were materials from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Altay Territory. The statistical data were processed using standard MS Excel functions.

3 Results The authors support the priorities of the state related to the fact that to ensure the environmental safety of urban areas, the primary and secondary processing of solid municipal waste is the most optimal alternative to the existing system of their treatment based on incineration and/or burial. Recycling of solid municipal waste allows creating conditions for reducing the consumption of natural resources (minerals,

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timber, agricultural products, etc.), saving energy, increasing the effectiveness of preventive measures for climate change on the planet [1, 3, 7]. Waste management in the Altay Territory is carried out according to the current regulatory framework, involving the maintenance of a waste cadaster at the regional level, the formation of a territorial waste management scheme, the establishment of a waste accumulation procedure, including the rules for the arrangement of sites, the conclusion of agreements with a regional operator in the area of waste management, compliance with certain sanitary-epidemiological and hygienic requirements during the collection, placement, storage, transportation, disposal, processing of production waste. In 2021, active discussion of the draft territorial scheme of the Altay Territory continues (initial public discussions were held from January 12 to February 28, repeated—from April 1 to May 15) in the area of waste management, including the identification of sources of generation and places of waste accumulation, their assessment quantities, development of schemes of waste streams on the territory of the region, as well as inter-municipal, methodology of tariff setting for the services of regional operators, and other areas [2]. All urban and rural settlements of the Altay Territory, taking into account the size and density of the population, the distance between settlements, existing intermunicipal economic ties, are distributed into 7 administrative districts served by the following regional operators: LLC “Spetsobsluzhivanie—Centralnoe” (Aleiskaya zone), JSC “EKO-Complex” (Barnaul zone), LLC “Spetsobsluzhivanie—Centralnoye” (Biysk zone), LLC “Spetsobsluzhivanie—Centralnoye” (Zarinskaya zone), LLC “Linette” (Kamenskaya zone), LLC “VtorGeoResurs” (Rubtsovskaya zone), and LLC “Positive 88” (Slavgorod zone). According to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Altay region, the bulk of waste (on average, about 84.87%) was received from housing and public facilities in 2020, and the share of industrial waste accounted for no more than 6.85% (Table 1). In the context of urban and rural areas, per 1 person per year, the largest volume of waste is generated in the city of Biysk, which concentrates 9.03% of the region’s population, and the city of Barnaul, which concentrates 30.08% of the region’s population—about 287 kg and 258 kg, respectively. In these cities, more than 48.44% of all household waste in the region was received, which creates a colossal burden on waste disposal sites. In rural areas, no more than 172 kg of waste was received per 1 inhabitant per year, which is 33.0–39.8% lower, than the level of Biysk and Barnaul, and 19.1% lower than the average for the region (Table 2). Waste collection is organized as follows: roll-out containers are used in closed container sites, which are located in apartment buildings equipped with a garbage chute. Standardized containers and Euro containers with a volume of 0.75 and 0.77 m3 are most commonly used in apartment buildings without installed garbage chutes, as well as in common areas. However, if the territory of the entire region is considered, including rural settlements, as well as district centres of municipalities, then no more than 40.0% of all

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Table 1 The structure of sources of waste generation by administrative districts of the Altay region in 2020, % Administrative districts

Number of residents, people

Household waste (housing, public facilities)

Industrial waste

Total

Tons

% to total

Tons

Tons

% to total

% to total

Rubtsovskaya

335,462

69,491.0

87.68

3,474.5

4.38

79,251.2

100.00

Slavgorodskaya

193,348

35,828.4

84.42

1,791.4

4.22

42,440.2

100.00

Aleiskaya

180,836

30,267.5

88.59

1,108.9

3.25

34,165.6

100.00

Barnaul

996,142

23,3816.0

83.61

24,857.7

8.89

2,796,58.3

100.00

Biysk

408,476

87,018.7

84.85

4,849.7

4.73

102,555.2

100.00

Kamenskaya

107,497

18,695.6

92.16

545.4

2.69

20,285.4

100.00

95,392

19,456.1

79.73

3,291.1

13.49

24,402.9

100.00

494,573

84.87

39,919

6.85

582,759

100.00

Zarinskaya Total

2,317,153

Source Compiled by the authors based on Territorial scheme in the field of industrial and consumer waste management, including solid municipal waste in the Altay Territory [2], Federal State Statistics Service [4, 5]

Table 2 Concentration of waste generation sources in urban districts and rural areas of Altay region in 2020 Urban and municipal districts

Urban districts

Population

Solid waste generated following accumulation standards

Total, people % to total

Total, tons

1,235,709

incl. Barnaul

696,986

Biysk

209,209

% to total

incl. household waste Total, tons

% to total

For 1 person, kg

53.33

3,694,71.3

63.40

307,869.7

62.25

249.14

30.08

213,853.5

36.70

179,555.1

36.31

257.62

9.03

52,347.7

8.98

60,011.8

12.13

286.85

Municipalities

1,081,444

46.67

213,287.5

36.60

186,703.7

37.75

172.64

Total

2,317,153

100.00

582,758.8

100.00

494,573.4

100.00

213.44

Source Compiled by the authors based on Territorial scheme in the field of industrial and consumer waste management, including solid municipal waste in the Altay Territory [2], Federal State Statistics Service [4, 5]

types of waste are centrally removed, which often leads to the formation of spontaneous dumps, littering of waste generation sites and adjacent territories and the number of natural objects. The authors referred to the main existing regional problems in the sphere of waste management the next ones: most of the waste disposal sites in the region don’t meet the requirements of sanitary requirements and modern legislation in the area of

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environmental protection in Russia; low percentage of coverage of settlements with processes of centralization of waste removal, including household waste; insufficient development of waste processing enterprises (at present time, in the city of Barnaul, the site is being cleared at 116/18 Kalinin St. and preparation of design estimates for the construction of a waste sorting complex); low interest of business entities in sorting and recycling the waste in the form of secondary raw materials and/or fuel in other areas. The experience of the developed countries of the European Union should be the basis for modeling modern management systems in the area of waste management in large settlements because Russia has more in common with the European system of population settlement than with the Asian or American ones. The amount and structure of waste generated in Russia, the scale in agriculture, manufacturing, construction, trade, as well as production and consumer behavior patterns are also similar to those in Europe. The priority directions of the development of the system for sorting waste generated on the territory of cities are determined by the sources of its formation received from the housing stock, the non-residential sector, and without dividing into sources of income (“general flow”). So, citizens can sort the main household waste on their own, then at special waste sorting plants, additional sorting of waste is supposed, the formation of waste streams (recycling, storage, disposal). For individual entrepreneurs and small businesses, the scheme is similar, but for medium and large business entities, the number of sorting processes is increasing, partial processing of waste is provided (if possible) as secondary raw materials, including heating production facilities (to a greater extent for forestry and agricultural enterprises specializing in the production of livestock products) additional sorting of industrial waste at special facilities. Any variant of waste collection assumes the use of the capacities of special enterprises engaged in waste sorting, because manual sorting of waste, including household waste, is ineffective at the secondary stages (the primary stage is sorting waste directly at the places of its formation) [6]. Mixing waste from the housing stock and other sources of their income is also unacceptable, due to the quality and quantity of secondary raw materials extracted from waste is significantly reduced, the safety of workers of enterprises involved in sorting waste is violated [11, 12]. To improve the efficiency of the waste management mechanism in the region, the authors propose to improve the model of relations between the executive authorities of the Altay Territory, as well as small and medium-sized businesses operating in the area of waste management. It’s also proposed to create and develop a Waste Management Center for this, which can be created as a structural unit of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Altay Territory to organize work with small and medium-sized enterprises in the area of waste management. The functions of the Management Center in the area of waste management should consist of: advising entrepreneurs, including on obtaining subsidies; monitoring the formation and development of the waste management sector in municipalities, administrative districts and the region as a whole; providing guarantees for lending in banks; planning at the regional and inter-municipal level; conducting information campaigns

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to improve the environmental awareness of the population in the area of collection, sorting, and disposal of household waste; work with business entities towards the development of waste-free and/or low-waste industries on the territory of regions; other types of tangible and intangible support. The management center in the area of waste management should be integrated into the management system of the executive power of the Altay Territory, to increase the efficiency of interaction in the area of legal support for waste management, the formation of target programs, as well as the assessment of the effectiveness of environmental protection measures, compliance with environmental safety requirements, and financing of enterprises. In this case, transparency and controllability of all production and financial operations will be ensured, including through monitoring the volume and quality of centralized work on the collection, movement, processing, and disposal of waste, the development of sectoral planning and forecasting, as well as the accumulation of reliable information on the amount and type of waste, creating conditions for increasing the economic efficiency of projects in the area of waste management. In this case, the most suitable conditions will be created to increase the efficiency of the performance of the functions of the executive authorities of the Altay Territory in the development, approval, and implementation of regional programs for the development of the waste management system, the implementation of departmental state control, the establishment of waste generation standards differentiated by territory and industry, as well as limits on their placement, approval of maximum tariffs at all stages of waste movement, collection of statistical reports from business entities, coordination, development, approval, and adjustment of the territorial waste management scheme.

4 Conclusion To raise awareness and attract business entities in the implementation of environmental projects for waste management and to reduce the level of industrial waste, it’s necessary within the framework of the existing investment portal of the Altay Territory, which allows providing visibility into the provision of data on ongoing and potential investment projects in the region, to create an investment portal “Waste” (a portal with a similar name “Waste” was created under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Altay Territory, but it has a completely different purpose—to inform the population about the need to increase the efficiency of work with waste, existing tariffs and normative regulation of the sphere of waste management). The portal, which is offered by the authors, is aimed at entrepreneurs in order to increase their environmental awareness, increase motivation in the implementation of projects of waste-free or low-waste production, as well as in the area of waste management. It’s assumed that entrepreneurs can discuss their investment ideas, including project concepts that have already being implemented, simultaneously using the “waste” investment portal. The creation of the Waste Management

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Center and the use of the “waste” investment portal will increase the efficiency of interaction not only between the state and entrepreneurs but also between producers and consumers of waste generated in the territory of municipalities of the Altay Territory.

References 1. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (2021) State report on the state and protection of the environment of the Russian Federation in 2019. https://www. mnr.gov.ru/docs/gosudarstvennye_doklady/proekt_gosudarstvennogo_doklada_o_sostoya nii_i_ob_okhrane_okruzhayushchey_sredy_rossiyskoy_federat2019/. Accessed: 08.06.2021 2. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Altay Territory (2021) The territorial scheme in the field of industrial and consumer waste management, including solid municipal waste in the Altay Territory (draft). https://cloud.mail.ru/public/sTX7/SPfAQQmFv. Accessed: 20.05.2021 3. Baranova AF, Mamedov SN, Pogodina IV (2019) Environmental problems of the textile industry and ways of their solution. In: Proceedings of higher education institutions. Text Ind Technol 4:170–174 4. Federal State Statistics Service (2021) Environmental protection in Russia—2020. https://ros stat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/nmV0UuE3/Ochrana_2020.pdf. Accessed: 08.06.2021 5. Federal State Statistics Service (2021) Unified interdepartmental information and Statistical System. https://fedstat.ru/organizations/. Accessed: 08.06.2021 6. Minakova IV, Timofeeva OG (2015) The study of the regional market of secondary raw materials processing (a case study of Kursk Region). Theory Pract Soc Dev 18:57–60 7. Naiman SM, Bulatov MF, Naiman MO (2018) Waste management based on the principle of limiting. Ecol Ind Russia 22:60–65. https://doi.org/10.18412/1816-0395-2018-11-60-65 8. Sobol’kova VA (2009) Theoretical foundation and principles of progressive international and Russian systems of management in the sphere of dealing with hard domestic waste products. Probl Mod Econ 1:513–515 9. Stepkin YI, Gaydukova EP (2018) Estimation and risk management in the waste treatment. Hygiene Sanit 8:693–698. https://doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2018-97-8-693-698 10. Timofeeva OG, Minakova IV (2013) On adapting the institutional foundations of recycling plastic packaging in the developed countries to the Russian economy. In: Proceedings of the Southwest State University. Series: Engineering and technologies, vol. 1, pp 215–219 11. Vengertsev VG, Bezdudnya AG (2016) Topical issues of recycling waste products in the company’s management structure—theoretical aspects and practical problems. Econ Entrepren 2:874–878 12. Vorobyova VV, Vorobyov SP, Sorokina AA (2019) Prospects for the socio-economic development of rural areas of the Altay Territory. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science, vol 395. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/395/1/012110

Current Problems of Using Forest Resources in Russian Regions Mikhail A. Savin , Elena A. Shevereva , and Aleksey A. Malinovskikh

Abstract The paper reveals the peculiarities of using forest land in Russia and current trends in reforestation and afforestation. The authors analyze the current costs for implementing measures of forest reproduction and afforestation on lands of the forest fund and lands of other categories. Additionally, the authors systematize the directions of forest conservation. Keywords Forest resources · Reforestation · Afforestation · Regeneration of forests · Forest protection · Current costs JEL Classification Q53 · Q55 · Q150

1 Introduction The Russian Federation, which contains about a quarter of the planet’s forest resources, is among the countries with the greatest supply of timber, including conifers. The share of Russia in the total global reserves of conifers exceeds 80.0% [4], the area of the forest fund under conifers in Russia is 520.1 million hectares. As of early 2020, Russia had the largest concentration of forested land globally— 1187.6 million hectares, including 794.9 million hectares covered by forest vegetation (of which 766.7 million is in forest management). The most valuable conifers are located on more than 68.74% of the forest fund covered with forest vegetation. In general, for 2011–2020, there was a decrease in the area occupied by conifers from 526.8 million hectares to 520.1 million hectares. This decrease is associated with the high value of timber. The most significant increase in the area is observed in softwood species (e.g., aspen and birch). In 2011, the area of these species was 149.2 million hectares. In 2020, the area increased to 152.4 million hectares due M. A. Savin (B) · A. A. Malinovskikh Altai State Agricultural University, Barnaul, Russia E. A. Shevereva MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_61

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Table 1 Area of forest lands in Russia as of January 1, million hectares Indicators

Years 2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Lands of the forest fund and other categories with 1184.1 1184.3 1184.5 1187.7 1187.6 forests Including Total forestry Including lands covered by forest vegetation

890.9

891.4

891.4

894.1

894.1

795.0

795.1

794.7

796.9

794.9

Including Total 770.5 lands of Including 534.7 forest fund those covered by: conifers

770.4

770.2

768.5

766.6

524.4

523.8

521.8

520.1

Total

Softwood

151.5

151.7

151.8

152.2

152.4

Hardwood

18.2

18.2

18.3

18.4

18.4

Source Compiled by the authors based on [2]

to active colonization of unused agricultural land by tree and shrubbery vegetation. Additionally, there are forests located on lands not included in the forest fund. As of January 1, 2020, their area exceeded 293.5 million hectares, which is 8.14% lower than in 2001 (the area of forests in these categories of land decreased annually during 2001–2020 by an average of 1.4 million hectares) (Table 1). Under these conditions, it is vital to study the directions of rational use of forests and the creation of conditions for their conservation and restoration. This necessity is due to the especially acute problems of overcutting (e.g., illegal logging over the established limits or export of valuable timber under the guise of dead wood), undercutting of mature forest (diseases and rotting spread more actively in overmature trees, which causes irreparable damage to healthy and younger trees; the overmature forest is prone to burning), and death of forests due to pests or fires. Tulpanov notes that the general trend in global forest management is that the growth rate of deforestation significantly exceeds the rate of natural and artificial regeneration of forests, which poses threats to humankind by frequent natural disasters and climate change [10].

2 Methodology The research aims to identify the main trends in reforestation and afforestation in Russia and systematize the main directions in forest conservation. The EMISS database of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) and materials of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation were the sources of information on the structure of forest lands, volumes of

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reforestation and afforestation, and the current costs of activities in forestry. Statistical data were processed using MS Excel.

3 Results In 2020, exploitable forests prevailed in the Russian Federation. It occupied 52.01% of the forest land area. In turn, shelter and reserved forests accounted for 24.78% and 23.22%, respectively. Exploitable forests prevailed in the Ural, Volga, and Northwestern Federal Districts, with the smallest share in the structure of the forest fund coming from the Southern (3.03%) and North Caucasus Federal Districts (7.46%). Reserved forests are common in the Siberian (23.18%) and Far Eastern Federal Districts (35.49%). The assessment of the composition of forest plantations by age groups revealed a predominance of mature and overmature forests in conifers (49.3%), softwood tree species (38.7%), and hardwood tree species (54.3%) (Fig. 1). The largest areas of mature and overmature forests were concentrated in the Northwestern, Siberian, and Ural Federal Districts of Russia. During 2015–2019, dead forest plantations decreased from 491.5 thousand hectares to 169.3 thousand hectares, including coniferous forest plantations—from 412.6 thousand hectares to 142.7 thousand hectares. The reasons for the death of forests are as follows (2019 data): • Forest fires (61.8%); • Damage by insects (25.5%); • The share of other causes (adverse weather effects, anthropogenic impact, etc.) did not exceed 12.7% (Fig. 2). The Southern Federal District was the hardest hit by pests, with 778.4 thousand hectares of forests affected by pests and 60.5 thousand hectares affected by forest

Fig. 1 Age structure of tree species in the forest fund of Russia as of January 1, %. Source Compiled by the authors based on [2, 3]

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Fig. 2 Causes of losses of forests in Russia, %. Source Compiled by the authors based on [2, 3]

diseases. The least affected was the Northwestern Federal District, where 1.9 thousand hectares affected by forest pests and 7.9 thousand hectares affected by forest diseases were recorded. Despite the decrease in the total area of loss of forests due to forest fires, the total number of forest fires since 2016 has increased from 11,025 to 13,602 (by 23.37%). As a result, the total number of burned forest plantations increased from 28.9 million cubic meters to 313.2 million cubic meters (10.83 times). The damage from forest fires in 2014–2019 is estimated at 160.4 billion rubles, with a variation from 14.4 billion rubles in 2019 to 56.4 billion rubles in 2015 (in the remaining years, the damage was in the range of 16.9–25.2 billion rubles). This damage includes the income lost from burned timber, the costs of organizing firefighting, clearing areas after fires, restoration of areas, and losses from burned animals. In 2015–2019, reforestation was carried out annually on more than 4613 thousand hectares to restore forest plantations. Additionally, afforestation was carried out on a total area of more than 33.4 thousand hectares, and improvement cutting was carried out on an area of more than 2618 thousand hectares. The total cost of afforestation and reforestation amounted to more than 13.9 billion rubles. Nevertheless, the damage from forest fires and pests has been significantly higher than the total cost of reforestation (Fig. 3). However, the volume of reforestation does not allow for full-fledged reproduction of forest plantations since the area of new plantations in 2015–2020 did not exceed 171.8–201.5 thousand hectares, which is more than 2.2–2.5 times lower than the area of artificial reforestation in Russia in 1992–1995 (Fig. 4). The specific weight of newly-planted forest cultures in the total area did not exceed 18.3%–22.2% in 2006–2020, with the normative ratios not lower than 43.0% [8]. A significant problem for forestry in Russia is the illegal timber trade, including illegally logged timber. Thus, in 2019, 14.8 thousand facts of illegal logging with

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60 50 40 30 20 10 0

2015

2016

Damage from forest fires

2017

2018

2019

Current costs for forest reproduction and afforestation

Fig. 3 Damage from forest fires and current costs of afforestation and reforestation in Russia, billion rubles. Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

Fig. 4 The area of artificial reforestation in Russia, thousand hectares. Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

a total volume of 1.2 million cubic meters of timber were revealed. Compared to 2018, there was an 8.0% decrease in illegal logging, an 11% increase in volume, and a 3.0% decrease in forest damage. Law-enforcement bodies received 12.1 thousand claims on the facts of illegal logging (9.3 thousand criminal cases were initiated); 2.9 thousand persons were brought to administrative responsibility, and fines were imposed on the violators of forest legislation in the amount of 28.5 million rubles [7]. Based on the analysis of secondary literature [5, 9, 11–12], the authors systematized the main problems of forestry in Russia at the current stage of its development. These problems include the following:

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• The potential of total standing timber stock is not accurately assessed, which creates conditions for the development of criminal schemes for the export of valuable timber, cutting, or under-cutting of forest lands; • The system of forest management in the regions and the country is not sufficiently effective, which predetermines the low effectiveness of monitoring of forest use and insufficient area for forestry work, including reforestation; • Deep mechanical, energy and chemical processing of wood is underdeveloped. The following problems are also significant: • Depletion of exploitable reserves of all types of wood in areas with operating timber processing plants and developed transport infrastructure; • Insufficiently accurate accounting of the state of the forest fund; • Significant losses of timber in forest fires and the spread of forest pests. The current system of lease relations in forestry does not reflect the interests of the main participants of forestry relations, which leads to violations in the organization of logging, monitoring of forest conditions, and execution of legally established (including environmental) forestry requirements. Additionally, a predatory attitude toward the forest leads to a violation of the biodiversity of forest plantations and non-compliance with international obligations regarding the conservation of forest biodiversity and other requirements aimed at reducing the anthropogenic impact on the climate.

4 Conclusion In the author’s opinion, the following measures are required to solve the problems accumulated in the forestry and timber processing sectors of the economy: • To formulate and adopt a forestry development concept adequate to the expectations of all participants in forest relations, including society and the government; • To change the functions, rights, and responsibilities, as well as information support of federal and regional forest management bodies, including the area of monitoring, control, and supervision; • To restore the system of planning of volumes, costs, and critical indicators at the level of forestry organizations and at the inter-municipal, regional, and federal levels; • To form modern material and technical base of forestry organizations; • To develop scientific research in the field of forest relations, reforestation, and afforestation; • To increase the efficiency of wood processing and the depth of processing waste production. As Kostyleva notes, Russia currently sends less than 40.0% of waste wood (3200 thousand cubic meters) for processing; mostly, the entire volume of waste

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is used for heating, a small percentage is processed into industrial chips [6]. The remaining 60.0% either contaminate areas adjacent to the enterprises or remain on the harvesting area, creating additional threats to natural reforestation, destroying established ecosystems, and increasing the risk of fires at forestry operations sites. Nevertheless, there are many alternatives for using waste wood. The demand for Lumpy and soft sawmill waste and bark are demanded by the paper and chemical industries, agriculture, construction, and other sectors of the economy. The production of pellets, actively used in the heating of private houses and cottages, is a rather promising and fast-growing market. Pellets have lower ash content and lower carbon dioxide emissions than coal. Currently, pellets are quite actively produced by many companies exporting them to Europe (up to 90.0% of the produced volume) and Asia. No more than 5.0% of the total volume of produced pellets is sold on the Russian market [1]. The use of even 50.0% of the forestry waste withdrawn from circulation will increase production volume from the current 1.7 million tons of pellets per year to 8.0 million tons. Russia has an insufficient number of comprehensive research in the field of development of organizational and economic management of forestry, allowing effective implementation of the functions of planning, control, coordination, motivation, and organization of forestry processes on an innovative basis. There is also a lack of research in the field of environmental and economic evaluation of the effectiveness of the forest management system at the federal and regional levels.

References 1. Babushkin M (2020) Recycling of forest industry wastes as a production point of growth. Lesprominform 2(148):118–120. Retrieved from https://lesprominform.ru/jarticles.html?id= 5673 (Accessed 8 June 2021) 2. Federal State Statistics Service (2021) Environmental protection in Russia—2020. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/nmV0UuE3/Ochrana_2020.pdf. Accessed 8 June 2021 3. Federal State Statistics Service (2021) Unified interdepartmental information and statistical system. Retrieved from https://fedstat.ru/organizations/. Accessed 8 June 2021 4. Isaev AS, Korovin GN (2009) Current problems of national forest policy. Center for Environmental Policy of Russia, Moscow 5. Kletskova EV, Titova OV, Vorobyova VV (2020) The problem of supporting high flexibility of state management of a multicultural region’s economy and its solutions. In: Popkova E, Vodenko K (eds) Public administration and regional management in Russia. Contributions to economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38497-5_30 6. Kostyleva SV (2016) Economic and environmental aspects of integrated use of forest products waste (on the example of the Irkutsk region). Herald Omsk Univ Ser Econ 3:184–193 7. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (2021) State report on the state and protection of the environment of the Russian Federation in 2019. Retrieved from https://www.mnr.gov.ru/docs/gosudarstvennye_doklady/proekt_gosudarst vennogo_doklada_o_sostoyanii_i_ob_okhrane_okruzhayushchey_sredy_rossiyskoy_federat 2019/. Accessed 8 June 2021

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8. Onuchin AA, Sokolov VA (2020) On the concept of the draft federal law “Forest code of the Russian Federation.” For Sci Issues 3:1–11. https://doi.org/10.31509/2658-607x-2020-33-1-11 9. Rusetskaya GD (2015) Sustainable management, environmental laws and forest systems problems. Proc Irkutsk State Econ Acad 25–3:408–415. https://doi.org/10.17150/1993-3541.2015. 25(3).408-415 10. Tulpanov FM (2021) Some legal problems of use and protection of forest resources under the legislation of the Russian Federation. Bul Ural Inst Econ Manag Law 1:16–24 11. Vorobyov SP, Bugai YuA (2019) Factors of socio-economic development of rural areas. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 395:012109. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/395/1/012109 12. Yaremko OP (2017) Organizational and economic instruments for ensuring ecologically balanced forest management. Actual Probl For Complex 48:118–121

The Mechanism for the Development of the Tourism and Recreational Cluster for Effective Organizational and Economic Management of the Formation of the Innovative Potential of the North Caucasus Ludmila A. Burnyasheva , Larisa Kh. Gazgireeva , Irina I. Pavlenko , Irina E. Romanko , and Oksana N. Taranenko Abstract The article reveals an actual, previously not touched upon in scientific research, problem of the mechanism for the development of a tourism and recreational cluster for effective organizational and economic management of the formation of the innovative potential of the North Caucasus. To solve this problem, the authors propose new methodological solutions that allow assessing the formation and development of a tourism cluster, and will also allow assessing the effectiveness of the cluster, as well as a synergistic effect based on an integral method that allows determining indicators of heterogeneity, which will contribute to a comprehensive assessment of the possibilities of implementing cluster policy in the tourism industry. The authors claim that cluster policy is an important tool for solving the problems necessary for the tourism sector to receive effective development in the regions. Keywords Tourism and recreational cluster · Economic mechanism · Management · Formation · Development · Innovation potential JEL Classification Z30 · Z31 · Z32 · Z33

L. A. Burnyasheva (B) · L. Kh. Gazgireeva Russian State University of Tourism and Service, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] I. I. Pavlenko Pyatigorsk State University, Pyatigorsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] I. E. Romanko · O. N. Taranenko Pyatigorsk Institute (Branch) North Caucasus Federal University, Pyatigorsk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_62

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1 Introduction The cluster approach is aimed primarily at increasing the productivity, efficiency, and competitiveness of the regional economy. Clustering, which contributes to the development of methodological approaches, is designed to manage the formation and development of tourism and recreation clusters. Currently, at this level, many problems require serious consideration and effective solutions. For example, the features of the functioning of cluster structures in the tourism industry were insufficiently studied, and multiple problems related to the identification and diagnosis of tourism and recreational regional clusters haven’t been solved [2]. For all of the reasons, many projects aimed at creating tourism and recreational regional clusters are assessed as difficult to implement and ineffective. All of this confirms that the topic of this article is dictated by its relevance and significance. These provisions contributed to the definition of the research problem, which consists in the search for methodological principles, as well as in the development of a concept for managing the formation and development of a tourism and recreational cluster using the principles of homeostatic (self-regulation). The purpose of the study is to develop scientific and methodological foundations aimed at effective management of the formation and development of tourism and recreational regional cluster. The mechanism for the development of the tourism and recreational cluster is intended for effective organizational and economic management of the formation of the innovative potential of the North Caucasus.

2 Materials and Methods The theoretical and methodological basis of the study is represented by the fundamental provisions of such scientific areas, as regional economic theory, the economics of the service sector, microeconomics, macroeconomics, political science, cluster economics, and homeostatic theory (self-regulation). The study was carried out taking into account the structural, functional, management approaches, and was built based on systemic, as well as complex principles. The following research methods were used in the process of study: analysis and synthesis, comparison, induction and deduction, systems approach, analogy and classification, methods of tourism management.

3 Results According to experts, the tourism and recreational cluster in the North Caucasus is usually called nascent and emerging based on the infrastructure that was created in the last century, in the Soviet period [4]. The modern tourism cluster of the North

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Caucasus is changing significantly, focusing not only on regional consumers and tourists from other regions but also foreign tourists. An effective regional policy aimed at the formation of the tourism sector and analysis of competitive advantages; contribute to the development of the tourism cluster of the North Caucasus as a whole [5]. The main task aimed at the development of the tourism cluster should be understood as its globalization, which implies entering foreign markets. To accomplish this task, the next points should be carried out: • Determining the needs of potential consumers of tourism services, determining the main tourist destinations in order to identify the segmentation and specialization of the North Caucasus region; • Designating the specialization, on which the region is based, within the framework of international tourist destinations, as well as determining the main flows designed to form a competitive tourism product; • Creating new tourism products that will be out of competition; • Stimulating clustering processes in the area of tourism, as well as the formation of a cluster core; • Supporting the promotion of tourism products.

4 Conclusion Infrastructure can be influenced through the specialization of its objects, which are partly or completely included in the structure of cluster connections. The impact can be shown indirectly through the use of indicative forms and methods of management [6]. Such forms and methods determine the content of the tourism product, which is offered by the modern market and also determine the consumers of tourism services [7]. The sequence of creating a tourism product is shown by us in Fig. 1. As a result, it can be seen that the types of tourism developing in the region depend on the requirements for infrastructure facilities. This sequence allows identifying the needs of tourists. The development of the social sphere, its adaptation to the needs of tourists should represent a significant element of the regional cluster policy.

Definition of types of tourism and identification of consumers of travel services

Identifying the needs of the buyer

Tourism product creation

Formation of parameters of a tourism product

Adaptation of infrastructure to the requirements of the tourism product

Fig. 1 The sequence of creating a tourism product. Source Compiled by the authors

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Raw material suppliers

Core cluster Information infrastructure

Specialized labor market Export

Fig. 2 The structure of the regional cluster. Source Compiled by the authors

Firstly, the tourism and recreational cluster should be developed through the formation of an understanding of the benefits of cooperation; it’s also necessary to motivate joint activities. The result can be achieved if the authorities use methods of legal regulation and methods of stimulating collective activity [8]. The development of the organizational structure of the tourism cluster of the North Caucasus allows formulating some theoretical provisions. As a result of cluster connections, it becomes possible to achieve competitive advantages, as well as efficiency in foreign markets [10]. Models of clusters, within which parts are allocated that are mandatory for everyone, are distinguished, seem to be quite diverse. In Fig. 2 the authors present the structure of the regional cluster. The authors propose to determine the competitiveness of tourism products using Porter’s methodology: • • • • •

The threat of the appearance of substitute goods; The threat of competitors appearing on the market; Analysis of the bargaining power of suppliers; Analysis of the market power of consumers; The level of competitiveness.

The analysis of competitiveness will help determine the state of the cluster core, and will also contribute to identifying methods of influencing the regional cluster [11]. The favorable state of the cluster core is established based on the indicator of interaction between the elements of the cluster infrastructure. Competition in the core of the cluster, as well as in the labor market, allows entrepreneurs to invest in the social sphere. Government services also seem to be equally important. A specific advantage of a regional cluster should be attributed to the availability and transparency of public services [3]. Transport and logistics services are of considerable importance. Currently, production facilities require specialized transport. Specialized transportation is determined by the properties of goods, which affects the requirements for transport and access roads [1]. An integral part of doing modern business is information infrastructure, without which modern enterprises will not be able to trade using the Internet, search for

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raw materials, components, and technologies, carry out advertising and marketing activities [9]. All of these listed features of the cluster structure include own resource, which makes it possible to increase the efficiency of activities and compete with other industries. The organizational and economic management mechanism of the emerging tourism and recreational regional cluster is aimed at the main elements of the cluster structure, which ensures its effective development. In the author’s opinion, the most effective type system, while designing the organizational structure of the tourist cluster of the North Caucasus, will be the homeostatic type. The authors also present the elements of the organizational model of the tourism cluster (Fig. 3). Let’s consider the elements of the organizational model of the tourist and recreational cluster in more detail.

Regional authorities

Cluster-forming core Association of Travel Companies

Cluster innovation center

Infrastructure facilities Travel companies (tour operators, travel agents) Companies in related sectors of the economy (transport, catering, accommodation, and leisure)

Tourism and recreational cluster Fig. 3 Elements of the organizational model of the tourism cluster. Source Compiled by the authors

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The Association of Travel Companies (coordinating structure) performs the function of communication along the vertical line, thereby determining the needs of the industry based on its interests, as well as along the horizontal line, providing external coordination. The Association of Tourism Companies should initiate cluster initiatives, be a coordinating center regulating the activities of tourism enterprises, promote tourism products, brands, and also cooperate with state and municipal authorities. The cluster’s innovation center will have to train specialists for this industry, which will be significant and relevant for the cluster-forming core. Currently, there is a shortage of specialists in the tourism sector. It will also be important for the Innovation Center to rely on leading tourism enterprises, which provide new projects and products.

Further, the authors also present several areas of activity intended for the Innovation Center of the tourism and recreational cluster of the North Caucasus (Table 1). Areas of activity, which are presented in Table 1, mean the organization of an association of participants in the projected tourist and recreational cluster (Association of Tourism Enterprises and the Cluster Innovation Center). The cluster’s innovation center is designed to perform the following functions: • Support of cluster elements at the analytical and consulting level, market monitoring, consultations on the promotion of a tourist product; • Access to new technologies and products; • Support of the organizational activities of small and medium-sized enterprises; • Training of specialists for the tourism industry. The structure that characterizes the activities of the Innovation Center of the tourism and recreational cluster of the North Caucasus is presented by the authors in Table 2. Table 1 demonstrates that most of the functions performed seem to be selfsustaining. 1. 2.

Tourism enterprises (travel agencies, tour operators, hospitality industry) are engaged in the production and sale of tourism products. Enterprises of related sectors of the economy provide support services.

Table 1 Lines of activity intended for the Innovation Center of the Tourism and Recreation Cluster Innovation Center • Monitoring, analysis, market forecast

• Provision of professional staff

Source Compiled by the authors

• Organization of communication between cluster elements

• The formation of complex tourist products • Branding • Market promotion

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Table 2 The structure of the activity of the Innovation Center of the tourism and recreational cluster of the North Caucasus Training unit

Scientific-methodological unit Information unit

• Basic training for vocational • Development of complex education tourist products • Coordination of the • Training activities of scientists who • Consulting on business form the content of tourism organization issues products • Financing, lending

• Formation and support of databases that support the activities of the cluster • Creation of advertising and media products

Source Compiled by the authors

3. 4.

Infrastructure facilities, which represent the main content of the tourist product, form the buyer’s motivation and competitiveness. Regional authorities, performing such a function as the formation of the regulatory environment for the cluster.

The organizational model of the North Caucasus cluster, which is proposed by the authors, should be aimed at creating the basis for the development of an organizational and economic management mechanism. Therefore, it’s necessary to offer the following list of management actions: • • • •

Creation of the Association of Tourism Organizations; Formation of the Cluster Innovation Center; Creation of the Cluster Coordination Council; Formation of contradictions of the homeostatic approach between the Cluster Innovation Center and the Association of Travel Companies; • Determination of the directions of activities of institutions for effective cooperation of cluster members. The result of the implementation of these managerial actions will entail the emergence of full-fledged efficient tourism and a recreational cluster of the North Caucasus.

References 1. Bunakov OA (2014) Cluster approach to positioning in tourism. UEks 4:63–69 2. Burnyasheva LA (2012) Spiritual space in the context of transformational processes in a society: a socio-philosophical analysis. Pyatigorsk, p 117 3. Galiullina GK (2014) Methodology for the analysis of the tourist cluster of the region. Bull Univ Manag “TISBI” 2(58):141–149 4. Gorbunov AP, Burnyasheva LA, Gazgireeva LK, Rud NY (2016) Innovative tourism cluster as a model for sustainable development of regions. Bull Kabardino-Balkarian Sci Center Russian Acad Sci 4(72):62–66 5. Gorbunov AP, Kolyadin AP, Gazgireeva LK, Burnyasheva LA (2021) Man, his spiritual and moral potential and the limitless nature of postmodern hedonism in the provision of hotel and tourist services in the context of the transformation of socio-economic systems. In: Modern

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L. A. Burnyasheva et al. global economic system: evolutional development vs. revolutionary leap. Lecture notes in networks and systems, vol 198. Springer, Cham, pp 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03069415-9_6 Gorbunov AP, Kolyadin AP, Burnyasheva LA, Gazgireeva LK, Kosenko OY (2018) Tourist and recreational clusters as an organizational and economic mechanism of control of formation and development of the innovative capacity of the North Caucasus Federal District. Amazonia Investiga. Periodicidad: Bimestral. Univ Amazon 7(17):60–71. https://amazoniainvestiga.info/ index.php/amazonia/article/view/326 Larionova NA (2014) Cluster approach in managing the competitiveness of the region. Econ Bull Rostov State Univ 1:68–75 Nikolskaya EY, Lepeshkin VA, Kulgachev IP, Matveev AA, Lebedeva OY (2020) Perfection of quality management of hotel services. J Environ Manag Tourism 11, 2(42), 417–421. https:// doi.org/10.14505/jemt.11.2(42).20 Rodrigues AB (2013) Turismo rural: práticas e perspectivas. Contexto, Sao Paulo, p 59 Rubtsova NV (2014) Conceptual model of a tourist cluster: history and modern approach. News of the Far Eastern Federal University. Econ Manag 3:49–70 Rudneva PS (2015) Experience of creating structural clusters in developed countries. Econ Region 18:72–79

Designing Mechanisms for Ensuring the Economic Security of Regions: Countering the Challenges of Instability Denis Yu. Fraymovich , Maria E. Konovalova , Uliana Yu. Roshchektaeva , Evgeniya K. Karpunina , and Greta L. Avagyan Abstract The research aims at identifying the current problems of Russian regions during the pandemic, as well as designing a mechanism for ensuring their economic security in terms of situational approach. The scientific novelty of the study is the implementation of a situational approach to managing the economic security of regions, as well as the development of a mechanism for ensuring the economic security of Russian regions during the instability caused by the pandemic. The authors propose a logical scheme for designing a mechanism for ensuring the economic security of regions in terms of situational approach, identified its stages (analysis of instability factors and their influence on the socio-economic situation in the region; assessment of the economic security of the region and the identification of problem areas; situational selection of tools to solve the problem; application of a specific tool for improving the economic security of the territory; monitoring of situational factors; implementation of stabilizing measures aimed at consolidating the result obtained. The authors propose a system of primary indicators for assessing the economic security of the real sector, monetary, financial and social spheres of the region and also identified its problem areas. In accordance with the identified problem areas of economic security, the authors carried out a situational selection of tools for solving problems by regional authorities.

D. Yu. Fraymovich Vladimir State University named after Alexander and Nikolay Stoletovs, Vladimir, Russia M. E. Konovalova Samara State University of Economics, Samara, Russia U. Yu. Roshchektaeva Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia E. K. Karpunina (B) G.R. Derzhavin Tambov State University, Tambov, Russia G. L. Avagyan Krasnodar Branch of the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Krasnodar, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_63

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Keywords Region · Pandemic · Economic security · Instability · Situational approach · Russia JEL Classification R11 · R13 · R58

1 Introduction The spread of coronavirus infection and, as a result, the introduction of lockdown and restrictions on movement have led to an aggravation of economic security problems in all regions of the Russian Federation [1, 9, 11]. Some similar meso-economic problems have appeared before the regional government bodies: a decrease in consumer demand, an increase in unemployment, a rise in budget expenditures, a decline in investment, a reduced number of economic agents, a decrease in tax revenues, a growth in debt, a lower volume and growth rate of the gross regional product [2, 7, 14]. All subjects of the regional economy faced new challenges and requirements for rapid adaptation to new realities. However, not all regions can cope with the rapid reformatting of production relations, the restructuring of business processes and value chains, the optimization of personnel management systems and the reduction of social tension [3, 6]. The state has no experience in levelling the consequences of a pandemic, so the measures taken by state bodies often turn out to be chaotic and unjustified. For example, the amount of funds allocated by the state within the framework of financial assistance in May 2020 in the amount of 2.9 trillion rubles (0.96% of GDP) is far behind the average for developed countries—11.3% [16]. At the same time, subsidies and employment support loans allocated to organizations covered only 26–30% of wages in Russia on average, while the measures of the OECD member countries provided for compensation from 50 to 90% of wages. In addition, about 3.8 million people were covered by wage subsidies in Russia, that is, only 5.0% of the labour force [14]. The regional aspects of the distribution of financial assistance are even more imperfect [17]. The responsibility for adapting to the new conditions as quickly as possible and overcoming the crisis phenomena in the economy falls on the regions. Mechanisms for ensuring economic security that can withstand the challenges of instability should be designed and implemented at the regional level.

2 Literature Review The authors’ opinions on the understanding of economic security largely coincide. Some researchers associate economic security with the achievement of a qualitatively defined state of the economy of a country/territory, where the desired interests of society are coordinated and a certain level of socio-economic development is ensured

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on a multiplicative scale [19, 21]. Other authors add that the state of security of the socio-economic system cannot be achieved in isolation from the resources for the development of social reproduction; it is their presence that guarantees a higher level of security [22]. The objects of regional economic security are macroeconomic indicators describing the overall economic state; demographic state; trends in the level of employment; organization of production processes, availability of economic resources; the level of depreciation of basic production capacities; dynamics of regulation and development of financial, budgetary policy, as well as the regional monetary system; market development in a particular region; the effectiveness of federal and regional authorities, the regulatory instruments used [12, 15]. Ensuring the economic security of the region requires the authorities to use various organizational, institutional, economic and social tools within the framework of the policy implemented in the region. A feature of the current stage of development of the regions is the impact on their economic activities of the restrictions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Numerous authors describe the intermediate results of the impact of the pandemic on regional producers, lockdown and medical restrictions on interaction, suspension of international operations and movements. The search for effective ways to overcome the difficult socio-economic situation in the regions is an urgent topic for modern and future research.

3 Methodology Research hypothesis The design of a mechanism for ensuring the economic security of the region during the period of instability caused by the pandemic should be based on a situational approach. The situational approach allows identifying the most problematic areas of economic security of the region in the shortest possible time and using the possibilities of a differentiated regional policy toolkit, depending on the significance of the problem in accordance with a specific set of circumstances. The purpose of the study is to diagnose the actual problems of the regions of Russia during the pandemic, as well as to determine the stages of developing a mechanism for ensuring their economic security in terms of situational approach. Research objectives: 1 2

3

Disclosure of the methodological content of the situational approach to managing the regional economic security; Study of the peculiarities of the socio-economic situation in the Russian regions during the pandemic, identification of problem areas of economic security of the regions; Creation of a mechanism for ensuring the economic security of Russian regions during the instability caused by the pandemic.

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Research methods: the systematization method, the economic and statistical analysis, the comparative analysis, the induction and deduction, the graphical method, the system approach.

4 Results The situational approach to management decisions consists in analyzing the current situation, as well as implementing certain actions aimed at choosing the most optimal ways to achieve specific operational goals [5]. It is important to monitor changes in the socio-economic system on time and to respond promptly to the changes that are taking place. In the context of a pandemic associated with a lockdown, a decrease in business activity, the destruction of traditional production connections and established logistics channels, the speed of adaptation to new changing conditions is the key to the success and maintenance of the well-being of the region [8, 13, 17]. The analysis of research in the field of management of socio-economic systems and taking into account the factors of instability caused by the COVID-19 pandemic allowed the authors to propose the following logical scheme for designing a mechanism for ensuring the economic security of regions based on a situational approach (Fig. 1). At the first stage, the socio-economic situation in the region is analyzed under the influence of instability factors: a reduction in purchasing power; deterioration in market conditions; a decrease in economic activity of economic entities; a decrease in industrial production; a decline in transport cargo turnover; social instability. Determining the impact of each instability factor requires identifying the structural components of the economic security of the region, including in the real sector, monetary, financial and social spheres [18, 20]. The second stage—conducting a comprehensive assessment of the economic security of the region-is implemented using a set of indicators (Table 1). During a pandemic, some indicators of economic security react faster to changes in the economic situation, in other words, in the short term, they quickly signal an increase in risks. Such indicators are the volume of industrial production per capita, retail trade turnover per capita, the share of unprofitable organizations, the unemployment rate, and the average per capita monetary income of the population. Other indicators are able to show a deviation only after some time. In particular, such indicators are the share of innovative goods, works, and services in the total volume of goods, works, and services shipped, the degree of depreciation of fixed assets, the volume of investments in fixed assets per capita. Taking into account the speed of response of indicators to changes in the socioeconomic situation in conditions of instability, allows the authors to select only the primary indicators of the country’s regions for subsequent analysis: (1) the volume of industrial production per capita, retail trade turnover per capita; (2) the share of unprofitable organizations in the total number of organizations; consumer price index;

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Analysis of the socio-economic situation in the region under the influence of instability factors

Instability factor 1

Instability factor 2

Instability factor N

Assessment of the economic security of the region and identification of problem areas

Problem area 1

Problem area 2

Problem area N

Situational selection of tools for solving the problem

Tool 1

Tool 2

Tool N

Application of a specific tool for improving the economic security of the region

Result 1

Result 2

Result N

Monitoring of situational factors

Implementation of stabilizing measures aimed at consolidating the obtained result

Fig. 1 A logical scheme for designing a mechanism for ensuring the economic security of regions based on a situational approach. Source Compiled by the authors

(3) the average per capita monetary income of the population; the unemployment rate. The indicator of the volume of industrial production promptly reflects the change in the system of economic security of the real sector of the region’s economy. The pandemic affected the decline in industrial production in most regions of Russia (Fig. 2). On average, in Russia in 2020, the industrial production index amounted to 97.1% compared to 2019. Only in the North Caucasus and Central Federal Districts, the pandemic allowed the growth of industrial production to continue. In other regions of the country, there was a decrease in it. The largest decline in the indicator occurred in

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Table 1 Indicators for assessing the economic security of the region The structural component of the economic security of the region

Indicator

(1) Economic security of the real sector of the Gross regional product per capita, rubles region The volume of industrial production per capita, rubles The share of innovative goods, works, and services in the total volume of shipped goods, works, and services, % The degree of depreciation of fixed assets, % Retail trade turnover per capita, rubles (2) Economic security of the monetary and financial sphere of the region

The level of the regional budget deficit, % GRP The share of unprofitable organizations, % The volume of investments in fixed assets per capita, % of GRP Consumer price index, %

(3) Economic security of the social sphere of the region

The unemployment rate, % of the labour force The share of the population with incomes below the subsistence minimum, % Average per capita monetary income of the population, rubles The ratio of the average per capita monetary income of the population to the value of the subsistence minimum

Source Compiled by the authors based on [4, 10]

the North-Western, Volga, Far Eastern and Siberian Federal Districts, which indicates a decrease in their level of economic security. The turnover of retail trade is another indicator of the regional economic security of the real sector. Due to the pandemic in 2020, the value of the average Russian indicator decreased to 95.9% (Fig. 3). The retail trade turnover indicator showed a negative trend in all federal districts. The smallest decrease occurred in the North-Western Federal District (99.5%). The Siberian, Southern, Ural, Volga, and North Caucasus Federal Districts demonstrated the maximum decrease in retail trade volumes, which threatens their economic security. The values of their indicators were lower than the national average. The indicator “the share of unprofitable organizations in the total number of organizations” can be used to assess the economic security of the monetary and financial spheres of the region. According to the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation, the average Russian value of this indicator is 31.2%. The following dynamics is observed in the regions of the country (Fig. 4). The pandemic has led to an increase in the number of unprofitable organizations in all federal districts of Russia in 2020. The average Russian indicator of the ratio

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Fig. 3 Retail trade market turnover in the Russian regions, in %, 2020 compared to 2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [4]

of the share of unprofitable organizations in the total number of organizations in 2020 to 2019 was 103.9%. Only in the Southern and Siberian Federal Districts, the values of the indicator were lower than the Russian average (102.6% and 103.9%, respectively). In the remaining federal districts, there is a negative trend of reducing economic security due to an increase in the share of unprofitable enterprises. This

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Fig. 4 The share of unprofitable organizations in the total number of organizations in the regions of Russia, %, 2020 compared to 2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [4]

problem is particularly acute in the North-Western Federal District (the growth was 120.2%). Let’s analyze the changes in the consumer price index for goods and services in 2020 compared to 2019 that reflect the economic security of the monetary and financial spheres of the region (Fig. 5). The graph shows the negative impact of the pandemic on the economic security of the regions of Russia. In particular, there was an increase in consumer prices in all federal districts in 2020. The value of this indicator in 2020 compared to 2019 was 104.9% on average in Russia. In the Ural Federal District, the situation with consumer prices remains slightly better than in other regions. The position of the North Caucasus Federal District is the most critical (106.1%). The dynamics of the indicator “average per capita monetary income of the population” may indicate changes in the level of economic security of the social sphere of the region (Fig. 6). In 2020, the impact of the pandemic on the average per capita monetary income of the population turned out to be almost imperceptible. The exception was two Federal Districts—the Ural and North Caucasus Federal Districts. Here, the indicator value was 99.8% and 99.7%, respectively. In the remaining federal districts, this indicator increased in 2020, and in three regions at a rate higher than the national average. Analysts of the international audit and consulting network FinExpertiza reported on the growth of the average monthly income of residents of 19 out of 85 Russian regions in 2020 compared to 2019. In general, the incomes of Russians for the period under review decreased by 3.1%, taking into account inflation [23].

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Fig. 5 Consumer price index for goods and services in the Russian regions, %, in 2020 compared to 2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [4]

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The average income of the population in Russia in the first half of 2020 amounted to 32,300 rubles per month. Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Area became the leading region in terms of average monthly income in the first half of 2020 – 90,350 rubles. The minimum average monthly income was recorded in the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic (18,360 rubles), the Republic of Kalmykia (17,640 rubles), KarachayevoChircassian Republic (16,430 rubles), the Republic of Tuva (15,170 rubles) and the Republic of Ingushetia (14,840 rubles).

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The well-being of the social sphere of the region can be judged by the dynamics of the registered unemployment rate. In all regions, a reduction in employment will be the most common reaction to the post-pandemic crisis. By contrast, high mobility in the labour market can mitigate the social consequences [24]. Figure 7 shows the change in the level of registered unemployment in December 2020 compared to the same period in 2019. The pandemic contributed to a rapid increase in unemployment in the North Caucasus Federal District (7.8% in 2020 compared to 2019). In this region, there is a critical decline in the level of economic security in the context of this indicator. In three more regions of the country—in the Southern, Ural and Siberian Federal Districts—the dynamics of the indicator remains worse than the average Russian (2.8%). Thus, the implementation of the second stage made it possible to identify problem areas of economic security of the regions: (1) a reduction in industrial production and retail trade turnover; (2) an increase in unprofitable enterprises and a rise in consumer prices for goods and services; (3) a grow in the registered unemployment. According to the identified problem areas of economic security, a situational selection of tools for solving problems is carried out. In particular, the following business support measures introduced by regional executive authorities can be effective for solving economic security problems: Tax benefits including benefits for the property tax of organizations, for the payment of land tax, for transport tax, reduction of tax rates for entrepreneurs using the simplified taxation system or who are payers of UTII. Examples of effective solutions in this direction are available in St. Petersburg, the Rostov Region, the Republic of Bashkortostan, the Chelyabinsk Region, the Nizhny Novgorod Region and other regions of Russia.

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Benefits for the lease of regional and municipal property including deferred payment of lease payments, reduction of the number of rent payments, exemption from payment of lease payments. Measures of this nature were successfully introduced in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Rostov Region, Volgograd Region, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area, and Belgorod Region. Credit support to obtain preferential loans for the payment of wages, eliminate cash gaps and covering operating expenses. This measure was implemented in some regions of the country in the following forms: refinancing and restructuring of previously issued microloans; provision of deferrals on previously issued microloans; introduction of special microfinance loans. Direct financial support for business by subsidizing small and medium-sized businesses, primarily to save jobs. It was carried out in the form of reimbursement of costs for the promotion of goods and services on Internet sites; compensation of costs associated with the export of products; reimbursement of part of the costs for the purchase of equipment; reimbursement of costs under leasing agreements, etc. Successful practices were implemented in Moscow, the Nizhny Novgorod Region, the Republic of Tatarstan, and the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Area. Reducing the control and supervisory burden is an effective measure that reduces the economic stress on the enterprises of the region. This applies both to the suspension of the current and appointment of new on-site inspections of small and medium-sized businesses by regional control and supervisory authorities, and to the introduction of a moratorium on inspections. Support of employment of the population through the implementation of special measures to preserve existing jobs (subsidizing the cost of paying full-time staff), as well as to maintain the well-being of citizens who lost their jobs during the spread of a new coronavirus infection [6]. The use of a specific tool to increase the economic security of the region leads to the receipt of point results and, ideally, to the removal of tension in a specific problem area of the economic security of the region. At the next stage, situational factors are monitored. In terms of the situational approach to ensuring the economic security of the region, the following situational factors can be distinguished: changes in the economic situation due to the pandemic; the emergence of new competing technologies; a change in the course of state policy. Depending on the monitoring results obtained, the regional authorities decide on the implementation of a set of stabilizing measures aimed at consolidating the obtained result.

5 Conclusion Firstly, the article proposes a methodology for managing the economic security of regions during the period of instability caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors justified the need to apply a situational approach to the implementation of measures to ensure economic security in the regions for rapid adaptation to new realities. The authors identified the stages of designing a mechanism for ensuring the

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economic security of regions based on a situational approach. Secondly, the authors proposed a set of indicators for the operational assessment of the economic security system of the real sector of the region, the monetary and financial spheres, and the social sphere. Thirdly, the authors identified the problem areas of economic security of the regions during the pandemic (a reduction in industrial production and retail trade turnover; an increase in the unprofitable enterprises and a rise in consumer prices for goods and services; a growth in the registered unemployment) and carried out a situational selection of tools to solve the problems that have arisen.

References 1. Drobot E (2020) Global economy in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: results of 2020 and prospects for recovery. Econ Rel [Ekonomicheskie otnosheniya] 10(4):937–960 2. Drobot E, Makarov I, Nazarenko V, Manasyan S (2020) Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the real economy. J Econ Entrepre Law 8:2135–2150 3. Erokhina E, Dzhergenia Y (2020) Threats to the implementation of the national interests of the Russian Federation in the post-pandemic period. Econ Secur 3:259–272 4. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2021) The report “The socioeconomic situation of Russia”. https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/document/50801. Accessed: 17.08.2021 5. Gukasyan Z, Tavbulatova Z, Aksenova Z, Gasanova N, Karpunina E (2022) Strategies for adapting companies to the turbulence caused by the Covid19 pandemic. In: Business 4.0 as a subject of the digital economy. Springer, Switzerland 6. HSE (2020) Regional initiatives to ensure socio-economic stability in the context of the CAVID19 pandemic: measures to support business and ensure employment of the population. https:// region.hse.ru/anti-crisis. Accessed: 17.08.2021 7. Kalinina N (2010) Economic security of the region: the essence, threats, and measures to ensure. Siberian Trade Econ J 10:1–21 8. Karpunina E, Butova L, Sobolevskaya T, Badokina E, Pliusnina O (2021) The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the development of Russian National Economy sectors: analysis of dynamics and search for stabilization measures. In: Proceeding of the 37th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2021, Cordoba, Spain, pp 1213–1226 9. Karpunina E, Zabelina O, Galieva G, Melyakova E, Melnikova Y (2020) Epidemic threats and their impact on the economic security of the state. In: Proceeding of the 35th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2020, Seville, Spain, pp 7671–7682 10. Khasanov R, Korableva A (2019) The economic security index as a tool for assessing the development of agro-industrial regions. Econ Policy 14(6):82–101 11. Korolyuk E, Rustamova I, Kuzmenko N, Khashir B, Karpunina E (2021) Diagnostics of Regional economic security problems during the 2020 crisis. In: Proceeding of the 37th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2021, Cordoba, Spain, pp 5248–5257 12. Kremlev N, Fedorov V, Sergeev M (2007) Questions of economic security of the region. Quest Stat 2:42–48 13. Lisova E, Petrov I, Koryakina T, Kalombo Mulamba V, Karpunina K (2020) The well-being of Russian Regions under threat: economic and social impact assessment of COVID-19. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, 4–5 Nov 2020, Granada, Spain, pp 7603–7616 14. Lomovtseva O, Soboleva S, Sobolev A (2021) Comparative characteristics of models of state support for national economies of the world in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Univ Bull [Vestnik universiteta] 1:91–98 15. Matveeva E (2018) The mechanism of ensuring the economic security of the region. Bull Moscow Univ Minist Internal Affairs Russia 6:282–288

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16. Mau V (2020) Society and the pandemic: experience and lessons of the fight against COVID-19 in Russia. Publishing house: Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow 17. Mejokh Z, Korolyuk E, Sozaeva D, Pilipchuk N, Karpunina E (2020) Economic security of Russian regions: risk factors and consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, 4–5 Nov 2020, Granada, Spain, pp 8197–8205 18. Orlova A, Lyshchikova J, Nikulina Y, Anokhin Y (2016) Assessment of the level of economic security in the conditions of uncertainty. Int J Econ Financ Issues 6(4):1702–1706 19. Ovchinnikov A (2019) Economic security of regions. Russian Open Academy of Transport, Moscow 20. Roshchupkina A (2019) Monitoring the state of economic security of the Krasnodar region based on the threshold values methodology. In: Actual issues of law, economics and management proceedings of the All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference, pp 57–61 21. Senchagov V (2015) Economic security of Russia. Delo, Moscow 22. Tatarkin A, Kuklin A (2007) Complex methodology of diagnostics of socio-demographic security of the region. Institute of Economics of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Yekaterinburg 23. Vedomosti (2020) Analysts have recorded an increase in the income of residents of almost a quarter of Russia’s regions. https://www.vedomosti.ru/economics/news/2020/09/03/838728analitiki-zafiksirovali-rost-dohodov-zhitelei. Accessed: 17.08.2021 24. Zubarevich N (2009) Regional projection of the crisis. https://polit.ru/article/2009/03/02/zub arevich/. Accessed: 17.08.2021

Economic Security of Regions During a Pandemic: Methods for Diagnosing Problem Areas and Ensuring Sustainability Sergey S. Moiseev , Svetlana E. Bolonina , Igor V. Petrov , Ernest V. Zanyukov , and Dmitriy A. Konovalenko Abstract The research aims at developing a methodology for diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regions during a pandemic and ensuring the stability of socio-economic systems of Russian regions. The article offers the author’s method of diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regions during the pandemic. At the first stage, the authors introduce a set of indicators to assess the economic, social and technological components of the economic security of the region. At the second stage, the problem areas of reducing the level of economic security of the regions are identified. At the third stage, the selection of measures for levelling problem areas is made. The article analyzes the regional economic systems during the pandemic. The areas of the negative impact of the pandemic on the economic component of regional security have been identified. The adverse social consequences of the pandemic have been established. It was determined that in 2020, the pandemic had a lesser impact on the technological component of the economic security of the regions. The authors proposed a tool for levelling the problem areas of economic security of the region to maintain stability during the pandemic. Keywords Region · Russia · Economic security · Pandemic · Sustainability · Problem areas · Epidemiological threat · Lethality JEL Classification R11 · R13 · R58

S. S. Moiseev (B) G.R. Derzhavin Tambov State University, Tambov, Russia S. E. Bolonina Moscow University for Industry and Finance “Synergy”, Moscow, Russia I. V. Petrov · E. V. Zanyukov · D. A. Konovalenko Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_64

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1 Introduction The development of the regional socio-economic system is due to many factors. In a favourable external environment, the region can independently maintain a certain level of sustainable development, implement strategically important projects to ensure the well-being of the population. However when external threats raise the ability to ensure the safe state of the regional economic system decreases. Such external and unknown threats to the security of the region include the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated epidemiological risks that threaten the life, health and socio-economic well-being of the population. During the pandemic, the traditional conditions for the functioning of regional subsystems have changed: the production process has been suspended, well-established links in production chains and supplies have been destroyed, the employment of the population of the regions has been threatened, global problems in the field of health and life support have arisen [15, 16, 18]. In other words, there are problems related to the economic security of the regions and ensuring sustainable development. Not all regions can overcome new challenges. In this aspect, it is not possible to rely only on the support of the federal government. New tools are needed to overcome the problems of economic security and ensure the fastest possible adaptation of regions to new economic conditions.

2 Literature Review The economic security of a region is defined by researchers as the state of protection of its socio-economic system from internal and external threats, when decent quality and standard of living of the population, territorial integrity and progressive development of the region are ensured [19]. In practice, the state of complete economic security is practically unattainable. As a rule, the functioning of the region is influenced by the impact of various threats, that is, conditions and factors that create a direct or indirect possibility of harming the interests of the subjects of the socio-economic system of the region and destabilizing its activities [12, 13]. In this aspect, the COVID-19 pandemic can be studied as a threat to the economic security of the region [12, 13]. Indeed, viral epidemics cause a loss of income during the period of disability, increasing the cost of buying medicines and receiving medical care, as well as a rise in the likelihood of losing a job. In turn, the mass disability of employees negatively affects the activities of enterprises: the quality and productivity of labour decreases, this leads to a decline in production and, accordingly, to a decrease in competitiveness and a fall in profits [15, 16, 18]. Overcoming the negative consequences of the impact of the pandemic on the region requires the implementation of special measures of a medical, economic, social and technological nature [14]. In particular, the priority measures should be to

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ensure the normal functioning of the region’s healthcare system and the full provision of services related to the prevention and treatment of infected people [19]. During the pandemic, regional government bodies make decisions on the implementation of measures to maintain socio-economic stability in the region in response to the restrictions and challenges that have arisen as a result of the spread of new coronavirus infection.

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to develop a methodology for diagnosing problem areas of regional economic security during a pandemic, as well as to create a mechanism for maintaining the stability of the socio-economic systems of Russian regions. Research objectives: 1. 2.

3.

development of the author’s methodology for diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regions during the pandemic; analysis of the state of regional economic systems during the pandemic and identification of problem areas for reducing the level of economic security of regions following the proposed methodology; formation of tools for ensuring the stability of the regional economic system based on levelling problem areas of economic security.

Research methods: theoretical analysis, systematization method, comparative analysis, economic analysis, graphical method, system approach.

4 Results The logical scheme of the author’s methodology for diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regions during a pandemic and ensuring sustainability is shown in Fig. 1. Diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regional economic systems requires the introduction of a set of indicators. There are many indicators proposed in the scientific literature, we will choose those that allow us to quickly diagnose the occurrence of problems and reflect the economic, social and technological components of economic security [19] (Fig. 2). Let’s analyze the indicators of economic security of Russian regions according to the proposed methodology.

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I stage II stage III stage Introduction of a set of indicators to assess the Analysis of regional economic, social and economic systems during technological components The choice of a set of the pandemic and of the economic security measures of an economic, identification of problem of the region social and technological areas of regional nature to level out the economic security problem areas of the economic security of the region Fig. 1 Logical scheme of the methodology for diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regions during the pandemic and ensuring sustainability. Source Compiled by the authors

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•Industrial production Index •State debt of the regions •Fixed capital investments per capita •Retail trade turnover • The unemployment rate of the population •The number of people with monetary incomes below the subsistence minimum •The lethality of the population from COVID-19 •Internal research and development costs •The share of organizations implementing technological innovations in the total number of surveyed organizations

Fig. 2 Indicators for diagnosing the parameters of economic security of regions during the period of epidemiological threats. Source Compiled by the authors

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5 Indicators of the Economic Component of the Economic Security 5.1 Industrial Production Index

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The average decline in industrial production in Russia was 5.5%. In most regions of Russia, in the pandemic year 2020, there was also a decrease in the indicator (Fig. 3). The Far Eastern Federal District became the region with the most significant reduction in the industrial production index—by 10.6%. Only two regions have achieved an increase in this indicator—in the Central and North Caucasus Federal Districts—by 1.6% and 6.1%, respectively. The growth of industrial output in the Central Federal District was achieved due to an increase in the growth rate of the extractive industry in the Moscow region by 31.2% [1]. In addition, the growth rate in agricultural production by the end of 2020 in the Central Federal District increased by 2.5 times and amounted to 3.7%. The rise in the industrial production index in the North Caucasus Federal District in 2020 is due to the growth of industrial production in Ingushetia (by 34.6%), Kabardino-Balkaria (by 8.1%), Chechnya (by 4.2%), Dagestan (by 14%), North Ossetia (by 2.2%) and Stavropol region (by 3.8%) [21].

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Fig. 4 The volume of the state debt of the Russian regions, billion rubles, 2019–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [27]

5.2 The State Debt of the Regions As a result of the pandemic, the total amount of public debt of all subjects of the Russian Federation increased by 18.1%, and as of January 1, 2021, amounted to 2.496 trillion rubles [20, 22]. In absolute terms, the state debt increased by 383 billion rubles. The regional dynamics of the indicator is shown in Fig. 4. The largest contribution to the overall growth in the volume of public debt was made by the North-Western and Central Federal Districts. The reason for the growth of the state debt is the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to a shortfall in budget revenues [25].

5.3 Fixed Capital Investments Per Capita In 2020, there were changes in the indicators of financial and credit regulation, which had a strong impact on the investment activity of Russian regions. Compared to 2019, the conditions for financing investment activities were determined by a reduction in the key rate from 7.5 to 5.5% (19.06.2020) and 4.25% (03.09.2020) [10]. The reduction of the domestic market, the fall in the ruble exchange rate and the financing of emergency measures in the field of healthcare had a negative impact on the dynamics and structure of investments. On the contrary, the growth of budget expenditures on investment programs (up to 2.7% of GDP) contributed to strengthening the investment activity of the regions in 2020. In addition, the activity of the

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Fig. 5 Investments in fixed assets per capita in the regions of Russia, 2019–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [4]

corporate sector and households in the monetary market has increased. Deposits and deposits of the corporate sector and individuals in 2020 increased to 62.8% of GDP (+9.0% points compared to 2019), corporate loans and loans granted to individuals, including overdue debts, increased to 60.7% of GDP. Generally, in 2020, investments in fixed assets in real terms decreased by only 1.4% [10]. The situation in the regions of the country is shown in Fig. 5. Figure 5 shows that the Far Eastern Federal District is the only region where, by the end of 2020, the volume of investment in fixed assets per capita has decreased. The reduction was 6.2% compared to the level of 2019. In general, a feature of the current state of the regional economy has become a relatively restrained reaction to the crisis of the investment and construction complex in comparison with the compression of consumer demand, decline in industrial production and net exports. This is due to the faster exit of the construction complex from quarantine restrictions, taking into account regional specifics [11].

5.4 Retail Trade Turnover In 2020, the negative impact of the pandemic was a reduction in retail trade turnover in Russia as a whole: at comparable prices by 4.1% compared to 2019. Retail trade turnover of food products fell by 2.6% to 16.403 trillion rubles, non-food products— by 5.2% to 17.151 trillion rubles [26]. The reduction in retail trade turnover occurred in absolutely all regions of Russia (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6 Retail trade turnover in the regions of the Russian Federation, 2019–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [26]

The decline was caused by the introduction of quarantine restrictions, the closure of many shopping centres. The smallest decrease in retail trade turnover occurred in the North-Western Federal District, the largest in the Southern Federal District.

6 Indicators of the Social Component of the Economic Security 6.1 Registered Unemployment Rate The negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic was the increase in unemployment. In general, in 2020, the number of unemployed in Russia increased by 24.7%. A significant increase in this indicator in the pandemic year 2020 is typical for all regions of the country (Fig. 7). The sharp increase in unemployment in the regions of Russia is explained by the restrictions imposed on the vital activity of production due to the coronacrisis and forced layoffs of workers, reduction or delay in wages. In general, about 35 million Russians were at risk. The Russian labour market tried to adapt not only through layoffs, provoking an increase in the number of unemployed citizens but also by reducing the working day, as well as sending employees on unpaid leave [17]. The largest surge in unemployment occurred in the North Caucasus Federal District, the smallest in the Central Federal District.

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Fig. 7 The registered unemployment in the Russian regions, %, 2019–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [5]

6.2 The Number of People with Monetary Incomes Below the Subsistence Minimum The consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic were a sharp increase in the number of Russians living below the poverty line (1.8 million people) [23]. However, regional statistics for 2020 show a decrease in the number of people with incomes below the subsistence minimum in all regions of Russia except for the North Caucasus Federal District (Fig. 8). This is due to a 3.1% increase in inflation and the delayed effect of the pandemic (against the background of a favourable first quarter of 2020) [29].

6.3 The Lethality of the Population from COVID-19 According to official statistics of the Russian Federation, 144,691 people died from coronavirus infection caused by COVID-19 in Russia in 2020 (6.8% of the total number of deaths last year) [24]. Lethality index regional analysis of the population in 2020 is presented in Fig. 9. Statistics data in September 2021 show that the Southern Federal District has the most difficult situation with the mortality of the population from coronavirus infection, the lethality of the population is 3.68%. The Far Eastern Federal District copes best with overcoming the negative impact of the pandemic on the life and health of the population, the lethality rate of the population here is 1.77%. Taking into account the lethality rate of the population during the pandemic becomes mandatory when

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Fig. 8 The number of people with incomes below the subsistence minimum, thousands of people, 2019–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [5]

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Fig. 9 Lethality of the population of the regions of Russia from COVID-19, 2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

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assessing the economic security of regions. High lethality rates of the population indicate the inability of the region to protect its population from an epidemiological threat, the inconsistency of the level of medical care with standards, as well as the inefficiency of regional management [14].

7 Indicators of the Technological Component of the Economic Security 7.1 Internal Research and Development Costs

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The development of science is one of the main factors of the strategic development of the region. The amount of funding for research and development costs from the internal resources of the region indicates the level of its economic security. If this item of expenditure is reduced, the level of economic security of the region decreases. A comparative analysis of the dynamics of this indicator in the regions of Russia for 2019 and 2020 is presented in Fig. 10. The data confirm that in most regions of Russia in 2020, the pandemic did not have a negative impact on the amount of research funding. The exceptions are the North-Western and Volga Federal Districts, where the indicator value decreased by 5.7% and 2.9%, respectively. Other regions of the country showed growth.

Internal research and development costs, million rubles, 2019 Internal research and development costs, million rubles, 2020

Fig. 10 Internal costs for research and development in the regions of Russia, million rubles, 2019– 2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [5]

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In crisis conditions, enterprises, as a rule, have a reduced motivation to implement innovative projects. The negative impact of the crisis can be manifested in the deterioration of conditions for access to financial resources, a reduction in demand and investment, an outflow of personnel, a decline in the economic situation in partner companies, etc. [7]. Accordingly, the reduction in the share of organizations implementing innovations is a reaction to the emerging crisis. The statistical data presented in Fig. 11 show that the pandemic has not yet had a widespread negative impact on the innovation activity of Russian regions. In 2020, the share of organizations engaged in technological innovations decreased only in the Central Federal District (−5.7%). The analysis of the state of regional economic systems during the pandemic allows us to choose a set of measures of an economic, social and technological nature to level out the problem areas of reducing the level of economic security of the region (Table 1).

The share of organizations implementing technological innovations in the total number of surveyed organizations, 2019 The share of organizations implementing technological innovations in the total number of surveyed organizations, 2020

Fig. 11 The share of organizations implementing technological innovations in the total number of surveyed organizations in the regions of Russia, %, 2019–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [5]

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8 Conclusions Firstly, the article offers the author’s method of diagnosing problem areas of economic security of regions during the pandemic. The methodology involves the sequential implementation of three stages: (1) introduction of a set of indicators to assess the economic, social and technological components of the economic security of the region; (2) identification of problem areas for reducing the level of economic security of the regions; (3) selection of economic, social and technological measures to level out the problem areas of the economic security of the region. Secondly, the authors analyzed the state of regional economic systems during the pandemic and identified problem areas for reducing the level of economic security of the regions following the proposed methodology. Thirdly, the authors have formed a toolkit for levelling Table 1 Tools for levelling problem areas of reducing the level of economic security of the region A problematic area of the economic security of the region

Measure

Economic orientation Decline in industrial production

• Provision of local tax benefits to industrial enterprises of the region • Introduction of preferential regimes for the lease of regional and municipal property • Preferential lending to industrial enterprises of the region • Implementation of programs for subsidizing industrial enterprises in the region • Temporary suspension of on-site inspections of industrial enterprises of the region by control and supervisory authorities [8, 9]

Increase in the state debt of the region

• Mobilization of internal resources, including by reorienting current budget expenditures and showing flexibility in the use of available budget resources • Support of the federal centre in the form of concessional financing to help combat the spread of the virus (logistics and infrastructure in the field of health and emergency assistance) • Providing additional resources to stimulate demand and restore jobs and supply potential to pre-crisis levels [28]

Decrease in fixed capital investment per capita • Implementation of measures of state stimulation of entrepreneurial activity, including the development of new business models and ways of organizing production • Improvement of anti-crisis management strategies of enterprises (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) A problematic area of the economic security of the region

Measure

Reduction of retail trade turnover

• The abolition of restrictions imposed due to the coronavirus pandemic or the introduction of mask access in retail organizations • Ensuring predictability and consistency of actions of federal and regional authorities, as well as tools for their constant dialogue with trade organizations to solve operational problems and tasks • Exclusion of the application of excessive and obviously impossible regulations concerning trade, for example, on the use of recirculation in commercial and logistics facilities • Compensation by the state of the costs of retail enterprises for anti-epidemic measures (purchase of personal protective equipment, disinfection products and payment for the services of disinfection organizations, the cost of testing employees for COVID-19, etc.) [2]

Social orientation Unemployment growth

• Subsidizing the costs of paying full-time staff • Introduction of a regional system of professional retraining of personnel to support citizens who lost their jobs during the pandemic • Modernization of regional labour exchanges and strengthening ties with large enterprises in the region

An increase in the population with monetary incomes below the subsistence minimum

• Implementation of state social policy measures to protect socially vulnerable segments of the population • Support for the population who lost their jobs during the pandemic

The increase in the lethality of the population • Implementation of urgent measures in the field from COVID-19 of healthcare to minimize the likelihood of new epidemic threats • Development of a network of medical institutions and diagnostics of viral diseases in the region • The use of digital technologies, mobile data and remote services in the fight against the pandemic, in particular in the field of controlling the spread of the COVID-19 virus [19] Technological orientation Reducing the internal costs of regions for research and development

• Support of the federal centre in the field of science, technology and innovation through the provision of grants, credit and tax benefits (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) A problematic area of the economic security of the region

Measure

Reduction of the share of organizations engaged in technological innovations

• Implementation of measures of state stimulation of the entrepreneurial activity of enterprises engaged in technological innovations • Temporary introduction of special tax regimes for enterprises engaged in technological innovations

Source: Compiled by the authors

the problematic areas of the economic security of the region to ensure the stability of the regional economic system during the pandemic.

References 1. Analytical Center under the Government of the Russian Federation (2020) Bulletin on the current trends of the Russian economy, May 2020. Dynamics of industrial production in Russia. https://ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/_ma_peqat_(1).pdf. Accessed: 13.09.2021 2. Belov V (2020) Trade-in a pandemic: business view. https://www.law.ru/blog/22678-torgov lya-v-usloviyah-pandemii-business-view. Data accessed: 13.09.2021 3. Coronavirus (2021) Coronavirus in Russia. Data as of 13.09.2021. https://coronavirus-in.ru/. Accessed: 13.09.2021 4. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2020) Investments in non-financial assets. https://rosstat.gov.ru/investment_nonfinancial. Accessed: 13.09.2021 5. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2020) Report “Socio-economic situation of Russia”. https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/document/50801. Accessed: 13.09.2021 6. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2021) Information for monitoring the socio-economic situation of the subjects of the Russian Federation. https://rosstat.gov.ru/ folder/11109. Accessed: 13.09.2021 7. Grasmik K (2018) Innovative activity of Russian industrial enterprises in the conditions of the economic crisis. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/innovatsionnaya-aktivnost-predpriyatiyrossiyskoy-promyshlennosti-v-usloviyah-ekonomicheskogo-krizisa. Accessed: 13.09.2021 8. Gukasyan Z, Tavbulatova Z, Aksenova Z, Gasanova N, Karpunina E (2021) Strategies for adapting companies to the turbulence caused by the Covid19 pandemic. In: Business 4.0 as a subject of the digital economy. Springer, Switzerland 9. HSE (2020) Regional initiatives to ensure socio-economic stability in the context of the COVID19 pandemic: measures to support business and ensure employment of the population. https:// region.hse.ru/anti-crisis. Accessed: 13.09.2021 10. IEP (2021) The Russian economy in 2020: trends and prospects. https://www.iep.ru/files/text/ trends/2020/04.pdf. Accessed: 13.09.2021 11. Izryadnova O, Volovik N, Lavrishcheva A (2020) Structural features of investment activity in the conditions of a pandemic. Russ Econ Dev 27(9):13–21 12. Karpunina E, Galieva G, Andryiashka M, Vorobyeva A, Bakulin O (2021) Country risk assessment as a tool for improving the quality of state economic security management (on the example of Germany). Qual Access Success 22(183):136–142

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13. Karpunina E, Podmolodina I, Averina O, Kuznetsov I, Solonina S (2020) Moving towards “digit”: via the management of economic security to ensure sustainable development. In: Digital future: economic growth, social adaptation, and technological perspectives. Lecture notes in networks and systems. Springer, Berlin, pp 81–93 14. Karpunina E, Zabelina O, Galieva G, Melyakova E, Melnikova Y (2020) Epidemic threats and their impact on the economic security of the state. In: Proceeding of the 35th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2020, Seville, Spain, pp 7671–7682 15. Korolyuk E, Rustamova I, Kuzmenko N, Khashir B, Karpunina E (2021) Diagnostics of regional economic security problems during the 2020 crisis. In: Proceeding of the 37th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2021, Cordoba, Spain, pp 5248–5257 16. Lisova E, Petrov I, Koryakina T, Kalombo Mulamba V, Karpunina K (2020) The well-being of Russian regions under threat: economic and social impact assessment of COVID-19. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, 4–5 Nov 2020, Granada, Spain, pp 7603–7616 17. Maksimova E, Mukhina D (2020) Changes in the labour market in modern crisis conditions. Ration Remuner Labour Ind 6:38–42 18. Mejokh Z, Korolyuk E, Sozaeva D, Pilipchuk N, Karpunina E (2020) Economic security of Russian regions: risk factors and consequences of the Covid-19 Pandemic. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, 4–5 Nov 2020, Granada, Spain, pp 8197–8205 19. Oveshnikova L, Sibirskaya, E (2021) Covid-19 and its destructive impact on the economic security of Russian regions. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/covid-19-i-ego-destruktivnoe-vli yanie-na-ekonomicheskuyu-bezopasnost-regionov-rossii. Accessed: 13.09.2021 20. Rambler (2020) The state debt of the Russian regions has resumed growth. https://finance.ram bler.ru/realty/44591906/?utm_content=finance_media&utm_medium=read_more&utm_sou rce=copylink. Accessed: 13.09.2021 21. Rbc (2020) In the NCFD in January-February 2020, industrial production increased by 5%. https://kavkaz.rbc.ru/kavkaz/freenews/5e9561649a79470ed4650a80. Accessed: 13.09.2021 22. Rbc (2020) Analysts predicted the growth of regional debts in 2020. https://www.rbc.ru/eco nomics/14/02/2020/5e452d389a79473fed9c76e6. Accessed: 13.09.2021 23. Rbc (2020) Rosstat recorded an increase in poverty at the peak of the pandemic. https://www. rbc.ru/economics/18/09/2020/5f64ba649a794707f1dd59d1. Accessed: 13.09.2021 24. RIA (2021) Rosstat has calculated the death rate from COVID-19 in 2020. https://ria.ru/202 10611/koronavirus-1736688570.html. Accessed: 13.09.2021 25. RIArating (2021) The debt burden on regional budgets has resumed its growth. https://riarat ing.ru/regions/20210218/630194870.html. Accessed: 13.09.2021 26. TASS (2021) Retail trade turnover in Russia in 2020 fell by 4.1%. https://tass.ru/ekonomika/ 10572773. Accessed: 13.09.2021 27. The Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation (2020) The volume and structure of the state debt of the subjects of the Russian Federation and the debt of municipalities as of February 1, 2020. https://minfin.gov.ru/ru/perfomance/public_debt/subdbt/2020/. Accessed: 13.09.2021 28. United Nations (2020) Debt and COVID-19: a global response in a spirit of solidarity. https:// www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/russian_debt_and_covid.pdf. Accessed: 13.09.2021 29. Vedomosti (2020) Analysts have recorded an increase in the income of residents of almost a quarter of Russia’s regions. https://www.vedomosti.ru/economics/news/2020/09/03/838728analitiki-zafiksirovali-rost-dohodov-zhitelei. Accessed: 13.09.2021

Factors and Conditions for the Functioning and Development of Regional Socio-economic Systems Liubov V. Plakhova , Natalia V. Zakharkina , Natalia N. Sokolova , Larisa L. Alekhina , and Elena V. Troshina

Abstract The strengthened role of regional systems leads to the need to study the factors and conditions shaping and developing these processes by considering the socio-economic relations in the internal and external environment of the subjects of the Russian Federation. Nowadays, the studies of Russian scholars do not provide a clear position on the primacy of the concept of regional system or region, considered as a functional and developing factor of socio-economic orientation. Thus, it is proposed to consider the factors and conditions of the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems to establish a precise position on the studied issue. The authors consider the factors of the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems and the conditions of their functioning and development. Moreover, the authors form model actions for the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems. The research tools include the methods of graphical representation, factorization, formalization, structural classification, transformation, data analogy, model actions, indicative base, segmentation, and strategic provisions. Keywords Factors · Conditions · Model · Region · Socio-economic system · National project JEL Classification P25 · P48 · R1 · R58

1 Introduction The issue of the development of the subjects of the Russian Federation revealed the importance of new approaches to the system of regional management. In this case, the region is considered a territory specializing in producing particular goods [10] and a socio-economic system. The new approach that implies the consideration of the region as a socio-economic system involves implementing functional features to L. V. Plakhova (B) · N. V. Zakharkina · N. N. Sokolova · L. L. Alekhina · E. V. Troshina Orel State University of Economics and Trade, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_65

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provide the current state of the subject of the Russian Federation and the formation of a long-term development system. The highlighted criteria emphasize planning, organization, motivation, and control—the basic elements of regional management. The structuring of these elements allows us to decompose the regional socio-economic system into subsystems reflecting the interaction of all subjects of the territorial environment. A regional socio-economic system as an approach to the consideration of the region is defined through the provisions that allow unifying the management system of the subject of the Russian Federation to build relationships between the agents of the regional environment. Let us consider them in detail. 1.

2.

3.

Development of the theory of management of socio-economic processes [2]. In this case, the regional socio-economic system is defined as the specific activities of the management subjects aimed at building economic relations using the principles that form a system of hierarchy and factorization of socio-economic processes. The principles of activation of management activity, ensuring the effectiveness of processes [1], the focus of action, situationality, and improvement of the management process can be used to consider the regional socioeconomic system. According to the theory of management of socio-economic processes, regional socio-economic systems can be considered based on a systematic approach, characterized by a set of interrelated elements in a single structure. In this case, the regional socio-economic system is defined through subsystems—areas of the national economy. Analysis of the main trends and patterns of development of the regional socioeconomic system [8]. This provision suggests using regional socio-economic systems as a tool for assessing and monitoring the state of resource potential, identifying the depressed and stagnant causes of the functioning of industries, studying the features and structure of the socio-demographic component, and analyzing the economic processes and inter-municipal economic relations. Quantitative assessment methods are used to analyze the main trends and patterns of development of the regional socio-economic system. These methods allow us to understand the level of the current state, rating, or potential of territorial functioning. The use of social standards in the management of the regional socio-economic system [6]. A social standard is the norms and rules established by the government and enshrined in normative legal acts to ensure the social rights of citizens. The use of social standards confirms the social orientation of regional policy on the implementation of economic relations. According to social standards, the management of the regional socio-economic system includes not only the implementation of economic postulates (the execution of budgetary obligations) but also the following processes: • Inclusion of the norms of government support for the development of the social sphere in the model; • Assessment of the standard of living and well-being of citizens; • Help in the implementation of federal socio-economic policies at the regional level.

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4.

601

Justification of criteria and indicators for developing the regional socioeconomic system using modern methods and scientific approaches [7]. A quantitative study of regional socio-economic systems consists in the use of the indicator base, which allows to measure the level of development of regional components, diagnose problems, and form a procedure to counteract socioeconomic threats (risks). The emergence of problems caused by the lack of informativeness of the data obtained is due to the difficulty in understanding the parameters of the quantitative basis for assessing the regional socio-economic system and the lack of binding to the model of actions.

The above provisions indicate the importance of using this approach to develop the region through the prism of the regional socio-economic system. To study the processes of functioning and development of the regional socio-economic system, let us define the factors and conditions contributing to the more effective and efficient use of this approach in the regional context. The research aims to determine the factors and conditions of the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems. The following tasks should be solved to implement the research purpose: • To consider factors of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems; • To define the conditions for the functioning and development of regional socioeconomic systems; • To form model actions for the functioning and development of regional socioeconomic systems.

2 Materials and Methods The research materials are based on the use of foreign and Russian secondary literature in the field of regional economic management and the development of regional socio-economic systems. The consideration of foreign and Russian materials allowed the authors to allocate factors and conditions of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems and form model actions, such as factor-network, competitiveness, and sustainable development. The methodological apparatus used in this research includes tools conditioned by the study of regional socio-economic systems and comparing the category region as a territory of development and functioning with regional socio-economic systems. Thus, the research is based on the methods of graphical representation, factorization, formalization, classification of structural bases [5], transformation, data analogy, model actions, indicative base, segmentation, and strategic provisions.

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3 Discussion Within the framework of this research, the consideration of factors of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems is based on the correspondence of this category to the concept of region. First of all, a region is a territorial structure that has limited internal resources to organize and operate the internal elements and meet their needs arising from the external environment [4]. This concept of the region defines (1) the territorial component, (2) limited resources, and (3) the presence of internal elements with the needs caused by the external environment. A regional socio-economic system is a set of territorial elements isolated by a combination of coupled multilevel functional and structural subsystems, allowing to form systems of interrelations and economic relations [3]. Comparing the concepts of region and regional socio-economic systems, it is worth noting their hierarchical subordination and classification structuredness of internal relations. In the first case, the hierarchical subordination is based on the vertical interaction between the region and the regional socio-economic system. In this case, regional socio-economic systems are in the structure of the region as within a territorial system. In the second case, the classificatory structuring of connections is expressed through horizontal interaction between the internal elements. The regional socio-economic system is consolidated by several subsystems, such as technological, innovative, educational, industrial, etc. [9]. The totality of subsystems forms a single socio-economic system. The socioeconomic system bounded by the region is unified by (1) management processes, (2) evaluation of the effectiveness of functioning and development, and (3) the indicator base. The regional socio-economic base is reproduced by the general directions of development of the region. In this case, the regional socio-economic system is not a region; it represents the territorial specificity differentiated into more specific areas. Therefore, the regional socio-economic system is considered a set of interrelated and complementary areas based on the availability of resources engaged in a particular economic activity. Integrated conditions allow uniting the subsystem components within the regional socio-economic system. The integration allows forming a unified view of the regional environment, which is provided by reproductive, structural, and systemic processes. Adaptation conditions are aimed at the reorientation of regional socio-economic systems to the new conditions of development of the external environment. The adaptation involves reformatting the main elements of the regional socio-economic system by replacing them with modern postulates of the external environment. These conditions of adaptation should be science-based, competitive, and spatial. The conditions mentioned above correspond to the common criteria for achieving the effectiveness of the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems, namely: the compliance with long-term priorities, the accumulation of technological capacity, and the maximum ratio of the effect of the development of a socio-economic system to expenditures.

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4 Results Model actions are used to combine the factors and conditions of the regional socioeconomic system, which lead to the concentration of the external and internal environment for decision-making following narrowly focused problems acting as constraints. The most common model actions are macro-regional standards and the inter-integration system of socio-economic development of the subject of the Russian Federation. The generality of these model actions, consisting of a wide range of socio-economic directions, weakens the relevance and specificity of regional socioeconomic systems in the solution of specific problems. The highlighted problems determine the importance of applying new approaches to model actions to consider the issue of the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems. One of the main models used to study regional socio-economic systems from the perspective of production territories is the factor-network model. The factor-network model produces a sequence of actions that, based on the logistical characteristics and predictive function, determines the network changes that contribute to the regeneration of regional socio-economic systems. Forecasting within the framework of the factor-network model of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems is carried out by means of the following calculations: • Calculation of the early onset of changes in regional socio-economic systems: rt = max t[ p(t)],

(1)

where rt —the timing of changes in regional socio-economic systems; max t— the maximum duration of the time of occurrence of changes in regional systems; p(t)—the concentration of factors and conditions affecting changes in regional socio-economic systems; • Calculation of the timing of changes in regional socio-economic systems: pt = s − max t[ p(t)],

(2)

where rt —the timing of changes in regional socio-economic systems; s—the critical path of the event; max t—the maximum duration of the time of occurrence of changes in regional systems; p(t)—the concentration of factors and conditions affecting changes in regional socio-economic systems. These formulas focus on the predictive basis of the model and regulate the network feature of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems through changes in the production environment. The timing of these changes is determined by the presence of production phases in the structure of regional socio-economic systems: (1) expanded reproduction (reinvestment), (2) creating an opportunity for the regional economy to provide new jobs, (3) planning of events and expected results, (4) matrices for identifying new directions. To establish the production phases, the following pattern is established:

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• Expanded reproduction (reinvestment)—max t approaches the lowest value of the onset of change in regional socio-economic systems; • Creating an opportunity for the regional economy to provide new jobs—rt corresponds to the early onset of change in regional socio-economic systems; • Planning of events and expected results—rt corresponds to the late onset of changes in regional socio-economic systems; • Matrices for identifying new directions—max t is approaching the greatest value of the onset of change in regional socio-economic systems. The next direction is the actions within the model of competitiveness of regional socio-economic systems. The model of competitiveness of regional socio-economic systems is the most factorized. On the one hand, factorization affects the subject component of the regional socio-economic system. In this case, the functioning and development of the regional socio-economic system consist of the actions of consumers (the satisfaction of the population), competitors-regions (the ability of the region to produce goods for the global and Russian markets), investors (the use of the resources of enterprises with an increase in the potential of the region), market entities, industries, and regions (growth potential due to innovation and technological factors). Figure 1 shows a multifactor structuring of the model of competitiveness of regional socio-economic systems. For example, the factorization of regional competitiveness is based on ensuring the competitiveness of regional products. The competitiveness of industries within the regional socio-economic system is achieved by standardization (improving the existing standards). Competitiveness within the cluster is conditioned by the attraction of advanced enterprises, which allow for the development of the regional socio-economic system. The competitiveness of enterprises is ensured by increasing resources and the welfare of citizens. This approach is different from the organization theory, in which the competitiveness of enterprises lies in the motivation of personnel and the technologization of production factors. The competitiveness of goods is determined by the formation of flows, which allow planning the directions, types, and structure of output, which will be most synergistic for developing regional socio-economic systems. The selected areas of the factorization of competitiveness are defined in a set of potential values. The actions within the model of competitiveness of regional socio-economic systems are calculated using the following formula: kr =



r I,

(3)

where kr —regional competitiveness; r —a set of potential values of the level of competitiveness of industries, clusters, enterprises, and goods; I —the weight of indicators in the overall system of competitiveness. The final factorization of the model of competitiveness of regional socio-economic systems is to match the actual level of competitiveness with the planned level, the openness of markets, government support for regions, systematic training, and competitiveness in all sectors of the region. The next model action is to ensure the sustainable development of regional socio-economic systems (Fig. 2). The model

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For consumers

REGIONAL COMPETITIVENESS

Satisfaction of the population

SECTOR COMPETITIVENESS

For competitorsregions The region’s ability to produce goods for the global and Russian markets For investors The use of the resources of enterprises with increasing the region’s potential For market subjects, industries, and regions

COMPETITIVENESS WITHIN THE CLUSTER ENTERPRISE COMPETITIVENESS PRODUCT COMPETITIVENESS

1. Competitiveness of regional products 2. Improvement of standards 3. Attraction of advanced enterprises 4. Increasing resources and the well-being of citizens 5. Formation of imitation flows

FACTORIZATION - level of competitiveness - market openness - legal regulation of the regional socio-economic system - level of state support for the regions - systematic training - the level of competitiveness in all sectors of the region

Growth of the capacity due to innovative and technological factors

Fig. 1 Actions within the model of competitiveness of regional socio-economic systems. Source Compiled by the authors

actions for sustainable development of regional socio-economic systems presented in Fig. 2 are determined by implementing strategic priorities, considering the impact of management functions, assessing economic development, and analyzing social development. The strategic priorities within the framework of sustainable development of regional socio-economic systems are achieved by considering the impact of legislation and software products on the regional socio-economic system. Management processes allow modifying the organizational structure of the functioning and development of the regional socio-economic system. The change in the organizational structure involves the transformation of the links between the subjects of management. The composition of the subjects of management does not change. Economic development is determined by the presence of several factors of the indicator base, the assessment of which is aimed at establishing the level of development of regional socio-economic systems. These indicators should include the index of gross regional product, the implementation of the regional budget, and the growth of regional income due to labor productivity. The totality of the values of the indicators obtained above forms a single evaluation parameter for the development

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1. STRATEGIC PRIORITIES

The impact of legislation and software products on the regional socio-economic system

2. THE IMPACT OF MANAGEMENT

The organizational structure of the functioning and development of the regional socio-economic system

3. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

GRP index, the implementation of the regional budget, the growth of regional income due to labor productivity

4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Integrated territorial development (according to Rosstat): health care, education, social protection, employment Data tracking

- increase in labor productivity; - the level of scientific and technological progress (creation of new industries, technical improvement of industries, and technical improvement of national economy management systems); - inter-municipal relations in the allocation of resources; - growth of demographic, labor, consumer, economic, geographic, scientific, and technical potentials

Fig. 2 Actions of the model of sustainable development of regional socio-economic systems. Source Compiled by the authors

of regional socio-economic systems. The assessment of the development of regional socio-economic systems is calculated based on:  ur =

rp , n

(4)

where u r —the development potential of regional socio-economic systems; r p —the value of the factors in the regional socio-economic system selected in the study; n—the number of factors of the studied regional socio-economic system. Social development involves the analysis of the integrated functioning of territories in accordance with the methods of the Federal State Statistics Service (Rosstat): methodological provisions for the organization of production of official statistical information, methodological provisions for the organization of local units in the General totality of the objects of statistical observation, methodological provisions for the evaluation of the quality and results of statistical surveys. These methodological recommendations allow for a comprehensive statistical study of health, education, social protection, and employment. It is necessary to form a pool of

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directions-evaluations to obtain the most reliable data within the allocated model actions. It is supposed to analyze the parameters regarding the following: • Growth of productivity; • Increase in the level of scientific and technological progress (creation of new industries, technical improvement of production, and technical improvement of national economy management systems); • Inter-municipal relations within the framework of resource allocation; • Growth of demographic, labor, consumer, economic, geographic, scientific, and technological potentials.

5 Conclusion The conducted research allowed us to form several conclusions. First, the factors of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems are considered based on the correspondence of this category to the concept of region. The most general definition of a region is the consideration of this concept as a territorial structure that has limited internal resources to organize and operate the internal elements and meet their needs arising from the external environment. A regional socio-economic system has a more structured understanding of the category of research. A regional socio-economic system is a set of territorial elements isolated by a combination of coupled multilevel functional and structural subsystems, allowing for forming systems of relationships and economic relations. In contrast to the concept of region, the regional socio-economic system has a hierarchical subordination and classification structuring of internal relations. Additionally, the category regional socio-economic system does not personify the concept of the region but represents the territorial specificity differentiated by more specific areas. Second, the regional socio-economic system contains factors that allow organizing the processes of functioning and development of its internal elements. The internal elements are management processes that act on a particular result of the regional socio-economic system through its own resources, public administration, spatial specialization, geographical location, historical development, and formed institutions. The aspect of the development of regional socio-economic systems is differentiated; it impacts subsystems and strengthens their role in the overall organizational structure. These subsystems include innovation, investment and informatization, and digital beginnings spelled out in the order of the Government of the Russian Federation “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation” (July 28, 2017 No. 1632r). Factors of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems are fixed by means of ratings, effects of regional socio-economic subsystems, business, and decomposition and system factors. The conditions for the functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems lie in the implementation of functional, integrated, and adaptive processes. Functional processes are aimed at the hierarchical alignment of the regional socio-economic system according to the subjects endowed with the authority. The integrated conditions allow uniting the components

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of the subsystem within the regional socio-economic system. The adaptation conditions are aimed at the reorientation of regional socio-economic systems to the new conditions of development of the external environment. Third, model actions are used to combine the factors and conditions of the regional socio-economic system. The model actions considered in the research are as follows: • Factor-network; • Competitiveness; • Sustainable development of regional socio-economic systems. Factor-network model actions allow focusing on productive regional bases. Competitiveness allows strengthening the role of industries, clusters, enterprises, and goods. Sustainable development allows building a socio-economic system of relations. The application of the highlighted model actions in aggregate allows to comprehensively build the stages of functioning and development of regional socio-economic systems.

References 1. Damdinova ChB (2009) The approaches in the determining regional socio-economic systems. Buryat State Univ Bull 2:32–37 2. Jin L, Whitehead PG, Appeaning Addo K, Amisigo B, Macadam I, Rodda HJE et al (2018) Modeling future flows of the volta river system: impacts of climate change and socioeconomic changes. Sci Total Environ 637–638:1069–1080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2018.04.350 3. Markov BE (2019) Regional socio-economic system. Review of approaches to definition, composition, set the main parameters of functioning. Econ Sustain Dev 1(37):196–203 4. Nasaraia Z (2020) The region as a socio-economic system and object of management. Eur J Human Soc Sci 6:68–71. https://doi.org/10.29013/EJHSS-20-6-68-71 5. Pogodina TV, Udaltsova NL, Filushina AV (2019) Paradigm shift in technological development of socio-economic system in the context of digital transformation. J Adv Res Law Econ 10(2):653–662. https://doi.org/10.14505//jarle.v10.2(40).27 6. Staroverov VA, Kostizyna VP (2010) The regional social-economic systems. In: Proceedings of higher educational institutions. Ural Region, vol 1, pp 32–36 7. Vilkova AV, Timofeeva EA (2018) Socio-economic stratification and the penitentiary system. Eur Res Stud J 21(4):186–194. https://doi.org/10.35808/ersj/1113 8. Xesfingi S, Vozikis A (2016) Patent satisfaction with the healthcare system: assessing the impact of socio-economic and healthcare provision factors. BMC Health Serv Res 16:94. https://doi. org/10.1186/s12913-016-1327-4 9. Zhangorazova ZhS, Bekulov HM (2020) Regional socio-economic systems as an object of management. Nat Human Stud 29(3):164–168. https://doi.org/10.24411/2309-4788-202010250 10. Zhuravlev DM (2018) Regional social and economic system: Sustainability and competitiveness. Manag Econ Syst 10(116):13

Methodology for Evaluating Change Management at the Municipal Level Maria A. Vlasova , Yuliia A. Zviagintceva , Svetlana A. Legostaeva , Margarita N. Isakova , and Ivan V. Ilin

Abstract The formation of a system of public authority, based on the interaction of regional authorities and local government, has transformed the processes aligned with the integrity of decision-making on emerging issues. As a condition of this process, changes affect the functioning and development of the economy at the municipal level. The lack of methodologies for assessing change management for local government slows down the processes of technologization and digitalization of the environment, which generally increases the pressure of regional actors over local government. The highlighted problems consolidate the sufficient importance of the topics since there is a need to use quantitative tools to assess change management at the municipal level. The paper aims to propose the author’s methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level. The authors consider the principles of change management at the municipal level and propose the methodology for its assessment. Additionally, the authors develop group criteria for the methodology of assessing change management at the municipal level. The research methods include the methods of grouping, theoretical representation, scientific hierarchy, mathematical modeling, admissible solutions, index and summary method, and classification scale. Keywords Methodology · Management · Changes · Criteria · Municipal entities · Principles · Postulates of analysis JEL Classification L16 · O18 · R10

M. A. Vlasova (B) Orel State University, Orel, Russia Y. A. Zviagintceva · S. A. Legostaeva · M. N. Isakova · I. V. Ilin Orel State University of Economics and Trade, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_66

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1 Introduction The increasing role of transformational changes at the local level has weakened the importance of the existing assessment bases, allowing to form a socio-economic result that shows the level of territorial development. This condition is caused by changes at the municipal level, which are not considered in the strategic and tactical plan for the development of municipal entities. Given the highlighted circumstances, change management at the municipal level is quite significant, which is supported by several theses. First, the concept of change management is characteristic of organizational structures [1]. Territorial structures are not considered within the concept of change management. The concept of change management is based on the study of organizational structures. It highlights resistance as a critical condition violating the stable development of the structure. In this case, the change management process is associated with the change of the current state of organizational structures into an unstable one [6]. Second, the categories of management and change management have a clear subordination. Nevertheless, this subordination is based on some features [5]. Change management is marked with the risk component. Management is marked with the aspects of motivation, control, organization, and planning. The risk component of change management is concentrated through the effect of this process (the planned choice of the final result) and the rollback to the past state of the system associated with the formation of new habits in the subjects involved in this process. The risk component produces the importance of overcoming resistance on the part of all subjects of the management model [7]. Third, the lack of methods for assessing change management at the municipal level reduces the importance of strategic planning and forecasting of socio-economic processes [11]. Currently, change management is not included in the system of planning the socio-economic activities of the municipal entity. The occurring external changes are not considered at the local level, which creates local and regional disagreement. The highlighted modern postulates of this process confirm the relevance of the chosen research topic. The paper aims to propose the author’s methodology for assessing change management at the local level. The implementation of the chosen research topic requires the fulfillment of the following research tasks: • To consider the principles of change management at the municipal level; • To propose a methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level; • To compile parameters-group criteria for the methodology of assessing change management at the municipal level.

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2 Materials and Methods The methodological apparatus of the research is formed on the basis of a system that allows modeling the key indicators and parameters of a quantitative assessment of change management at the municipal level. The principles of change management at the municipal level are considered using the methods of grouping, theoretical representation, and scientific hierarchy [12]. The proposed methodology for assessing change management at the local level is based on the methods of mathematical modeling, admissible solutions, and the use of index and summary methods. The compilation of the parameters-group criteria for the methodology of assessing change management at the local level involves the application of the method of the classification scale, which consists of the grouping of indicators to ensure the criterion significance of the final result-indicator [4].

3 Discussion Change management at the municipal level is a process that is built based on the consideration of the peculiarities of development of the territorial object of management—the economy of the municipal entity [3]. The economy of the municipal entity acts as a system that originates and absorbs changes coming from actors—institutions and authorities. This aspect is marked with several vital circumstances. In the context of change management, there is a transformation of the agent environment, which is close to the conditions of functioning of the economy of the municipal entity. The substitution of agents in the process of change management at the municipal level is structured as follows: • Subjects (individuals and households) manifest themselves through the transformation of socio-economic relations between the population and other agents of the municipal entity [8]; • Institutions are adapted to the conditions of functioning and development of territorial public organizations at the level of municipal government; • Authorities are specified within the limits of municipal powers (following Federal law “On General Principles of Organization of Local Self-Governance in the Russian Federation” [October 6, 2003 No. 131-FZ, as amended July 1, 2021]), which, in turn, gives rise to the emergence of local governments [2]. The highlighted process of replacing the agent environment is based on the principles of managerial value and efficiency of use. According to this principle, the highlighted elements of the agent environment impact the system of tracking change management at the municipal level. At the municipal level, there is a conditional assessment base, which allows for the analysis of the level of change management. This circumstance is due to the fact that change management forms the management result, which is used to simulate the assumption of development or deformation of

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the territorial object of management. Even though the models of change management reflect mostly qualitative features of the selected category, quantitative assessment is a critical indicator for developing and accounting processes in the system of change management at the municipal level. Quantitative assessment is the basis for forming qualitative features of change management at the municipal level [9]. The effectiveness of indicators of a quantitative assessment of change management forms a view of the functioning of the territorial object of management in accordance with the conditions of development of internal and external environment. The quantitative assessment determines the current level of development of the municipal entity in the context of transformational change. Thus, there is a need to implement measures to improve or maintain the stability of the change management at the municipal level. This condition is concentrated through the qualitative features of the territorial object of change management. The external manifestation of the change management at the municipal level is the project model. The highlighted theoretical characteristics of change management allow us to use the system in the aspect of the external manifestation of this category.

4 Results The methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level is formed through the stages of developing an indicative framework and grouping of parameters-group criteria. The quantitative assessment of change management is based on the author’s methodology, which consists of indicators of variability developed within the strategic directions of the socio-economic development of the municipal entity. Each direction of the economy at the municipal level corresponds to an indicator that allows drawing a conclusion about the effectiveness of changes in the selected directions. The selected indicators of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level were developed based on statistical indicators of the socio-economic development of the municipal entity. This circumstance is one of the main factors in the formation of the author’s methodology. This thesis is based on the simplicity and ease of use of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level and on the reflection of the most important areas of economic development of the municipal entity. Indicators of change management at the municipal level are formed within the areas reflecting the socio-economic development of the territory. This indicator was selected due to the convenience of obtaining information in the context of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level. Let us consider the formed indicators of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level. 1.

Indicator of sustainable population growth in the municipal entity: n1 =

p × kp [c1 + c2 ] × kr − , x x

(1)

Methodology for Evaluating Change Management …

2.

where n 1 —an indicator of sustainable population growth in the municipal entity; c1 —the number of children aged 0–6; c2 —the number of children aged 7–14; kr —the number of births per 1000 people; p—the number of retirees; k p —the number of deaths per 1000 people; x—total population of the municipal entity. Indicator of innovative production in the municipal entity: n2 =

3.

vi+ vv , vn

in , ip

(3)

where n 3 —an indicator of investment saturation of the economy of the municipal entity; i n —the volume of investment in fixed capital in the municipal entity at the expense of all sources of funding for the full range of enterprises and organizations (current); i p —the volume of investment in fixed capital in the municipal entity at the expense of all sources of funding for the full range of enterprises and organizations (according to the annual plan). Indicator of transport profitability in the municipal entity: n4 =

5.

(2)

where n 2 —an indicator of innovative production in the municipal entity; vi — the volume of innovative products shipped and work and services performed by enterprises of the municipal entity; vv —the volume of shipped goods of the most important types of industrial products by enterprises of the municipal entity; vn —the total volume of shipped goods of own production and work and services performed in-house by enterprises of the municipal entity. Indicator of investment saturation of the economy of the municipal entity: n3 =

4.

613

vt , ct

(4)

where n 4 —an indicator of transport profitability in the municipal entity; vt — proceeds from sales of transport works and services (excluding VAT) in current prices of each year; ct —freight and passenger transportation costs (including payments under the “Platon” system). Indicator of communication and information accessibility of the municipal entity: n5 =

w1 + w2 , 100%

(5)

where n 5 —an indicator of communication and information accessibility of the municipal entity; w1 —an indicator of Internet coverage of the territory of the municipal entity; w2 —an indicator of the capacity of conducted communication on the territory of the municipal entity.

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Indicator of development of the consumer market of the municipal entity: n6 =

7.

p+d , u +r

(7)

where n 7 —an indicator of financial independence of the agency environment in the municipal entity; p—profit of large and medium-sized enterprises of the municipal entity; u—losses of large and medium-sized enterprises of the municipal entity; d—municipal budget revenues; r —municipal budget expenditure. Indicator of debt replacement with fixed assets in the municipal entity: n8 =

9.

(6)

where n 6 —an indicator of the development of the consumer market of the municipal entity; ot —retail trade turnover in the municipal entity; rt —gross municipal product. Indicator of financial independence of the agency environment in the municipal entity: n7 =

8.

ot , rt

f0 , dm

(8)

where n 8 —an indicator of debt replacement with fixed assets in the municipal entity; f 0 —the residual value of fixed assets at the end of the year, taking into account revaluation; dm —the debt of the municipal entity. Indicator of living standards of able-bodied population of the municipal entity: n9 =

pc × z , ft

(9)

where n 9 —an indicator of the standard of living of the working-age population of the municipal entity; pc —the number of able-bodied population living in the municipal entity; z—the average level of wages in the municipal entity; f t —salary fund in the municipal entity. The formed indicators of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level are summarized based on the final formula, which allows us to conclude about the development of the economy of the municipal entity. The final formula of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level is as follows:  n1 + n2 · · · + n x , (10) yx =

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Table 1 Parameters of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level Indicators of the methodology

Critical level

Significantly low level

Low level

Sufficient level

High level

n1

[− negative value]

0–0.10

0.11–0.20

0.21–0.30

Over 0.31

n2

0

0–0.10

0.11–0.20

0.21–0.40

Over 0.41

n3

0–0.50

0.51–0.70

0.71–0.90

0.91–1.00

over 1.00

n4

0–0.80

0.81–1.00

1.01–1.30

1.31–1.50

Over 1.51

n5

0–1.00

1.01–1.40

1.41–1.50

1.51–1.80

Over 1.81

n6

1.00–0.81

0.80–0.51

0.50–0.21

0.20–0.11

Over 0.10

n7

0–0.60

0.61–0.90

0.90–1.00

1.01–1.20

Over 1.20

n8

1.00–0.41

0.40–0.31

0.30–0.21

0.20–0.10

Below 0.10

n9

0–0.20

0.21–0.30

0.31–0.40

0.41–0.50

Over 10.50

Change management assessment yx

Below 2.00

2.00–2.79

2.80 –5.0

5.01–6.50

Over 16.51

Source Compiled by the authors

where yx —the assessment of the result of change management at the municipal level; n 1 —an indicator of sustainable growth of the population in the municipal entity; n 2 — an indicator of innovative production of the municipal entity; n 3 —an indicator of investment saturation of the economy of the municipal entity; n 4 —an indicator of transport profitability in the municipal entity; n 5 —an indicator of communication and information accessibility of the municipal entity; n 6 —an indicator of the development of the consumer market of the municipal entity; n 7 —an indicator of financial independence of the agency environment in the municipal entity; n 8 —an indicator of debt replacement with fixed assets in the municipal entity; n 9 —an indicator of living standards of the able-bodied population in the municipal entity. The parameters-group criteria of the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level are reflected in Table 1. The range values of the indicators and the final indicator have a parametric variation based on the minimum and maximum level of dispersion. The presented ranges are formed according to the highest and lowest values of each indicator involved in forming the final formula. The variation sample is determined by the following: • Variation range: r = xmax − xmin ,

(11)

where r —indicator allowing us to set the absolute difference between the maximum and minimum values of the process;

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• Linear mean deviation:  d=

|xi − x| , n

(12)

where d—the arithmetic mean of the absolute values of the deviations of the actual variants of the trait from the mean value; • Linear coefficient of variation: vd =

d × 100%, x

(13)

where vd —the ratio of the linear deviation to the mean value of the series. The final values of the assessment of change management at the municipal level include the following parameters-group criteria: • Critical level of the obtained result of assessing change management at the municipal level (values of parameter-group criteria below 2.00)—the state of the economy of the municipal entity is assessed as a deep recession of economic processes in a volatile external environment; • Significantly low level of the obtained result of assessing change management at the municipal level (values of parameter-group criteria are within the range 2.01– 2.79)—the state of the economy of the municipal entity is assessed as a labile recession of economic processes in a volatile external environment; • Low level of the obtained result of assessing change management at the municipal level (values of parameter-group criteria are within the range 2.8–5.00)—the state of the economy of the municipal entity is assessed as a dissonant recession of economic processes in a volatile external environment; • Sufficient level of assessing change management at the municipal level (values of parameter-group criteria are within the range 5.01–6.50)—the state of the economy of the municipal entity is assessed as stabilization of economic processes in a volatile external environment; • High level of assessing change management at the municipal level (values of parameter-group criteria are higher than 6.51)—the state of the economy of the municipal entity is assessed as dynamic development of economic processes in the variability of the external environment. The selected levels of assessing change management allow analyzing the overall state of the economy of the municipal entity under the variability of the external environment. Based on the process changes, the economy of the municipal entity is subject to transformation, which, in turn, leads to the emergence of problems in the aspects of territorial functioning. In accordance with this statement, the economy of the municipal entity in the context of the variability of the external environment may be subject to the following processes:

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• Deep recession (rapid slowdown of economic growth exacerbated by an uncontrolled decline in production); • Labile recession (gradual deterioration of economic development of the territory in a cyclical recession observed in key sectors of the national economy); • Dissonant recession (prolonged decline in the economic development of the territory supported by depressive processes in the deterioration of living standards); • Stabilization of economic processes (balanced development of priority areas of the economy of the municipal entity); • Dynamic development of economic processes (evolutionary transformation of the territorial economy in accordance with a given rate of growth). To test the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level, we use statistical data from municipal entities of the Orel Region for 2020 [10]. The sources of statistical information are the official websites of the district administrations of the Orel Region. An additional source of information on the development of municipal entities is the website of the Rosstat regional office of Orel Region. Let us specify the methodology of assessing change management under the peculiarities of the development of municipal entities of the Orel Region. First, negative values of the indicator of sustainable population growth in the municipal entity are equated to the parameter [−1]. This limitation is associated with the algorithm for calculating the final value of the assessment of change management at the municipal level. Second, accounting for post-boundary values of indicators of change management in the economy of the municipal entities of the Orel Region is carried out by assigning the selected parameters to the best ranges. The variant sample within the framework of the methodology for assessing change management includes 25 municipal entities of the Orel Region (Table 2). According to the assessment, there are no municipal entities with high and critical levels of change on the territory of the Orel Region. A sufficient level of change management is observed in the Livensky district. Significant shortcomings in the development of the economy of the Livensky district are the inefficiency of demographic and labor policies. This conclusion was made based on the calculated indicator of sustainable growth of population (0.04 by 2020) and the indicator of the standard of living of the working-age population (0.009 by 2020) in the Livensky district. The low level of change management includes municipal entities of the Orel Region with problems in the field of population policy, labor policy, innovation policy, and production policy. This group of municipal entities includes the Verkhovsky district (2.83), the Znamensky district (2.81), the Kromskoy district (3.30), the Mtsensky district (3.20), the city of Orel (3.93), the Orlovsky district (3.08), the Pokrovsky district (3.05), the Sverdlovsky district (2.88), and the Shablykinsky district (2.94). It is worth noting that the following municipal entities are in the risk group of moving to a lower criterial range: the Bolkhovsky district, the Uritsky district, the Novosilsky district, the Kolpnyansky district, the Soskovsky district, and the Trosnyansky district. In these municipal entities, the final result of the assessment of change management exceeds the average value of the criterion range “significantly low level” by 1.9%.

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Table 2 Assessment of change management of municipal entities in the Orel Region in 2020 Municipal entities of the Orel Region

n1

n2

n3

n4

n5

n6

n7

n8

n9

yx

Bolkhovsky district

−1.97

0

0.96

0.99

1.20

0.28

0.96

0.20

0.08

2.71

Verkhovsky district

−2.31

0

1.00

1.00

1.16

0.19

0.98

0.21

0.09

2.83

Glazunovsky district

−4.62

0

0.90

0.98

1.22

0.29

0.92

0.24

0.06

2.55

Dmitrovsky district

−4.06

0

0.96

0.97

1.18

0.24

0.91

0.24

0.05

2.52

Dolzhansky district

−2.36

0

0.96

1.00

1.17

0.18

0.95

0.21

0.11

2.70

Zalegoshchensky district −1.94

0

0.98

0.98

1.14

0.22

0.93

0.22

0.09

2.68

Znamensky district

−2.54

0

0.99

0.99

1.29

0.21

0.95

0.18

0.10

2.81

Kolpnyansky district

−1.94

0

0.99

1.00

1.20

0.16

0.98

0.26

0.09

2.77

Korsakovsky district

−4.56

0

0.98

0.98

1.14

0.17

0.96

0.28

0.08

2.50

Krasnozorensky district

−4.64

0

0.97

0.98

1.18

0.16

0.92

0.39

0.06

2.11

Kromskoy district

−2.46

0

0.99

1.00

1.30

0.18

0.98

0.12

0.12

3.30

Livensky district

0.04

0

1.00

1.02

1.30

0.06

1.64

0.009

0.31

5.15

Maloarkhangelsky District

−4.30

0

0.98

0.99

1.15

0.15

0.94

0.20

0.08

2.36

Mtsensky district

−3.96

0

1.01

1.00

1.25

0.16

1.02

0.08

0.14

3.20

Novoderevenkovsky district

−4.21

0

0.99

0.97

1.12

0.15

0.96

0.22

0.06

2.53

Novosilsky district

−2.90

0

0.99

0.99

1.14

0.19

0.97

0.18

0.09

2.76

Orel

−3.14

0

0.98

1.05

1.59

0.14

1.23

0.01

0.14

3.93

Orlovsky district

−2.34

0

1.01

1.03

1.18

0.13

1.01

0.14

0.13

3.08

Pokrovsky district

−2.64

0

1.00

1.01

1.15

0.12

1.04

0.14

0.11

3.05

Sverdlovsky district

−2.88

0

1.00

0.99

1.12

0.17

1.01

0.16

0.09

2.88

Soskovsky district

−3.06

0

0.99

0.99

1.09

0.18

0.99

0.18

0.09

2.69

Trosnyansky district

−3.01

0

1.00

0.96

1.10

0.18

0.98

0.19

0.08

2.79

Uritsky district

−2.95

0

0.99

0.98

1.10

0.16

0.96

0.19

0.08

2.73

Khotynetsky district

−3.12

0

0.99

0.97

1.08

0.18

0.94

0.19

0.09

2.70

Shablykinsky district

−3.04

0

1.00

0.98

1.16

0.15

0.98

0.14

0.11

2.94

Source Compiled by the authors based on Rosstat Regional Office of Orel Region [10]

The municipal entities of the Orel Region, which showed low values in the following indicators, belong to the significantly low level of change management: • • • • • •

Sustainable growth of population in the municipal entity; Innovative production in the municipal entity; Transport profitability in the municipal entity; Development of the consumer market in the municipal entity; Financial independence of the agency environment in the municipal entity; Standard of living of the working-age population of the municipal entity.

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Within this group, the risk of moving into a lower range is observed only in the Krasnozorensky district, with the value of the result of the change management being 2.11.

5 Conclusion The research on the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level allows us to formulate several conclusions. First, the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level serves as an essential link for analyzing the current state of the territorial object of management. The formed indicators of the evaluation methodology reflect the basic directions of strategic development of the economy of the municipal entity, taking into account the aspect of the variability of the external environment. The highlighted parameters-group criteria determine the processes occurring in the economy of the municipal entity, producing changes leading to a deep recession, labile recession, dissonant recession, stabilization, or dynamic development of economic processes. Acting as an analytical tool, the methodology for assessing change management at the municipal level allows us to calculate the level of the development of the territorial object of management and make adjustments and transformations in the framework of qualitative measures of local government. Second, the methodology of assessing change management allowed us to determine the current level of development of the economies of the municipal entities of the Orel Region. The final formula of the methodology for assessing change management divided the districts of the Orel Region into criterion groups: sufficient level, significantly low level, and low level. The formed assessment of change management in the municipal entities of the Orel Region for 2020 excluded the presence of districts within the criterion ranges of critical and high levels of development. Using the methodology for assessing change management, the authors identified the municipal entities with a high level of riskiness associated with the transition to a lower criterion group.

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Green Investment and Innovation as a Basis for Business Contributions to Regional Economic Development Svetlana E. Sitnikova, Natalia S. Polusmakova, and Svetlana A. Savina

Abstract The paper aims to determine the contribution of business in the development of the regional economy through green investment and innovation on the example of Russian regions. Moreover, the paper identifies prospects for improving the quality of life and regional socio-economic situation by increasing green investment and business innovation. The authors apply regression analysis to determine the dependence of the socio-economic situation and quality of life on the factors of green innovation and investments. The research shows that insignificant areas of green investment and innovation (average score of 43.31 points) are implemented more actively than significant ones (average score of 41.05 points). By implementing the author’s recommendations, the increase of green investment and business innovation can improve the socio-economic situation of Russian regions by 97.23% and the quality of life by 29.63%. The contribution of the research lies in the fact that the obtained results develop, clarify, and promote the practical implementation in developing countries (including Russia) of the new concept of business economics, which is formed under the influence of the sustainable development agenda. Keywords Green investment · Innovation · Business economics · Economic development of the region · Development of the national economy JEL Classification M21 · O35 · O18 · O38 · P33 · Q26 · Q38 · Q54 · Q56 · Q57 · Q58

S. E. Sitnikova (B) Volgograd State Medical University, Volgograd, Russia N. S. Polusmakova Regional Center for Continuing Education “House of Scientific Collaboration named after Z. V. Ermolieva”, Volgograd State University, Volgograd, Russia e-mail: [email protected] S. A. Savina Volgograd Institute (branch) of the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Volgograd, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_67

621

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S. E. Sitnikova et al.

1 Introduction The contribution of business to the development of the regional economy is particularly noticeable. The classical concept of business economics assumes that the main contribution of business to the development of the region lies in the acceleration of economic growth. Influenced by the sustainable development agenda, a new concept has emerged that looks at the contribution of business to regional development in a much broader way. According to this concept, regional development is achieved not only by implementing the primary goal of businesses (maximizing profits and ensuring the efficiency of regional markets) but also by achieving additional goals through corporate social (creating additional jobs and helping to unlock human potential) and environmental (protecting the environment and combating climate change in the region) responsibility. The new concept of the business economy, dictated by UN initiatives, is more visible in the regions of developed countries. In this regard, it is relevant to study the experience and identify the specifics of the contribution of business in the development of regional economies in developing countries, especially industrial-oriented ones. A typical example of these countries is Russia, where great attention is paid to the formation and development of sustainable regions and responsible communities. All regions of Russia have adopted strategies for the transition to a climate-neutral, environmentally friendly, resource-efficient, and circular economy. Nevertheless, the efforts of regional authorities alone are not enough—support for business through the placement of green investment and the introduction of green innovation in the region is required. The paper aims to determine the contribution of business in the development of the regional economy through green investment and innovation on the example of Russian regions and identify prospects for improving the quality of life and socio-economic situation of the region through the increase of green investment and business innovation.

2 Literature Review Green investment and business innovation have been extensively studied and are widely represented in the available scientific literature, particularly in the works of Braga et al. [2], Ikram et al. [6], Magalhães [8], Morozova et al. [10], Sitnikova et al. [13], and Zahan and Chuanmin [14]. The new concept of business economics, formed under the influence of the sustainable development agenda, is revealed in the works of Alon and Godinho [1], García-Sánchez et al. [4], Lasarte-López et al. [7], and Mdehheb et al. [9]. Despite the high degree of elaboration of the research problem at the fundamental level, the practical aspects of the contribution of business in the development of the economy of the region through green investment and innovation, especially in developing countries (including Russia), are poorly understood and need further in-depth study.

Green Investment and Innovation as a Basis …

623

3 Materials and Method This research hypothesizes that the contribution of business to the development of the economy of Russian regions through green investment and innovation is fragmented and small-scale, but there are significant prospects for increasing it. The authors formed a sample of Russian regions with different business contributions to the development of a green economy according to the criterion of the industrial and environmental index in 2021 (based on the results of 2020). The authors selected four regions with significant contributions (65–100 points), four regions with moderate contributions (40–64 points), and four regions with small contributions (0–39 points). Figure 1 presents the study sample. To test the hypothesis, the authors used regression analysis to determine the dependence of the socio-economic situation (y1 ) and quality of life (y2 ) (Fig. 2) on the factors of green innovation and investment (x1 − x7 ) (Table 1). Figure 2 indicates that the socio-economic situation and the quality of life in Russian regions are generally moderate, averaging 39.94 points and 42.29 points, respectively. According to Table 1, the most common green investment and innovation in Russian regions are as follows: • Reduction of material costs per unit of production (an average of 17.35%); • Reduction of energy costs per unit of production (an average of 60.33%); • Reduction of environmental pollution (an average of 56.69%). Jewish Autonomous Area

28

Republic of Tuva

31

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic

32

Orel Region

34

Kaliningrad Region

41

Volgograd Region

41

Leningrad Region

42

Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

42

Vologda Region

65

Chukotka Autonomous Area

66

Tambov Region

68

Yaroslavl Region

70 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Fig. 1 Sample regions according to the criterion of the industrial-environmental index in 2021 (based on the results of 2020), points 1–100. Source Compiled by the authors based on the materials of Green Patrol [5]

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Fig. 2 Socio-economic situation (y1 ) and quality of life (y2 ) in the sample regions in 2021 (based on the results of 2020). Source Compiled by the authors based on the materials of RIA Rating [11, 12]

4 Results The contribution of business in the development of the regional economy through green investment and innovation on the example of Russian regions reflects the following regression models derived from the data in Fig. 2 and Table 1: Model 1 : y1 = 24.83 − 0.28x1 − 0.09x2 − 0.22x3 − 0.03x4 + 0.55x5 + 0.08x6 + 0.04x7 . According to the share received, the socio-economic situation of Russian regions depends only on three factors of green investment and business innovation: x5 , x6 , and x7 . Multiple regression is moderate (76.59%). With a one percent increase in the share of business structures reducing pollution, the socio-economic situation of regions improves by 0.55 points. With a one percent increase in the share of business structures engaged in recycling production waste, water, or materials, the socio-economic situation of the regions improves by 0.08 points. With a one percent increase in the share of business structures reducing and reproducing natural resources used in agriculture by 1%, the socio-economic situation of the regions improves by 0.04 points. Model 2 : y2 = 43.81 − 0.11x1 − 0.21x2 − 0.02x3 − 0.08x4 + 0.32x5 + 0.06x6 − 0.07x7 . According to the obtained share, the quality of life in Russian regions depends only on two factors of green investment and business innovation: x5 and x6 . Multiple regression is moderate (68.69%). With a one percent increase in the proportion of

0

0

40

77.8

61.5

60

16.7

66.7

100

0

100

Chukotka Autonomous Area

Vologda Region

Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

Leningrad Region

Volgograd Region

Kaliningrad Region

Orel Region

Kabardino-Balkarian Republic

Republic of Tuva

Jewish Autonomous Area

100

100

100

66.7

50

80

61.5

22.2

80

0

0

63.6

100

0

100

0

50

40

61.5

11.1

40

0

0

54.5

x3

Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere

100

0

0

0

0

60

46.2

77.8

0

0

0

45.5

x4

100

0

100

33.3

68.7

80

76.9

77.8

80

0

0

63.6

x5

Replacing raw Reduction of materials and environmental supplies with pollution safe or less hazardous ones

0

0

33.3

33.3

33.3

60

69.2

77.8

40

100

0

54.5

x6

Implementation of recycling of production waste, water, and materials

Source Compiled by the authors based on the materials of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) [3]

45.5

x2

x1

Tambov Region

Reduction of energy consumption per unit of production

Reduction of material costs per unit of production

Yaroslavl Region

Region

0

0

66.7

0

16.7

60

38.5

77.8

0

0

0

36.4

x7

Reduction and reproduction of natural resources used in agriculture

Table 1 Green investment and innovation in the sample regions in 2021 (based on the results of 2020), % of business structures implementing green investment and innovation

Green Investment and Innovation as a Basis … 625

626

S. E. Sitnikova et al.

Fig. 3 Prospects for improving the quality of life and socio-economic situation of regions through increased green investment and business innovation in Russia. Source Calculated and compiled by the authors

business structures that reduce pollution, the quality of life in the regions improves by 0.32 points. With a one percent increase of business structures that recycle production waste, water, or materials, the quality of life in the regions improves by 0.06 points. To identify the prospects for improving the quality of life and socio-economic situation in the region through increased green investment and business innovation, the authors substituted the maximum possible values of the selected factor variables (with the values of other variables unchanged) into the resulting models (Fig. 3). According to Fig. 3, at the highest possible level of selected green investment and innovation in the regions of Russia, the socio-economic situation of the regions increases from 32.94 points to 64.97 points (by 97.23%) under the following conditions: • The share of business structures that reduce pollution is increased by 76.39%; • The share of business structures that recycle production waste, water, or materials is increased by 139.33%; • The share of business structures that reduce and reproduce natural resources used in agriculture is increased by 305.27%. In this case, quality of life increases from 42.29 points to 54.82 points (by 29.63%).

5 Conclusion The research results confirmed the hypothesis. The contribution of business to regional economic development in Russia is fragmented—it is limited to three (of the seven considered) areas of green investment and innovation: 1. 2.

Reduction of environmental pollution; Recycling of industrial waste, water, or materials;

Green Investment and Innovation as a Basis …

3.

627

Reduction and reproduction of natural resources used in agriculture.

The following areas of green investment and innovation turned out to be insignificant for the regional economy: • • • •

Reduction of material costs per unit of production; Reduction of energy costs per unit of production; Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere; Replacing raw materials and supplies with safe or less hazardous ones.

Non-significant areas of implementation of green investment and innovation are implemented more actively (average score of 43.31 points) than the areas significant (average score of 41.05 points) for the economy of the region. In the future, by increasing green investment and business innovation, the socio-economic situation of Russian regions can be improved by 97.23% and the quality of life—by 29.63% through the implementation of the following author’s recommendations: • Increase in the share of business structures that reduce environmental pollution by 76.39%; • Increase in the share of business structures engaged in recycling production waste, water, or materials by 139.33%; • Increase in the share of business structures that reduce and reproduce natural resources used in agriculture by 305.27%. The contribution of the research lies in the fact that the obtained results develop, clarify, and promote the practical implementation in developing countries (including Russia) of the new concept of business economics, which is formed under the influence of the sustainable development agenda.

References 1. Alon I, Godinho MM (2017) Business incubators in a developing economy: Evidence from Brazil’s northeast region. Sci Publ Policy 44(1):13–25. https://doi.org/10.1093/scipol/scw008 2. Braga JP, Semmler W, Grass D (2021) De-risking of green investments through a green bond market—empirics and a dynamic model. J Econ Dyn Control 131:104201. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jedc.2021.104201 3. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (2021) Regions of Russia. Socio-economic indicators 2020—science and innovation. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov. ru/folder/210/document/13204. Accessed 3 Oct 2021 4. García-Sánchez I-M, Somohano-Rodríguez F-M, Amor-Esteban V, Frías-Aceituno J-V (2021) Which region and which sector leads the circular economy? CEBIX, a multivariant index based on business actions. J Environ Manage 297:113299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021. 113299 5. Green Patrol (2021) Ecological rating of Russia 2021. Retrieved from https://greenpatrol.ru/ ru/stranica-dlya-obshchego-reytinga/ekologicheskiy-reyting-subektov-rf?tid=434. Accessed 3 Oct 2021

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6. Ikram M, Ferasso M, Sroufe R, Zhang Q (2021) Assessing green technology indicators for cleaner production and sustainable investments in a developing country context. J Clean Prod 322:129090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129090 7. Lasarte-López JM, Carbonero-Ruz M, Nekhay O, Rodero-Cosano ML (2021) Why do regional economies behave differently? A modelling approach to analyse region-specific dynamics along the business cycle. Appl Econ Lett 28(16):1391–1399. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2020. 1820436 8. Magalhães N (2021) The green investment paradigm: Another headlong rush. Ecol Econ 190:107209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107209 9. Mdehheb Z, Elkihel B, Bouamama M, Hammouti B, Delaunois F (2020) The environmental management system and its application impacts on the business economy in the eastern region of morocco. Caspian J Environ Sci 18(1):13–20. https://doi.org/10.22124/cjes.2020.3974 10. Morozova IA, Kuzmina EV, Kuzmina MI, Shevchenko SA, Avdeyuk OA (2021) Economic development of the territory on the basis of formation of regional innovation system in conditions of digitalization. In: Popkova EG, Sergi BS (eds) Modern global economic system: evolutional development vs. revolutionary leap, pp 974–982. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-69415-9_108 11. RIA Rating (2021) Quality of life in Russian regions—rating 2020, Feb 16. Retrieved from https://riarating.ru/infografika/20210216/630194637.html. Accessed 3 Oct 2021 12. RIA Rating (2021). Rating of socio-economic status of regions—2021 (based on the results of 2020), May 31. Retrieved from https://riarating.ru/infografika/20210531/630201353.html. Accessed 3 Oct 2021 13. Sitnikova SE, Polusmakova NS, Golovetsky NY (2020) Model of commercialization of university’s innovations based on AI. In: Popkova E, Sergi B (eds) Artificial intelligence: anthropogenic nature vs. social origin. Springer, Cham, pp 404–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-39319-9_46 14. Zahan I, Chuanmin S (2021) Towards a green economic policy framework in China: role of green investment in fostering clean energy consumption and environmental sustainability. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(32):43618–43628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13041-2

Technological Security in the Digital Environment, Data Protection, and Information Security

The Digital Platform as an Innovative Tool for the Development of Technological Safety, on the Example of Dairy Engineering Olga B. Digilina

and Mikhail M. Kulumbegov

Abstract To prevent a decrease in the competitiveness of Russian manufacturers of dairy equipment, it is proposed to transform the business model of interaction between market participants in the domestic mechanical engineering based on the introduction of a digital e-commerce platform, which will allow all suppliers and potential customers to be brought together into one network. The development of the first specialized digital platform will contribute to the development of the domestic market for food processing equipment, reduce the dependence of Russian dairy producers on foreign equipment suppliers, and, thereby, increase the country’s technological security in the face of sanctions. The introduction of a digital platform will allow for continuous monitoring of the real technological state of the dairy industry and dairy machine-building enterprises. The article reflects the perspectives of industry participants in the implementation of industry-specific e-commerce, namely the rights and obligations, interactions, regulation, and benefits depending on the role represented. Keywords Technological security · E-commerce · Competitiveness · Innovation · Food industry · Dairy industry · Equipment JEL Classification F23 · F63 · L81 · O14

1 Introduction Among the various types of agricultural products, dairy products play an important role, which is necessary for rational human nutrition. The great Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov emphasized: “Milk is the only product known to us, which is specially made by nature itself, as a food product” [8]. O. B. Digilina (B) · M. M. Kulumbegov Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia M. M. Kulumbegov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_68

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Because milk is a socially significant product and is included in the consumer basket, the development of technological and food security comes to the fore. Adequate equipment is required for quality products. According to [2] the Ministry of Industry and Trade, there are 62 enterprises producing equipment for the dairy industry in Russia. This list includes enterprises for some, this type of activity is additional and is not included in the main 10, as well as those that, according to the Unified State Register of Legal Entities (USRLE), do not have this type of activity in general, and have not been engaged in entrepreneurial activity for several years. Most of the working enterprises have a small staff and do not have the financial capabilities for the innovative development of the company, both technologies and the company itself on the market through e-commerce. Therefore, they have additional difficulties in finding distribution channels for their products to new customers. Conversely, potential customers may not find the required information about suppliers and purchase equipment from foreign manufacturers. Currently, Russian food industry enterprises, despite large-scale investment injections, demonstrate a low level of digitalization. Often, Russian manufacturers do not understand how to generate information technology to achieve efficiency in their activities [4]. According to official statistics, the share of organizations using ERP and CRM systems remains extremely insignificant and amounts to about 10% of the total [6]. All this determines the relevance of the selected study.

2 Methodology The purpose of this article is to identify and determine the factors for the development of technological safety, using the example of dairy engineering. Internet commerce (e-commerce, e-commerce) is a dynamically developing industry all over the world. In a broad sense, e-commerce is the business of carrying out commercial transactions using electronic means of data exchange [1]. The implementation of digital platforms is currently one of the most attractive areas in business in Russia and abroad [3]. This is due to the optimization of costs for organizations and at the same time convenience and time savings for a potential client. Innovative tools that have appeared in the global space equalize the potential of economic entities [9]. The line between company sizes is blurring. The quality and cost of the goods come to the fore. In addition, the global network makes it possible for goods and services to enter world commodity markets, bypassing the restrictions associated with quotas of certain states [7]. Modern Russian authors and researchers such as Kireev, Shesterina, Sharafutdinova, Tomtosov, Chemezov, Bayanaeva, Solovieva, Kochneva, Sibileva, Lopatkin, Golikova consider the development of Internet commerce in Russia and abroad as a B2C market, and in no way a potential B2B. In their works, the authors conduct field research, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of Internet commerce, rank customers by segment, and identify the most popular products. Large marketplaces

The Digital Platform as an Innovative Tool …

633

“Ozon” (Russia) and “Amazon” (USA) are chosen as objects of research. However, none of these works considers the impact of digital platforms on the development of technical security of industrial sectors, even though the development of digital platforms is currently one of the most attractive areas in business in Russia and abroad [3]. The authors studied regulatory documents and documents of official statistics, state federal and sub-federal programs aimed at stimulating the development of food industry sectors, which made it possible to identify some technological safety problems, the most significant of which is dependence on imported equipment, an increase in the scientific and technical lag of Russia, loss competitiveness of national equipment and technology, lack of investment in the industry, weak innovation activity of enterprises.

3 Results How do I find the equipment or parts I need when my warranty is over? Many buyers are looking for ways to optimize their purchases, so they are increasingly turning to the Internet to find new suppliers, distributors, and dealers. However, the websites of manufacturers and other participants in the sales network are designed in the style of the 2000s. Sites have a weak design, photos of the equipment in the minimum resolution. Prices are not indicated on the site. All positions have the status “On order” or “Specify the price”. If we present an accident at a factory, then most likely the buyer will buy quickly from a trusted supplier at any price, and will not send inquiries to all companies that have gone online for a certain type of equipment. However, most of the foreign equipment is supplied to order from customers. The delivery time is determined by the availability of equipment in the manufacturer’s warehouse or the timing of its manufacture, as well as its delivery to the plant. The average lead time is 6–8 weeks after the customer places the order. For Russian equipment manufacturers, high barriers to entry into large enterprises lie in the fact that all purchased holdings are foreign companies that are focused on high-tech and high-quality products [5]. In order to increase the trade turnover of Russian food equipment, it is recommended to develop an “Internet store” for the sale of equipment and spare parts “just in time” and “on order”. Thanks to the proposed solution, companies will be able to increase the liquidity of their main product, which is stored in warehouses for quick implementation and emergencies at client enterprises. The main feature of such an online solution will be the development of the first specialized site, where the goods will be sold with the specified cost and delivery time. Potential business scaling will allow working not only with legal entities but also with individuals, thanks to terminals and online cash registers.

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Foreign equipment manufacturer

Distributor of foreign equipment

Clients of the Russian Federation: Private farms and dairy producers Commission agent equipment for dairy engineering

Delivery

Russian equipment manufacturer EAEU clients: The state

All orders through the ecommerce site

Private farms and dairy producers

Fig. 1 Development of a digital business area for manufacturers and consumers of equipment for the dairy industry. Source Developed and suggested by the author

The site will include such types of products as processing and packaging equipment; butter maker, (mixing, pumping, bunkers); feeding devices, melting; autoclaves; pumps; stators and rotors; components (hoses (sleeves), seals, repair kits, fittings, and connections); hygienic fittings (valves, control heads, sampling cocks, sight glasses) and service. To prevent a decrease in the competitiveness of Russian manufacturers, it is proposed to transform the business model of interaction between market participants in the domestic dairy engineering industry based on the introduction of an e-commerce platform. The interactions of the participants are shown in Fig. 1. All companies will need to be identified. To do this, you will need to upload scans of constituent documents: Certificate of OGRN, record sheet for the Unified State Register of Legal Entities for the last 2 weeks, Certificate of INN, Charter of the company with marks of the tax authority on registration, Decision, or order on the appointment of the General Director. Certain pieces of equipment may require quality certificates and documents confirming the right to sell brand goods to conduct commercial activities. Such documents can be a declaration of conformity, a certificate of conformity, a voluntary certificate of conformity, an exemption letter, and a certificate of state registration. These measures will help to identify enterprises with quality products. If an organization is unable to provide the relevant documents, it will not be able to become a supplier of goods and services on this platform. The quality control of the supplier’s work will be carried out due to the indicator of the quality of service, which will depend on two components: Percentage of cancellations and Percentage of late deliveries.

The Digital Platform as an Innovative Tool …

635

To provide advanced service, companies will be able to implement online training so that they can cover different regions of our country and the EAEU countries. The proximity to industrial plants will reduce downtime. Employee training can be conducted online through the ZOOM or SKYPE platform, as well as internships on ongoing projects. The possibility of developing online consultations of Russian and foreign specialists will help improve the quality of services in the market of Russia and the EAEU countries. The advantages of this method are the optimization of training costs, as well as minimization of the costs of the Labor Fund from industrial enterprises, allowing attracting a “cheaper” labor force. In addition, employees can be registered under an employment contract with a remote nature of work. This will allow the company not to open separate divisions and branches in other regions, which will simplify the delivery of accounting and tax reports, as well as reduce the unemployment rate for individual specialties. Currently, all large marketplaces began to work not as large-scale suppliers of goods and services, but as commission agents for the products provided. They have optimized their inventory and offer legal entities on their behalf to sell their products for a set commission. Since there is no information on equipment manufacturers in the food machinery market the Ministry of Industrial Trade does not update the catalog with up-to-date data on equipment manufacturers; it is proposed to create an e-commerce site to increase the competitiveness and development of the dairy engineering industry. Prospects for the interaction of project participants are presented in the form of Tables 1 and 2. An additional advantage for buyers will be the ability to identify identical goods and analogs from different sellers at different prices. Suppliers will be forced not only to publish prices in the public domain, which they do not do now but also to optimize the selling price relative to the competitor. Sellers get access to the prices of competitors, buyers to the prices of suppliers. They no longer need to send quotations to competitors/suppliers to obtain pricing information on products. The state sees the full picture of the movement of funds through direct sales between the seller and the buyer through a commission agent. Reducing the possibility of optimizing the tax burden by resale to third parties.

4 Conclusion No Russian company is fully realizing its digital potential. In modern realities, it is the digitalization of business that will allow it to scale. Thanks to digital solutions on the Internet, you can find more information about this or that equipment and spare parts. The development of such a platform will be able to optimize the costs of equipment manufacturers and manufacturers of end products for marketing, participation in exhibitions, labor costs in finding potential customers or suppliers, find the optimal

Supply high-quality products to the Russian market

Provides equipment to the distributor for his financial resources

Rights and obligations

Interaction

Receives the goods and keeps them in his warehouse. Sends the product to customers after receiving the application through the e-commerce site

Sell the products of a foreign equipment manufacturer on an e-commerce website

Distributor

Source Developed and suggested by the author

Foreign equipment manufacturer

Role

Sends the product to customers after receiving the application through the e-commerce site

Produce and market released products on an e-commerce site

Russian equipment manufacturer

Accepts the goods to its warehouse (if necessary), receives funds from the buyer, and redirects them to the supplier after the transaction is completed. Provides e-commerce site access to sellers and buyers

Assist in the sale of equipment of Russian and foreign production

Digital platform

Buys goods through an e-commerce site transfers funds through a commission agent. Accepts the received goods

Purchase equipment through an e-commerce site

Dairy end producers

Receives a book of purchases/sales when submitting quarterly reports of all participants in the business model

Provide government support to Russian manufacturers

The state

Table 1 Perspectives (rights, obligations, and interactions) of industry participants in the implementation of industry-specific e-commerce

636 O. B. Digilina and M. M. Kulumbegov

Sales volume and timely payment

Potential increase in sales

Regulation

Benefits

No need to participate in trade fairs to advertise products, no internet advertising costs required, easy market penetration

Sending goods according to the application from the site

Distributor

Source Developed and suggested by the author

Foreign equipment manufacturer

Role

No need to participate in trade fairs to advertise products, no internet advertising costs required, easy market penetration

Sending goods according to the application from the site

Russian equipment manufacturer Quality/condition of the purchased goods timely payment to suppliers

Dairy end producers

Receiving a Access to direct commission from each manufacturers and transaction distributors, therefore, lower purchase costs, expansion of the supplier base, open information on prices

The quality/condition of the goods supplied to the storage warehouse, the timely transfer of funds to suppliers, the development and maintenance of the website of the electronic commission

Digital platform

Table 2 Prospects (regulation and benefits) of industry participants in the implementation of industry-specific e-commerce

Transparent taxpayer scheme

The chain of input and output VAT controls the amount of VAT payable through tax cross-checks between counterparties

The state

The Digital Platform as an Innovative Tool … 637

638

O. B. Digilina and M. M. Kulumbegov

solution for a certain spare part, which will be presented on the website of different suppliers with different prices. The development of a digital platform will contribute to an increase in the competitiveness of food equipment manufacturers and, thereby, an increase in the technological security of the country if the following conditions are met: 1.

2. 3.

Strict requirements will be established for suppliers to enter the digital platform following GOSTs, standardization and quality assessment for industrial equipment and, if necessary, requests for testing protocols; Suppliers optimize selling prices because identical goods and analogue goods will be identified from different sellers at different prices; Based on the activities of the digital platform, an analytical note will be developed on enterprises that are already operating on the digital platform and enterprises that could not enter and transfer it to the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Russian Federation in order to improve the Food Industry Development Strategy until 2030 and develop state programs to support such enterprises;

On the one hand, stimulating the introduction of new technologies will not allow backward enterprises to enter the market, on the other hand, these enterprises will be able to become an investment object to further diversify or modernize the production of a technical park through state support and public–private partnerships, based on sales statistics of foreign manufacturers. 1.

2. 3.

4.

Development of international agreements between Russian and foreign cooperation enterprises to promote one or another equipment on the EAEU market; Increasing the innovative activity of Russian enterprises through the development of online training by experienced Russian and foreign specialists; Development of a program to compensate for commission costs when promoting goods on a digital platform as part of the food industry development strategy until 2030; With the development of this platform, open a research institute for the development of the food industry in the territory of the Russian Federation and the EAEU countries.

References 1. Archipenko TS (2014) Trade via the Internet and the prospects for its development. In: Buglanova EP (ed) Economic, environmental and socio-cultural prospects for the development of Russia, the EAEU countries and the near abroad, materials of the International Scientific and Practical Conference: in 2 parts, pp 8–17 2. Catalog of Russian manufacturers of machinery and equipment for the food and processing industry. http://minpromtorg.gov.ru/docs/#!katalog_rossiyskih_proizvoditeley_mashin_i_obor udovaniya_dlya_pishhevoy_i_pererabatyvayushhey_promyshlennosti 3. Gorshenina EV (2010) Sorokin PA Internet technologies in e-commerce. Econ Res 2

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4. Khachirov AD, Khubulova VV (2018) Industry in the context of the digital economy. Bull Acad Knowl 2(25). https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/promyshlennost-v-kontekste-tsifrovoy-eko nomiki Accessed: 03.29.2021 5. Kulumbegov MM (2018) Analysis of the current state of foreign and Russian manufacturers of equipment for the food and dairy industry using the questionnaire method. Bull Eurasian Sci 10(3):26 6. Monitoring the development of the information society in the Russian Federation. Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/business/it/monitor_rf.xls 7. Shesternina MV (2018). Internet commerce as an element of the digital economy of Russia. In: Gulyaev GY (ed) Open innovation: a collection of articles of the Vth International scientific and practical conference, Penza, 12 June 2018. “Science and Education”, Penza, pp 214–216 8. Veklenko VI, Cherkashina MV, Kovalenko VP (2011) The efficiency of the reproductive process in the dairy subcomplex of the agro-industrial complex of the Kursk Region. Bull Kursk State Agricult Acad 6:38–41 9. Zvereva AO, Ilyashenko SB (2018) Innovative solutions in trade in the context of global economic processes. Russian J Entrepre 3. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/innovatsionnye-resheniya-vtorgovle-v-kontekste-globalnyh-ekonomicheskih-protsessov Accessed: 03.30.2021

Robotization: Incentives for Development and Impact on Employment Ekaterina I. Shumskaia , Anton V. Oleynik , and Nikita A. Badaev

Abstract At the present stage of automation and robotization in the mining and manufacturing industries, there is a decrease in the demand for labor due to technological solutions that reduce the demand for labor in developed countries. The study put forward a hypothesis about a negative correlation between employment in these industries and the equipment of production facilities with industrial robots. To confirm it, an econometric analysis of the impact of robotization on the share of employed in the industrial sector was carried out. Also, several hypotheses were put forward about the reasons for robotization: a decrease in the cost of robots, an increase in their labor productivity, and an increase in the minimum wage in developed countries. Keywords Automation · Robotization · Employment rate · Industrial employment · Industrial robots · Minimum wages JEL Classification O11 · O14 · O33 · O51 · O52

1 Introduction The economy has been undergoing radical transformations since the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century. Over the past centuries, the previously decisive sector of agriculture has gradually lost its fundamental importance in the economic environment—the industry has become increasingly important. The leading countries developed rapidly based on the extraction and processing of minerals until the twentyfirst century. Over the past century, the image of the worker as the most important element of the economy has become firmly rooted in the masses’ consciousness.

E. I. Shumskaia (B) · A. V. Oleynik MGIMO University, Moscow, Russia N. A. Badaev University of Passau, Passau, Germany © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_69

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Nevertheless, today’s society is crossing another milestone, entering a new turn of economic development, where the service sector generates most of the jobs and added value. As before, this was facilitated by rapid scientific and technological progress. In the case of the extractive and manufacturing industries, the demand for labor is declining, in part due to technological solutions that reduce the need for workers. In this paper, a hypothesis is put forward about the inverse dependence of employment in these industries on equipping the manufacture with industrial robots. Based on research, an attempt was made to conduct an econometric analysis of a particular case within the industrial sector.

2 Methodology The study focuses on the experience of the following developed countries from 2015 to 2019: Germany, Italy, Denmark, the USA, Netherlands, Spain, Austria, and France. As a basis for the study, we took the data of the International Labor Organization on the share of employment of subgroup 81 of the ISCO-08 classification from the total employment level [14], as well as the robotization coefficient provided by the International Federation of Robotics [10–13]. Subgroup 81 includes employment in the areas of operation and monitoring of an industrial plant for the extraction of minerals or the processing of metal, minerals, glass, ceramics, wood, paper, chemicals or water treatment, power generation, and other purposes—the management and control of automatic or semi-automatic assembly lines, as well as industrial robots [15]. The choice of the employed group is based on the fact that this highlighted category may be most susceptible to the effects of robotization since industrial robots are often involved in assembly lines. The researched connection is also indicated in some other studies. Thus, it was revealed that robotization could have an impact on reducing the number of machine tool operators; however, this process was accompanied by an increase in technology and equipment maintenance personnel [3]. The linear regression model used in the study is as follows: Y = β1 + β2 ∗ X + ε,

(1)

where Y is the annual change in the share of employment in ISCO-08 subgroup 81 of total employment, X is the annual change in the robotization coefficient. It should be noted that the quality of the analysis of this dependence is possible to be improved, provided that the amount of data on the robotization rate increases, as well as when the sample of employment groups is narrowed according to ISCO, excluding employment groups that are not subject to risks, within which it will be possible to replace human labor with industrial robots. It is also necessary to analyze other factors affecting the causal relationship, and exclude their bias to the assessment.

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3 Results The modern stage of industrial development is characterized by a new stage in automation technologies. Automation can be defined as a technology by which a process or procedure is performed without human intervention. People can be present as observers or participants; however, the task is performed autonomously [8]. A particular example of automation is robotization—equipping production with industrial robots. According to the definition of the International Organization for Standardization, an industrial robot is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable multipurpose manipulator, programmed and functioning on three or more axes [17]. On average, the world has seen a pronounced increase in the number of robots used in industrial production. Over the past decade, the proxy indicator, which shows the number of industrial robots in operating inventories, has tripled on average (Fig. 1). Under the influence of automation and robotization, intensive changes in the labor market are taking place, the consequences of which occupy a leading position on the agenda in various countries, and scientists around the world continue to research in this area. It should be emphasized that the works cited have a result that is limited in the field of application. When describing the results of other studies, as well as interpreting the data obtained using our regression model, it is necessary to take into account the specifics of the complete picture of the economic situation. In general, there are two types of the impact of technological innovation on employment: the substitution effect, which directly affects workers, since the tasks they performed have undergone automation, and the productivity effect, which increases the demand for labor in areas that appear and develop thanks to innovative technologies [1]. In more recent studies, researchers conclude that there is a significant negative impact of robots on employment and wages in urban agglomerations and associated areas where workers live. It was found that each additional robot per thousand workers reduces the employment rate by 0.18–0.34% points [2]. According to a study by Oxford Economics [18], the proliferation of robots has already had a strong impact on industrial employment worldwide: on average, each 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 2010

2011

2012

2013

Asia-Pacific

2014 Europe

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

North and South America

Fig. 1 Operating stocks of industrial robots, thousand units. Source Compiled by the authors [14]

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installed robot replaces 1.6 workers in manufacturing. Based on data on projected increases in the number of active robots in major manufacturing countries by 2030 (including the need to replace some robots over time as they wear out), the authors conclude that nearly 20 million manufacturing jobs worldwide will disappear for robotic automation, which is equal to 8.5% of the total number of jobs in the industry. The subject of another study was data on robotization and employment in seven European countries: Sweden, Italy, Denmark, the USA, Netherlands, Austria, Spain, and France. The selected number of countries accounted for 85% of the robotization market in 2007. It was found that the introduction of one additional robot per thousand people employed in the economy leads to a decrease in the employment rate by 0.16–0.20% points. At the same time, robotization most of all affects workers with secondary education, men, as well as the young labor force (18–25 years old). The impact on workers of the lower class is not statistically significant, since this type of worker often performs different types of tasks, which are economically unprofitable to automate [3]. Within the framework of this study, we deduced the presence of a correlation between the degree of robotization of production and the level of employment in the particular case of the industrial sector. Based on the results of linear regression analysis, it was found that each additional robot for 10,000 jobs reduces the employment share of the corresponding subgroup by 0.005 percentage points (Fig. 2). At the same time, the level of employment of the total indicator in the studied countries is from 1.5 to 3.5% (Appendix 1). We also hypothesize a range of factors that can stimulate the equipping of production facilities with industrial robots. Among the main factors for the accelerated

Fig. 2 Relationship (linear regression) between robot density and share of stationary plant and machine operators in total employment in eight countries, 2015–2019. Source Compiled and calculated by the authors [10–14]

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introduction of robots into operation in the scientific literature, mainly an increase in productivity (approximately three times from 1990 to 2007) and a decrease in the cost of robots (twice in the same period) are mentioned [3]. The relationship between the cost and productivity of robots and the demand for them seems to be extremely obvious. Enterprises get the opportunity to replace the labor force with industrial robots at a lower cost, and the increased productivity will also positively influence the payback time. Thus, there is a synergistic effect in terms of the benefits of robotization for business, which stimulates the level of business demand for such technologies. Nowadays the average cost of an industrial robot can be about 50 thousand US dollars, while there is a trend towards a decrease in their cost [20], which was emphasized in the above studies. So, despite a cost similar to 10–15 average worker wages in developed countries [16], the availability of robots for business will increase due to the positive feedback arising from economies of scale in the production of robots. An additional contribution to the motivation of enterprises to replace workers can be made by the fact of an increase in the minimum wage. Over the past ten years, most European countries have increased the minimum monthly wage in some cases up to 2–3 times (Fig. 3). Moreover, in most cases, the average annual growth in the size of the minimum wage was approximately two percent [7] or higher, which exceeded inflation [21]. It is worth noting that in some European countries the minimum wage is fixed sectoral, while a collective agreement is concluded, for example, between a government body and a trade union [22]. By raising the minimum wage, government regulators or public institutions increase the fixed costs of business, pushing them to find ways to reduce them. One of the solutions is the replacement of labor with automated technological solutions, which in the medium and long term provide a competitive advantage over other entrepreneurs by reducing the cost of manufactured products after the equipment payback period. Forecasting changes in the level of employed in industrial production. It is worthwhile to assess the upcoming transformations of the labor market as a whole. In the 2500 2010

2021

2000 1500 1000 500 0

Fig. 3 Comparison of minimum wages in 2010 and 2021, e (the first German indicator dates back to 2014). Source Compiled by the authors [7]

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long term, it is expected that the difference in wages between workers with different levels of education will increase. This will happen due to a decrease in the number of workers with an average level of education due to their displacement by automation technologies. Along with that, all the tasks of workers with a secondary level of education that cannot be automated will be transferred to workers with a high level of education, as a result of this, the wages of the latter will increase [19]. Using data over the last quarter of a century that the market price of routine tasks is falling, we can say that the demand for manual labor, which cannot be replaced by robots, will also grow [1, 3]. Nevertheless, we consider it necessary to emphasize that in the 28 EU countries the total unemployment rate decreased by 2.1% points between 2010 and 2019 [23], and the value-added generated by the extractive and manufacturing industries increased over the specified period from 3.5 trillion euros to 5 trillion euros [6] in current prices with an increase in the number of people employed in this area only from 42 to 43 million people [4], while the total employment rate grew at an outstripping pace from 225 to 242 million people [5]. Accordingly, the importance of industry for the economies of countries is decreasing only in terms of employment of some professions against the background of an increase in the overall level of employment in other sectors. Thus, over the past 30 years, the share of the service sector in the overall level of the global gross product has grown significantly [22]. Presumably, this is the sector where compensatory demand for labor can arise, while the need for manual labor in industrial production is anticipated gradually to decrease.

4 Conclusion Based on the complex of studies it can be concluded that each additional robot for ten thousand jobs significantly reduces the employment rate. This is most pronounced in industry, where industrial robots can perform the functions of a labor force, especially if their tasks can be described as routine and requiring physical strength. The study also put forward several hypotheses about the causes of robotization that require additional research. According to the authors, the main stimulating factors for automation can be three factors: a decrease in the cost of robots, an increase in their productivity, and an increase in the minimum wage.

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Appendix 1: Results of the Linear Regression

Source

Number of obs = 32

SS

df

Ms

Model

0.065703364

1

0.065703364

F(1, 30) = 12.14

Residual

0.162312486

30

0.005410416

Prob > F = 0.0015

Total

0.22801585

31

0.00735535

R-Squared = 0.2882 Adj R-Squared = 0.2644 Root MSE = 0.07356

ISC0810fT ~ 1

Coef

Std. Err

T

P > |t|

[95% Conf. Interval]

RD

− 0.0049663

0.0014251

− 3.48

0.002

− 0.0078769

− 0.0020558

_cons

0.046942

0.0231476

2.03

0.052

− 0.0003317

− 0.0942157

Source Compiled and calculated by the authors [10–14]

References 1. Acemoglu D, Autor D (2011) Skills, tasks, and technologies: implications for employment and earnings. Handbook Labor Econ. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7218(11)02410-5,1043-1171 2. Acemoglu D, Restrepo P (2017) Robots and jobs: evidence from us labor markets. NBER working paper series 3. Chiacchio F, Petropoulos G, Pichler D (2018) The impact of industrial robots on EU employment and wages: A local labour market approach. Bruegel working paper 4. Eurostat (2021) Employment by A*10 industry breakdowns: craft and related trades workers + plant and machine operators and assemblers. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/dat abase. Accessed 01 Mar 2021 5. Eurostat (2021) Employment by A*10 industry breakdowns: total. https://ec.europa.eu/eur ostat/web/lfs/data/database. Accessed 01 Mar 2021 6. Eurostat (2021) Gross value added and income by A*10 industry breakdowns (nama_10_a10): [B-E] Industry (except construction) + [C] Manufacturing. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/ national-accounts/data/database. Accessed 01 Mar 2021 7. Eurostat Statistics Explained (2021) Minimum wage statistics. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ statistics-explained/index.php?title=Minimum_wage_statistics. Accessed 01 Apr 2021 8. Groover P (2014) Fundamentals of modern manufacturing. In: Materials, processes, and systems, 5th edn. Wiley 9. IFR (2021). IFR Press Conference 2017. https://ifr.org/downloads/press/Presentation_PC_27_ Sept_2017.pdf. Accessed 16 Mar 2021 10. IFR (2021) IFR Press Conference 2018. https://ifr.org/downloads/press2018/WR_Presentat ion_Industry_and_Service_Robots_rev_5_12_18.pdf. Accessed 15 Mar 2021 11. IFR (2021). IFR Press Conference 2019. https://ifr.org/downloads/press2018/IFR%20World% 20Robotics%20Presentation%20-%2018%20Sept%202019.pdf. Accessed 15 Mar 2021

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12. IFR (2021). IFR Press Conference 2020. https://ifr.org/downloads/press2018/Presentation_ WR_2020.pdf. Accessed 05 Mar 2021 13. IFR (2021). World Robotics Report 2016. https://ifr.org/ifr-press-releases/news/world-rob otics-report-2016. Accessed 12 Mar 2021 14. ILO (2021) Employment by sex and economic activity—ISIC level 2 (thousands)— Annual. https://www.ilo.org/shinyapps/bulkexplorer2/?lang=en&segment=indicator&id= SDG_0922_NOC_RT_A. Accessed 22 Mar 2021 15. ILO (2021) International Standard Classification of Occupations. Structure, group definitions and correspondence tables. https://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/isco/docs/publicati on08.pdf. Accessed 31 Mar 2021 16. ILO (2021) Mean nominal monthly earnings of employees by sex and economic activity. https://www.ilo.org/shinyapps/bulkexplorer54/?lang=en&segment=indicator&id=EAR_ 4MTH_SEX_ECO_CUR_NB_A. Accessed 16 Mar 2021 17. International Organization for Standardization (2021) About ISO/TC 299 Robotics. https:// committee.iso.org/home/tc299. Accessed 22 Mar 2021 18. Oxford economics (2021) How robots change the world. What automation means for jobs and productivity. http://resources.oxfordeconomics.com/how-robots-change-the-world. Accessed 22 Mar 2021 19. Safronchuk M, Sergeeva M (2021) The concept of economic growth through digital economy perspective. In: Modern global economic system: evolutional development vs. revolutionary leap, ISC 2019, pp 1264–1271 20. Statista (2021) The average selling price of industrial robots from 2009 to 2018. https://www.sta tista.com/statistics/830578/average-selling-price-of-industrial-robots/. Accessed 31 Mar 2021 21. The World Bank (2021) Inflation, consumer prices (annual %)—European Union. https://data. worldbank.org/indicator/FP.CPI.TOTL.ZG?locations=EU. Accessed 16 Mar 2021 22. The World Bank (2021) Services, value added (% of GDP), world. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/NV.SRV.TOTL.ZS?end=2019&start=1960&view=chart/. Accessed 16 Mar 2021 23. The World Bank (2021) Unemployment, total (% of the total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate)—European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/national-accounts/data/database. Accessed 01 Apr 2021

Russian Aircraft “Sukhoi Superjet-100”: Position in Russian and Global Markets Elizaveta S. Kidun and Natalia A. Volgina

Abstract Sukhoi Superjet-100 (SSJ-100) is a Russian short-haul narrow-body passenger aircraft developed by “Sukhoi Civil Aircraft” Company with the participation of some foreign companies (whose contribution to the value of the aircraft reaches, according to some estimates, 70%). The aircraft was commissioned in 2011, and after over 10 years of serial production, about 200 aircraft were produced. Initially, the aircraft was intended for sale in both foreign and domestic markets. The purpose of this study is to assess the position of the SSJ-100 aircraft in the Russian and world markets over the past decade (2011–2021). Based on the use of methods of analysis and synthesis, as well as comparative analysis, the authors came to the following conclusions. The share of SSJ-100 in domestic traffic performed on all civilian regional aircraft has been steadily increasing since the start of its operation and is currently about 51% (2019 data). Dominance in the domestic market was achieved largely due to non-market factors (government subsidies for purchases, artificial support for demand, discounts on rental payments). In the foreign market, the Russian SSJ-100 failed to take a strong position. Among the main reasons are technical problems and low reliability of aircraft, interruptions in the supply of spare parts, as well as intense competition with Brazilian Embraer and Canadian Bombardier. Preferences for potential foreign buyers (in particular, dumping prices and preferential terms for financing purchases) could not turn the tide. In total, about 35 aircraft were sold abroad (transferred to civil operators). In 2019, the Mexican Interjet was the last of its foreign customers to refuse purchases of the SSJ-100. According to the authors, the failures of the SSJ-100 with the entry and consolidation in foreign markets are mainly associated with the prevalence of non-market mechanisms in production and sales. And if this works in the domestic market, then in the foreign market, in conditions of intense competition, such a strategy does not lead to positive results. Keywords Civil aircraft industry · Sukhoi Superjet-100 (SSJ-100) · Russian market · Global market E. S. Kidun · N. A. Volgina (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_70

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JEL Classification L93 · F12

1 Introduction The civil (passenger) aviation industry is an important branch of the economy, which indicates the presence of modern technologies, design solutions and R&D in the country. For Russia, SukhoiSuperjet-100 (SSJ-100) is largely an image project—for the first time in post-Soviet history, a new airliner was created “from the scratch” to enter the domestic and foreign markets. It was supposed to compete in foreign markets with regional aircraft of the Brazilian Embraer and the Canadian Bombardier. The SSJ-100 is a Russian-made aircraft that is a part of the segment of shorthaul aircraft with a narrow fuselage. The aircraft was developed by the Sukhoi Civil Aircraft Company, with the contribution of some foreign companies. So, the company “Boeing” helped “Sukhoi Civil Aircraft” in the creation of the SSJ-100, both financially and through the transfer of its technologies and specialists, and also advised the creation process. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, this is the first aircraft created on the territory of the Russian Federation. The aircraft was created after winning the competition for the creation of a regional aircraft, which was held in 2003. The cost of the aircraft, including the design project, start of production, assembly, flight tests, and subsequent certification, was accounted for approximately $600 million [6]. Initially, the amount requested from the Government was significantly less. It was assumed that the aircraft would take a strong position in the Russian and world markets. The purpose of this study is to assess the dynamics of the SSJ-100 aircraft’s position on the Russian and global market over the past decade (2011–2021).

2 Methodology Methodology for the study of the changes in the positions of the SSJ-100 in the Russian and global markets includes a comparative analysis that will allow correlating the positions of the SSJ-100 in global markets compared to its main competitors, Brazilian Embraer and Canadian Bombardier. Such research methods as analysis and synthesis allow assessing the future trends of the SSJ-100 presence in foreign markets, as well as the factors contributing to and hindering this goal. The main sources of current information about the activities of the SSJ-100 in comparison with the activities of its main competitors were the official websites of the companies.

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3 Results 3.1 SSJ-100 Production Fragmentation The SSJ-100 was conceived as a vertically specialized production with participants from many countries. At the same time, Russia was responsible for: design, assembly, supply, marketing, after-sales service, and financing. In addition to that, the share of foreign components in the assembly is: from 40% (manufacturer’s assessment) to 80% (independent experts’ assessment). About 40 suppliers from 10 countries participated in the production of the SSJ-100 [6]: Thales (France): avionics (onboard equipment); B/E Aerospace (USA): aircraft cabin equipment, including oxygen system, interior elements, doors; Liebherr (Germany): management and life support systems; Intertechnique/Zodiac Aerospace Group (France): fuel system; Vibro-Meter (Switzerland): engine vibration sensors; Hamilton Sundstrand (USA): power supply system; Autronics (USA): fire protection system; Goodrich (USA): wheels, brakes; PowerJet (a joint venture of the Russian Saturn and the French Snecma): SaM146 turbojet engines. The international fragmentation of the SSJ-100 production, as a reflection of the international division of labour and specialization on the comparative advantages of the participants, was aimed at improving the overall production efficiency and reducing production costs. This allowed offering customers competitive prices in the market in the future. However, unfortunately, for some reasons, which we will discuss below, the SSJ-100 aircraft failed to take a significant position in the world market, even despite significant state support for its production.

3.2 Government Support of SSJ-100 Production The activities of the Sukhoi Civil Aircraft Company to create the SSJ-100 are included in the Federal Program “Development of Civil Aviation of the Russian Federation for 2013–2025” [5]. The main reason for this intensified state support for the aircraft is the Government’s desire to bring a competitive Russian aircraft into the market. Russia is striving to win the competition in the global civil aviation market. Because of this, the SSJ-100 constantly receives assistance from the Government in the form of financial funding. But this is not the only measure of state support. The civil aviation industry in Russia is quite important for the whole country, as many other industries depend on it. The state’s contribution to this industry is justified because of that.

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Thanks to the creation of the SSJ-100, a new design base appeared in Russia, and special conditions were made for the creation of other Russian-made aircraft, for example, the MC-21, which should enter the passenger aircraft segment, where aircraft such as Boeing and Airbus have participated. Financial support for the SSJ-100 is formed not only by investing in the project but also by maintaining demand for this aircraft. First, the State Transport Leasing Company (STLC) helps the airline attract SSJ-100s to its fleets. At the same time, the STLC itself is financed from the state budget. Thanks to the STLC, low-cost airlines were able to get the new SSJ-100, although, before that, their air fleets consisted exclusively of used aircraft. Due to the low reliability of the SSJ-100, their frequent breakdowns, the need for repair and replacement of parts, this model is often idle—while STLK compensates the airline for this downtime due to discounts on the rental payments. At the same time, the Government of the Russian Federation compensates for the losses of the STLC. STLK receives funds from the budget of the Russian Federation for the purchase of SSJ-100. Secondly, there is another tool of government support, which is the state program of guaranteeing the residual value, which was launched in 2015 [5]. The program is mainly aimed at exports support. It consists of compensation payments to lessors if, after the operation of the aircraft, its value on the market will be less than previously predicted. Third, in January 2020 the Government of the Russian Federation has issued a decree on subsidizing Russian airlines if they have Russian-made aircraft in their air fleet [3]. These measures help to support both buyers and producers. This is carried out within the framework of the state program “Development of the Aviation Industry”. Fourth, Sberbank Leasing company and VEB-Leasing company play a fairly important role in the transfer of the SSJ-100 to Aeroflot, which helps to carry out transactions on the transfer of aircraft. The entire system of state support described above is carried out because the Russian Federation cannot afford to destroy the civil air transport industry, disrupt production chains, and lose competencies. This industry creates a large number of jobs, and the creation of new aircraft models should increase interest in technical professions for young people. In addition, the revival of the Russian aviation industry should give an impetus to the development of related industries.

3.3 SSJ-100 Positions in the Russian Market Consider the position of the SSJ-100 in the domestic market. To date, the main reason for the operation of the SSJ-100 for Russian airlines is the benefits that are provided to buyers of domestic aircraft, as well as subsidizing domestic flights. The operation of the SSJ-100, in contrast to external air transport, is constantly increasing on domestic air transport, as it is ideally suited for regional air traffic. Even at the height of the pandemic, in 2020, in the face of a general decline in passenger

Russian Aircraft “Sukhoi Superjet-100” …

8

4

13

653

Azimuth

1

RusJet Yamal

17

15

Aeroflot Severstal

10

Red Wings Airlines Gazprom Avia

3

4

Rossiya 54

IrAero Yakua

Fig. 1 Number of SSJ-100 aircraft in Russian airlines. Source Compiled by authors based on statistics from [4]

traffic and a reduction in air traffic, the aircraft was intensively operated. The main operator of the SSJ-100 is the state-owned company Aeroflot. In Fig. 1, we can see that in addition to Aeroflot, the SSJ-100 is also present in the air fleet of other airlines, and its number is increasing. Problems with the aircraft for Aeroflot were compensated by very favourable conditions for its delivery, but these conditions were not offered to other airlines. UAC (The United Aircraft Corporation) claims that COVID-19 did not affect production rates, but the sale should be delayed [7]. As we can see in Table 1, SSJ-100 production decreased in 2020 compared to 2019, but only slightly, indicating a weak impact of the pandemic on SSJ-100 production.

3.4 SSJ-100 Positions in Global Markets After the planes were produced, the company’s main task was to export them, which turned out to be much more complicated than the production process. In addition to purely technical problems, the SSJ-100 has problems with the supply of components and spare parts, after-sales maintenance and repair. These problems are being solved, but not quite successfully. Because of this, aircraft are often idle. It was not easy to take a competitive place in the world market. The competitors in this segment were not Boeing and Airbus, but companies such as Bombardier and Embraer, which firmly occupied positions in the market by the time of the creation of the SSJ-100. The leader in this segment is Embraer. In Table 2, we can see the number of passenger aircraft delivered by SSJ-100 compared to commercial aircraft delivered by Embraer and Bombardier over the past decade.

2

Units

1

2009

2

2010

5

2011 12

2012

Source Compiled by authors based on statistics from [6]

2008

Year

Table 1 Number of SSJ-100s produced, 2008–2021 (units) 24

2013 36

2014 18

2015 19

2016 33

2017

24

2018

18

2019

11

2020

3

2021 (May)

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Table 2 Deliveries of the SSJ-100 and its main competitors Embraer and Bombardier, 2010–2020 (units) 2010 SSJ-100

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

5

8

14

27

21

21

25

28

6

14

Embraer

97

108

106

90

92

101

108

101

90

89

44

Bombardier

34

47

14

26

59

44

53

43

33

33

Source Compiled by authors based on statistics from [1, 2, 6]

Initially, the aircraft was created to enter foreign markets and was sold to some foreign airlines, which later on abandoned the SSJ-100 for reasons of aircraft downtime due to a lack of parts during repair and lack of quality service after the purchase. In total, about 35 aircraft were sold abroad to civilian operators. These were companies from Armenia, Indonesia, Ireland, Mexico, and Laos. In 2019 the Mexican company Interjet was the last one to abandon the operation of the SSJ-100 [8]. This segment is very narrow, and service capabilities are still limited, in addition, the SSJ-100 after certain events is accompanied by a negative reputation, which means it will be quite difficult to find new buyers, even taking into account government support. In addition, today the market situation is not conducive to the purchase of new aircraft by airlines and it is quite difficult to promote aircraft equipment to new markets. The SSJ-100 could take advantage of the consequences of the pandemic and take a more successful position in the market since it has a small capacity, but in its special modification can fly over long distances. It should be noted that studying the trends of the global civil aviation industry, we can see that domestic traffic is growing, as international flights are limited, given this, the niche of regional aircraft, that is, less spacious ones are becoming more popular, which can lead to an improvement in the performance of the SSJ-100 [9]. If we evaluate the influence of external factors on the production of the SSJ-100, we can see the negative impact of sanctions on it. The sanctions affected the SSJ-100 and led to the following consequences: problems with the supply of components; restrictions on access to certain foreign goods and technologies; foreign suppliers refuse to place the production of components in Russia and raise prices for parts. Due to the above external factors, the Russian Government decided to create a new version of the aircraft-Sukhoi Superjet New. The United Aircraft Corporation plans to spend about 120–130 billion rubles on a new version of the aircraft aimed at import substitution, which will no longer have foreign parts [7]. In any case, the creation of a new aircraft will take much more time than the Government predicts, since problems with replacing parts or replacing the engine are solved for a long time, but it takes even more time to create a new electronics system. In addition, a sufficiently long period of certification of new products will be required.

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4 Conclusion The SSJ-100 was created for sales in both domestic and foreign markets. In the process of bringing the aircraft to the domestic and foreign markets, have emerged problems that complicate its activities both within the Russian Federation and prevent it from competing with foreign companies that create aircraft for this segment. The SSJ-100 was created to become a symbol of the revival of the Russian civil aviation industry. SSJ-100 could enter the market, but it has not yet managed to take a large share in it. The problems of the Russian civil aviation industry are reflected in the positions on the world market of the SSJ-100. Government support does not compensate for problems with the supply of components, as well as with after-sales service. There is a need to create more facilities and maintenance centres. Given this, Russian products cannot compete in the world market and, even if they manage to get to it, then activities abroad stop quite quickly because of the above problems. In addition, the sanctions lead to import substitution in the civil aviation industry in Russia, since the aircraft consists mainly of imported parts. It is necessary to create new models from parts of domestic production, as well as the redistribution of state support forces. The authors note that in their opinion, the SSJ-100 will not be able to completely abandon international fragmentation of its production, since the trends of the global aviation industry, namely the examples of Boeing and Airbus companies, indicate that fragmentation is a necessary element in the production of civil air equipment. Acknowledgements This paper has been supported by the RUDN University Strategic Academic Leadership Program and Grant of RUDN University No. 060119-0-000.

References 1. Bombardier: statistics of commercial aircraft 2020. https://www.bombardier.com/en/aviation/ commercial-aircraft.html. Accessed: 10.04.2021 2. Embraer: statistics of commercial aircraft (2020) https://www.embraercommercialaviation. com/. Accessed: 10.04.21 3. Information portal Vedomosti.ru. Another 3 billion rubles will be allocated to airlines for transportation by Russian aircraft (2020). https://www.vedomosti.ru/business/news/2020/06/22/833 111-na-perevozki-v-regionah-rossiiskimi-samoletami-videlyat-3-mlrd, 22.06.2020. Accessed: 29.03.21 4. Russian airlines, statistics of commercial aircraft (2020). https://favt.gov.ru/ 5. State program “Development of Aviation Industry for 2013–2025. http://gov.garant.ru/SES SION/PILOT/main.htm. Accessed: 08.04.21 6. Sukhoi Superjet-100 official website. http://www.scac.ru/ru/products/sukhoi-superjet100/. Accessed: 12.04.21 7. UAC (Information about Sukhoi Superjet-100). https://uacrussia.ru/ru/aircraft/lineup/civil/sup erjet-100/. Accessed: 16.04.2021 8. UAC (2021) https://www.uacrussia.ru/en/corporation/. Accessed: 15.04.2021

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9. Vorobyov A (2019) The last foreign operator of the SUKHOI SUPERJET-100 sells Russian aircraft. https://www.vedomosti.ru/business/articles/2019/08/22/809449-SukhoiSuperjet-100prodaet. Accessed: 12.04.2021

Arbitration Proceedings in the Conditions of Development of Digital Technologies Boris I. Bashilov

Abstract Digital technologies have become an integral part of people’s lives, significantly affect arbitration proceedings. The process of introducing digital technologies in this area is most developed. There is a trend towards automation and digitalization of most of the basic procedures, which is made possible by creating various electronic information platforms and the introduction of digital technologies. This trend is characteristic not only of domestic justice but is also widely used in foreign countries. In this article, the author analyzes the most advanced experience of Hungary, Canada, China, Singapore, and the United States, which has no analogs in other countries. The analysis of this experience allows us to conclude the possibility of its implementation in the Russian judicial system. Besides, the author concludes the advantages and disadvantages of the digitalization of domestic arbitration proceedings and forecasts its further development. Keywords Arbitration proceedings · Justice · Digital technologies · Digitalization · Electronic submission of procedural documents · Electronic familiarization with case materials · Online court sessions JEL Classification K10 · K24 · K40

1 Introduction Every year, the widespread introduction and use of digital technologies spread to new areas of public life [1]. The sphere of arbitration proceedings was no exception. For more than ten years, comprehensive work has been carried out to introduce digital technologies at different stages of the arbitration procedure, from the submission of procedural documents by the parties to the court and ending with the holding of a court session. It should be noted that the implementation of digital technologies does B. I. Bashilov (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_71

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not end with the stage of legal proceedings but continues at the stage of enforcement proceedings, which is not the object of this study. It is believed that the introduction of digital technologies can significantly speed up legal proceedings while reducing the burden on the court apparatus and facilitating the access of citizens and business representatives to justice by reducing legal costs and increasing the openness of the judicial system [2]. Thus, to summarize, the introduction of digital technologies into legal proceedings is carried out to increase the accessibility and quality of justice, but do these means always allow achieving this goal? Introducing digital technologies, as introducing any new tool, is impossible without challenges and errors especially considering that digital and information technology is constantly faced with some hurdles, among which the most dangerous are cyber threats. In this connection, the state regulator demands high requirements on the functioning of the digital environment, including information and personal data protection. Thus, for the most effective use of digital technologies in the arbitration process and to minimize the negative experience, it is necessary to analyze the domestic practice of using digital technologies in arbitration proceedings from its advantages and disadvantages. Besides, for these purposes, it is also effective to analyze the experience of foreign countries in this area from the point of view of the possibility of its reception [3]. This article is devoted to the study of these issues.

2 Methodology The study of the sphere of arbitration proceedings in the context of the development of digital technologies involves the complex use of both general research methods of cognition (including system-structural, formal-logical, analysis, synthesis, generalization, and some others), and special-legal methods of cognition of scientific and practical problems (including formal legal, legal forecasting method, and others). A special place among other methods is occupied by the comparative-legal method used by the author when comparing digital technologies used in domestic arbitration proceedings and digital technologies used in the courts of Hungary, Canada, China, Singapore, and the United States.

3 Results Various e-justice services play a crucial role in the path to a comprehensive digitalization of legal proceedings. The most developed is the system of electronic services for the operation of arbitration courts (which courts of general jurisdiction do not have so far).

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Thus, at the level of arbitration courts, judicial acts are subject to publication not only on the official websites of the courts but also on specialized state electronic resources, among which the following are the main ones: – the file cabinet of arbitration cases “Electronic justice” [4]—an electronic system that allows finding a file of a particular case, which contains information about the current status of the case, and the history of its consideration by courts of different instances, about the procedural documents submitted by the parties (the documents are in closed access), about adopted judicial acts (posted in the public access) and other information that significantly simplifies the process of participating in a judicial dispute. As of April 2021, the file cabinet contains over thirty million files; – the system of filing documents “My arbitrator” [5] was created in January 2011 by the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation to implement the requirements of the Federal Law of July 27, 2010, No. 228-FZ “On Amendments to the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation,” according to which the persons participating in the case received the right to submit documents to the arbitration court in electronic form. Currently, the “My Arbitrator” system is used not only for filing procedural documents but also for electronic acquaintance with the case materials (with some restrictions) and participation in online arbitration meetings; – the system for tracking information about the movement of “Electronic Guard” cases [6]—this service automatically tracks information about the movement of the case and brings this information to users, who thereby receive information about all events in the case. Besides, the user can subscribe to receive mailings for a specific person, in which case he will receive notifications about court cases in which this person is a participant. Currently, the state is developing another electronic service based on the “State Services” portal—“Justice Online” [7]. The functionality of this service will allow users to determine the jurisdiction of the case automatically; receive all notifications and documents electronically; get acquainted with the materials of the case in your account; receive specialized consultations from the “interactive assistant”; pay the state duty, the amount of which will be automatically calculated based on the claims stated in the submission; remotely participate in the process (with identification by biometric data). It is assumed that the service will be put into operation in stages, and all of its functionality will become available in 2024. In addition to various state e-justice services, some private systems differ from the state ones in functionality, but in general are no less effective (for example, their platform cannot participate in online court sessions, but at the same time, they allow to analyze counterparties). Among them, the most common in use is, for example, the Casebook system for monitoring court cases and checking counterparties [8]. Let us consider in more detail the individual elements of arbitration proceedings in the context of the development of digital technologies. Regarding online court hearings, the cases can be considered using the videoconferencing system (VCS), a closed court system (Art. 155.1 of the Civil Procedure

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Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 153.1 of the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, Art. 142 of the Code of Administrative Procedure of the Russian Federation). The essence of this procedure boils down to the fact that a party to the dispute, located in a region other than the region of the trial, can participate in the court session using video conferencing systems at his/her place of residence or location. This becomes feasible only if both courts have the technical capability to conduct video conferencing, which is not always guaranteed. Since this procedure uses the court’s resources, it is not welcomed by the courts, which reduces its effectiveness and usability. In 2020, the entire world community was faced with the spread of the new coronavirus infection (COVID-19), which affected all areas of public life. The sphere of legal proceedings was no exception. To prevent the spread of coronavirus infection, the state has adopted several restrictive measures, including, for example, a recommendation to courts to consider only specific categories of cases (urgent cases; cases considered by way of summary proceedings; cases considered by way of order; cases involving to whom the parties sent a motion to consider the case in their absence) [9]. In the context of introducing the self-isolation regime, the personal admission of citizens in the courts and the face-to-face consideration of cases were temporarily suspended, in connection with which the consideration of cases using videoconferencing systems also became unfeasible. This situation, when, on the one hand, the consideration of specific categories of cases continues, and, on the other hand, the parties to the dispute are not able to take part in the meeting due to the need to comply with the self-isolation regime, has become a catalyst for improving the existing and currently used elements of e-justice. Thus, the courts, if technically feasible, considering the opinions of the participants in the proceedings, were recommended to hold court sessions in these cases using the web-conference system [10]. The first court to begin selective consideration of urgent cases using webconference technology was the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, which on April 21, 2020, heard 6 cases [11]. It should be noted that the use of web conferences for holding court sessions after the abolition of some of the restrictive measures did not stop: the sessions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation are still held in this format. Besides, the possibility of holding online sessions as of April 7, 2021, is provided in 99 arbitration courts, the list of which is posted in the “My Arbitrator” system [12], which also contains detailed instructions for participating in an online meeting (from filing a request for such a meeting to the procedure for connecting to the corresponding videoconference) [8]. Thus, a new element of e-justice has become an additional way of considering court cases by holding court sessions using the web-conference system, which provides the participants in the process to participate in court sessions without leaving home via video communication. Currently, this is implemented using the functionality of the “My Arbitrator” system. As noted earlier, on the “My Arbitrator” platform, electronic filing of procedural documents and electronic acquaintance with the case materials are possible. As a

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result, cases, for example, those considered by way of summary procedure, can be fully considered through electronic justice: the parties will submit procedural documents and familiarize themselves with the case materials through the “My Arbitrator” system, and learn about the adopted judicial acts through the “Electronic Justice” system, which will be guided by the system “Electronic Guard“ [13]. However, today’s services still do not fully meet the digitalization criteria and contain the anachronism of paper-based legal proceedings. This is manifested in the following: regarding the submission of documents in electronic form—subsequently, these documents are printed and attached to the materials of the court case in hard copy; in terms of electronic acquaintance with the case materials—electronic acquaintance is often possible only with those documents that were originally submitted to the court in electronic form and are contained in the system, in connection with which acquaintance with all the case materials will still ultimately require an entry for acquaintance and the actual presence in court. Acquaintance with all the case materials in electronic form would become possible only in two cases: either in the case of digitization of all case materials by the court staff, which, taking into account the volumes that the case materials in specific cases (especially in insolvency cases) can reach, would be significant time- and laborintensive; or in the case of a ban on the filing of documents in hard copy and the imperative for filing documents exclusively in electronic form, which would be a kind of limitation of the right to access to justice, since it cannot be guaranteed that all persons involved in the case have the necessary technical means for procedural actions in electronic form. However, because in 2024, it is planned to launch the previously indicated service “Justice Online,” one of the functions of which will be electronic familiarization with the case materials, it seems that a solution to this problem should be found before its launch. It should be noted that during the period of the spread of coronavirus infection when familiarization with the case materials was possible only in electronic form for the reasons indicated earlier, the court staff digitized the case materials at the request of the party to familiarize themselves with them, which indicates that this task is enforceable (except for some cases involving huge volumes of materials). Considering the analysis of domestic experience in digitalization of arbitration proceedings, it is necessary to analyze the most exciting practices from foreign experience in using digital technologies at different stages of legal proceedings. In Canada, filing documents in electronic form is widely used, but it is implemented differently depending on the court. Of most significant interest is the experience of the Supreme Court of Canada, which, since 2008, requires that parties submit electronic copies of materials when filing paper documents [9]. It is worth noting that the US Supreme Court adheres to a similar practice of the need to submit electronic copies of documents (by submitting them through a personal account) along with paper ones, subsequently placing most of the documents submitted in electronic form in the public domain [14]. Implementing this practice into the workflow of domestic arbitration courts would reduce the burden on the court apparatus in terms of digitizing the case materials. However, the participants’ presentation of both hard copy and electronic documents

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does not guarantee their entire identity and will still require additional control and verification by the court staff. Otherwise, this may become the basis for abuse by the participants in the trial to conceal documents that are especially valuable for resolving the case. In Singapore, electronic platforms are used not only for filing documents but also for exchanging evidence between persons involved in the case [15]. According to Clause 1 of Part 1 of Art. 126 of the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation, the claim must be accompanied by, inter alia, a notice of service or other documents confirming the sending of copies of the claim and documents attached thereto to other persons participating in the case who lack the said documents. This rule also applies to other procedural documents. In connection with the above, creating a unified system for exchanging procedural documents and evidence between persons participating in the case would be more effective and practical. It would guarantee the sending and, most importantly, the timely receipt of documents [16]. Hungary provides for the possibility of filing submissions to the court in some categories of cases and for several subjects exclusively in electronic form. For example, these include applications related to the registration of companies (since July 2008 for courts of the first instance and since January 2012 for courts of the second instance); for persons using the services of a representative, business entities, and administrative bodies when participating in consideration of civil, administrative, and labor disputes (since July 2016); in insolvency cases (since July 2016) [17]. It seems that this highlighted category of cases and subjects is the most correct since it is in this case that it will allow not to restrict the right to access to justice, since initially, it implies the technical ability of these subjects to submit documents in electronic form. Indeed revolutionary digital technologies in litigation are being introduced in China, where work is underway on the global project “Smart Courts,” which will allow a virtual judge to consider cases using artificial intelligence and blockchain technologies [18]. For the first time, such an Internet court with robotic judges was tested in 2017 in Hangzhou [19]. These judges have jurisdiction over disputes related to financial loans, copyright, and online commerce. At this stage, decision-making takes place under the control of human judges, who also make decisions on the most complex cases. According to all the existing trends in the digitalization of legal proceedings for Russia, the introduction of virtual judges who make decisions using artificial intelligence and blockchain technologies is a reality in the nearest future for cases considered by way of order. The use of these digital technologies for other categories of cases seems to be irrational and premature.

4 Conclusion The trend of introducing digital technologies into legal proceedings is a ubiquitous practice in Russia and all over the world. Even though the work on the implementation of digital technologies in arbitration proceedings has a ten-year history, some

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aspects of it still have some shortcomings, including, for example, the preservation of several remnants of “paper” production, despite the implementation of electronic technologies, or insufficient technical equipment of some courts, which does not allow persons participating in the case to use all the possibilities of digitalization of arbitration proceedings. Simultaneously, the catalyst for the implementation of digital technologies into legal proceedings was the coronavirus infection (COVID-19) pandemic, which, given the need to consider several court cases, despite the inability of the persons involved in the case, to personally appear in court to familiarize themselves with the case materials or participate in court sessions, forced the judicial system in a short time to significantly modify legal proceedings by digitizing a significant part of its processes (even in the absence of appropriate legal regulation). With the abolition of restrictive measures, the have launched mechanism of digitalization of the judicial sector will not slow down since the socio-economic realities faced by the world community have revealed the need to further strengthen the role of digital technologies in legal proceedings. Among the possible directions of development, one can single out, for example, the following: the creation of an automated platform for the exchange of procedural documents and evidence between persons participating in the case; the introduction of virtual judges who make decisions using artificial intelligence technologies and blockchain in cases considered in the way of an order. Simultaneously, widespread digitalization of arbitration proceedings will be possible only if three minimum conditions are met. First, the technical equipment of arbitration courts must comply with the requirements for the use of digital technologies (for example, the availability of professional equipment for mass digitization of case materials, devices for holding meetings in the web-conference system, and others). Secondly, the state should improve the digital literacy of the population since now many people are more inclined to participate in litigation in the traditional “paper” format, not knowing or fearing the functionality of digital technologies. Thirdly, the state must ensure the safety and security of the digital environment in the field of legal proceedings since it contains an extensive array of confidential information and personal data, theft of which can cause significant harm to their owners. Acknowledgements This work has been financially supported by the Grant of the President of the Russian Federation No. NSH-2668-2020.6 “National-Cultural and Digital Trends in the Socioeconomic, Political and Legal Development of the Russian Federation in the 21st Century”

References 1. How to access the online court session? https://my.arbitr.ru/#help/4/55. Accessed: 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.)

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2. Inshakova AO, Inshakova EI, Deryugina TV (2020) Information technologies for the formation of the European space of freedom, security, and justice. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 1100 AISC, pp 444–453 3. “Casebook” system. https://casebook.ru. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 4. Card cabinet of arbitration cases “Electronic justice”. https://kad.arbitr.ru. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 5. System of submission of documents “My arbitrator”. https://my.arbitr.ru/#index. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 6. The tracking system of information on the movement of cases “Electronic Guard”. https:// guard.arbitr.ru/#index. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 7. Service “Justice online.” https://www.gosuslugi.ru/superservices/judgment. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 8. Court Digital Transformation Strategy. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/law-crime-and-jus tice/about-bc-justice-system/justice-reform-initiatives/digital-transformation-strategy-bc-cou rts.pdf. Accessed: 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 9. Courts of Hungary: Electronic procedures. https://birosag.hu/en/electronic-procedures. Accessed: 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 10. Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of the Presidium of the Council of Judges of the Russian Federation No. 822 dated April 29, 2021. http://www. supcourt.ru/files/28873/. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 11. Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of the Presidium of the Council of Judges of the Russian Federation No. 821 dated April 08, 2020. http://www. supcourt.ru/files/28837/. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 12. List of courts for which online sessions are available. https://my.arbitr.ru/#help/4/56. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 13. Inshakova AO, Goncharov AI, Ershova IV (2020) Digital blockchain registration of legally significant stages of complex good’s export-import supplies by business entities of the EAEU and BRICS Jurisdictions. In Inshakova AO, Inshakova EI (eds) Competitive Russia: foresight model of economic and legal development in the digital age: Proceedings of the international scientific conference in memory of Oleg Inshakov (1952–2018). Springer Nature, Cham, pp 328–336 14. Opinions of the Court—2018. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/slipopinion/18. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 15. What can we learn from Asia’s courts of the future? World Economic Forum. https://www. weforum.org/agenda/2018/11/what-we-can-learn-from-asia-s-courts-of-the-future/. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 16. Inshakova AO, Goncharov AI, Salikov DA (2020) Electronic-digital smart contracts: modernization of legal tools for foreign economic activity. In: The 21st century from the positions of modern science: intellectual, digital and innovational aspects. Springer Nature, Cham, pp 1–11 17. Ermakova EP, Frolova EE, Sitkareva EV (2020) New trends in developing alternative ways to resolve financial disputes. J Polit Law 13(3):280–286 18. Information of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated April 24, 2020 “Web conference in the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation”. https://www.garant.ru/products/ipo/ prime/doc/73852623/ Accessed: 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.) 19. Rossiyskaya Gazeta (2020) An avatar instead of a mantle: what is the future of the judicial system in the era of innovations. Rossiyskaya Gazeta [Russian Newspaper], 2020. https://rg.ru/2020/01/30/avatar-vmesto-mantii-kakoe-budushchee-zhdet-sudebnuiu-sis temu-v-epohu-innovacij.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 (In Rus.)

Digital Technologies in Bankruptcy Nikolay Y. Mysak

Abstract The last decade in the history of domestic legal proceedings is inseparably associated with digitalization processes. Insolvency (bankruptcy) cases are such a category of cases in which the use of digital technologies is possible at almost all stages of litigation. A fundamental change in the perception of persons participating in an insolvency (bankruptcy) case and on interaction in this area under the impact of large-scale changes taking place in digital technologies, there has been. However, even though the amount of insolvency cases being considered increases every year, and more and more new digital technologies are being introduced into this area, talking about the completion of digitalization in bankruptcy is equal to rushing things. In this article, the author analyzes the leading digital technologies used at different stages of the bankruptcy process, concludes on their advantages and disadvantages, and assumes further ways to digitize the sphere of bankruptcy. Keywords Insolvency (bankruptcy) · Digital technologies · Digitalization · Electronic information resources · Digital currency · Bankruptcy estate · Sale of the debtor’s property · Absentee voting JEL Classification K10 · K24 · K35 · G33

1 Introduction In current conditions of socio-economic realities, insolvency (bankruptcy) cases of both businesses and individuals are widespread. The statistical report of the Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation says, that in the first part of 2020, domestic arbitration courts considered 41,637 insolvencies (bankruptcy) submissions, of which 27,998 insolvency cases of private entities, 12,339 cases were legal entities, and 1451 cases were individual entrepreneurs [1]. These indicators are only increasing annually. N. Y. Mysak (B) Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_72

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Simultaneously, insolvency (bankruptcy) cases are recognized as one of the most challenging cases in judicial practice. Often, such cases are distinguished by a wide range of persons participating in the case, they face long trial periods, a large number of isolated disputes, and therefore, the case materials can reach impressive volumes. Digital technologies, which have long become an integral part of litigation (it is important that the digital technologies use is mostly developed among arbitration courts), are recognized to simplify, accelerate and, most importantly, increase litigation efficiency [2]. They are also used in insolvency (bankruptcy) cases. It should be noted that both digital technologies used in legal proceedings in general and specialized digital technologies with a narrow focus and focused exclusively on the sphere of insolvency (bankruptcy) apply to this area. It leads to the fact that in an insolvency (bankruptcy) case, digital technologies are used at almost all its stages [3]. This article analyzes the crucial stages of the insolvency (bankruptcy) procedure, in which digital technologies are used, which are characteristic exclusively for the investigated area, and not for the entire legal procedure. In this regard, in this article, the author does not describe in detail the use of digital technologies at the stage of filing a claim in electronic form for declaring the debtor insolvent (bankrupt), and other procedural documents and evidence in the case; also the stage of electronic acquaintance with the case materials or participation in court sessions using the web conference system is not considered in this article. The author focuses on those features of digitalization of the bankruptcy process, which are characteristic only of this area. Among them, for example, the implementation of electronic information resources in bankruptcy, the digitalization of the processes of interaction of creditors, the use of digital technologies in the procedure for the sale of the debtor’s property, the bankruptcy estate, and the place of digital currency in it. Based on this analysis, the author formulated the existing advantages and disadvantages of digitalization in insolvency (bankruptcy) and made predictions about the further development of digitalization in this area.

2 Methodology The system of methods used to study issues related to insolvency (bankruptcy) proceedings in the context of digital technologies development is due to the unique significance and complexity of the object under study. The object under study combines elements from both the sphere of bankruptcy proceedings and digital technologies, and therefore, only the complex use of research methods made it possible to identify the existing legal gaps and formulate proposals for improving the practice of using digital technologies in bankruptcy proceedings, and forecast for further digitalization of the bankruptcy sphere. In this regard, the whole set of general, general-scientific, and specific-scientific techniques and methods of cognition were used, including formal-legal, systemic, functional, logical, and other research methods, and among them—the method of legal forecasting.

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3 Results 3.1 Electronic Information Resources in Bankruptcy Recently, there has been active development of electronic information resources in arbitration proceedings. These systems make it possible to more effectively monitor the course of court proceedings (for example, through the “Electronic Justice” file cabinet of arbitration cases [4] and the system for tracking information on the movement of cases “Electronic Guard” [5]), simplifying and automating this process. They also carry out some procedural actions in electronic form (for example, electronic filing of procedural documents or electronic familiarization with case materials) and participate in online meetings (this functionality is provided by the “My Arbitrator” document filing system [6]). The described electronic information resources apply to both concerning arbitration proceedings in general and insolvency (bankruptcy) procedures in particular. However, the sphere of bankruptcy also has several unique (specialized) information systems, among them—the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information (EFRSB -UFRBI) [7], which has been functioning since April 1, 2011, and occupies an important place. The ten-year period of its work allowed it to establish the system and eliminate almost all the problematic aspects that arose earlier. According to para 1 of Art. 28 of the Federal Law of October 26, 2002, No. 127-FZ “On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)” [8] (hereinafter referred to as the Bankruptcy Law), the inclusion of information to be published in the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information from April 1, 2011, is mandatory on an equal footing (not all categories of debtors are involved) with its official publication determined by the Government of the Russian Federation according to Federal law (the “Kommersant” newspaper nowadays). Maintaining the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information is based on the principle of publicity; that is, the information contained in it is open and publicly available, distributed without any restrictions, which allows getting all the necessary information about the course of bankruptcy proceedings. In addition, this service is reliable and precise, since entering information into it (as a rule, the arbitration manager is responsible for entering information, unless another person is established by law) does not occur uncontrollably. When new information about the debtor is included, they are subject to verification by the service operator through comparison with the information contained in the Unified State Register of Legal Entities and the Unified State Register of Individual Entrepreneurs. The Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information contains debtors‘ data with information on the progress of insolvency (bankruptcy) proceedings, adopted judicial acts, held auctions, reports of managers, and various messages that are legally significant for creditors. For the reason of automating the tracking of information updates in the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information, its functioning is associated with (in fact, it is an integral part) of the Unified Federal Register of Legally Significant Information on the Facts of Legal Entities, Individual Entrepreneurs and

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Other Economic Entities (Fedresurs) [9], created January 1, 2013. With the help of this electronic information resource, it is possible to receive notifications to an email address with information on the progress of bankruptcy procedures (a one-time subscription for 50 debtors is possible) and on the debtors’ property sale within the framework of bankruptcy procedures. Though, the features included in the system are not limited only to the sphere of bankruptcy. In addition to the state, private companies are also actively and, it should be mentioned, successfully working on simplifying, automating, and optimizing various processes of participation in a bankruptcy procedure, which can potentially be useful for all its participants (from the bankruptcy administrator to representatives of creditors and the debtor). Due to the demand for these services, there are a lot of similar offers on the market of electronic information services, among them, for example, “Assistant to the Arbitration Manager” [10], “SPARK-Interfax” [11], “Bankro. TECH” [5]. Each of these systems has its functional features. However, in general, they boil down to structuring information on a case, system storage of data on listed creditors, an automatic compilation of a register of creditors’ claims, systematization of separate disputes, related cases, and information about meetings and committees of creditors. The specified functionality certainly contributes to more effective participation in bankruptcy proceedings, but because the use of these services is possible exclusively on a commercial basis, talking about the possibility of their widespread use is meaningless. Thus, the formed system of public and private electronic information resources and systems makes it possible to simplify and increase the efficiency of bankruptcy proceedings due to its automation and complexity. Meanwhile, digital technologies make it possible to monitor the progress of a bankruptcy case conveniently and effectively and potentially analyze and predict the outcome of a bankruptcy case using artificial intelligence and blockchain technologies [12, 13]. However, today this area is in a state of development and is still far from perfect.

3.2 Digitalization of Processes of Interaction of Creditors It seems that for creditors, one of the primary resources that are designed to save digital technologies in bankruptcy is money and time. In connection with the above, it seems the most rational for the widespread digitalization of the processes of interaction of creditors to minimize their face-to-face interaction, which, considering their number and geography, can be difficult and can be difficult significantly slow down the decision-making process. The same is provided for the meeting of creditors as a body of the community of creditors, authorized to decide on the course of proceedings in an individual’s insolvency (bankruptcy) case. According to para 4 of Art. 213.8 of the Bankruptcy Law, it is allowed to hold a meeting of creditors in the event of a bankruptcy of an individual

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in the form of absentee voting, which involves the use of digital technologies. This legislator‘s move is made to reduce the costs of the case. Absentee voting, as a form of holding a creditors‘ meeting of a legal entity, is impossible to be performed according to the existing regulation of the Bankruptcy Law. It is irrational because of the significantly higher costs of holding an in-person creditors‘ meeting, which involves much more creditors in case of bankruptcy of a legal entity, than the bankruptcy of an individual. The conclusion that there is no legislative consolidation of the right to hold a meeting of creditors of a legal entity in the form of absentee voting can be drawn from a systemic interpretation of the provisions of the Bankruptcy Law, which, on the one hand, does not directly state anywhere that voting at a meeting (committee) of creditors can only be in-person. On the other side, in Art. 12, 14, and 15 of the Bankruptcy Law, such markers are used as: “place of the meeting”, “held at the location of the debtor”, “participants present”, and others, indicating the in-person voting format. The presence of a legal gap is also indicated by the clarification given in clause 7 of the Review of judicial practice on issues related to invalidation of decisions of meetings and committees of creditors in bankruptcy procedures, approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation on December 26, 2018, which states: “Holding a meeting of a debtor’s creditors—a legal entity in the form of absentee voting (without joint presence) or absentia—in itself is not a basis for invalidating decisions taken at such a meeting” [14]. Inter alia, in the absence of a direct legislative prohibition, the processes described below can apply both to a meeting of a debtor’s creditors—an individual or a legal entity. A responsible person for organizing the meeting is always the bankruptcy commissioner. So far, digital technologies are used only at certain stages of organizing a meeting. Firstly, they are used at the stage of notification of the meeting of creditors, which must be posted in the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information 14 days before the date of the meeting. However, it also retains the mandatory written notification by mail to protect the interests of creditors who are not inclined to use digital technologies. Secondly, a notice of holding a creditors‘ meeting, an electronic voting ballot (with its filing guideline), a link to the information material, and other papers are posted in the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information after an out-ofperson creditors‘ meeting is chosen to be held. From the author‘s point of view, using additional user-oriented digital technologies could significantly simplify the process described above. Thirdly, absentee voting as a form of a meeting can be held by the electronic document management operators with the help of telecommunication channels. In other words, instead of holding it in person, it can be organized in electronic form, where the minutes of the meeting and all other reviewed and approved documentary must be uploaded into the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information. Thus, to date, neither the Unified Federal Register of Bankruptcy Information nor any other electronic information platform provides conditions for holding an absentee meeting of creditors in a single, unified format. The situation persists in

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which it is necessary to download multiple files and follow various links to obtain complete information instead of exercising the right to vote in an automated system aimed at user convenience.

3.3 Digital Currency in the Bankruptcy Estate With the growth of the digital economy, one of the critical instruments of which are digital financial assets and digital currency, law enforcement practice revealed the legal issue of them being possibly included in the bankruptcy estate. The difficulty of answering this question was the long time absence of a necessary specialized legislative regulation, which gave rise to unpredictability for the participants in the bankruptcy case and did not contribute to forming a consistent law enforcement practice [15]. The tendency to form a unified approach in law enforcement practice was outlined only in 2018 with the issuance by the Ninth Arbitration Court of Appeal of the Resolution on the bankruptcy case of Tsarkov Ilya Igorevich [16]. The ruling of the Moscow Arbitration Court has been canceled in this Resolution, and resolved the disagreement between the debtor citizen and the financial manager on the merits, obliging Tsarikov to transfer access to the crypto wallet to the financial manager (pass the password) to replenish the bankruptcy estate. When substantiating its position, the appellate court concluded: “In the opinion of the appellate court, cryptocurrency cannot be evaluated concerning Art. 128 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation otherwise than other property”. At the same time, the court takes into account the draft law “On Amendments to Parts One, Two and Four of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation”, which provides for the definition of the basic concept of “Digital Law” (instead of the term “token” in the system of objects of civil law (clause 1 of Art. 128 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). Any property of the debtor with economic value for creditors (including cryptocurrency) cannot be arbitrarily excluded from the bankruptcy estate without the expressly provided for in Art. 131, 132, 213.25 of the Federal Law “On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)” or on the grounds of other federal laws”. Following the reform of legislation, the Federal Law of July 31, 2020, No. 259-FZ, “On digital financial assets, digital currency and amendments to certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation”, was undertaken [17]. For once on the territory of the Russian Federation, this Law regulated relations arising in connection with the circulation of digital financial assets and digital currency. These categories mean the following: digital financial assets are “digital rights, including monetary claims, the possibility of exercising rights under equity securities, the right to participate in the capital of a non-public joint-stock company and the right to demand the transfer of equity securities,” while digital currency is “aggregate electronic data (digital code or designation) contained in the information system.”

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Considering the above, for some acts (for example, the Federal Laws “On Counteracting Legalization (Laundering) of Criminally Obtained Incomes and Financing of Terrorism,” “On Enforcement Proceedings,” “On Combating Corruption”), the digital currency was recognized as property. Bankruptcy law is no exception. Thus, Art. 2 of the Bankruptcy Law was supplemented with a provision stating that digital currency is recognized as property for the Bankruptcy Law. According to para 1 of Art. 131 of the Bankruptcy Law, all the property of the debtor, available at the date of the opening of the bankruptcy proceedings and revealed in the course of the bankruptcy proceedings, constitute the bankruptcy estate. Consequently, the digital currency recognized as property must be included in the bankruptcy estate. It seems that such a decision of the legislator is aimed at replenishing the bankruptcy estate, and therefore, corresponds to the interests of creditors and the goals of bankruptcy proceedings.

3.4 Digital Technologies in the Sale of the Debtor’s Property Creditors’ claims satisfied in cash form are the desired outcome of insolvency (bankruptcy) proceedings. But frequently it becomes possible only after the sale of debtor’s property because of lack of bankruptcy estate (which consists only of debtor’s property). Digital technologies have fundamentally changed the way of trading [18]. Ten years ago the idea of conducting electronic trading in bankruptcy seemed revolutionary and hardly implemented in practice. Today, electronic auctions are perceived as something commonplace, and traditional auctions seem to be a relic of the times. Bidding in electronic form presupposes the widespread use of digital technologies at all stages of preparation, organization, and bidding conduct [19]. Despite such high importance of the procedure for the sale of the debtor’s property, it seems that the digitalization of this area is at an insufficient level. Today, electronic bidding can be described as "blind”. Only a narrow circle of entrepreneurs specializing in buying with subsequent resale (resellers or agents) knows about what is sold in the event of a debtor’s bankruptcy and how to acquire it. Much less often, buyers are those who purchase property for personal purposes. It is caused by the lack of an electronic platform on which the entire tender lot to be sold would be presented in a form accessible to buyers—using pictures, descriptions of characteristics, the indication of location, and alike (similar to commercial marketplaces). In addition, work on this platform should be simple and maximally customer-oriented. Thus, only if these conditions are met, the increase in the demand for property in the debtor’s bankruptcy estate becomes possible, thereby increasing the likelihood of satisfying creditors’ claims through the sale of the debtor’s property auction. The need to create such a platform is also recognized at the level of the Federal Tax Service [8], which is an active participant in the development of a new version of

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the Bankruptcy Law, which potentially increases the likelihood that work on the development of such a service may begin in the nearest future.

4 Conclusion Summing up, we would like to note the positive trend of introducing digital technologies into bankruptcy proceedings, which still coexist with traditional paper formats. It is manifested, for example, in the maintenance of the register by the arbitration administrator in both electronic and paper form, in the event of a discrepancy between which the record on paper has priority. The use of digital technologies increases the accessibility, transparency, and efficiency of insolvency (bankruptcy) proceedings. In addition, digitalization allows people involved in the case to save resources such as time and money, thanks to the possibility of remote interaction and obtaining information in electronic form by various specialized electronic information systems that greatly simplify and automate all the necessary procedural actions. Moreover, the implementation of digitalization is manifested in procedural aspects and expressed in the reform of legislation, which made it possible to recognize digital currency as property that is going to be included in the bankruptcy estate. Such a decision, aimed at replenishing the bankruptcy estate, meets the needs of socioeconomic realities, the interests of creditors, and the goals of bankruptcy proceedings. Despite all the already achieved results of digitalization in bankruptcy, this area needs further improvement since its efficiency still has the potential to increase. Thus, for example, with artificial intelligence and blockchain technologies, it will potentially be possible in the future to analyze and predict the outcome of a bankruptcy case. It seems that such technologies would make it possible to speed up legal proceedings and reduce the burden on the judicial system since creditors could initially compare their costs and the probabilistic outcome of the case, based on which they decide on the need for bankruptcy proceedings to be initiated. It should be admitted that this is still a prospect for a relatively distant future, and today the legal gap in terms of the withdrawn right to hold a meeting of the creditors’ committee requires a more acute legislative response, i.e., a legal entity in absentia (electronic) format, as enshrined in the Bankruptcy Law. This legal gap costs the participants in the process unnecessary material and time. Besides, it seems that in electronic information platforms, first, it is required to create an easy-to-use electronic platform with an accessible interface (similar to commercial marketplaces) for conducting electronic trades. It would increase the demand for property in the bankruptcy estate of debtors by expanding the range of users of this platform and, thereby, would increase the likelihood of satisfying creditors’ claims through the debtors’ property sale at auction. It is also essential to create an electronic platform for holding an absentee meeting of creditors in a single, unified format. It would make the creditors’ decision-making

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process more convenient and faster, which correlates with the interests of the entire bankruptcy proceeding. Summarizing the above, we state that the digitalization of insolvency (bankruptcy) is on the right track and has a high potential for further developing digital technologies and their widespread adoption.

References 1. Summary statistical information on the activities of Federal arbitration courts for the 1st half of 2020. Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. http://www.cdep. ru/index.php?id=79&item=5459 Accessed 20 Apr 2021 2. Inshakova AO, Frolova EE (2022) Preface. In: Inshakova AO, Frolova EE (eds) Smart technologies for the digitisation of industry: entrepreneurial environment. Smart innovation, systems and technologies, vol 254. Springer, Singapore 3. Shishmareva TP (2019) Digital technologies in insolvency (bankruptcy) proceedings. Entrepreneurial Law 3:50 4. Card file of arbitration cases “Electronic justice”. https://kad.arbitr.ru. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 5. Tracking system of information on the movement of cases “Electronic Guard”. https://guard. arbitr.ru/#index Accessed 20 Apr 2021 6. System of submission of documents “My arbitrator”. https://my.arbitr.ru/#index 7. The unified federal register of information on bankruptcy. https://bankrot.fedresurs.ru 8. Federal Law “On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)”, dated October 26, 2002, No. 127-FZ. Collected Legislation of the Russian Federation. No. 43. Art. 4190 9. Unified federal register of legally significant information about the facts of the activities of legal entities, individual entrepreneurs, and other entities of economic activity. https://fedres urs.ru Accessed 20 Apr 2021 10. Assistant to the Bankruptcy Commissioner. https://russianit.ru/products/pau/. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 11. SPARK-Interfax. https://www.spark-interfax.ru. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 12. Kalinina AE, Inshakova AO, Goncharov AI (2019) Polysubject jurisdictional blockchain: electronic registration of facts to reduce economic conflicts. Stud Comput Intel 826:209 13. Rusakova EP, Frolova EE, Gorbacheva AI (2020) Digital rights as a new object of civil rights: issues of substantive and procedural law. Adv Intell Syst Comput 1100:669 14. Review of judicial practice on issues related to invalidation of decisions of meetings and committees of creditors in bankruptcy proceedings (approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation on December 26, 2018). http://www.supcourt.ru/documents/ thematics/27513/. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 15. The effect was given only by every five hundredth treatment procedure. Vedomosti. https:// www.vedomosti.ru/economics/characters/2021/02/07/856986-effekt-dala. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 16. Resolution of the Ninth Arbitration Court of Appeal, dated May 15, 2018, in Case No. A40-124668/2017. https://kad.arbitr.ru/Document/Pdf/3e155cd1-6bce-478a-bb76-1146d2 e61a4a/58af451a-bfa3-4723-ab0d-d149aafecd88/A40-124668-2017_20180515_Postanovle nie_apelljacionnoj_instancii.pdf?isAddStamp=True. Accessed 20 Apr 2021 17. Federal Law “On Digital Financial Assets, Digital Currency and on Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation”, dated July 31, 2020, No. 259-FZ. Collected Legislation of the Russian Federation. No. 31 (part I). Art. 5018 18. Matytsin DE (2022) Digital technologies of the Bank of Russia for regulating investment relations. In: Inshakova AO, Frolova EE (eds) Smart technologies for the digitisation of industry: entrepreneurial environment. Smart innovation, systems and technologies, vol 254. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4621-8_19

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19. Ershov DV (2019) The legal nature and the ratio of the procedure for holding auctions in electronic form and the procedure for selling the debtor’s property. Entrepreneurial Law 1:51

Stability of Corporate Governance to the Conditions of the Modern Economic Environment Sergey Yu. Ilyin , Natalia V. Lobareva , Alexey A. Sigankov , Irina V. Shatskaya , and Svetlana I. Dmitrieva

Abstract This article includes the author’s approach to the formation of indicators of corporate governance stability. In its development, the emphasis is placed on its traditional understanding, transformed into the modern entrepreneurial era, based on the scale of the functioning of business processes of corporations’ activities, a component of territorial (regional), inter-territorial (national) and interstate (international) scales that form their management costs, which determine total costs and their effectiveness, on which the financial benefit in the future period depends. The study takes into account the selected resulting and factor indicators of corporate governance sustainability: managerial performance and managerial cost, change in the dynamics of results and expenses under the influence of the specified qualitative and quantitative parameters of management activities. The basis for constructing dependencies between the resulting and factorial indicators of corporate governance stability is the unity of differentiated by types of additive, multiplicative and multiple interactions included in the selected combination of intermediate (factor) values with final (resulting) values. The integrity of all the types of dependencies that form a common system of the studied indicators will provide corporations with an accurate assessment of the analyzed final values and a gradation according to the degree of significance of the values of the intermediate group and the adoption of objective measures to optimize the stability of their management. The benefits of the material are intended for entrepreneurs operating under the current economic mechanism, S. Yu. Ilyin (B) Financial University Under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia N. V. Lobareva · A. A. Sigankov · I. V. Shatskaya · S. I. Dmitrieva MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] A. A. Sigankov e-mail: [email protected] I. V. Shatskaya e-mail: [email protected] S. I. Dmitrieva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_73

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regardless of spheres and industries, education and science workers, students in management areas. Keywords Corporate governance · Sustainability of corporate governance · Efficiency and cost of corporate governance JEL Classification G30 · L21

1 Introduction The importance of big business is indisputable for the corporations, which are making profits in hypertrophic proportions, their clients, who purchase high-quality goods offered in a wide range of products and other people inhabiting the respective territories as a result of holding mass public events for them in compliance with corporate social responsibility (one of the current principles of doing business in the modern era), due to the huge funding of its budgetary system according to legislative requirements. Focusing on this fact, the authors consider that it’s necessary to investigate the issues of corporate governance in the conditions of the modern conjuncture and to build methods that allow objectively assessing its resistance to this under the current economic mechanism. The basis will be taken on the territorial, inter-territorial and interstate scales of corporate management, proceeding from the implementation of their activities within the national borders and in foreign countries. The purpose of the research is to construct methods for calculating indicators that provide an objective assessment of the stability of corporate governance to the economic environment (the scale of the functioning of business processes) in the modern nature of market relations in order to obtain information on the ranking of the influence of each factor indicator on it. Solving some research tasks can make its achievement doable: 1. 2. 3.

Disclosure of the environment for the functioning of business processes of corporations in modern conditions of doing business. Drawing up a list of groups of management costs, focusing on the environment for the functioning of corporate business processes. Comparison of the economic result with the groups of management costs brought together in a single nomenclature, forming a system of interconnection of the resulting and factor indicators of corporate governance sustainability included in it, according to the environment of their business processes.

The information sources were the works of researchers who devoted their publications to the issues of corporate management stability in the current environment for the functioning of their business processes. These authors are Andreev [1], Vlasov [2], Efimushkna [3], Kovtun [4], Kostenkov [5], Kurnyshev [6], Mandych [7], Minervina [8], Osipenko [9], Suleimanova [10], Tyrone [11], their ideas contain prerequisites for the formation of indicators of corporate governance stability to the conditions of the modern economic environment.

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The authors solve the formulated tasks on the topic under study using the most suitable scientific materials and methods and techniques.

2 Materials and Methods This research is based on the computational-constructive method, which combines in the process of forming methods an additive, multiplicative and multiple combination of dependencies between the resulting and factor indicators of corporate governance sustainability. Such an approach to this is necessary for the complexity and consistency of the analysis of changes in results and costs, which are the basic measure for assessing the managerial stability of corporations (the success of the functioning of their business processes), in conjunction with elements of statistical analysis that complement the process of detailing the dependence of the resulting and factor indicators under study. Assessing the sustainability indicators of managing their business processes, corporations using the selected methods will be able to receive up-to-date and scrupulous information about the influence of factor indicators on the resulting indicators in general and in particular (for individual constituent components of the business environment), which, in turn, affect result and costs (fundamental factors of efficiency and competitiveness, including management).

3 Results The authors formulate indicators of the sustainability of corporate governance by considering in more detail the territorial, inter-territorial and interstate scales (factors) of the functioning of the business processes of these business entities. They also associate the related costs with the costs of organizing business events, because it’s a systematizing function of management and unites around itself its other main and auxiliary functions. The first group consists of organizational measures covering factors of the location of productive forces, the regional composition of the population, regional legislation, the second group consists of organizational measures covering national legislation, national standards, national communications, the third group consists of organizational measures covering international agreements, conventions, charters, international standards, international communications. All three groups correspond to corporate management costs, which include the following cost groups: 1.

Territorial organizational costs (costs of operating information on the factors of the location of productive forces and associated with them at the regional level, social and political and legal factors involved in the functioning of business processes).

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Inter-territorial organizational costs (costs of operating information on national legislative norms, national standards for output and certification, national communications). Interstate organizational costs (costs of handling information on international agreements, conventions, and charters, international standards for product production and certification, international communications).

The first two groups of costs determine the ability of corporations to resist market constraints within state borders; the third group of costs—outside them because they are of international level. According to the considered structure of management costs, territorial, inter-territorial, interstate organizational costs form the potential of corporations to achieve maximum managerial sustainability, manifested in the effectiveness and cost of funds (sustainability efficiency) and their influence on changing the result and costs of activities (intensification of sustainability). Using these postulates, we will form indicators of the efficiency of corporate governance sustainability (formulas (1)–(4)): RT c(gi) =

TIc Cocts + Cocits + Cociss

(1)

where RTc(gi) is the aggregate performance of corporate governance sustainability in term of income; TIc Cocts Cocits Cociss

total corporate income, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interterritorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on an interstate scale, rubles;

RT c(gp) =

Cocts

TPc + Cocits + Cociss

(2)

where RTc(gp) is the aggregate efficiency of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit; TPc Cocts Cocits Cociss

total corporate profit, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interterritorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on an interstate scale, rubles;

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E x c(gi) =

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Cocts + Cocits + Cociss T Ic

(3)

where Exc(gi) is the total expenses of the sustainability of corporate governance in terms of income; Cocts Cocits Cociss TIc

organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interterritorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on an interstate scale, rubles; total corporate income, rubles;

E x c(gp) =

Cocts + Cocits + Cociss T Pc

(4)

where Exc(gp) is the total expenses of the sustainability of corporate governance in terms of profit; Cocts Cocits Cociss TPc

organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interterritorial scale, rubles; organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on an interstate scale, rubles; total corporate profit, rubles.

So, let’s form indicators of the intensification of corporate governance stability, focusing on their essence, which is to maximize the result and qualitatively minimize costs (formulas (5)–(8)): 

T I c1 T I c0 T I c(gi) = − Cocts1 + Cocits1 + Cociss1 Cocts0 + Cocits0 + Cociss0 ∗ (Cocts1 + Cocits1 + Cociss1 )



(5)

where TIc(gi) is the change in total income due to changes in the total performance of corporate governance stability in terms of income, rubles; TIc1 Cocts1

reported total corporate income, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles;

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Cocits1 Cociss1 TIc0 Cocts0 Cocits0 Cociss0

reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; basic total corporate income, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; 

T Pc1 T Pc0 − Cocts1 + Cocits1 + Pociss1 Cocts0 + Cocits0 + Cociss0 ∗ (Cocts1 + Cocits1 + Cociss1 )



T Pc(gp) =

(6)

where TPc(gp) is the change in total profit due to changes in the total performance of corporate governance stability in terms of profit, rubles; TPc1 Cocts1 Cocits1 Cociss1 TPc0 Cocts0 Cocits0 Cociss0

reported total corporate profit, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; is the basic total corporate profit, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles;  Cocts0 + Cocits0 + Cociss0 Cocts1 + Cocits1 + Cociss1 − ∗ T I c1 (7) = T I c1 T I c0 

T C c(gi)

where TCc(gi) Cocts1 Cocits1

change in total costs due to changes in the total cost of stability of corporate governance in terms of income, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles;

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Cociss1

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reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; reported total corporate income, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; basic total corporate income, rubles;

TIc1 Cocts0 Cocits0 Cociss0 TIc0  T C c(gp) =

 Cocts0 + Cocits0 + Cociss0 Cocts1 + Cocits1 + Cociss1 − ∗ T P c1 T Pc1 T Pc0 (8)

where TCc(gp) is the change in total costs due to changes in the total cost of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit, rubles; Cocts1 Cocits1 Cociss1 TPc1 Cocts0 Cocits0 Cociss0 TPc0

reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; reporting organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; reported total corporate profit, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure managerial stability on a territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an inter-territorial scale, rubles; basic organizational corporate costs to ensure management stability on an interstate scale, rubles; is the basic total corporate profit, rubles.

The indicators, which were formed by the authors, correspond to the concept of corporate governance sustainability, because of the effectiveness (yield and profitability) and cost (expenditure on income and profit) and change in the result (income and profit) and costs (expenses) fully reflect its essence and content as applied to modern conditions inherent in the current economic mechanism in a large business. Explanations of the indicators of corporate governance sustainability formed by the authors are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The data in these tables demonstrate the following advantages of the corporate governance sustainability indicators proposed by the authors: 1.

Compliance with the elements of the modern environment for the functioning of business processes, which consists of territorial, inter-territorial and interstate

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Table 1 Interpretation of indicators of corporate governance sustainability by income Indicator

Content

The total performance of corporate governance Total corporate income per unit of the amount sustainability in terms of income of organizational territorial, organizational inter-territorial and organizational interstate costs of corporations Total cost of sustainability of corporate governance in terms of income

The sum of organizational territorial, organizational inter-territorial and organizational interstate costs of corporations per unit of total corporate income

Change in total income due to changes in the total performance of corporate governance sustainability in terms of income

An increase (decrease) in total corporate income due to an increase (decrease) in the result (total corporate income) concerning the amount of organizational territorial, organizational inter-territorial and organizational interstate costs of corporations

Change in total costs due to changes in the total cost of corporate governance sustainability in terms of income

Saving (overspending) of funds by increasing (decreasing) the number of expenses of corporations in territorial, inter-territorial and interstate scales to their result (total corporate income)

Source compiled by the authors Table 2 Interpretation of indicators of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit Indicator

Content

Total performance of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit

Total corporate profit per unit of the sum of organizational territorial, organizational inter-territorial and organizational interstate costs of corporations

Total cost of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit

The sum of organizational territorial, organizational inter-territorial and organizational interstate costs of corporations per unit of total corporate profit

Change in total profit due to changes in the total performance of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit

Increase (decrease) in total corporate profit due to an increase (decrease) in the result (total corporate profit) concerning the sum of organizational territorial, organizational inter-territorial and organizational interstate costs of corporations

Change in total costs due to changes in the total cost of corporate governance sustainability in terms of profit

Saving (overspending) of funds by increasing (reducing) the number of costs of corporations on a territorial, inter-territorial, interstate scale to their result (total corporate profit)

Source compiled by the authors

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2.

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factors affecting the efficiency and intensification of corporate management stability. Assistance in accurate calculations of the levels of corporate management performance and corporate management costs and the degree of their impact on results and costs in dynamics and making timely decisions to achieve their best parameters.

If corporations know about these advantages, they would receive objective information and use it to carry out the necessary measures to optimize managerial and, including territorial, inter-territorial and interstate costs. With this help, they also will be able to derive the maximum financial benefit and achieve full sustainability of their management.

4 Conclusion The indicators of corporate management sustainability, which were proposed by the authors, are fully adapted to the conditions of the economic environment because they correspond to the structure of the factors of the functioning of business processes of the modern era. They will become a significant tool for them in obtaining total and scrupulous information about the effectiveness and cost of funds to ensure managerial stability in general and on the territorial, inter-territorial and interstate scales of doing business. The generated indicators consist of a complete list of costs in the area of ensuring managerial stability, represented by the costs of corporations in the territorial, interterritorial and interstate environment of the business processes that they carry out, necessary to calculate the financial benefits from their management. Thus, the proposed indicators correspond to the prevailing realities in the environment of the functioning of business processes; they are consistent and applicable by corporations to assess their managerial stability to the modern economic environment, which means achieving goals and solving problems.

References 1. Andreev V, Pavlov K (2006) Intensification of social production in the light of institutional theory. Soc Econ 6:152–162 2. Vlasova EM (2015) Corporate governance models. Foreign Exp Eur Sci 3(4):40–45 3. Efimushkin SN, Krasnikova AS (2014) Analysis of conceptual approaches to the formation of entrepreneurial decisions. Creative Econ 12(96):63–70 4. Kovtun MA, Isaakov GS (2017) Evaluation of the effectiveness of the use of low-budget marketing communications technologies in modern companies. In: The economy today: current state and development prospects, pp 180–183 5. Kostenkova TY (2013) Influence of corporate governance on the company’s performance indicators. Russ Entrepr 14(1):61–66

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6. Kurnysheva I, Lykov S, Idrisov A (2008) Competitiveness and problems of structural modernization. Economist 9:39–47 7. Mandych IA, Bykova AV (2021) Difficulties and prospects for the development of high-tech projects in the era of digital transformation of the economy. Russ Technol J 9(2):88–95 8. Minervin IG (2018) Corporate governance: trends and changes. Social and human sciences. Domestic and foreign literature. Series 2: economics. Abs J 4:124–134 9. Osipenko OV (2018) Actual problems of domestic corporate governance. Prop Relat Russ Feder 5:83–94 10. Suleimanov RO (2014) The sustainable development management model of the organization. Inform Secur Reg 2(15):72–74 11. Tyrone GG (2014) Foreign experience in corporate governance. In: Theory and practice of corporate management, pp 209–214

Competency Direction of Improving Personal Information Security in the Digital Environment of Russian Society Anatolii A. Krivoukhov and Vitaly V. Zotov

Abstract The article is devoted to substantiating the thesis that improving personal information security in the conditions of digitalization of the information and communication environment of Russian society is possible when forming relevant competencies. The study is based on data obtained during a sociological survey conducted in 2019 among the population of the Kursk region. This region was selected as the subject of the Russian Federation, which occupies the median position in terms of the level of informatization. The sample included 1000 respondents aged 16 and over. Surveys show that the population is aware of the permanent nature of the dangers and threats to the safety of their lives in the digital environment. They accept personal responsibility for her condition also. Under these conditions, it is necessary to develop an appropriate component of digital competence in the form of basic knowledge, skills, and abilities to recognize and counter-information hazards and threats. Keywords Personal information security · Digital society · Information and communication technology · Information systems · Russian society · Information competency JEL Classification M150

1 Introduction At the current stage of Russia’s development, the main goal is the creation of a digital society, which is based on the digital economy. In accordance with the state program of the Government of the Russian Federation, the digital economy is defined A. A. Krivoukhov (B) Kursk State Agricultural Academy, Kursk, Russia V. V. Zotov Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (National Research University), Dolgoprudny, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_74

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as an economic activity, the key production factor in which is digital data. This provides for the organization by the authorities of activities that are designed to create conditions for the evolvement of a knowledge society, improving the wellbeing and quality of life of citizens, their awareness and digital literacy, formation of an information and communication space taking into account the needs of citizens and society in obtaining high-quality and reliable information, the development of a new technological framework of information infrastructure for the social and economic sphere, including the creation and use of Russian information and telecommunication technologies (as a priority), as well as improving the security of the society, the state and the individual (The State program “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation” approved by the order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated July 28, 2017, No. 1632-r). It is planned that the share of Russia in the global volume of data storage and processing services by this time should be 10%. According to official documents, 97% of Russian households will receive broadband Internet access at a speed of at least 100 MBit/s, all million-plus cities will have stable 5G coverage, and 95% of network traffic will be conducted through domestic networks, and by the beginning of next year, all settlements of the country with a population of 250–500 people will receive broadband Internet access, along all federal highways there will be mobile communication. Currently, researchers are observing a new stage in the development of information and telecommunications technologies related to such digital technologies as artificial intelligence (machine learning), big data, virtual reality, blockchain, geo-positioning, semantic web, and the Internet of things. It is they who determine the essence of digital transformation. Digitalization is the creation of an information-analytical (information-expert) electronic platform, which has analytic and prognostic functions. It is based on the interaction between the Internet, people, and the real world, which is realized not only due to the direct input of the information by a person into a computer or mobile device, but also information obtained from sensors and smart devices. Digitalization is aimed at simplifying network interaction with other information and telecommunications technologies and Internet services, mobility, increasing adaptability, and diversity of digital platforms and applications. Digital technology takes the place of the necessary and in some cases inevitable, a mediator between person and society, between a person and the state, between person and person. An increasing volume of human social activity moves to a network space, where it acquires a virtual character, which in turn leads to the digitization of its parameters as a component of the “digital profile” [1]. Digitalization leads to the construction of electronic platforms, which are a single set of not only databases but also actor registries, as well as repositories made between them online transactions. In this case, the user can create a certain self-friendly interface and set rules for selecting information in order to solve only certain tasks. An electronic platform is not only a technical tool but also a medium of standards (rules) that form common norms and communication architecture for all its actors. Such

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a distributed network-integrated information and communications technology environment are already subject to its own rules and laws of operation and development. We’ll call it the digital environment. For today’s Russia, “total digitalization” is a positive futuristic project that requires a review of the relationship between personality and the state. At the moment, it would be appropriate not to limit itself to discussing the advantages of the digital development of Russian society, but to raise the question of the risks and threats it produces, as well as the formation of a new social contract. The scientific development of this contract could contribute to making digital transformation as traumatic as possible to Russian society. This would make it possible to protect society from the many risks of a new technological revolution and take into account all the features of the original domestic path of digital modernization. A person is faced with the fact of the appearance of a sufficiently powerful tool for penetration into his private sphere. It is already recognized that the work with big data makes it possible to conduct advertising and political campaigns more successfully, as it becomes possible to more personalized and targeted appeals to population groups and even to individual people, based on the supposed structure of the person, the scheme of which is based on a psychological-digital profile [1]. The increase in the number of cybercrime is a natural consequence of the digitalization of today’s world. An important aspect is that the digitalization process is only at an initial stage, and cybercrime has already become one of the global industries. According to the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs in 2020, the number of cybercrime in Russia increased by more than 90% compared to last year. At the same time, financial fraud accounts for the majority of crimes. The increase in the number of cybercrime was influenced by the transition of employees of Russian companies to remote work, which contributed to a decrease in vigilance, as well as an increase in the need for online purchases. Taking into account the above, a clear understanding of the inevitability of the transformation of social life under the influence of the latest digital technologies must be combined with increased attention to personal security. Personal security in a digital environment should be understood as the state and condition of its vital activity, in which there is no or minimized threat of harm to the private space of communications of the individual and the information that he possesses. Personal security is considered by us as a duty, not a right of citizens. Every citizen has not only the right but also the obligation to be able to defend himself, his private sphere. The purpose of this work is to substantiate the competent direction of improving personal security in the conditions of digitalization of the information and communication environment of Russian society.

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2 Materials and Methods The methodological basis of the study was the works of foreign and Russian authors, revealing the problem of information security and digital society in sociophilosophical and sociological terms [2–6]. The empirical basis of the study was the data of a survey conducted in the Kursk region as the median subject of the Russian Federation in terms of the level of informatization. During the survey, 1,000 respondents were analyzed, the quota for gender, age, and place of residence. The results of the study were systematized and analyzed.

3 Results The survey data presented in Fig. 1 show that respondents believe that in modern society, due to the introduction of information and telecommunications technologies, life activities become more dangerous or rather more dangerous - (this is how 17 and 40%, respectively). The change in the sense of personal security in the information and communication environment in recent years is shown in Fig. 2. For 38.3% of the surveyed residents of the region, there is a growing sense of insecurity in the information and communication environment. New digital technologies and services, penetrating all spheres of social life, significantly change the quality of everyday life of citizens, including in the field of personal information security. The future of our state as a whole, as well as its citizens, requires understanding and identifying the essence of the emerging relations between them in the field of ensuring information security, and on their basis to implement a policy of digitalization of society. Fig. 1 Distribution of answers to the question “Life in modern society due to the introduction of information and telecommunications technologies has recently become more dangerous or safer?”, in%. Source Compiled by the authors based on their own opinion poll findings

very dangerous; 17%

dangerous ; 40%

Don't know/No answer; 1% very safe; 13%

safely; 29%

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Don't know/No answer; 7%

I feel safer; 24%

I feel in danger; 38% My feelings have not changed; 31%

Fig. 2 The distribution of answers to the question “Has your sense of personal security in the information and communication environment changed or not changed in recent years? If it has changed, how did you feel—protected or in danger?”, in%. Source Compiled by the authors based on their own opinion poll findings

Opinion of respondents about who should ensure the security of citizens in the information and telecommunications environment (see Fig. 3). More than 2/3 of respondents believe that everyone should take care of their security in the information and communication environment.

Everyone should take care of their own safety in the informaon and communicaon environment

40

Authories should ensure security in the informaon and communicaon environment for all members of society

27

0%

28

21

25%

18

50%

14

25

75%

12 6

10

100%

Fig. 3 The distribution of answers to the question “Has your sense of personal security in the information and communication environment changed or not changed in recent years? If it has changed, how did you feel—protected or in danger?”, in%. Source Compiled by the authors based on their own opinion poll findings

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4 Discussion The problem of ensuring personal security in the digital environment is the development of rational rules of conduct. Therefore, the provision of personal information security should be based on a person-competent, rather than a restrictive-prohibitive approach (as some researchers rightly point out [7]). In a digital society, an Internet user learns to live in conditions of constant threats and dangers, but security problems do not go into the background. People are extremely interested in finding safe ways to enter and find in the information and communication environment, that is, in creating a personally safe model of behavior. In the absence of such a model, the individual, taking into account the combined capabilities of the actors of the social network space and the nature of the disseminated information content, is in too many cases at risk of using information about himself for self-interest purposes. One of the conditions for preserving the personality in a digital society is the development of practical skills and abilities for its safe interaction with other network actors. Today, an important element in the educational process of a truly full, free, and independent person is the transfer of what can be called information, communicative and digital competence. With information competence, a person can gain new knowledge in a digital environment according to emerging needs. Possessing communicative competence, he has a set of knowledge about communications, skills, and abilities in its implementation in the information and communication environment, as well as the creation of a single semantic space supported by a certain language and rules of communication. Digital competence, which includes the previous two, is a combination of knowledge, skills, and abilities in working with informationanalytical (information-expert) systems and electronic communication platforms. If we proceed from the order of the Ministry of Economic Development of the Russian Federation dated 24.01.2020 No. 41 “On approval of methods for calculating indicators of the Federal project “Personnel for the digital economy” of the national program “Digital Economy of the Russian Federation”, then the digital competence should include knowledge, abilities, and skills of communication and cooperation in the digital environment; self-development under uncertainty; creative thinking; information and data management; critical thinking in the digital environment. At the same time, knowledge about the digital society, its threats and risks, skills and abilities to carry out safe life activities in the conditions of digitalization of the information and communication environment, and a value attitude to negative phenomena and events in this environment should become an integral part of it. That is such a level of competence that ensures the "active protection" of the individual. The awareness of such a need at the individual level becomes extremely important. New knowledge, skills, and abilities should be in demand. Only then will they become the subject of organic, “living” assimilation with a high level of effective use in everyday life. Perhaps the starting point for such a perception of the urgency of "digital competence" may be the awareness of the crisis that awaits a person in case of disregard for the potential dangers, threats, and risks of digitalizing the information and communication environment.

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The first objective of a competent approach to personal information and communication security should be the disclosure of the full range of dangers and threats contained in the digital environment. A person should be given the fullest knowledge of how serious threats contain certain aspects of the activities of the actors of the information and communication environment, together with their passive involvement in this activity as an unprepared consumer of digital content. It should be noted that the issue of the formation of digital comments could be approached in different ways. So, in particular, there is a temptation to limit you to the level that the now widespread structure of the educational process offers. In this structure, the discipline “First aid and emergency response” at secondary and higher education occupy a significant place. Undoubtedly, it is here that a primary set of educational efforts is possible, related to the addition of disciplines to aspects related to personal security in the digital environment of society. At this initial level, perceptions of the main hazards could be developed, as well as rules, recommendations, and methods for minimizing, overcoming, or avoiding such hazards. According to Gorbunov, in order to form a competent person, it is necessary to organize a multidimensional process for the formation of a conscious, strong-willed, free, worldview whole person [8]. In his opinion, understanding the choice of this path as the main one in the development of the individual will be able to ensure the strategic success of the digitalization of society. It is worth agreeing with such a position and such an argument in its defense: “In the context of the formation of society, knowledge, the ethical and axiological aspects of the personality world become a priority, where values associated with ideals, norms, and knowledge are considered as morally significant ideas, updated by the new social and cultural realities of a new type of information society” [9]. Ultimately, the leading and independent from negative trends positions will belong to a society consisting precisely of citizens who are highly intellectually developed, independent and free, establish oneself as a person.

5 Conclusion As a result of the research, surveys show that the population is aware of the permanent nature of the dangers and threats to the safety of their lives in the digital environment. They accept personal responsibility for her condition also. Under these conditions, it is necessary to develop an appropriate component of digital competence in the form of basic knowledge, skills, and abilities to recognize and counter-information hazards and threats. Acknowledgements The reported study was funded by RFBR and EISR, project No. 20-011-31535 “Public governance in a digital society: towards a new social contract”.

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References 1. Gorbunov AS (2018) On the formation of an individual’s secure interactions with the media environment model. Bull Tver State Univ Ser: Philos 1:68–74 2. Brazevich SS, Boyko SV, Repina EA (2019) Social paradigm of information security support problems researches in the conditions of digital society. Sci Thought 8(2–32):37–43 3. Kibakin MV (2019) Social diagnostics of information security of digital society: methodological and regulatory aspects. Digit Sociol 2(3):25–32. https://doi.org/10.26425/2658-347X-2019-325-32 4. Krasnova GV, Markov AA (2018) Internet as the real threat to the information safety of the person. Bull Saint Petersburg State Univ 2(110):102–108 5. Manzhueva OM, Nekrasova NA, Nekrasov SI (2016) Philosophical foundations of formation information security. Philos Found Form Inform Secur 10:49–56 6. Vasilenko LA, Zotov VV (2020) Digitalization of public administration in Russia: risks, causes, problems. Digit Sociol 3(2):4–16. https://doi.org/10.26425/2658-347X-2020-2-4-16 7. Petrova VA (2016) The problem of personal information security in modern pedagogical science and educational practice. Bull Tomsk State Pedagogical Univ 4(169):120–125 8. Gorbunov AS (2018) Personality and digital technologies in information mass society. Bull Moscow Reg State Univ. Ser: Philos 4:8–16. https://doi.org/10.18384/2310-7227-2018-4-8-16 9. Faschenko AN (2012) Constructing personality’s world informational and axiological aspect. Bull Moscow Reg State Univ Ser: Philos 2:21–24

Mechanism for Assessing the Economic Efficiency of Organizations in the Service Sector Zhanna V. Smirnova , Valentina A. Sidyakova, Natalia S. Andryashina , Gennady I. Lyashko , and Olga A. Brazhka

Abstract The article discusses the issue of improving the management mechanism from the point of view of the economic efficiency of an organization in the service sector. One of the reasons for the decrease in the indicators of economic efficiency in the field of housing and communal services has been identified—it is the management of the quality of the provision of services. The state of the communal infrastructure in Nizhny Novgorod has been determined. The article examines the current state of development of housing and communal services in Nizhny Novgorod. To achieve the goal, a mechanism for assessing the economic efficiency in the management of housing and communal services has been developed. The study examines the integration processes of the mechanism, which increases the efficiency of indicators. The article suggests mechanisms for improvement in this area of activity: introduction of market mechanisms to improve the functioning of the housing and communal services, ensuring conditions for a specific environment, attracting and using budget funds at the expense of targeted municipal programs at the regional level, developing the initiative of owners of apartment buildings. Proposals for improving the mechanism of economic efficiency of management of housing and communal services in municipal enterprises of Nizhny Novgorod were made in a reasoned conclusion.

Z. V. Smirnova (B) · N. S. Andryashina Minin Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia e-mail: [email protected] N. S. Andryashina e-mail: [email protected] V. A. Sidyakova Institute of Food Technology and Design-Branch, Nizhny Novgorod State University of Engineering and Economics, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia G. I. Lyashko Rostov State Transport University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia O. A. Brazhka K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Technologies and Management (The First Cossack University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_75

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Keywords Economic efficiency · Assessment mechanism · Service sector · Housing and communal services JEL Classification R12 · Q13

1 Introduction Today, the country’s economic development largely depends on the efficiency of service enterprises. Today, the service sector is an important component of economic development, it creates specific goods that relate to commercial and non-commercial activities. The product of the economic activity of enterprises in the service sector is a service that meets the needs of society and the organizations themselves. The structure of the service sector includes the main areas of society’s needs: transport services, housing and communal services, household services, social services, health care, education, social services, etc. One of the leading services provided to the population at the end of 2020 is housing and communal services. The volume of construction of apartment buildings is increasing every year. According to statistical indicators, the volume of construction increased by 4.7%, despite the events of 2020, restrictive measures in connection with the coronavirus. The demand for maintenance of buildings and annexed territories increases with the increase in real estate [1–5]. Housing and communal services are aimed at improving living conditions, living safety and landscaping. Utilities include providing the population with hot and cold water, heating, gas and electricity. Today, this type of industry is determined by low indicators of economic efficiency due to the complex nature of the mechanism of interaction between organizations providing services, as well as the quality of work performed. The main reason for the decrease in the indicators of economic efficiency in the field of housing and communal services is the management of the quality of the provision of services. Management companies must be responsible for their management process. The quality of the services provided and the satisfaction of the population as a whole will depend on how the management system in the field of housing and communal services is organized. The problem of the management system today in the housing and communal services is the most popular and requires serious study. The theoretical framework for quality management is based on scientific developments, in particular, quality management models developed by E. Deming, J. Juran, K. Ishikawa, F. Crosby, J. Sittig. Thus, this study of economic efficiency as a mechanism for managing housing and communal services is due to the development of an effective management mechanism through integration in this area of activity.

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2 Methodology The purpose of the study is to study the current state of the housing and communal services in Nizhny Novgorod. It is important to assess the economic efficiency of housing and communal services management. The study is aimed at identifying integration processes for the management mechanism in housing and communal services as an element of increasing the efficiency of economic indicators in the provision of services [6–9]. The service of housing and communal services in the city of Nizhny Novgorod was considered in the study, comparative and systemic approaches, as well as general theoretical methods of analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison were used. The object of the research is the indicators of satisfaction of the population.

3 Results Housing and communal services includes activities for the production and supply of resources, alienation and care, management of housing stock, performance of contract work for the repair, operation and maintenance of housing stock. Evaluation of the efficiency of housing and communal services enterprises is the most difficult problem in the theory and practice of management. Ensuring normal living conditions is impossible without an effective management system for this service. The entire system in the provision of housing and communal services should work harmoniously, taking into account the requirements of the population, which are the direct payers of these services. The main areas of housing and communal services of enterprises in Nizhny Novgorod include: • improving the living conditions of the population in apartment buildings, including the management of apartment buildings; • regular supply of utilities (water supply, gas supply, electricity supply and heat supply); • social policy, personnel policy and population control. The work of the enterprises of the housing and communal services of Nizhny Novgorod is controlled by state authorities, they regulate in the system of normative and legal activities that ensure the effective functioning of improving the housing and communal services. 113 management companies, 673 homeowners’ associations, 941 organizations in total are located, maintain and manage the housing stock in Nizhny Novgorod for the period 2020–2021. The housing stock is 8057 houses with an area of 2,163,798,527.93 [10]. Energy efficiency improvement is carried out by upgrading the following tasks: • attracting investments;

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• elimination of enterprises of ineffective management from activities in the service sector; • introduction of new management mechanisms and modernization of communal infrastructure; • application of new technologies in the maintenance of apartment buildings. There are reasons for the emergence of problems in the system of communal infrastructure in the municipal districts of Nizhny Novgorod: • high percentage of deterioration of communal infrastructure; • unsatisfactory technical condition of the housing stock; • lack of purification and disinfection of groundwater (Fig. 1). The reason for the wear and tear of utility systems is the unsatisfactory quality of the engineering networks provided. The level of costs increases due to the presence of energy losses in engineering systems.

65%

transformer substations

40%

60%

wastewater treatment plants

69%

electrical networks

35%

31%

heating network

63%

37%

sewer networks

60%

40%

72%

water supply networks worn out 0% 20%

40%

28% in working order 60% 80%

100%

120%

Fig. 1 The state of the communal infrastructure in Nizhny Novgorod. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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The main goal of our study is to analyze the mechanism for assessing the efficiency of the functioning of the housing and communal services, ensuring the reliability of the operation of engineering systems. Improvement mechanisms in the housing and utilities sector: • introduction of market mechanisms to ensure conditions; • attraction and use of budget funds at the expense of targeted municipal programs at the regional level; • development of the initiative of owners of apartment buildings. The method of qualitative assessment of efficiency using the correspondence of the actual values of the indicators approved by the planned value on the following scale was proposed to substantiate and make proposals for solving the issue of assessing the mechanism of economic efficiency of the housing and communal services: • «high efficiency»—the average value of a positive increase in the actual values of indicators from the planned values is more than 110%; • «intermediate efficiency»—the average value of the increase in the actual values of indicators from the planned values is from 100 to 110%; • «low efficiency»—the average deviation of the actual values of indicators from the planned ones is in the range from 80 to 100%; • «extremely low efficiency»—the average deviation of the actual values of indicators from the planned ones is less than 80%. These indicator values are reviewed and revised by local governments. The residents assessed the activities of all municipal organizations in the field of providing housing and communal services, which also included transport services and services serving the communal sector. The result of the survey is shown in Fig. 2. Assessment of the population’s satisfaction with housing and communal services shows a low level. It is necessary to improve the management system for this area of activity.

4 Conclusion A clear, well-thought-out solution to all economic transformations in this process is necessary, because the mechanism for assessing the efficiency of housing and communal services enterprises is the most difficult problem. At the moment, well-coordinated work on accounting requirements of the population who pay for the relevant services is absent in the management system of housing and communal services. The strategy for the development of housing and communal services determines the main priorities. The description of the existing state of the communal infrastructure (problems and solutions) in Nizhny Novgorod was given.

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Fig. 2 The result of evaluating the effectiveness of the process of managing the housing and communal services in Nizhny Novgorod. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Improving the management of the housing and communal complex will significantly increase the efficiency of this sector of the economy, improve the living conditions of the population in the housing stock, and stabilize the economic situation at the enterprise. It is possible to propose the following ways of solving problems aimed at introducing them into the mechanism for managing housing and communal services, taking into account this situation: 1.

2. 3. 4.

Application of an automated system for housing and communal payments and payments in all municipal organizations of Nizhny Novgorod in the field of housing and communal services. Comprehensive solution to the problems of calculating reasonable tariffs. Effective allocation of human resources, taking into account the opinion of the population. Transition to direct contracts between energy suppliers and the population.

References 1. Aghajanyan AY (2010) Formation and development of entrepreneurial activity in the housing and communal complex: dis. … candidate of economic sciences. Stavropol, 191p 2. Andryashina NS, Garin AP, Romanovskaya EV, Kuznetsova SN, Kozlova EP (2020) Analysis of reserves for effective development of production. Lect Note Netw Syst 73:403–414

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3. Boldyreva IA (2007) Directions of the structural change of the financial mechanism of the sphere of housing and communal services. Finan Credit No 36:69–75 4. Chelnokova EA, Shobonova LY, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Yashin SN (2021) Educational robotics in practice of modern school. Lect Notes Netw Syst 155:238–246 5. Garina EP, Kuznetsov VP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Efremova AD (2018) Research and generalization of design practice of industrial product development (by the example of domestic automotive industry) Qual Access Success 19(S2):135–140 6. Kozlova EP, Kuznetsov VP, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS, Morozova GA (2021) Interaction of human and smart technologies in modern conditions. Lect Notes Netw Syst 155:609–618 7. Kuznetsova SN, Romanovskaya EV, Artemyeva MV, Andryashina NS, Egorova AO (2018) Advantages of residents of industrial parks (by the example of AVTOVAZ). Adv Intel Syst Comput 622:502–509 8. Romanovskaya EV, Kuznetsov VP, Andryashina NS, Garina EP, Garin AP (2020) Development of the system of operational and production planning in the conditions of complex industrial production. Lect Notes Netw Syst 87:572–583 9. Smirnova ZV, Katkova OV, Golubeva OV, Romanovskaya EV, Andryashina NS (2021) Innovative technologies in the training of university specialists. Lect Notes Netw Syst 155:352–359 10. Strategy for the Development of Housing and Communal Services in the Russian Federation for the Period until 2020: Order of the Government of the Russian Federation of January 26, 2016, No. 80-r. Law Assistance System Consultant Plus

Main Trends in Import Tariffs Within the Eurasian Economic Union Anna Y. Pak , Inna V. Andronova , David A. Amatunyan , and Kristina D. Kretova

Abstract This study aims to identify current trends in the regulation of foreign trade within the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). We analyzed the proposals of the EAEU member states regarding changes to import tariffs in the Eurasian Economic Commission during 2015–2020. We applied a systemic approach and economic analysis methods to examine the formation of tariffs regulations and revealed a clear tendency of foreign trade liberalization. Moreover, we identified geographic, sectoral, temporal characteristics of this transforming system. The Russian Federation initiated the greatest number of proposals concerning reforms to the Single Customs Tariff of the EAEU. Almost all proposals tried to lower customs tariffs. We found that the correlation between the import volumes and the number of proposals for commodity groups was high on the R. E. Chaddock’s scale. In addition, we identified the existing problems in the system of tariff rate changes in the EAEU, including conflicts of interest of member states in decision-making, as well as delays and filibusters. Keywords Customs and tariff regulation · Eurasian economic union · Tariff rates · Foreign trade regulation · Foreign trade JEL Classification F02 · F15 · F13 · F14

1 Introduction The functioning of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the delegation of some state powers to the supranational union caused changes in the import tariff system. The ongoing transformations in international economic relations and the growth of A. Y. Pak (B) · I. V. Andronova · D. A. Amatunyan · K. D. Kretova Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia I. V. Andronova e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Amatunyan e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_76

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international disputes and restrictions clearly demonstrate the importance of national commodity self-sufficiency. In these conditions, customs and tariff regulation, along with other measures, serves as an effective way to minimize the dependence of the country on the world market and successfully resist external threats. National and supranational regulations help meet the demand for goods of the population, rationally balancing the benefits of international trade with the development of industrial production in the EAEU member states [1–3]. In this study, we analyzed the EAEU internal proposals for the adjustment of import tariffs and grouped said proposals by geographical, sectoral, temporal, and other features.

2 Materials and Methods There is a substantial number of studies on the topics of customs and tariff regulation of foreign trade, focusing on different models of foreign trade (classical, neoclassical, and modern) [4–9]. Modern works are mainly concerned with general and partial equilibrium models; they explore the specifics of supply and demand for imported and domestically produced goods, depending on the price and its elasticity [10–14]. For example, a study by Lindert examines the impact of tariffs on the overall well-being of a nation, proposes the concept of “optimal tariff,” and concludes that tariffs and customs protection reduce the overall well-being of the nation. However, the author says, “It is necessary to establish where the limit of the free trade regime should lie” [15]. Novikov studied customs tariffs as a tool for influencing the price of imported and domestic goods directly [16]. The works of Saurenko featured an analysis of the impact of customs tariff policies on the ratio of import volumes in the internal national consumption of Eurasian Customs Union member-states. The scholar concluded that the existing policies mainly aim at maximizing budget revenues [17].

3 Results 3.1 Characteristics of the EAEU Foreign Trade Analyzing the foreign trade of the EAEU from 2015 to 2019, we noted that EAEU exports were insufficiently diverse—raw materials were the main export; machinery, equipment, and vehicles were dominant in the structure of imports (Figs. 1 and 2). This foreign trade structure prevailed for a long time. The volume of foreign trade between EAEU member states and other countries in 2019 amounted to approximately $736 billion, while the profits from foreign trade were close to $185 billion.

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Fig. 1 Commodity structure of the EAEU imports with third countries in 2019, as a percentage. Source Compiled by the authors based on the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC) data

Fig. 2 Commodity structure of the EAEU exports with third countries in 2019, as a percentage. Source Compiled by the authors based on the EEC data

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Fig. 3 Structure of industrial production in 2019, as a percentage. Source Compiled by the authors based on the EEC data

At the end of 2019, nearly half of EAEU imports from other countries were machinery, equipment, and vehicles (48.4%); other goods included chemical products (20.8%) and foodstuffs and agricultural raw materials (12.1%). The EAEU countries mainly imported goods from the European Union (38%, of which 10% comes from Germany) and China (24%) (APEC countries account for around 45% of the import volumes). The EAEU exports to other countries (Fig. 3) mainly include raw minerals (about 71%), metallurgical products (10%), and chemical products (6%), reflecting the structure of the internal industrial production. The Russian Federation accounts for about 80% of both exports and imports. Almost half of the exported goods are shipped to the EU (49%, of which 11% are exported to the Netherlands, 6.5% to Germany), and the APEC (28%, of which 14.4% are exported to China, 4.2% to South Korea). The structure of foreign trade is predetermined by the industrial production structure in the EAEU countries. The 2015–2020 period saw no radical changes, and the structure of industrial production in 2019 is similar to the 2015 structure (Fig. 3). The most commonly produced categories of goods are coke and petroleum products (21%), food products (17%), and metallurgical goods (15%).

3.2 Goals of the Customs and Tariff Regulation in the EAEU EAEU applies the rates of the Common Customs Tariff (CCT) to goods imported from other countries. According to the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU Treaty), the main goals of the CCT are the following [18]:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

707

Ensuring conditions for effective integration of the EAEU into the global economy; Rationalizing the commodity structure of imports; Maintaining balance of exports and imports; Creating conditions for progressive changes in the structure of production and consumption; Supporting branches and sectors of the economy.

These goals are achieved through establishing import tariff rates and, consequently, through customs payments for the movement of goods. These two measures provide for the following: • Creation of additional source of revenue for the federal budget; • Creation of added value chain in the movement of raw materials, goods, and components; • Ensuring price competitiveness of the EAEU goods and the resulting redistribution of demand for imported goods. This ultimately causes an increase in domestic manufacturing capacities, the growth of domestic production and the profitability of production, etc.

3.3 Institutional Foundations of Customs and Tariff Regulation The creation and functioning of the EAEU resulted in the delegation of some customs and tariff regulation measures to the supranational level. This includes the decisions on import tariff rates. As a result, institutional and organizational changes took place. We reviewed the Decision of the EEC Board No. 45 “On Approval of the Procedures for Submitting Proposals of the Member States to the Eurasian Economic Commission on Establishing the Import Tariff Rates (Including Seasonal), Tariff Quotas, Cases and Conditions of Granting Tariff Preferences and Recognition of Invalidity of Some Decisions of the Commission of the Eurasian Customs Union,” dated April 27, 2015, and compiled the algorithm of organizational procedure for submitting, considering, and implementing proposals on customs and tariff regulation. The algorithm is presented in Fig. 4. Proposals on tariffs are submitted by authorized bodies of the EAEU member state or a member of the EEC Board, whose competence includes issues of customs and tariff regulation. At the national level, businesses and industry organizations may initiate a change in tariff rates, provided they can prove the need for it with sufficient evidence and information-analytical documents. Then, the proposal is considered by national state authorities. Upon agreement at the national level, the proposal is sent by the authorized body to the EEC, which organizes submits the proposal to other EAEU members for consideration. The organization of this work lies within the competencies of the Subcommittee on Customs Tariff Regulation, Non-Tariff Regulation, and Protective Measures of the EEC Committee on Trade, which consists of

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Fig. 4 Algorithm of reviewing proposals on tariffs and customs regulation within the EAEU. Source Compiled by the authors

representatives of the relevant governing bodies of the EAEU states. If the subcommittee decides that changes to the current tariff rates are necessary, the matter is delegated to higher authorities—the Board of the EEC and (if necessary) the Council of EEC (these bodies decide on sensitive goods, the list of which has been officially established) [19].

3.4 Research on the Proposals for the Adjustment of the Import Tariff Rates Within the Framework of CCT Based on the EEC website data [20], we analyzed the proposals of EAEU member states regarding changes to customs and tariff regulation. The analysis covered 50 proposals submitted by the authorized bodies of the member states from 2015 to 2020 [20]. The proposals were split into by following criteria: • • • • •

Geographic distribution; Duration; Decrease or increase in tariff rates; Time frame for proposal consideration; Industry structure.

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Fig. 5 Geographical distribution of initiative proposals on changing the measures of customs-tariff regulation in the EAEU. Source Compiled by the authors according to the EEC data

We identified some features regarding the geographical distribution of proposals (Fig. 5). The largest number of proposals was initiated by the Russian Federation— 54%, the Republic of Belarus—24%, the Republic of Kazakhstan—14%. As for the duration, the proposed measures were either permanent (48%), temporary (36%), or extending the ones that exerted temporary measures that were already in effect (16%). The latter were mostly aimed at reducing the deficit of some raw materials within the EAEU internal market. Most submitted proposals for tariff change aimed to liberalize customs and tariff policies—45 proposals (90%) sought to reduce the tariff rate. Only 10% of the proposals suggested increasing the tariff rates, and they mainly focused on the commodity groups 84 and 85 of the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activities (CNFEA)—machinery, equipment, and mechanisms; electrical equipment and their parts; audio recording and sound reproducing equipment, equipment for recording and reproduction of television images and sound, their parts and accessories. This indicates that member states intend to develop high added-value production and promote import substitution since these groups of goods represent the largest import volumes. However, only one-fifth of proposals were supported by all EAEU member states due to the diverse interests of industrial policies of member states and the fact that some countries were more interested in cheaper imports of certain groups of goods. These facts demonstrate that opportunities to improve the competitiveness of the EAEU products and reduce the negative effect of imports on industrial development are limited [21].

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Fig. 6 Sectoral distribution of proposals for changing the size of the import customs duty rate. Source Compiled by the authors based on the EEC data

The time frame for proposal consideration varied and could even span several years. In total, 28 proposals have been accepted, and 22 are still under consideration. The industry structure of the proposals is represented in Fig. 6. The largest number of proposals concerned machinery, equipment, and vehicles (about 30%), metals and metal products (22%), and foodstuffs and agricultural raw materials (22%). The commodity structure of submitted proposals is interesting, as it is comparable with the commodity structure of imports in the EAEU. The correlation coefficient between the two variables was 0.8, corresponding to a “high” correlation on the R. E. Chaddock’s scale.

4 Conclusion The analysis shows a clear trend toward liberalization of customs and tariff regulation in the EAEU. However, the interests of EAEU member states regarding import tariff rates are often polarized since the priorities of industrial development in member states differ. Many proposals on reducing the import tariff rates covered components for manufacturing finished products within the EAEU. The proposals most commonly aimed to lower the costs for manufacturing enterprises, increase the competitiveness of manufactured products, increase the share of finished goods in the domestic EAEU market, and promote import substitution. Additionally, this study revealed a correlation between the national import volumes of commodity groups and the number of proposals that the nation submitted for commodity groups.

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References 1. Samuelson PA (1948) International trade and the equalisation of factor prices. Econ J 58(230):163–184. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2225933. Accessed 1 Feb 2021 2. Smith A (1776) An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. Retrieved from https://data.bnf.fr/en/12099112/adam_smith_an_inquiry_into_the_nature_and_causes_ of_the_wealth_of_nations/ 3. Stolper WF, Samuelson PA (1941) Protection and real wages. Rev Econ Stud 9(1):58–73. https://doi.org/10.2307/2967638 4. Krugman P (1990) Rethinking international trade. The MIT Press, Cambridge 5. Krugman P, Obstfeld M, Melitz M (2011) International economics: theory and policy. Pearson Education, London 6. Linder SP (1961) An essay on trade and transformation. Wiley, New York 7. Porter ME (1990) The competitive advantage of nations. Macmillan Press, London 8. Posner MV (1961) International trade and technical change. Oxf Econ Pap 13(3):323–341 9. Ricardo D (1817) On the principles of political economy and taxation. Retrieved from http:// ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/ecn265/Principles.pdf. Accessed 1 Feb 2021 10. Hong P (1999) Import elasticities revisited. DESA Discussion Paper No. 10. United Nations, New York 11. Idrisov GI (2010) Demand factors for foreign capital goods in Russia. Econ Policy 3:115–137 12. AYu, Knobel (2011) Estimation of the import demand function. Appl Econ 4(24):3–26 13. Knobel AY, Aliev TM, Pyzhikov NS, Flegotova TA (2019). Trade and globalization: developments in the last thirty years and further evolutionary trajectories. Delo, Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Moscow, Russia 14. Leontiev V (1956) Factor proportions and the structure of American trade, further theoretical and empirical analysis. Rev Econ Stat 38(4):386–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/1926500 15. Lindert PH (1992) International economics. In: Lindert PKh, Transl. from English; Ivanova OV (eds) Progress University, Moscow (Original work published 1986) 16. Novikov VE, Revin VN, Tsvetinsky MP (2012) Customs and tariff regulation of foreign economic activity and customs value. BINOM. Knowledge Lab, Moscow, Russia 17. Saurenko TN (2013) Development of the theoretical foundations of the customs policy of the Customs Union (Dissertation of Doctor in Economics). Russian Customs Academy, Moscow, Russia 18. Republic of Belarus, Republic of Kazakhstan, Russian Federation (2014) Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (May 29, 2014, revised May 8, 2015). Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan. Retrieved from http://docs.eaeunion.org/docs/ru-ru/0043610/itia_05062014. Accessed 1 Feb 2021 19. Supreme Eurasian Economic Council (2015) Decision “On the list of sensitive goods, in respect of which the decision to change the rate of import customs duty is adopted by the Council of the Eurasian Economic Commission” (May 8, 2015 No. 16, revised March 5, 2021). Moscow, Russia. 20. Eurasian Economic Commission (2014) Information on proposals of Eurasian Economic Union member states on measures of customs and tariff regulation (December 23, 2014 No. 98). Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from http://www.eurasiancommission.org/ru/act/trade/catr/ttr/ Pages/announcements.aspx. Accessed 1 Feb 2021 21. Vernon R (1966) International investment and international trade in the product cycle’. Quart J Econ 80(2):190–207. https://doi.org/10.2307/1880689

The Identification of the Sphere of Small Business as a Condition for an Effective State Policy of Its Regulation Sergei N. Shchemelev , Daniil A. Staroseltsev , Vasiliy U. Boev , and Svetlana S. Galazova

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to improve the state regulations of small business development. The period of the past 11 years is well suited for the historical and logical analysis of the developmental processes of small businesses. Small business is considered to be the system that is being researched with statistical methods in economics. The indicators which reflect the most accurate level of small business development were established. External factors exerting significant influence on small business development were defined. The cardinal changes in the aims of state policy concerning small businesses were grounded. The government bodies of various countries (especially ones with transition economies) might find it useful to refer to the tools in the given research paper to increase the effectiveness of the policy of small business development as well as for scientific forecasting for the state of the small business being influenced by changing macroeconomic factors. Keywords Entrepreneurship · State policy · Small business · Small business support programs JEL Classification O 012 · 014 · 017 · 023 · P17

S. N. Shchemelev (B) · V. U. Boev Rostov State University of Economics, Rostov-on-Don, Russia V. U. Boev e-mail: [email protected] D. A. Staroseltsev Technical University of Munich, Heilbronn, Germany e-mail: [email protected] S. S. Galazova North Ossetian State University after K.L. Khetagurov, Vladikavkaz, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_77

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1 Introduction The development of the market economy directly relates to entrepreneurs’ activities, and this correlation was discovered by Schumpeter [1]. Acs points out that an entrepreneur transforms new ideas into a new product thus contributing to the growth of economics which undergoes quality changes, one of which being new jobs creation [2]. Sabella et al. ground the impact of entrepreneurship development on the economic growth in 13 European countries referring to statistical data [3]. Lévesque and Minniti examine the role of entrepreneurship in the unused manufacturing resources involvement [4]. Such Russian and foreign economists as Dzhindzholiya, Kunin and Aleksandrova, Valko, and Verkhovskaya conduct their studies into the institutional issues of entrepreneurship development [5–8]. Valliere and Peterson research into the state policy on the development of entrepreneurship [9]. Various aspects of interference between social institutions and state policy are considered by Boettke et al. [10, 11]. Conventionally, business is treated as small, middle-sized, and large due to its volume. The difference in business volume confers quality difference in the abovementioned business form. The subject for this paper is small business. The sphere of small business should be identified to determine the outer factors influencing it.

2 Resources and Methods The business idea as the basis of creative activity stands out as the common point for all forms of business [12]. Russian economists also stick to this idea [13]. Based on Schumpeter’s approach, the vast majority of researchers emphasize businessmen’s creative activity. Novelties stimulate economic growth and provide employment rate growth. Audretsch and Sabella et al. demonstrate the positive influence of entrepreneurship on new companies’ formation, credit market enhancement, competition growth, and new high-quality produce setting up [3, 14]. The prior research carried out by Lévesque & Minniti revealed the significance of entrepreneurship in terms of new manufacturing facilities as well as new forms of distribution and sales introduction [4]. There is a wide range of other researches stating the positive impact of entrepreneurship on the economic development of a country [14, 15]. Particularly, Pradhan et al. summarize four different schools of thought related to the impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth named as the following: supply-leading hypothesis; demand-following hypothesis; feedback hypothesis; and neutrality hypothesis [16]. The positive and versatile impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth being evident, the issue of the reverse influence of social institutions and state policy in this field arises.

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2.1 Governmental Support of SME Earlier applications of institutional theory underestimate the impact of the government on transition economies [17–21]. It should be stated that the government directly influences the speed and quality of changes by issuing rules and guidelines to control the overall process. Shu et al. claim that governmental support has three key benefits [21]. Firstly, it tends to be exclusive for enterprises that comply with governmental regulations. Secondly, it provides low-cost resources, and thirdly, government institutional support aims at overcoming market failures or at promoting the development of strategically important industries [22]. In this regard, it is important to determine such economic factors that would correspond with actual support measures. In the Russian Federation, both federal and local governments may initiate incentives, policies, and other support measures. For SMEs, these measures typically include direct subsidies, tax reductions, provision of guarantees for easier access to credits and interest subsidies [23]. Similar conclusions were made by Chernopyatov et al. [24]. Support measures partly correlate with the observed problems don’t feel any cohesion. Therefore, we focus on the factors which both characterize the abovementioned support measures and are reflected by the official statistics.

2.2 Economic Factors Characterizing the Development of SMEs Access to external financing is particularly important for small enterprises in the stage of development [25, 26]. Therefore, the application of expansionary monetary policy focused on the facilitation of access to financing is considered to be the key to promote and encourage entrepreneurship. In Russia, the main sources of external financing are borrowings from relatives or friends or commercial credits [27]. Equity financing (venture capital or business angels) cannot be considered an influential source of financing due to the low level of its development [28]. In this regard, we consider the availability of commercial credits to be a representative indicator of external financing availability. This consideration goes in line with Chowdhury and Maung who provided evidence that the availability of debt financing influences entrepreneurial activity in the countries with low levels of entrepreneurial cultures, Russia serving as a bright example [29]. Modern entrepreneurship research suggests that entrepreneurship is the driving force of economic growth and this correspondence is empirically verified [30]. However, some scientists pointed out that the interrelation between entrepreneurship and economic growth is not direct [31–33]. Particularly, Box et al. suggest that economic growth precedes entrepreneurship growth in Sweden being driven by other common factors [31]. The analysts specify that Sweden can hardly be considered an exception from the general rule. Doran et al. call attention to the fact that the

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increase in entrepreneurial activity can lead to a decrease of GDP of middle/lowincome countries, arguing it prevails the necessary entrepreneurship for these nations [32]. Meanwhile, GDP is a factor that represents the overall economic situation in the country. Therefore, we consider GDP as an indicator that affects entrepreneurial activity. The indicator which characterizes the customer demand is the population’s income level. Pradhan et al. highlight the correlation between entrepreneurship and customer demand’s pattern which is significantly affected by entrepreneur activity [16]. GDP also includes government spending, capital accumulations, export and import, while the population’s income level represents purchasing ability of each household. Yet, the significance of final effective demand is so high for general entrepreneurship development that in international reports Global Entrepreneurship Monitor countries are classified according to the ground of population’s income level since 2018 instead of the previously considered basis of general development. In this research, we refer to the actual monthly salary reflected by official Russian statistics as the indicator which characterizes the population’s income level.

2.3 Micro-, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises When studying the issues of entrepreneurship state funding, the majority of researchers consider small and medium enterprises as a single unit [21, 34, 35]. The abovementioned scientists see SMEs as a unified non-governmental sector of economics. However, entrepreneurship is subdivided into subsystems by business volume, each of which has quality differences [35–37]. Taking this fact into consideration, it makes sense to study the effects of different economic factors dynamics influence on small businesses apart from micro and medium-sized businesses. Employment rate and annual turnover serve as criteria for business to be considered small. Due to this reason, a great number of countries apply different quantitative criteria for an enterprise to be defined as a small, medium or a large one. Economic, social, and other important factors, the organization of national statistics included, are taken into consideration by Barinova and Zempsov [38]. The number of small enterprises, its employment rate, and turnover are taken as indicators characterizing the state of the small business sphere. The research considers each small enterprise in Russia together with manufacturing small enterprises as having a more stable production base available.

2.4 Hypotheses The current national project called ‘Small and medium-sized entrepreneurship and business initiative support’ aims at the increase of the employment ratio of those working for small and medium-sized businesses. The increase of market share in

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GDP is another aim of the project. Market share, being a comparative indicator, is influenced by general national results. Therefore, instead of referring to this indicator, we apply to turnovers of small enterprises to define the results of the small business sector. We will look into the small manufacturing business turnover as more stable, capital-intensive, having higher market entry barriers. The characteristics of the manufacturing sector imply less dramatic changes in turnover and therefore more descriptive accuracy of the chosen model. Hypothesis 1 (H1): The turnover of small enterprises can characterize changes in factors influencing SME’s development. Hypothesis 2 (H2): The turnover of small manufacturing enterprises best characterizes the changes in factors influencing SME’s development compared to the turnover of small enterprises. Multiple studies have shown positive effects of small business development on the employment rate [39, 40]. Taking this evidence into consideration, it seems reasonable to assume that factors characterizing the development of SMEs would also influence the number of employees of small enterprises. If speaking of Russia, it is obvious that employment rates are more volatile for small enterprises, compared to medium-sized and large ones. Also, a substantial amount of employees are temporary ones, who are hired for a particular task, for example, seasonal workers. As a result, permanent employment can serve as an indicator of stability in a company, so it is reasonable to find out whether the average number of permanent employees in small enterprises can be referred to as a better indicator of changes in the formal business environment, compared to the overall number of employees. Hypothesis 3 (H3): The number of people employed by small enterprises can characterize changes in factors influencing SME’s development. Hypothesis 4 (H4): The number of people taking permanent positions in small enterprises can better characterize changes in factors influencing SME’s development compared to the average number of employees of small enterprises. In addition, we will examine several small enterprises along with several small enterprises in the manufacturing industry. Hypothesis 5 (H5): The number of small enterprises can characterize changes in factors influencing SME’s development. Hypothesis 6 (H6): The number of small manufacturing enterprises can better characterize changes in factors influencing SME’s development more precisely, compared to overall turnovers of small enterprises.

3 Methods In this study, we refer to secondary data collected by the Russian state statistical service or “Rosstat” between 2009 and 2018. Starting from 2009, the data collection

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basis was changed to the industry classification principle, so it is impossible to transform earlier data because it is impossible to converse the data gained in the earlier time frame. The COVID-19 pandemic changed the patterns of small business development and reversed the established relationships between development factors and effects. For this reason, we do not take into account data for 2019 and 2020. Collected data can be seen in Table 1. To examine the research questions on the impact of the factors influencing SME developments on the factors characterizing small entrepreneurship development, we apply correlation and regression analysis. The general formula for regression analysis is the following: yi = β0 + β1 x1 + β2 x2 + β3 x3 + β4 x4

4 Results Table 2 represents the correlation matrix. It is seen that National GDP (), Average salary () and turnovers of small enterprises () and are highly and significantly interrelated. There might be 2 reasons behind these changes. First, the general economic environment reflected by GDP change significantly influences small business. Secondly, it implies that the purchasing power of the population characterized by average salaries makes a huge impact on small enterprises’ turnover growth. The negative correlation between turnovers of small enterprises and the number of their employees might be explained by multiple reasons, including digitalization or freelance popularization. In general, it only demonstrates the absence of a direct correlation between the number of employees and labor productivity within one enterprise. Table 3 reports estimated coefficients of regression functions and parameters describing their quality. We have found that the turnover of small enterprises can be described by the predetermined factors, which support H1 (), with GDP () being the most influential variable. H2, on the other hand, was not supported (). The model based on turnovers of small manufacturing enterprises provides less accurate prediction than turnovers of all small enterprises. This might imply that short-term volatility in the formal business environment has a less significant impact on manufacturing enterprises. The number of employees working for small enterprises appears to be an unrepresentative indicator of changes in the formal business environment due to high prediction errors level and low significance levels (H3 is not supported). On the other hand, the average permanent number of employees is better characterized by predetermined factors (H4 is supported), but it can’t also be accepted as a valid model. The same results are obtained for H5 and H6. The number of small enterprises can’t be described in terms of chosen parameters (H5 is not supported). It has exceptionally

13.6

9.2

9.6

10.3

10.2

12.49

18.86

16.46

14.43

12.46

7.83

2009 2,516,533

2010 3,873,702

2011 5,149,819

2012 6,023,812

2013 6,933,243

2014 6,568,483

2015 4,540,710

2016 4,560,099

2017 5,304,913

2018 5,888,453

2019 6,626,440

43,724

39,167

36,709

34,030

32,495

29,792

26,628.9

23,369.2

20,952.2

18,637.5

x4

Monthly real average monthly salary of employees, rubles

1,093,61.5 47,468

103,876

88,177

83,898

80,804

77,945

71,017

66,927

59,698

46,309

38,807

x3

Russia’s GDP (billion rubbles)

28,712

191,820.6

158,778

146,376.8

141,547.3

129,195

114,625.7

111,582

99,978.4

81,388.6

67,657.1

y1

Turnover of small enterprises (micro-enterprises excluded), in billion rubles

3159

48,639.2

41,357.3

37,112.1

34,687.2

32,019.6

29,520.1

26,308.3

23,940

18,761.4

14,423.3

y2

Turnover of small manufacturing enterprises (micro-enterprises excluded), in billion rubles

Source Russia in figures [electronic resource]/Federal State Statistic Service—http://gsk.ru

x2

Interest rates on loans for non-financial organizations up to 1 year, demand deposits include (%)

x1

Year Volume of loans, granted to small, medium-sized businesses, in million rubles

Table 1 Indicators characterizing small business development and factors affecting on them

5977.6

6271.7

6671.8

5388.9

6660.9

6832

6926.2

6984.3

7125.9

10,336

10,254

y3

The average employment rate, in thousand persons

5618.9

5800.6

6167.5

5050.2

6216.1

6358.4

6452.3

6506.8

6557.6

10,298.3

10,176.2

y4

Average number of employees (without external temporary employee), in thousand person

209.7

238.3

256.7

172.9

242.7

235.6

234.5

243.1

242.7

219.7

227.8

y5

The number of small enterprises (micro-enterprises excluded), thousand

28.7

31.8

33.2

26.3

33.9

33.6

33.9

35.4

34.9

35.3

36.5

y6

The number of small manufacturing enterprises, thousand

The Identification of the Sphere of Small Business … 719

−0.84794**

0.068557

0.420941

−0.38025

−0.35314

−0.21945

−0.47224

0.482768

0.507026

−0.64763*

−0.67127*

0.304306

−0.14676

y2

y3

y4

y5

y6

−0.62339

−0.85331**

0.991221***

0.990037***

−0.66052*

0.013043

−0.78299**

−0.79434**

0.993627***

0.989012***

1

x4

−0.61473

0.067399

−0.78438**

−0.79205**

0.996969****

1

y5

−0.62744

0.063784

−0.79354**

−0.80086**

1

y6

Source Created by authors. *** significant at p < 0.001; ** significant at p < 0.01, * significant at p < 0.05

0.435869

0.985325***

y1

0.482763

1

0.48046

x4

0.413726

0.580927

1

−0.28206

x3

x3

x2

x2

1

x1

x1

Table 2 The correlation matrix

0.687838*

0.079643

0.998327***

1

y3

0.648144*

0.029171

1

y4

0.708991*

1

y1

1

y2

720 S. N. Shchemelev et al.

1.227e−03 4.708e−05

−2.002e+02 −6.313e−01 −9.062e−02

−4.127e−04

1.463e+04**

2.267e+02*

40.51**

H4

H5

H6

−1.757e−01

−3.424e−04

−2.989e−03

3.810e−01

3.200e−01

5.944e−01*

2.711e−01

x4

Source Created by authors.*** significant at p < 0.001; ** significant at p < 0.01, * significant at p < 0.05

2.346e−07

3.119e−06

−2.040e−01

−1.872e+02

−3.596e−04

1.441e+04**

H3

3.404e−01*

2.093e+00***

−3.514e+02*

−9.636e−04*

−2.475e+03

−1.320e+03*

−6.162e−03**

1.432e+04*

x3

H2

x2

x1

H1

x0

Table 3 Estimated coefficients of regression functions

0.4792

0.1328

0.8664

0.857

0.9978

0.9983

R2

0.06263

−0.5609

0.7595

0.7427

0.996

0.997

Adjusted R2

0.4302

0.9328

0.02066

0.02429

8.078e−07

4.086e−07

Value

The Identification of the Sphere of Small Business … 721

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S. N. Shchemelev et al.

low values of low significance. The number of small manufacturing enterprises shows better results (H6 is supported), it can’t also be accepted as a valid model.

5 Discussion 5.1 The Criteria for Small Business Category Allocation Due to our research, the present two criteria for business form allocation, i.e. sales volume and employment rate, turn out to be ungrounded [38]. The number of employees should stand out as a criterion for classification, as it doesn’t make a direct economic influence on the company’s results. What could be the criterion for business form allocation (small, medium, and large) is market share in manufacturing as this division corresponds with the Harvard Paradigm. However, taking difficulties in system calculation of this indicator it makes sense to introduce the marginal revenue as the criterion for business form distinction. Because of difficulties in system indicator calculation, it is necessary to take the enterprise turnover as the criterion for business categorization into small, medium-sized, and large.

5.2 Small Business Development Guidelines Small business dynamics should be assessed through the sales volume as this indicator characterizes its effectiveness and first responds to macroeconomic parameters fluctuations. It is the small business turnover changes, or sales volume in Russia, that prove themselves as credible criteria for state project implementation outcomes assessment. Neither dynamics of employment rates nor the number of small businesses can be referred to as reliable criteria. Market share of small business products in national GDP should not be seen as the main guideline of this economic sector in Russia. Firstly, large companies fail to supply the market with a sufficient amount of product, so the residual demand mostly defines small businesses’ products. Secondly, the entrepreneurs who implement innovative ideas set up so-called “unicorn companies”, which in their turn, are either successfully developed into middle-sized and large enterprises, or are sold to major companies. The market share of small businesses can follow either pattern: GDP numbers can plummet or remain unaffected. Thirdly, the market share of small businesses in GDP depends on middle-sized and large enterprises’ production volume as well. The employment small business rate should fail to stand in line with small business development guidelines, as the manual labor is reduced through such major technological and scientific advances as production mechanization and automation.

The Identification of the Sphere of Small Business …

723

State policy is suggested to be aimed at creating better conditions that would encourage new business ideas implementation [41]. Nevertheless, it is essential to foster those institutions which have a direct influence on the social and economic environment conducive to enterprise development [42, 43]. It would be impractical to establish any schemes for small business lending, though this situation is current for Russia. The reason to eschew such a way lies in discrepancies between the above-mentioned calculations and empirical evidence which reveals the fact that up to third small enterprises in Russia never got a loan. According to Ageeva and Mishura, the spatial dimension to the problem of small business lending plays a significant role, as banking services availability is not equally high around the Russian Federation [44]. The number of small enterprises cannot be a trustworthy indicator of this sphere development either. Some small businesses do not engage in production activities or economic operations. On top of that, such business owners refuse to liquidate the enterprise driven by economic motivation. The calculations above prove that the small business number indicator developed resistance to changing macro environment. The small business sphere should be treated as some self-evolving unity with inner quantitative differentiation by subject. Moreover, such an approach to small business could be considered as a guideline for state policy development. By the creation of favorable conditions for small business development, the state authorities are to set a solid framework for successful business expansion instead of overgeneralized ungrounded business strategy goals [45]. Many researchers fail to point out such vital development conditions as the type and geographical position of business. If these conditions are neglected, the state support programs will not address small business needs [46]. Moreover, the programs should aim at facilities establishment; also, small business should feel free to apply for a long-term loan for start-up development. Another very important measure for small business enhancement is low taxes for a company by the time it will have reached the planned production volume ratio. The effects of taken measures need to be conducted systematically. The assessment of the impact should be based on qualitative input data. Such an approach allows one to accurately define the progress on the small business development ratio taking the number of items produced and sold.

6 Conclusion This research has restated the systematic character of small business sphere and proven the necessity of unified conceptual approaches in state controlling policy. Having examined the hypotheses, we found out that the most reliable indicator characterizing small business development in the Russian Federation is a cumulative turnover of the constituent enterprises. This indicator can be referred to both regulatory impact and changes in macroeconomic conditions in the small business

724

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sphere. Moreover, the cumulative turnover of small business provides insight into its contribution to GDP to some extent. The calculations demonstrate that the small business employment rate is less sensitive to outer changes in terms of the small business macroeconomic environment. Thus, the dynamics of the whole sphere can be characterized only indirectly. It is supposed to be effective for state forecasting and indicative planning to transfer for keeping a record of items and services volume sold by a definite small business company. This will allow defining small business market share within the industrial branch volume provided that some limits should be established to classify this or that enterprise as a small one. In its turn, the statistics of sales volume will inevitably lay the foundations for the passage of unified classification of enterprises. Two-criteria classification which is very common nowadays (the second criterion being the enterprise employment rate) should give way to a new system with categorization based on a single criterion. Small business employment rate fails to describe the way small business develops. The reference to this indicator as a criterion is due to some historic factors when sales volume was in direct relation to the employment rate, and supervisory authorities found it a hard task to keep sales volume statistics. To boost the effectiveness of state policy in the small business development area, it makes sense to collect small enterprises numbers apart from the statistics concerning medium-sized enterprises. Medium-sized business generally moves towards large businesses bearing no considerable differences. Due to this reason, the state policy of some countries does not separate these two business forms. Small enterprises follow either pattern: they focus on individual or small group’s needs or market their produce in terms of residual demand. These patterns should be taken into account while shaping state development programs for small business. Therefore, it is advisable to implement state development programs for small enterprises considering the type of each small enterprise and perspectives of produced services or goods demand. Consistent implementation of the whole set of suggestions for Small business development will require such drastic measures as changes in the way of statistic data collection, the produce categorization by sectors. In the long turn, a unified tax system for small business can be developed, and this new system can serve as a great research subject.

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The Evolution of Cryptocurrencies in the Global Political Economy Diana M. Madiyarova

and Nurselen Tamer

Abstract This paper, issue focus on the emerging effects of cryptocurrencies on globalization. Cryptocurrencies change social and economic processes throughout the world and within developing countries. This process can be expressed as a part of globalization in general terms. The concept of undertaking both opportunities and problems together due to the paradoxes it carries is a common result of many commercial, social, cultural, geographic, and political influences. The development process of blockchain technology, the infrastructure of cryptocurrencies, is different in countries. For example, Turkey has been studied as an example of developing countries’ approaches to blockchain technology and cryptocurrencies. Consequently, cryptocurrency is in request in developing countries, with a different perception and expectation. This has various implications for globalization. Keywords Research and development · Blockchain · Global political economy · Cryptocurrency · Electronic commerce · International economic integration JEL Classification J240 · L960 · O39

1 Introduction The popularity of the term globalization gained in the late 1990s is the integration of both opportunities and problems. At the point of defining or solving the economic crises experienced by the countries; we know that other countries have intense influence as well other than the strengths or weaknesses that states have. Countries, as a result of the problems and opportunities they experience, have given momentum to the word globalization. On the one hand, all the difficulties experienced due to the geographical location of the countries were overcome by telecommunication and transportation; on the one hand, increasing export and import incentives has strengthened the integration in labor markets and international trade. While such international D. M. Madiyarova (B) · N. Tamer Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_78

727

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trade activities increase with their positive aspects thanks to globalization, some problems also come with it. While exports and imports are increasing rapidly, the problems faced by countries with globalization cannot be ignored. With globalization, the economic problems of countries have grown as fast as opportunities. In the import and export process, states engage in economic activities as both an investor and a producer. Along with the technological developments that strengthened this process, research and development studies became a knowledge economy. The power of technology, price-centered competitive strategies have started to be ignored in globalization. The primary strategy that matters is the technological and innovation-centered competitive strategies. And thus, there is an increasing export in parallel with the development of research and development. This, in turn, rapidly affects the economic dynamics of countries in globalization. A product produced in the globalizing world must be different and innovative. An increase in demand and diversity in the market is only possible with a new idea that will emerge as a result of serious research and development studies. Diversity and producing a different product are integrated with the desire for technological leadership. The introduction of cryptocurrencies into our lives has accelerated this process. Born as a manifesto for state-controlled currencies, cryptocurrencies began to realize globalization away from state control. This situation differed according to the level of development of the countries. The global economic depression began in 1929; the effects of the crisis spread and manifested themselves throughout the world only within a decade. However, the financial crisis that occurred in 2008, spread around the world and showed its consequences within six months. One of the most important effects underlying the rapid spread of the crisis was technology. With changing technology, not only has the speed of problems spreading in the economy increased, but the sense of change has also increased. Cryptocurrencies, which entered our lives without the need for a banking system, government approval, or international negotiations, appeared suddenly and secured a long-term existence with their high values against the dollar, unstable and high fortunes. Together with the serious loss of confidence in banks and states after the 2008 crisis: the intersection with the advent of cryptocurrencies; this causal relationship will likely become more clear over time. A strong and efficient virtual money system carries not only benefits but also high risks since it is not controlled and independent of banks and the government. Together with the trust that virtual currencies inspire, which are not controlled by any organization or ministry, independent of the bureaucracy that leads people to crisis and banks, with their desire for high corporate interests, they also carry serious risks. Virtual currencies; although they are trusted currencies due to their decentralized structure that does not require trust in the state, institution, or organization; due to the lack of control of these currencies and the presence of bad and risky areas for their use, are the preferred currencies in illegal and risky commercial areas. The concept of financial technology is used to describe technologies with various innovative business models that can transform the financial services sector. One of the most diverse, effective, and promising financial technology projects in recent years is; blockchain.

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2 Materials and Method A book by Geoffrey Brennan and James M. Buchanan’s on Constitutional Political Economy introduced the concept of decentralized distributed databases into our lives in 1985. In addition, this was expressed in many computer sciences of the time. The concept of decentralization cannot be a concept that will only affect computer science in the field in which it is used. As soon as this concept, which is the mainline of basic management, economics, and technology, changes, many differentiations will be inevitable: a popular blockchain concept with Bitcoin, a distributed database structure. The biggest advantage is security. It more than just trusts a person, an organization, or a web page, owner, center, main database No. Governance; in this era of centralization by states and institutions in the field of economics and technology, control over the blockchain is limited and transparent. In addition, it eliminates the need to trust someone. Virtual currencies, which are the most important application of this concept, have existed to break the control and pressure from states or institutions in the economic sphere. The virtual currency made its debut in the financial world in 2009, when Satoshi Nakamoto found bitcoin. Among the sources studied are [1, 2] publications on globalization. However, whether or not it counts as a currency has caused a lot of controversy in the literature. In fact, at the heart of this debate is also the fact that currencies are not just financial or commercial concepts; the contribution that is the main building block in the existence, the dominance of peoples for centuries, is very great. According to the manifesto published by Satoshi Nakamoto, cryptocurrencies are a riot for banks, financial institutions. It is a revolt against centralism. That is why when describing such a phenomenon, it is necessary to pay great attention to the concepts that need to be selected. The definition will affect the most important instrument of the power of States and institutions. The concept of central power, which has grown and increased since the Bretton Woods system began with the abandonment of the gold standard, means a concept of centralism that will not change the government and central banks; it has convinced the public that it follows the economy from the outside. The decentralized virtual currencies that have emerged during periods when the value of money operates in parallel with these institutions have created the opportunity to open the door to an important change in the understanding of finance, even if it is periodic, with volatility against the dollar and existing requirements. Among the virtual currencies, the software that uses the blockchain infrastructure, bitcoin; the constant growth in transaction volume and the volatility of its value against the US dollar were the most notable phenomena. In practice, there are many virtual currencies with or without blockchain. Innovative financial business models do not impose a trust on a center or organization in the developing world. Like many virtual currencies, bitcoin altcoins continue to branch out. Virtual currencies are blockchain-based exchanges [3].

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3 Results No decisions were made to convert cryptocurrency into other virtual payment instruments. They were balanced by simplifying and restrictive rules to prevent inequality in commercial use. The American approach focuses on adapting to the needs of our time. In the political aspect, legally different decisions made under the influence of differences between countries will have certain consequences. These include: • Countries those are unable to adapt to the needs of our time. • A variety that will make international trade difficult. • The presence of a payment instrument that is not supported by a single legal concept. • Among the international economic problems, we can mention the difficulty in reaching a compromise. Some solutions may be developed to prevent the differentiation of such countries concerning cryptocurrency. These include: • The rapid adoption of measures by multinational institutions or organizations to preserve cryptocurrencies with all their features and the consent of countries on this issue. Integration of literature in such a way that the existence of a cryptocurrency unit, considered a means of payment, corresponds to the concept of money. • Creating a supranational emphasis on the fact that the cryptocurrency unit is not identical to the virtual currency, and requires legal decisions that correspond to its unique characteristics. • The solution to emerging problems should not be aimed at protecting the interests of the state, but at ensuring the financial security of people. The state’s intervention in market instruments must correspond to the present. Any legal decision aimed at market security that does not violate the integrity of the concept and its functions, taking into account the purposes of its use, makes today’s innovations sustainable [4]. The main recommendations in this regard are listed above. The main purpose of these proposals is to create an incentive for States to adopt legal norms without affecting the structure, functions, and processes of modern technologies in a changing world.

4 Conclusion First of all, the study examined the historical process of money development. The observations made in this part of the work relate to deviations resulting from the intervention of governments, independent institutions, and organizations, or citizens

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when they have problems with trust in the currency when trying to solve them by different departments. In history, alternative currencies were formed as a result of serious steps taken to preserve the concept of power and trust [5]. This is a payment instrument that has proven its existence in the financial world after the cryptocurrency crisis in 2008, contrary to the central authorities. The study highlighted the terminological difference in the definition of virtual currency and cryptocurrency. Virtual currency is a broader concept. And virtual currencies are not anonymous. They exist under the control of a central structure, the government. However, the main feature of cryptocurrencies that distinguishes them from other payment instruments is that they are anonymous and do not depend on a central authority. Thanks to these features, cryptocurrency cannot be expressed or generalized as a virtual currency. Cryptocurrency units with more specific characteristics were evaluated in the study taking into account their differences [6]. Cryptocurrency units are evaluated by positive and negative characteristics in various studies of supply and demand in this regard. Because the main reasons for the diversity of cryptocurrencies are their positive and negative features. In addition, the separate positive and negative features form the basis of different approaches of different countries. These results were very useful for processing and analyzing the data obtained in the process [7]. The main reasons for making comparisons between countries in this study are: • The formation of diverse literature and critical research on the approaches of countries. • The serious impact that the lack of a common opinion on cryptocurrency in different countries has on the availability of these payment instruments. • Due to the anonymous and decentralized structure of cryptocurrencies over the national structure, uniform legal procedures have not yet been adopted, and the approaches in each country are different [8]. As a result of the literature review conducted in the study, it was found that Turkey and America are suitable for comparison. Reasons for choosing these two countries: • The emergence of cryptocurrencies and the requirements for them that arise over time is the same in both countries. • In both countries, the states have a desire to do something with cryptocurrency. • However, in Turkey and the United States, decisions containing serious political and legal differences regarding cryptocurrency have begun to be implemented. • And as a result of these decisions, cryptocurrencies, which were adopted with a single concept and wanted to work, were changed in such a way that they were perceived as conceptually opposed. • The results of the decisions taken give different results in the two countries. This is the reason for choosing the Turkey and America survey. The results obtained from this comparison. In Turkey, rules and decisions have been adopted that will disrupt the decentralized structure of the cryptocurrency unit and make it vulnerable to state intervention tools [9]. The decisions are taken not only to protect the security of people and the

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market but also to represent the interests of the state. The decisions taken at the legal level have seriously affected the future of cryptocurrencies, the scope of their use, and adaptation to the development of the era. However, the decisions made by Turkey were shaped by the country’s economic problems. The growth of the dollar and the euro against the Turkish lira and the serious problems faced by the Turkish economy had a serious impact on the decisions taken. But the laws prepared to regulate cryptocurrency in America do not prevent the development of cryptocurrency. The decisions made do not contradict the anonymity or the decentralized structure of the cryptocurrency.

References 1. Acemoglu D, Akcigit U, Kerr W (2016) Networks and the macroeconomy: an empirical exploration. NBER Macroecon Ann 30:245–314. https://ideas.repec.org/a/ucp/macann/doi10.1086685961.html. Accessed 7 May 2021 2. Baldwin RE (2016) The great convergence: ınformation technology and the new globalization. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp 10–13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322001164_REVIEW_OF_THE_BOOK_Baldwin_ RE_The_Great_Convergence_Information_Technology_and_the_New_Globalization_Camb ridge_Massachusetts_The_Belknap_Press_of_Harvard_University_Press_2016_-_344_p. Accessed 11 Apr 2021 3. Kuznetsov IV (2017) The role of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies in the world economy. Insurance Law 3:56–60. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/150761/TAX3%20Study%20on% 20cryptocurrencies%20and%20blockchain.pdf. Accessed 18 May 2021 4. Vigna P, Casey MJ (2015) The age of cryptocurrencies: how bitcoin and digital money are challenging the global economic order. Bodley Head, London, 384p 5. Veduta E (2017) The digital economy will lead to an economic cyber system. Int Life 10:87–102. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/der2019_en.pdf. Accessed 9 Apr 2021 6. Churilov A (2015) Practical aspects of using Bitcoin in business 2(51):4–7. https://ideas.repec. org/p/sek/iacpro/3605453.html. Accessed 1 May 2021 7. Angel JD, McCabe D (2015) Payment ethics: paper, plastic, or bitcoin? J Bus Eth 132(3):603–611. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/kapjbuset/v_3a132_3ay_3a2015_3ai_ 3a3_3ap_3a603-611.htm. Accessed 1 Apr 2021 8. Nedorezkov VV (2017) Cryptocurrencies based on blockchain technology: problems of legal regulation. Banking Law 4:45–49. https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=2449&context=akronlawreview. Accessed 21 May 2021 9. Getsman M (2017) Development of electronic services through the eyes of the registrar. Blockchain as a way to increase the reliability of an electronic document. Secur Market 2:47–49. http://armaedfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AIEF-Research-Paper-Blo ckchain-Technology-Recordkeeping.pdf. Accessed 1 Apr 2021

Kyrgyz Methods of Leather Dressing (Late 19th–Early 20th Centuries) Oktyiabr E. Kapalbaev

Abstract The article examines the Kyrgyz methods of leather dressing, as well as their similarities and differences from the leatherworking craft of other peoples. Today, despite the high level of development of technology and production, the main types of crafts of the ancient nomadic peoples haven’t lost their relevance. On the contrary, in the context of globalization, every nation is trying to revive and preserve its national values. Leather processing, leatherworking occupy an important place in the historical past of the Kyrgyz, especially in the development of handicrafts, because leather and leather goods were an integral part of the life of the Kyrgyz in conditions of a nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle. Keywords Kyrgyz · Leather · Method · Use · Tanning · Utensils JEL Classification B12

1 Introduction Primitive people initially used rough and untreated skin as various kinds of shelters, bedding and blankets [1, 2], but over time they began to master new methods and ways of processing it. Soviet historian and ethnographer Kosven noted in his studies that in places, where the climate was hot, a person didn’t need clothes [1]—the dwelling served as a shelter from the rain, cold, sun, as well as protection from predatory animals and a place to protect accumulated wealth from other people. The famous archeologist Savinov, describing the finds of the Pazyryk mounds, which belong to the Saka era, noted that leather was used not only as a raw material for making utensils but also for performing various kinds of ritual ceremonies. It’s also important to note that the process of preparing and using the skin, applying various shapes and images to it, took many centuries. At the same time, leather processing developed differently among various peoples [3]. O. E. Kapalbaev (B) Kyrgyz State University named after I. Arabaev, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_79

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In this case, it’s very important to separate the skin from the subcutis in time (captivity, cellulose, fat, and fibres under the skin of the animal), because it quickly decays in a wet state, and dries up under the sun, as well as coarsens, so it becomes difficult to work with such skin. Therefore, if Kyrgyz people didn’t have time to immediately process the animal’s skin and to protect it from decay and destruction, they sprinkled it with fine salt and dried it in the shade [4]. The relevance of the issues of leather processing is emphasized by the multitude of scientific publications devoted to this problem by modern authors [5–10].

2 Materials and Methods It’s important to note that the process of slaughtering animals also had its methods, as well as national and religious characteristics [11, 12]. For example, among the Kyrgyz people (despite the appearance of the animal), it was necessary for the cutting and the animal itself to be turned towards the Qibla (Mecca). The animal was laid on its left side, the ends of four limbs were tied, the head (of the small animals) was clamped with the left hand, the left limb was firmly pressed to the neck of the animal, and then an incision was made from the lower part of the jugular vein and trachea to the ears. The blade of the knife should have reached the cervical vertebra [2]. The spinal cord was cut after thorough exsanguination of the carcass [4]. But Tuvans, in order to slaughter an animal, tied four limbs, stabbed cattle in the back of the head (cervical spine) with a small knife, cut the spinal cord, and then cut the venous vein in the chest area to exsanguinate the animal. This method of slaughtering a large animal was called “chushkuulaar” (i.e., stabbing in the back of the head with a knife). Small cattle were slaughtered—using the öözer method, which was characteristic of the ancient nomadic peoples. Having overturned the animal on its back, the animal’s head was turned to the left, the cutting with his knees pressed the carcass to the ground, while holding the animal’s front limbs with his left hand, and with his right hand with the tip of a knife (about 4 cm) made a small incision in the lower part of the chest and, inserting his hand into the incision, tore off the venous artery under the spine. Due to this process took place instantly, the animal died without pain, from a large loss of blood [13]. The author tried to describe above the methods of slaughtering animal’s characteristics of Kyrgyz and Tuvans, from which he can conclude that they have a common similarity—the animal shouldn’t feel pain, but, at the same time, these are completely different methods. Removing the skin from the carcass of an animal also required special skill. Because, firstly, it was very important not to cut the skin with the edge of a knife, and secondly, it was necessary to preserve the skin membrane. Therefore, to quickly remove the skin of a young animal, the cutter could use his fist or the back of the horn blade. Of course, there are some differences between skinning a slim or fat animal. The skin of a slim animal is thin, cyanotic; it doesn’t separate from the meat, while

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it’s removed from the animal. Often the blade of a knife will cut it. The skin of a fat animal is dense, oily, and white. It can be easily removed with the help of a fist [4]. A specialist in the problems of history, ethnography, and archaeology of Tuva, scientist Vainshtein noted that various methods of slaughtering cattle and processing leather were used in Tuva [13]. Therefore, the author tried to describe in detail the methods of slaughtering and processing the skin of the Kyrgyz, Tuvans, and Altai people. The Kyrgyz people removed the skin of the animal in two main ways. The method of skinning depended on what the product was planned to be made of this skin. Thus, the so-called closed and open methods are known [14]. In a closed way, they usually removed the skin of goats entirely. Canachi (a vessel for kumis), a bottle of canach (a wineskin for travel provisions), and wineskin for water delivery were made from goat, as well as calfskin [15]. They had to be closed because of the liquid, which was poured into them. The places of the four limbs and the tail incision were tightly sutured, the neck was left open. At the same time, for the manufacture of k8n8k (a leather bucket with a spout, serving as a milk-box in the process of milking), milkboxes, buckets, the neck of the horse was removed entirely to the chest [14, 16], and for the manufacture of chokoy (a kind of coarse footwear: bent from a whole piece of leather on the back, the bootleg above the ankle), as well as charyk, the skin of a cow, bull, or horse was used, the whole skin of the hind legs was removed to the hooves [17]. If Antipina wrote that all leather (except for the leather consumed on the farm) was sold in all markets of Central Asia, Russia, and the cities of Kashgar, but it, in turn, was processed in factories and sold again [16], then Polyakov noted in his studies that processed leather was mainly sold in the markets. At the same time, shepherds, who sold or exchanged leather, used it as raw material [18]. Two opposing opinions can be seen here. So, both points of view can be the truth. Firstly, according to Polyakov, nomads made utensils necessary for everyday life from processed leather: horse equipment, shoes, clothes, and outerwear. They salted and dried the remaining skin, then sold or exchanged it for other things that they needed. Thus, the rawhide was of little value for the nomads. Secondly, according to Antipina, in the late 19th–early twentieth centuries, animal skins became a commodity equivalent to the arrival of Russian settlers [19]. In other words, demand for this type of raw material has increased. As the processed leather becomes a source of income, plants and factories begin to process and market it. It can be said that this process satisfied the needs of buyers and sellers. But most of all the profits were made by traders and speculators.

3 Results Let’s stop on the traditional methods and types of leather dressing now. The processed leather was divided into wool and hairless. There are different ways of leather

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processing “steaming”, “fermentation”, “tanning”, “soaking”, “painting” “smoking”, “cutting into strips”, etc. [20]. The wool was not steamed while processing woollen leather, but meat and fat were scraped off only from the inner part of the skin (i.e., the pomegranate was removed), and then the skin was fermented. Woollen leather was used to make beddings (from lambskin or goatskin), hats, and outerwear. The main method of processing leather is an alum. Zharma (chowder from crushed fried grain (wheat or barley), achkyl (homemade alcoholic bread drink), ayran (fermented milk drink), and bran mixture were used for the sourdough. For this, the skins were slightly dried in the sun, and the subcutis of an animal (sheep, goat, and deer), cattle (camel, cow, horse) were removed. As a rule, salt and bran were added to the sour milk, sometimes it was mixed with roast, then the resulting mixture was evenly distributed on the surface of the skin and dried in the sun, or simply after the animal was slaughtered. The skin was sprinkled with salt and dried in the sun [20]. It’s important to use the correct amount of salt for the sprinkling here. The quality of the leather could deteriorate if more salt was sprinkled. In the epic “Manas” lines are describing the pants of the kandagai Koshoi, in which it was said that if the skin in sourdough overexposed, so, its quality could be spoiled [15]. Tuvans used rotten excrement for leather dressing; they used it to lubricate the skin [13]. This method has been practised by Tuvans for a long time with excellent results. But the peoples of Central Asia, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, and Uzbeks used for kvass, ayran, zharma, atala, etc. The skin cleaning process also had its own rules. For example, after the skin is well wet and salted, it’s fleshed, i.e. subcutaneous fat and film are removed. The skin was scraped in the direction from the tail to the head, and then from the ridge to the sides [21]. This method of purification was also used by the Kazakh people [22]. The journalist and researcher Akmataliev noted that in order for the skin to become soft, the sourdough was periodically changed, as well as the skin was dried in the sun [20]. To clean the skin, fragments of a knife or a scythe, a sickle were used, the edge of a flat shovel was also used [21, 23]. If the skin was very oily, it was rubbed with rasping or bran. After that, it was cleaned with a dry towel and thoroughly washed with laundry soap [22]. The process of steaming the skin (separating the wool from it) had several methods. The simplest one was performed as follows: when the skin of an animal (cow, horse, camel, deer, and yak) was a little dried, it was folded and soaked in cold irrigation water and left for 2–3 days, after all of these procedures the wool was removed. Sometimes the wool side of the skin was moistened with water, rolled up, and placed in a cold place [16, 20, 21]. In order to separate the wool from the skin, Altai masters left it in running water until the wool, which had softened in water, was completely washed off. After that, they began to dry the skin. It was also pulled and dried on an elevated place for this. For convenience, the leather was cut out in order to create the thing that was supposed to be made of it and then dried again [23, 24]. Tanning (soaking the skin in kvass) is one of the most basic methods of leather dressing. The skin was soaked in kvass for 20 days in special vats, in which it was

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possible to place the skin of a cow, yak, or horse. Flour, ayran, and bran were added to the water for kvass; it was necessary to ferment the wool soaked in such a mixture for easily separating from the skin. It’s known that the Kyrgyz people used wooden vats for fermentation [20], and the Uzbeks people used large clay jugs [21]. The skin soaked in sourdough was keeping warm until the wool began to peel off. Therefore, every two days, the skin was stirred in the mixture, because of this there were no areas of skin that hadn’t been saturated. After 5–6 days, the skin was washed in clean water. The skins, which were soaked in kvass, were taken out with iron tongs, the fermented mixture could be the reason for burning hands. So, slightly dry, clean skin was ready for crushing. Such skin was kneaded with strong wooden mallets made of apple, poplar, and birch. It was also necessary to involve two in this process. If the first one pressed the lever, then the second one stirred the skin. Thus, using this method, the skin was dressed quickly [4, 16, 20]. The Tuvans called the leather mill dalgyr. It had no difference from the Kyrgyz leather mill. After tanning, the leather was dried in the shade. Skin, which was overdried in the sun, became very hard, and, as a result, bent and cracks could appear on it. Another advantage of the skin that was dried in the shade was the fact that it easily absorbed fat (horses, badgers) [21]. Altai leather dressing masters steamed the skin of cattle [23]. Tuvans, after freezing their skin, firstly had shaved the wool, and then thickly smeared it with a special solution prepared from the root of bird cherry or pine root. Then the skin was rolled up and tied with a rope. A day later it was laid out on a log and beaten with sticks [13]. The skin was simultaneously softened and coloured. One more method of dehairing small animals was scraping. Hair and a thin layer of skin were removed from the skin with a sharp knife or razor. Aitbaev and Ivanov wrote about this [25]. Here they could be wrong, or it wasn’t about masters, but about ordinary people at all. Firstly the tools had prepared for work, and after this masters could start making any things or objects. They also turned to blacksmiths for this. In those days, it was a bad omen for the master to give their tools of labour to people who asked them (they were afraid of the evil eye), so they tried not to give their tools to anyone [26]. Kneading the skin was a lengthy process that required a lot of work, energy, and patience. The skin of small cattle was crumpled by hand, without the use of special tools; it was pulled, twisted and kneaded by hand in order to make skin soft. As a result, the master got well-dressed leather—bulgaar. In contradistinction to the Kyrgyz people, the Altai people and Tuvans necessarily smoked their skin. And the Kyrgyz people smoked the skin only after making any utensils from it. There was also a smokehouse, which was dug in the ground, for smoking the leather. In the south of Kyrgyzstan, several families united and used one smokehouse. Their smokehouses were of a simpler device and smaller in comparison with the smokehouses of the northern Kyrgyz [16]. The skin was smoked from one week to twenty days. Small wood was set on fire, as well as dung was used for this. The best quality of the leather was the result of how long it was smoking.

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Another way to treat leather is staining. In order to paint or whiten skin, the Kyrgyz people used lime, which was boiled in a cauldron. At high temperatures, the limestone burned and turned into a fine powder. The skin had been firstly washed with this powder, and then it was washed with laundry soap. This process was being repeated several times until the skin turned white [20]. And in order to paint the skin red, green, black, or yellow, they used red clay, rhubarb root (yellow dye for sheepskins was prepared from it), wormwood, and yellow wood.

4 Conclusion So, although the methods of leather dressing of nomadic Kyrgyz people were simple and lagged behind the processing of leather of large factories in developed countries, despite all of this, for the Kyrgyz people, which is one of the most ancient peoples of Central Asia, the craft of leather dressing occupied one of the main places among other applied crafts. The original handwriting of Kyrgyz masters, which has been preserved for many centuries, reflecting the world of nomadic culture, is evidence of their high skill.

References 1. Kosven MO (1953) Essays on the history of primitive culture. Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, p 87 2. Slaughtering Sheep (2021). National method of sheep slaughter. http://kyrgyzinfo.ru/salttar/ koj-soyuu-koj-soyuunun-uluttuk-ykmasy.html. Accessed 3 Sept 2021 3. Savinov DG (1999) Primary materials and style of the Sayan-Altai images of the early Scythian time. In: Results of the study of the Scythian era of Altai and adjacent territories. Altai Scientific Publishing House. 4. Kapalbaev OE (2014) Field materials of the author, Book No. 1. Chui, Issyk-Kul, Naryn regions. “Mahprint” Publication, pp 1–86 5. Carsote C, Sendrea ¸ C, Micu M-C, Adams A, Badea E (2021) Micro-DSC, FTIR-ATR and NMR MOUSE study of the dose-dependent effects of gamma irradiation on vegetable-tanned leather: the influence of leather thermal stability. Radiat Phys Chem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclepro.2021.127902 6. Chojnacka K, Skrzypczak D, Mikula K et al (2021) Progress in sustainable technologies of leather wastes valorization as solutions for the circular economy. J Clean Prod. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.mtchem.2021.100508 7. Cichella Frabetti AC, de Moraes JO, Porto AS, Simão RDS, Laurindo JB (2021) Strawberryhydrocolloids dried by continuous cast-tape drying to produce leather and powder. Food Hydrocolloids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109712 8. Ding W, Guo S, Liu H, Pang X, Ding Z (2021) Synthesis of an amino-terminated waterborne polyurethane-based polymeric dye for high-performance dyeing of biomass-derived aldehydetanned chrome-free leather. Mater Today Chem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2021.06.009 9. Pecha J, Barinova M, Kolomaznik K et al (2021) Technological-economic optimization of enzymatic hydrolysis used for the processing of chrome-tanned leather waste. Process Saf Environ Prot 152:220–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2021.105377

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10. Prokein M, Dyes T, Renner M, Weidner E (2021) Waterless leather dyeing with dense carbon dioxide as solvent for dyes. J Supercrit Fluids. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.107041 11. Kapalbaev OE (2015) Kyrgyz traditional leather handicrafts (late XIX—early XX centuries). Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia—a space for dialogue: the past, present and future of strengthening interethnic relations. In: Asankanov AA, Chorotegin T et al (eds) Collection of reports and articles of the II Congress of Ethnologists and Anthropologists of Kyrgyzstan, dedicated to the 60th anniversary. Mahprint Publishing House 12. Weinstein SI (1972) Historical ethnography of Tuvans: problems of the nomadic economy. Science 13. Darzha V (2014) The horse in the traditional practice of Tuvans-nomads. Tuvan Book Publishing House named after Yu.Sh. Künge¸s, pp 80–83 14. Kapalbaev OE (2016) Field materials of the author, Tetrad №3, g. Bishkek, Toktogul district (Ketmen-Tyube valley). Mahprint Publishing House, pp 1–5 15. Manas (1981) S. Orozbakov’s version. Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz SSR, Institute of Language and Literature, vol 3, pp 200–495 16. Antipina KI (1982) Features of the material culture and applied arts of the southern Kyrgyz. Based on materials collected in the southern part of the Osh Region of the Kyrgyz SSR. Frunze, Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the Kyrgyz SSR, pp 124–128 17. Aydarkulov K (2006) About some types of ancient shoes of the Kyrgyz (according to the epic “Semetey”). S.M. Abramzon and issues of Kyrgyz ethnography. (To the 100th anniversary of the birth of S.M. Abramzon). In: Moldobaev IB, Pirimbaeva JZh (eds) “Makhprint” Publication, p 164 18. Polyakov SP (1980) Historical ethnography of Central Asia and Kazakhstan: textbook. Moscow University Publishing House, p 66 19. Turdalieva CD (2009) History and culture of the Kyrgyz in the works of Western travellers and researchers (XIX-early XX centuries). Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences. “Mahprint” Publication, pp 149–174 20. Akmataliev AS (1996) Applied art of the Kyrgyz: a guide. “Mahprint” Publication, pp 22–224 21. Kapalbaev OE (2015) Field materials of the author, Notebook No. 2. Osh, and Batken regions. Mahprint Publishing House, pp 1–9 22. Kulzhabaev EU (2014) Tradition and innovation in leather processing. Materials of the international scientific-practical conference “Kazakhstan 2050”—“Current state and innovations in art education, dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the speciality “fine arts and drawing”. Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai, pp 226–227 23. Mendeshova VM (2008) Altaians’ leather dressing. Study of the historical and cultural heritage of the peoples of Southern Siberia. In: Soenova VI, Oinoshev VP (eds). Collection of Scientific Papers, vol 7, pp 133–134 24. Kapalbaev OE (1951) Field materials of the author, Notebook No. 1, Kyzylsui Autonomous Region (PRC). “Mahprint” Publication, p 2 25. Aitbaev MT, Ivanov SV (1968) Embossing on the skin. Folk arts and crafts of the Kirghiz. In: Proceedings of the Kirghiz archaeological and ethnographic expedition. In Ivanov SV, Antipina KI (eds). Science, p 124 26. Kapalbaev OE (2014) Traditional Kyrgyz carpentry (historical and ethnographic research of the end of the XIX—beginning of the XX century). Mahprint Publishing House, p 40

Identification of Points of Economic Security for Large Integrated Structures of the Manufacturing Sector of the Economy Andrey V. Bogatyrev , Alexander N. Stefan , Oksana Y. Bubnova , Oleg L. Morozov , and Oleg M. Yelfimov Abstract The issues of the efficiency of functioning of integrated structures of a production nature in the modern economy are considered on the basis of the thesis that the integration of production is directly related to diversification. Diversification options for integrated production structures are considered. The authors single out the issues of ensuring the economic security of industrial enterprises of ferrous metallurgy, belonging to the category of integrated production systems, into independent consideration. The thesis that the assessment of the economic security of such production systems should be made not only on the basis of an analysis of financial and economic indicators, but also on the basis of industry and financial risk indicators, capitalization volumes (in the case of a company’s publicity) and some others, has been formulated. The analysis of the generality of economic security risks, in particular, industry risks, financial risks, risks of core activities, was made on the basis of systematization of data from several, the most significant, enterprises of the metallurgical sector. The analysis of the state and development trends of the metallurgical sector of the Russian Federation presented in the work suggests that the economic security of enterprises in the sector is permanently under a complex of threats, both external and internal. Statistical and analytical material on the research topic is presented. Keywords Integration · Diversification · Economic security · Operational efficiency · Industrial integration · Metallurgical enterprises JEL Code F15 · L25 · G34

A. V. Bogatyrev (B) · O. Y. Bubnova · O. L. Morozov · O. M. Yelfimov Nizhny Novgorod Academy of the Ministry of Interior Affairs of the Russian Federation, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia A. N. Stefan Nizhny Novgorod Institute of Management, Branch of RANEPA, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_80

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1 Introduction The emergence and development of complexly structured integrated structures in the domestic economy is due to a number of objective reasons. Practice has proven that a large structure, in which the maximum possible number of functions is integrated— from the extraction of raw materials to the distribution system, often covering not only domestic but also international markets, is more competitive in a difficult, continuously changing economic environment. It can be argued that the integration process is natural, due to the fact that the lack of one type of activity in industrial production, for example, a sales system of a global nature, leads to the fact that there is an attraction of the corresponding structure with the necessary set of functions—such a process is initially assessed as a necessity for survival in competition. It must be recognized that the leading role in ensuring stable socio-economic development remains with large corporations, which include not only production systems, but also financial structures, secondary (not related to the main business) areas of activity, such as trade, development, construction, scientific research, recognizing the fact that there are types of industrial structures that differ significantly from each other, both in the scale of operations and in management systems, in the modern economy, as well as not rejecting the role and importance of small business in the development of the economy. Thus, the creation of integrated structures of different scales and in different sectors of the economy in the context of globalization is an urgent direction that ensures sustainable socio-economic development. The presented thesis substantiates the need for an in-depth study of individual aspects of the creation and functioning of integrated structures, in particular, issues of ensuring and assessing the level of their economic security based on the use of a system of basic and special indicators [1].

2 Methodology In the works [1–13], the issues of integration and diversification of industrial enterprises are considered, it is emphasized that achieving and maintaining sustainable growth in any segment of the economy as one of the mandatory elements of development involves the development of a long-term development strategy. It should be emphasized that a long-term development strategy for Russian companies in the metallurgical sector should take into account a large number of factors, including the level of competition in international markets. Integration, which allows to increase production volumes, reduce costs, expand markets of presence and, in general, ensure sustainable development in the long term, is one of the development options that ensures a high level of competitiveness of enterprises in the industrial sector of the economy.

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In our opinion, the issue of assessing and further ensuring the economic security of industrial enterprises in the context of their implementation of the policy of integration and diversification is not fully considered in the works of domestic and foreign authors, while the issues of ensuring economic security in the context of globalization are becoming more and more urgent. Thus, methods for assessing integration and diversification can be supplemented with some indicators of not only the financial state of the object of integration processes, but also a system of special indicators that have both a numerical and a descriptive format. The purpose of the work is to identify and evaluate special performance indicators of an integrated enterprise in the ferrous metallurgy sector, which can be evaluated from the standpoint of its economic security in modern economic conditions. This goal objectively substantiates the need to solve the following tasks: research of theoretical aspects of integration and diversification of metallurgical enterprises; comparative analysis of performance indicators of several, the largest, enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the economy (which are competitors in relation to each other); description of the methodology for the selection and formation of a system of special indicators reflecting both current and expected performance of enterprises in the ferrous metallurgy sector. The system of special indicators can be used to assess the effectiveness of activities both before the implementation of the integration and diversification processes and after that.

3 Results Integration in industry should be understood as the unification of several enterprises, usually of one sector of activity, characterized by a common nomenclature of products, technological processes, indicators of the production cycle, sales markets, at the same time being competitors in relation to each other. In this definition, we adhere to the thesis that integration primarily occurs between enterprises of one field of activity, while integration into other areas not related to the main activity is considered by us as a process that is implemented after the creation, as a result of the integration of enterprises of one field of activity, of a large conglomerate or corporation [11]. Traditionally, there are two forms of integration: horizontal and vertical [5, 6, 12, 13]. It should be emphasized that the horizontal form of integration is primarily aimed at strengthening market positions, at ensuring opposition to large players in the market. In particular, horizontal integration is aimed at expanding sales markets and expanding the range of products (currently PJSC «Ruspolymet» is developing titanium production for its own needs, which is dictated by the need to protect against competition in the titanium product market). Consolidation of enterprises, the functionality of which is located in different areas of activity, is a vertical integration. This form of integration assumes two options for action: expansion in the main area of activity, for example, in order to provide the

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existing production with raw materials or energy resources, or investing in sectors not related to the main production—in this case, it is more correct to talk about the diversification of the enterprise as a whole, about the expansion of the portfolio of assets [12]. Traditionally, vertical integration is carried out in order to reduce costs associated with providing production with raw materials, reduce R&D costs, increase labor productivity, and reduce risks (due to diversification of the asset portfolio). The raw material issue is extremely important for enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the economy during integration, because the price of raw materials and energy resources in the structure of the cost of manufactured products is more than 50% for individual, largest enterprises [7]. Integrated production structures, as mentioned above, create the basis for the country’s economic development, they are a kind of basis for the development of small business due to the transfer of some functions to small and medium-sized enterprises. Thus, integration processes are associated with the concept of diversification. This thesis is substantiated in the work [8]. Thus, the results of the integration processes are the following: increasing the competitiveness of both the enterprise and the products it produces; receiving income from newly acquired assets not related to the main activity; achieving a stable position and sustainable growth of the company; increase in capitalization (in the case of PJSC) [2, 3]. When deciding on the implementation of integration or diversification, it is necessary to assess all types of resources (financial, human, production), in particular, it is necessary to assess which resources of the main production can be used after integration. It is also necessary to assess the effect of integration on the time interval— a situation of obtaining a short-term effect is possible, for example, in the form of increasing the profitability of the main production, to the detriment of strategic development plans. It should be noted that it is also necessary to assess the current and future competitive positions of the enterprise when planning the integration process. A separate area of analysis is the assessment of the economic security of the consequences of integration for the enterprise. Economic security issues have attracted more and more attention in the past few years, however, many of them remain fragmentary. In particular, this applies to the very interpretation of the category of economic security. In this work, we will proceed from the following definition for the purpose of forming a system of indicators for assessing the potential effect of the implementation of integration processes for an enterprise of a metallurgical complex: economic security is a state of a given economic entity in which the vital components of the structure and activities of an enterprise are characterized by a high degree of protection against unwanted changes [9]. This definition gives grounds to assert that the goal of ensuring the economic security of an enterprise in the metallurgical sector of the economy in the implementation of integration processes of any direction is to

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ensure the absence of undesirable consequences, that is, for example, a change in the value of groups of basic and special indicators. In our opinion, the sequence of stages of assessing the prospects and potential values of groups of indicators during integration processes can be implemented in two areas of assessment—traditional and special indicators of the object of integration. The traditional indicators when assessing integration processes include sales revenue and the dynamics of its change, the level of prime cost and the dynamics of its change, general and particular indicators of profitability [4, 10]. In our opinion, special indicators include some of the types of risks in the activities of an enterprise in the metallurgical sector, market capitalization, initial assessment of competitors and plans for future activities. The value of these indicators for the three largest enterprises in the metallurgical sector are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3. These enterprises were selected to present the research results for the following reasons: • all three enterprises are corporate structures (in this case, we mean a joint-stock company by a corporation (in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, JSC or PJSC, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares and the management of which is transferred to hired managers); • all enterprises belong to the metallurgical sector of the economy and are integrated structures; • all enterprises have a positive financial result and do not plan to cease their activities in the short term according to the data of open reporting for 2020; Table 1 Competitive analysis of enterprises in the metallurgical sector of the Russian economy Enterprise name/indicator

PJSC «Uralskaya Kuznitsa»

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

Competitors by sector of activity

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA», JSC «SMK», PJSC «Ruspolymet». JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal», OJSC «VILS»

JSC «SMK», PJSC «Mechel», Volgograd Steel Works «Red October» PJSC «Dneprospetsstal»

There are no direct competitors in terms of the production of titanium products, however, some of the enterprises of the metallurgical complex of the Russian Federation are indirectly related to the production or use of titanium for their own needs—PJSC «Ruspolymet», PJSC «Uralskaya Kuznitsa», JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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Table 2 Characteristics of the sectoral risks of the activities of enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the Russian economy Enterprise name/indicator

PJSC «Uralskaya Kuznitsa»

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

Sectoral risks

The emergence of overdue accounts receivable due to delays in payment by end users, a decrease in demand for products, a decrease in revenue Decrease in sales volumes by product groups

Risks: – changes in demand for metal products; – a change in the direction of increasing prices for raw materials and energy resources; – the risk of shortage of material resources required for production; – increasing the level of competition in the metallurgical sector

The industry is experiencing a decline in consumption. A sharp decline in economic growth rates in the United States and European countries as a result of the pandemic, and an unstable geopolitical situation contribute to market uncertainty, which may negatively change the forecast for consumption of titanium products

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Table 3 Characteristics of financial risks of the activities of enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the Russian economy Enterprise name/indicator

PJSC «Uralskaya Kuznitsa»

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

Financial risks

The Company is exposed to financial risks associated with an increase in interest rates on financial obligations. The general increase in market interest rates (including the Key rates of the Bank of Russia) may lead to the risk of an increase in the cost of servicing the Company’s debt on financial commitments

The risk of changes in the exchange rate is minimized. The company is forced to use credit resources to ensure the continuity of operations

The dollar exchange rate, euro exchange rate and inflation are significant factors affecting performance

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

• according to the data of open reporting, the management of these enterprises believes that they are in a competitive relationship for some types of products (Table 1).

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Table 4 Risks associated with the main activities of enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the Russian economy Enterprise name/indicator

PJSC «Uralskaya Kuznitsa»

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

Risks associated with the main activities

The risk of loss of consumers, whose turnover accounts for at least 10% of the total proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) Implementation of investment programs of competitors Mastering the production of similar products

The risks of production processes are minimized due to the implementation of preventive measures

The company carries out all types of compulsory insurance provided for by the current legislation of the Russian Federation in order to reduce the risks associated with activities

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

According to the data in Table 2, the enterprises under consideration have a general risk of an industry-specific activity—a decrease in demand for products and a decrease in revenue. According to the data in Table 3, the general financial risk for metallurgical sector enterprises is the debt service risk in the event of changes in interest rates or changes in the exchange rate. The data presented in Table 4 show some discrepancy in the assessment of risks associated with the core activities of the issuer: the management of JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal» classifies the risks of the production process as profiling, while such risks are not profiling for the other two enterprises. According to the data in Table 5, the analyzed enterprises are not going to stop or significantly change the main type of activity, the general directions in the plans for further activities are the development of new types of products and an increase in the share of their market presence.

4 Conclusions Based on the fact that one of the main sales markets for metallurgical enterprises is the machine-building complex, it can be argued that the development of ferrous metallurgy in 2021 is based on state support for machine-building enterprises and the entire machine-building complex. State support involves the implementation of programs to reduce inefficiently used capacities, modernize production and develop the production of high value-added products. An additional factor ensuring the development of potential sales markets for ferrous metallurgy enterprises is the implementation of innovative development

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Table 5 Description of plans for the future activities of enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the Russian economy Enterprise name/indicator

PJSC «Uralskaya Kuznitsa»

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

Plans for future activities

In order to increase the competitiveness of products, increase the share of the Company’s presence at the market, expanding the range of products that meet the requirements of the Customer, the priority area of activity is: – modernization of production

Increase in production volumes due to the introduction of new technological systems. Reconstruction of the main production, providing the incoming cash flow Mastering new types of metal products Maintenance and development of infrastructure Introduction of energy-efficient and resource-saving technologies

Plans for future activities are related to the development of the existing production potential and the range of products The Company does not plan to create new production facilities No change in core business is planned

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

programs for enterprises of the aviation industry in Russia in order to ensure the production of new types of aviation equipment, as well as to increase the production efficiency and competitiveness of existing types of aircraft by optimizing the corporate innovation management system. The system-wide vector of development of the main sales markets for ferrous metallurgy enterprises is the effectiveness of the implementation of measures at the state level, including: • implementation of measures aimed at import substitution of products in consumer industries; • priority of domestically produced equipment in purchases with state participation. The following factors significantly affect the production and sale of products of metallurgical enterprises: limited access to financial resources necessary, including for the implementation of diversification and integration processes; continuous growth of tariffs for energy resources, as a result of the price policy of natural monopolies; a change in the direction of increasing prices for raw materials, which make up a large share in the structure of the cost of production; the need to improve the technical level of production to ensure product quality and maintain positions in a highly competitive environment, including on international markets. In these conditions, one of the options for the strategic development of enterprises in the metallurgical sector is integration, the direction of which is determined by the current state of an individual enterprise, plans for its activities, the level of development of the production process, and other factors.

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From the standpoint of assessing the possibility of integrating enterprises of the metallurgical complex of the Russian Federation, the special indicators presented in the work can be used to characterize the existing threats to economic security.

References 1. Kelchevskaya NR, Medyanik YuA (2007) Integration of metallurgical enterprises: causes and results. Vestnik Nosov Magnitogorsk State Tech Univ 1(17):106–108 2. Fischer MA, Waugh LM, Axworthy A (1998) It support of single project, multi-project and industry-wide integration. Comput Indus 35(1):31–45 3. Ford GS, Jackson JD (1997) Horizontal concentration and vertical integration in the cable television industry. Rev Indus Organ 12(4):501–518 4. Fuhr JP Jr (1990) Vertical integration and regulation in the electric utility industry. J Econ Iss 24(1):173–187 5. Ma A, Zheng X, Li S, Sun C, Luo Y (2020) Application of microwave technology in mineral metallurgy and material preparation. Xiyou Jinshu. 44(10):1094–1107 6. Strelkova LV, Makusheva JA, Trofimov OV, Tarasov DI, Kuznetsov VP (2019) The tools of sustainable development of industrial production management. Adv Intel Syst Comput (see in books) 726:480–487 7. Bocharov SN (2012) Methodological aspects of assessing the effectiveness of vertical integration. Izvestiya Altai State Univ J 2(74):269–275 8. Kirpichev GB (2005) Modeling corporate diversification and vertical integration strategies. Human Soc Econ Sci 2(17):192–194 9. Kleiner GB (1998) Business strategies: an analytical handbook. In: Ayvazyan SA, Balkind OY, Basnina TD, et al, Kleiner GB (eds) KONSEKO, 411p 10. Nemtsev VN (2018) Theoretical aspects of the formation of management systems for integration processes in the modern economy. Corp Econ 1(13):4–15 11. Rumyantseva EE (2012) New economic encyclopedia (4th edn). M. Publishing House «InfraM», 882p 12. Semina LA, German OI (2014) Assessment of the economic effect of participants in vertical integration. Izvestiya Altai State Univ 2–2(82):336–341 13. Kharlamova TL, Poleshchuk SM (2019) Integration as the basis of interaction between business structures. Bull St. Petersburg State Univ Technol Des Ser 3 Econ Human Soc Sci 3:57–61

Topical Issues of Determining the Threshold Values of Indicators of Economic Security for Integrated Industrial Enterprises Dmitry V. Nazarychev , Sergey A. Marinin , Anatoly E. Shamin , Lyudmila A. Abramova , and Sergey V. Repin Abstract One of the urgent problems of ensuring economic security, both at the state level and at the level of an individual enterprise, remains the problem of forming a system of indicators for assessing the level of economic security, as well as the problem of forming threshold values of indicators that make up the specified system. Unity of opinions in the proposed systems of threshold values of economic security is still observed in one direction—these indicators include indicators related to financial analysis, despite the fact that this issue is deeply considered by both domestic and foreign scientists and practitioners. They are for the most part proposed for use in assessing the level of economic security of industrial enterprises, including due to the fact that their standard values have been established a long time ago, as well as calculation methods. This approach can be supplemented by methods of analysis that take into account the above processes in the context of globalization and the intensification of integration processes, as well as taking into account the permanent instability of all, without exception, economic systems. The paper presents a methodology for assessing the threshold values of a group of enterprises in the industrial sector, based on the assessment of the average values of indicators and the dynamics of indicators at different time intervals. D. V. Nazarychev (B) Nizhny Novgorod Academy of the Ministry of Interior Affairs of the Russian Federation, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia S. A. Marinin Volga-Vyatka Branch of Moscow Technical University of Communications and Informatics, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia A. E. Shamin Nizhny Novgorod State Engineering and Economic University, Knyaginino, Russia L. A. Abramova Chuvash State University named after I.N. Ulyanova, Chuvash State University, Cheboksary, Russia S. V. Repin Academy of the State Fire Service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_81

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Keywords Integration · Financial analysis · Economic security · Thresholds · Average values JEL Classification F15 · L25 · G34

1 Introduction In 1934, the Committee on Economic Security was created by the decision of the President of the United States F. Roosevelt. The purpose of the committee was to bring the country out of the Great Depression, to fight unemployment and to ensure the economic security of individuals [1]. It is believed that the category of economic security emerged simultaneously with this event. The issues of economic security in the Russian Federation were updated during the period of socio-economic transformations of the 90s of the last century. Academician L. I. Abalkin made a significant contribution to the development of issues of economic security. According to his definition, «economic security is the state of the economic system, which allows it to develop dynamically, efficiently and to solve social problems, in which the state has the ability to develop and implement an independent economic policy» [2]. It should be noted that up to the present, research has focused more on the issues of ensuring the economic security of the state, the country than of individual enterprises, while the product is created precisely at the level of industrial enterprises, which later goes into economic circulation [3–5]. Another important point in the very existence of industry is the concentration of a large mass of assets, primarily of a production nature, which are the basis of both the production system and reproduction as a whole [6]. Designating the most important role of industry in the country’s economy, it is necessary to develop the theory and practice of ensuring its economic security. This aspect is directly related to the threshold values of economic security (TVES), the definition of which remains extremely relevant [7, 8]. The purpose of the work is to form and substantiate proposals of a methodological nature aimed at forming a system of indicators of economic security and determining their threshold values. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were consistently solved in the work: research of theoretical aspects of determining the TVES; proposals regarding the formation of a system of indicators of economic security based on reporting data from industrial enterprises; approbation of the proposed methodological approach on data from enterprises of the metallurgical sector of the economy of the Russian Federation.

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2 Methodology Economic security is considered as a complex, multifaceted category in the studies of domestic and foreign scientists, as well as in legislative and regulatory acts [9]. The study of publications on the problems of ensuring the economic security of enterprises and organizations suggests that the development and application of indicators for assessing economic security are in several areas—financial and economic analysis, assessment of risks and threats, corporate management [10–12]. The predominant approach to the development of indicators of economic security is the financial and economic approach, according to which indicators are threshold values of groups of indicators obtained as a result of processing financial statements [13]. Methods for calculating such indicators have long been known and do not need special introduction [14]. However, the very process of accepting the values of some indicators as thresholds in the studies is considered with varying degrees of depth, which allows this issue to be considered as relevant. Senchagov focused on the importance of using the TVES in his works [15]. In work [16], Senchagov argues that the threshold values «characterize the limit values, ignoring which hinders the normal development of the economy and social sphere and leads to the formation of destructive trends in the field of production and living standards of the population». In addition, «it is necessary to compare actual and forecast data with standard values for diagnosing corporate crisis situations. These standards are the TVES of corporation». The problem of developing indicators of economic security and their threshold values is as follows: • if the system of indicators for different sectors of industry can be conditionally unified, then the threshold values should be different, because each sector of the economy has its own specifics and the average value of basic indicators (duration of the production cycle, duration of working capital turnover, work in progress, and so on); • threshold values should be determined at different time intervals—this is necessary to clarify the values, since indicators for assessing economic security can show multidirectional dynamics over an interval of three and five years; • the formation of groups of indicators for a specific sector of the economy can be carried out on the basis of an analysis of the dynamics of the threshold values of indicators for the leading group of enterprises (by the leading group of enterprises in this work we mean the largest public and joint-stock companies that are considered the most significant in a particular sector of the economy); • there is a need to optimize the number of indicators, because if they are used in too many numbers, then the assessment of the level of economic security of an industrial enterprise will be significantly difficult. Thus, in our opinion, the problem of forming groups of indicators of economic security and determining their threshold values can be solved based on the analysis of time series of data reflecting the economic state of the research object. After

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appropriate processing of time series to determine the threshold values of indicators, the average values (for a group of enterprises) should be used and compared with the value of the indicator for a specific enterprise. The process of selecting indicators can be standardized depending on the area of assessing economic security, in particular, in this way, an assessment of threats from the top management of the enterprise can be made.

3 Results The methodology for determining the threshold values of indicators of economic security of enterprises in the metallurgical sector, determined on the basis of calculating the rate of change of groups of indicators for several time intervals, is presented below. The methodology involves the implementation of the following stages. Stage 1—selection of a time interval for assessing the level of economic security. At this stage, the methodology involves research on two time intervals—three years and five years. The rationale for choosing a time interval for the study is the fact that, as a rule, significant changes that have a multidirectional effect on the results of the research object, as well as on the level of its economic security, can occur during the specified time intervals in the economic system, in the markets of enterprises’ activities, in supply chains. In this section of the monograph, the calculation of indicators of the economic security of enterprises in the metallurgical sector based on data for 5 years—from 2016 to 2020 is made as an example. Stage 2—formation of an array of data using the indicators of the financial statements of the research object. At this stage, it is necessary to systematize data on indicators in tabular form. The indicators of the level of economic security in the proposed methodology are divided into three groups: • the first group—indicators on the balance sheet; this group includes the amount of non-current assets, the amount of fixed assets, the amount of current assets, the number of inventories; • the second group—indicators for the statement of financial results; this group includes: revenue from operating activities, cost price, gross profit, selling expenses, administrative expenses, result from operating activities, profit (loss) before tax, net profit; • the third group of indicators—indicators of profitability and liquidity; Stage 3—calculation of deviations of indicators by the chain method, which will reveal the critical points of change in the indicators under consideration, which can be taken as threshold values in the future. It should be noted that threshold values in this methodology are understood as values of indicators that had a tendency to decrease during subsequent periods. At this stage, a conclusion about the state of indicators of economic security for an individual enterprise can be formulated.

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Stage 4—determination of average values of indicators for periods and deviations of values according to the data of specific enterprises from average values. At this stage, the conclusion about whether there is a tendency for the dependence, and what is the correlation between the level of economic security of a particular enterprise on the level of indicators of economic security as a whole for the analyzed sector can be formulated. Stage 5—fixing the threshold values of the level of economic security of individual enterprises and drawing conclusions. PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant», PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA», JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal» were selected as objects of study. Tables 1, 2, and 3 present the primary data for the application of the methodology. Let’s calculate the average values of the assessed indicators and deviations of the indicators of the studied enterprises from the obtained average values for the period under consideration. The results obtained can be used to determine the TVES using the following conditions: • if the average value of the indicator of an individual enterprise for the analyzed period exceeds the average value of the indicator for a group of enterprises, then the threshold value of the indicator for assessing the level of economic security is set within the following limits: min deviation from the average value for the group of enterprises, max average value for an individual enterprise (the deviation must be positive); • if the average value of the indicator of an individual enterprise for the analyzed period is less than the average value of the indicator for the group of enterprises and is negative, then the threshold value in this case is the min value of the indicator for an individual enterprise for the analyzed period. Test case. Using the data in Table 4, we get the following conclusions: • the average value of the profitability of all profit operations for PJSC «VSMPO AVISMA» is 26%, the average value of the indicator for the group of enterprises is 15%, the deviation is 10%; • the TVES in terms of the profitability of all profit operations can be taken within the following limits: min 10%–max 26%; • the average value of the profitability of all profit operations for JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal» is 1%, the average value of the indicator for the group of enterprises s15%, the deviation is 14%; • the TVES in terms of the profitability of all profit operations for JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal» can be taken in the range: min 2%–max 10%; according to this indicator, JSC «Metallurgical Plant Electrostal» can be attributed to the risk group with an increased threat to economic security.

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Table 1 Summary indicators for the group of enterprises in the metallurgical sector according to the balance sheet Enterprises

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

78 070 686 000,00

84 631 059 000,00

99 573 521 000,00

75 974 247 000,00

59 970 200 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

16 762 937 000,00

18 484 798 000,00

20 347 213 000,00

20 956 129 000,00

24 948 236 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

17 312 416 000,00

24 500 245 000,00

27 752 789 000,00

22 717 465 000,00

22 330 174 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

34 370 741 000,00

34 182 365 000,00

33 970 106 000,00

33 940 028 000,00

34 690 177 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

3 296 421 000,00

2 829 896 000,00

2 934 536 000,00

2 622 891 000,00

2 359 412 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

14 267 438 000,00

21 461 816 000,00

24 620 454 000,00

19 530 672 000,00

19 085 359 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

45 443 720 000,00

54 548 247 000,00

60 667 889 000,00

93 543 148 000,00

122 329 570 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

9 908 670 000,00

9 571 518 000,00

10 094 392 000,00

14 834 993 000,00

12 145 531 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

4 202 246 000,00

3 609 704 000,00

3 644 538 000,00

5 570 299 000,00

5 366 741 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

22 204 487 000,00

21 499 209 000,00

26 499 475 000,00

34 110 356 000,00

26 546 935 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

2 907 355 000,00

2 866 152 000,00

2 299 729 000,00

2 343 032 000,00

1 975 726 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

2 061 620 000,00

1 904 500 000,00

1 885 481 000,00

2 132 903 000,00

1 863 670 000,00

Non-current assets

Fixed assets

Current assets

Stocks

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

4 Conclusions At the theoretical level, it was revealed that there is still no unified approach to the interpretation of the category of economic security and to methods for determining the TVES in domestic and foreign practice. The complexity and significance of the problem of forming a system of indicators for assessing the level of economic security of industrial enterprises are justified by extremely dynamic changes taking place in the external environment, a high level of competition both in the domestic and foreign markets.

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Table 2 Summary indicators for the group of enterprises in the metallurgical sector according to the statement of financial results Variants

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

76 222 336 000,00

72 434 556 000,00

89 068 889 000,00

90 128 028 000,00

78 118 905 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

12 471 382 000,00

12 724 863 000,00

18 154 426 000,00

17 236 163 000,00

10 224 012 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

13 019 793 000,00

13 445 359 000,00

13 794 734 000,00

14 058 002 000,00

13 260 784 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

38 018 950 000,00

41 809 226 000,00

48 964 386 000,00

57 629 049 000,00

46 595 862 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

10 578 989 000,00

10 433 935 000,00

14 691 937 000,00

12 395 626 000,00

8 209 990 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

9 654 221 000,00

9 606 299 000,00

10 549 707 000,00

9 872 542 000,00

9 409 829 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

38 203 386 000,00

30 625 330 000,00

40 104 503 000,00

32 498 979 000,00

31 523 043 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

1 892 393 000,00

2 290 927 000,00

3 462 489 000,00

4 840 537 000,00

2 014 022 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

3 365 572 000,00

3 839 060 000,00

3 245 027 000,00

4 185 460 000,00

3 850 955 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

1 210 292 000,00

988 933 000,00

958 972 000,00

875 931 000,00

653 071 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

322 104 000,00

387 013 000,00

575 122 000,00

512 622 000,00

397 220 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

80 809 000,00

104 301 000,00

110 133 000,00

80 402 000,00

91 766 000,00

Net proceeds

Cost price

Gross profit

Business expenses

Administrative expenses PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

6 718 107 000,00

6 815 401 000,00

7 298 302 000,00

7 815 574 000,00

7 327 786 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

564 168 000,00

525 286 000,00

518 858 000,00

538 795 000,00

539 751 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

1 642 548 000,00

1 822 674 000,00

1 836 286 000,00

1 797 772 000,00

1 625 972 000,00

Result from core business PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

30 274 987 000,00

22 820 996 000,00

31 847 229 000,00

23 807 474 000,00

23 542 186 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

1 006 121 000,00

1 378 628 000,00

2 365 509 000,00

3 789 120 000,00

1 077 051 000,00 (continued)

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Table 2 (continued) Variants

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

1 642 215 000,00

1 912 085 000,00

1 298 608 000,00

2 307 286 000,00

2 133 217 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

32 042 464 000,00

23 448 049 000,00

22 826 596 000,00

28 534 939 000,00

12 136 320 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

1 917 053 000,00

2 701 179 000,00

3 903 795 000,00

5 231 194 000,00

2 592 858 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

293 340 000,00

274 759 000,00

-557 325 000,00

357 582 000,00

422 080 000,00

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA»

26 632 861 000,00

19 138 279 000,00

18 788 910 000,00

23 263 976 000,00

9 529 137 000,00

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

1 940 400 000,00

2 628 502 000,00

3 829 447 000,00

4 940 996 000,00

2 883 053 000,00

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

158 474 000,00

145 441 000,00

-558 091 000,00

176 341 000,00

235 927 000,00

Profit (loss) before tax

Net profit

Source Developed and compiled by the authors Table 3 Summary indicators of profitability for the group of enterprises in the metallurgical sector Variants

2016 (%) 2017 (%) 2018 (%) 2019 (%) 2020 (%)

Profitability of all operations by profit PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA» 36

29

23

27

14

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

12

17

19

27

21

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

2

2

−4

2

3

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA» 30

23

19

22

11

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

13

16

19

26

23

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

1

1

−4

1

2

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA» 40

32

36

26

30

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

8

11

13

22

11

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

13

14

9

16

16

PJSC «Corporation VSMPO-AVISMA» 35

26

21

26

12

Profitability of all operations by net profit

Return on sales

Return on sales by net profit PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

16

21

21

29

28

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

1

1

−4

1

2

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Topical Issues of Determining the Threshold …

759

Table 4 Average profitability values Variants

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Average (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) value for an individual enterprise (%)

Average values for the period for all enterprises (%)

Deviation from the average values (%)

15

10

Profitability of all operations by profit PJSC «Corporation 36 VSMPO-AVISMA»

29

23

27

14

26

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

12

17

19

27

21

19

4

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

2

2

−4

2

3

1

−14

Profitability of all operations by net profit PJSC « 30 VSMPO-AVISMA»

23

19

22

11

21

14

7

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

13

16

19

26

23

19

6

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

1

1

−4

1

2

0

−13

PJSC « 40 VSMPO-AVISMA»

32

36

26

30

33

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

8

11

13

22

11

13

−7

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

13

14

9

16

16

14

−6

PJSC «Corporation 35 VSMPO-AVISMA»

26

21

26

12

24

PJSC «Urals Stampings Plant»

16

21

21

29

28

23

7

JSC «Metallurgical Plant «Electrostal»

1

1

−4

1

2

0

−16

Return on sales 20

13

Return on sales by net profit 16

8

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

The analysis of various information sources carried out in the study made it possible to formulate and test the methodology for determining the TVES of enterprises in the metallurgical sector, determined on the basis of calculating the rate of change of groups of indicators over several time intervals. The results obtained can be used for further research in the subject area under consideration.

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References 1. Senchagov VK (2015) Economic security of Russia. General course, 5th edn. BINOM, 818p. https://znanium.com/catalog/product/53888. Date of access: 6 Apr 2021 2. Abalkin L (1994) Economic security of Russia: threats and their reflection. Econ Iss 12:4–14 3. Korolev MI (2011) Economic security of the firm: theory, practice, choice of strategy. M.I. King., Economics, 284p 4. Senchagov VK (1995) On the essence and foundations of the strategy of economic security of Russia. Probl Econ 1:97–106 5. Tatarkin AI (1997) Economic security of the region: unity of theory, research methodology and practice. In: Tatarkin AI et al (eds) Ural University Publishing House, Yekaterinburg, 240p 6. Davenport TH (2009). Strategic management in the innovation economy. Strategy approaches and tools for dynamic innovation capabilities. In: Davenport TH, Leibold M, Voelpel S (eds) Publicis Corporate Publishing and Wiley: VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Erlangen, 126p 7. Varlamova TP, Varlamova MA (2016) Financial and economic analysis: Textbook. Saratov, 132p 8. Bruwer WS (2008) How can cash-flow patterns assist analysts in investigating a company’s financial health? In: Bruwer WS, Hamman W (eds) Corporate culture, pp 21–24 9. On the Strategy for Economic Security of the Russian Federation for the period until 2030: Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 13, 2017 No. 208 [Electronic resource]. https://www.garant.ru/products/ipo/prime/doc/71572608/. Date of access: 6 Apr 2021 10. Mityakov ES (2019) To the question of the relevance of the use of threshold values in monitoring the economic security of Russian regions. In: The collection: Economic security of Russia: problems and prospects. In: Materials of the VII international scientific and practical conference, pp 187–191 11. Vazhenina IS, Pestrikov SA, Charite TR (2011) Business reputation risks: identification and assessment. Manage Iss 17:2–11 12. Ryukhin AP (2014) On the issue of the threshold values of economic security. In the collection: the crisis of the economic system as a factor of instability of modern society. In: Materials of the III International Scientific and Practical Conference, pp 43–44 13. Petrenko IN (2005) Features of ensuring the security of the economic space of the national economy at the macro and micro levels. Ankil, 277p 14. Dickinson V (2011) Cash flow patterns as a proxy for firm life cycle. Account Rev 86(6):1969– 1994 15. Senchagov VK (2011) Financial modernization. Probl Econ 3:53–64 16. Senchagov VK (1996) Economic security: the state of the economy, the stock market and the banking system. Probl Econ 6:144–153

Social Contract as a Legal Instrument for Improving Water Resources Management Larisa I. Nekhvyadovich , Vera G. Krasheninina , and Pavel T. Avkopashvili

Abstract The potential uncertainty associated with the social contract can be overcome by strategic planning that interacts with the relevant networks and includes important issues as the basis for establishing commitments in the contract for a specific period. This allows both parties to the treaty—the regional council (on behalf of society) and the copyright holder—to clearly define where the line of responsibility lies and what is expected to contribute to sustainable water management within a particular zone and region. As a clear boundary of responsibility, it remains to be seen as regional and local planning processes evolve whether the obstacle to the use of the social contract can be overcome. The legal framework can provide guiding principles for water management, such as fair and wise use, as well as a commitment not to harm neighbors. Some argue that such principles, based on the notions of “prudent” and “harm between neighbors” in the context of the market to maximize private interests, are predominantly only to impose a minimum level of accountability. Management requires legal principles to promote norms, rights, and obligations that emphasize other actions in relation to actions, being a part of continued legitimate access to resources. Keywords Social contract · Legal instrument · Water resources JEL Classification Q5 · Q52 · Q58

L. I. Nekhvyadovich (B) · P. T. Avkopashvili Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia P. T. Avkopashvili e-mail: [email protected] V. G. Krasheninina Gorno-Altai State University, Gorno-Altaysk, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_82

761

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1 Introduction The rights and obligations associated with the right to water depend on determining which legal obligations would be beneficial to society. The social contract as an effective border of responsibility for water resources management becomes the subject of its usefulness as a way to achieve society’s expectations from the holders of water rights as resource managers. Such expectations are often expressed for legal and policy action in the area of sustainable natural resource management and environmental protection. This purpose to defining responsibility for access to water presents the merits of sustainability and rational use of resources as opposed to the market approach [1, 2]. The market has legally decoupled water property rights from the environmental values of land, despite the physical and environmental links between them. The purpose of introducing compensatory values is to develop and reinforce a model of law based on responsibility and law. This would be achieved if the ethics of virtue can be used to provide a focus for establishing water governance as part of the moral character, i.e. action, habits, and personality traits. For example, specific virtues such as fair and reasonable use, honesty and care for water systems can provide suitable governance principles that enhance this other element of the law. Back to the main question: what version of improved water management can the Law offer? In answering this question, the authors determine the effectiveness of the social contract in enforcing norms of environmental behavior, legitimacy, and trust that limit the exploitation of water rights and reflect a virtuous concept of wellbeing. These four components combine to determine whether a social contract can effectively define practical obligations for access and use for water management [3, 4] and to chart a path from a virtuous concept of well-being to water access rights through useful laws. The model, in this case, represents that virtue is a necessary part of a fair and effective legal order in water law so that the actions of resource managers can be directed by motivations other than self-interest. This strengthens the function of law as the body of rules and regulations underlying the right of access. At the same time, the legal and policy framework for improving water resources management in the region towards each component is the boundaries of responsibility (norms, rights, legality and trust). The option of improving the social contract on access to and use of water would be preferred: minimal accountability of private interests or others in relation to resource management actions. This will help to assess the effectiveness of the social contract as a boundary of responsibility for determining obligations for water resources management [5, 6].

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2 Materials and Methods The norms represent the social expectations of water rights holders, balancing selfinterest, and public welfare. They play a critical role in resolving disputes when attempts to achieve balance are deadlocked. To be effective, this requires a correlation between norms and operating rules, so that copyright holders can be held accountable for enforcing these rules. Leadership-based norms emphasize the responsibility to care. This is echoed in political and legal declarations on sustainability and rational use of resources. Sustainable water management is value-loaded with many ethical indicators. They must be interpreted in the light of guidelines and community rules on governance, which are often inconsistent with private property freedom. Only the state is capable of defining principles and rules for broader governance mechanisms. But in order for them to be effective, they have to be developed through local and regional decisionmaking processes. There are several methods for the development of water management codes, where the regional emphasis is primarily taken into account, which is intended to link with policies and plans. The Land and Water Forum propose national principles, which emphasize water management [7, 8]. Now, they will be examined for their effectiveness in helping to develop norms that distinguish between right and wrong behavior, as well as values that are important to water management in developing a social contract as a clear line of responsibility. The concept of water resources management aims to ensure that present and future generations receive the most benefits from water resources within an environmentally sustainable framework, and success in achieving this concept, which should include: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Justice; Joint decision making; Additional litigation; Proven self-government; Environmental protection; Recovery; Healthy water quality; Active culture of guardianship and management; Improvement of recreation and entertainment; Reliability of supplies; Increasing the economic importance of irrigation; Economic importance of water tourism; Renewal and energy-efficient infrastructures.

Today, the rural community of cohesion and vitality has improved. There is a deeper understanding, sympathy between rural and urban residents for the use of the watershed. It’s a complex set of expectations that heightens the tension between private interests and governance issues.

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Forum expectations are based on potentially competing norms and in practice can’t be complimentary. For example, can justice be expected from out-of-court decision-making? Does the audited local government comply with environmental protection? Do increasing security of supply and the economic value of irrigation conflict with cultural storage? It obviously will be difficult to find a general concept of right and wrong behavior and beliefs that is consistent enough to define water management norms. Especially if such norms should underlie the rules in force that will be used to hold people accountable. The Land and Water Forum positions the issues of public management as a norm for decision-making on water resources management. Their recommendation is to balance competing values using the core issues of fairness, reasonableness, fairness, and morality. Such statements appear to be directed at other water-related actions, but further reading reveals proposals for water allocation based on: • Efficiency of use; • Impartiality between users and consistency of practice. Efficiency of use is the distribution is justified and also for using a reasonable amount of water. This estimate includes “good use” relative to the amount taken, “best use” for the environment and society—with a “highest value” allocation—and a temporary adjustment of use relative to the allocation. The market basis of this approach is assumed to emphasize private rights. The water sector has defined private water use norms that ensure resource management in the public interest. The approach, which was accepted by the Primary Sector Water Partnership, defined “good practice” norms for the well-being of the population. The Land and Water Forums support good practice in the implementation of the social contract. However, the risk of this approach is that the disputes between private interests and the public good have been reduced to issues of rationality. When this happens, the standard will promote the general practice and freedom of private interests [9, 10]. Legislative framework is required to establish access to water and use rights as a contribution to water management, dependent on other actions for the Land and Water Forum proposals and their effectiveness in overcoming competing norms. Legislative changes regarding rights to access resources represent a shift in the characteristics of ownership and rely on the courts to reinterpret and reconcile how rights holders are affected (within the framework of ensuring fairness). Improving water management in the region promotes the social contract as a means of determining access rights to resources. This new form of right of access will at some point be probably challenged to determine to what extent the contract is of interest to private property. This emphasizes for one more time the property as a relationship between the copyright holder and society, with the key question about whose rights are most likely to prevail in the event of a dispute. Determining the boundary between private rights and public benefit obligations associated with access to and use of water underscores legal tensions when the emphasis is on private access rights, which emphasize minimal accountability versus management expectations. For example, in water management of a region, the donor

Social Contract as a Legal Instrument for Improving …

765

is a regional council (on behalf of the community) seeking to manage the resource, and the recipient may be a dairy farmer seeking certainty and clarity of individual water rights. This certainty is important for the commercial structure within which the farmer operates because access to water is a valuable economic right that generates legitimate commercial expectations. These are important considerations for the version of improved water management to arise from social contracts. Resource allocation is a fundamental point, but contested issue of water resources management. It can be influenced by the next factors: • Code of conduct; • Regulation norms; • Market approaches. The water distribution and trading market stimulate private interests, and the property baggage reinforces them, increasing the tension between the goals of private interests and the results of state sustainability. A narrow preoccupation with personal property rights runs counter to holistic policies of sustainability and sustainable resource management. But status signals in the law don’t help to overcome this: one example is the definition that permission to access resources isn’t property. Using the market to create value and facilitate the transfer of water rights can only reinforce private interests. A social contract on access to water can spearhead the strengthening of private interests in resource consensus. Good practice, well-being, and governance are important concepts of efficiency that influence new models of resource access, where property rights need to be adjusted for sustainability. They represent an elevated boundary of responsibility, with variable characteristics depending on location in the landscape and type of farming system. This variability is an issue if the good practice has to become a legally applicable normative standard for implementation [11, 12]. Such a change may be temporarily achieved in a contract subject to the consent of the landowner. But this doesn’t solve the fundamental question about the fact that the right to access comes with the freedom of private interest protected by law, with minimal liability. For example, the nature of water rights is to provide commercial certainty and guarantee the current right to an existing water right. This bias leads to a disregard for the social contract and obligations of sustainable management as public goods beyond the level of responsibility that should be borne by the owner of the right to access private resources. Effectively incorporating governance into resource agreements requires a continuous redistribution of property rights and recognizing that social, as well as environmental well-being is integral of the right of access [13]. This approach requires a consensual recognition that access to resources arises from civil society, whose boundaries are dictated by the priorities and concerns of modern society, but it isn’t the subject to the ever-changing whims of social expectations. Such a model, based on other actions, can lead to the legitimization of a social contract by defining the right to access water in terms of governance rather than private interest.

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Collaboration in water management planning presupposes legitimacy. This occurs when private use rights are socially accepted on the assurance that resources are managed. Performance testing is carried out using rules, processes, and norms that interact to form a social contract [14]. This provides a useful link between community stakeholders and the resource right holder, legitimizing activities by providing a focal point for collaboration that transcends personal interests. This link is also a prerequisite for laws that truly support welfare, where the law provides standards and decision-making processes for actions to sustainably manage natural resources. Over time, debates about uncertain and evolving social expectations can develop the precise meaning of the social contract and the associated obligations. But it hasn’t reduced the uncertainty about responsibility, yet [15]. The risk remains highly likely that such a process will legitimize only “normal”, rather than “good” or “best” resource management practices. This is due to the strength of political interests in a collaborative process, where private interests are actively championed rather than public good interests in relation to property rights. Primary production interests prevail over concerns for the public good. Legitimate preference is given to minimal accountability advocating freedom to administer rights as a commodity in the marketplace.

3 Results Confidence plays two roles in relation to an effective social contract: • Firstly, it’s confidence in the strategic management process underlying the social contract; • Secondly, it’s trust in the relationship between different interests within the framework of this process. Confidence in the community process for defining reliable access and use mechanisms comes from the confidence of all stakeholders (in the process and each other). But this is easily eroded when the process is delayed by political decisions of the government or cut short by ministerial intervention. Confidence in the face of central government intervention was a challenge for the joint management of water resources in the region. The law and the appointment of commissioners with a clear mandate to improve water management have occurred over and above an established process and relationship. However, the law places the framework at a central position for improved water management, which is supported by various stakeholders such as the Water Rights Fund. Trust is a factor for the primary sector as it seeks to improve understanding and alignment with the community of its expectations for freshwater management. This is also closely related to reputation. Confidence building revolves around water sharing between irrigation and other uses, but water sharing is also the most obvious problem for eroding confidence and damaging reputation. Two sources of the debate point to this general conflict. For example, the primary sector claims to have formed the

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region, and it’s also central to the country’s current economic performance, as well as the maintenance of the quality of life. This sector promotes self-government as the best way to combat the shrinking natural capital base for continued well-being and economic prosperity. Recognizing the decline of natural capital isn’t enough for the public interest, which argues that the best way to move forward is fully cooperating for work of the rural sector, within environmental constraints and adaptations. Thus, economic imperatives don’t prevail over environmental ones. Today, there is the need to find out the ability of the social contract to meet the expectations of public welfare and the expectations of self-government of the owners of the rights to the primary sector. The authors suppose that it’s difficult to reconcile the private interests of self-government in the primary sector with public goods. Using private interest to support the public good of a nation will have political success in the resource allocation debate, as the interests of an economically strong primary sector most likely will prevail over others in water demand, threatening the process of cooperation and loss of confidence in the value of the social contract. There is strong support for good practice norms to implement the social contract and meet well-being expectations for improved water management. The risk of this approach is that the debate between private interests and the public good over norms of practice will be reduced to questions of rationality. A fundamental issue for improving water management for the benefit of society is that the right of access is accompanied by the freedom of private interests, which are protected by law with minimal accountability. It’s a bias towards disregarding the social contract and obligations of sustainable management as public goods that go beyond the responsibility that the average holder of the right to access to private resources should bear. The cooperation process is dominated by the economically powerful interests of the primary industries that support such freedoms of self-government. The result is that private benefit is prioritized over rational use of resources in water resources management through smart practices, thereby legitimizing a minimum standard of general practice. Using private interests to maintain the well-being of the nation will lead to political success in the resource allocation debate. Economically strong primary sector interests will obviously prevail over other parts in water demand, threatening environmental performance and losing confidence in the value of the social contract. Legal processes will, as necessary, shape water management based on a legislative social contract. If the balanced and holistic approach envisaged for the social contract isn’t clearly defined, then the law will seek a sense of commitment in the face of ongoing conflict and confusion. An analysis of the social contract as a legal boundary of responsibility suggests that without a clear legal framework for a higher level of concern for access to water and use of it, collaborative processes and legal frameworks will only support a minimum level of accountability.

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4 Conclusion A social contract has the potential to define improved water management, but it requires obligations to be defined in virtuous terms if laws have to be useful to ensure water management, which is based on other actions, but not on private interests. This doesn’t mean that water rights holders must be subject to ever-changing social expectations, the law probably requires a clear and enforceable statement of the governance obligation, so that rights holders can act knowing what the public good interests are in their resource management practices. A social contract wouldn’t provide such clarity without legislative reform defining improved water management as governance rather than minimum accountability. Effective change requires a continuous realignment of property rights to incorporate governance ethics and recognizing that social and environmental well-being is an integral part of the right of access. All of this will allow the public contract to be a useful legal tool in advancing water management to a higher level beyond the status quo. Law can’t improve water management based on a legislative social contract if it will have the ability to practically build virtue into the legal framework for access and use of water. This would be based on clear statutory governance principles to overcome the dominant institutional bias towards minimum accountability. Finally, a solid foundation for improved water management can be provided, including a market that functions with clear knowledge in management expectations; access rights clear management obligations; limits of responsibility for reaching consensus on virtue rather than minimum accountability; a clear framework for legal authorities within the system of checks and balances, courts, and not behind closed doors of administrators.

References 1. Bogoviz AV, Shvakov EE, Tretyakova OG, Zakharov MY, Abramov AN (2020) Globalization of education in the conditions of formation of the global knowledge economy: regularities and tendencies. Growth poles of the global economy: emergence, changes and future perspectives. “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Luxembourg, pp 993–1000 2. Tashkulova GK, Kletskova EV (2020) The model of the organization of “green” digital production and consumption based on the internet of things and AI. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, LNNS, vol 129, pp 329–336 3. Adarina R, Gazukina Y, Yankovskaya K (2019) Indicators of the “Green economy” as a tool for monitoring the regional economy. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science. International conference on sustainable development of cross-border regions 2019, SDCBR 2019, pp 102–107 4. Glotko AV, Sycheva IN, Dunets AN, Poltarykhin AL, Zhuravlev PV, Tubalets AA (2019) Integration processes in the agro-industrial complex of the regions: development and environmental problems. J Environ Manage Tourism 10, 3(35):613–621 5. Costanza R (1996) Ecological economics: reintegrating the study of humans and nature. Ecol Appl 6(4):978–990

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6. Shenshinov Y (2020) Abdulsattar Al-Ali–PhD. The tools of increasing efficiency of human resource in the lean production environment: a conceptual study. Int J Core Eng Manage 6(7) 7. Avkopashvili PT, Polukhin AA, Shkodinsky SV, Poltarykhin AL (2019) The fundamental provisions of the concept of the knowledge economy. Stud Syst Decis Control 169:57–64 8. Ragulina YV, Semenova EI, Avkopashvili PT, Dmitrieva EA, Cherepukhin TY (2019) Toppriority directions of implementing new internet technologies on the territories of rapid economic development. Adv Intell Syst Comput 726:182–188 9. Glotko AV, Voronkova OY, Miheeva NM, Skoblikova TV, Alekhina NA, Zhminko AE (2019) The economic development of a transboundary region under the conditions of the Eurasian economic union. In: Proceedings of the 33rd international business information management association conference, IBIMA 2019: education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020. 33, Education Excellence and Innovation Management through Vision 2020, pp 7957–7968 10. Vukovich GG, Makuschenko LV, Bateykin DV, Titova OV, Dobrosotskiy VI (2018) Support of the territories of advanced economic development on human capital: theory and practice. Qual Acces Success 19:157–160 11. Alekseev AN, Savenkov DL, Shvakov EE, Lebedev NA, Ragulin AD (2018) Financial problems of regional development and the ways of their solution in contemporary Russia. Qual Access Success 19(2):71–75 12. Stroiteleva TG, Petrova EA, Yungblyudt SV (2020) Responsible information society as a social environment for the creation of the “green” digital economy: formation and monitoring. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, LNNS, vol 129, pp 402–409 13. Stroiteleva TG, Kletskova EV, Balaeva SI (2020) Ontogenesis of the green development model of the digital economy: essence, stages, and prospects. Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems. LNNS, vol 129, pp 410–417 14. Karataev EM, Merkuryev VV, Titova OV (2020) Integrating the “green economy” into the model of the digital future of the modern socio-economic systems. In: Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, LNNS, vol 129, pp 1402–1410 15. Tsvetkov VA, Loginov EL, Raikov AN (2019) Integrated network interaction of education with science and production. Educ Technol Soc 19(1):389–398

Security as the Priority of Personnel Management and Intellectual Property Protection

Conducting Lectures on Physical Education at the University with the Use of Distance Educational Technologies Angela V. Babayan

and Zoya S. Varfolomeeva

Abstract The purpose of the study is to characterize the methodology of conducting lectures on physical culture at the university using distance learning technologies. The research is based on the systemic approach, principles of logical historical, and holistic study of phenomena and processes in their development. Anthropological, axiological, learner-centered, activity, polysubject, subject-activity approaches are applied. The article analyzes the experience of the authors in the 2019–2020 academic year at Cherepovets State University (CHSU) (Russia). Recommendations for conducting lectures on physical culture with the use of distance educational technologies (DET) are made. The rules of conducting an online lecture, as well as the conditions for the effectiveness of an offline lecture are revealed. The factors that determine the effectiveness of conducting lectures on physical culture using DET are identified: the organization of interaction between the teacher and students, despite the fact that they are separated by distance, the choice of pedagogical technologies; the availability of well-developed teaching materials and convenient ways to deliver them to students; the operational feedback mechanism; the organization of the educational process and the quality of the educational materials used; the pedagogical skill of the teacher, etc. The authors analyzed the pedagogical experience, which showed that the preparation and organization of training on the discipline “Physical Education” using distance educational technologies make it possible to set and solve specific pedagogical tasks, organize a meaningful educational process, and ensure that students strive to activate their mental activity. Keywords Distance educational technologies (DET) · Lectures · Training · Students · University · Physical education JEL Classification 123

A. V. Babayan (B) · Z. S. Varfolomeeva Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia Z. S. Varfolomeeva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_83

773

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A. V. Babayan and Z. S. Varfolomeeva

1 Introduction Educational institutions of higher education are designed to prepare competitive, highly qualified graduates, morally and physically developed, healthy, able to work effectively. Professional training of university students, improving the quality of education is impossible without the use of methods based on the latest achievements of information technology. At the present stage of the development of domestic education, information technologies, based, in particular, on Internet technologies, are called the main tools for improving the quality of education. Training with the use of distance learning technologies (DET) becomes interactive, leads to an increase in the importance of independent work of students, intensifies the educational process. In addition, the following advantages of distance learning can be noted: • ensuring greater access to quality higher education, regardless of the influence of location factors; • greater flexibility to respond to changes in the labor market; • more effective use of the scientific and human resources potential of the university. All of the above indicates the relevance of studying the didactic problems of distance learning for students. In particular, we are interested in the problem of methods of conducting lectures on physical culture in higher education institutions using remote educational technologies.

2 Materials and Method The research is based on the systemic approach, principles of logical historical, and holistic study of phenomena and processes in their development. Anthropological, axiological, learner-centered, activity, polysubject, subject-activity approaches are applied. The article analyzes the experience of conducting lectures using distance learning technologies in the discipline “Physical education” at the Cherepovets State University in the spring semester of the 2019–2020 academic year. We also used data from the analysis on the assessment of the quality of distance learning in 2020, conducted by the information and analytical department of CHSU in May 2020. The analytical note contains the results of a survey of 304 students of Cherepovets State University, the statistical distribution of respondents’ responses, an assessment of the quality of distance learning, and its problem areas.

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3 Results The subject “Physical education” is a specific discipline of higher education. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that distance teaching of the discipline is organically integrated into the traditional education system, i.e. training can be either completely remote or partially. The teaching of the discipline “Physical education” includes a large amount of theoretical material. The Cherepovets State University, the main university of the Vologda Region, proceeds from the assumption that the modern world requires modern tools for interaction between employees, teachers and students of the university, such tools allow for communication at a qualitatively new level: faster and more efficient, allow to keep abreast with current developments. And what is especially important in 2020, during the Covid-19 epidemic, they can be used remotely. Cherepovets State University, having an electronic educational environment (https://eios.chsu.ru), offered its students, faculty, and staff free access to the “Office365” program package. These tools allow you to: draw a clear line between personal and work space; quickly communicate and exchange files and ideas; do not depend on the place of stay; use licensed software for creating and editing text, tables and presentations, maintain the quality of contact work with the student, including prompt feedback. The Information and Analytical Department of Cherepovets State University conducted an assessment of the quality of distance learning at the university. The study was continuous and conducted in accordance with the principle of confidentiality. The analytical note contains the results of a survey of 304 students, the conclusions made on the basis of the collected data, and the statistical distribution of the respondents’ responses [1]. The results presented in the analytical note indicate that the level of satisfaction of students with distance learning at CHSU is 42.8 and 72% of students have adapted to distance learning. In order to work remotely, 83.9% of students use such type of Internet connection as: wired, including WI-FI. In the conditions of the distance learning format, teachers were available in 82.9% for communication and answering questions. In the process of distance learning, students experienced certain difficulties: redundancy of materials and tasks (80.3%), lack of personal communication with the teacher (43.4%), technical problems with the educational portal (36.8%) and insufficient technical materials to perform tests and tasks (34.2%). For 38.2% of students, the distance learning format is convenient and comfortable. 29.3% of students believe that conducting classes in a distance learning format has increased their involvement in the process. The structure of the teacher’s work in the framework of distance learning: conducting classes according to the schedule online, using the MC Teams platform for organizing video conferencing (27.8%), conducting classes according to the schedule using both the CHSU educational portal and the MC Taems platform (27.4%), providing students with materials, tasks/control questions by email for self-study (21.4%).

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The teaching of the discipline “Physical education” in the first weeks of the university’s transition to distance learning in the spring of 2020 was as follows: at the beginning of the week, teachers of the Department of Theoretical Foundations of Physical Culture, Sports and Health posted educational materials through the educational portal, including a summary of the lesson, sets of exercises with methodological recommendations for their implementation, a link to a resource with a video where students could see the correct technique of performing the exercise. During the week, students were trained in accordance with this complex, their results were tracked by a completed self-control diary. Students in the offline mode got acquainted with the lecture material, provided with visual materials, links to Internet sources. Each lecture session contained a list of questions and tasks that needed to be completed. The analytical note indicates that for conducting physical education classes in a distance learning format, the teacher sent his/her materials for self-study and tasks/control questions by e-mail (34.5%), and in addition, conducted classes in accordance with the schedule, using only the educational portal of CHSU (15.7%). We consider the experience of conducting lectures in the distance format on the discipline “Physical education” at Cherepovets State University in the spring semester of the 2019–2020 academic year to be positive. It is established that the lecture as a type of educational activity in the application of remote educational technologies is implemented in all technological environments: in the framework of electronic training courses, lectures-presentations in the online system (the use of various synchronous telecommunications), TV and video lectures in the offline system (the use of asynchronous telecommunications). The use of DET allows you to improve the process of teaching the discipline “Physical education”. For example, it is recommended to attach links to interactive tasks or electronic textbooks and libraries to the lecture material, insert images, for example, showing the technique of performing exercises, etc., video and audio files, articles, documents, etc. It is possible to create training and control tests to test knowledge, exchange messages [2]. Various organizational forms of training with the use of information and communication technologies lead us to the conclusion that the methodology of conducting lectures on physical culture at the university using DET allows the existence of such types of lectures as audio, video, slide lecture, text lecture [3]. Speaking about the process of creating multimedia lectures, it is important to note that it requires a lot of time, a high level of knowledge of the subject area, knowledge of the methodology, and a sufficient degree of knowledge of software products. A lecture can have the necessary didactic potential only if it is a methodically wellstructured combination of text, graphics, audio and video information, which is an important tool for the interaction of the lecturer with the audience in online and offline modes [4]. A multimedia lecture involves a clear structure of the content, i.e. the division of the educational material into modules, an understandable form of presentation with the inclusion of various options for presenting information based on all types of visibility (sound, graphic, video, etc.), as well as the mandatory allocation of

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particularly significant parts of the studied material (main provisions, definitions, terms, etc.) [5]. The use of multimedia technologies in teaching the discipline “Physical education” in the framework of distance learning has not only a huge didactic potential, but also provides the following advantages: • significantly increases the information content of the lecture; • contributes to a better understanding of the processes and patterns studied by students; • enhances the structure of the training material; • increases the degree of clarity in the presentation of educational material, which gives students strong knowledge and skills; • helps to raise the motivation of students to study the discipline; • provides an opportunity to highlight and, consequently, attract students’ attention to the most important information in the lecture material; • makes it possible to increase the degree of emotional and personal involvement of students in the educational process [6]. The use of the technology of “training animation” perfectly corresponds to the specifics of the discipline “Physical education”, as it dictates the constant inclusion of visibility in the educational process to increase its effectiveness. Complex concepts and processes become much more understandable when they are presented in the form of animation, and in addition, this technology allows you to return to any stage of constructing a diagram/graphic image, if the material being studied is not perceived qualitatively at the first attempt [4]. A multimedia lecture, like a traditional one, requires constant updating, adjustments, adding up-to-date information, changing accents, structure, and visual component. However, the use of multimedia technologies, in most cases, makes you see the educational material through the eyes of students, assess the degree of its accessibility and effectiveness, logical coherence, and even the level of emotional impact on students. This also increases the motivation of the teacher himself to constantly improve his lecture material, adding materials that are successful from a didactic point of view and new interesting information. The analysis of pedagogical experience allows us to assert that multimedia lectures on physical education can significantly activate the mental activity of students due to the fact that this form of presentation of theoretical material activates all the channels of perception of students (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), allows you to keep a high degree of attention for a long time, makes it possible to easily distinguish between the main and secondary information, better understand the cause-and-effect relationships in the studied material. We also consider it necessary to mention the difficulties that the teacher faces in the process of preparing a lecture using multimedia technologies: the need to reduce text information by increasing multimedia content, the difficulty of selecting high-quality and methodically competent visual material that supports the studied provisions, the importance of finding the right balance between visual and text material, the obligation to constantly activate the attention and mental activity of students,

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desirability of including problematic issues in the lecture material when submitting theoretical information, the necessity of precise synchronization of the text with the visual elements of the lecture [7]. The methodology of conducting lectures on physical culture at the university with the use of DET provides for the wide use of all means of visibility as a rich resource in improving the teaching of the discipline, mastering the rational methodology of their application [8]. The methodology of conducting lectures on physical culture at the university using DET provides that during the lecture, the student must listen to the teacher, and at the same time monitor what he shows and tells, so it is important to have an image of the lecturer on the screen. The demonstrated material should correspond to the logic of the lecturer’s presentation, contribute to the stability of students’ attention [9]. When conducting lectures online, the teacher is recommended to adhere to the following rules: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Carefully consider the place and ways of commenting on certain multimedia information in the outline of the lecture. Pay special attention to the logical structure of the lecture, as well as make sure that the visual information is in strict accordance with the theoretical provisions. Avoid discrepancies between the demonstrated visual information and the oral presentation of the lecture, which leads to a decrease in the concentration of students’ attention to the studied issue. It is necessary to stop the oral presentation of the material during the performance of a certain task by students. Strictly observe the most important requirement when using multimedia technologies in the educational process—synchronization of visual and logical information.

It is important to note that only if all the above recommendations are followed, one can expect that a multimedia lecture will have the maximum methodological and didactic effect [10]. The analysis of the methods of conducting lectures on physical culture at the university using DET led us to the conclusion that an offline lecture is effective if the following conditions are met: • the inclusion of all necessary educational, methodological and informational materials in the course of lectures intended for distance learning; • the possibility of communication between students and the teacher through various services provided by the electronic learning environment of the university in the form of answers to questions, providing the necessary materials, conducting online consultations, etc.; • provision of all participants of the educational process with appropriate computer equipment, access to the electronic educational environment and the Internet; • students’ motivation to study remotely, which requires psychological readiness to carry out educational activities in an independent mode to a much greater extent than in traditional forms of the educational process.

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The methodology of conducting lectures on physical culture at a university using DET allows us to assert that an online lecture is effective when it is created on the basis of a high-quality offline lecture, while the latter is supplemented not only by the mandatory perception of the lecturer’s speech by students, but also by the perception of the image of the lecturer on the monitor screen, as well as the demonstrated materials. In addition, there is the possibility of instant messaging, receiving in real time an oral answer to a given question, which will be available to all participants of the lecture, i.e. instant feedback [11]. In general, the methodology of conducting lectures on physical culture at the university using DET leads us to the following conclusions: • distance learning involves a more thorough and detailed planning of the student’s activities, its organization; a clear statement of the tasks and goals of training; delivery of the necessary training materials; • interactivity as an important element of conducting lectures in a remote format. The lecture course should provide the maximum possible interactivity between the student and the teacher, feedback between the student and the educational material, and allow group learning; • feedback should be both prompt and delayed; • it is important to maintain the motivation of students; • the choice of the modular structure of the distance course of lectures allows the student, on the one hand, to be aware of their progress from module to module, and on the other, opens the student’s access to any module for repetition, depending on the level of assimilation of the material. The study makes it possible to identify the factors that determine the effectiveness of conducting lectures on the discipline “Physical education” at the university: • organization of interaction between the teacher and students, despite the fact that they are separated by distance, as well as the selection of educational technologies used; • availability of high-quality educational materials and convenient ways to deliver them to students; • availability of feedback; • organization and methodological quality of the materials used, pedagogical skills of the lecturer.

4 Conclusion Currently, the organization of the educational process within the framework of distance technologies requires the use of multimedia teaching tools that can significantly improve the quality of the material studied in the discipline “Physical education” in universities, promotes the popularization of a healthy lifestyle among students by attracting relevant information, supported by a high degree of clarity. In addition, computer and information technologies can significantly expand the

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variety of forms and ways of organizing the educational process: computer testing, telecommunications quizzes, olympiads, the use of training and diagnostic stands, the creation of projects and presentations, the widespread use of Internet resources, etc. In connection with the need to conduct lectures on physical culture with the help of distance educational technologies, there is an urgent need to develop a methodology for their creation and implementation that meets the requirements of the modern development of the educational system, its humanization, as well as the trend in the development of a personality-oriented approach to learning, focusing on the realization of the creative potential of students, taking into account their interests and abilities. The use of distance learning is inextricably linked with the inclusion of computer, information and telecommunications technologies in the educational process, which not only create conditions for indirect communication with students in real time, but also provide an opportunity to review the methodology of conducting classes in connection with the use of various forms of visualization (text, graphics, sound, animation, video) during the training session. In addition, distance learning technologies allow you to use the entire methodological arsenal of modern innovative technologies: project methodology, case method, problem-based learning, and others. The effectiveness of conducting lectures on the discipline “Physical education” at the university with the use of DET depends on the level of organization of interaction between the teacher and students, the thoughtful selection of the pedagogical technologies used, the creation of qualitatively developed educational and methodological materials and convenient ways to deliver them to students, the availability of feedback, the quality of the methodological material used and the pedagogical skill of the lecturer. Thus, we come to the conclusion that DET can significantly improve the quality of training, rationalize the use of educational time, significantly diversify the methods and forms of organizing the educational process, strengthen the motivation of students to study the discipline “Physical education”, and form their skills of independent work. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that the use of DET also requires the teacher to constantly improve his skills and abilities to work with multimedia technologies, their methodically competent use in the educational process.

References 1. Kalinina MA, Shaldina PD (2020) Analytical note on the results of the questionnaire “Assessment of the quality of distance learning in 2020.” Cherepovets State University, Cherepovets, Russia 2. Voronov IA (2005) Information technologies in physical culture and sports: Electronic textbook. Publishing House of St. Petersburg GUFC named after P. F. Lesgaft, Saint-Petersburg, Russia

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3. Beletsky SV (2015) The influence of information technologies on the formation of competencies on the theoretical foundations of physical culture. Bull Plekhanov Russian Univ Econ 82:14–21 4. Bogoslovskaya TV (2009) Distance education in the preparation of masters and bachelors. New educational technologies in higher education—2009. In: Collection of materials of the sixth international scientific and methodological conference. Part 1. GOU VPO “UGTU-UPI”, Yekaterinburg, Russia 5. Vezirov TG, Babayan AV (2015) Professional training of masters of pedagogical education by means of e-learning: monograph. Zebra, Ulyanovsk, Russia 6. Mokeeva LA, Shikhovtsov YuV, Nikolaeva IV (2015) Physical culture in higher education: interactive teaching methods. OlymPlus. 1(1):82–84 7. Bochkareva SI, Vysotskaya TP, Kokoulina OP (2015) Development and implementation of computer-based learning tools in the educational process of physical education at the university. Econ Stat Inform 1:3–9 8. Petrov PK (2008) Information technologies in physical culture and sports: a textbook. Publishing Center “Academy”, Moscow, Russia 9. Semenova NG (2007) Lecture courses using multimedia technologies. Prof Educ 10:13 10. Petrov PK (2010) Information competence as a basis for the formation of professionalism of future specialists in physical culture and sports. Phys Cult Educ Inst Train 2:51–55 11. Vakulyuk VM, Semenova NG (2004) The use of multimedia technologies in the lecture course. Modern Sci Inten Technol 2:95

Development of Integration Mechanisms in the Field of Educational Services and Labor Market in Transport Renata I. Karavashkina , Igor K. Kuzmichev , and Zhanna Y. Pyzhova

Abstract External forces undoubtedly influence greatly all the subjects of the market economy; therefore, following new trends, or even outstripping them, is a condition for the successful development of any university, including the transport one. The authors believe that the promising direction for solving the problem of integration into the international educational space is following the tasks set earlier, adjusted for many features connected with the incessant pandemic and the changes in economic and socio-political conditions. The authors consider the features concerning the development of relevant integration mechanisms in the educational sphere, as well as identify the prospects for the transport university progress, taking into account labor market development trends. Many factors are distinguished concerning the further development of transport university integration mechanisms, taking into account the prospects of the labor market and educational sphere in the context of a new economy, digitalization of education, economy digitalization, and the ongoing pandemic. Keywords Economic mechanisms of integration · Digitalization · Economics of education · Labor productivity · Transport university · Integration efficiency · Foreign experience JEL Classification F02 · F15 · I23 · I25 · L98 · F55 · R48

R. I. Karavashkina (B) · I. K. Kuzmichev · Z. Y. Pyzhova Volga State University of Water Transport, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia I. K. Kuzmichev e-mail: [email protected] Z. Y. Pyzhova e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_84

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1 Introduction Correlation of economic entities of any scale, integration development, the transition of effective world economies to an open economic model facing the outside world is the most striking features of the modern economy. In the process of deepening the international division of labor, there is a mutual “penetration” of economic systems into each other; this trend is not bypassed by such systems as labor market and education. The national education system has repeatedly undergone radical transformations due to the current socio-economic problems. Universities are complex economic systems and full-fledged participants in the market economy, performing some difficult functions, such as training, science development contribution, meeting labor market requirements, and many others connected with the national security of macroeconomy.

2 Methodology The course towards revalorization and increasing the competitiveness of the domestic educational system in the international market demanded the adoption of administrative and regulatory documents: • the priority national project “Export of Education”, for 2017–2025; • Presidential decree - project “5–100”. The most important goals of the national project “Export of Education” are as follows [1]: • ensuring the growth of national education quality; • increasing the attractiveness of Russian universities for foreign students; • development of aggregate measures to increase the competitiveness of universities in the market of educational services that are common for Russia and the world; • promoting the participation of higher education institutions in significant regional and larger-scale processes of education development; • increasing the percentage of the educational services contribution to the national product; • development and implementation of an educational-oriented university model for the provision of the services to foreigners, including the service to support foreign students; • development of fundamentally new forms of companion educational products implementation and training in English; • development of digital education integrated into the student native language environment; • vacation educational space development, including various educational tourist routes;

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• single digital space development, including information concerning educational services of domestic universities. This paper provides an assessment of the activities of transport universities using the example of the Federal state budget educational institution of higher education “The Volga State University of Water Transport” (VSUWT) while implementing the national project “Export of Education” and the project “5/100”. Transport universities have the following general and specific tasks, including the development of research areas; bringing training programs in line with international standards; meeting the demand for the products of intellectual activity in the domestic and foreign service markets; development and implementation of institutional measures, necessary infrastructure development; integration of an educational institution, business and innovation, an increase in the number of foreign students [1–6]. University education is targeted at bringing graduates closer to the global labor market. It meets the needs of employers for the skilled labor force [3, 7, 8]. Another feature that is becoming more evident today is the transition to a knowledge economy. This model, the knowledge economy model, confronts the inevitability of a transition to a new evolutionary stage in the development of economic systems [9]. In this regard, there is a need for the timely adaptation of all economic systems according to the latest requirements, including the education system. To fulfill the tasks formulated in the national projects “Export of Education” and “5/100” transport universities have defined a range of goals, objectives, and methods of their implementation. The issues of restructuring in the educational, scientific, managerial, and financial structures have become top priorities. Priority task consideration required detailed elaboration of university personnel policy, planning measures to improve international reputation, strengthening language competencies at all levels, determining the possibility of issuing a double diploma, considering the specifics of the university, digitalization of educational activities to form joint educational courses and programs with European colleagues [1, 9–13]. Averyanov [7], Kuzmichev [1], Glazyev [5], Kasatkin [14], Ozernikova [6], Bothwell [3] believe that in the process of these directions development new tasks are generated: • in educational space: integration of international standards and training programs following the actualization of the university programs case, quality management of educational programs, causation and penetration of digital information products, ensuring hypermobility, promoting the integration of vocational education into international educational and research networks, increasing the share of foreign students, etc.; • in scientific space: change in the dynamics of scientific performance, formation of innovative environment based on empirical data from successful practices of the world universities, expansion of cooperation areas with educational, research, and business organizations, including institutional partnership, deepening cooperation

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with international scientific platforms (the number of articles in scientific citation databases Web of Science and Scopus), etc.; • in personnel policy: recruiting new promising employees, providing support measures for employees, talented students, applicants, postgraduate students; training employees due to new qualification requirements, practical experience exchange with representatives of foreign educational and research organizations, etc. • in service and infrastructure: campus system formation, development of laboratory facilities and digital infrastructure in them, including digital products for training and information exchange; • in university management and finances: increasing financial resources productivity in the new conditions of university functioning, as an element of the global educational environment [1, 5–7, 9–11, 14]. Currently, the work is underway to create a global unified educational space, which would allow students to freely get educational services in any of the chosen countries. The end consumer of such a service would become a “subject of the world” during the studies. Currently, universities use mainly marketing approach methods to attract this category of students: • • • • • • • •

the establishment of the Alumni Commonwealth; the educational representative at the embassy; university website, providing the ability to use information in a foreign language; teaching staff portfolios in a foreign language on the educational institution website; availability of an Internet platform for interacting with teachers; cooperation with foreign universities, ensuring continuous experience exchange between the teaching staff, students, researchers; participation in global international rankings; acquisition and development of experience concerning taking part in international and all-Russian exhibitions [1, 3, 5, 6, 12, 13].

A special role in the collaboration of transport universities and research institutes of the Eurasian continent belongs to the system of transport education in Russia. Representatives of the foreign educational community highly value Russian specialized education in the field of transport. For a transport university, the process of integration into the world educational space has its specific features identified in November 2020 [1, 15, 16]. The following tasks were set: • • • • •

bringing the main areas of training to a single educational standard; expansion of transport universities scientific cooperation; creation of a single international center for highly qualified personnel training; increasing the pace of academic and student exchanges; creation of a unified electronic contacts database for educational and scientific centers, etc.

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The process of integrating a transport university into the educational environment of the European Union has its peculiarities. Firstly, it is the unity of educational programs and standards.

3 Results The process of university integration is carried out because the university is a special social mechanism for the formation of human capital and its growth. Since the Middle Ages, the university has historically proved its huge role in the consolidation and modernization of communities, overcoming borders, cultural differences, generalization, and augmentation of knowledge and wisdom of the whole mankind. Every year more and more foreign students choose the universities of the Nizhny Novgorod region. Last academic year more than 4800 students from 112 countries of the world arrived. It is 35% more than during the previous period. This indicates the demand for educational programs of Nizhny Novgorod universities in the international market of educational services. Volga State University of Water Transport (VSUWT) is currently a branch (base) of the University of the Volga-Kama Basin, performing its activities within the framework of the Consortium created by the Federal Agency for Maritime and River Transport on November 12, 2020. The need for its creation is aimed at achieving educational, scientific, and managerial goals related to the development and implementation of strategic programs at the federal, sectoral, and regional levels aimed at scientific support and staffing of the maritime transport industry, following the priorities of scientific and technological development of the Russian Federation. Being an extensive network of branches, Volga State University of Water Transport plays a key role in the educational development of several regions of the Volga and Southern Federal Districts. In the overall rating of Russian universities’ “National Recognition” in 2019, in comparison with subordinate universities in the transport industry, Volga State University of Water Transport ranks above the national average. In comparison with the universities in Nizhny Novgorod region, VSUWT takes a similar position. On the subject of “transport” in the field of engineering, the University is among the best universities in the country being in the 20th position. The strategic objective for the period 2021–2025 is to attract representatives of foreign countries to study at the Volga State University of Water Transport. The Volga State University of Water Transport offers educational services in some relevant forms of training. Priority tasks for implementation: • development of cooperation with foreign universities (implementation of academic mobility programs for students and teaching staff; joint conferences, seminars, etc.). • development of international cooperation due to Erasmus + programs.

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• university promotion in the English-language information space (English version of the website, participation in educational exhibitions, etc.). The internationalization of the university includes three main directions: • internal internationalization (foreign citizens training); • external internationalization (development of partnerships with foreign universities and organizations); • electronic internationalization (promoting the educational organization and individual educational products in the global electronic educational space, as well as developing an effective system for communication with potential clients). The Volga State University of Water Transport has the following competitive advantages: • in some regions (for example, the Perm Territory) the graduates of transport specialties have practically no competitors in the labor market. • high level of teaching staff qualification; • educational, practical, and research work is carried out on modern, sometimes even innovative (including own design) equipment (for example, a virtual reality simulator for simulating real situations onboard the ship); • effective system for ensuring education quality is formed; it was developed with the support of European projects of the program Erasmus+; • a number of joint international educational programs and projects in cooperation with foreign universities has been implemented: SIGMA Clermont (France), University of Oviedo (Spain), University of Zilina (Slovenia), Technical University of Varna (Bulgaria), Powi´sla´nski Universityin Kwidzyn (Poland); • academic exchange programs with SWNU (China), KazATK (Kazakhstan), BelSUT (Belarus) are being successfully implemented with high-performance indicators; • cooperation at international sessions, seminars, associations, etc. with the Forum of Universities Association of the Volga Federal District of the Russian Federation and the provinces of the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River of the PRC, Erasmus+ National Office, with the EDINNA Annual Assembly; • implementation of the tasks assigned to the university in the Project of the International Association of Maritime Universities (IAMU) for the collection of performance indicators in the field of maritime education and training (IAMU PIMET); • placement of the scientific journal “Scientific Problems of Water Transport” (included in List of the Higher Attestation Commission of Ministry of Education and Science, Russia) in domestic and international scientometric databases: Google Scholar, Ulrichsweb, DOAJ, CyberLeninka, Crossref, RSCI, LAN, etc.; • regular assignment of digital international DOI identifiers to the journal and its articles;

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• expertise of the journal “Scientific Problems of Water Transport” (by the Association of Scientific Editors and Publishers) for compliance with international standards to further develop the publication and its integration into the international scientific community.

4 Conclusion Undoubtedly, modern challenges, including pandemic and fundamental transformations in all the spheres and systems of not only the national but also the global economy, pose difficult tasks for educational institutions. Nevertheless, using the example of the Volga State University of Water Transport, we see that universities (and not only transport ones) are capable of successfully integrating into the international educational space.

References 1. Kuzmichev IK (2021) Development program of Volga State University of water transport for the period 2021–2025. http://www.vsuwt.ru/novosti/novosti-universiteta/1471917/? sphrase_id=10381. Accessed 2 Feb 2021 2. An Official Website of the Inland Navigation Europe. http://www.inlandnavigation.eu/aboutine/. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 3. Bothwell E (2016) Universities should measure outcomes of internationalization. The World University Rankings. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/universities-should measure-outcomes-of-internationalisation. Accessed 02 Feb 2021 4. European Integration: Current State and Prospects (2011) European Humanities University, p 336 5. Glazyev S (2010) Strategy of advancing development in the context of the global crisis. Economics Publishing House, pp 210–255 6. Ozijernikova TB (2015) Factors of Russia’s integration into the global educational space. Proc Iss 2(58):92–100 7. Averiijanov M, Evtushenko S, Kotchetkova E (2020) Digital society: new challenges. Econ Strateg 141:90–91 8. European Commission (2011) White paper on transport—roadmap to some single European transport areas—toward a competitive and resource-efficient transport system. Publications Office of the EU, Luxembourg, p 28. ISBN 978-92-79-18270-9. https://doi.org/10.2832/30955 9. NAIADES II (2020) An official website of the European union mobility and transport. Inland Waterway. NAIADES II. https://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/inland/promotion/naiades2_en. Accessed 20 Dec 2020 10. Fakerman F, Goodwin NR (2018) Tufts University Global Development and Environment Institute. The changing nature of work. Front Iss Econ Thought 4:86–92 11. Glazyev S (2016) The last world war. The US to move and lose. Book World-KM-Books, pp 203–215 12. Gołebiowski S (2016) Inland water transport in Poland. Transp Res Procedia 14:223–232 13. Hsmith H (2012) Universities, innovation and the economy. Routledge Studies in Business Organizations and Networks, p 256 14. Kasatkin P, Kovalchuk Y, Stepnov I (2019) The role of modern universities in the formation of the digital upward wave of Kondratyev cycles. Econ iss 12:123–140

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15. An official website of the EU/mobility and transport/Inland waterway. https://ec.europa.eu/tra nsport/modes/inland_en. Accessed 20 Mar 2021 16. National Research University. Association of Technical Universities of Russia and China. https://www.studyinrussia.ru/en/study-in-russia/. Accessed 01 Mar 2021

Socio-economic Assessment of Labor Efficiency in Crop Production Andrey A. Polukhin , Nina I. Proka , Svetlana P. Klimova , and Aleksey V. Kondykov

Abstract The efficiency of agricultural labor is a factor that ensures an increase in the competitiveness of agricultural products and, at the same time, a criterion that determines its level. The purpose of this article is a socio-economic assessment of the efficiency of labor in crop production and identification of trends in its development in conjunction with certain parameters of decent work. The authors clarify effective assessment indicators and carry out a systematic analysis of labor efficiency in crop production. It substantiates the relevance of the problem of increasing the efficiency of agricultural labor not only for economic research, but also for enhancing the importance of this indicator in agricultural policy, including personnel, and in the program documents for the development of the agro-industrial complex. Keywords Agrarian economy · Labor efficiency · Salary · Plant growing · Modern Russia JEL Classification J43 · O18

1 Introduction In recent years, the agro-industrial and fishery complexes, including through state support, have shown steady growth, and they are one of the main driving directions of the domestic economy and have a direct impact on food security and sustainable socio-economic development of the Russian Federation, the provision of which in the long term is the primary task [1]. Its decision necessitates, taking into account the current situation and the role of Russia in the world economy, to ensure intensive and effective growth of the domestic economy.

A. A. Polukhin (B) · S. P. Klimova · A. V. Kondykov Federal Scientific Center of Legumes and Groat Crops, Orel, Russia N. I. Proka Orel State Agrarian University named after N.V. Parakhina, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_85

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The efficiency of agricultural labor is a factor that ensures an increase in the competitiveness of agricultural products and, at the same time, a criterion that determines its level in general. That is why the breakthrough development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2030 is planned to be achieved, among other things, by ensuring decent and effective work, which is defined as a national goal [2]. The special role of these two interdependent socio-economic processes in the economic development of the country as a whole, and also in the context of each of its branches separately, necessitates further research in the direction of forming a management mechanism for the effective use of human resources in the agro-industrial complex. In practice, the symbiosis of decent and effective work is an interweaving of economic and social problems that determine, on the one hand, the competitiveness of the economy and, on the other hand, decent wages for workers and the corresponding level of income of the population, including the rural population [3]. If in the context of such a statement of this scientific problem in the agricultural economy the separate studies are carried out, then in the context of industries, only some of its aspects are considered. The significance and urgency of the problem, modern approaches to scientific research necessitate its study from the standpoint of a systematic approach. In this regard, this article presents the main provisions and results of scientific research carried out by the authors, the purpose of which is the socio-economic assessment of the efficiency of labor in crop production and the identification of trends in its development concerning certain parameters of decent work.

2 Materials and Methods The assessment of labor efficiency in crop production was carried out according to the mini-system of indicators, which were specified by the authors using actual data of agricultural organizations for 2015–2019 years, and comparative analysis of individual natural and relative indicators to identify certain development trends for 2004. The economic research was carried out mainly using monographic, statistical and economic and computational and constructive methods. The economic category “efficiency of agricultural labor” is a complex system of materials, including the simultaneous interweaving of technological and socioeconomic scientific and practical information [4]. In terms of the content and its significance, the efficiency of agricultural labor means the effect obtained from the use of human resources in the industry or a business entity as a whole, and per unit of measurement of labor costs. The most important productive indicators for assessing labor efficiency, taking into account the system of objective indicators from the point of view of the present day, are, in the opinion of the authors, revenue, and profit per 1 person-hour and 1 average annual employee. They simultaneously accumulate a comprehensive assessment of labor efficiency and they are also formed depending on a variety of external and internal factors and conditions. Khramchenkova holds the same point of view; she

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believes that labor efficiency can simultaneously reflect production efficiency and purely economic [4]. All other indicators and criteria systematized by the authors in the economic literature into various systems are: • Subjective; • Not always amenable to economic calculations; • Indirectly (to varying degrees) can only assess the efficiency of labor [4, 5]. In this context, it should be emphasized that the productivity of agricultural labor is the main, integral part of labor efficiency and its determined based on the effective indicator of the labor activity of personnel—revenue per 1 person-hour and 1 average annual employee. At the same time, to assess the individual level of productivity, including at the workplace, other indicators are used depending on the assessment task, for example, labor standards, labor costs (labor intensity), etc.

3 Results The problem of the efficiency of agricultural labor for the Orel region takes on special significance because of: • It has an agricultural focus; • It specializes in the production of crop products, as evidenced by the structure of monetary training from the sale of agricultural products, which was constantly increased from 54.7 to 89.2% for 2004–2019 years; • Cash proceeds from the sale of grain and seeds of grain and leguminous crops occupy a predominant share in the corresponding structure of proceeds from the sale of crop products—64.3%; • In the quantitative and qualitative aspect, there have been significant changes in the personnel of agricultural organizations in the region (Table 1). Structural changes in the economy of the agricultural sector, and first of all, the growing role of crop production, have also revealed some trends in the development of human resources: • A decrease in the quantitative parameters of the personnel of agricultural organizations, in particular—the total number of workers employed in agricultural production decreased by 56.8%, including tractor drivers by 49.5%; • A significant change in structural parameters—an increase in the share of tractor drivers from 21.0 to 24.7%, and the structure of permanent workers increased from 28.1 to 35.7%. These trends in the future may have negative consequences for the sectoral personnel policy, and also from a socio-psychological point of view, for the rural population as a whole. The same stable downward trend in the share of people employed in agriculture of the total number of workers is observed in the Russian

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Table 1 Human resources of agricultural organizations of the Orel Region Indicators

2004

Personnel of organizations engaged in agricultural production, people

34,444 15,197 14,871 14,390 13,801 14,895

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Among them: tractor drivers

7445

3222

3346

3425

3287

3683

In the structure of personnel engaged in the 21.0 production of agricultural products

21.2

22.5

23.8

23.8

24.7

The number of permanent workers

28.1

30.6

32.3

34.3

34.1

35.7

Revenue from sales of crop production in the structure of total revenue from sales of agricultural products, %

54.7

70.4

72.4

82.3

79.1

89.2

Revenue from the sale of grain and seeds of 68.2 grain and leguminous crops in the structure of total revenue from the sale of crop products, %

57.7

58.0

60.4

68.0

64.3

Share of people employed in agriculture in the Russian Federation, % [6]

6.7

6.7

5.9

5.9

5.8

The specific weight of tractor drivers, %

10.0

Source Annual reports of agricultural organizations of the Orel Region [6]

Federation—from 10.0 to 5.8% in 2004–2019 years [6]. The internal risk factors for agriculture include the insufficient provision of highly qualified personnel [1]. Therefore, the target indicators of the Strategy for the Development of the Agroindustrial and Fisheries Complexes of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2030 are envisaged by the level of 2019 achievement by 2030: • Index of agricultural production farms in farms of all categories (in comparable prices)—125.4; • The level of employment of the rural population of working age from 72.0 to 88.9%; • The unemployment rate of the rural working-age population is up to 4.0% [1]. Labor efficiency, like no other final effective economic indicator, depends on the influence of a wide variety of objective and subjective factors and conditions, such as, for example, management decisions, the agro-food market, and the agricultural labor market, climatic conditions, etc. This is quite clearly demonstrated by the data presented in Table 2. The implementation in the Russian Federation of the State Program for the Development of Agriculture and the Regulation of Markets for Agricultural Products, Raw Materials and Foods has a positive effect on the development of the industry as a whole and all its economic indicators. So, for example, the analysis of labor efficiency in crop production of the agricultural sector of the Orel Region for the period 2015–2019 years revealed quite stable positive trends:

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Table 2 Labor efficiency in crop production of the agricultural sector of the Orel Region Indicators

Years 2015

Deviation 2019 from 2015 in % 2016

2017

2018

2019

Proceeds from the sale of agricultural products received per 1 worker engaged in its production, million rubles Proceeds

2.30

2.58

1.82

2.48

2.55

110.9

Profit

0.78

0.40

0.29

0.69

0.77

98.7

Received per 1 tractor driver from the sale of crop production. million rubles Proceeds

7.63

8.31

6.28

9.27

9.20

120.6

Profit

2.99

1.40

1.04

2.78

3.02

101.0

Received per person-hour in crop production. rubles Proceeds

2671

3216

2386

4485

3037

113.7

Profit

1047

543

396

1343

997

92.2

Source Annual reports of agricultural organizations of the Orel Region

• Growth of productivity and overall labor efficiency of workers employed in agricultural production; • High rates of increase in labor efficiency in crop production—even taking into account that the indicators of labor efficiency in terms of profit are calculated without subsidies, while labor productivity in terms of revenue per 1 tractor driver increased by 120.6%, and per unit of labor costs for the production of crop products—113.7%; • A decrease in the number of personnel involved in the production of agricultural products is compensated by an increase in the labor efficiency of workers. The researched scientific problem—increasing the efficiency of labor must be considered through the prism of the problem of decent work today. Decent work is considered as: • On the one hand, as a basis for the socio-economic development of the economy at every level of government; • And, on the other hand, allows determining the relative degree of balance and fairness of remuneration for work, acting as a comparative criterion [7]. Unfortunately, not all-important problems have been sufficiently scientifically investigated by economic science today; therefore there are still many controversial and poorly substantiated provisions. In particular, there is no consensus and the corresponding normative guidelines for the ratio of productivity growth and wages, including in the agricultural sector [8]. Labor efficiency should contribute to improving the quality of working life, including the quality of life. It confirms the level of professional development of human capital [9].

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Table 3 Dynamics of the level of remuneration of workers in the plant growing industry in agricultural organizations of the Orel Region Indicators

Years 2015

2019 in % by 2015 2016

2017

2018

2019

Salary—average monthly, rubles Agricultural worker

20,309

23,061

25,164

28,470

31,486

155.0

Tractor driver

23,005

24,963

27,860

31,180

33,664

146.3

The share of the average annual level of wages to the level of labor productivity by revenue, % Agricultural worker

10.6

10.7

16.6

13.8

14.8

+ 4.2 p.p.

Tractor driver

3.6

3.6

5.3

4.0

4.4

+ 0.8 p.p.

Source Annual reports of agricultural organizations of the Orel Region

Being agreed with these statements, let’s consider how this ratio practically develops in the crop production industry of the agrarian sector of the region (Table 3). • The rate of increase in the average salary of personnel of agricultural organizations exceeds the rate of growth of labor productivity, there is a discrepancy between certain proportions, and in particular, the average salary of an employee engaged in the production of industrial products increases faster over the years than the salary of a tractor driver, while the latter has a 3.3–3.6 times higher level of labor productivity (Table 2); • Labor efficiency in crop production is much higher than that of workers engaged in agricultural production as a whole—this is evidenced by the lower share of the average annual wage level to the level of labor productivity in terms of revenue; • The share of wages in revenue is a rather interesting indicator, so in particular, its range in crop production 3.6–4.4% indicates that the ratio of growth in wages and its productivity is relatively even, while a similar growth in agricultural production from 10.6 to 14.8%—already indicates a significant increase in labor remuneration concerning the level of labor productivity. The calculations allow highlighting two trends in the development of the agricultural sector: • Increasing the level of labor efficiency from an economic standpoint; • A decrease in quantitative indicators and, in general, a change in the structural parameters of human resources from a social position. In agricultural organizations, the situation with these indicators develops in different ways, depending on many factors, including, first of all, on personnel policy [10]. Social challenges in the development of the world agro-industrial complex are characterized by the stratification of the population by income level, reduction of employment in rural areas, unemployment, and deterioration in the social situation of the population [10].

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High indicators of economic results of the labor of workers characterize the level of efficiency of use of the labor resources. Profitability of labor, as one of the most important socio-economic categories, allows evaluating the results of labor activity of the team and each of its members separately [11]. To maintain the competitiveness of agriculture at an appropriate level, it’s necessary to increase labor productivity on the one hand and, on the other hand, to reduce the cost of production. For example, if in the USA the cost of producing one ton of crop products averages $36.4, in Russia it’s $46.0, including personnel costs of $3.1/1 ton, or 8.5%, then in Russia, respectively, $8.2/1 ton or 17.8% [12]. The constant introduction of innovative technologies for the production of crop products, based on the use of reproductive technical resources, is reflected not only positively on the volumes and quality parameters of the final product, but also causes significant changes in the cost structure. Statistics indicate a significant impact of the innovation and investment component of the level of labor productivity [13]. Analysis of the structure of costs for the production of crop products in agricultural organizations of the Orel Region for a fairly long period 2004–2019 years allows visually observing the corresponding changes and highlighting its main trends (Table 4). • The biggest share falls on the share of material costs, which decreased insignificantly—from 69.1 to 65.9% during the study period; • Only the share of depreciation is continuously increasing from 6.1 to 12.7%, which is quite understandable because the technical potential is being modernized at a high rate; • The share of other types of costs is decreasing—material costs, labor costs and others. It’s difficult to unequivocally assess the decline in the share of the payroll in costs. In this regard, the authors will try to find out the main reasons and trends of this decrease using the example of our analysis of the structure of costs for the production of the most important types of crop products in the region (Table 5). Table 4 Dynamics of the structure of production costs in crop production of the Orel Region Indicators

Years

Deviation 2019 by 2004 2004 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 (+, −)

Production costs in crop 100 branch, %

100

100

100

100

100

–

69.7

70.8

66.7

67.0

65.9

−3.2 p.p.

Including Material costs

69.1

Labor costs

13.4

10.4

10.2

10.8

11.8

11.4

−2.0 p.p.

Social contributions

2.6

3.1

3.0

3.3

3.6

3.7

+ 1.1 p.p.

Depreciation

6.1

9.9

9.0

10.4

11.2

12.7

+ 6.6 p.p.

Source Annual reports of agricultural organizations of the Orel Region

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Table 5 Share of personnel wages in the structure of production costs of crop production in the Orel Region Indicators

Years

Deviation 2019 by 2004 2004 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 (+, −)

The share of wages in the structure of costs for the production of the main types of crop products, % Winter wheat

9.1

11.1

9.6

11.4

12.3

13.2

+ 4.1 p.p.

Spring wheat

10.9

12.7

12.5

11.2

12.4

14.4

+ 3.5 p.p.

Corn (for grain)

12.4

10.1

11.4

10.0

12.2

14.2

+ 1.8 p.p.

6.8

10.7

9.1

9.6

9.4

10.4

+ 3.6 p.p.

Buckwheat

10.0

10.9

12.4

11.1

13.3

10.4

+ 0.4 p.p.

Sugar beet

9.6

5.8

6.7

8.3

10.8

9.6

Forage crops, pastures and hayfields

9.3

12.7

12.4

11.1

9.8

10.5

Oilseeds

– + 1.2 p.p.

Source Annual reports of agricultural organizations of the Orel Region

For 2004–2019 years almost for all major types of crop production (except for sugar beet), the share of wages in the structure of their production costs has increased, and it’s in the range of 10–14%. Long-term analysis confirms that these parameters can be taken as regulatory guidelines.

4 Conclusion For ensuring the country’s food security, the State Program determined that the index of agricultural production in farms of all categories (in comparable prices) in 2025 should be 115.1% concerning the level of 2017. Their achievement depends in many respects on the efficiency of labor. During the same period, the volume of disposable resources of households (on average per 1 household member per month) in rural areas should be increased to 21,870 rubles or by 119.4% [14]. The effectiveness of the analysis of labor efficiency depends on the objectivity of the primary source data, which reflect the overall mechanism of management. Therefore, they can be comprehensively calculated only at the level of a business entity, and it’s quite difficult to predict and determine them at the meso and macro levels. This is one of the reasons that these indicators, as well as other parameters of personnel policy, are practically absent in the target indicators of the State Program for the Development of Agriculture and Regulation of Markets for Agricultural Products, Raw Materials and Food. The studies, which were carried out, indicate that, despite the special importance of the labor efficiency indicator in ensuring the competitiveness of agricultural products, the program documents practically don’t consider it. The Strategy for the

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Development of the Agro-industrial and Fisheries Complexes of the Russian Federation for the Period until 2030 also doesn’t pay attention to it [1]. In this regard, the authors substantiated the relevance of the problem of increasing the efficiency of agricultural labor not only for economic research, but also for enhancing the importance of this indicator in agricultural policy, including in personnel and, accordingly, in program documents for the development of the agro-industrial complex. Therefore, the importance of the formation and implementation of an effective personnel policy from a socio-economic point of view at each level of management of agro-industrial production increases.

References 1. On the approval of the “Strategy for the development of the agro-industrial and fisheries complexes of the Russian Federation for the period until 2030”. Order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated April 12, 2020, No. 993-r. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/564 654448. Accessed 3 Mar 2021 2. On the national development goals of the Russian Federation for the period until 2030. Decree of the President of Russia dated 21 July 2020. http://www.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/ 63728. Accessed 06 Feb 2021 3. Proca NI (2020) Evaluation of the effectiveness and incentives for agricultural labor. Bull Agrar Sci 6(87):130–136 4. Khramchenkova AO (2020) The organizational and economic mechanism for managing labor efficiency in the raw milk subcomplex: monograph. First Economic Publishing House, Moscow, p 262. https://doi.org/10.18334/9785912923616 5. Proca NI (2012) Comparative analysis of the level of labor productivity in the agricultural sector of the economy. Bull Orel State Agrarian Univ 2(35):106–112 6. Indicators of decent work. https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/fwJuIbK4/ind-dtr07_2021. xlsx. Accessed 13 Mar 2021 7. Sankova LV (2014) Methodology for indicating labor efficiency in modern organizations: limitations and opportunities. Bull Saratov State Soc Econ Univ 5(54):95–99 8. Productivity and labor motivation—the most important factors in the economic development of agriculture: materials of the All-Russian scientific and practical conference, Moscow, 13–14 Nov 2007. Rosinformagrotech, Moscow, p 220 9. Miloserdov KV (2014) Production resources and factors of economic growth. Russian Agric Econ 2:9–19 10. Semin AN (2020) New challenges and priorities of agro-economic research. Russian Agric Econ 1:55–59 11. Semin AN (2016) Problems of the organization of payment for agricultural labor in conditions of low profitability of the industry. Agri-food Policy Russia 9(60):76–79 12. Comparative analysis of the operational efficiency of the agricultural sector in Russia. https:// www.pwc.ru/ru/agriculture/operational-efficiency.pdf. Accessed 3 Mar 2021 13. Belokopytov AV (2019) Factor analysis of the productivity of agricultural labor in the conditions of regional development. Labor Econ 6(1):285–294 14. On the state program for the development of agriculture and regulation of markets for agricultural products, raw materials and food, as amended on 28 May 2020. http://government.ru/ docs/all/83508/. Accessed 2 Mar 2021

Female Leadership in the Modern Business Environment: Opportunities and Barriers Irina V. Dolgorukova , Tatyana N. Yudina , Tatiana V. Fomicheva , and Taisiya V. Leontieva

Abstract The study aims to analyze the specific features of female leadership in the modern business environment, which include the management styles of the enterprise, strategies for interacting with colleagues and subordinates, perceptions of success, and the difficulty of implementing the planned measures. The study features an analysis of conceptual approaches to the research on female leadership. The study draws from previous sociological surveys conducted at the Russian State Social University in 2019, 2020, and 2021. The main methods of research are online surveys for employees of Russian enterprises and in-depth interviews with women in top management positions. In this study, we reviewed the main traits of female business leaders and the problems that women face on their way to top management positions. We concluded that female leadership drastically differs from male leadership. Female leaders are more responsible, rational, sensitive, and empathic towards their subordinates than their male counterparts. However, the competence of female business leaders is still questioned; female leaders have to constantly “earn” and justify their position. The conclusions and generalizations presented in this study expand the understanding of the role and opportunities for women in business. The study specifies the basic concepts of leadership theory and may be useful for business leaders, entrepreneurs, public figures, and a wide range of readers. Keywords Female leadership · Business environment · Sociological analysis · Social roles in the workplace · Gender discrimination

I. V. Dolgorukova (B) · T. N. Yudina · T. V. Fomicheva · T. V. Leontieva Russian State Social University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] T. N. Yudina e-mail: [email protected] T. V. Fomicheva e-mail: [email protected] T. V. Leontieva e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_86

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JEL Classification Z13 · Z18

1 Introduction Currently, the issue of female leadership is relevant due to several factors. First of all, feminism is gaining higher recognition in modern Russia and throughout the world [7]. The idea of gender equality lies at the heart of feminism; feminists advocate for women’s rights, including that women be able to hold positions of power, be leaders in the family, and avoid being the victims of gender stereotypes [1]. Second, the question of leadership is especially important for present-day Russia: crises challenge scholars to analyze the basics of leadership, the principles of leadership. Shifts in public interests force changes in the image of leadership and, therefore, in the mechanisms of influence [4, p. 528]. Nowadays, many Russian companies are in need of leaders who put humanistic values first, are able to change negative attitudes, and give employees confidence in the future. According to several surveys, women are much more empathic, meaning that female leadership will be more emotional and sensitive to the moods and sentiments of employees. Today, women make up half the global workforce and outnumber the male population. Women outnumber men in such vital areas as health care, education, social work, humanities, culture, child and elder care, and services and information. However, women have much fewer career opportunities than men [3, p. 1115]. From a sociological perspective, women are a social minority in politics. As a rule, they have little influence on decision-making in matters of economic and political development, state security, diplomacy, and other issues. Gender inequality in leadership is evident [6, p. 108].

2 Materials and Method In one form or another, the issues of leadership are addressed even in the works of Plato, Aristotle, Philo of Alexandria, Augustine, and the classics of philosophy and political science: Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, Immanuel Kant, and JeanJacques Rousseau. The question of equal rights for men and women was actively discussed in Marxist theory. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels considered the perceived “inferiority” of femininity and, as a consequence, discrimination against women to be a manifestation of global class stratification. The Russian revolutionaries M. A. Bakunin and P. A. Kropotkin also advocated equal rights for women and men, especially in society. Of course, the debates about female leadership are confined not only to philosophy but also to political science, history, culture, and sociology. The works of G. Almond, S. Verba, W. Rosenbaum, and H. H. Hyman are especially important to understand the general problems of leadership and the issue of women in politics. During the Soviet

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period, the issue of female leadership was rarely discussed—the scholarly works usually featured only the criticism of existing studies with little new insights on the topic. Nevertheless, one can note several works of Russian authors on sociopolitical leadership: G. K. Ashin, F. M. Burlatsky, A. P. Butenko, K. S. Gadzhiev, E. D. Lozansky, V. P. Makarenko, and A. V. Ponedelkov. This study uses the results of sociological surveys conducted at the Russian State Social University in 2019, 2020, and 2021. We also conducted online surveys for employees of Russian enterprises and 25 in-depth interviews with women in top management positions at Russian enterprises.

3 Results Currently, the issue of female leadership is becoming a subject of discussion. Scholars and other experts argue whether it is possible to highlight the specific features and traits of female leadership. Women at the helm of corporations, state structures, and enterprises have been proving their effectiveness and ability to lead for a long time. This raises the following questions: “Are there any major differences in male and female leadership or is the gender irrelevant? Does the behavior of a male leader differ from that of a female leader? Why are women less represented in economic and political elites – is it due to various barriers on the way to the “top” or to the reluctance of women themselves?” These questions will determine whether female leadership should be a distinctive phenomenon with fundamental differences from male leadership. In Russia, the socio-psychological characteristics of Russian women leaders were studied by L. V. Babaeva, G. G. Sillaste, A. E. Chirikova, and other scholars [2, p. 126]. According to these works, there are significant differences in the way women and men evaluate their leadership position. Female leaders tend to believe that their leadership style is based on aligning the interests and values of employees with the shared goals and objectives of the team. They explain their influence on employees by personal qualities such as intuition, diligence, and social skills rather than the official position of the head [5, p. 117]. In turn, men view their managerial activities as contracts with their subordinates: payment of bonuses for successful performance or monetary penalties for failure to meet deadlines. In a sociological study conducted at the Russian State Social University, 71% of the respondents (employees of Russian companies) believe that men and women have equal opportunities for promotion. However, just under a third of the respondents (27.5%) believe that men have more such opportunities, and only a few (3.2%) are convinced that women have more opportunities. Moreover, 97% of the respondents noted that they had experience interacting with a female leader. Respondents highlighted the traits of female leaders: emotional (62.7%), manipulative (51%), and diplomatic (58.7%). This confirms the thesis that Russian respondents predominantly believe that female leaders are emotional (Fig. 1). Respondents

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Fig. 1 Distribution of answers to the question “What traits are characteristic of a female leader? (percentage of the total number of respondents, more than one answer is possible). Source Compiled by the authors based on the answers of the respondents

in Moscow called female leaders stubborn, fickle, and impulsive more often than respondents in other cities. The majority of respondents (78.3%) indicated that a woman could be a successful team leader, maintain the softness and diplomatic approach, and adapt to the individual needs of different employees. Around 14.3% of respondents believe that a woman should not take leadership positions, with the most common reason being that women must be homemakers. In the course of the study, we created a generalized image of a female leader based on employee evaluations. Respondents believe that a female leader clearly understands the purpose of work and is intelligent (26%). They also noted that in addition to being visually beautiful, a female leader has a strong character (16%). Furthermore, a lot of respondents indicated that a female leader possesses masculine character traits (37%) (Fig. 2). In Moscow and Moscow Region, employees were three times more likely to indicate that female leaders possess masculine traits, meaning that female leaders in the Russian capital are tougher and stronger. Next, respondents were asked to identify positive characteristics of female leadership. Many respondents (43.7%) noted that the main positive features are the ability to listen and the sincerity of female leaders. The diligence of a female leader was mentioned by 18.7% of the respondents, and this quality was mentioned much more often by employees of regional enterprises. Individual approach and openness to everything were mentioned by 22.3% of the respondents. Among the negative traits of female leadership, the respondents most often mentioned emotionality (31.3%). In second place was the violation of personal space by the female leader (26.3%), and in third place was the overly direct approach (17%).

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Fig. 2 Distribution of answers to the question “A female leader – what is she like?” (percentage of the total number of respondents). Source Compiled by the authors based on the answers of the respondents

The survey also asked in which business situations women show themselves best. According to respondents, women leaders show themselves positively in unstable, critical situations for the company (48%) or when boundaries and the employee themselves needed to be protected (23%). Respondents, among other things, indicated that it is easier to negotiate wages with female leaders. Some (11.7%) respondents also positively noted all the work done by women (Fig. 3). During in-depth interviews with women leaders of Russian enterprises, we discussed what difficulties female leaders encountered in attaining a top position. For the most part, women said that difficulties were related to the general policies of their organizations, related to the fact that men were more often appointed to leadership positions: “Most of the management staff are men; they strongly oppose putting women in leadership positions”; “…Before me there were no female leaders at this level in our department. I had to prove that was capable of being on par with the male leaders. Including proving that I wasn’t going to be on maternity leave.”

Fig. 3 Distribution of responses to the question “Describe situations in which you positively evaluated the work of a female leader” (percentage of the total number of respondents). Source Compiled by the authors based on the answers of the respondents

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However, women also noted that issues unrelated to gender, such as lack of experience, knowledge, high competition, and their personal qualities, also influenced their ability to be appointed: “…When I started my career, I was working as a cashier in a Magnit store. It was in a small town, so it was really hard to make it - everyone was trying to promote “their own” people”; “I had a very emotional approach to taking a leadership position. I was 19, and I thought it was the main goal of my life”; “There were quite natural reasons - lack of leadership experience, which did not allow me to competently pass the interviews.” Experts mostly agree that women in leadership positions are responsible for their job, empathetic, and concerned for the needs of subordinates. One expert said that leadership qualities should not be divided into masculine and feminine. Female leaders who participated in the in-depth interviews pointed out that female leadership is different from male leadership. They believe that female leaders are more responsible, rational, caring, and empathic toward their subordinates. Therefore, we can assert that female leaders face difficulties in reaching managerial positions and suffer from gender stereotypes in career advancement, while confidently and skillfully coping with their duties in a leadership position. Experts highlighted such traits of female leadership as toughness, confidence, empathy, emotionality, and high responsibility.

4 Conclusion We can conclude that female leaders, according to Russian employees, have the following qualities: impulsiveness, emotionality, high responsibility, manipulativeness, rationality, and diplomatic skills. The main problems faced by female business leaders are gender inequality, harassment, gender stereotypes, and excessive attention to mistakes. Many women leaders noted that they had experienced their achievements being downplayed due to their gender, with comments on the subject from both employees and management. As a result, many female leaders have to “earn” and prove their worth in a leadership position. The competence of female business leaders continues to be questioned, and employees tend to trust male leaders more and see them as more effective managers. Male leadership is evaluated more objectively. Female top managers say that men are forgiven much more, and the requirements to them are lower. Female leaders are both emotional and rational, beautiful and masculine, manipulative and caring. This fact shows the diversity of female leadership traits, the ability of women to adjust to specific work situations to be most effective in the business environment.

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References 1. Chernobrovkina A (2008, Apr 7) Gender aspects of management: women and men leaders. Retrieved from https://www.ippnou.ru/print/004122/ 2. Chirikova AE (1998) A woman at the helm of a company. Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia 3. Dolgorukova IV, Yudina TN, Fomicheva TN, Kiseleva EE, Lidzer EA (2021) Life attitudes of a modern woman chief. In: Popkova EG, Ostrovskaya VN, Bogoviz AV (eds) Socio-economic systems: paradigms for the future. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 1111–1117 4. Dolgorukova I, Yudina T, Bormotova T (2018) Management of social and economic processes in the region: sociological approach. In: Maloletko A, Rupcic N, Baracskai Z (eds) Economic and social development. Russian State Social University, Moscow, Russia, pp 527–533 5. Sillaste GG (2017) From the solution of women issue to a new gender order: Movement in the modes of social time. Humanitarians South Russ 6(5):117–132. https://doi.org/10.23683/22278656.2017.5.3 6. Tanatova DK, Yudina TN, Fomicheva TV, Dolgorukova IV, Sulyagina JO (2020) European traditions in culture of Russians. Laplage Em Revista 6(Extra-C):100–113 7. Voronina OA (2018) Gender culture in Russia: traditions and innovations. Institute of Philosophy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia. Retrieved from https://www.phantastike. com/philosophy/gendernaya_kultura_v_rossii/pdf/

Tourism Destination Management: Focusing on Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility Larisa B. Nyurenberger , Olga A. Latysheva , and Svetlana V. Shlegel

Abstract The study of the relationship between tourism business and tourism destination focuses on sustainability and corporate social responsibility. In order to differentiate the focus of interaction, it’s necessary to discuss the business ethics of corporate social responsibility, stakeholder theory, and sustainable tourism business strategies. The development of methodology is still being in its infancy and is being defined in detail at a later stage. The initial proposal is to explore views on the management of destination tourism concerning the dominant technological and environmental paradigms of social development. Traditional tourism theory suggests that the marketing-led transformation of a host community with unique natural resources into a tourism destination will reduce the value of the original assets. This view is opposed by proponents of sustainable tourism, who argue that higher levels of business performance are more obvious when companies are keen on social and environmental conditions, in addition to successfully addressing underlying issues. Achieving and maintaining this theoretical state is difficult, taking into account the economic and political imperatives that drive tourism development. Keywords Tourist destination · Social responsibility · Focus on sustainability JEL Classification Q1 · Q26 · Q29

L. B. Nyurenberger (B) Novosibirsk State University of Economics and Management “NINH”, Novosibirsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] O. A. Latysheva Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia S. V. Shlegel Altai Branch of RANEPA, Barnaul, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_87

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1 Introduction Historically, state elites have set social values. In recent years, the business has played a more important social role, being between the state and the consumer; they have lower priorities in terms of social and environmental responsibility. But the development of democratic processes and globalization have allowed civil society to play an increasing role and influence business and government, which contributes to the growth of the theory of corporate social responsibility. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the concept of the corporation changed. Scientists reasoned that businesses should be as morally responsible as people, who want to relax. This expectation is based on the perception that corporations operate in the form of a social contract, under which the activities of the enterprise are permitted as long as they are directed towards the wider benefit of society. New empirical research shows that market participants increasingly believe that corporate strategies have to meet more than minimum legal and social standards [3, 4]. In response to growing public and political demands for better corporate governance and recognizing the potentially disruptive market response to illegal or inappropriate business activities, enterprises are gradually adopting more ethical behavior. The growing public sensitivity to the social and environmental impacts of tourism has spurred the development of industry codes of practice and industry codes of ethics. However, there is a clear lack of consensus on the value of such industry codes. An alternative approach is to promote a more holistic ethical platform for tourism management. This statement is supported by other scholars, who believe that an ethical foundation for tourism governance can help eliminate industry dysfunction and contribute to more sustainable governance of the country. It’s also argued that the emergence of an ethical paradigm in organizational theory is an extension of ethical management. Outside of these academic conceptualizations of ethical management, there has been limited empirical research on the application of ethics in tourism management [6, 9]. All of these factors indicate that further research and development of ethical industry practices can contribute to sustainable planning and prescribing practices.

2 Materials and Methods Collaborative destination marketing requires a cooperative effort to manage the resources of tourism destinations and generate sustainable business profits. Cooperative marketing also requires addressing related social and non-market issues as part of the corporate sustainability strategy. This led to a paradigm shift in business objectives from maximizing shareholder value to maximizing cost of ownership, which also includes social responsibility factors. By definition, this uses varying degrees of power, legitimacy, and urgency to maintain or enforce principles-based governance norms. This more holistic approach to business strategy (covering social,

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environmental, and also economic goals) has been stimulated by increased recognition of the broad responsibility of business leaders. It was public and government dissatisfaction with the inability of businesses to demonstrate socially acceptable standards of behavior [1, 12]. Commercial abuse also manifests itself in the tourism industry through the abuse of planning and operational requirements by small and medium-sized enterprises operating on publicly owned land. This is accompanied by a deeper understanding of the disadvantages, as well as the benefits of globalization and business liberalization, such as: • Increasing the influence of non-governmental organizations; • Research groups representing civil society; • Growth of ethics as a key principle in business management. Market pressures have spurred the introduction of increased government regulation to limit abuse in the private sector. New regulatory action clips and to improve corporate social responsibility include the World Bank’s development of guidance on how the public sector can enhance the ethical application, and the development of a Global Code of Ethics for the tourism industry, draft norms on the responsibilities of multinational corporations. Successful corporate social responsibility strategies require executive management to act with an awareness of their strategic and instrumental strengths. Ethical considerations are increasingly viewed by businesses as a competitive driving force of business strategy, backed by a commitment to appropriate business resources. Ethical considerations are an important pillar of traditional marketing strategies, for example: • Social initiative; • Market leader as a necessary response to pioneer initiatives from market competitors; • Response to stakeholder concerns; • Response to government regulation; • Impending regulation. From a stakeholder point of view, companies also face the challenge of balancing their business goals with competing claims to establish legitimacy with various stakeholders [5, 8]. Empirical research requires explanations of how Travel Destination Companies cope with these social and government pressures on businesses to improve their ethical dimensions and, in the process, reap long-term commercial, and social benefits. The importance of stakeholder involvement in shaping a company’s corporate social responsibility and related business strategies is urgently needed. CEOs are considered to have competing responsibilities. Firstly, it’s to maximize the company’s profit concerning shareholders. Secondly, responsible stakeholder strategies involve more than meeting the expectations of financial stakeholders.

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It’s also desirable for companies to fulfill fiduciary, or morally sound, responsibilities to meet market and non-market expectations of multiple stakeholder groups. Recently, scholars have recognized the importance of the link between ethical considerations, sustainability, and stakeholder value. Extensive research recognizes the value of stakeholder theory in the analysis of destination management and tourism development. The stakeholder approach promotes consensus building through interaction between travel companies, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the general community. Closer relationships with business representatives, clients, cooperative industry groups, government agencies, political actors, special interest groups, and the wider community increase stakeholder support and improve the long-term economic performance of the tourism business [2, 14]. Sustainable development has been variously described by critics as an oxymoron, a soothing palliative, or a compromise between proponents of economic development and sustainability, for whom the scale of economic activity correlates with ecological livelihood systems. Proponents see sustainability as equally important to human society. The extensive debate about the meaning and implications of economic, social, and environmental sustainability provides clear indicators that sustainability and sustainable development have evolved from a predominantly environmental management issue to a concept that permeates all aspects of business, social and environmental planning. Indeed, it can be seen as a “socio-political movement for beneficial social and economic change”. Tourism research favors the interpretation that sustainability is a process that aims “to improve and maintain human well-being indefinitely without compromising the life support systems, on which it depends”. But to build a workable tourism sustainability model, the researcher must take into account, select, and mix the concepts of planning, economics, business management, sociology, and environmental science. A comprehensive study of existing practice, areas of success, areas of weakness and potential for improvement in this area, using practical and theoretical knowledge, is also required.

3 Results Positively managed tourism has the potential to contribute to sustainable growth in destination communities. But the decline in recreational and tourism values can significantly affect the attractiveness and long-term viability of a destination without careful management. Politically, tourism sustainability can be seen as balancing or reconciling tensions between host areas and their habitats, tourists, political strategies, and the economic, often expansionary goals of the tourism industry [7, 13]. While the concept of sustainable development has gained widespread acceptance at the government level in policy-making, including in the formulation of tourism policies, it has been difficult to apply the concept successfully. It was originally developed as a management concept to guide responsible tourism development, and

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more recently sustainable tourism has become an adaptive management paradox, so this is particularly important in the management of sustainable tourism. However, critics argue that the current concept of sustainable development is too tourism-oriented to adequately respond to public concerns about the adverse impact of the industry. International research in this area demonstrates the interest of the international community in the area of sustainable tourism. It uncovers the broad issues associated with sustainable industry practices, rapid development, overcrowding, degradation of tourist attractions, and also conflicts between tourists and other users of tourist areas, especially of state attractions such as national parks and other protected natural areas. In simple words, the industry’s commitment to sustainable tourism development is questionable [10]. The subject of serious concern of researchers is the activities of travel companies operating within a common pool of resources. The increase in the number of visits or their number poses significant management problems for travel service providers and resource managers. The increase in the number of visitors in sensitive natural and cultural heritage areas is fraught with depolarization of assets and potential alienation of the market by reducing the attractiveness of these attractions. Protected area managers face the risk of short-term and long-term damage to flora and fauna in sensitive environments, as well as negative economic, social, and environmental impacts on other user groups and local human communities. Indeed, state ownership of valuable resources (such as fish or forestry) is viewed by some theorists and researchers as a harbinger of the uncontrolled depletion of these resources. One of the solutions proposed for depleting the resources of the common pool due to inadequate management control is privatization. Another approach is aimed at managing the recreational or tourist carrying capacity of sensitive environments, but establishing consistent parameters has proven difficult to achieve. Co-management of protected natural areas with input from stakeholders has the potential as a pragmatic tool for sustainable management, but this will always depend on the influence of different interest groups or stakeholders. Taking into account the fact, that the theoretical debate on sustainable tourism has been going on for more than two decades, there is relatively little empirical research on the ethical practices of tour operators in areas subject to environmental and social pressure from tourists, there is potential to study destination tourism as an adaptive model that leverages the accumulation of ethical and social knowledge for examining how destination stakeholders approach sustainable management of environmentally sensitive areas [11]. The need to rethink sustainable development in relation to tourism shows the limited empirical evidence on the application of ethics in tourism management, and it also shows the potential for case studies of tourism activities related to the pool’s shared resources, i.e. national parks and other protected natural areas. Careful consideration assumes that an analysis of the activities of travel firms in a prescribed environment will offer a more focused lens for examining ethical and socially responsible travel business practices concerning sustainable development.

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4 Conclusion Socially responsible tourism business management and marketing practices contribute to the sustainable management of protected natural areas by the following points: • Community stakeholders and clients expect high standards of corporate social responsibility from travel companies operating in protected natural areas; • Application by tourism companies of socially responsible management policies and practices that contribute to sustainable tourism management in protected natural areas; • Socially responsible interaction of tourism companies with stakeholders is an essential factor in the development and maintenance of sustainable tourism management strategies in protected natural areas; • Corporate social responsibility strategies based on the sustainable environmental, social and economic management of tourism companies increase the long-term economic efficiency of companies. There are insufficient empirical researches on ethical philosophy and related corporate social responsibility strategies of travel companies. By focusing on these areas of management practice in well-defined sustainable tourism governance contexts, the study is expected to bridge a perceived gap in empirical research. The results of this research will contribute to management theory through a better understanding of the philosophy, approaches, and practices of business, as well as key tourism stakeholders in the management of natural resources of protected areas. This, in turn, will contribute to the further development of sustainable tourism management practices.

References 1. Adarina R, Gazukina Y, Yankovskaya K (2019) Indicators of the “Green economy” as a tool for monitoring the regional economy. In: IOP Conference series: earth and environmental science. International conference on sustainable development of cross-border regions 2019, SDCBR 2019, pp 102–107 2. Avkopashvili PT, Polukhin AA, Shkodinsky SV, Poltarykhin AL (2019) The fundamental provisions of the concept of the knowledge economy. In: Studies in systems, decision and control, 169, pp 57–64 3. Alekseev AN, Savenkov DL, Shvakov EE, Lebedev NA, Ragulin AD (2018) Financial problems of regional development and the ways of their solution in contemporary Russia. Qual Access Success 19(2):71–75 4. Bogoviz AV, Shvakov EE, Tretyakova OG, Zakharov MY, Abramov AN (2020) Globalization of education in the conditions of formation of the global knowledge economy: regularities and tendencies. In: Growth poles of the global economy: emergence, changes and future perspectives. Lecture notes in networks and systems. Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Luxembourg, pp 993–1000

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5. Costanza R (1996) Ecological economics: reintegrating the study of humans and nature. Ecol Appl 6(4):978–990 6. Glotko AV, Sycheva IN, Dunets AN, Poltarykhin AL, Zhuravlev PV, Tubalets AA (2019) Integration processes in the agro-industrial complex of the regions: development and environmental problems. J Environ Manag Tourism 10, 3(35):613–621 7. Glotko AV, Voronkova OY, Miheeva NM, Skoblikova TV, Alekhina NA, Zhminko AE (2019) The economic development of a transboundary region under the conditions of the Eurasian economic union. In: Proceedings of the 33rd international business information management association conference, IBIMA 2019: education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020, 33. Education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020, pp 7957–7968 8. Merdesheva EV, Titova OV, Avkopashvili PT (2020) Methodological approach to the classification of digital economies by environmental efficiency and sustainability criterion. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129, LNNS, pp 1360–1368 9. Stroiteleva TG, Petrova EA, Yungblyudt SV (2020) Responsible information society as a social environment for the creation of the “green” digital economy: formation and monitoring. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129, LNNS, pp 402–409 10. Stroiteleva TG, Kalinicheva EY, Vukovich GG, Osipov VS (2019) Peculiarities and problems of formation of industry 4.0 in modern Russia. In: Studies in systems, decision and control, 169, pp 145–153 11. Stroiteleva TG, Kletskova EV, Balaeva SI (2020) Ontogenesis of the green development model of the digital economy: essence, stages, and prospects. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, T. 129, LNNS, pp 410–417 12. Tashkulova GK, Kletskova EV (2020) Place and role of a human in the system of circular reproduction in the digital regional economy. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129, LNNS, pp 943–951 13. Tashkulova GK, Kletskova EV (2020) The model of the organization of “green” digital production and consumption based on the internet of things and AI. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129, LNNS, pp 329–336 14. Vukovich GG, Makuschenko LV, Bateykin DV, Titova OV, Dobrosotskiy VI (2018) Support of the territories of advanced economic development on human capital: theory and practice. Qual Access Success 19:157–160

Skills Development in a Green Economy Evgeny M. Bukhvald, Anton A. Chernykh, and Evgeny O. Pochkin

Abstract The analysis conducted in this article is used to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that arise as public and private agencies, identify skill needs, and provide training. It demonstrates that a skills gap exists for business opportunities in development in a green economy. This analysis is also used to structure the skills ecosystem, which ends with four recommendations emerging from the analysis and offers a case study to support each recommendation: • At the international level, there is significant concern that a skills shortage in the workforce will create challenges for private businesses and national governments responding to business opportunities and policy issues posed by a green economy. • A demand-driven approach to skills doesn’t always work because employers can’t effectively articulate their needs to the skills supply authorities. • The government’s new skills strategy should prioritize the skills needed to drive the economy through a low carbon transition. Authority needs to be found to spearhead the green skills program, and low-carbon skills need to be integrated throughout the skills delivery system to foster behavior change across the economy. Keywords Green economy · Skills development · Management skills · Support mechanisms JEL Classification Q5 · Q51 · Q56

E. M. Bukhvald (B) Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia A. A. Chernykh Altai State University, Barnaul, Russia E. O. Pochkin MGIMO University, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_88

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1 Introduction Efforts to identify skills needs for low-carbon jobs are being undertaken by regions in collaboration with other industrial partners with educational organizations, such as universities and vocational colleges. Regional subjects are well placed to identify local strengths and weaknesses by bringing together key players, such as industry, research institutions, and educational institutions to provide an appropriate response. Industry and enterprise leadership is essential for developing innovative business cultures and practices in line with new business and regulatory imperatives, using new management skills that respond to environmental factors are best practices and bring competitive advantages to the business. Innovation is new ways of thinking about business models, manufacturing, and processes, as well as delivering superior results in new products and services. Technical Application—The provision of new technology by management requires a workforce with knowledge and skills, ready to accept new processes, install, and maintain new technology. Amid innovation and leadership, this article analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, which appear as a result of the fact that skill needs are identified, as well as skills training, is carried out to prevent skill gaps from hampering business opportunities in an emerging green economy. At present, training has developed a useful framework for analyzing regional systems for skills needs identification and training based on the concept of a “skills ecosystem”. The advantages of using the approach are fully described as follows. • The term “ecosystem” reflects the concept of an overlapping and financial balance between the skills provided by the training system and the skills that are demanded and applied in the workplace. While this balance can be understood at the enterprise level, the sectoral approach goes beyond finding solutions to specific problems for providing a broad sectoral ability to plan and manage skill development. This approach offers the potential for engaging, influencing, and sharing experiences among a large number of businesses. It also allows the industry to develop a critical mass of workforce development activities that are mutually reinforcing and sustainable. • Let’s consider two perspectives within the skills ecosystem. One of them starts from the perspective of employers, which are motivated by market opportunities. When market opportunities are combined with appropriate capital investment and productive workers’ employment, this creates the profits needed to sustainably grow the enterprise and generate the funds for continued investment in new technologies and skills. • The second one is the perspective of employees. To develop the skills, which are in demand, an employee must invest in education and training in a way that matches their abilities and job opportunities. • Employer profits create employment opportunities and that it’s the worker’s skills, which also determine productive workers. Profit and skill reinforce each other.

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This figure also recognizes that the skills ecosystem must be driven by market opportunities and must be grounded in the individual capabilities of the workforce within the broader policy environment. These features are well known in international practice for skills development in a green economy. The environmental audit emphasizes the importance for the government to provide “the business and industry with sufficient details of the changes that are necessary to enable them to secure sufficient investment against clearly achievable business plans”. In the modern world, it’s argued that “core skills - including stem skills - need to be improved at the secondary and tertiary levels, because they provide the foundation for high-level low-carbon skills” in Europe [14, 15]. • Employers make capital investment decisions separate from decisions about investment in education for current and potential workers. This separation means that employers can be constrained (in the short term) by a shortage of skilled labor in the workforce, while potential workers can spend time and financial resources investing in education that is outdated or produces skills for which there are no demand employers. One of the main purposes of the policy environment, in which the skills ecosystem resides, is solving this coordination problem.

2 Materials and Methods Support mechanisms at the state and local levels adopt a vision of the state’s economy, according to which they will be technologically advanced, highly innovative, and creative, leading in low-carbon approaches and globally competitive. These highlevel strategies were supported by initiatives to strengthen training for sustainability, including keynote presentations by developers on green skills in vocational education and the preparation of education for a sustainable development action plan: • Courses on energy efficiency and other environmental skills; • Advanced training of tutors and experts and registered educational organizations; • Development of learning resources or activities to support learning. Conducting innovative research for specific business opportunities in a low-carbon economy aims to identify growth opportunities in eight industry areas: • • • • • •

Network solutions; Green buildings; Conversion of waste; Vehicles with low emission levels; Solar, wind, geothermal energy; Business services.

Due to Russia has a strong federal framework for setting training standards, this could inadvertently limit flexibility at the local level to meet emerging training needs demanded by the local cluster of employers. In particular, state vocational training programs can only fund those competencies, which are recognized in the National

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Skills System. There is a fairly straightforward process for registering an emerging competency to develop, according to a certified standard, but it takes time and can become a barrier to innovation, which is seeking to satisfy (or possibly stimulate) industry demand. The New Technology Project Report includes many comments as follows: • The industry remains critical of the lack of flexibility in vocational training, which has been identified as an obstacle to the development of new technological skills; • The importance of low flexibility is reinforced by what the individual calls fragmented demand, which is aimed at learning certain skills. The industry sector rarely requires new skills across the board; a small number of businesses often start trying out new technology and in the process figure out the information about new skills that their workers need. Flexibility is essential to enable training providers to respond to fragmented demands of this type. More generally, flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and a partnership approach to developing programs that increase the competitiveness of enterprises are essential to stimulate the demand for training from the business side [2, 7]. Weak professional development doesn’t make it possible to ensure the introduction of advanced equipment and other resources, which are used in the context of new technologies. Resources exist to train trainers on sustainable development. However, it’s sometimes difficult to obtain the resources to release staff for professional development. Currently, more than 20% of its employees are taking an online training program that was available to everyone to help develop sustainable development skills. Without effective professional development of employees for green economy skills development programs using the latest technology, knowledge gaps will make sustainable development very slow. It’s well known internationally that small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) face difficulties in accessing training opportunities for their workers. They are less likely to have a dedicated HR manager and to have a harder time freeing up staff for off-site training. In addition, they are also more likely to want tailor-made and specific skill training rather than general and broad-based training. Some policies try to address this issue for sustainable development skills training. To help small and medium-sized enterprises and understand sustainability in a green economy, it’s necessary to create a better environment and add value to the business and conduct courses in “Lean and green” business workshops to improve business performance through the application of “Lean” business practices related to the environmental sustainability, which reduce costs and increase profits, open up new markets and create jobs. Despite such initiatives, SMEs don’t always take advantage of sustainable development skills training opportunities. This makes it difficult to upgrade the skills of the existing workforce in sectors dominated by SMEs.

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3 Results There are significant benefits to strengthening ties between vocational education and training providers and industry. These connections can be informal or formal (for example, to make progress on a project, in which partners have identified real business opportunities). Instead of establishing general partnerships, it may be more attractive to create innovative networks around specific issues, because partners can more easily identify and benefit from their participation in such networks. To keep the focus on satisfying real market opportunities, the situation, when the network is managed by industry rather than a training provider, is very helpful [4, 13]. • Scaling up innovation success to higher levels improves sustainability skills training to meet industry needs. To take full advantage of such successes, mechanisms are needed to scale them up to the state level. At a minimum, this includes a well-designed communication strategy to identify successes and bring them to the attention of influential stakeholders. In recent years, this has been facilitated by the organization of awards to recognize innovative or good practice initiatives. • Another step is to ensure that the government’s research community (including academics in university departments) has appropriate institutional incentives to engage in applied research, such as identifying strengths. • There are also opportunities to use the power developed at the regional level as a leader at the national or international level [1, 10]. These questions about the process of providing information to people, who make choices about their learning, should come from a variety of sources. These options represent a significant investment of time and money in acquiring human capital; therefore, there are potentially large benefits to be gained from providing decision-makers with access to good information on the sectoral demand for skills, including attainments for a green economy. Today, in the era of lifelong learning and career management, all citizens should have access to high-quality career information, advice, and guidance in the face of technological advancement and industrial restructuring. However, young people mustn’t be deprived of opportunities in a green economy as a result of receiving advice from consultants, who don’t follow developments in the local and national labor markets [6, 9]. In the regional skills ecosystem, industries are constantly investing in new technologies, training providers are constantly investing in specialized facilities, and workers, as well as new entrants, are constantly investing in skills training. In all cases, risks arise as the decision-maker may find that an unpredictable change in market conditions or the political environment makes the initial investment outdated in the future. Some government policies at the federal level (for example, industrial policies based on government subsidies) are rightly criticized for the fact that individuals or businesses have a narrow trajectory for skills training or for the development of an industry, which tends to be unsustainable because businesses find it difficult to determine with confidence real opportunities. They represent uncertainty about the state environmental policy [5, 12]. In some cases, this leads to high business

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resistance to anything that has a green label, which is seen as a distraction from more pressing business issues (such as improving basic literacy skills). Skill gaps can be disastrous. These skill gaps can limit business opportunities. In some cases, a skill gap can lead to disaster [3, 8, 11].

4 Conclusion Analysis of the green economy shows that the region has significant advantages in teaching sustainable development skills. These strengths are further developed by federal and state investments in the national skills system and selected institutions to enhance the capacity of the country’s green economy development system. It’s also clear that the weaknesses identified in this analysis are well recognized in the reports and studies, which provide an opportunity to solve these problems. So identifying resources, using the following recommendations aimed at developing opportunities and reducing threats for enterprises, leads to the development of a green economy in the region, for example: • The skills ecosystem is driven by market opportunities. At a granular level, its businesses, which identify and respond to such opportunities, but it can be facilitated by the provision of authoritative information by independent third parties. This consideration is true not only for businesses but also for workers making decisions about whether to invest in sustainable skills training. The current situation is also affected by a high degree of uncertainty about key policy parameters, such as the price of carbon dioxide emissions and the details of programs aimed at reducing global climate change. • Regions find it useful to commission authoritative assessments of training needs based on an analysis of genuine market opportunities. It must be conducted by a team of people who are recognized as experts and independent for the authoritative research; this is usually achieved by recruiting university researchers with a national or international reputation for market analysis. Identifying genuine market opportunities is often based on formal strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and achieve other social, economic, and environmental goals. 1. 2.

3.

Strengthening the capacity of local businesses and local training providers, who develop innovative solutions to fill sustainable development skills gaps; Seek to leverage existing work under the vision of sustainable development for the period up to 2030 to achieve international leadership in a specific technology or groups of technologies; Support a systematic approach to preparing youth for participating in a green economy.

The key message in the wide range of green economy reports should consist in the fact that technological progress is happening at a rapid pace. Consequently, the professional development of counselors and educators involved in career guidance

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and career counseling have to enable them to communicate to their clients about career opportunities arising in the green economy. The Education and Employment Relationship Learning Model is a natural ally in spreading knowledge among young people about the new opportunities and requirements for participating in a green economy. Acknowledgements Our acknowledgments to the scientific project No. 20-010-00120-A “Small and medium-sized entrepreneurship as a tool for regulating the spatial structure of the Russian economy”, provided by the Russian Foundation for basic research.

References 1. Adarina R, Gazukina Y, Yankovskaya K (2019) Indicators of the “green economy” as a tool for monitoring the regional economy. In: IOP Conference series: earth and environmental science. International conference on sustainable development of cross-border regions 2019, SDCBR 2019, pp 102–107 2. Alekseev AN, Savenkov DL, Shvakov EE, Lebedev NA, Ragulin AD (2018) Financial problems of regional development and the ways of their solution in contemporary Russia. Qual Access Success 19(2):71–75 3. Avkopashvili PT, Polukhin AA, Shkodinsky SV, Poltarykhin AL (2019) The fundamental provisions of the concept of the knowledge economy. In: Studies in systems, decision, and control, 169, pp 57–64 4. Bogoviz AV, Shvakov EE, Tretyakova OG, Zakharov MY, Abramov AN (2020) Globalization of education in the conditions of formation of the global knowledge economy: regularities and tendencies. In: Growth poles of the global economy: emergence, changes and future perspectives. Lecture notes in networks and systems. Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Luxembourg, pp 993–1000 5. Costanza R (1996) Ecological economics: reintegrating the study of humans and nature. Ecol Appl 6(4):978–990 6. Dragunov A, Shenshinov Y (2020) Effective development of innovative technologies as a method for increasing labor productivity in the industry. In: E3S Web of conferences 7. Glotko AV, Voronkova OY, Miheeva NM, Skoblikova TV, Alekhina NA, Zhminko AE (2019) The economic development of a transboundary region under the conditions of the Eurasian economic union. In: Proceedings of the 33rd international business information management association conference. IBIMA 2019: Education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020, vol 33. Education excellence and innovation management through vision 2020, pp 7957–7968 8. Glotko AV, Sycheva IN, Dunets AN, Poltarykhin AL, Zhuravlev PV, Tubalets AA (2019) Integration processes in the agro-industrial complex of the regions: development and environmental problems. J Environ Manag Tourism 10, 3(35):613–621 9. Merdesheva EV, Titova OV, Avkopashvili PT (2020) Methodological approach to the classification of digital economies by environmental efficiency and sustainability criterion. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129 LNNS, pp 1360–1368 10. Nekhvyadovich L, Kostin KB, Mironov VV (2020) Government and public monitoring of entrepreneurship in a multicultural region: new perspectives in the conditions of the digital economy. In: Contributions to economics. Public Administration and Regional Management in Russia. Challenges and Prospects in a Multicultural Region, Switzerland, pp 147–154 11. Ragulina YV, Semenova EI, Avkopashvili PT, Dmitrieva EA, Cherepukhin TY (2019) Toppriority directions of implementing new internet technologies on the territories of rapid economic development. In: Advances in intelligent systems and computing, 726, pp 182–188

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12. Shenshinov Y, Al-Ali A (2020) The tools of increasing efficiency of human resource in the lean production environment: a conceptual study. Int J Core Eng Manag 6(7) 13. Stroiteleva TG, Kletskova EV, Balaeva SI (2020) Ontogenesis of the green development model of the digital economy: essence, stages, and prospects. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129 LNNS, pp 410–417 14. Tashkulova GK, Kletskova EV (2020) The model of the organization of “green” digital production and consumption based on the internet of things and AI. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129 LNNS, pp 329–336 15. Tashkulova GK, Kletskova EV (2020) Place and role of the human in the system of circular reproduction in the digital regional economy. In: Lecture notes in networks and systems, 129 LNNS, pp 943–951

Assessing the Quality of Production Equipment Elena V. Kovaleva

Abstract The paper considers theoretical provisions of the equipment quality and its economic importance. The analysis of different interpretations of the concept “equipment quality” revealed that the concepts of absolute, relative, and prospective technical levels are used to assess the quality of equipment in a broad sense. The author highlights indicators of equipment quality, which are divided into specific and general. The author determines that the improvement of the efficiency of using agricultural machinery is closely related to the evaluation of machine quality in their full and partial reproduction and the definition of optimal terms of the functioning of machines as production means, taking into account the dynamics of quality due to obsolescence and physical wear. Keywords Quality · Equipment · Agricultural machinery · Reproduction · Quality indicators · Wear JEL Classification Q13 · Q18 · O13 · L15

1 Introduction The importance of equipment in developing material production puts the quality of equipment in a special place in the general issue of product quality. The basis of equipment is tools of labor. They define eras of social production. All changes usually begin with a change in the tools of labor. Equipment is commonly understood as means of production (machines, instruments, and tools) and means of lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, etc., providing working conditions. The economic significance of the equipment quality lies primarily in the fact that the equipment of a certain quality is created at a specific cost of public labor. The achievement of the best quality often requires an increased expenditure of human E. V. Kovaleva (B) Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, Russian State Agrarian University, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_89

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and material labor. The use of machinery implies a certain expenditure of public labor to maintain the quality of the machinery at the level that was set when it was manufactured. The adjustment of the quality of the machinery during its manufacture allows changing the cost of public labor for its operation. The economic importance of the equipment quality also manifests itself in the fact that the use of the equipment of appropriate quality implies a certain amount of this equipment to meet the needs of society to the extent necessary. The same need for equipment can be satisfied by a different amount of equipment if its quality is different. The quality of equipment, especially the quality of tools, determines the quantity and quality of products and work performed with its help, the number of raw materials consumed in the production process, and the amount of waste produced. The equipment quality determines the cost of public labor to produce and use the entire mass of products manufactured with its help. In practice, there are different interpretations of the concept of “equipment quality.” In a broad sense, it is understood as a set of properties indicating the technical level of the products of a particular type. This does not include the operational and consumer properties of the product, as well as the production, technological, and aesthetic properties (e.g., carrying capacity, speed, weight, the labor intensity of manufacturing, processability, reliability, durability, and aesthetics of the machine). These properties define the place of a particular type of equipment among Russian and foreign products with a similar purpose. The concepts of absolute, relative, and prospective technical levels are used to assess the quality of technology in a broad sense. The variety of existing definitions of quality by Marx and Engels [9–10, pp. 91– 92], Feigenbaum [3], Harrington [4], Azgaldov [1], Ogvozdin [11] and other scientists and specialists show the debatable nature and confirm the urgency of the issue of quality for scientific development and business and public activities. The absolute technical level characterizes the quality of a particular type of equipment currently produced at the enterprise. However, it is impossible to judge equipment quality only by the absolute technical level since other Russian, and foreign enterprises may produce similar equipment with different characteristics. Therefore, the relative technical level is determined by comparing the level of the best similar Russian and foreign samples. The comparison of the manufactured products with the current technical level allows giving a correct assessment of quality and outlining the right ways to achieve the level of the best world samples in the shortest time possible. Material and technical resources in the agricultural sector are severely worn out. There is a negative trend towards increasing the renewal rate of the material and technical base. The necessary conditions for expanded reproduction are not fully created [2, 12]. The rapid pace of scientific and technological progress leads to the fact that the current technical level (by which the quality of manufactured products is judged) can quickly become obsolete. Therefore, the quality of products must be assessed

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based on the future technical level, i.e., taking into account the direction and pace of technological progress. In a narrower sense, the concept of technical quality includes a set of properties determining the suitability of the product for its intended use. This includes only operational and consumer properties (e.g., load capacity, speed, engine power, reliability, and durability).

2 Materials and Methods All indicators of the equipment quality can be divided into specific and general. Since the requirements for the equipment quality are determined by its purpose, each type of equipment has its own quality indicators. For example, the vehicle must have a certain carrying capacity, speed, and consumption of fuel and lubricants; the metal cutting machine should have a certain cutting speed, machining accuracy, and cleanliness of machined surface; the engine should possess a certain efficiency, power, RPM, etc. Types of technical products differ in the quantitative value of specific quality indicators. Specific quality indicators of the same equipment depend on manufacturing conditions. Products can be made from a considerable number of elements, the homogeneity of properties of which is sustained only approximately. Finally, homogeneous products are often operated under different conditions (e.g., fluctuating environmental parameters, care of service personnel, etc.). The group of general quality indicators inherent in all types of equipment is divided into two subgroups: industrial-technological and operational-consumer. The first subgroup includes indicators related to the manufacture of equipment: cost, labor, material intensity, manufacturability, degree of unification, standardization, and constructive continuity, and competitiveness. The second subgroup includes reliability, durability, and maintainability. Despite the diversity of equipment and its manufacturing and operating conditions, they all have common requirements, one of which is the requirement for certain working efficiency. The operability of equipment is the state of this equipment in which it can perform its functions under specified operating conditions with permissible deviations from the established parameters. Inadequate equipment cannot be used effectively for its intended purpose, and the cost of its manufacture is a waste of public labor. No matter how technically advanced the equipment is, it cannot be functional indefinitely. After some time, the operation is forced to stop due to equipment malfunction or unacceptable deviations from the parameters set. The equipment must be restored to continue the production process or replaced if it cannot be restored to serviceability. Technical products (parts, machines, assemblies, etc.), the functionality of which cannot be restored, are single-action products (electric lamps, rolling bearings, some types of tools, etc.) or non-recoverable products.

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For the equipment to serve its purpose, it must operate properly for the specified time and under the appropriate operating conditions. This common requirement for all types of equipment corresponds to such general indicators as the quality of technology, reliability, and durability. Reliability is a property of equipment to ensure the trouble-free performance of its functions under appropriate operating conditions for a certain period. It follows from the correlation between reliability and specific quality indicators that the latter cannot be ensured during operation without a reliability indicator. The requirement of reliability in operation is imposed on any equipment regardless of its purpose. Therefore, reliability is the most general indicator of quality. Reliability in operation becomes the most important indicator of quality for many types of equipment, the failure of which can lead to serious consequences. A certain amount of human and social labor is required to restore the serviceability of unreliable equipment. Therefore, the more reliable the equipment is, the lower are the costs associated with maintaining it at a given level and restoring its performance. Failure of equipment and troubleshooting increases working time, reduces productivity, and, consequently, increases production costs. Moreover, the failure of unreliable equipment can cause downtime of other related equipment, reduce production, and even damage the products produced with it. Thus, improving the reliability of equipment means reducing the cost of public labor for its operation. For most types of technological equipment, the reliability criterion is understood in the sense of stability of operating parameters for a given time. One of the indicators of the equipment quality is its durability. Durability is understood as the property of equipment to maintain serviceability (with possible breaks for repairs) under certain operating conditions before the onset of the technical or economic inexpediency of its further use. If reliability is a property of continuously preserving its performance, then durability implies a long-term (within a given time) preservation of performance with a possible break for recovery. The economic importance of the durability of equipment as an indicator of its quality is extremely high. In most cases, increasing the durability of machinery means reducing the need for machinery to do a certain amount of work, equivalent to increasing the output of machinery with the same level of durability. Increasing the durability of machinery also implies the reduction of downtime for repairs and lower production costs for users of equipment by increasing its productivity and reducing operating costs. Consequently, increasing durability contributes to saving public labor. Nevertheless, the durability of the equipment is limited. During the operation, the equipment is subjected to physical wear and obsolescence, which limits its durability. Due to physical wear, equipment loses its original properties and gradually ceases to meet the placed requirements. There are two types of physical wear. First, it is the wear caused by the influence of mechanical, chemical, thermal, electrical, and other factors. Second, it is the wear caused when the equipment is not used (e.g., when the equipment is under repair, under the influence of pressure corrosion, temperature, humidity, aggressive environment, etc.). The wear of the first type is proportional

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to the equipment’s use. The wear of the first type is inversely proportional to the equipment’s use. During long-term operation, the physical wear of the equipment can be so high that the cost of its elimination may exceed the cost of a complete reproduction of this equipment, which indicates the irrationality of the restoration of serviceability and, consequently, the irrationality of the further operation of this equipment.

3 Results and Discussion Improving the efficiency of agricultural equipment is closely related to evaluating its quality in full and partial reproduction and the definition of optimal life of equipment as a means of production, taking into account the dynamics of quality indicators due to obsolescence and physical wear [6]. The selection and justification of criteria for assessing the quality of new and repaired equipment and optimizing its service life deserve special consideration since these processes essentially determine the methodological approach to the consideration of the whole problem of reproduction of agricultural equipment and assessment of its quality. If we consider that the new equipment used to renew the fleet is more productive, provides equipped workplaces, and increases working conditions and safety, then we can conclude about significant qualitative improvements in the formation of the machine and tractor fleet. First, qualitative shifts can be traced because the replacing machines have higher productivity, capacity, efficiency, and comfort. Second, qualitative shifts occur since the retiring machines have lost or deteriorated their original technical and economic parameters due to physical wear and obsolescence, and the improvement of these parameters during repairs and upgrades is impossible or economically impractical. In the future, as the machine and tractor fleet meet the production needs in its productive capacity, the quantitative growth will slow down and then stop. The tractor fleet will not tend to significant quantitative expansion due to the qualitative improvement of machinery and the emergence of new high-performance units [7]. The current mechanism of economic management creates an economic opportunity to use equipment beyond the established depreciation periods, provided that the accrual of depreciation on equipment stops after the expiration of the depreciation period. There are three categories of service life: • Economically feasible (optimal) terms of service intended for planning; • Depreciation periods for repaying the original cost and accumulating funds for the reproduction of machines; • Actual lifespans of machines.

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The economically feasible (optimal) service life of the equipment is determined by the minimum specific reduced costs per unit of operating time or resource. Economically feasible (optimal) service life corresponds to the period of the most economically feasible use of equipment based on the total cost of renovation and the totality of other costs. Optimal service life is necessary for determining the economically justified needs of agriculture in equipment. This criterion does not consider the social effect of using new technology. Therefore, in some parts, it overestimates the norm of the optimal time. Therefore, the criterion of minimum reduced costs should be considered as corresponding to the requirements of the current stage of development of productive forces. The social results of introducing new technology, its use within the appropriate time frame, and timely replacement are no less important. The efficiency of new equipment is manifested in the social consequences of its use and primarily in facilitating labor and changing its nature by equipping the operator’s workplace and freeing operators from the hard and unattractive work on maintaining and repairing machinery through improving the durability of units and parts, increasing the stability of adjustments, and introducing mechanisms facilitating aggregation and management of the unit. Continuous improvement of sanitary and hygienic working conditions, its safe flow, the artistic and aesthetic design of cabins and machines, in general, are of no less importance [5]. The introduction of new, more reliable equipment, increasing its maintainability, and ensuring timely renewal of the machine and tractor fleet leads to significant changes in the nature of the labor of machine operators and workers involved in the maintenance and repair of equipment. The social effect of using more reliable equipment is expressed in the emotional coloring of labor, professional suitability, high satisfaction with work, and achievement of high production performance. On the contrary, frequent breakdowns and failures of unreliable equipment cause negative emotions and dissatisfaction with work. The negative consequences of failures are amplified by the lack of spare parts and poor quality of maintenance and repair. The operating time of old machines is decreasing, and repair costs are rising. If the share of worn-out tractors in the fleet structure is significant, then it will be necessary to compensate for the decreasing technical productivity by increasing the number of tractors and tractor operators to perform the planned amount of mechanized works in due time. An increase in the number of tractors leads to an increase in metal for their manufacture, an increased need for spare parts (especially for older machines), repair and maintenance facilities, and repair base and personnel for it. The increase in the number of tractor operators causes a certain deficit in the strained labor resources of the village and requires additional investment in the arrangement of their lives. A far-reaching chain of social consequences will affect other areas related to the need to expand rural vocational schools for training, their material and technical strengthening, etc.

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If it is necessary to conduct a deep study of the whole variety of consequences, assessing the quality of new equipment during its introduction, the changing properties of the equipment during its operation, and the consequences of the use of equipment becomes a very complex socio-economic problem. People make changes in the means of labor to increase their efficiency and increase the use of natural resources.

4 Conclusion Thus, the development of a market economy determines the manifestation of expected socio-economic efficiency and some undesirable consequences reducing this efficiency. In this regard, there is a task to reduce undesirable effects and neutralize them in the future by introducing other achievements of science and technology at the expense of additional compensating costs, the amount of which should be adjusted to the overall effect. From these positions, the criterion of introduction and renewal of equipment and the determination of its effectiveness at the stage of creation and implementation must consider all economic and social changes characterizing its overall effectiveness. An incomplete list of components of the social part of the effectiveness of new equipment is not reflected in the criterion of minimum present costs, although economic indicators could partially express many aspects of the social effect. Simultaneously, there is still no experience of economic assessment of the relationship between the effects of the introduction of new equipment and changes in personnel requirements for the agro-industrial complex, capital investment in rural infrastructure, and social and cultural construction. The above criterion of ergonomics and social consequences of using old unreliable equipment with significantly deteriorated sanitary and hygienic conditions of its use affecting the retention and turnover of staff is not considered. Financial incentives for engineers and technicians for increasing the service life of equipment should be made dependent on the presence of machines used beyond the depreciation period of service and their use for production. Depreciation rates for agricultural equipment are constantly being refined. Nevertheless, they never reflect real depreciation. A criterion for determining the optimal timing for planning the requirements for equipment in accordance with the economic laws of its reproduction is the reduced costs of mechanized works. Specialists do not question this criterion and the validity of its use to determine the optimal service life. However, they consider the economic feasibility of renewing equipment and do not consider the whole range of social aspects of the problem of reproduction in connection with labor resources, their effective use, and other factors. Determining the economically feasible service life of, for example, tractors and combine harvesters comes down to minimizing the present value function [8]. The main factors influencing the optimum service life of machines are as follows:

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• Initial values of quality indicators of equipment and dynamics of their change (price, productivity, reliability, efficiency, etc.); • Conditions of use, the system of maintenance and repair, general patterns of aging, and changes in the most important performance indicators of machines depending on age and operating time; • Obsolescence of machinery and the social consequences of obsolete machinery. Transition to economically feasible service life and the improvement of other parameters of the use of equipment are largely related to solving the problem of quality, reliability, and safety of agricultural machinery. The tractor and agricultural machine-building industry has recently done considerable work to improve the quality and reliability of agricultural machinery. The capacity of the engines of the main tractor models and their pre-repair service life is increased, and the labor intensity of maintenance is reduced. However, the achieved level of quality of agricultural machinery is far from satisfying the requirements of agricultural production. The quality of agricultural machinery can be determined by evaluating its properties, taking into account the consumer’s requirements (agricultural enterprises). The magnitude and structure of the cost of production and maintenance of agricultural machinery in serviceable condition is, in fact, a generalized technical and economic indicator of the achieved level of quality, reliability, and durability of agricultural equipment and the economic evaluation of their quality. The absolute efficiency of the use of equipment is determined by the criterion of reduced costs and its value, which should decrease under the influence of scientific and technological progress. Simultaneously, technical progress determines redistribution of aggregate costs for production and use of equipment to reduce the share of operating costs by increasing the reliability of the machine and durability of its components and units. By measuring the costs of manufacturing and subsequent operation of the machine by years of service life, it is possible to determine the relative perfection of the equipment, identify the level of its quality, and trace the dynamics of this indicator depending on the increasing wear and the costs associated with the partial elimination of its consequences. The regularities of the increase in the annual cost of maintaining equipment in serviceable condition and the corresponding decrease in quality necessitate the change in the applied method of depreciation accrual. Fully justified proportional accrual of depreciation for renovation by years of use applies to the means of labor, the cost of operation of which does not depend on the service life. Thus, it cannot be reasonably applied to modern tractors and harvesters. Their depreciation should be carried out at regressive rates, reflecting the actual loss of use-value and cost. In addition to economically justified depreciation accrual, this method will allow a more proper formation of the depreciation fund for renovation and promotion of timely renewal of the machine and tractor fleet [8]. The efficiency of reproduction of machine and tractor fleet of agricultural enterprises is connected with the solution of other important issues:

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• Improving the procedure of writing off agricultural equipment; • Improving the evaluation of machine-building enterprises and the relationship between them; • Establishing economically justified prices for new equipment (taking into account its quality); • Improving the relationship of agricultural enterprises with other enterprises in the agricultural sector. Addressing these issues will serve as an important contribution to strengthening the country’s economy and implementing the Food Program.

References 1. Azgaldov GG (1982) Theory and practice of quality assessment of goods. Fundamentals of qualimetry. Economics, Moscow, USSR 2. Dozorov AV, Tretiak LA (2012) Theoretical and methodical aspects of fixed assets reproduction efficiency evaluation in agricultural business. Econ Agric Process Enterp 3:41–43 3. Feigenbaum AV (1986) Total quality control (trans from English). Economics, Moscow, USSR (original work published 1961) 4. Harrington JH (1990) The improvement process: how America’s leading companies improve quality (trans: Molchanov AA, Pavlov LI from English). Economics, Moscow, USSR (original work published 1987) 5. Kovaleva EV(2019) Strategy and methods of economic evaluation of the quality of technical means of AIC production. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci 274:012057. https://doi.org/10. 1088/1755-1315/274/1/012057 6. Kovaleva EV (2020) Assessment of agricultural machinery quality under its full and partial reuse. Agric Eng 3(97):44–49. https://doi.org/10.26897/2687-1149-2020-3-44-49 7. Kovaleva EV (2020) Reproduction of agribusiness technical equipment taking into account their changing quality. Mach Equipment Rural Area 1(271):40–44. https://doi.org/10.33267/ 2072-9642-2020-1-40-44 8. Kovaleva EV (2021) Depreciation policy: objective and subjective approaches. In: Bogoviz AV (ed) The challenge of sustainability in agricultural systems. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 457–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72110-7_48 9. Marx K (1952) Capital: a critique of political economy, vol 1 (trans: Stepanova-Skvortsova II from German). Moscow, USSR (original work published 1867) 10. Marx K (1984) Capital: a critique of political economy, vol II. In: Engels F (ed). Politizdat, Moscow, USSR (original work published 1885) 11. Ogvozdin VYu (2009) Quality management. Delo i servis, Moscow, Russia 12. Tarasov VI (2017) Problems of reproduction of agricultural machinery and the main directions of their solutions. Bulletin of the Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education, Goryachkin Moscow State Agro-Engineering University, 2, pp 42–49

Classic Project Management Based on PMBOK 7.0 Valery V. Maslennikov , Elena V. Popova , and Irina A. Kalinina

Abstract Project management is improving and moving to a new level. The seventh edition of PMBOK flips the usual management towards principles rather than processes. The paper analyzes innovations in project management and evaluates their impact on classical management methods. The comprehensive approach to project management in PMBOK 7.0 is about creating value for the business. Projects remain the primary means of increasing the business’ value, which comes at the expense of achieving the corporate goals set by the company. In most cases, corporate value is associated with tangible and intangible benefits that employees, customers, and stakeholders can receive in the company’s development. PMBOK 7.0 formulates an effective strategy for achieving that very business value. The paper identifies changes in classical project management with the arrival of PMBOK 7.0. Moreover, it defines the scope of this concept, uniting large and small projects. The authors determine that the algorithm for implementing project management does not have a universal format and is adapted to a particular project. It was also revealed that the most important goal of planning is to build a model for the implementation of the project, which will facilitate the coordination of its participants. As a result, a system of project plans and an effective project management system are formed. Keywords Projects · System management · PMBOK · Project management principles · Project management algorithm JEL Codes O22 · O32

V. V. Maslennikov · E. V. Popova (B) · I. A. Kalinina Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] V. V. Maslennikov e-mail: [email protected] I. A. Kalinina e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_90

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1 Introduction Project management is one of the relevant topics in the world. The issues of effective management arise in small and large companies. Some leaders of the global market create internal management systems according to the experience of the most promising projects, which are described in a single set of rules. However, some projects build their own “perfect” approach. PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge) is a collection of knowledge on project management. This book is a desktop assistant for project managers. Let us look at it from the beginning. We can think of the manual as an experience in project management accumulated by someone. Nevertheless, it cannot be called universal since the world moves forward, advanced technology is introduced into project management, and the body of knowledge is rewritten and becomes adapted to the innovations. PMBOK has long been regarded as the management standard for large projects [9]. The research presents the results of the analysis of changes in classical project management with the arrival of PMBOK 7.0. It is important to note that PMBOK 6 and its earlier versions emphasized large projects, while PMBOK 7 tries to cover everything, including small projects.

2 Methods The task of PMBOK is to mark the best practices in the world. Therefore, the seventh version of PMBOK does not contain fundamentally new things. However, the approach to project management has been revised completely. Project management is a type of management activity carried out in every organization that determines the achievement of its business goals. The new standard introduces 12 principles to organize effective project work. The research identifies the basic concepts of project management: the concept of the project, its participants, the project’s attributes, the project environment, the results of project activities, and the evolution of the principles of project management. The author’s analysis is based on the methods of comparison, analogy, and scientific assumption.

3 Results The composition of the basic principles of project management is based on general management principles. Nevertheless, these general management principles are marked with specific features ensuring the successful outcome of many decisions. This makes the decision-making process significantly more streamlined [10]. The first principle is “Responsible management and planning” (in past versions, it was called “Planning and execution”). The seventh version of PMBOK emphasizes

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integration, compliance, loyalty, and caring. For the project, it means building longterm relationships with customers, which is equally important on both sides. This principle gives the focus on results and not on the fulfillment of the contract. Honesty in work is the leading indicator of the interest of the parties [6]. The second principle is left to the “Team” (in earlier versions, “Human resource management”). Building collective mutual respect can be a great success for a project, even compared to the company’s technology. This team approach gives greater meaning to motivation and eradicates coercion in job duties [8]. The third principle of PMBOK 7.0 is “Stakeholder engagement”. This approach reminds many of agile methods since it emphasizes the ability to negotiate and, compared with the previous versions of PMBOK, contract details come into the background. The fourth principle remains for “Value”. In its content, it is the same as “content management” in the previous versions, but the focus is made not on the result but the goals. It is essential to understand the goals of the customer, which will allow building more effective relationships. It is not enough to satisfy the need with a completed contract; it is much more important to understand the problem deeply [5]. Earlier versions of PMBOK have the “Integration management” principle. PMBOK 7.0 presents this principle from a new angle and calls it “Holistic thinking”. The manager must be able to put together a complete picture of the project and show interest in the thoughtful execution of the customer’s needs. It may require more effort than “dry” execution, but it will provide new opportunities. The sixth principle is “Leadership”. In PMBOK 6, we can see quite a lot of information about leadership in the “Role of the project manager” section. However, the 7th version reveals this term in a new way. Project leadership is not only the domain of the leader but of the employees as well. There is a place for support, mentoring, and initiative. Let us consider the next principle—“Adaptation”. It is known from the section “Integration management”. This principle is the nuance that we indirectly talked about at the beginning of our research. Each project has unique features. Therefore, it is not easy to pick a single management method, which can limit the project and reduce the opportunities for rapid growth. That is why “Adaptation” takes a significant place in PMBOK 7. The eighth principle of “Quality building” replaces the earlier formulation of “Quality management”. In the new version, quality is built at every stage and element of order fulfillment; each employee is responsible and feels his or her contribution to the fulfillment. In previous versions, this principle could be applied only to some particular workers [4]. The principle of “Managing complexity” echoes previous versions of PMBOK, where we can see this principle in “Integration management” and “Content management. It is worth noting that project complexity depends on many factors, systems, and uncertainties. The more transparently the project can be packaged, the closer it will become to the PMBOK 7.0 management format. The tenth principle used to be “Risk management” but it was renamed to “Opportunities and threats” in the latest version. It is worth noting the ability of the manager

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and his or her team to build a strategy to promote the project and the ability to reduce risks. The eleventh principle is “Adaptability and resilience”. Every project has to keep up with the changing environment and be ready to introduce new technologies, controls, and changing concepts. This can be the guiding principle of the project when the team works together well. The following principle is “Change management”. This principle is one of the most important ones in PMBOK 7.0. The changes in the project are important both for the project itself and for the customers. The ability to present them is the hallmark of effective management.

4 Discussion When comparing previous versions of the PMBOK with its seventh version, we can see that the standards are beginning to shift toward social development, and more adaptive techniques are being applied that might previously have been associated with AGILE. Businesses are forced to adapt to the latest developments. The business processes and goals of companies are changing rapidly. Companies must apply new principles to hold their place on the market. The classical approach does not have time to work through all of the points mentioned above [7]. In PMBOK 7.0, management standards are based on principles rather than on processes, as was the case previously. This is the difference from previous versions. The processes themselves can be of two kinds: high-level and detailed. This approach means that, in the first case, they are more abstract and therefore less practical. In the second case, they are not universal since they are more dependent on the project’s type. Thus, there is a rigid framework from which the project does not fall within the accepted standard. Different types of project management are visible. This does not mean that process approaches are no longer relevant or less useful. Many organizations and practitioners of project management continue to use traditional techniques of project management. Traditional approaches remain relevant in the context of PMBOK 7.0. The main question arising before a manager who has studied project management innovations is how to implement them in his or her company, team, and project. The algorithm for the implementation of project management does not have a universal format. Nevertheless, we will try to build the logic of introducing the principles [1, 11]. Let us consider the algorithm for implementing project management. The first step allows us to identify and determine the processes necessary at the start of the project, without which it cannot exist. The second step involves identifying the area in which these processes will be tested and the people who are directly involved in that area (e.g., workers, executors, suppliers, etc.). The third step is the determination of the budget for testing. The fourth step is analysis, which should help find answers to the following questions:

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• Can employees quickly understand this method? • Are the costs commensurate with the possible results? • Does any competitor or major player use this method? It is important to remember about the focus on principles rather than processes. Principles and processes are interconnected, but PMBOK 7.0 highlights this feature [3]. If a company decides to implement project management, it assumes two options for development. In the first option, the company creates a software product that will automatically create a permanent analysis and report to each management action. The second option is when a company decides to try project management without implementing the software product. In this case, there is a complexity in the form of additional rules, reporting documents, additional competencies, and responsibilities of employees. During the implementation of standards, more time is spent on building an interim management system [2].

5 Conclusion Before the release of PMBOK 7.0, many experts used the same algorithm for the implementation of projects. The first step was to determine what processes one wants to see in his or her project, try to implement them, remove the aspects that proved ineffective or did not work, add what the missing aspects, prepare arguments for those who do not support the implementation, and support those who have become an ally in this matter. At the very end, it was suggested to think about a software solution that can automate processes. This approach did not work for all companies. The more advanced companies rely on the automation of processes and the creation of software that will solve most of the questions of managers. Nowadays, technology plays a critical role in our lives. It records, finds, remembers, and stores things that the human brain cannot do. Technology makes life so much easier.

References 1. Balashov AI, Rogova EM, Tikhonova MV, Tkachenko EA (2013) Project management: textbook for bachelors. Urait, Moscow, Russia 2. Bezrukova TL, Popova EV, Korda NI, Kuznetsova TE, Bezrukov BA (2017) Institutional traps of innovative and investment activities as an obstacle on the path to the well-balanced development of regions. In: Popkova EG (ed) Overcoming uncertainty of institutional environment as a tool of global crisis management. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 235–240 3. Burkov VN, Kvon OF, Tsitovich LA (1997) Models and methods of multi project management. V. A. Trapeznikov Institute of Control Sciences of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

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4. Ilyenkov D (2019, Sept 3) The new PMBOK will be principle-based, not process-based. Retrieved from https://habr.com/ru/news/t/465967/. Accessed 18 June 2021 5. IT Services & Project Management (2020, Jan 18) PMBOK7 draft standard. Retrieved from https://ddintsis.com/2020/01/18/pmbok7-draft-standard/. Accessed 18 June 2021 6. Kosmin VV (2018) Fundamentals of scientific research (general course): textbook. INFRA-M, Moscow, Russia 7. Mudassir I (2020, Mar 6) The standard of project management and PMBOK 7 (“The dawn of a new era!”). Retrieved from https://mudassiriqbal.net/the-standard-of-project-managementand-pmbok-7/. Accessed: 18 June 2021 8. Ostrovskaya VN, Vorontsova GV, Momotova ON, Kostyukova EI, Kostyukov KI, Kapustina EI (2018) Project management: textbook. Lan, St. Petersburg, Russia 9. Ovcharov AO, Ovcharova TN (2019) Methodology of scientific research: textbook. INFRA-M, Moscow, Russia 10. Sultanov IA (n.d.) Methodological aspects of project management. Retrieved from http://pro jectimo.ru/upravlenie-proektami/osnovy-upravleniya-proektami.html. Accessed 18 June 2021 11. Temchina M (2020, Jan 28) PMBOK 7—the end of classical project management? Retrieved from https://infostart.ru/1c/articles/1185297/. Accessed: 18 June 2021

Managerial Problems of Enterprise Development During the Pandemic COVID-19 Alexander A. Voronov , Tatyana G. Sobolevskaya , Elena V. Smirnova , Olga V. Shugaeva , and Sergey V. Ponomarev

Abstract The research is aimed at identifying specific problems of enterprise development during the pandemic, as well as justifying the need for an adaptive approach to enterprise management, ensuring its rapid adjustment to new conditions. The article proves that the pandemic acts as a stressor for the enterprise, being a traumatic event of a high level of negative valence. The pandemic causes various types of stress in the enterprise: stress for the company’s personnel associated with the threat of dismissal; stress related to uncertainty and unpredictability; stress associated with a reduction in the enterprise’s income. The systematization of managerial problems of enterprise development is carried out depending on the type of stress caused by the pandemic: problems of personnel management of the enterprise, problems of adaptation of the enterprise to a changing environment, problems of lack of financial resources. The article presents the author’s vision of solving managerial problems of enterprise development during the pandemic. The authors justified the need for an adaptive approach to the choice of tools for solving managerial problems of enterprise development during the pandemic. The solution to the problem of personnel management of an enterprise during a pandemic is possible by using stress management tools. Uncertainty and unpredictability require clear and prompt decisions on the management of production activities based on the use of predictive analytics tools. The article determines that lean manufacturing technologies can become a tool for overcoming the problem of financial resource scarcity. A. A. Voronov (B) Emperor Alexander I St. Petersburg State Transport University, Saint Petersburg, Russia T. G. Sobolevskaya Moscow State University of Food Production (MSUFP), Moscow, Russia E. V. Smirnova Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia O. V. Shugaeva Southwest State University, Kursk, Russia S. V. Ponomarev Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Kaluga Branch, Kaluga, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_91

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Keywords Pandemic · COVID 19 · Enterprise · Management · Managerial problems · Personnel management · Stress · Deficit · Adaptive approach · Predictive analytics · Stress management · Lean manufacturing JEL Codes D21 · D23 · O11

1 Introduction The 2020 pandemic has become a challenge for economic entities. It has changed the usual conditions of their activity, creating uncertainty and unpredictability of the external environment. The knockdown, the loss of stable demand for goods and services, the change in consumer preferences, the transition of employees to remote work, quarantine conditions and the blocking of international transport links launched internal transformations at enterprises [37]. They touched upon the relationships in the labor collective, the psychological problems of employees, the search for new tools for long-term and short-term work planning, the transition to a cost-saving mode. All the changes and problems that have arisen require managerial intervention. At the time of the growing epidemiological crisis, enterprises are taking locally differentiated measures to level the scale of damage to the business. Some resort to reducing the staff, while others consider it an important measure to strengthen the labor collective and implement the social function of supporting employees [7]. Some enterprises are launching anti-crisis development strategies, while others are switching to the use of modern digital technologies to improve the accuracy of forecasts and implement preventive measures to reduce future risks. The pandemic has also created conditions for a more risky launch of new projects that meet the requirements of the existing reality [8]. In any case, the COVID-19 pandemic is inevitably associated with changes that require effective management decisions and the development of effective adaptation strategies for enterprises [25].

2 The Theoretical Basis of the Study Researchers use various terms to describe the pandemic. In particular, the pandemic can be disclosed as a “global turbulence” according to the methodology of R. Brenner. It is a crisis phenomenon that occurs with a certain periodicity and is accompanied by increasing instability, including stock market fluctuations and instability of national currencies [3, 17]. In this case, changes in the economic activity of enterprises restrain their development and lead to a general recession [8]. A pandemic is also equated with force majeure; its occurrence is not related to the activities of a responsible person and excludes the possibility of its foresight [6, 28].

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In particular, in March 2020, the Ministry of Finance and the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Russian Federation recognized the COVID-19 pandemic as force majeure when considering administrative cases, complaints about purchases and appeals for inclusion in the register of unscrupulous suppliers [36]. According to the authors, it is appropriate to compare the pandemic and its impact on the socio-economic system with stress, that is, with a dynamic state caused by the presence of difficulties or obstacles that complicate the achievement of the desired results. In this context, the disclosure of the specifics of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the company’s activities can be carried out using the methodology of G. Selye, based on the identification of three phases of stress manifestation: (1) the reaction of anxiety, which manifests itself in the urgent mobilization of protective forces and resources; (2) the resistance phase, which allows the body to successfully cope with the effects that caused stress; (3) the exhaustion phase when an intense struggle leads to a decrease in the adaptive capabilities of the body and its ability to resist various diseases [29]. In this perspective, the pandemic itself acts as a stressor, and stress becomes a source of managerial problems of enterprise development. Firstly, it causes difficulties in personnel management and, as a result, the need to find mechanisms for its adaptation to new conditions [22]. Secondly, the constantly changing environment creates conditions where the existing strategies for the development of enterprises become ineffective. Uncertainty requires the use of accurate methods for predicting long-term development and developing more productive tools for achieving the wellbeing of the enterprise [8]. It should be noted that the speed of adaptation of an enterprise, consisting of the restructuring of business processes in accordance with changed circumstances, determines its success in a competitive market. Thirdly, the pandemic undermines the financial well-being of the enterprise and launches a regime of lean consumption of resources. Therefore, an important step to overcome the crisis will be the use of lean manufacturing technologies in the company’s activities [2, 12, 19].

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to systematize the specific problems of enterprise development during the pandemic, as well as to justify the need for an adaptive approach to enterprise management, ensuring its rapid adaptation to new conditions. Research objectives: (1) Definition the characteristic manifestations of the pandemic as a socio-economic phenomenon that acts as a stressor for the enterprise. (2) Systematization of managerial problems of enterprise development during the pandemic. (3) Identification of tools for solving managerial problems of enterprise development during the pandemic based on an adaptive approach. Research methods: theoretical analysis, systematization method, graphical method, comparative analysis, economic analysis, system approach.

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4 Results Among the characteristic features of the pandemic that began in January 2020, we can distinguish suddenness, mass character, a high level of intensity and the chain nature of the spread of viral infection. For 3 months of 2020, the virus affected the entire world’s population, the number of infected people at the beginning of August 2021 amounted to 198 million people, and the total number of victims from diseases related to COVID-19 reached 4.2 million people [10, 34]. The pandemic can be considered a stressor for the enterprise. According to the definition of [21], a pandemic can be attributed to traumatic events of a high level of negative valence. Let’s determine what types of stress this stressor causes. 1.

Stress for the enterprise’s personnel is associated with the threat of dismissal.

The high risks of morbidity and mortality from the virus led to the introduction by the governments of the countries of lockdowns, restrictions on movement, suspension of mass events, blocking of international transport links, which provoked a sharp increase in unemployment and many negative trends in the labor market [16]. Thus, the number of lost working hours in the equivalent of full employment (48 h per week per person), which amounted to 188 million people in 2019, in 2020 amounted to 255 million people (jobs), in other words, 8.8% of the total global employment. During the most severe global lockdown (in the second quarter of 2020), the loss of working time reached 18.2% or 525 million people (jobs) per year [14]. According to the OECD, in 2020, the unemployment rate in the Eurozone increased from 7.3% in February to 8.7% in August then began to decline. In January 2021, the unemployment rate in the euro area was 8.1% [20]. The maximum unemployment rate in Russia during the pandemic was 6.4%, it was lower than during the global crises of 1998 and 2008–2009. By December 2020, this figure had fallen to 5.9%. In February 2021, the total number of unemployed was 4.2 million people, and the level fell to 5.7% [27]. The stress for enterprises during the pandemic was the sudden need to organize remote employment of employees, restrictions on the use of migrant labor, the growth of structural unemployment, the demand for new competencies, and the flight of workers from volatile employment industries [4]. The transition of many enterprises to remote work, as well as the devastation of some of them due to the pandemic, contributed to the threat of the release of labor [13]. In this context, it is appropriate to consider the theory of organizational stress by V. Siegert and L. Lang. In particular, Siegert and Lang refer to the following fears that arise in employees as manifestations of organizational stress: the fear of not coping with the new format of work; the fear of making a mistake; the fear of being bypassed by others; the fear of losing their job; the fear of losing their own “I” [22]. In addition, the pandemic contributed to the acceleration of the processes of robotization, automation and digitalization of services for the population, as well as the expansion of the areas of application of artificial intelligence technologies in

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daily life [11, 32]. The intensification of these processes also threatens the value of human labor and causes stress related to concerns about the preservation of jobs [18]. 2.

Stress associated with uncertainty and unpredictability.

For enterprises, 2020 was marked by stress related to a sharp increase in uncertainty. At the same time, its peculiarity was the predominance of the part that is beyond the control of the entrepreneurs themselves. Strict measures of isolation, overlapping of borders, a ban on conducting activities, which were unpredictably introduced and cancelled, put enterprises before the problem of survival. Most of the new restrictions were closely related to the state regulation of the economy in the context of the pandemic. It was natural to expect that the governments of the states would try to compensate for the real losses that the business took on. For example, the blocking of the tourism and air transportation sector led to a reduction in passenger traffic worldwide in 2020 by 38% compared to 2019. The introduced measures of social selfisolation caused the loss of 4 million jobs in the United States in the period FebruaryAugust 2020 [9]. The results of the sanitary crisis were a decline in economic activity; in particular, the world PMI index in the service sector fell sharply from 47.1 in February to 37.0 in March 2020. In conditions of uncertainty, enterprises, as a rule, are guided by the existing experience of overcoming crises. Therefore, they tend to reduce costs, primarily for marketing needs, reduce salaries, or dismiss staff. This strategy has been chosen by many Russian companies operating in the advertising market. For example, at the beginning of April 2020, the total GRP for all outdoor advertising structures in Moscow fell by more than 60%. Thus, the existence of a business focused on outdoor advertising is put at risk, and a gradual reduction in costs stretched over time does not guarantee its survival at all. Thus, the pandemic has created an environment characterized by a high degree of uncertainty and a lack of experience in adapting to it. Due to the fact that the time horizons for the spread of the virus and the restrictive measures introduced are not known, and changes in the structure of costs and the formed behavioral patterns are very serious (for example, the desire of citizens to avoid visiting shopping centers and public transport), the cost reduction strategy can lead the enterprise to destruction [23]. 3.

Stress related to a reduction in the enterprise’s income.

Another serious stress for the enterprise during the pandemic is a decrease in economic activity, a reduction in income, and many cases, bankruptcy. Thus, during the pandemic in Russia, about 620 thousand individual entrepreneurs (sole proprietors) and small and medium-sized businesses ceased to exist under the pressure of this stress (Fig. 1) [24, 31]. The decline in the demand for manufactured goods and services, the complexity of doing business due to the restrictions imposed at the state level, the need to fulfill obligations to pay wages, as well as rent payments and additional costs associated with the growth of the currency exchange rate contributed to the reduction in the revenue of enterprises and the decrease in their financial stability. (Fig. 2).

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8000000

7,132,380

7000000 6000000 5000000 4000000

4,030,555 3,723,626

3,695,824 3,436,556

3000000 2000000 1000000 0

2020

2021

Legal entities Individual entrepreneurs Total

Fig. 1 The number of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs in Russia, 2020–2021. Source Compiled by the authors based on [26]

Fig. 2 The structure of the reduction in revenue of Russian enterprises in 2020, %. Source Compiled by the authors based on [26]

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

32.77 20.85 18.7 15.7

11.99

до 20% 20-40%

40-60% 60-80%

Share of enterprises, %

more than 80%

Thus, the study of stress as a result of the impact of the pandemic allows us to identify managerial problems of enterprise development: problems of personnel management of the enterprise, problems of adaptation of the enterprise to a changing environment, problems of lack of financial resources. The speed of an enterprise’s adaptation to the new rules of the game determines its success in a competitive market and its use of new opportunities. Therefore, the measures proposed by the authors should be based on an adaptive approach.

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An adaptive approach to solving managerial problems of enterprise development is focused on removing the causes of stress reactions and stress syndromes. The main mediating factor on the part of the enterprise is the evaluation process, which is a judgment about events from various points of view (controllability, resources, etc.). Assessments, together with individual processes of adaptation to stress and overcoming them, significantly determine the type and intensity of stress reactions [5]. Management theory determines that in conditions of uncertainty, an enterprise needs to carry out an adaptation strategy in order to implement: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

the analysis and comparison of financial indicators and sales volume with the pre-crisis period; the market research to preserve an existing niche, diversify activities within an existing niche, or change a product line or field of activity; the adjustment of the goals and objectives of long-term development; the acceptance of the adaptation strategy; the creation of an anti-crisis team at the expense of internal reserves (crisis managers) and implementation of measures of the adaptation strategy.

However, the decision-making period as part of the implementation of the adaptation strategy will be extended for the entire period of the pandemic [8]. The logical scheme of the choice of tools for solving managerial problems of enterprise development based on an adaptive approach is shown in Fig. 3. The solution to the problem of personnel management of an enterprise during a pandemic is possible by using stress management tools. Stress management at the enterprise level can be carried out in the following interrelated areas: recruitment and placement of personnel; setting specific and feasible tasks; work design; interaction and group decision-making; employee wellness programs [8, 33]. In addition, the task of the top management is to increase the stress resistance of the team: to bring recommendations on stress management to the staff (for example, in the format of a webinar, memo, etc.), to give reliable information about events, to organize the workflow and control over compliance with the schedule, to introduce new communication channels, to share your personal experience and express your feelings, empathy (for example, via intranet or social networks), etc. [30]. Uncertainty and unpredictability require clear and prompt decisions on the management of production activities based on regular monitoring and forecasting. Predictive analytics tools can be useful in this. Predictive analytics uses a variety of statistical, data mining, and game theory tools. According to [15], there are two types of predictive analytics: predicting the present (applying patterns of current behavior; using the entire volume of available data; online) and shaping the future (generating new assumptions and patterns of behavior; creating new data; offline). Forecasting of the present is necessary to determine patterns of behavior, identify the causes and patterns of the current activity of the enterprise, reactions to the action of a stressor. Shaping the future helps enterprises to increase their competitiveness by responding promptly to changes in the internal and external environment based on management decisions made based on monitoring data. In particular, the

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A. A. Voronov et al. Types of stress for the enterprise caused by the COVID-19 pandemic

Stress for the enterprise's personnel related to the threat of dismissal

Stress-related to uncertainty and unpredictability

Stress-related to a reduction in the enterprise's income

Managerial problems of enterprises during the pandemic

Problems of personnel management of the enterprise

Problems of adaptation of the enterprise to the changing environment

Problems of lack of financial resources

Solving managerial problems of enterprises

Tools for personnel stress management

Predictive analytics

Lean manufacturing technologies

Fig. 3 Managerial problems of enterprises during the COVID-19 pandemic and their overcoming based on an adaptive approach. Source Compiled by the authors

preparation of a strategic map (by linking the indicators of advance and lag) is an effective predictive tool. Experts predict the growth of the predictive analytics and machine learning market with an average of 15% by 2021, the most popular predictive analytics tools are currently SASAnaliticsSuite (SAS), IBM SPSS Modeler (IBM), SAP Business Objects Predictive Analytics (SAP), KnowledgeSTUDIO (Angoss), KNIME Analytics Platform (KNIME) etc. [1]. Lean manufacturing technologies can become a tool for overcoming the problem of a shortage of financial resources. At the time of the growing epidemiological crisis, business representatives are taking various measures locally to introduce lean manufacturing technologies [7]. However, all of them are aimed at creating value for the consumer based on identifying and further eliminating losses [2]. Widely used lean production tools are Kanban and Andon (management based on consumer demand), Jidoka (automated production management system that reduces operations), Heizunka (production alignment system), value stream management, Kaizen principles (continuous improvement of the value creation process), principle 5 S (workplace organization system), etc. [12, 35]. At the same time, the combination of

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various technologies and their elements increases the flexibility of the lean production system and enhances the effectiveness of management decisions.

5 Conclusions Firstly, the authors proposed an approach to the research of the pandemic as a stressor for the development of the enterprise. It is proved that the pandemic causes several types of stress: stress for the enterprise’s personnel related to the threat of dismissal; stress related to uncertainty and unpredictability; stress related to a reduction in the enterprise’s income. Secondly, the authors analyzed the managerial problems of enterprise development during the pandemic, established their relationship with the types of stress: problems of personnel management of the enterprise, problems of adaptation of the enterprise to a changing environment, problems of lack of financial resources. Thirdly, the authors applied an adaptive approach to the justification of tools for solving managerial problems of enterprise development during the pandemic. This made it possible to form a comprehensive toolkit for solving the problems of personnel management of an enterprise during a pandemic (stress management tools), overcoming the risks of uncertainty and unpredictability (predictive analytics tools), and leveling the problem of a shortage of financial resources (lean manufacturing technologies).

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Innovation and Applied Knowledge as the Basis for Economic Development Aleksei I. Bolonin

and Alexey A. Uchenov

Abstract The paper focuses on the problems of managing the development of the national economy. The application of a system approach allowed the authors to highlight a critical aspect of innovation. This aspect lies in the fact that innovation and innovative development of society are not exclusively scientific and technological problems: the cyclic life of society depends on its ability to create and use scientific and technological achievements. The authors prove that the issue of choosing the direction of development (which, in simplified form, can be formulated in terms of domination of raw material or innovative ways) is the most important for the national economy. Over time, innovation as a factor and impulse for the development of society started to determine and program the orientation of society, which, ultimately, made innovation a single process and formed the socio-economic paradigm of the new stage of society. In the institutional environment, a particular role is played by the government. It must permanently and rationally provide conditions for the effective interaction of other social institutions and the emergence of a new social and cultural environment promoting the development of new relationships between the owners of the production means and the carriers of ideas and experience. A failure to fulfill this task undermines the accumulation of capital and entails destructive changes in the structure of private capital. Keywords Innovation · Novelties · Innovative economic development · Cyclicality of the economy · Stages of life cycle · Social progress JEL Codes E83 · D91 · E32 · F44 · O31 · O32 · O33 · O35

A. I. Bolonin (B) · A. A. Uchenov Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia A. A. Uchenov e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_92

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1 Introduction The development of society can be represented as a set of innovations implemented during human evolution. Some of these innovations were accidental (e.g., the ability to use fire, the discovery of the Earth’s magnetic field, or X-rays in the nineteenth century). Another part of innovation was made consciously (e.g., the emergence of writing to preserve information for its subsequent use, primarily for economic purposes, or the appearance of the potter’s wheel, which not only increased the efficiency and culture of production of clay products but was a new stage in the life of society). Over time, innovation as factors and impulses for the development of society started to determine and even program the orientation of society, which, ultimately, made innovation a single process and formed the socio-economic paradigm of the new stage of society [8, p. 95].

2 Materials and Method The research on the problems of management of national economic development highlights an important aspect of innovation, which lies in the fact that innovation and innovative development of society are not exclusively scientific and technological problems: the cyclical life of society depends on its ability to create and use scientific and technological advances [1, p. 105]. Innovation is a source of dynamic development of the national economy. The effectiveness and efficiency of innovation, as well as its ability to give society a positive dynamic, depends on social, economic, and political conditions. Changes in the external environment give impetus to the creation of new technologies that increase the rational use of resources and optimize production by the criterion of material and labor intensity of the produced products. Thus, the First Industrial Revolution and the brought technological advances created a demand for scientific research, the experience of which was already accumulating. Why did Europe, by the beginning of the twentieth century, become more developed than other regions of the world? Why had it taken the innovative path of development earlier than other regions? The European culture was based on Christianity, protected by the church. The innovations were episodic; the course of life was determined by a supreme hand, before which reason was declared irrelevant [1, p. 105]. Nevertheless, the prerequisites for fundamental changes were accumulating in the depths of the Middle Ages, which further led to the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the New Age periods [6, p. 116]. Globalization also led to changes in the relationship between households, firms, and the government as agents of the economic system. D. Brock distinguishes two historical phases of the globalization process, defining them as “Globalization-1” and “Globalization-2” [2, pp. 5–11].

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Scientific works of D. Brock and other scholars [10] showed that the central object of competition in the modern economic system is the applied knowledge, which subsequently acquires a commodity form capable of monetization. Nevertheless, any production and the goods produced have an individual life cycle that ends with the withdrawal of the product, the production, and even the company owning such production (e.g., due to crises) from the market [2, pp. 5–11]. Crises are an unavoidable stage of any system with a cyclical nature of development. Any system involves a phase of incipience, maturation, a certain peak in its qualitative or quantitative state, aging, and dying [11, p. 25]. The efficiency of the economic system decreases to such an extent that it becomes less than the sum of the efficiency of its separate elements. Contradictions form between the elements of the old and new system, which is the outward manifestation of the crisis. In the dynamics of the cyclical development of systems, crisis contributes to the transfer of the most preserved and strongest elements of the former system to the system of the new cycle (hereditary function). The change in the stages of the life cycle is most clearly traced in the investment dynamics [3, p. 90]. Thus, the exit from the crisis is facilitated by the creation of conditions for investment in new or existing production, followed by technology upgrades. Yu. V. Yakovets argues that the starting point of the program of anti-crisis regulation is to increase the scale of investment [11, p. 33].

3 Results The main reason for the movement of economic systems to recession is the reduction in the volume of aggregate income. As for the life cycle of a single product, the reason for the decline in sales revenue is a decrease in demand caused by the obsolescence of the product, the creation of substitute products, and the increased activity of competitors. Similar causes affect micro-and macroeconomic systems. Economic crises often begin with a stock market crash. Ch. Kindleberger and R. Alibert conducted an in-depth study of the causes and consequences of all the major financial crises that have occurred in the history of humankind [4]. The duration and depth of the crises and the reach of the elements depend on the alignment of the waves of a higher level. The location of the system depends on the mutual positions of the waves of cycles of different periodicities. On the surface, the system is affected by short-term cycles and random non-cyclical events. The recovery from the crisis implies a renewal of the upward trending system of the future cycle. The most important result of the crisis is a qualitative change of the system, consisting either in a transition to a new stage of development (evolutionary path) or the creation of a new system (revolutionary path). However, the nature of the system’s movement is ambiguous; a change of phase does not always imply a transition to positive change. There is a dependence of large and small cycles, the trend in the interaction of which was noted by Kondratiev [5].

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Crises of creation and destruction are distinguished in terms of preserving the hereditary core or genotype of the system. Crises of creation (or, according to Yu. V. Yakovets, transforming) transform the system by eliminating obsolete and inefficient elements and facilitating their adaptation and transition to a new life cycle. Crises of destruction involve the gradual destruction of the genetic nucleus of the system due to its inability to maintain its existence under changed environmental conditions. The contradictions between the outdated elements of the system, which do not meet the requirements and new challenges, and the elements of the newly emerging system result in the search for new forms of solutions to emerging problems. The crisis destroys the conservative stability of the former dominant system and generates new unstable states. During this period, the most viable elements are selected, some of which have been transferred from the previous system [11, p. 31]. Thus, innovation acts as a measure to counteract the crisis and an attempt to move to a new upward trend. Thus, innovation forms a new wave and a new cycle of the system’s movement. The most important event in human history, contributing to the transition to a new level of intellectual growth, was the ability to use fire, which can be defined as a civilizational innovation. The consumption of thermally processed foods reduced the amount of energy consumed by the intestine and freed it for another energyconsuming organ of the body—the brain. The brain of ancient humans started to receive much more energy compared to animals, which was the reason for the intellectual superiority and the increase in the hips of female sapiens to be able to give birth to a child with a large head. The so-called basic innovations contribute to radical changes in the organization of production and its technological base. Moreover, these innovations contribute to changes in the government and legal system. Basic innovations occur about once every half-century. Examples of such innovations include the creation of new industries and new forms of doing business (e.g., joint-stock companies, engineering and the coal industry, and information technology of the digital world). Civilizational or epochal and basic innovations encompass people from all parts of the planet, profoundly transforming social relations. Baseline innovations are developed and modified through incremental innovations, which can cover the territory of a single country, region, or city. Micro-innovations involve the improvement of particular parameters of manufactured products and usually do not bring any significant effect. The scale of such innovations is limited to the company. The frequency of their occurrence is 2–3 years. In a perfect scenario, there are no pseudo-innovations and inefficiencies in the new system, the genotype is updated, and new elements are adapted to the changed order. The system goes into a state of stable dynamic equilibrium until the next crisis. The movement from one stage of the life cycle to the next one is most clearly traced in investment dynamics [3, p. 90]. Thus, the exit from the crisis is facilitated by the creation of conditions for investment in new or existing production, followed by technology upgrades. Yu. V. Yakovets states that it is necessary to start anti-crisis regulation from increasing the scale of investment [11, p. 33].

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The main reason economic systems move into recession lies in the reduction of the volume of aggregate income. Sales revenue of a particular product declines due to a decrease in demand caused by the obsolescence of the product, the appearance of substitute products, and the increased activity of competitors. The same factors are relevant to micro-and macroeconomic systems. The primary reason for changes in investment activity is fluctuations in demand for the final product [3, p. 151, 5, p. 54]. The duration and depth of the crises and the coverage of the elements depend on the alignment of the waves of a higher level. The location of the system depends on the mutual positions of the waves of cycles of different periodicities. On the surface, the system is affected by short-term cycles and random non-cyclical events. The final stage of radical transformation is innovation [11, p. 43]. Thus, the periodic innovative renewal of society is an objective process with its own regularities: • The presence of the system’s own life cycle and potential for development; • The need to update elements of management in the transition from one stage of the life cycle to another; • The need for self-improvement as public consumption increases and consumer structure differentiates; • The requirements for an adequate response to the challenges of the external environment. The final stage of radical transformation is innovation [7, p. 3]. The next in importance after the institution of property is technology. The technological aspect affects the innovative type of development by optimizing the use of resources, maximizing economic results, and providing high technological efficiency. It is impossible to explain the reasons for the development of society only through the prism of economic factors. For several millennia, land has been the main resource for development and existence. The land was the source of wealth. According to E. Toffler, the main rent of the “first wave” was land rent [9]. Citing Scott, Wallis, and Weingast, Satarov [9] divided political regimes (social orders) into two groups: • Social orders of limited access are the most widespread and entrenched form of political power. The main features of these social orders are the ownership of control of the coercive apparatus (violence) by the ruling coalition, the distribution of rents within the ruling coalition, and the use of the results of this rent to maintain the existing order. In such a system, social relations and political and economic obligations have a pronounced personal character. Additionally, access to natural and national resources is limited by the ruling coalition. • The second category is social orders of open access. It is dominated by impersonal social relations mediated by law. Violence and rents are controlled by institutions and non-governmental organizations. Access to various resources is not restricted to any special groups.

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4 Conclusions The issue of choosing the direction of development, which, in simplified form, can be formulated in terms of domination of raw material or innovative ways, is the most important for the national economy. In the institutional environment, a special role is played by the government. The government must permanently and rationally provide conditions for the effective interaction of other institutions of society and the creation of a new socio-cultural environment that promotes the development of new relationships between the owners of the production means and the carriers of ideas and experience. A failure to fulfill this task undermines the accumulation of capital and entails destructive changes in the structure of private capital. The development of society, including its innovative aspect, is also influenced by the state of its political system. The conducted analysis shows that economically developed countries see political competition and turnover of power. Such countries have the social order of open access. It can be assumed that political power appears at the stage of the transition of tribes without chiefs to chiefdoms. This transformation involves the creation of new mechanisms for the redistribution of resources and the control of what would later be called rent. The problem of turnover of the governing apparatus and the legitimacy of power in systems of the first kind is solved through elections when the voters give theirs votes to the candidate with the most satisfying electoral program. Possible and present errors of political leadership are eliminated when changing the electoral cycle through the election of another candidate for political office. The peculiarities of such systems of social order are the presence of two-way communication and attachment to the electoral cycle itself. In such systems, all decisions regarding progressive and discrete development of institutions are made through discussion with voters, which most often excludes responsiveness, which is compensated for by strong adaptive capabilities to changes in the external environment. Social orders of limited access are usually not tied to the electoral cycle. The problem of the legitimacy of the authorities can be solved through simulated election schemes. The main features of such systems are the lack of feedback from the voters and the possibilities of prompt decision-making on choosing priority areas of economic development and using resources without any justification of the effectiveness and expediency of the measures taken to the electorate. Such systems have a high mobilization capacity but lack adaptability.

References 1. Boloitin AI, Ermolova OYu (2015) Theoretical issues of innovative development of economy, vol 3. Herald of the University of the Russian Academy of Education, pp 105–113 2. Brock D (1997) The economy and the state in the age of globalization: from the globalization of national economies to a globalized world economy. Politeconom, pp 3–4

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3. Hansen AH (1997) Business cycles and national income. Vol 2: Classics of Keynesianism (trans: Leikin EG, Rozovsky LYu from English). Economics, Moscow, Russia (original work published 1951) 4. Kindleberger ChP, Aliber RZ (2010) Manias, panics, and crashes: a history of financial crises (trans: Vilchinsky N, Ilyin V, Lipun O from English). Peter, St. Petersburg, Russia (original work published 1978) 5. Kondratiev ND (1993) Selected works. Economics, Moscow, Russia 6. Marx K (1985) Capital: a critique of political economy. In: Engels F (ed) The process of capitalist production as a whole, vol 3. Publishing House of Political Literature, Moscow, USSR (original work published 1894) 7. Morgan LH (1934) Ancient society: or, researches in the lines of human progress from savagery, through barbarism to civilization (trans: Koswen MO from English). The Research Association of the Institute of the Peoples of North under the Central Executive Committee of USSR, Leningrad, USSR (original work published 1877) 8. Phonotov AG (2012) Russia: innovation and development. BINOM. Laboratoriya Znaniy, Moscow, Russia 9. Satarov G (2015, Feb 11) Russia as a symbol of anxiety: political power and the crisis of the modern state. Daily Journal. Retrieved from http://ej.ru/?a=note&id=27046 10. Wallerstein I (1979) The capitalist world economy. Cambridge University Press, Paris, France 11. Yakovets YuV (2011) The global economic transformations of the 21st century. Economics, Moscow, Russia

Regional Aspects of Unemployment in Russia: Structural Approach Evgeniya K. Karpunina , Farida I. Mirzabalaeva , Liubov V. Shirokova , Zhanna A. Shadrina , and Ekaterina V. Mugaeva

Abstract The study is aimed at identifying specific features and patterns of unemployment development in the Russian regions of using a structural approach, as well as forming recommendations for overcoming them. The article analyzes the dynamics of official unemployment in the regions of Russia, and also reveals the load of the unemployed population registered with the employment service bodies per one declared vacancy. The trend of reducing the number of foreign citizens who have a valid work permit in the regions of Russia in the period 2010–2019 is revealed. The analysis of unemployment in the regions of Russia by gender, age and type of settlements is carried out. It is proved that the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly changed the emerging positive trends in the labor market and employment in the regions of Russia. Its negative impact was manifested in the growth of the official unemployment rate in most regions of Russia. The article identifies the key directions of state policy to overcome negative trends in the labor market and maintain employment. Keywords Unemployment · Employment · Region · Federal district · Pandemic · Russia · Structural approach JEL Codes J21 · J64 · R23 · R28

E. K. Karpunina (B) G.R. Derzhavin Tambov State University, Tambov, Russia F. I. Mirzabalaeva Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia L. V. Shirokova Southwest State University, Kursk, Russia Z. A. Shadrina Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia E. V. Mugaeva Academy of Marketing and Social Information Technologies, Krasnodar, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_93

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1 Introduction Effective functioning of the labor market is an essential condition for achieving modern tasks of social development [8, 19]. This is achieved through the employment of the economically active population, through the organization of a meeting of sellers and buyers of labor, the recruitment of enterprises and organizations with employees of the required qualifications, the formation and maintenance of competitive relations of participants [15]. Russia is distinguished by turbulence in the labor market. The high level of exposure to the negative effects of socio-economic instability, financial crises, social contradictions, as a rule, is aggravated by the peculiarities of the division of labor and regional specialization and the existing property and industrial relations, the low level of infrastructure development [14]. In addition, there is an imperfection of state regulation of the labor market and the existing imbalances between supply and demand in the regional labor markets, formed under the influence of imperfections in the education system, national, age, professional and qualification characteristics of employment, as well as the lack of transparency in institutional support. The situation worsened with the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. During this period, there was a massive transfer of employees to remote work, the closure of enterprises, a drop in consumer and investment demand, which led to instability in the labor market and an increase in unemployment [10, 12]. In July 2021, the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation concluded that the situation in the labor market was approaching pre-pandemic indicators. However, statistics from the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation show that in June 2021, unemployment was 4.8%, in January this figure was 5.8%, in December 2020—5.9%, and in the peak period in August 2020—6.4% [16]. At the same time, the analysis of unemployment in the Russian regions confirms that employment problems remain one of the most urgent for the country and its territories.

2 Literature Review The state of the labor market is a reflection of well-being or tension in the socioeconomic system. Economic theory explains that when the labor market is in equilibrium, there are usually no reasons for changes in the number of wages and employment. However, such a situation in practice is a rare, short-lived and unstable phenomenon. There are always reasons and factors of deviation from the equilibrium, and, accordingly, the occurrence of unemployment [6, 17, 22]. The researchers note how negative trends occur in the Russian labor market during periods of economic downturn. In particular, [11] indicate that the fundamental cause of unemployment in Russia is the absence or shortage of jobs and their gradual reduction. As a rule, this occurs as a result of a decline in production and a decrease in labor productivity as a reflection of instability in the economy. The response of

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Russian enterprises is the introduction of part-time working hours, forced vacations, wage delays, as well as informal employment mechanisms with a shadow wage system [1, 4, 23]. Gimpelson et al. [4] indicate that in Russia, employment management measures have a weak impact on changes in the economic environment. In particular, in the context of the emergence of new trends in the labor market (for example, digitalization, automation, remote work, and so on) due attention is not paid to the adaptation of the educational services market to the new requirements for the competencies of employees [8, 9, 18]. The same problem concerns the low competitiveness of the labor force in the world labor market [21]. The specifics of the Russian labor market are the lack of a high and protected level of remuneration, real mechanisms of protection against dismissals, a state system of support for the unemployed, active participation of trade unions in protecting the interests of employees, which are characteristic of European countries and the United States [5]. This affects the implementation of measures to overcome the socioeconomic consequences of unemployment. Researchers are particularly interested in the processes of maintaining employment during the pandemic. Despite the measures of state support, it was not possible to prevent the negative impact of the pandemic on the labor market. As a result, under the conditions of quarantine and economic measures, there was an increase in unemployment with the risk of deterioration in the quality of human capital [7, 13].

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to identify specific features and patterns of unemployment development in the regions of Russia using a structural approach, as well as to form recommendations for overcoming them. Research objectives: (1) research of the dynamics of the official unemployment in the Russian regions and the load of the unemployed population registered with the employment service bodies per one declared vacancy; (2) determination the dynamics of the number of foreign citizens who have a valid work permit in the regions of Russia; (3) analysis of unemployment in the regions of Russia by gender, age and type of settlements; (4) analysis of the unemployment rate in the regions of Russia during the pandemic; (5) development of recommendations for overcoming negative trends in the labor market and reducing unemployment in the regions of Russia. Research methods: theoretical analysis, comparative analysis, systematization method, economic analysis, graphical method, system approach.

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4 Results We will analyze the dynamics of officially registered unemployment in the regions of Russia for the period from 2010 to 2019 (Fig. 1). The graph shows the trend of a decrease in the unemployment rate in the analyzed period in all federal districts of Russia. The largest reduction in the unemployment rate for the period in 2010–2019 is observed in the North Caucasus (− 5.5%), the Ural (− 3.7%), the Volga (− 3.4%), the Far Eastern (− 3.1) Federal Districts. In other regions, the decrease in unemployment was lower than the average for Russia (− 2.7%): in the Siberian (− 2.6%), in the North-Western (− 2.3%), in the Southern (− 2.3%) and the Central (− 1.7%) Federal Districts. A feature of the Russian reality is the discrepancy between the data on officially registered unemployed and the data on the number of really unemployed [20]. In order to substantiate this assumption, we will analyze the load of the unemployed population registered with the employment service bodies per one declared vacancy (Fig. 2). The graph shows a decrease in the number of unemployed people to the number of vacancies: in 2010 in Russia it was 1.8 and in 2019—0.5. In addition, the data show a discrepancy in the assessment of real unemployment and the imperfection of the methods used to identify it. A decrease in the inflow of foreign skilled labor has a negative impact on the Russian labor market. The analysis of the number of foreign citizens with a valid work permit for the period from 2011 to 2019 is presented in Table 1. 18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0

2010

2011

2012

Central Federal District Siberian Federal District Volga Federal District

2013

2014

2015

Southern Federal District Russian Federation Ural Federal District

2016

2017

2018

2019

North-Western Federal District Far Eastern Federal District North Caucasus Federal District

Fig. 1 Dynamics of registered unemployment in the regions of Russia, %, 2010–2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [2]

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30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 -10.0 -20.0 -30.0 Russian Federation Central Federal District North-Western Federal District Southern Federal District North Caucasus Federal District Volga Federal District Ural Federal District Siberian Federal District Far Eastern Federal District

2010 1.8 1.0 1.3

2019 0.5 0.4 0.5

2019-2010 -1.3 -0.6 -0.8

1.2

0.5

-0.7

25.7 1.9

3.2 0.5

-22.5 -1.4

1.8

0.6

-1.2

2.1 1.0

0.5 0.3

-1.6 -0.7

Fig. 2 The load of the unemployed population registered with the employment service bodies, based on one declared vacancy in the regions of Russia, 2010–2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [2]

The data allow us to conclude that there is a long-term negative trend of a decrease in the number of foreign workers in the total structure of employed in 2010–2019. In the whole country in 2010, there were 1028 thousand foreign workers, and in 2019 there were only 83 thousand such workers. The ratio of the registered number of foreign workers to the number of employed in the country as a whole was 1.8% in 2010, and only 0.1% in 2019. Moreover, this negative trend is characteristic of all federal districts. If in the North-Western and Central Federal Districts the ratio of foreign workers to the number of employed in 2010 was at the level of 2.6% and 1.8%, respectively, then in 2019 this ratio was only 0.1%. Let’s analyze unemployment in the regions of Russia by structural components— by gender and type of settlements (Table 2). In the whole country, unemployment among men is higher (4.8%) than among women (4.4%). Unemployment is significantly higher among the rural population (6.9%) than among the urban population (3.9%). This trend is typical for all federal districts, except for the North Caucasus Federal District, where unemployment among women is higher than among men. The identification of new problem areas in the structure of unemployment requires an analysis of the unemployment rate by age groups (Fig. 3). The problem area for assessing the structural level of unemployment is the age from 15 to 19 years. Young people of this age are characterized by a high unemployment rate (24.7%) in the country as a whole. The unemployment rate among people

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Table 1 Number of foreign citizens who had a valid work permit, people, 2011–2019 Region

2011

2019

2019–2011 Ratio of the number of foreign citizens with a work permit to the employed population in 2011, %

Ratio of the 2019–2011 number of foreign citizens with a work permit to the employed population in 2019, %

Russian Federation

1,027,929 83,237 −944,692

1.4

0.1

−1.3

Central Federal District

380,326

17,349 −362,977

1.8

0.1

−1.7

North-Western 195,729 Federal District

5877

−189,852

2.6

0.1

−2.6

Southern Federal District

67,978

6407

−61,571

1.1

0.1

−1.0

North Caucasus Federal District

7877

673

−7204

0.2

0.0

−0.2

Volga Federal District

77,332

4614

−72,718

0.5

0.0

−0.5

Ural Federal District

111,624

13,471 −98,153

1.7

0.2

−1.5

Siberian Federal District

74,751

9386

−65,365

0.9

0.1

−0.8

Far East Federal District

90,774

24,905 −65,869

2.2

0.6

−1.5

Source Compiled by the authors based on [2]

aged 20–29 years is 8.3%, with an average national unemployment rate of 4.6% in 2019. The analysis allows us to conclude that there is a single structure and correlation of trends in unemployment in most federal districts of Russia. The established pattern will allow us to develop common criteria and approaches to adjusting state programs to increase employment and reduce unemployment. However, the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in February 2020, significantly changed the emerging positive trends in the labor market and employment in the regions of Russia. Starting from March 2020, a lockdown and some quarantine restrictions were introduced in the country, contributing to the mass transfer of

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Table 2 Analysis of unemployment in the regions of Russia by gender and type of settlements, 2019 Region

The entire population

Men

Women

Urban population

Rural population

Russian Federation

4.6

4.8

4.4

3.9

6.9

Central Federal District

2.9

3.0

2.7

2.6

4.6

North-Western Federal District

3.6

3.9

3.2

3.2

6.1

Southern Federal District

5.3

5.4

5.2

4.8

6.1

North Caucasus Federal District

11.0

10.2

12.0

9.0

13.1

Volga Federal District

4.2

4.5

3.9

3.9

4.9

Ural Federal District

4.3

4.6

4.0

4.1

5.4

Siberian Federal District

5.9

6.0

5.8

5.1

8.5

Far East Federal District

6.0

6.5

5.5

5.2

8.6

Source Compiled by the authors based on [2] 45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0

70 Unemp years loyed- 15 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 and total older Russian Federation 4.6 24.7 8.3 4.0 3.5 3.4 2.6 2.4 Central Federal District 2.9 15.4 5.4 2.7 2.0 2.2 2.0 1.5 North-Western Federal District 3.6 27.6 5.8 3.1 2.7 3.0 2.9 3.9 Southern Federal District 5.3 19.0 10.3 4.6 3.8 4.0 2.4 4.4 North Caucasus Federal 11.0 39.6 19.8 8.4 7.7 7.6 3.8 5.7 District Volga Federal District 4.2 22.8 7.2 3.8 3.3 3.2 2.0 0.9 Ural Federal District 4.3 26.4 7.8 3.7 3.5 2.7 2.3 0.9 Siberian Federal District 5.9 22.8 8.7 5.3 5.0 5.0 3.8 1.7 Far Eastern Federal District 6.0 19.4 9.7 5.3 4.8 5.1 3.6 2.4

Fig. 3 The unemployment rate in the regions of Russia by age group, %, 2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [2]

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7.8

3.4 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.2 2.4 1.6 2.0 Change in the registered unemployment rate in December 2020 to December 2019, 20202019 %

Fig. 4 Change in the official unemployment rate for December 2020 to December 2019, %. Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

employees to remote work and the growth of unemployment. The Government of the Russian Federation immediately began to implement measures of the state’s economic policy aimed at preserving employment, which allowed to somewhat slow down the release of labor. However, this did not lead to the expected results and was manifested in an increase in the official unemployment rate in most regions of Russia (Fig. 4). In some federal districts of Russia, the dynamics of changes in the unemployment rate is better than the national average—in the Central, Far Eastern, Volga and NorthWestern Federal Districts. In other districts, it is more critical: in the Siberian, Ural and Southern Federal Districts. In the North Caucasus Federal District, this problem is particularly critical and requires urgent measures to support employment. The migration influx of skilled labor into the country can become a resource for effectively countering the negative impact of the pandemic on the labor market. However, during the pandemic, the previously formed problem of reducing the number of foreign workers and the migration outflow of qualified workers continued its negative development. This is confirmed by the analysis of the migration growth of the population for 11 months of 2020 to the relevant period of 2019 (Fig. 5). The figure shows that the migration decline of the population is observed in all federal districts, especially in the Central Federal District. The Southern Federal District is the only district where the situation with the outflow of migrants has been stabilized. More detailed information about the migration decline of the population of the regions of Russia is presented in Table 3. The key directions of the state policy to optimize the situation on the labor market in the regions of Russia and reduce unemployment, including due to the COVID-19 pandemic, are: institutional, organizational, migration, technological (Fig. 6). Thus, the goal of the state policy is to adjust the situation on the labor market of the Russian regions in order to reduce negative areas, in particular, the lag of

-126,240.

Change in migration growth or loss for 11 months of 2020 to 11 months of 2019 (2020-2019), people

6,385.00

63,543.00

57,158.00

Southe rn Federa l Distric t

-8,448.00

-6,391.00

2,057.00

North Cauca sus Federa l Distric t

-5,273.00

-13,857.0

-8,584.00

Volga Federa l Distric t

-9,042.00

10,415.00

19,457.00

Ural Federa l Distric t

-13,927.0

-22,123.0

-8,196.00

Siberi an Federa l Distric t

-6,121.00

-16,430.0

-10,309.0

Far Easter n Federa l Distric t

Fig. 5 Migration growth of the population of the regions of Russia for 11 months of 2020 to the relevant period of 2019. Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

-5,637.00

41,741.00 34,224.00

migration growth ( + ), decrease ( - ) for 11 months of 2020, people

39,861.00

NorthWeste rn Federa l Distric t

167,981.0

Centra l Federa l Distric t

migration growth ( + ), decrease ( - ) for 11 months of 2019, people

-150,000.00

-100,000.00

-50,000.00

0.00

50,000.00

100,000.00

150,000.00

200,000.00

Regional Aspects of Unemployment in Russia: Structural Approach 869

438,604.00

367,815.00

161,877.00

991,817.00

472,828.00

654,867.00

340,193.00

437,039.00

263,546.00

North-Western Federal District

Southern Federal 431,358.00 District

155,486.00

Central Federal District

North Caucasus Federal District

Volga Federal District

Ural Federal District

Siberian Federal District

Far East Federal District

Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

279,976.00

459,162.00

329,778.00

668,724.00

950,176.00

3,656,012.00

3,747,134.00

Russian Federation

The number of retirees for 11 months 2020

The number of arrivals for 11 months 2020

Region

506,845.00 303,243.00

−22,123.00 −16,430.00

757,516.00

−13,857.00 383,761.00

188,805.00

−6391.00

10,415.00

453,723.00

548,747.00

1,224,863.00

4,367,503.00

The number of arrivals for 11 months 2019

63,543.00

34,224.00

41,741.00

91,122.00

Migration growth (+), decrease (−) for 11 months of 2020

313,552.00

515,041.00

364,304.00

766,100.0

186,748.00

396,565.00

508,886.00

1,056,882.00

4,108,078.00

The number of retirees for 11 months 2019

Table 3 Migration decline in the population of Russian regions, 11 months 2019–11 months 2020

−10,309.00

−8196.00

19,457.00

−8584.00

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Migration growth (+), decrease (−) for 11 months of 2019

−6121.00

−13,927.00

−9042.00

−5273.00

−8448.00

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Change in migration growth or loss for 11 months of 2020 to 11 months of 2019 (2020–2019)

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Regional Aspects of Unemployment in Russia: Structural Approach •Improvement of methods for assessing the real level of unemployment in the regions

•Stimulating the influx of labor into certain sectors of the regional economy

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•Creation of a system for training young qualified personnel and reprofiling of personnel in the regions

Institutional

Organizational

Migration

Technologycal • Increasing the role of the digital technological factor in the formation of new types of vacancies on the labor market

Fig. 6 Directions of state policy on optimizing the labor market in the Russian regions. Source Compiled by the authors

the educational services market from the demands of the economy, the growing discrepancy between the structure of demand for labor and the structure of its supply, reducing the growth of skilled labor, including from abroad. The adjustment of state programs to increase employment and reduce unemployment will reduce the risk of a long-term and stagnant crisis in the labor market due to the pandemic.

5 Conclusions The authors identified specific features and patterns of unemployment development in the regions of Russia by applying a structural approach and also formed recommendations for leveling the factors of labor market destabilization and effective employment. Firstly, the authors analyzed the dynamics of registered unemployment in the regions of Russia and the load of the unemployed population registered with the employment service bodies per one declared vacancy. The authors have established a trend of a decrease in the unemployment rate in 2010–2019 in all federal districts of Russia and an increase in unemployment in 2020 due to the pandemic. Secondly, the authors revealed the presence of a long-term negative trend of a decrease in the number of foreign workers in the structure of employment in 2010–2019. The analysis of unemployment in the regions of Russia by gender, age and type of settlements allowed the authors to conclude that in most regions unemployment among men is higher than among women; unemployment is significantly higher among the rural population than among the urban population. The problem area for assessing the

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structural level of unemployment is the age from 15 to 19 years. Thirdly, the authors found an increase in the official unemployment rate in most regions of Russia in 2020, as well as a migration decline in the population in all federal districts due to the pandemic. Fourthly, the authors identified the key areas of state policy to overcome negative trends in the labor market and maintain employment in the regions of Russia of an institutional, organizational, migration and technological nature.

References 1. Chizhova L, Sadovaya E, Kuzmin V (2011) Innovative economy: employment, labor motivation, labor efficiency. Institute of Macroeconomic Research. Economy [Ekonomika], Moscow 2. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2021) Statistical collection “Regions of Russia, socio-economic indicators”. https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/210/document/ 13204. Accessed: 12.08.2021 3. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (2021) The report “The socioeconomic situation of Russia”. https://rosstat.gov.ru/compendium/document/50801. Accessed: 12.08.2021 4. Gimpelson V, Kapelyushnikov R, Roshchin S (2017) The Russian labor market: trends, institutions, structural changes. Center for Strategic Research, Moscow 5. Gurvich E (2019) The Russian labor market in the light and the shadow. Kommersant Nauka J 47. www.kommersant.ru/doc/4134738. Accessed: 12.08.2021 6. Ivasenko A, Paramonova Ya (2018) Unemployment and employment policy in Russia. Bull Mod Res 6.2(21):134–137 7. Karpunina E, Butova L, Sobolevskaya T, Badokina E, Pliusnina O (2021) The impact of the covid-19 pandemic on the development of Russian national economy sectors: analysis of dynamics and search for stabilization measures. In: Proceeding of the 37th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2021, Cordoba, Spain, pp 1213–1226 8. Karpunina E, Isaeva E, Abalakina T, Shilova I, Kulikova M (2019) The development of human capital as a factor of economic security in the digital age. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on contemporary education and economic development, 26–27 Oct 2019, Beijing, China, pp 51–56 9. Karpunina E, Salikov Y, Kuzmenko N, Nazarchuk N, Gorbunova O (2019) The digital economy: from the management of the human capital development to ensure economic security. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on contemporary education and economic development, 26–27 Oct 2019, Beijing, China, pp 69–74 10. Korolyuk E, Rustamova I, Kuzmenko N, Khashir B, Karpunina E (2021) Diagnostics of regional economic security problems during the 2020 crisis. In: Proceeding of the 37th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2021, Cordoba, Spain, pp 5248–5257 11. Kostikova E, Pokamestov D, Ruchkina D (2016) Trends of unemployment in Russia in the crisis period of 2014–2015. World Econ Manag 16(2):34–43 12. Lisova E, Petrov I, Koryakina T, Kalombo Mulamba V, Karpunina K (2020) The well-being of Russian regions under threat: economic and social impact assessment of covid-19. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, Granada, 4–5 Nov 2020, Spain, pp 7603–7616 13. Maksimova E, Mukhina D (2020) Changes in the labor market in modern crisis conditions. Rationing Remuneration Labor Ind 6:38–42 14. Mejokh Z, Korolyuk E, Sozaeva D, Pilipchuk N, Karpunina E (2020) Economic security of Russian regions: risk factors and consequences of the covid-19 pandemic. In: Proceeding of the 36th IBIMA conference, 4–5 Nov 2020, Granada, Spain, pp 8197–8205

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15. Milenky A, Van P (2019) The Russian labor market: modern features and regulation. Interact Sci 10(44):39–41 16. Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation (2021) The situation in the labor market has approached the pre-pandemic indicators. https://mintrud.gov.ru/employment/89. Accessed: 12.08.2021 17. Panteleeva T, Karavaeva E (2018) The problem of unemployment in the Russian Federation. World Civilizations 2(3):1–6 18. Pilipchuk N, Beilina A, Udovik E, Orlovtseva O, Karpunina E (2021) The development of digital competencies of teachers in the higher education system. In: Proceeding of the 37th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2021, Cordoba, Spain, pp 517–527 19. Sagina O, Tavbulatova Z, Perekatieva T, Oganesyan T, Karpunina E (2020) Digitalization and employment problems of modern youth. In: Proceeding of the 35th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2020, Seville, Spain, pp 7692–7704 20. Sinyavskaya O (2005) Informal employment in Russia: measurement, scale, dynamics. Econ Sociol 6(2):12–28 21. Smolenskaya S (2020) Problems and prospects of the labor market development in the Russian Federation. Bull Ulyanovsk State Tech Univ 4:56–59 22. Urusova A (2019) Modern problems of unemployment in the Russian Federation. Eurasian Sci J 5(11). https://esj.today/PDF/24ECVN519.pdf. Accessed: 12.08.2021 23. Yamshchikova T, Vnukova A (2018) Informal employment: between unemployment and additional opportunities. Econ Humanitarian Sci 4(315):106–118

Lean Production in the Process of Creating New Products Nadezhda V. Kapustina , Irina V. Kosorukova , Konstantin A. Yakovlev , Tatyana V. Koryakina , and Bella O. Khashir

Abstract The research aims at identifying the features of lean production technologies used in the manufacturing activities of enterprises, as well as at developing an algorithm for their implementation in the process of creating new products. The article systematizes the prerequisites for the introduction of lean production technologies by Russian enterprises: low labour productivity, low level of product competitiveness, irrational use of resources. The authors specified the scheme of creating the value of a new product and identified the appropriate stages: preparatory stage (determining the value of a new product and identifying the value stream); launch stage (ensuring a continuous flow of product value creation; identifying consumer needs and following them); final stage (striving for perfection). The authors reveal the content of lean production technologies used by enterprises in the process of creating new products, described their advantages and expected results. The article proposes an algorithm for the introduction of lean production technologies in creating new products by small N. V. Kapustina (B) · I. V. Kosorukova Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia I. V. Kosorukova e-mail: [email protected] N. V. Kapustina K.G. Razumovsky Moscow State University of Technologies and Management (the First Cossack University), Moscow, Russia I. V. Kosorukova Moscow University for Industry and Finance “Synergy”, Moscow, Russia K. A. Yakovlev Voronezh State University of Forestry and Technologies named after G. F. Morozov, Voronezh, Russia T. V. Koryakina The Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation (Lipetsk Branch), Lipetsk, Russia e-mail: [email protected] B. O. Khashir Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_94

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enterprises. It is proved that an integral condition for the successful implementation of this algorithm is the assessment of the potential economic effect of lean measures at the preparatory stage of creating a new product, the expected effect at the launch stage, as well as the real effect at the implementation final stage. Keywords Lean production · Technologies · Creation of new products · Enterprise · Manufacturing activity JEL Codes D21 · M11

1 Introduction In the modern world, both the standards of consumption and the principles of production organization that ensure the satisfaction of human needs are changing. Increasingly, enterprises achieve high efficiency by enhancing the current state of the production system and its continuous improvement in the long term based on the principles of lean production at all structural levels [15]. International experience shows that the growth of labour productivity, increasing the level of production profitability, reducing unproductive costs, lowering the duration of the production cycle can be achieved through the phased introduction of lean production technologies [5]. Japan was the first to demonstrate examples of a sharp increase in labour productivity within the framework of the concept of lean production both on the scale of an individual enterprise and an entire country, followed by some world powers [9]. In Russia, many large companies, such as Sberbank, Russian Railways, Nestle, have also started the practice of introducing lean technologies into production activities and show positive results of continuous improvement of the production system. The Federal Program for the Development of Labor Productivity in the Russian Regions is aimed at supporting such initiatives, which prescribes enterprises applying for preferential financing to introduce lean practices [19]. Lean production technologies can be implemented at various stages of the production process. But special attention needs to be paid to the study of the features of their application when creating new products. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the relevance of the chosen topic has increased, as companies in crisis conditions are looking for new tools for survival and maintaining their competitiveness.

2 Literature Review In economics, the concept of “lean production” is associated with the system of organization and management of production activities, when products are manufactured in exact accordance with the needs of consumers while reducing all types of costs

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[1]. Studies of [9, 14, 23, 33, 34] are directed to identifying the effectiveness of the Kaizen philosophy. The authors point out that the basis of lean production is the value of the product for the consumer, which is created by the manufacturer. In this context, the product acquires real value at the time of processing and manufacturing of all elements. The specifics of the introduction of lean production technologies in the activities of Russian enterprises are described in the works of [8, 18, 30]. In particular, [24, 35] consider the principles of the lean production system and their impact on the efficiency of Russian banking organizations. The structuring of the features of the application of the concept of lean production in different countries is carried out in the work of [13]. The creation of new products is a key factor in the competitiveness of the enterprise [1, 28]. The use of lean production technologies in the process of creating new goods and services proves its effectiveness and prospects both in Russian and foreign practice [5, 12, 22].

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to identify the features of lean production technologies used in the manufacturing activities of enterprises, as well as to develop an algorithm for their implementation at different stages of creating new products. Research objectives: (1) identification of prerequisites for the introduction of lean production technologies by Russian enterprises in the process of creating new products; (2) disclosure of the content of lean production technologies, description of the advantages; (3) development of an algorithm for the introduction of lean production technologies in the process of creating new products by small enterprises. Methods of the study: theoretical analysis, comparative analysis, system approach, graphical method, economic analysis.

4 Results 4.1 Prerequisites for the Introduction of Lean Production Technologies by Russian Enterprises in the Process of Creating New Products 1.

Low labour productivity remains one of the main problems of Russian economic development [19]. In 2017, Russia was more than 2 times behind in this indicator from the average value for the OECD countries, and 3.8 times behind the leader of the group—Ireland (Fig. 1).

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120 100 80 60 40

99.5

98.5 83.1

76.8

76.4

72.2

72.2

72

71.4

71.3 54.8 26.5

20 0

Fig. 1 Labor productivity in the OECD countries and Russia, GDP per hour worked, $, at current prices at purchasing power parity, 2017. Source Compiled by the authors based on [20]

2.

According to the International Labor Organization, in 2005–2015, the level of labour productivity in the Russian Federation lagged behind the global average by 27%, from the average for the EU countries—by 81%, from the average for the G20 group-by 41%. In 2015, Rosstat recorded a further drop in labour productivity by 2.2%, and in 2016-by another 0.2%. In 2017, the Ministry of Economic Development noted an increase in productivity along with the entire economy by 1.9% [19].The problem of low labour productivity in Russia is primarily associated with the irrational use of working time by personnel [31]. On the one hand, we mean irregular breaks, downtime, on the other hand, the use of emergency methods of work, when employees work overtime, take work from home and perform it during non-working hours. Thus, both defects and overwork are a source of problems. The existence of defects determines a decrease in the productivity of personnel. In turn, overworking contributes to fatigue and provokes diseases of employees, forms irritability in them and, as a result, causes conflict situations in the working team. This cannot but affect the decrease in the quality of the work performed. Mazitova and Mirzagalyamova [10] note that irrational labour costs in total occupy 41.6% of the total working time fund. These may include a break for calls and personal conversations (15.6% of the working time fund), as well as the search for necessary documents (26%). Processing is found in 81% of Russian enterprises. Only 23% of managers compensate employees for overworking with money, 13% of managers provide an additional day off. Labour productivity in such cases either does not change or decreases, the labour intensity remains at the same level or increases [25]. Low level of product competitiveness and weak adaptation to changing market conditions. At the moment, international agencies assess the competitiveness

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of Russian goods at a low level. For example, according to the global competitiveness index of the World Economic Forum, in 2020 Russia ranks 41st out of 141 [32]. According to certain components of the index, Russian enterprises have clear lags behind other countries. In particular, according to the indicators “efficiency of the goods market”, “efficiency of the financial market”, “business complexity”, “infrastructure” [6]. In addition, most companies spend from 1 to 3 years on the development of new products, which has a negative impact on their competitiveness [29]. Irrational use of resources by Russian enterprises, creation of excess reserves, organization of illogical cargo transportation. One of the main problems of Russian enterprises is the use of resources only in the field of industrial production. However, their spread to the sphere of consumption within the territorial production complex forms a closed cycle, where there are also consumers of waste produced by enterprises. The second common problem is the lack of practice of mandatory use of all raw materials components in production and the occurrence of irrational energy costs [2, 27]. In addition, in the Russian conditions, due attention is not paid to the implementation of the concept of waste-free production and the maintenance of ecological balance [21].

Problems with the inventory at Russian enterprises arise from servicing the supply chains of production, and not consumers. In this case, there is uncertainty in demand due to possible errors throughout the supply chain. The forecasting methods used also lead to errors in forecasts, causing excess stocks or a shortage of available goods [11]. The most common problem in the field of transport logistics is the unbundling of the transport services market and the arrival of vehicles in an inoperable state. Another difficult point is the lack of information security of transportation and the quality of transport services. They arise due to the imperfection of the legislative system, shortcomings in the planning of routes, as well as the lack of insurance coverage of goods and vehicles [3].

4.2 The Content of Lean Production Technologies at Different Stages of Creating New Products If we superimpose the concept of lean production on the traditional stages of launching a new product, we can get the following scheme for creating the value of a new product: (1) the preparatory stage (identifying the value of a new product and determining the value stream); (2) the launch stage (maintaining a continuous flow of product value creation, identifying consumer needs and following them); (3) the final stage (striving for excellence) [33] (Fig. 2). At each stage, the enterprise can adopt the necessary lean production technology (Table 1).

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1.2.identifying the value stream of a product

2.1 ensuring a continuous flow of product value creation

2.2. identifying and following consumer needs

3. striving for excellence

Fig. 2 The scheme of creating the value of a new product under the concept of lean production. Source Compiled by the authors based on [33]

4.3 The Algorithm for Implementing Lean Manufacturing Technologies in the Process of Creating New Products by Small Enterprises Among the Russian innovators in the application of lean production technologies, we can single out the Gorky Automobile Plant (GAZ Group), VAZ, KAMAZ, Sberbank, Russian Railways, Severstal-auto, etc. [7]. The implementation results were evaluated using the following indicators (Fig. 3). In particular, it took Sberbank two years from the start of the implementation of the project on the introduction of lean production principles to quadruple the volume of retail sales, reduce queues by 36% and lower the movement of employees in the office by 383 km. Russian Railways in 2010–2017, thanks to the introduction of lean production technologies, it was possible to ensure savings in 2013 of 560 million rubles, in 2014—1 billion rubles, in 2017—1.14 billion rubles [19]. Despite the practice of introducing lean production technologies by large companies, small enterprises often face difficulties in implementing them. This is due to various reasons, including the lack of funds to finance pilot projects; the imperfection of the organizational structure of the enterprise, the lack of standardization of professional activities of employees; the existence of unstable demand for the products of small enterprises and the lack of dealer networks for sales; imperfect accounting at all stages of the production cycle and the untimeliness of informing staff about changes, as well as due to force majeure [4, 26]. On the contrary, it is easier for small enterprises to implement innovations, and due to the simpler organization of business processes, it is less difficult to form a team of like-minded people to achieve this goal. The process of launching a new product should be preceded by training the personnel of a small enterprise to implement lean production initiatives. The launch of a lean production system in a small enterprise should begin with the training of a group of specialists-leaders of change, in particular, with the top management and the most active employees [7]. The training system is created at the workplace. It is assumed that the employee is trained by the mentor on his own mistakes; as a result, specific behavioural models are developed. An effective tool for changing the behaviour and thinking of employees is their material stimulation. During the beginning of the introduction of the principles of lean production, the system of remuneration of employees should be adjusted according to changes in the production process.

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Table 1 Lean production technologies used in the process of creating new products The stage of creating a new product

Lean technology

Determining the value Management based on of a new product, consumer demand: identifying the flow of “Kanban” creating its value

Managing value streams

Maintaining a continuous flow of new product value creation

Identifying and following consumer needs

Description

The problem that the technology is aimed at solving

The specific order for creating a flow determines the production framework. Means of informing about the number of materials and the need for them are used to move to each next stage

Irrational use of resources Low level of product competitiveness

Defining value for the customer and creating a value stream for each new product

Low level of product competitiveness

Management based on An information consumer demand: management system “Andon” that allows you to detect errors and create a visual and audible warning for the suspension of the production process

Irrational use of resources Low level of product competitiveness

Production smoothing: quick changeover

A system for reducing Irrational use of time losses associated resources with the installation of workpieces

Universal equipment care

Involvement of personnel in the process of training equipment maintenance and troubleshooting

Low labour productivity

The zero-error principle

An error modelling method for reducing losses due to manufacturing defects

Irrational use of resources Low level of product competitiveness

Smoothing production: “Heizunka”

The system of levelling the size of the produced batches of the product

Irrational use of resources

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) The stage of creating a new product

Lean technology

Description

The problem that the technology is aimed at solving

Production smoothing: fast switching

Switching to the production of another product in a short term to organize more frequent production cycles

Irrational use of resources Low level of product competitiveness

Continuous improvement of the value stream of a new product to enhance its quality characteristics and the rapid inclusion of employees at different levels to quickly reduce losses

Irrational use of resources Low level of product competitiveness Low labour productivity

Workplace organization system: sorting things into necessary and unnecessary; maintaining order; standardization; improvement, that is, strict implementation of rules, procedures and technological operations

Low level of product competitiveness Low labour productivity

Automation: “Jidoka” A production management system aimed at reducing operations that do not add value to the final product

Low level of product competitiveness Low labour productivity

Striving for excellence Kaizen Principles

Principle 5 S

Source Compiled by the authors based on [1, 5, 14, 34]

The introduction of lean production technologies should not be carried out in fragments; a single production system with interrelated processes should be formed. In this case, the introduction of one technology will not disable other processes. The Japanese experience has confirmed that the optimization of business processes is provided constantly and gradually by all employees of the enterprise [34]. An integral condition for the success of the introduction of lean manufacturing technologies is the assessment of the economic efficiency of the project at several stages: at the beginning of the project for the launch of a new product, the potential effect is determined, at the implementation stage, the expected effect is calculated,

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120 100

100 80 60 40 20

30 15

20

25

25 13

0

Fig. 3 The effectiveness of the introduction of lean production technologies at Russian enterprises, %. Source Compiled by the authors based on [7]

at the end of the implementation, the real effect is defined [17]. The assessment of economic efficiency is based on the calculation and comparison of the results (in monetary terms) before and after the introduction of lean production, as well as taking into account the costs of carrying out the corresponding event for a certain period [16]. The algorithm for implementing lean production technologies when launching a new product by a small enterprise is shown in Fig. 4. The introduction of lean production technologies in the process of creating new products in accordance with the proposed algorithm will contribute to the more rational use of resources, increase labour productivity and enhance the competitiveness of small enterprises’ products.

5 Conclusion Firstly, the article reveals the prerequisites for the introduction of lean production technologies by Russian enterprises in the process of creating new products. These include low labour productivity, a low level of product competitiveness, and irrational use of resources. Secondly, the authors identified the stages of creating the value of a new product: the preparatory stage, associated with determining the value of a new product and identifying its value stream; the launch stage, where the continuity of the product value stream is ensured and consumer needs are determined; the final stage,

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The goal is to improve the current state of the enterprise's production system when creating new products and forming the foundations for its continuous improvement in the long term Preparatory stage 6-12 months before implementation Training of a group of specialists – leaders of changes

Development of the lean production philosophy in the team

Promotion of the concept of creating a new product based on market research

Economic cost estimation and production planning

Assessment of the potential economic effect of the introduction of lean production technologies E >0

no

yes Launch stage

Deciding to start production

no

Evaluation and selection of lean production technology taking into account the parameters of a specific production stage

Assessment of the expected economic effect from the introduction of lean production technologies yes The final stage 6-12 months after implementation

Launching a new product on the market

no

Testing a new product on the market for compliance with consumer needs

Assessment of the real economic effect of the introduction of lean production technologies yes Review of results, making changes and planning for the future

Fig. 4 The algorithm for implementing lean production technologies when launching a new product by a small enterprise. Source Compiled by the authors

associated with reviewing the results, making changes and planning improvements for the future. Thirdly, the authors clarified the content of lean production technologies that can be used by enterprises when creating new products, formulated the expected results. Fourthly, the article forms an algorithm for the introduction of lean

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production technologies, adapted for use by small enterprises when creating new products.

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19. RBC (2018) New economy: how Russian enterprises are implementing lean methods. https:// plus.rbc.ru/news/5acc2c447a8aa94d61f53915. Accessed: 12.07.2021 20. RBC (2019) Russia is 3.8 times behind Ireland in terms of labour productivity. https://www. rbc.ru/economics/05/02/2019/5c5872889a794725eb8d815e. Accessed: 12.07.2021 21. Ru-ecology (2021) Irrational use of resources. https://ru-ecology.info/term/6814/. Accessed: 12.07.2021 22. Safronova K (2012) Features of the application of the concept of “Lean production” in companies of various fields of activity and nationalities (different countries). Econ Entrepreneurship 5(28):431–435 23. Sessoms D (2008) A tactical application of lean production tools in an aerospace manufacturing environment. Pro-quest dissertation and theses, pp 70–76 24. Shakhmatova E (2013) Principles of lean production in the development of technology for servicing individuals of Sberbank of Russia. Probl Mod Econ 13:205–210 25. Shcheglova A (2019) The problem of inefficient personnel activity. Bull Econ Law Sociol 1:43–46 26. Sorokin V (2009) Lean manufacturing: the practice of successful implementation. Methods Qual Manag 2:56–58 27. Sukhanova I, Igonin V, Gorbunova O, Vandanimaeva O, Karpunina E (2021) The business landscape transformation in terms of the circular economy development. In: The modern global economic system: evolutional development vs. revolutionary leap. Springer, Switzerland, pp 858–869 28. Trachuk A, Dinder N (2017) Innovations and productivity of Russian industrial companies. Innovations 4(222):53–65 29. Trachuk A, Kornilov G (2013) Dynamics of innovation implementation processes in the field of banknote production. Money Credit 9:3–9 30. Vikhansky O (2009) About the popularity of lean manufacturing in Russia. Expert-Ural 7:56–59 31. Vorobyev D, Gundorova M, Gaponenko A, Tsykora A, Karpunina E (2020) Tools for developing the company’s labor potential in terms of digitalization. In: Proceeding of the 35th IBIMA conference, 1–2 Apr 2020, Seville, Spain, pp 7704–7715 32. Weforum (2021) Global competitiveness report special edition 2020: how countries are performing on the road to recovery. https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-competitiven ess-report-2020. Accessed: 12.07.2021 33. Womack J, Jones D (2013) Lean thinking: banish waste and create wealth in your corporation. Simon & Schuster, New York 34. Womack J, Jones D (2010) Lean manufacturing: how to get rid of losses and achieve prosperity of your company (trans from English—5th edn). Alpina Publishers, Moscow 35. Yurakova T, Yakovleva I (2017) Quality management of banking services using the lean methodology. Mod Mater Equipment Technol 3(11):143–147

Anti-crisis Technologies for Improving the Efficiency of the Organization’s Personnel Management Gulnaz F. Galieva , Ekaterina E. Mirgorod , Olga F. Alekhina , Bella O. Khashir , and Anna F. Beilina

Abstract The study aims to identify problems in the field of personnel management due to the negative impact of the pandemic on the activities of organizations, as well as justifying the need to use anti-crisis technologies in personnel management to level them. The authors identified the features of the impact of the pandemic on the activities of Russian organizations and identified the specific features of the 2020 crisis. The analysis allowed the authors to systematize problems in the field of personnel management as a reflection of pandemic trends (staff release; reduced work efficiency; inconsistency with changing legal circumstances when transferring to remote work; the imperfection of effective interaction and control technologies; lack of digital technologies for employees; psychological distress of employees). The authors identified areas for improving the human resource management system and identified the most appropriate anti-crisis technologies for improving the efficiency of the organization’s personnel: information support for personnel, diversification of employment forms, organization of digital workplaces, development of personnel retraining systems, orientation to EVP, conducting personnel expertise. Keywords Pandemic · Organization · Personnel management · Anti-crisis technologies · Efficiency · Uncertainty · Anxiety JEL Codes M12 · M54 G. F. Galieva (B) Financial Research Institute of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia Ufa State Petroleum Technological University, Ufa, Russia E. E. Mirgorod Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia O. F. Alekhina National Research Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia B. O. Khashir Kuban State Technological University, Krasnodar, Russia A. F. Beilina Voronezh State Pedagogical University, Voronezh, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_95

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1 Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic that took over the whole world in 2020 has become an extraordinary, large-scale and unpredictable phenomenon. The extraordinariness is associated with its suddenness, a high level of turbulence and the coverage of all economic entities without exception. Quarantine restrictions imposed in the regions as protective measures against an epidemiological threat quickly moved to the level of states and caused the suspension of all economic activities and the violation of traditional ties between organizations. Soon, a chain reaction from individual countries spread to the entire world economy, and the pandemic acquired the status of one of the largest threats to humanity [1, 8, 28]. The pandemic had not only a strong negative impact on the economy, which led to the emergence of a global economic crisis. It undermined the social well-being of the population, upsetting the balance between the supply and demand of labour, transforming the usual working conditions of employees and causing an increase in staff anxiety due to the threat of dismissal [27]. Indeed, in all countries, without exception, 2020 was marked by an increase in unemployment, a deterioration in the level and quality of life of the population, an increase in social tension and, as a result, an enhance in poverty. In the unfavourable socio-economic conditions of the pandemic, special responsibility falls on enterprises. Maintaining stability and sustainable development in a turbulent environment is possible due to the adaptation of the personnel management system to new requirements. Currently, HR management technologies should be of an anti-crisis nature, be effective and at the same time easy to implement in the practical activities of organizations.

2 Literature Review The COVID-19 pandemic and the massive lockdown caused a double economic shock: firstly, from a decrease in demand, and secondly, from a reduced supply on the market due to the temporary closure of entire industries [5]. The primary reaction of Russian enterprises to the reduction of the customer base due to quarantine measures was a decrease in employee remuneration (including the loss of bonuses and bonuses), salary delays [21]. The unpredictability of the market situation and the lack of opportunities to predict the dynamics of the labour market led to a reduction in active vacancies, and, as a result, to an increase in employees’ fears of job loss [13, 14]. The growth of anxiety and the likelihood of loss of social well-being have a strong negative impact on the internal organizational climate and labour productivity of employees. In addition, the mass transfer of employees to remote work has actualized the problems of digitalization of Russian enterprises, low level of digital literacy and cybersecurity [17]. During this period, many organizations, in order to

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survive, sharply increased their expenses on information technologies and automation, thereby creating prerequisites for rapid adaptation to new economic conditions. However, for some employees, such innovations have become an insurmountable challenge, which provoked their departure from the professional arena. Another part of the workforce was able to take measures implemented by organizations for vocational training and retraining, psychological adaptation and a further improvement in accordance with the new post-pandemic conditions and crisis manifestations [20].

3 Methodology The purpose of the study is to identify the features of the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as to justify the need to use anti-crisis technologies in personnel management to level the negative impact of the pandemic on the activities of organizations. Research objectives: 1. 2. 3.

study of the impact of the 2020 crisis caused by the pandemic on the activities of organizations; systematization of problems in the field of personnel management as a result of the pandemic; justification of anti-crisis technologies for improving the efficiency of the organization’s personnel to overcome the problems that have arisen.

Research methods: theoretical analysis method, logical method, systematization method, comparative analysis, graphical method, economic analysis, system approach.

4 Results The COVID-19 pandemic, which has all the features of turbulence, has caused a pervasive risk of destruction in various spheres of life of organizations and sectors of the economic system. The suddenness and intensity of infection with the virus, the decline in socio-economic mobility, uncertainty about the timing and consequences of the spread of the virus led to serious losses in economic terms: 4.5 million individual entrepreneurs, small and medium-sized businesses in Russia ceased to exist [24, 27, 28]. In 2020, the number of operating enterprises decreased by 300,000 or by 9.6% (a net decrease taking into account newly opened businesses) and amounted to 2.82 million units (for comparison, in 2015—4.15 million units, in 2018— 3.46 million units) [15]. In some regions of Russia, the loss of business was more significant. In particular, in St. Petersburg in 2020, the number of commercial organizations

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decreased by 15.4%, in the Tula region-by 15.2%, in Kabardino-Balkaria—by 14.92%, in Moscow—by 14.91%, in the Pskov region-by 14.85%, in the Kaliningrad Region—by 14.4% [15]. The unfavourable situation caused by the lockdown and the introduction of quarantine measures led to an increase in the annual unemployment rate in Russia to 5.8%. At the beginning of 2021, the total number of unemployed was 3.7 million people (Fig. 1). Rapid growth continued in the segment of consumer bankruptcies. The number of citizens (including individual entrepreneurs) declared bankrupt in 2020 was 72.6% more than in 2019 [4]. With the growth of unemployment, the population of the Russian Federation with monetary incomes below the subsistence minimum has increased. The positive dynamics of the decline in the number of people with incomes below the subsistence minimum, which was observed since 2015, changed to a negative one by the end of 2020. It is safe to say that the level of poverty of the population due to the pandemic in 2021 increased by 7.3% compared to the previous year [6]. In general, the COVID-19 pandemic has changed the usual working methods of personnel, undermined the well-being of human resource management systems in organizations. There are some institutional differences, but the key problems of personnel management in organizations in the conditions of the post-pandemic crisis can be systematized as follows [16]. Firstly, the deterioration of the financial well-being of organizations has created prerequisites for the release of personnel. Russian organizations in the field of healthcare and social assistance, public administration, finance and insurance, and the mining industry did not need to reduce positions. Most of them worked to retain employees and did not use state subsidies [22]. At the same time, a moratorium on hiring was introduced in most sectors of the Russian economy. 7 6

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Fig. 1 The unemployment rate of the population aged 15–72 years in Russia, 2015–2020. Source Compiled by the authors based on [3]

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Secondly, the transfer of employees to remote work by most organizations caused a decrease in productivity and productivity, as well as the quality of work, primarily due to the lack of existing experience in carrying out such work and gaps in new systems, policies and procedures for remote work [19]. Thirdly, the human resource management process should become more flexible and adequate to the changed situation. In this context, it is important to achieve compliance with changing legal circumstances, debugging internal policies and procedures, in particular, and the process of regulating remote work. Fourthly, the organization of new work formats in the pandemic is complicated by the lack of mechanisms for effective interaction, control, performance management, employee involvement and support, changes in employee benefits and policies related to remote work. Fifthly, the lack of digital technologies and Internet access for employees at home complicates the process of performing work remotely and also leads to disruption of work deadlines and conditions of interaction between participants in production activities [12]. Sixthly, under the conditions of the above factors, the psychological state of employees cannot remain stable. Regular stay in stress and anxiety reduce the professional capabilities of employees, their productivity and undermine confidence in the long term [25]. Even the requirements of spatial organization and the home context can affect their well-being and safety. The organization can save employees, guarantee them professional realization, comfortable working conditions and stable wages in the conditions of the postpandemic crisis by implementing several anti-crisis measures (Fig. 2). 1.

First of all, the organization needs to focus on information support for staff, including an open dialogue about the situation in the organization provoked by the pandemic and the designation of honest prospects for further interaction. During the post-pandemic crisis, it is very important to maintain regular and open communication between the management of the organization and

1) Information support of the staff

2) Alternative forms of employment

4) Development of personnel retraining systems

5) Orientation to EVP

3) Organization of digital workplaces

6) Personnel expertise

Fig. 2 Anti-crisis technologies of personnel management of the organization. Source Compiled by the authors

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employees to reduce the level of anxiety among employees and ensure the cohesion of the labour collective. Various forms of communication can be used: prompt communication of information about the progress of the work process; holding production meetings in the video format at different levels of the management hierarchy; informing employees about the latest developments related to health and safety; communicating information about the availability of local options for caring for children and other categories of socially vulnerable persons; informing about opportunities for self-development and training to adapt employees to changing roles and requirements. The effectiveness of using inductive approaches in practice has been proven. They show how employees who have found themselves in a new and dynamic working environment can achieve a balance between work and personal life. This can open up new areas of research on work-life conflicts and provide relevant practical implications for organizations that support people coping with serious work-family balance disorders. Organizations should introduce new non-standard forms of employment for the period of forced downtime in the pandemic: part-time employment of personnel; remote work; work with a floating schedule [23]. The effectiveness of this measure is proved by the experience of large corporations, in particular, Procter & Gamble, which gives freelance specialists the development and implementation of interactive companies for their brands [9]. Thus, the Japanese model of building a career, when an employee is devoted to one company for a lifetime, is losing its relevance. It is replaced by the European model of acquiring knowledge and experience in the short term and planning a new career scenario in another company. In general, even in the prepandemic period, there was an increase in non-standard employment in Russia: in 2019, 69% of employees worked in the office, 14%—remotely (freelance), and 17%—remotely, remaining full-time employees of the organization [2]. With the onset of the pandemic, this trend has increased many times. More than 80% of Russians switched to the homework mode on the recommendation of their employers and faced the need to adapt to new work models [11]. The diversification of employment forms and work models becomes an effective way to support the workflow at a certain level of activity, which allows not only to overcome the feeling of social isolation during the period of self-isolation but also to solve three pressing work problems—to optimize the selection of issues for discussion, to structure work requirements and to master the culture of feedback and gratitude. The remote format of the work makes a specific place of work secondary, and its effectiveness and evaluation take priority positions. However, because remote employment of an employee is associated with stress and the need to master new interaction technologies, adequate information and technical support of the workflow is required from the employer. The organization of digital workplaces has become an integral condition for the organization’s survival in the pandemic and ensuring its long-term development. Previously, process automation, the introduction of cloud technologies and machine learning technologies, big data analytics were available to

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successful organizations, and their use allowed us to judge the level of competitiveness. During the pandemic, information technologies became part of business life and transformed the organization’s space: the creation of digital workplaces, the use of collaboration tools, video conferencing and various online platforms now allows management to organize effective work of employees both in the office and outside it. Digital workplaces provide effective cooperation, form new meanings and values, allow employees to devote more time to creative activities instead of solving routine tasks. Companies that did not plan to introduce new digital technologies before the pandemic had to rebuild themselves in the process of introducing restrictive measures at an accelerated pace. During the crisis period, this proved to be a difficult task in the context of spending cuts [10]. Meanwhile, in order to gain a market advantage in the postpandemic period, a complete transformation of the organizational structure, the involvement of consumers and the satisfaction of their needs is required. The development of personnel retraining systems is an anti-crisis measure that meets the changed requirements for the workplace and the technological knowledge of employees. During the pandemic period, characterized by high uncertainty and the level of anxiety of the population, approaches that consider human resources as a system-forming factor of the organization’s activity and based on the principle of retaining qualified personnel will be effective. Thus, there was a need for continuous training of personnel. The organization of staff retraining is also under the influence of digitalization. Thus, the alliance of a large global company “Leroy Merlin” and the leader in the corporate applications market SAP launched a cloud HR transformation project “SuccessFactors” [26]. The digital platform developed by the companies automated the processes of training, development and evaluation of personnel in 103 stores of the network, and the use of a mobile application to access the platform provided increased opportunities for training employees and passing training in a remote format [18, 29]. Retraining of the organization’s personnel is aimed at the fastest possible adaptation of employees to radically changed working conditions. Such drastic changes will have important implications for the experience of employees in relation to the conformity of personality and environment [7, 30]. When the work environment that supports the fulfilment of the needs and desires of employees changes radically under the influence of the pandemic, the gap between individual needs and the current work environment begins to grow and lead to the experience of inconsistency [12]. Orientation to EVP (Employer Value Proposition) that is, a value proposition to an employee from a specific employer, where the key advantages that the organization offers in exchange for the knowledge, effort and time of the employee are formulated. The power of socially responsible business lies in the empathy of the pandemic taking place in the world. Many organizations have participated in projects for the production and supply of goods for the protection of human health. In particular, the group of companies for the production of anticorrosion and refractory coatings “O3” has launched a project for the production

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of disinfectants. Apple has started producing shield medical masks iShield made of transparent plastic and a belt, which are transferred to hospitals to protect medical personnel treating COVID-19 patients [23]. Such social projects form a favourable image of the organization, where employees strive to work even in crisis conditions. Personnel expertise is an anti-crisis technology that allows employees of HR services of organizations to identify aspects of staff welfare promptly. For example, the willingness of employees to cooperate, with HR specialists, and departments when making changes; as well as the willingness of employees to be flexible and adaptable; compliance with the necessary safety changes and a willingness to quickly learn and improve their skills. This positive behaviour allows organizations to effectively manage rapid changes. HR specialists should be able to advise managers on how to effectively manage the productivity of remote labour, while the problem of micro-management is often a cover for managers’ lack of trust in their employees when they are “invisible”.

5 Conclusion First, the article examines the impact of the 2020 crisis caused by the pandemic on the activities of organizations. It is proved that the negative impact of the pandemic is manifested in the form of a reduction in the number of operating commercial organizations, the release of labour and their transfer to the unemployed, and the aggravation of the problem of poverty of the population. Secondly, the authors highlighted the problems in the field of personnel management that arose as a result of the pandemic. These include the release of staff, reduced work efficiency, inconsistency with changing legal circumstances when transferring to remote work, lack of technologies for effective interaction and control, lack of digital technologies for employees, the psychological distress of employees. Thirdly, the authors proved the expediency of using anti-crisis technologies to increase the efficiency of the organization’s personnel to overcome the problems provoked by the pandemic. The package of measures includes information support for personnel, diversification of employment forms, organization of digital workplaces, development of personnel retraining systems, orientation to EVP, conducting personnel expertise. Data Availability 1.

2.

Data on the unemployment rate of the population aged 15–72 years in Russia in 2015–2020, which confirm the findings of the study, are available in https:// figshare.com/ with https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.16837525. Information about anti-crisis technologies of personnel management of the organization are available in https://figshare.com/ with https://doi.org/10.6084/m9. figshare.16837537.

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Analytical Review of Patent Activities in the Russian Federation Elena V. Sibirskaya , Lyudmila V. Oveshnikova , Irina Y. Vladyko , Innara R. Lyapina , and Aleksandr V. Zakharov

Abstract The research object is open data on patent activity. The paper studies applications on patents and their issuance in total and by type of patent. The authors calculate the coefficients of inventive activity, self-sufficiency, and technological dependence, which characterize patent activity. Moreover, the authors carry out correlation analysis to identify the relationship between patent activity and the number of researchers. Finally, the authors conduct a comparative analysis of indicators with the world leaders in the field of patents. Keywords Patent activity · Statistics · Economic analysis · Statistical analysis · Inventive activity JEL Classification O34 · C46

1 Introduction Nowadays, patent activity determines the technologies to be used in industry in the near future. It helps determine the level of industrial development. Therefore, E. V. Sibirskaya (B) · L. V. Oveshnikova · I. Y. Vladyko · A. V. Zakharov MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] L. V. Oveshnikova e-mail: [email protected] I. Y. Vladyko e-mail: [email protected] E. V. Sibirskaya · L. V. Oveshnikova Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia I. R. Lyapina Orel State University, Orel, Russia A. V. Zakharov Moscow University for Industry and Finance “Synergy”, Moscow, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_96

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studying the volume and dynamics of patent activity in Russia, which is the main objective of this work, is critical for determining the country’s innovation potential and the level and prospects of industrial and technological development. The research structure reflects an independent approach to the studied topic, based on open data and research of Russian and foreign scholars [1, 2, 7, 9, 10]. The research is based on the involvement of a considerable amount of analytical data obtained from reliable sources (e.g., Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation, Federal Service for Intellectual Property of the Russian Federation, Official Bulletin of Inventions and Utility Models of the Russian Federation, European Patent Office, and World Intellectual Property Organization) and statistical tools to support the conclusions drawn.

2 Methodology The research is based on open sources of information on patent data because these data characterize the effectiveness of research and development and the potential of innovative activity. The algorithm for obtaining and processing information on the volume and dynamics of patent activity consists of the following basic steps: 1. 2.

3. 4.

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Collecting information on the number of patent applications from public sources; Downloading statistical data from websites of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat), Federal Service for Intellectual Property of the Russian Federation (Rospatent), Official Bulletin of Inventions and Utility Models of the Russian Federation, European Patent Office, and World Intellectual Property Organization; Preliminary processing and analysis of the array of information received; Downloading the raw and processed data set; developing data structures in MySQL format to store complete raw information available for retrieval from each information source; Saving the original data set and cleaned data in the format of MySQL database dump with all necessary auxiliary information (data on Russian and foreign applicants for patents, indicators of patent activity, etc.); Analytical structuring of the array of information.

Statistical analysis is conducted as the information array is created. As a tool for a comprehensive study of the available opportunities of individual regions, countries, and the world with respect to technological areas or fields, statistical analysis allows reflecting trends in patenting, which represent promising areas of development of various sectors of the economy, considering the possible emergence of new developments and their subsequent commercialization.

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3 Results Due to the huge array of information received in the article, the authors use fragments in the form of a time interval for 2015–2019. The study of patent activity in Russia should begin with the analysis of the number of patent applications filed with Rospatent (Fig. 1). This indicator shows the number of applications submitted to Rospatent for examination each year. According to Fig. 1, Russia has seen a downward trend in the number of applications for all types of patents over the past five years. In 2019, the number of applications decreased by a factor of 1.2 compared to 2015. The number of applications in 2019 decreased by 3.6% and 17.1% relative to 2018 and 2015, respectively. The average growth rate for the studied period was 95.42% (Table 1). Table 1 indicates a decrease in patent activity in Russia in recent years. It is worth noting that the decrease in the volume of applications was caused by a decrease in both Russian and foreign applicants [7]. Table 1 also shows that the primary type of patent is a patent for inventions, accounting for 68.7% of all applications in 2019. This patenting is the most common worldwide. It was the 6.4% and 21.9% decrease in patent applications for inventions in 2019 relative to 2018 and 2015 that led to the decrease in total applications. Even the 2.4% and 22.7% increase in patent applications for industrial designs in 2019 relative to 2018 and 2015 did not affect the bottom line because the share of the patent applications for industrial designs while increasing from 8% in 2015 to 11.7% in 2019, was still the lowest of all types of patents. Thus, there is a decrease in the number of patent applications for inventions and utility models in Russia and an increase in industrial designs against a general decline in patent activity.

Fig. 1 Dynamics of the number of patent applications in Russia for 2015–2019 (fragment). Source Compiled by the authors based on statistical data of Rospatent [3]

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Table 1 Dynamics and growth rates of the number of filed applications and patents granted in Russia for 2015–2019 (fragment) Indicator

2015

Number of applications for inventions

45,517 41,587 36,454 37,957 35,511 39,405

Growth rate, %

–

Number of applications for utility models

11,906 11,112 10,643 9747

93.98 10,136 10,709

Growth rate, %

–

93.33

95.78

91.58

103.99

Number of applications for industrial designs

4929

5464

6487

5908

6048

Growth rate, %

–

110.85 118.72 91.0

Total number of applications

2016

91.37

2017

87.66

2018

2019

Average annual value/Average growth rate

104.12 93.56

96.06

5767

102.37

105.25 62,352 58,163 53,584 53,612 51,695 55,881

Growth rate, %

93.28

92.13

100.05 96.42

Growth rate, %

96.63

102.14 104.44 95.06

Number of issued patents 9008 for utility models

8875

8774

9867

Growth rate, %

98.52

98.86

112.46 89.67

Number of issued patents 5459 for industrial designs

4455

5339

6305

Growth rate, %

81.61

119.84 118.09 85.57

95.31

103.20 107.4

95.42 Number of issued patents 34,706 33,536 34,254 35,774 34,008 34,456 for inventions

Total number of issued patents Growth rate, %

8848

5395

99.49

9074

99.55

5391

99.7 49,173 46,866 48,367 51,946 48,251 48,921

92.89

99.53

Source Compiled by the authors based on statistical data of Rosstat [4]

Another important indicator of patent activity is the number of patents issued. While the number of applications shows how many inventions, utility models, and industrial designs have been developed, the number of patents issued reflects how many inventions, utility models, and industrial designs have passed the examination and actually represent patented objects of intellectual property. Therefore, the number of patents issued is an important result characterizing the performance of the patent system (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 Dynamics of patent issuance in Russia for 2015–2019 (fragment). Source Compiled by the authors based on statistical data of Rospatent [3]

The data analysis in Fig. 2 shows that the value of the number of issued patents over the past five years has changed in leaps and bounds. For this period, the average growth rate was 99.53%. In general, this indicator is at the same level, and the average annual number of issued patents is 48,920. Only the share of granted patents in the total number of applications changes relatively strongly. For example, the proportion was 78.86% in 2015 and 93.34% in 2019. However, we can notice that there is no strong direct correlation between the volume of applications and the volume of patents issued, which can be explained by the rather long time of the patenting process. Thus, most of the issued patents are applications that have been filed a year or more ago. Therefore, the decrease in the number of filed applications will affect the dynamics of issued patents only after some time. The structure of patent applications by nationality of the applicant is shown in Fig. 3. More than two-thirds of all patent applications during the studied period belong to Russian applicants. The application rates of foreign applicants in absolute and relative values are decreasing, which shows that foreign companies in Russia are less involved in patenting activities, opening up additional opportunities for Russian inventors. The USA (3308 applications in 2019), Germany (1645 applications in 2019), Japan (1513 applications in 2019), China (1289 applications in 2019), and Switzerland (1012 applications in 2019) are the most active foreign countries in terms of patent activity in Russia [7]. In international practice, the analysis of patent activity uses indicators such as the coefficient of inventive activity, which characterizes the number of patent applications per 10,000 people in the country, the coefficient of self-sufficiency, and the coefficient

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Fig. 3 Dynamics of the share of Russian and foreign patent applicants in Russia in 2015–2019. (fragment). Source Compiled by the authors based on statistical data of Rospatent [3]

of technological dependence [9]. Let us calculate these indicators for Russia for 2015–2019 (Fig. 4). The downward trend in the coefficient of inventive activity reflects the downward trend in the number of applications in Russia. The coefficient also indicates a decrease in patent activity. The dynamics of the coefficient of self-sufficiency show an increase in 2018, which is due to an increase in the share of Russian applicants and a reduction in foreign patent applications for inventions. The same factor affects the decrease in the coefficient of technological dependence, which is expressed as a ratio of the number of foreign applications for inventions to the number of Russian applicants. The reasons for the decrease in patent activity include the following:

Fig. 4 Indicators of patent activity in Russia in 2015–2019 (fragment). Source Calculated and compiled by the authors based on statistical data of Rospatent and Rosstat [3, 5]

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• Lack of decent guaranteed remuneration for scientists and inventors when patenting and using their developments; • Insufficient funding for R&D; • Lack of prospects and the complexity of the system for technology transfer for possible commercialization; • Misunderstanding by the organization’s management of the long-term risks of poor management of intellectual property, reductions of current costs; • Lack of systemic requirements for R&D performance and intellectual property management in organizations and at the state level, insufficient scientific and technical level of R&D performed; • Lack of qualified specialists in the field of intellectual property [9]. The decrease in the number of applications from foreign applicants can be explained by the foreign policy pursued by foreign countries with regard to Russia, including the introduction of sanctions, which is reflected in the reduced interest of foreign companies in patenting in Russia. However, over the period 2015–2019, there were positive trends in the execution of public services for the legal protection of intellectual property, including a reduction in the time for consideration of applications and an increase in the share of electronic applications. Thus, the time for the consideration of applications for inventions was reduced from 8 months in 2018 to 5.7 months in 2019, for utility models—from 3 to 1.4 months, for industrial designs—from 5.5 to 4.4 months [2]. The share of electronic applications for inventions increased to 48.64% in 2019, compared to 39.71% in 2018 [2]. However, the introduction of an electronic system for accepting applications does not increase patent activity in Russia. Patent activity in Russia depends on the number of scientists and organizations engaged in research and the creation of intellectual property. Therefore, an indicator of the number of researchers—people professionally engaged in R&D, directly carrying out the creation of new knowledge, products, processes, methods, and systems, and managing these activities (according to the Rosstat methodology)— must be associated with the patent activity [9]. To determine the relationship between these processes, it is necessary to calculate pairwise correlation coefficients. We take the number of patent applications for all types of patents as an independent variable. As dependent variables, we consider the following indicators: • • • • •

Total number of researchers; The number of researchers with an academic degree of Candidate of Sciences; The number of researchers with doctoral degrees; The number of employees of organizations engaged in R&D; The share of innovative goods, works, and services in the total volume of shipped goods, performed works, and rendered services of industrial organizations (Table 2).

Based on the correlation analysis, we can conclude that there is a direct and strong correlation between the index of patent applications and all studied indicators. The strongest correlation is observed between the number of applications and the

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Table 2 Values of pair correlation coefficients Number of Number of Number of Number researchers researchers—candidates researchers—doctors of of science of sciences personnel engaged in R&D

Total 0.946 applications submitted

0.970

0.959

0.926

Specific weight of innovative goods, works, and services 0.841

Source Calculated by the authors based on statistical data of Rospatent and Rosstat [3, 6]

number of researchers with an academic degree of Candidate of Sciences (0.97). Thus, patent activity in Russia directly depends on the number of researchers in the country. Therefore, the decline in the number of scientists engaged in R&D is another important reason for the decline in patent activity in Russia. The correlation with the number of researchers who have degrees is greater than with the number of all scientists and staff of the organizations. Thus, the stimulation of the scientific and educational sphere should positively affect the patent activity in Russia. Due to a strong direct correlation, the reduction in the organization’s R&D staff, which includes researchers, technicians, and support staff, negatively affects the volume of patent applications in Russia. Additionally, there is a less strong but still significant relationship between patent activity and the share of innovative goods in the total volume of shipped goods and works performed by industrial enterprises. To understand the position of Russia in terms of patent activity, it is necessary to analyze patent activity in other countries and compare the key indicators of patent activity in these countries with Russian patent activity. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, the top ten countries in the number of patent applications for inventions in 2015 were as follows: first place—the USA; second place—Japan; third place—China; fourth place—Germany; fifth—South Korea; sixth place—France; seventh place—the UK; eighth place—the Netherlands; ninth place—Switzerland; tenth place—Sweden [8]. In 2019, the situation changed, with China being the undisputed leader in the number of patent applications for inventions from 2016 to 2019, followed by the USA, Japan, and South Korea. These countries are marked with a high level of innovative development, research, development, and implementation of high-tech equipment in production. The European Patent Office (EPO) rounds out the top five. The EPO is the executive body of the European Patent Organization, which reviews applications and grants patents. There are 38 countries in the EPO. Russia is in eighth place in this rating. In terms of absolute indicators of patent activity, Russia lags far behind the top five countries in this ranking: 40 times that of China, 15 times that of the USA, and 4.6 times that of the EPO. Nevertheless, Russia ranks high relative to other countries and steadily maintains its position in the top ten. However, this indicator is not indicative of the real level of patent activity.

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Since all countries are highly differentiated by population, it is necessary to calculate the coefficient of inventive activity for a more correct assessment and comparison of patent activity. The calculation of the coefficient of inventive activity allows us to compare the results of patent activity in different countries (Fig. 5). Analysis of the data presented in Fig. 5 shows that the world leader in inventive activity is South Korea, which significantly surpasses other countries. The first three leading countries are Asian states, which allows us to conclude that the global center of scientific, technological, and patent activity is moving to East Asia [7]. In addition to the countries shown in the chart, Austria (4.89), Denmark (6.29), the Netherlands (5.37), Finland (5.64), Sweden (5.78), Monaco (7.24), Luxembourg (9.92), and Switzerland (10.81) also had high ratios in 2018 [2]. The values of this coefficient for Russia are significantly lower than those of the countries studied above. Russia ranked 25th in the world for this coefficient in 2018 [2]. Thus, the three Asian countries (South Korea, Japan, and China) and the USA are the main drivers of the world patent activity, while the main “backbone” of the world patenting is formed by several European countries under the leadership of the European Patent Office. Canada, India, and Russia, which were among the top ten countries with the largest number of patent applications for inventions, have low coefficients and do not occupy high positions. The main reasons for this are the large proportion of foreign applicants in the total number of applications, which are not counted in this coefficient, and the recalculation by population. To understand the proportion of patent applications for inventions filed by residents of a particular country, it is necessary to calculate the self-sufficiency ratio. The higher the coefficient, the more patent developments are carried out by country residents (Fig. 6).

Fig. 5 Dynamics of the coefficient of inventive activity in some countries of the world for the period 2014–2018 (fragment). Source Compiled by the authors based on data from the World Intellectual Property Organization [12]

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Fig. 6 Dynamics of self-sufficiency ratio by countries of the world for 2014–2018 (fragment). Source Compiled by the authors based on data from the World Intellectual Property Organization [12]

The analysis of the self-sufficiency ratio shows that in China, almost all patent applications for inventions come from national entities, indicating a highly developed patent system in the country. High rates in Japan, South Korea, and Germany indicate that most of the applications are residents of these countries [10]. The low selfsufficiency rate in the USA indicates that foreign companies account for the majority of all patent applications for inventions in the country. However, it is worth noting that American companies patent extensively in other countries (230 thousand patent applications abroad) [1]. The self-sufficiency rate in Russia is higher than 0.5, indicating that there are more Russian applicants. Nevertheless, the coefficient is lower than in other countries, which means that changes in external conditions can significantly affect patent activity in Russia [11]. Let us compare the indicators of the coefficient of technological dependence of the same countries. The lower the ratio, the lower the ratio of foreign to national applicants (Fig. 7). This coefficient reflects global trends in the self-sufficiency ratio: China has the lowest technological dependence because almost all patents are national, and the USA has the highest technological dependence because foreign patent applicants prevail in the national patent system. Russia tries to follow the trends of Asia and Europe and develop the patent system preferably for Russian researchers. Nevertheless, Russia lags behind other countries in terms of the coefficient of technological dependence; the indicator has a decreasing trend, showing a decrease in foreign applicants in the national patent system.

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Fig. 7 Dynamics of the coefficient of technological dependence of the world’s countries for 2014– 2018 (fragment). Source Compiled by the authors based on data from the World Intellectual Property Organization [12]

According to 2018 data, the largest number of active invention patents is registered in the USA—3.06 million. China’s high rate of application growth in recent years has allowed it to become the 2nd largest patent holder globally, with 2.36 million active patents. China is followed by Japan, South Korea, and Germany. Russia ranks 9th in the world by this indicator, with 256 thousand active patents.

4 Conclusion Several problems characterize patent activity in Russia. First, there is a decrease in the total number of patent applications, which may be due to the low interest of organizations and scholars in research, development, and R&D. Second, there is a reduction in the number of researchers engaged in patent activity. The interest of foreign companies and researchers in patenting in Russia is decreasing, which is caused by the foreign policy and the imposition of sanctions against Russia. Thus, the share of Russian applicants in the total volume of submitted applications is increasing. On the one hand, this trend increases the technological independence of Russia, but it should be supported by strengthening national patent activity. However, in Russia, low interest in R&D and the insufficient efficiency of the patent system lead to a decrease in the patent activity of residents. Therefore, on the other hand, the reduction of foreign patents may slow down the introduction and use of new technologies in production, which will have a negative impact on the development of the industry and the innovative development of the country.

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In the author’s opinion, global trends in the development of patent activity can be reduced to three models: Asian, European, and American. Asian countries have a relatively rigid patent system, which aims to support and develop the patenting of national developers and researchers. This aim is reflected in the fact that patent applicants are mostly residents of a given country; foreign applicants make up a small proportion compared to other countries. This tendency is due to the interest of all economic entities in the innovative development of the country, the development of R&D, which is reflected in a high level of research activities, and the great competition among patents in these countries, which is not beneficial for foreign researchers. Additionally, China, Japan, and South Korea rarely register their patent developments in other countries. The American model aims to support researchers from any country to patent in the USA and attract various developments to the country. Simultaneously, the residents of the USA are patenting abroad in large numbers. The European model is a combination of the previous two models. In these countries, the patent system aims to maintain national developments in the domestic market (because the applications from residents prevail domestically), but not to the same extent as in Asia. Simultaneously, these countries actively support the registration of their developments in other countries. Thus, 60% of all applications by German researchers are filed with patent agencies in other countries. A similar trend can be observed in almost all European countries. It is challenging to refer Russia to any of these models. Most patent applications come from Russian applicants. However, foreign researchers are also actively involved. Russian developers mainly register their patents in Russia and rarely apply to patent offices of other countries (20% of the total volume of applications by Russian residents). In general, patent activity in Russia is not as well and efficiently developed as in other economically developed countries. The comparison of patent activity allows identifying weaknesses and problems. It helps determine the public measures to develop and stimulate patenting in Russia, which will help achieve further industrial development because, without the development of the patent activity, the Russian industrial sector will reduce its pace of development and become dependent on imported technology.

References 1. Chakrabarti DI, Dror I (1994) Technology transfers and knowledge interactions among defense firms in the USA: an analysis of patent citations. Int J Technol Manag 9(5/6/7):757–770 2. Choung JY, Hwang HR, Choi JH, Rim MH (2000) Transition of latecomer firms from technology users to technology generators: Korean semiconductor firms. World Dev 28(5):969–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00161-8 3. Federal Service for Intellectual Property (Rospatent) (2019) Rospatent annual report 2019. Retrieved from https://rospatent.gov.ru/content/uploadfiles/otchet-2019-ru.pdf. Accessed 21 Oct 2021

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4. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (n.d.) Patent applications and granting of titles of protection in Russia, 2005–2020. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov. ru/storage/mediabank/Eh1jZ6YK/innov6.xls. Accessed 21 Oct 2021 5. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (n.d.) The number of permanent population in the Russian Federation. Retrieved from https://showdata.gks.ru/report/278 930/. Accessed 21 Oct 2021 6. Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation (Rosstat) (n.d.) Science and innovation. Retrieved from https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/14477. Accessed 21 Oct 2021 7. Kortov SV, Shulgin DB, Tolmachev DE, Yegarmina AD (2017) Analysis of technological trends based on the construction of patent landscapes. Econ Reg 13(3):935–947. https://doi. org/10.17059/2017-3-24 8. Meyer-Dulheuer MD Legal Patentanwälte PartG mbB (2016, Mar 26) U.S.: leader in international patent and trademark filings 2015. Retrieved from https://legal-patent.com/patent-law/ u-s-leader-in-international-patent-and-trademark-filings-2015/. Accessed 21 Oct 2021 9. Nikolaev AS (2018) The analysis of the company’s business environment by means of patent information and patent landscape software. Soc Econ Law 4:37–40. https://doi.org/10.24158/ pep.2018.4.7 10. Noh H, Jo Ye, Lee S (2015) Keyword selection and processing strategy for applying text mining to patent analysis. Expert Syst Appl 42(9):4348–4360 11. Oveshnikova LV, Sibirskaya EV, Tenetova EP, Kuznetsova NP, Grigoryeva MO (2020) Potential horizons of technological development of Russia. In: Popkova E, Sergi B (eds) The 21st century from the positions of modern science: intellectual, digital and innovative aspects. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32015-7_30 12. WIPO (n.d.) Intellectual property statistics. Retrieved from https://www.wipo.int/ipstats/Ips StatsResultvalue. Accessed 21 Oct 2021

Research of Open Data of Recruiting Agencies of the Russian Labor Market Using Big Data Analytics Technologies Elena V. Sibirskaya , Innara R. Lyapina , Elena M. Semenova, Elena N. Tokmakova, and Tatyana S. Pitel

Abstract The object of this study is the open data of monitoring the professional and qualification sphere of the labor market of the Russian Federation in the context of the database of vacancies by areas of professional activity «metallurgical production». The purpose of performing the entire range of work: analysis of data on vacancies and resumes collected from open sources (Work in Russia, HeadHunter, SuperJob) to study the dynamics and structure of their distribution by areas of professional activity “metallurgical production”, as well as analysis of employers’ requirements for employee positions in the labor market using Big Data analytics technologies. Apache Spark, Apache Flume were used as the main software packages for creating the infrastructure. The article presents a cross-section of research on the analysis of the dynamics and structure of vacancies and a resumes on the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» for 71 professions in accordance with the Directory of professions: change in the number of vacancies and resumes, maximum and minimum wages; the current trends in the number of jobs are presented; a comparative analysis of changes in the average monthly nominal accrued wages of workers in the economy was carried out; the need for workers to fill vacancies has been studied in accordance with the All-Russian Classifier of Occupations (OKZ). Keywords Labor market · Big data · Metallurgical production · Vocational and qualification sphere · Vacancies · Resume JEL Classification J21 · J30 · J44 · J81 E. V. Sibirskaya (B) MIREA—Russian Technological University, Moscow, Russia e-mail: [email protected] Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, Moscow, Russia I. R. Lyapina · E. M. Semenova · E. N. Tokmakova Orel State University, Orel, Russia T. S. Pitel Orel State Agrarian University, Orel, Russia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1_97

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1 Introduction The structure of the study reflects an independent (based on open data and research) of Russian) and foreign scientists [1–11] approach to the research topic. It should be noted that the study is based on the involvement of a large amount of analytical data obtained from reliable sources (Work in Russia,1 HeadHunter,2 SuperJob3 ), and the mathematical apparatus to confirm the conclusions formulated in this study.

2 Methodology The execution of work is based on the use of open sources of information about vacancies and resumes (Work in Russia, HeadHunter, SuperJob), official information of the Federal State Statistics Service, characterizing the state of the labor market. The algorithm of actions for receiving and processing information about vacancies and resumes consists of four main stages: (1) collection of information about vacancies and resumes from open sources; (2) download of archives of vacancies, resumes and auxiliary classifiers from the site «Work in Russia»; (3) downloading information about vacancies from the HeadHunter and SuperJob sites using their programming interfaces using specially developed sets of programs; (4) preliminary processing of the received array of information, highlighting common fields in vacancy and resume records, saving an array of initial data with meta information about the structure of records, source, time of receipt, etc.; development of algorithms for extracting the minimum required information (such as minimum and maximum wages, region, work experience, knowledge, skills) for information that is not explicitly present in resume and vacancy records; development of heuristic algorithms for automatic correction of errors in the source data; unification and cleaning of information about vacancies and resumes for further processing; updating the database with information on vacancies by areas of professional activity in accordance with the Directory of occupations; development of methods for detecting duplicate records about vacancies and resumes, unloading the original and processed data array; development of data structures in MySQL format for storing complete initial information available for obtaining from each information source (Work in Russia, HeadHunter, SuperJob); creating a reference pointer for the link between cleaned and original data; saving the original data array and cleaned data in the format of a MySQL database dump with all the necessary auxiliary information (data about employers, regions, industries, etc.).

1

Work in Russia. URL: https://trudvsem.ru/. HeadHunter. URL: https://hh.ru/. 3 SuperJob. URL: https://www.superjob.ru/. 2

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3 Results The Directory of occupations demanded in the labor market, new and promising occupations (amended by the Order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of February 10, 2016 № 46) has been approved according to the Order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Russian Federation of November 2, 2015 No. 832. Currently, there are 71 professions in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production». It provides a brief description of the profession, minimum requirements for education and work experience, defines the Code for the All-Russian Classifier of Occupations, also presents the Code and the name of the professional standard (if any), as well as the name of the profession in accordance with the AllRussian Classifier of Workers’ Professions, Employee Positions, and tariff categories (Table 1). According to the table, it can be seen that a brief description is provided for all 71 professions, the requirements for education are not lower than vocational training. Experience requirements are represented by 19 professions and are listed by definition as secondary vocational education, depending on the level of qualifications. Currently, 61 professions have their own professional standard, 10 professions do not have it. Let’s analyze the data presented in Table 1 (Table 2). According to the Table 2, it can be seen that, a brief description is provided for all 71 professions, education requirements are not lower than vocational training. Let’s conduct a structural and dynamic analysis for 2019 in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» in the context of the number of vacancies. There is a stable depressive state, indicating a slight increase in the number of vacancies in general during the study period, on a quarterly basis in Russia as a whole. By the structure of vacancies (2015–2019), it can be clearly noted that the quarterly breakdown by type of activity «Metallurgical production» as a whole in the Russian Federation gives a heterogeneous picture, in the 4th quarter of 2015, the following professions were presented on recruiting sites as the most in-demand Table 1 Fragment of the directory of occupations demanded in the labor market, new and promising occupations (amended by the order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of February 10, 2016 № 46) in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» Name of profession Conformity 1. Agglomerant

Professional area—metallurgical production Professional standard—27.019 agglomerant Position (worker’s profession): agglomerant of the 3rd–6th category Federal State Educational Standard 22.02.01 metallurgy of ferrous metals OKZ 8112 operators, instrument control men and machinists of ore processing plants and concentration equipment OKPDTR 10041 agglomerant ETKS/EKS ETKS, vol. 4, section «Agglomeration of ores», paragraphs 1–4

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

4

+

1. Agglomerant

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

3

2

1

Number of positions (worker professions)

Compliance with professional activity

Name of profession

22.02.01 metallurgy of ferrous metals

4

The presence of the Federal State Educational Standard in the direction 8112 operators, instrument control men and machinists of ore processing plants and concentration equipment

5

Conformity of profession to the OKZ by direction

10041 agglomerant

6

Conformity of profession to the OKPDTR by direction

Vol. 4, section «Agglomeration of ores», paragraphs 1–4

7

+

8

Conformity of Availability of a profession to the professional ETKS/EKS ETKS standard by section

Table 2 Analytical information of professions in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» for December 2019 (fragment)

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Table 3 Dynamics of professions in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» by vacancies in 2019 (fragment) Name of profession

1. Agglomerant

2019 1st quarter

2 quarter

3 quarter

4th quarter

Number of vacancies, pcs

Number of vacancies, pcs

Number of vacancies, pcs

Number of vacancies, pcs

253↓

262

293

303

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

professions: «Specialist in the hydrometallurgical production of heavy non-ferrous metals» (+4244 units) and «Cleaner of metal and castings, products and parts» (+3738 units), in the 1st quarter of 2016—the professions «Drawer» (+4066 units) and «Process engineer in metallurgical production» (+2546 units), for the rest of the periods, there is a tendency to change vacancies by profession. The most demanded professions in the vacancy market for the entire study period are the following professions: «Drawer», «Process engineer in metallurgical production» and «Adjuster-repairer of industrial equipment in metallurgy». In dynamics, this can be presented in Table 3 (fragment). According to these professions, the demand on the labor market is heterogeneous, this follows from the fragment of the presented table. As a rule, it is not necessary to observe a pronounced dynamic, however, in the professions of «Drawer» and «Technological engineer in metallurgical production». In the regional context, it can be seen that many professions are represented in almost all regions, vacancies in the profession «Agglomerant» in the context of regions are presented in 85 regions of 85 constituent entities of the Russian Federation from the 4th quarter of 2015 to the 4th quarter of 2019 inclusive. The maximum number of vacancies is observed in the Kemerovo and Sverdlovsk regions. The following results, presented in Table 4 (fragment), were obtained after conducting a study on the analysis and processing of data on the number of resumes collected from open sources (Work in Russia, HeadHunter, SuperJob) for 2019 in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production». Let’s analyze the dynamics of the minimum and maximum wages by profession in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» by quarters of 2019 (Table 5—fragment). Table 4 The number of resumes collected from open sources (Work in Russia, HeadHunter, SuperJob) for 2019 in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» (quarterly— fragment) Name of profession

Q1 2019

Q2 2019

Q3 2019

Q4 2019

1. Agglomerant

–

2

–

–

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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Table 5 Initial data on the dynamics of the minimum and maximum wages by profession by quarters of 2019 Name of profession 1. Agglomerant

2019—2, 3, 4 quartersa

2019—1st quarter Min. salary, rub

Max. salary, rub

12,000

120,000

Min. salary, rub

Max. salary, rub

a No

data available Source Developed and compiled by the authors

The Russian labor market is performing surprisingly well based on key quantitative indicators in this sector of the economy, such as employment or unemployment. This type of flexibility allows maintaining fairly high levels of employment and economic activity in virtually all occupations, while unemployment rates have never come close to any dangerous values. An array of information was obtained from employers’ requests (data lake) for the in-demand positions of employees, based on formalized elements of the structure presented on the websites of recruiting agencies, including «education (level and focus)», «work experience», «job responsibilities (job functions)», «knowledge» or «skills» (in the context of positions), when using cloud technologies. The request processing scheme is shown in Fig. 1. Table 6 presents an analytical overview of employers’ requests for «education (level and focus)» for positions in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment).

Data lake (employers' requests from recruiting agencies)

Analytical review of employers' requests for «education (level and focus) » for positions in the fields of professional activity «metallurgical production», from 2015 to 2019 (in the context of positions)

Analytical review of employers' requests for «work experience» for positions in the fields of professional activity «metallurgical production» from 2015 to 2019 (in the context of positions)

Analytical review of employers' requests for «job duties (labor functions) » (if such information is available) for positions in the fields of professional activity «metallurgical production» from 2015 to 2019 (in the context of positions)

Analytical review of employers' requests «knowledge» or «skills» (if such information is available) for positions in the fields of professional activity "metallurgical production" from 2015 to 2019 (in the context of positions)

Fig. 1 Algorithm for creating analytical reviews of employers’ requests for in-demand employee positions, based on formalized structure elements. Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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Table 6 Analytical overview of employers’ requests for «education (level and focus)» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment) Name of profession/Position

According to the directory of professions to the profession

Overview of employers’ requests for «education (level and focus)»

1. Agglomerant

Vocational training

100% of vacancies contain requirements for secondary vocational education in accordance with the data downloaded from the databases of recruiting agencies’ websites

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Table 7 presents an analytical overview of employers’ requests for «work experience» for positions in the areas of professional activity «metallurgical production» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment). Table 7 Analytical overview of employers’ requests for «work experience» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment) Name of profession/Position

According to the directory of professions to the profession

Overview of employers’ requests for «work experience»

1. Agglomerant

Maintenance of sintering machine, auxiliary equipment and mechanisms

100% of vacancies contain requirements for work experience in accordance with the data downloaded from the databases of recruiting agencies’ websites

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Table 8 Analytical overview of employers’ requests for «job duties (labor functions)» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment) Name of profession/Position

According to the directory of professions, the description of the profession

Overview of employers’ requests for «job duties (labor functions)»

1. Agglomerant

Maintenance of sintering machine, auxiliary equipment and mechanisms

100% of vacancies do not contain requirements for job duties (labor functions) in accordance with the professional standard and description of the profession in accordance with the data downloaded from the databases of recruiting agencies’ websites

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

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E. V. Sibirskaya et al.

Table 9 Analytical overview of employers’ requests for «knowledge» or «skills» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment) Name of profession/Position

In accordance with the directory of professions to profession in relation to knowledge or skills in accordance with the professional standard

Overview of employers’ requests for «knowledge» or «skills»

1. Agglomerant

Professional standard—27.019 Agglomerant Possible names of profession/position: agglomerant of 3–6 categories Labor functions: maintenance of sintering machine, auxiliary equipment and machinery Practical experience requirements: no Special conditions for admission to work: persons at least 18 years of age, etc. Availability of certificates: – slinger; – for admission to the maintenance and operation of gas facilities

There are no employers’ requests for «knowledge» or «skills» in vacancies in accordance with the data downloaded from the databases of recruiting agencies’ websites

Source Developed and compiled by the authors

Table 8 presents an analytical overview of employers’ requests for «job duties (labor functions)», for positions in the areas of professional activity «metallurgical production» for 2019 (in the context of positions). Table 9 presents an analytical overview of employers’ requests for «knowledge» or «skills» (if such information is available), for positions in the areas of professional activity «metallurgical production» for 2019 (in the context of positions—fragment).

4 Conclusion Data on vacancies and resumes collected from open sources (Work in Russia, HeadHunter, SuperJob) for 2019 in the field of professional activity «metallurgical production» were analyzed and systematized as a result of the research: number of vacancies and resumes, maximum and minimum wages, analysis of the dynamics and structure of the distribution of vacancies and resumes in the context of the All-Russian classifier of specialties in education (OKSO) and the All-Russian classifier of occupations (OKZ).

Research of Open Data of Recruiting Agencies of the Russian …

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Acknowledgements The article was prepared as part of an internal grant from the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in 2021.

References 1. Bargain O, Orsini K, Peichl A (2014) Comparing labor supply elasticities in Europe and the US: new results. J Hum Resour 49(3):723–838 2. Brandolini A, Cipollone P, Viviano E (2006) Does the ILO definition capture all unemployment? J Eur Econ Assoc 4(1):53–79 3. Dingel JI, Neiman B (2020) How many jobs can be done at home? NBER Working paper 26948. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Available at SSRN: https:// ssrn.com/abstract=3594206 4. Jones SRG, Riddell WC (1999) The measurement of unemployment: an empirical approach. Econometrica 67(1):147–162 5. Jones SRG, Riddell WC (2019) Unemployment, marginal attachment and labor force participation in Canada and the United States. J Law Econ 37(Supplement 2):399–441 6. Kovalenko T, Schnabel C, Stüber H (2020) Is the German labour market granular? Appl Econ Lett 1–8 7. Kroft K, Lange F, Notowidigdo MJ (2013) Duration dependence and labor market conditions: evidence from a field experiment. Quart J Econ 128(3):1123–1167 8. Michaelides M, Mueser P (2020) The labor market effects of US reemployment policy: lessons from an analysis of four programs during the great recession. J Labor Econ 38(4). https://www. researchgate.net/publication/319457563 9. Moffat J, Yoo HI (2015) Who are the unemployed? Evidence from the United Kingdom. Econ Lett 132:61–64 10. Cristiano P (2020) Employment protection and gender wage gap in Europe. Panoeconomicus 67(2):139–165 11. Sibirskaya EV et al (2020) Monitoring of regional labor markets and the main trends of labor underutilization in Russia. Int J Soc Soc Policy. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-03-2020-0090. Accessed: 11.04.2021

Provision of Security for Sustainable Development: The Perspective of the Decade of Action (Conclusion)

Security is one of the criteria of socio-economic systems’ sustainability. That’s why the provision of security sets a foundation for the successful practical implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This book has demonstrated multiple examples from the international experience on the provision of modern socio-economic systems’ security. The authors’ conclusions, fundamental results, and applied developments specify the essence and approaches to the achievement and contribution to sustainable development and implementation of its corresponding goals. The demonstrated green innovations in agriculture and the modern experience of food security provision support SDG 2 (and partially SDG 1). Together with the performed research in the sphere of environment protection (in the aspect of food and environmental security), they strengthen the scientific and methodological basis of implementing SDGs 13–15, and, indirectly, SDG 3 and SDG 6. This book also contains a range of studies in the sphere of energy security, contributing to the implementation of SDG 7. The considered issues of legal regulation of sustainable development and environmental security, in particular by economic integration (partnership), provide support for SDGs 16–17. The considered economic security of regions and green innovations in natural resources management, in particular production waste reduction, elaborate on the implementation of SDGs 11–12. The studied foundations of technological security provision in the digital environment, data protection, and information security support the implementation of SDG 9 (through the provision of information and technological security). Security, considered as the priority of personnel management and intellectual property protection (i.e., provision of personnel and intellectual security), stimulates the achievement of SDG 8 (and partially SDG 4, SDG 5, and SDG 10).

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E. G. Popkova et al. (eds.), Towards an Increased Security: Green Innovations, Intellectual Property Protection and Information Security, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 372, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93155-1

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Provision of Security for Sustainable Development: The Perspective …

Thus, this book provides scientific support and could serve as a guide for the systemic implementation of all SDGs in the Decade of Action (the period until 2030). However, the perspective of the Decade of Action remains unclear due to the scientific inventions’ demonstrating new research questions that deserve attention and solution. These include the issue of developing the cooperation of interested parties and ensuring their highly effective collaboration (distributing resources, authorities, risks, and responsibility) during the provision of security for sustainable development. The new research questions that have been determined in this book include also the issue of simultaneous and equal provision of food and ecological, information and technological, and personnel and intellectual security. Here special attention should be paid to the search for perspective managerial measures that will allow for the simultaneous implementation of all directions of security provision. It is suggested that these issues be studied in future scientific works.