Torture : The Grand Conspiracy 0297773895

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TORTURE The Grand Conspiracy Malise Ruthven

TORTURE The Grand Conspiracy

Malise Ruthven

TORTURE The Grand Conspiracy

WEIDENFELD AND NICOLSON

LONDON

Copyright © 1978 by Malise Ruthven First published in Great Britain by Weidenfeld and Nicolson, a division of The Orion Publishing Group Limited, 5 Upper St Martin’s Lane, London WC2H 9EA All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. isbn o 297 77389 5 Printed in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner Ltd, Frame and London

FOR DEREK AND PAMELA COOPER

WHO BELIEVES IN THE DEVIL, ALREADY BELONGS TO HIM.’

Thomas Mann, Doctor Faustus

Contents

Acknowledgments

ix

Part I TORTURE ACCORDING TO LAW 1 The abolitionists 3 2 Torture in the ancient world 23 3 The inquisitorial process 43 Part 2

THE MANUFACTURE OF HERESY

4 The Albigensian crusade 75 5 The purge of the Templars 98 6 The great witch-hunts 118 Part 3 TORTURE IN MODERN HISTORY 7 Neapolitan dungeons and revolutionary brotherhoods 8 The Madras revelations 183 9 Stalin and the Russian devils 218 Epilogue 281 Notes 301 Index 327

159

Acknowledgments

I am especially grateful to Professor William Twining of Warwick University for his encouragement and guidance and for drawing my attention to errors and omissions in the drafts of the early chapters before it was too late to put them right. Needless to say, he is in no way responsible for any which remain. I wish to thank Dr J. L. Sturgis ofBirkbeck College, London, for looking through Chapter 8. He too must be exonerated from any errors of fact or interpretation. I would also like to thank two good friends, Roy Foster and Colin Thubron who have taken more than a polite interest in my efforts and patiently read through many pages of manuscript offering useful suggestions and encouragement. I am grateful to Oxford University Press for permission to repro­ duce passages from E.E. Evans-Pritchard’s Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande', to Macmillan for Merle Fainsod’s Smolensk under Soviet Rule and Robert Conquest’s The Great Terror-, and to Stan­ ford University Press for H. C. Erik Midelfort’s Witch hunting in South Western Germany 1562-1684. Above all, I wish to express my gratitude to those members of my family who supported me morally and materially during the gestation of this book; and especially to my wife Tiggy, for whom the many months of delay and uncertainty were a kind ot torture. London July 1977

Malise Ruthven

PART 1

Torture according to law

ONE

The abolitionists

In the small hours of a summer morning in 1630, when the plague was raging through Milan, a woman looked out from her window near the Porta Ticinese and saw a man dressed in cloak and hat apparently writing something on the wall of a nearby house. At once she became suspicious. A rumour had been circulating that a secret society of evil men was deliberately spreading the plague by smearing an infectious unguent on the walls of people’s houses. She was not the only person to see the stranger that morning, and to jump to the same conclusion. One of her neighbours watched as he turned the corner and casually greeted a passer-by. The latter turned out to be an acquaintance. The two neighbours conferred and asked the passer-by the name of the man they had seen him greet. He could not recall his name, but thought he was one of the commis­ sioners of the Sanita, the state security department. Others joined in the conversation, and rumour soon gelled to certainty. The stranger must be one of the notorious untori, the secret society of daubers who were deliberately infecting the population with their devilish un­ guents. People began to inspect the walls of their houses and, sure enough, to discern suspicious smears among the centuries of grime. As panic spread they started piling loose straw against the walls and firing it to burn the poison away. Soon the smoke, and the general commotion, reached the offices of the chief of police. The inquiries, gossip and rumour all pointed to one man, Guglielmo Piazza, commissioner of the Sanita and the son-in-law of a well-known local midwife. Within twenty-four hours he had been arrested oblivious, apparently, of the danger threatening him, for he was picked up outside the house of his chief, the president of the Sanita. Rigorous interrogation and a thorough search of his house yielded

4 I

torture: the grand conspiracy

nothing suspicious. But the mob, already convinced of his guilt, was clamouring. The examining magistrates found two of his answers ‘implausible’ and this entitled them, according to the laws of the city, to have him put to the question. Piazza was given the treatment known as the ‘rope’ or strappado, the traditional method of torture under rules framed by the inquisi­ tion and adopted by the secular law. His hands were tied behind his back and the rope attached to a pulley Dr beam which hoisted him into the air, painfully wrenching his arms and dislocating his shoulders. He persisted in denying any knowledge of the alleged smearings to the point where he became totally incoherent. The ex­ amining magistrates, seeing he was past giving any further answers, ordered him to be let down and returned to his cell. A report of the interrogation was sent to the senate, which decreed that Piazza be ‘shaved, given a purgative, dressed in clothes provided by the court and then tortured again’. This time the rope was tied in such a way as to dislocate his hands as well as his arms, a very painful addition. The results were equally barren. Still the authorities were not satisfied. In accordance with the rule that a prisoner should not be informed of the charges against him until after the torture (a precaution against false confessions), Piazza was still in bewildered ignorance. But from the following day’s pro­ ceedings it appears that one of the magistrates privately took steps to remedy this deficiency. Having obtained from the governor a prom­ ise of immunity for Piazza should the latter reveal the names of his accomplices, he made the offer in private, with no clerk to record the details. It is reasonable to suppose that he also informed him of the charges, and suggested the outline of his ‘confession’. A simple episode from Piazza’s life, plus a few sinister details, pro­ vided the authorities with the plot they were seeking. A few days before his arrest, Piazza had visited a barber named Mora who, like most of his competitors, claimed to have invented a uniquely potent remedy against the plague. Mora had been out of stock when Piazza called, but promised to have the medicine within a few days. It so happened that Mora contacted his customerjust as he was being inter­ viewed prior to his arrest, so the authorities were aware of the con­ nection between the two men. Few extra details were required to con­ vert this innocuous transaction into a plot to destroy the state, as revealed by Piazza during his next examination. The ointment

THE ABOLITIONISTS / 5

became the deadly yellow paste which Piazza, in return for a substan­ tial sum of money, had undertaken to spread about the city. (The fact that there was no circumstantial evidence that Piazza had actu­ ally received the deadly substance was, like so many other details in this case, conveniently forgotten.) Next day the examining magistrates arrived with a posse of gen­ darmes at the barber Mora’s shop, where they found their second culprit innocently ensconced with his son. After turning the place upside down and examining the contents of every jar, they found two things to ‘arouse their suspicion’: a brass cooking-pot containing a ‘sticky yellowish-white substance’ and two jars filled with human excrement. The barber insisted that both had innocent explanations. The sticxy white substance was the residue of some lye left by his wife after her last laundry-day (this was corroborated by the woman her­ self). The jars were full of excrement because, for reasons of hygiene during the plague, he had avoided sharing the upstairs privy with his family. Unfortunately for Mora, forensic examination by two doctors and three washerwomen failed to confirm that the ‘sticky yel­ low-white substance’ was lye; while his explanation about the excre­ ment, unchallenged at first, was to prove equally damaging in the end. However, it was a third suspicious circumstance that gave the magistrates their initial pretext for torturing Mora. During the search of his shop the auditor (one of the magistrates) found a scrap of paper which he handed to the barber, demanding an explanation. Mora, assuming it was the recipe of his precious remedy and afraid of losing his secret, snatched it from the auditor’s hand and tore it to bits. The judges interpreted this gesture as demonstrating that Mora really did have something to hide. Before he was put to the question a confrontation was arranged between Mora and Piazza who, in order to gain his immunity, per­ sisted in his accusation. He had already been tortured twice to ‘prove the truth’ of his confession, and the judges, sensing further ‘implausi­ bilities’ in his replies (the official pretext for torture), threatened to withdraw their offer of immunity. This induced Piazza to name two ‘witnesses’ to his transaction with Mora. The latter, duly tortured, corroborated this. Under torture, Mora proved much less robust than Piazza. He instantly confessed to all the accusations implied by the gist of the judges’ questions. He admitted to manufacturing the deadly concoction that had caused the plague. It was made from lye, mixed

6 I

torture: the grand conspiracy

with human excrement and - for good measure, just to give a further touch of plausibility - with the saliva taken from fresh corpses supplied by the commissioner. The motive for this monstrous crime was noth­ ing more than puny financial gain: as the plague spread through the city, increasing its toll of human life, more and more would buy the barber’s patent remedy. He and the commissioner would amass a for­ tune out of the sufferings of their fellow-citizens. Mora and Piazza were both put on trial, the latter’s immunity being withdrawn on the grounds that there were still some inconsistencies in his statements. Both were found guilty and sentenced to the severest penalty known to law. However, the matter did not end there. A few days before he was due to be executed, either out of spite or perhaps in the hope of secur­ ing a postponement, Piazza announced that he had some important new disclosures to make and requested a private audience with the auditor. The principal party in the plot, he revealed, was none other than the son of the Spanish governor of Milan Castle, Don Juan Padilla. Rather than let the matter lie there (which would have saved a great deal of trouble) the auditor took Piazza’s deposition and pre­ sented it to the governor (whose reactions are not recorded). Piazza’s new confession was then ratified, and another confrontation arranged between him and Mora. This proved to be a relatively simple affair. Piazza was merely asked, in Mora’s presence, if it were true that the governor’s son had been behind the plot. The unfortunate barber’s expressions of incredulity were taken as evidence of deceit, and he was once more put to the torture (this time ‘without prejudice’ to whatever had been confessed, so there would be no danger of any new bricks causing the whole slender edifice of fabrication to col­ lapse). Mora duly confessed, adding a few more names to the list of accomplices, including that of a prominent banker and another, ficti­ tious, Spanish officer. Piazza’s confirmatory deposition also named a banker, but a different one from Mora’s - which was awkward. But rather than go through the tedious ritual of a further confronta­ tion between the two men, the judges arrested both bankers, together with various subordinates and associates, and had the whole lot of them tortured. The new investigations, however, did not postpone the sentences already passed on Piazza and Mora. Before the preliminaries of the Padilla case had been completed, both of them suffered a horrible

THE ABOLITIONISTS /

7

death, even by the gruesome standards of those times. In accordance with the sentences passed upon them, they were taken in a cart to the place of execution, being torn with red-hot pincers on the way. In front of Mora’s shop their right hands were cut off, and their bodies broken on the wheel. While still alive, they were then twisted into the wheel and lifted off the ground. After six hours - just in case a thread of life survived — their throats were cut, their corpses burned and the ashes scattered in the river. Mora’s house was then demolished (his family now rendered homeless as well as destitute, for all his goods had been confiscated) and a monument erected on the spot, it being decreed that no one should ever build upon the site again. The ‘Column of Infamy’ remained an object of curiosity to travellers until its demolition in the nineteenth century.1 *

*

*

The evils of torture depicted in this story of the Milanese untori had parallels in almost every other country where torture was part of the legal procedure — and until the beginning of the nineteenth century that included the majority of European states; all of those, in fact, with legal systems deriving from the Roman law. (Only England and Sweden forbade the use of torture under their domestic laws.) But it was no more than one of the thousands of historical examples which might have been used to demonstrate how torture could become the basis ofa nexus of false accusations in which perfectly innocent people were forced into denouncing themselves and others for crimes which had never been committed and which were indeed impossible. The story of the untori played a part in the campaign for the abolition of torture and other legal reforms. It forms part of a fierce polemic against torture written by Pietro Verri, a Milanese aristocrat and in­ tellectual, at the time when the city’s senate was debating the aboli­ tion of torture. Verri, with his brother Alessandro, was the leader of a group of radical reformers, admirers of Montesquieu and the French encyclopaedists. They had a powerful ally in Baron Sonnenfels, pro­ fessor of law at Vienna and councillor to the Empress Maria Theresa. Sonnenfels and the empress were personally in favour of abolishing torture, although it was prescribed in exacting detail in dozens of pro­ visions of the official code of the Habsburg empire, the Theresiana, published in 1764. Against the personal wishes of the monarch, how-

8 I

torture: the grand conspiracy

ever, stood the dead weight of the Roman law and the jealous con­ servatism of the local authorities who resented any interference with their privileges and their right to administer the law in accordance with time-honoured tradition. Verri’s father was a member of the senate, and it seems to have been out of deference to his father’s views that he decided not to publish this discreditable account from the city’s past. It was published eventually after Verri’s death in 1803. There were other outlets, however, for Verri and his radical friends. Together with his brother Alessandro, he founded II Caffe, a literarypolitical journal modelled on the English Spectator. Il Caffe had con­ siderable influence on the higher councils of state — in Vienna. At home it was liable to cause offence, and the editors decided to publish in Brescia, outside the jurisdiction of the Milanese city fathers. One of the contributors to the magazine was a young marquis, Verri’s friend and protégé, Cesare Beccaria. He was, by most accounts, a lan­ guid and melancholy youth, given to fits of depression. Although he had a brilliant mathematical mind he was far from being industrious, unlike Verri and his brother, both of whom were engaged in writing weighty historical and economic treatises. Verri evidently found Bec­ caria’s lassitude irritating, and it was to keep him occupied that he originally suggested that Beccaria should write a treatise on the crimi­ nal law. Alessandro, who was a prison governor, would provide him with up-to-date information. For the rest, Verri would act as his amanuensis or ‘supervisor’ ; and, as the ideas and perceptions began to appear rather fitfully from Beccaria’s pen, Verri would gather them up and impose some order on them. Within a year (in 1763) the work, in its brevity, was finished and ready for publication. It was entitled simply Dei delitti e delle pene — ‘On crimes and punishments’. Its author was only twenty-five; it must have been rather galling for Pietro Verri when it turned out to be the most famous and influential treatise on criminal law ever written. And it contains what is still after more than two centuries the classic denunciation of torture. Beccaria’s book instantly became a bestseller. It was translated into many languages. Voltaire wrote the commentary for the first French and English editions. The author was publicly feted in Paris. In Russia the Empress Catherine read it and tried, unsuccessfully, to incorporate its wisdom into the criminal code - and invited the author to Moscow. Beccaria was asked to advise on the framing of a new penal code for Tuscany. And in England the greatest of all

THE ABOLITIONISTS /

g

legal reformers, Jeremy Bentham, acknowledged his debt to Beccaria in extravagant terms: ‘O my master, first evangelist of Reason, you who have raised your Italy so far above England ... You who have made so many useful excursions into the path of utility, what is there left for us to do? - Never to turn aside from that path’.2 Few books as short, by so young an author, have ever had such a powerful im­ pact.3 Bentham’s words are well chosen. Beccaria’s tract has all the pure fervour of the evangelist who has nothing to say for a past corrupt beyond redemption, whose demand is for a society of the future to be universally governed according to a few elementary principles. What punishment is best suited to a given crime? Is death a punishment which is really useful and necessary for the security and good order of society? Are torture and instruments of torture just, and do they attain the ends pro­ pounded by law? Are the same penalties always equally useful? What influ­ ence do they have on social custom? These are the problems that ought to be solved with a precision so geometric that it cannot be overcome by mists of sophistry, seductive eloquence, or timidity and doubt.4

Beccaria’s penchant for ‘geometric’ precision sometimes led him to formulate some rather curious theorems, such as ‘the likelihood of crimes is in inverse ratio to their atrocity’,5 while some of his inter­ pretations of utility seem perverse - at least in the light of contem­ porary experience. For instance, he attacks on grounds of‘false utility’ laws forbidding the carrying of weapons ‘because they disarm only those who are neither inclined to crimes nor determined upon them’.6 But in other respects many of his ideas have a distinctly modern sound. His attack on capital punishment is cogent, and far from sentimental. (He argues that a life-sentence of hard labour is preferable to the death penalty because the prolongation of the prisoner’s suffering serves as a reminder to other would-be criminals long after his execution would have been forgotten.) Like many modern criminologists he argues that certainty of detection is a better deterrent than a heavy sentence, and that those convicted of robbery should be made to pay compensa­ tion to their victims. He pioneered the idea that criminals have a ‘debt’ to society, and that punishments should be fixed strictly in pro­ portion to the seriousness of the crime. Many of the changes he pro­ posed are now law in civilized countries, the most important being ‘the certainty of the law, the respect for the principle nulla poena sine

10 I torture: the grand conspiracy lege, the adoption of clear and simple rules of procedure’ and ‘the very notion of punishment as a measure ofsafety and prevention, not expia­ tion and revenge’.7 Beccaria’s attack on torture, then, deserves special examination, because it embodies most of the arguments implied in the ban on torture imposed by nearly every modern state and international con­ vention. If there are flaws in his arguments (as Jeremy Bentham believed), then these flaws will, perhaps; account for the failure of the abolitionists to eradicate torture permanently through legislation. For, as Beccaria would have been the first to admit, legislation can only succeed which takes full account of rational principles. Beccaria discerns five reasons or motives behind judicial torture: The torture of an accused man while the case against him is being prepared is a cruelty consecrated by long usage among the majority of nations, its pur­ pose being to make him confess to the crime, or clarify his contradictory state­ ments, or discover his accomplices, or purge him in some metaphysical and incomprehensible way ofinfamy, or finally bring to light other crimes which he may have committed but of which he is not accused.8

None of these reasons, he argues, stands up to rational analysis. First, there is no juridical reason why an accused man should be required to confess. Either his guilt is certain, or it is not. If certain, he should be punished according to law, and it is unjust to inflict torture, a form of punishment, on him. No purpose is served by extracting a con­ fession which adds nothing to the prosecution evidence. According to Beccaria, the effect of this need for a confession by the accused, a requirement of the law in cases of serious crime, is merely to confuse guilt with innocence;9 it is simply ‘a matter of temperament and of calculation’ which varies with each man according to his physi­ cal strength and response to pain. It is a problem better solved by a mathematician than a judge: ‘Given the strength of muscles and the sensibility of nerves of an innocent man, find the amount of pain required to make him confess that he has committed a given crime.’10 The injustice is such that the innocent necessarily suffer more than the guilty: Both are tortured, but the former has every chance stacked against him: if he confesses to the crime, he is condemned; if he is declared innocent, he has suffered an undeserved punishment. But the guilty man’s situation is in his favour. If he stands up firmly to torture, he is acquitted as if he were

THE ABOLITIONISTS / 11

innocent, and he will have undergone a lesser punishment instead of a greater one. So the innocent man always loses by torture, while the guilty man stands to gain.11

The other arguments for torture are despatched more briefly. The idea that torture clarifies contradictory statements (for instance the ‘implausibilities’ noted in connection with the examinations of Piazza and Mora) is quite unreasonable. There are always contradictions when people give evidence: .. as if the fear of punishment, the un­ certainty of the verdict, the pomp and majesty of the judge, and the ignorant state of guilty and innocent alike, were not enough to make it probable that the innocent as well as the guilty would fall into con­ tradiction ... ’12 Another reason - to discover if a man is guilty of further crimes - barely merits argument; while the notion that torture will compel a man to reveal his accomplices is demonstrably false, since ‘torture is a bad method of discovering the truth’,13 and a man cannot therefore be expected honestly to reveal their names. The final reason, that torture purges a man ‘in some metaphysical and in­ comprehensible way’ of infamy is manifestly contradictory: for what is torture itself but the worst kind of infamy? How can one infamy purge another?14 For Beccaria, torture is not only cruel, but irrational. The cruelty, he believes, is the result of its barbarian origins: Th is infamous crucible of truth is an enduring monument of that ancient and barbarous system of law which held that ordeal by fire and boiling water, and the uncertain outcome of trial by combat were the ‘judgements of God’ ... the only difference [being] ... that the issue of the one seems to depend upon the will of the accused, and of the other on a purely physical and irrelev­ ant fact: but this difference is apparent, not real ... ,15

while the ‘irrational’ requirement that the accused must confess in cases of capital crime even where there is enough evidence to convict him, is the result of . .. the religious and spiritual motives which exert so much influence on human thought in all countries and in all ages ... an infallible dogma assures us that the blemishes due to human frailty, which have not deserved the ever­ lasting wrath of the Supreme Being, must be purged by an incomprehensible fire ... I believe that the confession of an accused man, which some courts insist upon as necessary to condemnation, originated in a not dissimilar way,

12 I torture:

the grand conspiracy

seeing that in the mysterious tribunal of penance a necessary part of the sacra­ ment is the confession of those who have sinned.16

The anti-religious sentiment was enough to get Beccaria’s book placed on the papal index - which helps to account, no doubt, for its success in France. Like many bestsellers, Beccaria’s book succeeded less on account of the originality or force of his arguments, than because they con­ formed to the expectations of an influential body of public opinion. The ground had been well prepared - not only by the work of the French encyclopaedists and philosophes, but by the social organisms such as the salons and masonic lodges that flourished all over Europe during the eighteenth century, which enabled the upper ranks of society to receive those ideas. Beccaria was not a lone prophet crying in the wilderness. Many eighteenth-century writers considered it selfevident that torture was a horrible relic of barbarism, compounded of tyranny and superstition, and with the progress of reason and en­ lightenment destined to disappear from the face of the earth. The great Montesquieu, for example, had evidently considered the subject be­ neath consideration: The wickedness of mankind makes it necessary for the law to suppose them better than they really are. Hence the deposition of two witnesses is sufficient in the punishment of all crimes. The law believes them, as if they spoke by the mouth of truth. Thus we judge that every child conceived in wedlock is legitimate; the law having confidence in the mother as if she were chastity itself. But the use of the rack against criminals cannot be defended on a like plea of necessity ... So many men of learning and genius have written against the custom of torturing criminals, that after them I dare not presume to meddle with the subject. I was going to say that it might be suitable for despotic states, where whatever inspires fear is the fittest motor of government. I was going to say that among the Greeks and Romans, slaves ... - but I hear the voice of nature crying out and asserting her rights.17

It was Voltaire who pointed out that torture was, among other things, the consequence of the irrational system of ‘legal proofs’ that Montesquieu found necessary in view of the ‘wickedness of mankind’. It is in vain [says Mr Ramsay in the History of Elizabeth Canning] that the law requires two witnesses against an accused. If the Chancellor and the Archbishop of Canterbury both testify that they saw me murder my father and mother and then proceed to eat them for supper in a quarter of an hour,

THE ABOLITIONISTS / fj

the Chancellor and the Archbishop should be locked up in Bedlam rather than that I should be burnt on their testimony!18

The question préparatoire by which it was necessary for an accused per­ son charged with a capital crime to confess before he could be con­ demned was a similar absurdity. All mankind, being exposed to the attempts of violence or perfidy, detest the crimes of which they may possibly be the victims: all desire that the prin­ cipal offender and his accomplices may be punished; nevertheless, there is a natural compassion in the human heart, which makes all men detest the cruelty of torturing the accused in order to extort confession. The law has not condemned them, and yet, though uncertain of their crime, you inflict a punishment more horrible than that which they are to suffer when their guilt is confirmed. ‘Possibly thou mayst be innocent; but I will torture thee that I may be satisfied: not that I intend to make thee any recompense for the thousand deaths which I have made thee suffer, in lieu of that which is preparing for thee’.18

Voltaire’s campaign against torture achieved concrete results. As early as 1740 his friend Frederick the Great had abolished ordinary torture in Prussia, and himself wrote a dissertation against a ‘custom shameful to Christians and civilized peoples and, I dare say, as cruel as it is useless’.20 In France, Voltaire’s polemics on the Calas case helped to bring about the retrial and posthumous pardon of an elderly Protestant from Toulouse who had been burnt, on a forced confession, for murdering his son who wished to become a Catholic. And follow­ ing the triumph of rational principles in 1789, the last traces of torture were removed from the statute books not only in France, but through­ out Europe. So what Beccaria had to say in 1763 was already well on the way to becoming the ‘conventional wisdom’ of the leaders of eighteenth­ century society. What distinguished his essay was the sustained passion of its polemical vigour and the systematic way he attacked, in so short a space, the ancient citadel of the Roman law. As he in­ formed his friend and translator, the Abbé Morelet, T must confess that while writing, the examples of Machiavelli, Galileo, Giannone were there before my eyes. I heard the noise of chains being rattled by superstition and fanaticism, stifling the fragile tremblings of truth’.21 It was the young Italian’s sensibility, not his arguments (of which

/o/riand there­ fore without standing in society. In legal proceedings it was customary to offer one’s slaves for torture or to demand the right to torture those of an opponent. In Athens, as in Rome, torture was usually conducted in public, and litigants had the right to administer it themselves. Alternatively, they could employ the services of the basanistes, often himself a former slave, since free men considered the work degrading.4 In matters of public concern, however, the State could demand slaves for torture. The manner in which Athenian slaves were tortured was satirized by Aristophanes in Frogs. Xanthus, servant of Bacchus,

24 I

torture: the grand conspiracy

accompanies his master to the underworld in the guise of Heracles, with Bacchus disguised as his slave. Arriving in Hades, they are chal­ lenged by Aecus, and Xanthus offers his ‘slave’ for torture: ‘How am I to torture him?’ [asks Aecus] ‘In every way’ [replies Xanthus], ‘by tying him to a ladder, by suspending him, by scourging him with a whip, by cudgelling him, by racking him and further, by pouring vinegar into his nostrils, by heaping bricks on him and every other way ... ’5
voL 24> no. 3, pp. 305-56 ibid., p. 308 ibid., p. 309 Bentham, Works, vol. i, p. 393 Bentham in Twining, op. cit., p. 31 1 ibid.,p. 334 ibid.,p. 336 ibid., p. 337 ibid.,p. 338

CHAPTER 2

TORTURE IN THE ANCIENT WORLD

G. Maspero, Hist, ancienne des peuples de I’orient (Paris 1875), p. 220 M.I.Finley in M.I.Finley (ed.), Slavery in Classical Antiquity (Cam­ bridge 1961), p. 60 3 Thucydides, History, VII, 86 4 H.R.W.Harrison, The Law of Athens (Oxford 1969), vol. ii, pp. 147-50 5 Aristophanes, The Frogs, II, 6.v.ff. 6 Aristotle, Rhetoric, I, xv, 26 7 Lycurgus, Against Leocrates, tr. J. Burtt (Oxford 1954) 8 Antiphon, On the Choreutes, tr. K.Maidment (Oxford 1941), 23-5 9 ibid., On the Murder of Herodes, 31 -2 10 cf. J.W.Headlam, ‘Slave torture in Attic law’, Classical Review (1893), vol. vii, p. 2. For contrary views, see J. Lipsius, Das Attische Recht (Leipzig 1905-8), p. 889 n. 91 ; J.Thomson in Classical Review, vol. viii, p. 1 36 1 1 Cicero, Departitionibus oraloriis, 34; cited in Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed., 1910), s.v. Torture, n. 14 1 2 H.C. Lea, Superstition and Force (Philadelphia 1892), p. 433 13 Valerius Maximus, III, chs 4, 5, 6 14 Andocides, On the Mysteries and On the Return (ed. Macdowell, Oxford 1962), p. 175 15 see H. Levy-Bruhl in Finley, op. cit., p. 161 16 Finley, op. cit., p. 55, if.; see also R. Schlaifer, ibid., p. 1 10; Levy-Bruhl, ibid., pp. 151-69 passim 1 7 see P. Garnsey, Social Status and Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire (Oxford 1970), pp. 1 22 ff.; 221 if.; 280 and passim 18 Digest 48.18.1 ; 27.8

1 2

NOTES / 303

>9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 28

29 30 31 32 33 34

ibid., 48.18 ibid., 48.18.1 ibid., 24.18.4 ibid., 48.18.27.20 ibid., 48.18.17 ibid., 48.18.5 ibid., 48.18.1.5 ibid., 48.18.1.1g; cf. W.W. Buckland, The Roman Law of Slavery (Cam­ bridge 1908), pp. 87-91 Digest 48.18.1 ; 23 Cicero, Pro Sulla, ch. 28 Quintilian, De Inslilulione Oratoria, V, 4 Digest 48.18.9 ; Garnsey, op. cil., p. 216 ibid., p. 216 ibid., pp. 142, 246 ibid., p. 11 o T. Mommsen, Le Droil Penal Romain, tr. Duquesne (Paris 1907), vol. i,

36

PP-233-7 see also Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romains, (ed. Daremberg and Saglio, Paris 1875), s.v. majestas, perduellio Cicero, In Calilinam IV, cited by A. Mellor, La Torture (Paris 1961), p.

37 38 39 40

48 Suetonius, Augustus, ch. xxvii ; Tacitus, Annals, ii, 30 Suetonius, Tiberius, ch. lxii ibid., Caligula, ch. xxxii ibid., Claudius, ch. xxxiv; Cassius Dio 60.15.6; Garnsey, op. cil., pp. 143—

35

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 5° 51 52

53 54

4 Tacitus, Annals, xi, 22; Garnsey, op. cil., p. 145 Tacitus, Annals, xv, 56 ibid., 16, 20; Garnsey, op. cil., p. 145 ibid., p. 107 Digest 48.18.12 ; 48..1.1.13 ; Garnsey, op. cil., p. 215 Digest48.i8.i.27.io.i see Daremberg and Saglio, op. cil., s.v. majestas Tacitus, Annals, xv, 44 Tertullian, Apologelicus, ii, 10 Mommsen, op. cil., vol. i, pp. 233-7 Levy-Bruhl in Finley, op. cil., p. 152 see F. H. Cramer, ‘The Caesars and the Stars’ in Seminar (1952), vol. x, p. 24 ibid., p. 4 Tacitus, Annals, xvi, 31 ; Cramer, op. cil., p. 9

304 I 55 56 57 58 59 60

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

NOTES

Cramer, op. cit., p. 53 Clyde Pharr, ‘The interdiction of magic in Roman Law’ in Transactions of the American Philological Society (1932), vol. 63, p. 282 cited in Pharr, op. cit., p. 283 ibid., p. 284 ibid., p. 290 EmileDurkheim, The RulesofSociological Method(fi\.h^A.),c\^Ain Finley, op. cit., p. 70 ibid. see chapter 4 Finley, op. cit., p. 68 F. Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (New York 1855), pp. 263-4; cited in Finley, op. cit., p. 67 Lipsius, op. cit., p. 890 ff. Headlam, op. cit., p. 2 cf. Manzoni, op. cit., p. 161 Buckland, op. cit., pp. 36, 91 see R. Schlaifer in Finley, op. cit., pp. 93-132 passim

CHAPTER 3

THE INQUISITORIAL PROCESS

H.C. Lea, Superstition and Force (Philadelphia 1898), p. 477 Augustine, City of God, XIX, vi Lea, op. cit., p. 478 cited in C. Cantu, Beccaria et le droit penal, tr. Lacointa and Delpech (Paris 1883), p. 35; A. Mellor, ¿50 ff., 350 61 Lea, op. cit., vol. i, p. 432 ; Oldenbourg, op. cit., p. 307 62 Lea, op. cit., p. 431 63 ibid., p. 432 64 ibid., p. 433 65 ibid., vol. ii, p. 31

2/ 28

NOTES

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73

74

75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85

Wakefield and E vans, op. cit., p. 721 Lea, op. cit., vol. i, p. 431 ibid., pp. 415-16, 421 ibid., pp. 418-19 ibid. ibid.,p>. 453 ibid., p. 421 ff. eg- A. P. Evans,‘HuntingSubversion in the Middle Ages’ in Speculum, 23 (Jan.1958), pp. 1-22 cited in E.Vacandard, The Inquisition, tr. B.L. Conway (New York 1908), p. 150 Lea, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 68, 71-83 passim ibid., p. 59 ibid., pp. 59-60 ibid., p. 62 ibid., p. 69 ibid., p. 71 if. ibid., pp. 80-1 ibid., pp. 86-7 ibid., pp. 92—4 ibid., p. 96 ibid., pp. 97, 425, 293 ; vol. ii, pp. 96, 97

CHAPTER 5

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

I jog

THE PURGE OF THE TEMPLARS

H.C.Lea, A History ofthe Inquisitionofthe Middle Ages (Philadelphia 1888), vol. iii, pp. 238-329 ; E. Simon, The Piebald Standard (London 1959) ; Nor­ man Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons (Sussex 1975), pp. 75-98 Lea, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 243 ibid., p. 248 Cohn, op. cit., p. 81 Lea, op. cit., p. 254 G. Lizerand, Le dossier de l’affaire des Templiers (Paris 1923), p. 223 ibid., pp. 28-9 R. Oursel, Le procès des Templiers (Paris 1955), p. 223 Lea, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 255 Oursel, op. cit., p. 227 Lea, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 255 Simon, op. cit., p. 293 ibid., p. 48 Lea, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 256 Simon, op. cit., p. 95

ßlO I NOTES

52

Simon, op. cit., p. 291 Lizerand, op. cit., pp. 32-3, 24-5 ibid. ibid., pp. 26-7 Cohn, op. cit., p. 90 J. Michelet, Procès des Templiers (Paris 1841, 1851), vol. ii, p. 315 Cohn, op. cit., p. 91 Oursel, op. cit., pp. 24-5 ; Cohn, op. cit., p. 91 ibid.-, H. Finke, Papsttum und Untergang des Templerordens (Leipzig 1907), vol. ii, pp. 342-64 Oursel, op. cit., pp. 24-5 ibid., pp. 28-39 passim ibid., pp. 24-5 Michelet, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 274-5 i Lea, op. cit., vol. iii, pp. 266-7 ! Oursel, op. cit., p. 27 see confessions in Oursel, op. cit., pp. 32-4 Finke, op. eil., vol. ii, pp. 316-18 Oursel, op. cit., p. 32 ibid., pp. 28, 33; Michelet, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 278 ibid., vol. ii, pp. 363-4; Oursel, p. 35 ibid. Michelet, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 305; Oursel, op. cit., p. 24 Lizerand, p. v Cohn, op. cit., p. 92 ibid., pp. 93-4 Lizerand, pp. 70-3 ibid., pp. 154-7; Michelet, op. cit., vol. i, p. 36; Oursel, op. cit., p. 58 ibid. Oursel, op. eil., p. 64 Cohn, op. cit., p. 94 Finke, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 332 Oursel, op. cit., pp. 66-71 Cohn, op. cit., pp. 15-21 passim ibid., p. 21 ibid. ibid., p. 22 ibid., pp. 29-31 see W. Sargant, Battle of the Mind (London 1957); J. Vernon, Inside the Black Room (Harmondsworth 1964) cf. J.-P. Sartre, ‘Une Victoire’, in H. Alleg, The Question (London 1958),

53

P- !9 Lea, op. cit., vol. iii, p. 295

16 17 18 ig 20 21 22 23 24

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51

NOTES / J//

54 55

Lizerand, op. cit., p. 191 n. Cohn, op. cit., p. 97

CHAPTER6

1 2 3

4

5 6 7 8 9 Io II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

the great witch-hunts

Text in Malleus Maleficarum, tr. M.Summers (London 1948), p. xix H. Erik Midelfort, Witch-hunting in South-West Germany 1562-1684 (Stan­ ford 1972), p. 31 N.Cohn in Mary Douglas (ed.), Witchcraft Confessions and Accusations (London 1970), p. 12 H.C. Lea, Materials towards a History of Witchcraft, edited and arranged by A.C.Howland (Philadelphia 1939), p. 180 ibid. H. R.Trevor-Roper, ‘The European Witch-Craze’ in Religion, the Reformation and Social Change and other essays (London 1967), p. 156 Lea, op. cit., p. 818 Malleus Maleficarum, pp. 8, 84-5 ibid., p. 99 ibid. ibid., p. 96 ibid., p. 26 ibid.,p. 169 ibid., p. 47 ibid., pp. 109, 128 ibid., p. 25 ibid., p. 2 12 ibid., p. 46 Lea, op. cit., p. 260; R. Kieckhefer, European Witchtrials: theirfoundation in popular and learned culture 1500—1500 (London 1976), p. 20 Lea, op. cit., p. 145 ibid., p. 151 ibid., p. 289 ibid., p. 262 ibid., pp. 273-4 ibid., p. 275 cited in N.Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons (Sussex 1975), p. 211 Midelfort, op. cit., p. 1 7 Lea, op. cit., p. 341 Malleus Maleficarum, p. 7 ibid., pp. 223-7 Lea, op. cit., p. 276 ibid., pp. 282-4 ibid., p. 229, 349-51,374, 377

$12 I NOTES

34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

Lea, op. cit., p. 395 ibid., p. 404 cf. Midelfort, op. cit., pp. 14-17 passim Lea, op. cit., pp. 554, 557 ibid., pp. 554-72 ibid., pp. 604-24 ibid., p. 644 ibid., pp. 417-23 ibid., pp. 430-1 / Midelfort, op. cit., p. 53 ibid., p. 106 ibid., pp. 98-108 passim ibid., pp. 98-9 ibid., p. 129 ibid., p. 130 ibid., pp. 126-31 Lea, op. cit., pp. 524-5 ibid. K.Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London 1973)’ P- 693 Midelfort, op. cit., pp. 37, 51 Lea, op. cit., pp. 648-70 ibid.,p. 671 ibid., pp. 670-87 Midelfort, op. cit., p. 28 Lea, op. cit., p. 701 ibid., p. 705 ibid., p. 706 ibid.,p. 707 ibid., p. 708 ibid., p. 710 ibid., p. 725 see R.H.Bainton, George Lincoln Burr (New York 1943) C.L’Estrange Ewen, Witch Hunting and Witch Trials (London 1929); Witchcraft and Demonianism (London 1933) Margaret Murray, The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (Oxford 1921); The Good of the Witches (London 1931, 1952) Montague Summers, The History of Witchcraft and Demonology (London 1926); The Geography of Witchcraft (London 1927) Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons, pp. 107-21 passim ; cf. Alan Macfarlane in Max Marwick (ed.) Witchcraft and Sorcery (London 1967), p. 201 M. Summers in Introduction to Nicholas Rémy, Demonolatry (London 1930), p. xxvi; cf. Cohn, Europe’s tnner Demons, pp. 120-1

NOTES / 5/5

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

85 86 87 88 89 9° 91 92 93 94 95 96 97

98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 •07

Bainton, op. cit., p. 470 Thomas, op. cit., p. 525 Ewen, Witch-Hunting and Witch Trials, p. 60 M. Hopkins, Discovery of Witches (1647), p. 57 ff. A. MacFarlane in Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (London 1970), p. 142 Thomas, op. cit., p. 531; Kieckhefer, op. cit., p. 29 Ewen, Witch Hunting and Witch Trials, p. 31 Trevor-Roper, op. cit., p. 162 Kieckefer, op. cit., pp. 28-9 ibid., pp. 32-3 ibid., pp. 88-9; Lea, Materials, 238 Kieckhefer, p. 22 cf. Trevor-Roper, op. cit., p. 113 H.C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition in Spain (London 1906), vol. iv, pp. 244-5 Kieckhefer, op. cit., p. 40 ibid., p. 41 L. Mair, Witchcraft (London 1969), pp. 36-47 passim E.E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (Oxford 1937), p. 66 ibid. Mair, op. cit., pp. 10-13, 202 Evans-Pritchard, op. cit., pp. 94-8 ibid., p. 119 ibid., p. 120 Mair, op. cit., pp. 102-3 ibid., p. 118; Mary Douglas in Witchcraft Confessions &c, p. 159 Mair, op. cit., pp. 116—38 passim, 203 T.O.Biedelman in J.Middleton and E.H.Winter (eds), Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa (London 1963), p. 76; Middleton in ibid., p. 271; Mair, op. cit., p. 214 cf. Mair, op. cit., pp. 161-3 cf. E. H. Winter in Middleton and Winter, op. cit., p. 287 M. Douglas in Middleton and Winter, op. cit., pp. 123-41 Mair, op. cit., p. 44 R. Redfield, cited in Kieckhefer, op. cit., p. 94 Mair, op. cit., p. 178 Thomas, op. cit., p. 594 Macfarlane, op. cit., p. 168 Thomas, op. cit., p. 594 cf. Mair, op. cit., p. 215

3/4 I NOTES

Thomas, op. cit., p. 66g M.G.Marwick, Sorcery in its Social Setting (Manchester 1 g65), p. 221 ibid., ‘The Social Context ofWitch Beliefs’ in Africa (ig52), xxii, p. 232 ibid., ‘The Continuance ofWitchcraft Beliefs’ in P.Smith (ed.), Africa in Transition (London ig58), p. 112 1 12 Redfield in Kieckhefer, op. cit., p. g4 113 see D.Herlihy, ‘Mapping Households in Medieval Italy’ in Catholic His­ torical Review (ig72), lviii, pp. 1-24 114 Thomas, op. cit., p. 670 , 115 Mair, op. cit., p. 203 116 Evans-Pritchard, op. cit., p. 51 117 Biedelman in Middleton and Winter, op. cit., p. 68 118 J.Buxton in ibid., pp. 104-5 1 lg R.F.Gray in ibid., pp. 166-7 120 Winter in ibid., p. 283 121 J. R. Crawford, Witchcraft and Sorcery in Rhodesia (London 1 g67), pp. 4g54, 114; cf. Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons, pp. 220—1 122 G. Mongredien, Mme. de Montespan et I’affaire des poisons (Paris ig53) 123 Mair, op. cit., p. 102 124 Evans-Pritchard, op. cit., p. 26; Mair, op. cit., p. 140 if. 125 cf. Crawford, op. cit., pp. 5g-65

108 log 110 111

CHAPTER 7

NEAPOLITAN DUNGEONS AND REVOLUTIONARY BROTHER HOODS

1

2 3 4 5 6

7 8 g 10 11 12 13

W. E. Gladstone, Two letters to the Earl of Aberdeen on the State Prosecutions of the Neapolitan Government (London 1851) G. M.Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand (London 1 g31), p. 62 Gladstone, Two Letters, p. g ibid., p. 18 Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand, p. 6g W. E. Gladstone, Examination ofthe Official Reply ofthe Neapolitan Government (London 1852), p. 20 ibid., p. 27 Trevelyan, Garibaldi and the Thousand, p. 58 Gladstone, Two Letters, p. 2g R.T.Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation (London ig63), p. 20 G.Raffaele,Rivelazionistorichedellarivoluzionedel 1848(i860),pp. 274-3^ ibid., p. 305 G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence ofthe Roman Republic (London ig28), P- 55

NOTES

*4

'5 16 >7 18

>9 20 2I

22 23 24 25 26

27

28

29 30 31 32 33

34 35 36 37 38 39 40

41 42 43 44 45

I

J/J

Felice Orsini, The Austrian Dungeons in Italy, tr. J. M. White (London 1856), p.74 ibid., p. 14 ibid., p. 96 ibid., p. 117 ibid., pp. 28-33 ibid., p. 37 M.StJ.Packe, The Bombs of Orsini (London 1959), p-221 ibid., p. 237 if. J. Gondon, ‘ De l’état des choses à N aples et en Italie’, Lettres à George Bower Esq., MP (London and Paris 1855) ibid., pp. 54-7 Anon., A detailed Exposure ofthe Apology putforth by the Neapolitan Government in reply to the Charges of Mr Gladstone (London 1852) ibid. For a detailed account of the conspiracy theories of the French Revolu­ tion, see J. M.Roberts, The Mythology of the Secret Societies (London 1974), pp. 146 if., 155 if., 217-21, 228-32, 262-3 and passim ibid., p. 58 ibid., p. 98 ibid., p. 182 ibid., p. 227 Augustin de Barruel, Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire du jacobinism (London 1797), p. xi, cited by Roberts, p. 204 Roberts, op. cit., pp. 199-219 Joseph de Maistre, Oeuvres completes, VIII, 330-3; Roberts, op. cit., pp. 306,312 ibid., pp. 233-48 passim; on Babeuf, see R.B.Rose in Encounter (July 1976), pp. 28-36 Roberts, op. cit., pp. 331-3 ibid., pp. 339-41 p. 315 ibid., pp. 356-7; cf. E. J. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (Manchester 1957), pp.156-62 Roberts, op. cit., pp. 346-7 Roberts, op. cit., pp. 34-5 Roberts, op. cit., p. 299 E.L. Eisenstein, The First Professional Revolutionist: Filippo Michele Buonarotti (Cambridge, Mass. 1959), p. 48; cited by Roberts, p. 282 Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels, p. 169 in Victor Schloecher, Le gouvernement du 2 décembre (London 1853), p. 2 cf. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels, p. 166. Hobsbawm argues that the

316

46 47 48 49

5° 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

65 66 67 68 69 70

71 72 73

74 75 76 77 78 79

/ NOTES

lengthy and elaborate ritualsofthe Carbonari were ‘standing invitations to police infiltration’. George Rude, The Crowd in the French Revolution (Oxford 1959), p. 193 Honoré Riouffe, in Mémoires sur les prisons (Paris 1823), Vol. i, p. 36 V.Mongey, ‘Les horreurs des prisons d’Arras’, in ibid. vol. ii, pp. 336,347, 355 Donald Greer, The Incidence of Terror during the French Revolution (Harvard *935)> P-12* Mongey in Mémoires, Vol. ii, p. 504 Riouffe in Mémoires, Vol. i, p. 56 Greer, op. cit., p. 74 ibid., pp. 117, 120 ibid., pp. 76, 77 ibid., pp. 33-7 ibid., pp. 117, 122 ibid., p. 123 ibid., p. 121 ‘Tableau historique de la maison lazare’, in Mémoires, vol. i, pp. 237, 245 P. de Polnay, Napoleon’s Secret Police (London 1970), pp. 8, 38 ibid., p. 44 ibid., p. 198 P.H.Stead, The Police of Paris (London 1957), pp. 31,40, 51, 81, 83 A. Mellor, Je denonce la torture (Paris 1972), citing G.Lenotre, Georges Cadoudal (Paris 1929), p. 193 Stead, op. cit., pp. 90, 117 ibid., p. 126 V.Schloecher, Le gouvernement du 2 décembre, p. 11 ibid., p. 31 ibid., p. 38 Stead, p. 135 ; higher casualty figures are given in P.Lissagaray, History ofthe Commune of1871, tr. Eleanor Marx Aveling (London 1886), pp. 442, 458 Lissagaray, op. cit., p. 411 ibid., p. 412 C.Gavan Duffy, Young Ireland ( 1880), cited by George Sigerson in Politi­ cal prisoners at home and abroad (London 1890), p. 28 Sigerson, op. cit., pp. 52, 56, 57 C.Dickens, American Notes (London 1842), p. 70 Sigerson, op. cit., pp. 157—8 see I.Butt, Ireland’s appealfor Amnesty (1870), p. 70 Sigerson, op. cit., p. 62 ibid., pp. 152, 160

NOTES / 5/7

80 81

82

Lissagaray, op. cit., p. 490 cf. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (London 1958), ch. 9; see also alternative title The Burden of our Time Gladstone, Two Letters, p. 51

CHAPTER 8

THE MADRAS REVELATIONS

21 22 23 24 25

Report ofthe Commissionersfor investigating the alleged cases oftorture in Madras with correspondence relating thereto (Fort St George 1855), pp. 3, 5 Hansard, 11 July 1854, p. 61; Calcutta Review, no. 29 (1857), p. 442 The Times, 11 July 1855 Quoted by H. Arendt, Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 183 The Times, ibid. see Calcutta Review, ibid., p. 439 ff. Madras report, para. 4 ibid., paras 6, 32 ibid., para. 44 ibid., paras 64, 65 ibid., paras 6, 28 ibid., para. 60 ibid., para. 61 ibid., para. 26 ibid., para. 67 correspondence to Madras report, p. 4 Calcutta Review, ibid., p. 439 ibid.,p. 455 ibid., p. 160 N.Chevers M.D., A manual of medical jurisprudence for India (Calcutta 1870), p. 547; Panchkouree Khan, Revelations of an orderly (Calcutta 1857), p. 11 Chevers, op. cit., pp. 528, 549; Madras report, p. 80 Panchkouree Khan, op. cit., p. 38 Chevers, op. cit., p. 528 ibid., p. 529 Macaulay, Critical and Historical Essays (6th ed. 1849), vol. iii, pp. 219—

26 27 28 29

358 Madras report, para. 87, App. C ibid., para. 60, N ibid., pp. 2-33 passim Anon, Police torture and murder in Bengal (Calcutta 1861), p. 2 [India

30 31

Office Library] Calcutta Review (1885), vol. 80, p. 83 ibid.,y. 76

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

318 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

39 40 41

42 43 44 45 46

47 48

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

I NOTES

Calcutta Review (1885), vol. 80, p. 85 ibid., p. 131 ibid., p. 291 Panchkouree Khan, op. cit., p. 43 Calcutta Review, ibid., pp. 109, 290 ibid., pp. 6, 294 see J.C.Curry, The Indian Police (London 1932), p. 24; J.C.Arthur, Reminiscences of an Indian Police Officer (London 1894), pp. 109-11 ; Ram Gopal, How India Struggledfor Freedom (London and Bombay 1967), pp. 46, ill, 118; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate Revolutionary Conspiracies in India, cd 9190 (1918) (Rowlatt report), p. 19; E.Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (Manchester 1963), pp. 162, 167 Selectionsfrom the Records of the Government of the North West Province (Agra 1856), p. 101 See Stephen, The Indian Evidence Act 1871 (Bombay 1873) Report ofthe Indian Police Commission and Resolution ofthe Government ofIndia, cd 2478 (London 1905), para. 23 ibid., para. 26 ibid., para. 12 ibid., para. 26 ibid., para. 163 ibid., para. 32 ibid, (resolution), paras 7, 9 F.C. Mackarness, Methods of the Indian Police in the Twentieth Century (1910); Reprinted by the Hindu Ghadr Office (San Francisco 1915), pp. 16-21 zW, p. 15 Gopal, op. cit., p. 189 Rowlatt report, p. 88 Mackarness, op. cit., p. 13 East India Police, Correspondence relating to confessions ofpersons accused of criminal offences, cmd 7234 (1914), para. 1 ibid., para. 4 Gopal, op. cit., p. 133 cmd 7234, para. 5 ibid. ibid. ibid., p. 32 ibid., p. 19 ibid., p. 22 ibid, ibid.

NOTES /

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 98 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

31g

ibid., p. 16 Gopal, op. cit., p. 133 ibid., p. 25 Rowlatt report, p. 88 ibid., p. 76 ibid., pp. 59-64 ; cf. report of Committee appointed to investigate the Disturbances in the Punjab, cmd68i (1920) (Hunter report), p. 95 Hunter report, p. 57 cf. Arthur, op. cit., p. 111 report of Indian Police Commission, cd 2478, para. 21 Rowlatt report, p. 44 Arthur, op. cit., pp. 109-10 Rowlatt report, p. 76 ibid., p. 21 ibid. ibid., p. 57 ibid., p. 89 ibid., p. 88 ibid., p. 90 ibid., p. 45 Hunter report, p. 60 Hunter report, passim cf. Sir Dingle Foot, ‘Massacre that started the ending of the Raj’, Observer Magazine (6 April 1975) Hunter report, para. 43 R.E. H.Dyer, Statement on the Disturbances in the Punjab, cd 771 (1920), p. 6 Hunter report, p. 30 ibid., p. 113 ibid. ibid., p. 116 ibid., p. 93 ibid. ibid. ibid., p. 63 ibid., pp. 57, 68 ibid., p. 88 Gopal, p. 314 ibid., p. 329 zW, p. 335 zW, p. 333 ibid., p. 351 zizZ, p. 353

J20 I NOTES

104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113

A.J.P.Taylor, English History 1914-1945 (Harmondsworth 1970), p. 324 Gopal, op. cit., p. 354; L. Hutchinson, Conspiracy at Meerut (London 1935) Gopal, ibid. Gopal, op. cit., p. 409 cited in Gopal, p. 367 Gopal, op. cit., p. 431 Gopal, p. 436 Hutchinson, op. cit., p. 69 The Times (27 June 1975) ' Hindustani Times (25 April 1977)

CHAPTER g

STALIN AND THE RUSSIAN DEVILS

G.Katkov, The Trial of Bukharin (London ig6g), p. 88 R.Conquest, The Great Terror (Harmondsworth 1971), p. 81 R. Medvedev, Let History Judge (London 1976), p. 165 3 (Nickolayevsky) Letter ofan Old Bolshevik: a key to the Moscow Trials (Lon­ don 1938),pp. 34-9; A. Orlov, The Secret History ofStalin’s Crimes (London 1938), pp. 29-30; Conquest, op. cit., p. 77; Medvedev, op. cit., p. 168 4 Conquest, op. cit., p. 80; Medvedev, op. cit., p. 159 5 W. G. Krivitsky, I was Stalin’s Agent (London 1939), p. 211 6 Report of the Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet ‘Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites’ (Moscow 1938), English ed.; cited as Bukharin trial, pp. 37576 7 (Nikolayevsky), op. cit., p. 43 8 ibid., p. 24-5 9 L.Schapiro, TheCommunist Party ofthe Soviet Union (London 1963), p. 339 10 (Nikolayevsky), op. cit., p. 8 11 ibid., p. 19; Conquest, op. cit., p. 52 ff.; Medvedev, op. cit., p. 157 12 B. Wolfe, Kruschev and Stalin’s Ghost, including text ofKruschev’s Secret Report to the XXth Congress of the CPSU (London 1957), p. 128 13 Medvedev, op. cit., p. 159 14 (Nikolayevsky), op. cit., p. 3g 15 Conquest, op. cit., pp. 83-4 16 ibid., p. go; Medvedev, op. cit, p. 163 17 Report of Court Proceedings: The Case of the Trotskyite-Zinovievite Centre (Moscow 1936), English ed.; cited as Zinoviev trial 18 Conquest, op. cit., p. 141 ig ibid., pp. 157, 160, 166 20 ibid., p. 147 21 Orlov, op. cit., p. 176 22 Conquest, op. cit., p. 171; Orlov, op. cit., pp. 56-7

1 2

NOTES /

23

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3> 32 33

34 35 36 37 38

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 5° 51 52 53 54 55 56

J2I

Report of the Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet Trotskyite Centre (Moscow 1937), English ed.; cited as Pyatakov trial Zinoviev trial, p. 81 Conquest, op. cit., p. 233 ibid.,p. 732 A.Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago (London 1974), vol. i, pp. 374-5 ibid., p. 394 Conquest, op. cit., p. 225; Medvedev, op. cit., p. 124 Medvedev, op. cit., pp. 125-31 Conquest, op. cit., pp. 734-6; cf. Solzhenitsyn, op. cit., pp. 376-99 Wrecking Activities at Power Stations in the Soviet Union, English ed. (Moscow 1933), vol. i, p. 167 A. Monkhouse, Moscow 1911-33 Memoirs (London 1933), pp. 99-115, 281-325; G.W. Keeton, The Problem of the Moscow Trial (Uondon 1933), pp. 1-22 ibid., p. 81 ibid., p. 56 ibid., p. 58 ibid., p. go see also Arrest of employees of the Metropolitan Vickers Company at Moscow, cmd 4286; Further correspondence, cmd 4290 Conquest, op. cit., pp. 73840 Conquest, op. cit., pp. 258—65; Medvedev, op. cit., pp. 194-5 Conquest, op. cit., p. 237 Pyatakov trial, p. 135 Conquest, op. cit., pp. 238-9 Orlov, op. cit., p. 119 Conquest, op. cit., p. 384 ibid., p. 375 A.Weissberg, Conspiracy of Silence (London 1952), p. 380 Conquest, op. cit., p. 380 Weissberg, op. cit., p. 311 ibid., p. 386 F.Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession (Lon­ don 1951),p.47 ibid. Weissberg, op. cit., pp. 352-5; Conquest, op. cit., p. 419 Conquest, op. cit., p. 419 cited in Conquest, op. cit., p. 741 AT. cited in ibid., p. 422 S. Wolin and R.Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (NewYork 1957). P- 188; Conquest, op. cit., p. 423

322 57

58 59 60 61 6a 63 64 65 66 67

68 69 70 7' 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 9> 92 93 94

/ NOTES

E. Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (London 195 1), p. 48; Con­ quest, op. cit., p. 423 E. Ginzberg, into the Whirlwind (Harmondsworth 1968), p. 88 A.Koestler, introduction to Weissberg, op. cit., p. x Beck and Godin, op. cit., p. 102 ibid. ibid., p. 46 Koestler, loc. cit. Conquest, op. cit., pp. 702-11 , Ginzburg, op. cit., p. 324 Conquest, op. cit., p. 382 American Committee for the Defence of Leon Trotsky (Dewey Commis­ sion), Not Guilty (London and New York 1938); Conquest, op. cit., p. 670 Bukharin trial, p. 36; Medvedev, op. cit., p. 1 75 Bukharin trial, p. 49 ibid., pp. 58-9 ibid., pp. 157-8; Medevedev, op. cit., p. 175 Conquest, op. cit., p. 510 Medvedev, op. cit., p. 87 Conquest, op. cit., p. 147 Orlov, op. cit., p. 133 Conquest, op. cit., p. 149 ibid., p. 504 ibid., p. 169 Orlov, op. cit., p. 283 ibid., p. 290 Conquest, op. cit., p. 340, 580; Medvedev, op. cit., pp. 219, 311 Medvedev, op. cit., p. 174 ibid., p. 186 F. Maclean, Eastern Approaches (London 1949), p. 96 Bukharin trial, p. 379 ibid., p. 395 ibid., p. 375 Pyatakov trial, p. 339 A. London, On Trial( London 1970); E. CoeY>\,Sentenced and Tried (London 1969), passim Bukharin trial, pp. 370-1 Bukharin trial, pp. 102-3 Medvedev, op. cit., pp. 202 fT. cf. M.Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (London 1959), p. 58 Schapiro, op. cit., pp. 394—8

NOTES / 525

95 9^ 97 98 99 i oo 101 102 103 IO4 >05 106 107 108 IOg I IO I 11 I I2 >>3 114 1'5

116

’>7 118 ' >9 120 121 122 123 124

125 126 127 128 129 >3° ’31

Fainsod, op. cit., pp. 165-6 ibid., pp. 48-9, 151 ibid., pp. 135-6 ibid., p. 134 e.g. V. Kravchenko, / Chose Justice (London 1951), p. 96 / Chose Freedom (London 1950), p. 217 ibid., p. 218 ibid. ibid., p. 231 R. Pethybridge, The Social Prelude to Stalinism (London 1974), p. 132 Schapiro, op. cit., p. 31 1 ibid. H.P. Kennard, The Russian Peasant (London 1907)^.60 ibid., p. ix ibid., p. 67 ibid., p. 69 ibid., p. 70 ibid., p. 68 ibid., pp. 73-4 ibid., p. 118 P. Bogatuirev, Actesmagiques, rites et croyances en Russie subcarpathique (Paris I929), P- 1 1 ibid., p. 14 ibid., p. 20 cited in Z.Brzezinski, The Permanent Purge (Cambridge, Mass. 1956), p. 86 Keeton, op. cit., p. 38 Conquest, op. cit., pp. 207—8 Ginzburg, op. cit., p. 125 Kravchenko, / Chose Justice, p. 216 Fainsod, op. cit., pp. 161-2 for Marxism and Soviet Law, see J. Hazard, Law and Social Change in the USSR (London 1953); cf. M.Damaska, ‘Evidentiary barriers to con­ viction and two models ofcriminal procedure’ in University ofPennsylvania Law Review (Jan 1973), 121, no. 3, pp. 506-89 passim R. Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime ( London 1974), p. 158 Beck and Godin, op. cit., p. 57 Medvedev, op. cit., p. 263 Conquest, op. cit., p. 102 ibid. Solzhenitsyn, op. cit., p. 122 see G.Popoff, The Tcheka (London 1925), p. 289 ff.

324 132 133 '34 >35

136 *37

138 ’39

140

'4' 142 *43

*44 *45 146 *47 148

*49 *5° *5’ *52 *53 *54 *55 156 *57 158 *59 160 161 162 163 164 ’65

I NOTES

P.S.Squire, The Third Department: The Political police under Nicholas 1 (Cambridge 1968), pp. 1-23 see H.C.Lea, Superstition and Force (Philadelphia 1892), pp. 578—9 R.Hingley, The Russian Secret Police 1565-1370 (London 1970), p. 54 R. Hingley, Nihilists: Russian Radicals and Revolutionaries in the reign ofAlex­ ander ll (/855-81} (London 1967), p. 103 cf. F. M.Dostoyevsky, Memoirs of the House of the Dead (London 1911), passim for atrocities committed by the Whiie armies, see H.Barbusse, Les Bourreaux (Paris 1920); for Bolshevik atrocities, see S. P. Melgounov, The Red Terror in Russia (London 1925) Melgounov, op. cit., pp. 3-5 L.N.Trotsky, Defence of Terrorism (London 1935), p. 55 (1st edition, published 1921 as Terrorism and Communism) quoted by E.H.Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution (Harmondsworth 1966), vol. i, p. 177 ibid., p. 163 see chapter 7, p. 181 cited in E.H.Carr, The Soviet impact on the Western World (London 1946), P- 9’ Pipes, op. cit., p. 233 Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, vol. i, p. 1 75 Izvestia, no. 192 (1918), cited in Popoff, op. cit., p. 233 Wolin and Slusser, op. cit., p. 6 Melgounov, op. cit., p. 187 ibid., p. 39 ibid., p. 135 ibid., pp. 127-8 ibid., pp. 166, 184 Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, vol. i, p. 1 74 Melgounov, pp. 182-3 ibid., pp. 162—3 Popoff, op. cit., pp. 68—9 ibid., p. 237 ibid., p. 244 Melgounov, op. cit., p. 147 quoted by Melgounov, p. 23 ibid., p. 106 Solzhenitsyn, op. cit., p. 396 ibid., p. 98 Medvedev, pp. 111-13; Conquest, pp. 731-2 Medvedev, op. cit., pp. 125—31

NOTES / 525

166 167 168 '69 '70 '71 172 >73 >74 >75 176 >77 >78

Weissberg, op. cit., pp. 248-9 ibid., pp. 243-4 ibid., pp. 404—6 Beck and Godin, op. cit., p. 188 cited by Conquest, op. cit., p. 196 Weissberg, op. cit., p. 294 Beck and Godin, op. cit., p. 54 cf. Brzezhinski, op. cit., p. 131 Barrington Moore Jnr, Terror and Progress USSR (Cambridge, Mass. >954), PP- >74-5 Z.Stypulowski, Invitation to Moscow (London >95>) Lobl, op. cit.; London, op. cit., passim Conquest, op. cit., pp. 193, 201 see R.J.Lifton, Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism (London 1961)

EPILOGUE

12 13 14 15

Amnesty International World Report on Torture (New York 1976), p. 21 see N.Margaree, Istoria tees Makronisou (Athens 1966), 2 vols European Commission of Human Rights, The Greek Case (Strasbourg 1970) John Calder et al, Gangrene (London 1959) Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (London 1876), vol. iv, pp. 340-2 J-P. Sartre, Une Victoier, in H.Alleg, The Question (London 1958), p. 24 ibid.,-?. 13 cf. H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (London 1958), p. 308 ff. ibid., pp. 185-221 passim H.Rauschning, Hitler Speaks (London 1939), pp. 235—6; N.Cohn, WarrantforGenocide: Themyth ofthe Jewish world-conspiracy and the Proto­ cols of the Elders of Zion (London 1967), p. 193 Arendt, op. cit., pp. 358-60. Foran account ofthe provenance ofthe Proto­ cols, see N.Cohn, op. cit. H. C. Lea, History ofthe Inquisition in Spain (London 1906); vol. i, p. 130 ff. ibid.; see also C. Roth, The Spanish Inquisition (London 1937), passim cf. F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism (London 1967), p. 24 H.Kraunsnick and M.Brozat, Anatomy ofthe SS State (London 1970), p.

16 17 18 19

49 ffsee H.Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (London 1964), p. 53 if. International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg 1946), vol. iii, p. 496 ff. ibid., vol. i, p. 233 ibid., vol. xxii, p. 537

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

11

326 I NOTES

20 21 22 23 24 25

26 27

International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg 1946), vol. v, p. 405 Arendt, Origins, p. 185 E.H. Winter in Middleton and Winter, Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa (London 1963), p. 296 cited by R.Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics and other essays (London 1966), p. 7 A. L. Katz, ‘A psychoanalytic peek at conspiracy’, Buffalo Law Review, 20 (1970), pp. 239-51 ibid., p. 243; cf. J. Piaget, The Moral Judgement ofthe Child (1965), pp. 6163 cf. Twining on Bentham, Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, (Autumn 1973), vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 346-7 Katz, op. cit., p. 43

Index

Abbeville, Nicolas d’, 95-6 Aberdeen, earl of, 159, 164 abjuration ofheresy, 57, 77, 117 Aden, torture in, 217 Ad Extirpanda, 95 Agranov, Y. D., 224 Agrippina, 37 Albi, council of, 93 Albigensians, 48, 53, 55, 79, 81, 146; see also Cathars, Manicheans Alciatus, Andreas, 126 Alcibiades, 26—8 Alexander I, tsar, 169, 266 Alexis, tsarevitch, 266 Alfonso I, king of Aragon, 98 Algeria, torture in, 217 Alipore conspiracy trial, 195, 206, 213 Amba, African tribe, 153, 292-3 Amnesty International, 195 Amritsar, massacre, 208—9 Andocides, 27 Androcles, 26 Anthony of Padua, saint, 81 anti-semitism see Jews, racism, ‘Anti-soviet Trotskyite Centre’ ; see also Piatakov trial Antiphon, 24-5 Antoninus Pius, emperor, 31,34 Apologeticus, 35, 282

Apollonius of Tyana, 86 Aquinas, Thomas, saint, 123 Archadius, Charisius, 34 Arendt, Hannah, 286 Arian heresy, 82 Aristogeiton, 26 Aristophanes, 23 Aristotle, 17, 24,31,39,41, 145 Arnald, Amalric, abbot of Citaux, 80 Arnold of Brescia, 81 astrology, 36 Athenians see Greece, ancient Augustine, saint, 43, 82, 86 Augustus, emperor, 29, 32, 33 Auschwitz, 289 Austrian territories, torture in, 162,180 Auvergne, Guillaume d’, 114 Auvergne, preceptor of, 102 Azande, African tribe, 147-9, ’52

Babeuf, Gracchus, 168-g, 177 Bambergensisy 61 barilotto, 24; see also witches sabbat Barruel, Augustin de, 141, 167, 286 bastinado, 162-3 Beaman, Mr Justice, 199, 200 Beccaria, Cesare, 8-20, 22, 66, 281

J28 I

INDEX

begums of Oudh, 188 Bengal, government of, 183, 184, i9°> l92> i98> 200 Bentham, Jeremy, 9, i?-22,36n Beria, Lavrenti, 277 BernardofClairvaux, saint, 75-6, 77, 78, Î02 Bessonov, Sergei, 238, 239 Béziers, Floryan de see Floryan, Esquiu de Béziers, viscount of, 78, 80, 90 Bhawani Mandir, 204 Black Death, 52 blasphemy, and Templars, iooff ‘Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites’sfe Bukharin trial Bodin, Jean, 67-8, 127-8, 141, 146 Bogatuirev, P., 259-60 Bogomils, 113 Bolshevik, Bolshevism see com­ munism, communist ‘Bomba’, king see Ferdinand II Boris of Bulgaria, prince, 42 Bose, Chandra, 214 ‘brainwashing’, 239, 241 Braude, I. D., 231 Bretagne, Très-ancienne coutume de, 41 Brittany, torture in, 47 Bukharin, Larina, 240 Bukharin, Nikolai, 222, 225, 226, 233>238, 240,241-3,246 Bukharin trial, 238-9, 241-3 Bukharinites, 284 Buonarotti, Felice, 168-9, Burke, Edmund, 159, 167, 184, 188 Burr, G. L., 140, 141

Caesar of Heisterbach, 123 Il Caffe, 8

Calas, Jean, 13 Calcutta conspiracy case, 195, 203 Caligula, emperor, 33 Callistratus, 32 cannibalism, 113, 121, 123, 129, 153,154 Canon Episcopi, 124-8, 130, 131, i'35, !36, i39> 145 Carbonari, 169, 170 Carcassonne, inquisitor of, 96 Carolina, 61-2 Caron, Raymbaud de, 107 Carpzov, Benedict, 120 Cassius Dio, 33 Castelnau, Pierre de, 75, 79 Catechismo Filosófico, 181 Cathars,8i,83,85-97/>n, 114, 123,125,145, 166 Catherine II, empress, 8 Catherine of Valois, 109 Catholicism: and heresy, 82, 85, 87,88,89; and witchcraft, 118— 130 passim, 150, 259; and free­ masonry, 166; and sovereignty, 181 Catholics, in southern France, 80, 84,87,89 Catiline conspiracy, 33 Cautio Criminalis, 137-9 Cavour, Count, 171 , Cawnpore conspiracy trial, 213' Cervieri, Giovanni, 163 Charlemagne, 48, 49 Charles V, emperor, 61 Charnay, Geoffroy de, 116, 117 Cheka, 269-70, 271, 272-4 Chernov, M. A., 233, 245-7 Chevers, Dr Norman, 187 Chouans, 177 Christ, Jesus, 83, 282 Christianity: and magic, 37, 81,

index

83 ; and manichaeism, 81; and poverty, 83; and slavery, 42, 43-4; and sovereignty, 181; and torture, 23, 43-4; see also Catholicism, Church, protes­ ta ntism Christians: accusations against, 113; tortured, 34-6, 113, 282 Christina, queen of Sweden, 137 Church, orthodox, 256, 257, 259, 264 Church, Roman Catholic: and canon law, 49; and heresy 7597passim’, and ordeals, 46; and persecution, 70; and torture, 44,47,545 and state 53-4, 115; see also canon law, inquisition Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 25, 31, 33 Claudius, emperor, 33, 37 Clement V, pope, 97,99,1 o 1,104, 110, 111, 116, 117 ‘Clementines’, 97 Cleves, duke of, 135 Code of Criminal Procedure, soviet, 266 Cohn, Norman, 113, 114, 115 Comminges, count of, 80 Commune, Paris, 174, 179 communism, communist, 38, 40, 211,213, 280, 288-9, 29^ Communist International, 213,

225 Communist Party, Chinese, 278 Communist Party, Soviet, 133, 218, 221; purges, 247-56; education, 256; social composi­ tion, 256 compurgation, 45, 48 Conrad of Marburg, 115 confessions: in Europe, induce­ ments, 93-4; and Inquisition,

/ 529

54, 57, 67, 92; and ordeal, 47, 51; ratification of, 67, 133; retraction of, 116, 134, 136—7; and Templars 105-16 passim’, and torture, 11, 57, 66, 138, 283; without torture, 138: in India, 190-203 passim’, forced, Ï91, \93—4; illegal, 195-6; retraction of, 196-9; and Rowlatt acts, 202, 204-5, 212; ‘spontaneity’, 198-200: in Russia, 264: in Soviet Union, 224-5, 230, 232, 235, 239-40, 245, 262, 263, 264, 275, 284 confession, sacramental, 51, 134, 136,162 Conquest, Robert, 234, 236, 237, 262, 265 Conservative party see Tory party conspiracies, revolutionary: in India, 202-3, 205-7, 209 Conspiracy of Equals, 169-70 conspiracy trials: in India, 195-6, 201, 203, 205-6, 213 Constantine, emperor, 37 ‘conveyer’ system, 214, 239, 274 convicts see prisoners convict ships, 178-9 Corbou, Humbert de, 112-13 ‘counter-revolutionary offences’, 235 counter-witchcraft, 131, 154 Coustas, John, 166 Curzon commission, 192-4, 197, 203-4; on torture, 192-3 Curzon, marquis of, 197 Cushny, J., 228, 231 Cyprus, torture in, 217 dacoits, dacoity, 187, 190-1,203204; political, 213

JJO I

INDEX

Daemonolatreia, 12g Dalton, Michael, 142 Damhouder, Josse, 55, 56, 58, 60, 63,65,67 Darkness at Noon, 241 De Magoron Daemonomania, 128 defamation, with witchcraft, 143-4 Defence of India Act, 202, 205 Defence of Terrorism, 267 Dei delitti e dellepene, 8—12, 15 Delrio, Martin, 129, 141 demons, 123-4, 127, 135 i in Russia, 257—9 ; see also incubi Denikin, General, 254n denunciations, 69,94-5, 292 ; and Inquisition, 92—3; and witch­ hunts 125-6, 131-3, 136, 145; function of, 139, 146; in soviet purges, 180, 234-5, 237> 252“4, 263 ; see also witchcraft, accusa­ tions Deterding, Sir Henry, 228 devil, the, 71, 114, 115, 121 ; and witches, 120-2, 128, 129, 130, I32,135, 144 Dewey commission, 237 diabolism, 113—15, 123-5, i29, 141,142, 144; in England, 144; Templars accused of, 101, 107108, 113—14; see also witches, sabbat Digest, ofJustinian, 24, 29-32, 50 Diocleides, 27 Diocletian, emperor, 82 Dominic, saint, 79, 80 Dominicans, 38, 81, 91, 96, 111, 120, 122, 124, 130, 162; see also Inquisition Donatist heresy, 83 Douglass, Frederick, 41 Dubois, Philippe, 111

Dyer, Brigadier-General, 208211,216 Dzerzhinsky, Felix, 269, 273 East India Company, 184, 186 Eckbert, abbot of Schönau, 6g, 86 eculeus, 26, 37; see torture: methods, Rome Egyptians, ancient, 23 Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 193 Engels, Friedrich, 171 England, 7, 65, 142-4, 150-1, 172 Erastus, Thomas, 130 Estates General, 111 espionage charges, 231 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., 147 evidence see proofs, legal Ewen, C. L’Estrange, 146 executions see witches, witch­ hunts: soviet purges Eymeric, Nicholas (Eymericus), 54, 58, 68, 92 Faber, Johann Jacob, 131 Fainsod, Merle, 249 falsum see law, Roman Farinacius, Prosper, 65 fascism, 286 Ferdinand II (King Bomba), 161-2, 181 Floryan, Esquiu de, 101, 112 Foix, count of, 80 Fontaines, Pierre de, 50 Formicarius, 122-3 Fouquier-Tinville, A. Q,, 175 France: law, 52-4, 60-1; police, 168, 172-3, 175, 177; prisoners J74-5> 178-9; prisons, 172, 174, 176, 179; torture in, 60—1, 68, 174-5, i77-8o

INDEX

Francis of Assissi, saint, 78, 84 Franciscans, 81, 123 Frederick I (Barbarossa), 76 Frederick II (Hohenstaufen), 53, 94 Frederick II (the Great), 13 freemasonry, freemasons, 12, 102, 165—70 passim', see also secret societies Fouché, Joseph, 169, 177, 178 Galilei, Galileo, 13 Gallius, praetor, 33 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 171 Gestapo, 289, 290 Ghadr, Hindu, 201 Gandhi, Mahatma, 207,208,209, 21i,212,213,214 Gandhi, Mrs Indira, 215, 216 Giannone, Pietro, 13 gipsies, 291 Gisy, Ponsard de, 112 Gizy, Raoul de, 108 Gladstone, W. E., 159-61, 162, 163,164, I72n,181 Goethe, Johann von, 166 Gorky, Maxim, 233, 243 Gonneville, Geoffroy de, 116, 117 GPU, OGPU, 214,227,228, 231, 233, 249, 269; see also NKVD Gratian, 43, 66 Greece, ancient, 23-8passim, 41 Greece, modern, 291-2 Gregory, A. W., 228, 231 Gregory I, pope and saint, 44 Gregory IX, pope, 114 Grèves, Jean de (Grevius), 60 Grillandus, Paul, 58-9, 126-7, 128 Gué, Bernard de, 112

I 55/

Gui, Bernard (Guidonis), 84, 89, 93 Guillaume, Frère, 104, 112 Gulab Bano torture case, 194 Gussev, V. A., 229, 230

Hadrian, emperor, 29, 34 hallucinations, 115, 123 Handbook for Magistrates, 142-3 Hardinge ofPenshurst, Lord, 201 Harris, Lord, 186 Hastings, Warren, 183, 188 Hebrews see Jews Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, 76, 77 Henry of Lausanne, 75-6, 77 Herblay, Guillaume de, 108 heresy :51,52,6g, 181,287 jabjur­ ation of, 57, 77, 92, 117; laws against, 53 ; proofs of, 93 ; and Templars, îooff; and witches, 114, 120, 125, 132, 145-6 heretics: categories, 92-3; and diabolism, 113; doctrines, 8588,89,93 ; popular support for, 91 ; practices of, 88-9, 93; and torture, 284, 287 ; see also Arian heresy, Bogomils, Cathars, Donatist heresy, Manicheans, Paulicians, Poor Folk of Lom­ bardy, Poor Folk of Lyon, Waldensians Hess, Rudolf, 227 Himmler, Heinrich, 290 Hippolytus of Marseille, 59, 60, 65,68 Hitler, Adolf, 221, 227, 286, 290, 291 Holland, Lord and Lady, 160 Hopkins, Matthew, 65, 143 Hospitallers, Knights, 91, 98, 99, 100,102, 103,117

3$2 I

INDEX

Höss, Rudolf, 289 Howrah conspiracy trial, 206 Hungary, 170, 171 Hunter committee, 208-12 Hutchinson, Lester, 214, 215 Illuminati, the, 166-7, 2°6 illiteracy, 256, 265 incest, 113, 152 incubi, 118, 122, 123-4, 127, 144 India, government of, 196; Government of India Act (1919), 208, 219; see also Madras, Bengal India, police see police, India India Reform Society, 184 India, torture see torture, India Indian Evidence Act, 191-4, 205 Indian Mutiny, 186, 195 indicium, indicia see proofs, legal Indo-China, 217 Industrial party trial, 227-8, 274 infanticide, 113, 121, 123, 124, 144 Innocent III, pope, 49, 75, 79,94, 99,101 Innocent IV, pope, 50,69, 275 Innocent VIII, pope, 119 Inquisition, medieval: abuses of, 96-7, 104; confessions from, 54; cruelty of, 96; episcopal, 111; in Languedoc, 114; ori­ gins of, 48-9, 76, 90; penance of, 92 ; ‘relaxation’ to, 92 ; revived in Italy, 162, 181 ; and soviet purges, 264-5 > a°d state, 96; and torture, 4,56,57-9,67, 94, 95, r45, 282; and witches, 120, 128; see also confession, denunciation, heresy, heretics, inquisitorial process, torture

Inquisition, Spanish, 128, 145-6, 166, 287 Inquisitorial process: abuses, 133, 136, 144-6; confession from, 66; methods revived, 181; ori­ gins of, 49, 52, 56; and torture, 66-70; and witches, 120, 128, 133; see a^s0 confession, denunciation, Inquisition, legal proofs, torture Institoris see Kramer, Heinrich interrogation: in French revolu­ tion, 175; and Inquisition, 92, 93; in Soviet Union, 229, 239, 2 75 Ireland, 170, 171, 179, 180 Ireland, Northern, 217 Islam, 88 Italy: police, 172—3 ; prisons, 159— 163; torture, 68; witches, 119, 120, 132, 146; see also Austrian territories, Naples

Jacobins, 167, 169, 176, 177 James I, king of England, 142 James II, king of Aragon, 101 Janata party, 216 Jaquier, Nicholas, 124, 126 Jehovah’s Witnesses, 289 Jerusalem, Assizes of, 47 Jesuits, 130, 136-9, 166, 167 Jesus see Christ ‘Jewish Doctors’ Plot’, 276 Jews, 23,34,52, 100,284,286-90, 291,294; stereotypes 287, 293 John ofOjun, 113 Joseph II, emperor, 162 Judaism, 81, 88 justice: and French revolution, I75-6, 181 iin India, 192, 193, 198, 199; and Marxism, 268;

index

and Russian revolution, 267270; and torture, 9; see also law Justinian, emperor, 29

Kaguru, African tribe, 152 Kaltenbrunner, Ernst, 290 Kamenev, Lev, 222, 224, 225, 226, 240 Karakazov, 266 Kautsky, Karl, 267 Keitel, General, 290-1 Kennard, H. P., 257-9 Kennedy ladies murdered, 195 Kennedy, Mr Justice, 194 Kenya, torture in, 217, 283 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies see Naples Kingsford, magistrate, 195 Kirov, Sergei: assassination, 218, 226, 233, 243; career, 219-20, 221-3, 225 Knox, General, 272 Koestler, Arthur, 241 Kramer, Heinrich (Institoris), 119,141 Kravchenko, Victor, 254-6 Krestinsky, N., 233, 238-40 Khruschev, N. S., 223, 277 Kuibyshev, V, V., 233 Kun, Bela, 240

labour camps, soviet, 236 Lafayette, Marquis de, 167 Lamoignon, M. de, 60 Larchant, Raynier, 108 Laski, Harold, 214 law: in Burgundy, 44; Canon, 45, 48, 49, 54; conspiracy in, 206, 294; ecclesiastical see Canon

/ 333

above-, in England, 7, 154; feudal, 52-3; in France, 60-1; in Germany, 53, 61-2, 138; in India, 186, 187, 198; in Rome see law, Roman below, royal, 52-4; in Russia, 264; Salic, 44; soviet, 263; in Sweden, 7; Visi­ gothic, 44 law, Roman: 7, 8, 13, 104; and torture, 29-36, 39; and exemp­ tions, 63 -,falsum, 32; procedure in, 44, 49; restrictions on, 66, 69,138; revival of, 50-1; see also slavery, torture Lawrence, T. E., 228 Laymann, Paul, 136 Lea, H. C., 126, 127, 140, 141 Leipzig protocol, 62-3 Lecky W. E. H., 14 Lenin V. L, 226, 232, 237, 260, 267,272 Leopold II, king of the Belgians, 292 lex talionis, 48 Liberal party, 160, 196, 209 Lille, Alain de, 114 Lissagarey, P., 180 Livre de Jostice et de Piet, 49, 50 Livshitz, Y., 244-5 Lloyd George, David, 212 Loebl, Engen see Slansky-Loebl trial Lohia, Ram, 214 Louis VIII, king of France, 81 Louis IX, king of France, 49 Luther, Martin, 130 Lutherans see protestantism Lycurgus, 24

Machiavelli, 13 McCarthy, Joseph, 293

334 I «ndex Macdonald, W. L., 228, 229, 230, 231,241 Macfarlane, Alan, 150 MacMahon, Marshal, 172, 179 Madras commission, 184-6, 188189, 193» 197 Madras, government of, 184, 186 magic, 36-8, 121, 135, 142, 260; see also maleficium, witchcraft Mair, Lucy, 154 Maistre, Joseph de, 168 majestas, 32-5; see also treason Makronisos, island prison, 283 Malleus Maleficarum, 119-22, 124126, 128-9, 138, 187, 264 maleficium, 38, 118, 121, 123, 131, 135,142,145,15°-! iin Russia, 257761 maleficium taciturnitatis, 56, 121, 128,139 Mandari, African tribe, 152 Mani, prophet, 82 Manichaeans, Manichees, 37, 38, 46, 77, 82, 83, 167, 284; see also Albigensians, Cathars Manzoni, Alessandro, 16-17 Map, Walter, 114 Maria Theresa, empress, 7, 61 Marie Antoinette, queen of France, 167 Marigny, Philippe de, 116 Marranos, 146 Marwick, Max, 151 Marx, Jenny, i73n Marx, Karl, 171, i73n Marxism, Marxists, 180, 268, 274, 285, 288, 289 Marxism-Leninism, 265 masonic lodges see freemasons Mau Mau, 283 Maupas, M. de, 171, 178 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 165, 171

Mdivani, Budu, 240 Medvedev, Roy, 237, 239, 241, 247, 264, 265 Meerut conspiracy trial, 213, 214 Mein Kampf, 286 Mellor, Alec, 50 Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire du jacobinism, 167 Mensheviks, ‘bureau of’, 228, 233, 254, 274 Menzhinsky, M. R., 233, 243, 270 Messalina, 33 Metropolitan-Vickers Company (Metrovick) trial, 231-48, 261-2 Metternich, Prince, 169, 170 Michelet, Jules, 115 Midelfort, Erik, 131, 134 Mitford, Nancy, i66n Moghuls, empire of, 186-7, Molay, Jacques de, 99, 100, 108, 109,i10,i16,i17 Molitus, Ulrich, 126 Molotov, V. M., 240 Monkhouse, A., 228, 230, 231 Montagu-Chelmsford proposais (1919), 208, 212 Montespan, Marquise de, i54n Montesquieu, Baron de, 7, 12 Montfort, Amauri de, 81 Montfort, Simon de, 79, 80 Mora, Milanese barber, 4, 5, 6, 11 Morelet, Abbé, 13 Morning Post, 161 Morny, Duc de, 171 Mozart, W. A., 166 Mrachovsky, S. V., 225 Müller, Heinrich, 289, 290 Murat, Joachim, 170 Murray, Margaret, 140-1

INDEX /

Napier, Lord, igo Naples (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies): divine right of king, 181-2; Inquisition revived, 181; police in, 172; prisons of, *59—60, 161; revolution in, 170; secret societies in, 164, 165, 16g; torture in, 161, 162, , 164-5, 180 Napoleon I, 162, 168, i6g, 177 Napoleon III, 171, 178 Narain, Jayaprakash, 214 Narbonne, council of, g3 nationalism 171; in India, ig2, 202,203, 206 Nazis, Nazism, 226, 286-g2, 2g3 necrophagy, 123, 132, 153-5 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 212, 215 Nero, emperor, 33, 34, 37 Niarchos, Greek tyrant, 26 Nicholas I, pope, 43 Nicholas I, tsar, 223, 266 Nider, Johann, 122, 124 night flight, 121, 125, 127, 130, 147; see also witch stereotypes night witch see witch stereotypes Nikolayev, Leonid, 218, 2ig, 224 Niort, seigneurs of, go, gi NKVD, 2ig, 223, 224, 225, 233, 234, 24g, 254, 262, 263, 264, 26g, 274, 275; see also GPU Nogaret, Guillaume de, 101 Nordwall, C., 228, 231 Nuremberg trials, 28g, 2go oath helpers see compurgation O’Brien, Colonel, 211 O’Dwyer, Sir Michael, 210, 211 CEconomia, 41 OGPU see GPU, NKVD Okhrana, the, 267

335

ordeal, trial by: abolition of, 46, 4g; in Africa, ^-50; cold water, 143 ; by combat, 11 ; and confession, 47, 51 ; by heat 11, 47» J49i medieval, 45; opposi­ tion to, 46; by poison, i4g-5o; and torture, 25, 42,47, 51, 143, 282 Ordjonkidze, Sergo, 222, 232 OrleansDuc d’ (Philippe Égalité), 167 Orsini, Felice, 162, 163, 164, >71 ‘pact’with thedevil, the, 120, 125, 142; among African witches, 152 ; see also diabolism Padilla, Don Juan, 6 Pairaud,Huguesde, 105,106,107, 108,110,116,117 Palchinsky, P. A., 227 Palmerston, Lord, 160, 164 Panchkouree Khan, igi Panizzi, Anthony, 160 Paul, saint, 86 Paulicians, 82, 113 Paulus, Roman jurist, 30, 32 peineforte et dure, 283 Peisander, 26, 28 Peisistratus, tyrant, 26 Pennel, Mr Justice, ig7, 200 perduellio, 24, 25, 32; see also majeslas, treason Peshkov, Maxim, 234 Pesnée, Guy de, 105 Peter, king of Aragon, 80 Peter of Bern, 123 Peter the Chanter (Petrus Can­ tor), 46 Peter of Pavia, cardinal, 76 Peter I (the Great), tsar, 266

336 I

INDEX

Philip IV (the Fair), king of France, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 109, 110-12, 116, 117 Piatakov, G. L., 226, 231, 232, 238, 247 . Piatakov trial, 225-6, 240 Piazza, Guglielmo, 3-6, 11 Pisonian conspiracy, 33, 37 Poerio, Carlo, 159, 164, 172 Poincaré, Raymond, 228 Poland, Poles, 170, 171, 289, 291 police: in Austria, 169, 172-3; in England, 172; in France, 168, 172—3, G5, T77; in Germany, i73n {see also Gestapo,); in Greece, modern, 283 ; in India, 184, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 197, 203, 204 {see also Cur­ zon commission, torture) ; methods of, 19th cent., 173; in Naples, 172-3; political, 168, !72> 173, J75; psychology of, 173; in Russia, 172-3 {see also Okhrana; soviet, 276 {see also Cheka, GPU, NKVD) Police commission, Indian see Curzon commission police state, 276 Polish leaders, trial of, 277 Ponzibio, Gianfrancisco, 126 Poor Folk of Lombardy, 81; Poor Folk of Lyon, 81, 84; see also Waldensians prisoners: in Austrian territories, 163; in France, 174-5, 9; in Ireland, 180; in Naples, 15g, 160, 161; political, modern, 281, 283 prisons : in Austrian territories, 162-3 ; in Britain, 17g; in France, 172, 174, 176, 179; in Ireland, 17g, 180 ; medieval 94,

97, and reforms, 97 ; in Naples, 15g, 160, 161 ; in Soviet Union, 234 proofs, legal, 51,55, 56, 57, 282, 284; see also torture: Inquisition protestantism, 84,87, 120, 130-1, 150 ; see also witchcraft Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 207, 286 pseudo-Aristotle, 41 Punjab, government of, 194, 210 purge trials, provincial, 235, 247 purges, soviet : causes of, 265-6 ; in Communist party, 247-56 ; end of, 276, results of, 236; and Sta­ lin, 237—8, 265; victims of, 218, 234, 236 purging commissions, 248 puritans, English, 89 Pussort, M., 60 question préalable, 69 question préparatoire, 13 Quintilian, 31

racism, 285, 286, 289 Radek, Karl, 226, 232, 240, 269 Rakovsky, Christian, 233 Ramses II, pharaoh, 23 Ramzin, L. K., 227, 228, 232 Rauschning, Hermann, 286 Raymond V, VI, VII see Tou­ louse, counts of Raymond of Pennaforte, 93 Red army, 225, 233 Real, M., 169 Reflections on the Revolution in France, 159 Reformation, the, 120, 181 Rémy, Nicholas, 129, 141 Rheims, council of, 86

index

Rhodians ancient, and torture, 23,25 Richards, C., 230 ‘Right organization’, 246 rights of man, 180 Riutin, M. N., 221, 222 Robespierre, Maximilien, 169, 174, 176, 267-8, 269 Roger of Hovendene, 77 Roland, Marie, 175 Romans, Rome see law, Roman, slavery Romanus of St Angelo, cardinal­ legate, 90 Rowlatt acts, bills, 202, 207, 209 Rowlatt committee, 202-7, 212, 215-16, 294 Roy, M. N., 213 Rumyantsev, I. P., 251 Runciman, Steven, 81 Rykov, Alexei, 222,225, 226, 240, 243, 245, 246 Rysakov, Nicholas, 266 ‘sabotage’ charges, 226, 227-8, 229, 231, 241, 245, 251, 253, 254 ; in agriculture, 245-7 > and demons, 258, 264; and rail­ ways, 244-5 Sartre, J.-P., 284, 285 Savanarola, 46 Schiller, J. von, 166 Schloecher, Victor, 178 Scot, Reginald, 135, 140 Scotland, 143 secret societies, 165-72, 180; in Austria, 166-7, 169, 180; in France, 171, 180 ; in Germany, 166—7; in India, 191, 213; in Italy, 164, 165, 167, 169, 180; and Marxism, 170—1 ; and

/ 337

nationalism, 170; origins of, 170; and Russia, 169; and socialism, 170—1; and Spain, 169 Sejanus, 33 Sens, archbishop of, 116 Sens, council of, 117 September massacres, 174-5 Septimus Severus, emperor, 36 Settembrini, Luigi, 160, 164-5 Seymore, Danby, MP, 183 Shakhty trial, 227, 274 sikhs, 201 Simon commission, 213 Skamandrios, decree of, 27 Slansky-Loebl, trial of, 228, 245 slavery and slaves, 39, 41-2, 283; and Christianity, 43, 44; dis­ appearance of, 50; medieval survivals, 69; and punishment, 41-2; and torture, 23-5, 28, 29, 30, 31,41;^ also law, Roman, torture sleep deprivation, 65; in England, 123; in India, 185, 196, 214; in Soviet Union, 241,266 Smolensk archive, 249, 250, 255, 256 Smirnov, I. N., 225, 226, 240 socialism, 170-1, 180 Social Revolutionary Party, 219, 233 sodomy, iooff, 113, 152, 166 Soissons, bishop of, 46 solitary confinement, 94, 163, 179, l8o> ’96 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 227, 274 Sonnenfels, Baron von, 7 sorcery: as crime 120, 144; in Russia, 260; see also magic, maleficium, witchcraft, witches

338 I

INDEX

sovereignty, 35, 180, 181, 182, 269 Soviet Union, 213, 216, 218-78 passim, 281, 289, 293; see also Cheka, Communist Party, GPU, NKVD, purges ; and sub­ heads under law, police, pri­ soners, prisons, sabotage, Sta­ lin, torture Spankic, Cawnpore magistrate,

191 Spee, Friedrich von, 136, 137—9, 140 Spina, Alphonso de, 123 Sprenger, Jacob, 119, 128, 141 SS, the Nazi, 290 Stalin, Joseph, 180, 214, 218-78 passim ; and Kirov murder, 218, 222-3 > and kulaks, 220-1 ; and purges, 237-8,265 ; and torture order, 275-6 Stearne, John, 143 Steinberg, commissar, 271 Stephen V, pope, 47 Strasbourg, bishop of, 46 Sublimes Maîtres Parfaits, 169170 . . succubi see incubi Suetonius, 33 Summers, Montague, 140 Summis desiderantes affectibus, 119 suttee, 191 Swamy, Dr Subranamyan, 216 Sweden, 7, 137

Tacitus, 33, 34 Tanner, Adam, 136 Templars, Knights, 53, 97, 98!I7> I23> !66, 167; abjuration of, 116; background to charges

against, 101, 113; charges against, 100-10 passim', blas­ phemy of, 100, 103, 106, 107, 108; denying Christ, 100, 110; diabolism of, 101, 107, 108, 113—14; heresy of, 100; sodomy of, 100, 102, 103, 106, 107, 108; condemnation of, 116; con­ fessions of, 105, 106, 109, 110, 113, 115, 116, and revocation of, 116; origins of, 98; privileges of, 99; rebuked by pope 99, 101; tortured, 105, 107, 109, 111, 112, 113, 115, 117; wealth of, 99, 100 terror: in French revolution, 174— 176, 181; in India, 210, 212; in Nazi camps, 288; in Russian revolution, 267-8; and Stalin spurges; and Trotsky, 267 terrorism, terrorists: in India, I95>2oi,2O2, 206, 209; in Nazi Europe, 289; and torture, 295-8; and USSR, 241, 245 Tertullian, 35, 282 Teucer, 27 Theobald, English barrister, 183 Theodosian code, 37 Theresiana, 7, 15, 61 ‘third-degree’ order, 289, 291 ‘third section’ (Russian political police), 267 Thomas, Keith, 150, 151,259 Thornton, L. C., 228, 229, 230, 231,241 Thucydides, 23 thuggee, 191, 204 Tiberius, emperor, 33 The Times, 183 Tissiere, Jean, 91 Tomsky, Mikhail, 222, 225, 242; suicide, 226

INDEX / 339 Torture : abolition, 7-22 passim, 266; in Austria, 15; in Europe, France, 13 : in Russia, 266 ; in Prussia, 13 accomplices in, 69, 70, 176; in Austria and territories, 7, 15, 61,162-3, >73» 180 campaign against, 7, 9, 12-15, 281 ; see also Beccaria, Verri, Voltaire confession, 11,57,66, 138, 272273» 275,283 definition of, 18, 178,282 England, 7, 65, 142 France, 60, 61, 68; absence after revolution, 172, 174-5, 177-180 function of, 70, 38-41, 142, 282 ; as coercion, 36,41,282 ; examination, 39, 40, 282, 297 ; punishment, 18, 19,36, 39, 41, 42, 57, 66, 68, 176, 214, 215, 282; as trial see ordeal Germany, 61-3, 68; see also Nazis Greece, ancient, 23-8, 41 Greece, modern, see modern states below hallucinations, 115 heretics, 284, 287; see also In­ quisition India, 164, 183-217 passim', Curzon commission on, 192193 ¡extortion, 186,188,189; methods, 185, 190, 194, 214; military, 214; origins, 186187 ¡police, 184,189-90,192193, 199-200, 213-14;taxa­ tion, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189; see also confessions, sleep de­

privation, solitary confine­ ment Inquisition, 4, 67, 145, 282; in­ troduced by, 94-5; rules, 4, 56> 57“9 inquisitorial process, 66-70 institutionalization, 97, 297 Italy, 1-7 passim, 68, 161—5, 173, 180; see also Austrian territories, Naples law, Roman, 26, 29, 32, 39, 62; procedure, 44-5, 50-1, 66, 69,138 methods see separate head torture, methods, below modern states: Algeria, 291; Greece, 283, 291-2; India, 2I5->7 5 Kenya, 217, 283; others, 217, 281, 294-8 passim Naples, 161,162, 164-5, *8o Nazis, 290-1 ordeal, 25, 42, 47, 51, 143, 282 resistance to, 68, 297; see also maleficium taciturnitatis revival in 12th cent., 49-51; in 20th cent., 182, 28iff Russia (tsarist), 266-7 Scotland, 143 slavery, 23-5, 28, 29, 30, 31,41 social classes, 32, 39, 42,63,69; exemptions, 39, 63; freemen in Greece, 28; in Rome, 3234» 69 Stalin, 275-6 Templars, 105, 107, 109, 111, 112, 113, 115, 117 terrorism, 295-8 utilitarianism, 9, 17-22 passim USSR, 228, 229, 239, 241; civil war, 274;confessions, 272-3, 275; grain requisition, 271;

34° I

INDEX

Torture—contd. USSR—contd. official order, 275; origins of, 271; in show trials, 228, 229, 239, 241, 274; Stalin, 275; for valuables, 272 witches, 68, 69, 125, 128-9, 135, 141, 145; by devil, 129; in England, 142; witches chair, 134 witnesses, 69 torture, methods: in Athens, 24; in Austrian territories, 162-3; bastinado, 162-3 duration of, 58-9, 67; extra-legal, 59; in France, 60—1, 177; in Ger­ many, 62-3; in India, 185, 190, 194, 214; Inquisition, 58-9; in Naples, 161; in Rome, 26, 37; sexual, 59, 298; in Sicily, 161; strappado, 4, 58, 194, 214; in USSR, 239,271,274,275-6;^ also ‘conveyer’, sleep depriva­ tion Tory party, 160, 209 totalitarianism, 238, 248, 276 Toulouse, bishop of, 91 Toulouse, Count Raymond V, 76, 79; Raymond VI, 75, 79, 80, 81; Raymond VII, 81, 90, 9i Tour, Jean du, 108 Trajan, emperor, 30 treason, 69, 181; and heresy, 51, 69, 181; and magic, 36; as means of extending royal power, 53; and Roman law 2832,40; see also majestas, perduellio trial by combat see ordeal trial by ordeal see ordeal ‘Trial of the Sixteen’ see Piatakov trial

Trotsky, Leon, 222, 224, 226, 237, 248, 267, 272 ‘Trotskyites’, 224, 225, 226, 233, 235,282,293 ‘Trotskyite-Zinovievite Terrorist Centre’ see Zinoviev trial ‘Tsar’s Word and Deed’, 266 Tukachevsky, Marshal, 233, 235, 276 Uganda, 217 Ullmann, Walter, 50 Ulpian, 30, 31,37, 39 Ulrich, Judge, 242 ‘Unita Italiana’, 164 United States, 38, 293 Univers, Catholic paper, 164 untori, of Milan, 1-7 passim Uritsky, S. P., commissar, 267 USA see United States USSR see Soviet Union utilitarianism, utility; and torture, 9, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22

Valerius Maximus, 26 Vendée, counter-revolution, 176 Verri, Count Alessandro, 7 Verri, Count Pietro, 7, 8, 14-17 passim, 66, 281 Vielmore, archbishop of, 91 Vienne, council of, 117 Vignati, Ambrogio de, 126 Visconti, Girolamo, 124 Vlasov. General, 241 Voltaire, F. M. A. de, 8, 12, 13, 55, 281 Voul, soviet interrogator, 270 Vyshinsky, Andrei, 230, 238, 242-6 passim wager of battle see ordeal

INDEX

Waldensians, 84-6; and witches, 125, 145; see also Poor Folk of Lombardy, Poor Folk of Lyon Waldo, Peter, 84, 87 Wambugwe, African tribe, 152 Weissberg, Alexander, 274 Weissberg, Mrs, 235 Weyer, Johann, 135-6, 140 witch accusations, 125-6, 131-3, 136, 145; in Africa, 147-50, 154; and counter-witchcraft, 131; in England, 143, 150-1; function of, 139, 146; in Latin America, 151; psychology of, 151; social function of, 149, 150, 151; see also denunciations witch-hunts, 70, 119-20, 133-4, 146; attacks on, 135-9; in Eng­ land, 142 {see also witches, England); in France, 70, 144, 146; in Germany, 70, 146; at Ellwangen, 131-3; at Ess­ lingen, 131; at Offenburg, 134-5; numbers executed, 119, 132; opposition to, 137-9; in Italy, 70: executions in, 119, 120, 132, 146; soviet purges, compared with, 276—7; in Spain, 70, 145-6; in Switzer­ land, 70, 144 witch stereotypes, 287, 293; in Africa, 152-4, 155, 293; affini­ ties with European conceptions of, 152; ‘night witches’, 147, 152> J53> J54; tnight flight’, 121, 125, 127, 130; see also can­ nibalism, diabolism, incest, necrophagy, witches’ sabbat witchcraft: anthropological interpreta­ tions, 147-55

I 34I

beliefs;‘learned’ 131-81, 114— 16; ‘popular’, continental, 143-4; English, 142-4; scholarly theories, 140-2 Catholicism, 120-30 passim, i3679> *5° confusion of ‘learned’ and ‘popular’ ideas, 144-6 crime, 120; indicia for, 122 divination;‘devil’smark’, 130, 132, 142; oracles, in Africa, 148; ordeals, in Europe, 47, 51, 143; in Africa, 149-50; see also ordeals England, 142 see witches, Eng­ land heresy, 120, 125, 145, 146 Inquisition, 120; see also In­ quisition inquisitorial process, 120, 128 prosecutions, 126, 142 Russia, 259; and USSR, 261 Scotland, 143 USSR, 261; see also ‘sabotage’ Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande, 147-9 Witchcraft Suppression Act (Rhodesia), 155 witches: abortion caused by, 118, 121, 123 accomplices, 125, 126, 127, 128,131,138 confessions, 67, 129, 132, 153, 155 copulation with devil, 121-8, 132; see also under main head diabolism, and sabbat below, with incubi and succubi, 118, 122-4, 127 denunciations, 125-7, 131-3, 136

342 I

INDEX

Witchcraft—contd. disease caused by, i 18, 121; in Africa, 147-8, 150-1 in England, 65, 142; execu­ tions, 119, 120, 129, 132, 143, 146 familiars, 142 impotence caused by, 118, 12 1 increase feared, 130, 149 obscenities and sexual acts, 118, 121-3, 127, 128, 129, 133, r44> 152-3 poisoning, 1 18, 121, 131, 135, >44,153, >54n sabbat, 124-6, 127, 128, 129, r33> I38, r4>> r42, i44> 154n; African equivalents of, 153 ¡origins of, 146 sexual acts see copulation, obscenities above sterility caused by, 118, 121, 123 storm-raising, 121, 123, 127, >35,144 torture of, 64, 68, 125, 128-9, 131-2,135, I4I> 145; absent in England, except Essex

witchhunts, 142; opposition to, 135-9; in Scotland, 143; witches chair, 134 Working Peasants Party trial, 228 ‘wrecking’ see ‘sabotage’ Wurzburg, prince-bishop of, 1 ig

Yägoda, Genrich, 219, 226, 233, 237,243 Yenukidze, Abel, 2 19, 242 Yezhov, Nikolai, 226, 248 Yezhovschina 226 see purges, soviet ‘Young Italy’, 163, 17 1

Zande see Azande Zaporozhets, Ivan, 219 Zelensky, I, 234 Zeno of Elea, 26 Zinoviev, Grigori, 218, 220, 222, 224, 225, 226, 240 Zinoviev trial, 124-5, 262 Zinovievites, 226, 233 Zionism, Zionists, 288 Zoroastrianism, 81

Almost every month newspapers, international bodies and humanitarian organizations publish harrowing accounts of the tortures to which political prisoners are subjected in various parts of the world. The problem is both baffling and horrifying. How is it that almost two centuries after its abolition, what was once seen as a relic of medieval barbarism has become a clandestine institution in many, possibly a majority, of the world’s states ? Malise Ruthven’s book is the first full-length historical analysis of torture in English. It traces the evolution of torture from Greek and Roman times, through its revival in the campaign against medieval dissent, its abolition in the 18th century and its reemergence under European colonial rule and in post-revolutionary Russia. More especially, it demonstrates how the practice of torture was, and still is, almost invariably initiated by a weak regime fearful of suspected organized opposition to its rule. The author defines this reaction as the Grand Conspiracy theory. Finally, he points out that the use of torture against rebels (real or imaginary) results in the transformation of fantasy into fact discontent becomes active dissent.

Though cast in the form of a historical essay, this book has important contemporary relevance. It should prove essential reading for all those concerned with the erosion of human rights and basic freedoms in the modern world.

Woodcuts by Gerard de Jode from Josse de Damhouder’s Rerum Praxis Criminalium (Antwerp 1555). Courtesy of the British Museum.

Photo: Ianthe Ruthven

Malise Ruthven is a freelance journalist and a frequent contributor to the External Services of the BBC. He specializes in the politics and history of the Middle East, taking a particular interest in the Arab world, but has written on all aspects of middle-eastern culture. He lives in London with his wife and two daughters.

Weidenfeld and Nicolson Orion House 5 Upper Saint Martin’s Lane London WC2H 9EA Printed in Great Britain ISBN 0 297 77389 5