Toronto Notes for Medical Students 0980939720, 9780980939729

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Toronto Notes for Medical Students
 0980939720, 9780980939729

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Ethical, Legal and Organizational Aspects of Medicine Carlo Hojilla and Winnie Siu, chapter editors Aseem Bishnoi and Grace Yeung, associate editors Amy Shafey, EBM editor Dr. Philip Hebert, staff editor Legal Matters

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The Doctor-Patient Relationship under the Law Consent under the Law Power of Attorney ( POA ) Confidentiality and Reporting Requirements Privacy of Medical Records Negligence and Liability Physician Competence and Conduct Ethics ............ .... ..... ............. .7 Principles of Ethics Code of Ethics Confidentiality Consent Assessing Capacity Truth Telling Resource Allocation Research Ethics Physician-Industry Relations Doctor-Patient Relationship Personal and Professional Conduct Areas of Controversy Organization of Health Care in Canada

......16

History Key Principles of the Canada Health Act Health Care Expenditure and Delivery in Canada Role of the Provincial Licensing Authorities Distinction Between Licensure and Certification Role of Professional Associations Professional Associations in Canada and the U.S. The U.S. Health Care System

.. .. .. ........19

Health Care Expenditure and Delivery Access to Health Services The Uninsured Physician Responsibilities Regarding Death .........................20 Role of the Coroner Palliative and End-of-Life Care References ............. ............... ..21

Further information on these topics can be found in the Objectives of the Considerations of the Legal, Ethical and Organizational Aspects of the Practice of Medicine (CLEO) - which can be downloaded free of charge from the Medical Council of Canada website at www.mcc.ca/pdf/cleo.pdf Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM1

ELOAM2

Legal Matters

Toronto Notes 2010

Legal Matters ,- ' ,

��------.

N.B.: Canadian law applicable to medical practice varies between jurisdictions and also changes over time. o

Criminal law is nationwide but non­ criminal (civil) law varies between provinces.

o

This section is meant to serve only as a guide; students and physicians should ensure that their practices conform to local and current laws.

The Doctor-Patient Relationship Under the Law • the laws which regulate the doctor-patient relationship function to protect patients • these laws are derived from three sources: 1) the common law (in Quebec, the Civil

Quebec), 2) statutes and 3) the Constitution

Code of

• the common law is the body of legal rules and principles, derived from judges' decisions,

that forms the basis of the Anglo-Canadian legal system. Areas of common law include: tort law allows patients to recover damages for wrongful acts committed against them. The most important torts in medical relationships are: 1) negligence (see Negligence and Liability, ELOAM6) and 2) battery (the application of force to a person's body without their consent) the doctor-patient relationship constitutes a contract, which gives rise to various contractual rights and obligations that, if breached, may result in the award of damages a doctor also has a fiduciary duty to their patient - that is, an obligation to act in the patient's best interests • statutes are laws passed by provincial legislatures and the federal parliament, for example: in Ontario, the Health Care Consent Act regulates consent to treatment (see Consent under the Law, ELOAM2) the Personal Health Information Protection Act regulates the collection, use and disclosure of health records (see Privacy of Medical Records, ELOAM5) the Criminal Code and the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act regulate the use of many medications • the Constitution is the supreme law of Canada: all other laws must be consistent with it or they are of no force and effect the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees individuals the rights (among others) of life, liberty, security of the person, and equality under the law these rights are subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society •















Consent Under the Law "Every patient has a right to bodily integrity. This encompasses the right to determine what medical procedures will be accepted and the extent to which they will be accepted. Everyone has the right to decide what is to be done to one's own body. This includes the right to be free from medical treatment to which the individual does not consent." Ciarlariello v. Schacter, [19931 Supreme Court of Canada decision

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Maior Exceptions to Consent o Emergencies o Communicable diseases o Mental Health legislation

• consent of the patient must be obtained before any medical intervention is provided • consent can be oral or written, although written is usually preferred • consent can be either expressed or implied; an example of implied consent is a patient

holding out their arm for an immunization

• consent is an ongoing process and can be withdrawn or changed after it is given • Health Care Consent Act covers consent to treatment, admission to a facility, and personal

assistance services (e.g, home care)

Exceptions to Consent

1. Emergencies

treatment can be provided without consent where a patient is experiencing severe suffering, OR where a delay in treatment would lead to serious harm or death AND consent cannot be obtained from the patient or their substitute decision maker emergency treatment should not violate a prior capable expressed wish of the patient (e.g. a signed Jehovah's Witness card) 2. Legislation Mental Health legislation allows for: • the detention of patients without their consent (see Consent, ELOAM8) • psychiatric outpatients to be compelled to adhere to a care plan in accordance with Community Treatment Orders (see Psychiatry, PS53) Public Health legislation allows medical officers of health to detain, examine, and treat patients without their consent (e.g. a patient with TB refusing to take medication) for the purpose of preventing transmission of communicable diseases (see Population and Community Health, PH3) 3. Special Situations public health emergencies such as an epidemic or communicable disease treatment warrant for information by police •











Four Basic Requirements of Valid Consent

1. Voluntary

consent must be given free of coercion or pressure the physician must not deliberately mislead the patient about the proposed treatment 2. Capable the patient must be able to understand the nature and effect of the proposed treatment 3. Specific the consent provided is specific to the particular procedure being proposed and to the particular provider who will carry out the procedure (i.e. the patient must be informed if students will be involved in providing the treatment) •







ELOAM 3

Legal Matters

Toronto Notes 2010

4. Informed sufficient information must be provided to allow the patient to make choices in accordance with their wishes. This information should include: • the nature of the treatment or investigation proposed and its expected effects • all significant risks and special or unusual risks • alternative treatments or investigations, and their anticipated effects and significant risks • the consequences of declining treatment • risks that are common sense need not to be disclosed (i.e. bruising after venipuncture) the reasonable person test the physician must provide all the information that would be needed "by a reasonable person in the patient's position" to be able to make the treatment decision • disclose common adverse events (>1 in 200 chance of occurrence) and serious risks such as death, even if remote it is the physician's responsibility to make reasonable attempts to ensure that the patient understands the information physicians cannot withhold information about a therapeutic option based on personal conscience (e.g. not discussing the option of emergency contraception with a rape victim) -

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The Supreme Court of Canada expects physicians to disclose the risks that a "reasonable" person would want to know. In practice, this means disclosing minor risks that are common as well as serious risks that happen infrequently.

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Consent Treatment without consent = battery, including if NO consent or if WRONG procedure

Treatment with poor or invalid consent = negligence

Consequences of Failure to Obtain Valid Consent • treatment without consent is battery, even if the treatment is life-saving • treatment of a patient on the basis of poorly informed consent may constitute negligence • the onus of proof that valid consent was not obtained rests with the plaintiff (usually, the patient) Capacity and Substitute Decision Makers (see Assessing Capacity, ELOAM9) • capable patients are entitled to make their own decisions • capacity assessments should be conducted by MD and, if possible, in collaboration with other health care professionals (e.g. another physician, a psychiatrist, a mental health nurse) • capable patients can refuse treatment even if it leads to serious harm or death and this does not indicate a lack of capacity Substitute Decision Makers (SDMs) • SDM should follow the following principles when giving informed consent: act in accordance with wishes previously expressed by the patient, while capable if wishes unknown, SDM must act in the patient's best interest, taking the following into account: 1. values and beliefs held by the patient while capable 2. whether well-being is likely to improve with vs. without treatment 3. whether the expected benefit outweighs the risk of harm 4. whether a less intrusive treatment would be as beneficial as the one proposed the final decision of the SDM should be made in consultation with the MD • most provinces have legislated hierarchies for SDMs; the hierarchy in Ontario is: 1. patient's legally appointed guardian 2. patient's appointed attorney for personal care, if a power of attorney confers authority for treatment consent (see Power of Attorney, ELOAM4) 3. representative appointed by the Consent and Capacity Board 4. spouse or partner 5. child (age 16 or older) or parent (unless the parent has only a right of access) 6. parent with only a right of access 7. brother or sister 8. other relative(s) 9. public guardian and trustee •



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If the MD feels the SDM is not acting in the patient's best interest, the MD can apply to Consent and Capacity Board for another SDM.



Treatment of the Incapable Patient • obtain informed consent from SDM • an incapable patient can only be detained against his/her will to receive treatment if he / she meets criteria for certification under the Mental Health Act (see Psychiatry, PS52). In such a situation: document assessment in chart notify patient of assessment using appropriate Mental Health Form(s) (Form 42) notify Rights Advisor •





Treatment of the Incapable Patient in an Emergency Situation • emergency treatment may be administered without consent if the physician believes the incapable patient is: experiencing extreme suffering at risk of sustaining serious bodily harm if treatment is not administered promptly • MD must document reasons for incapacity and why situation is emergent • if a SDM is not available, MD can treat without consent until the SDM is available or the situation is no longer emergent •



,

Administration of treatment for an incapable patient in an emergency situation is applicable if the patient is: 1. Experiencing extreme suffering 2. At risk of sustaining serious bodily harm if treatment is not administered promptly

ELOAM 4

.... ' , �}------, In the pediatric population there is no age of consent.

Legal Matters

Toronto Notes 2010

Pediatric Aspects of Capacity Covered by the HCCA • no age of consent: consent depends on one's decision-making ability (capacity) • this causes a dilemma with patients who are infants or children; adolescents are usually treated as adults • it is assumed that infants and children lack mature decision-making capacity for consent but they should still be involved (e.g. be provided with information appropriate to their comprehension level) • preferably, assent should be gained from patient, if not capable of giving consent • most likely SDM in hierarchy is a parent or legal guardian • in the event that the physician believes the SDM is not acting in the child's best interest, an appeal must be made to the local child welfare authorities • parents have access to medical record • should open parental chart to record specific parental information • maintain chart for 10 years after child's 18th birthday Other Types of Capacity Not Covered by the HCCA • testamentary (ability to make a will) • fitness (ability to stand trial) • financial (ability to manage property - Form 21 of the Mental Health Act) • personal (ability to care for oneself on a daily basis) Criteria for Financial Competence • covered by the Mental Health Act and Substitute Decision Act • patient must: appreciate importance of financial capability and reason for exam have realistic appreciation of own strengths / weaknesses in managing finances understand nature and extent of assets, liabilities, income, and expenses have recently demonstrated ability to make reasonable financial decisions and be expected to do so in future have appropriately used available resources, and indicate willingness to do so in future • if MD determines the patient is incapable of managing property, a Form 21 is completed and the Public Guardian and Trustee becomes the temporary guardian until a substitute can be found; those eligible as substitute guardians are the patient's spouse / partner, relative, or attorney • Form 21 can only be filled out if the patient is an inpatient of a psychiatric facility • Form 24 to be filled out in order to continue financial incapacity upon discharge from hospital •









Instructional Advance Directives • allow patients to exert control over their care once they are no longer capable • in an advance directive, the patient sets out their decisions about future health care, including who they would allow to make treatment decisions on their behalf and what types of interventions they would want • the advance directive takes effect once the patient is incapable with respect to treatment decisions • in Ontario, a person can appoint a "power of attorney for personal care" to carry out his / her advance directives • patients should be encouraged to review these documents with their family and physicians, and to reevaluate it often as their illness progresses to ensure it is current with their wishes

Power of Attorney (POA) LEGAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS • all Guardians & Attorneys for Personal Care have fiduciary duties for the dependent person Power of Attorney for Personal Care • a legal document in which one person gives another person the authority to make personal care decisions (health care, nutrition, shelter, clothing, hygiene, safety) on their behalf if they become mentally incapable G uardian of the Person • someone who is appointed by the Court to make decisions on behalf of an incapable person in some or all areas of personal care, in the absence of a power of attorney for personal care Continuing Power of Attorney for Property • a legal document in which a person gives someone else the legal authority to make decisions about their finances if they become unable to make those decisions themselves G uardian of Property • someone who is appointed by the Public Guardian and Trustee or the Courts to look after an incapable person's property or finances

Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM 5

Legal Matters

Public Guardian and Trustee • acts as a substitute decision maker of last resort on behalf of those mentally incapable people who do not have another individual capable to act on their behalf

Confidentiality and Reporting Require ments • physicians have a legal duty to maintain the confidentiality of their patients' medical

information

• this legal duty is imposed by both provincial health information legislation and by various

precedent-setting cases in the common law

• the right to confidentiality is not absolute • disclosure of health information can take place: 1) with the patient's consent, and 2) without

the patient's consent in certain circumstances defined by statutory and common law

Statutory Reporting Obligations • specific instances where legislation has defined that the public interest overrides the patient right to confidentiality; these requirements vary by province, but may include: 1. suspected child abuse or neglect: reported to local child welfare authorities (e.g. Children's Aid Society) 2. fitness to drive a vehicle or fly an airplane: reported to provincial Ministry of Transportation (see Geriatric Medicine, GM9) 3. communicable diseases: reported to local public health authority (see Population and Community Health, PH27) 4. improper conduct of other physicians or health professionals: report to college or regulatory body of the health professional (sexual impropriety by physicians is required reporting in some provinces) 5. vital statistics must be reported and reporting may vary by province (in Ontario, births are required to be reported within 30 days to Office of Registrar General or local municipality; death certificates must be completed by a physician and then forwarded to municipal authorities) 6. reporting to coroners (see Physician Responsibilities Regarding Death, ELOAM20) • physicians who fail to report in these situations are subject to prosecution and penalty, and may be liable if a third party has been harmed Duty to Inform/Warn • the physician has a duty to inform the police or a potential victim (in appropriate circumstances) if a patient expresses a serious intention to inflict harm • first established by a Supreme Court of California decision in 1976; not yet tested in Canadian courts • is obliged by the CMA Code of Ethics and is allowed for by some provincial health information laws • applies in a situation where: 1. there is a clear risk to an identifiable person or group of persons; 2. there is a risk of serious bodily harm or death; and 3. the danger is imminent Disclosure for legal Proceedings • disclosure of health records can be compelled by a court order, warrant or subpoena

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The legal aspects of confidentiality can be complex; advice should always be sought from provincial licensing authorities and/or legal counsel when in doubt.

Ontario's Medical Expert Panel on Duty to Warn Ferris et ai, 1998 There should be a duty to inform when a patient reveals that he or she intends to do serious harm to another person or persons and it is more likely than not that the threat will be carried out.

Where a threat is directed at a person or group and there is a specific plan that is concrete and capable of commission and the method for carrying it out is available to the threatener, the physician should immediately notify the police and, in appropriate circumstances, the potential victim. The report should include the threat, the situation, the physician's opinion and the information upon which it is based.

Privacy of Medical Records • privacy is a right that underpins health care in Canada • privacy of health information is protected by professional codes of ethics, provincial and

federal legislation, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and the fiduciary duty • the federal government created the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) which established principles for the collection, use, and disclosure of information that is part of commercial activity (e.g. physician practices, pharmacies, private labs) • PIPEDA has been superseded by provincial legislation in many provinces, including the

Ontario Personal Health Information Protection Act

Duties of Physicians with Regards to the Privacy of Health Information • inform patients of your information-handling practices through various means (i.e. the posting of notices, brochures and pamphlets, and / or through normal discussions between a patient and a health care provider) • obtain the patient's express consent to disclose information to third parties under Ontario privacy legislation, you do not need to get the patient's express consent to share information between health care team members involved in the "circle of care." However, the patient may withdraw consent for this sharing of information •

..... ' , �,-------, CMA Code of Ethics • Protect the personal health information of your patients. • Provide information reasonable in the circumstances to patients about the reasons for the collection, use and disclosure of their personal health information. • Be aware of your patient's rights with respect to the collection, use, disclosure and access to their personal health information; ensure that such information is recorded accurately.

ELOAM 6

Legal Matters

Toronto Notes 2010

• provide the patient with access to their own medical records

instances when a patient may not be able to access their medical information include potential for harm to patient or a third party • provide secure storage of information and implement measures to limit access to patient records • ensure proper destruction of information that is no longer necessary •

Negl igence and Liability • negligence is the breach of a legal duty of care which results in damage • negligence is a legal finding, not a medical one • physicians may be found negligent when all the following four conditions are met:

1. the physician owed a duty of care to the patient (the existence of a doctor-patient relationship generally suffices) 2. the duty of care was breached (e.g. by failure to provide the standard of care) 3. the patient was injured or harmed 4. the harm or injury was caused by the breach of the duty of care • the standard of care is one that would reasonably be expected under similar circumstances of an ordinary, prudent physician of the same training, experience, and specialization • errors of judgement are not necessarily negligent making the wrong diagnosis is not negligent if a reasonable doctor might have made the same mistake in the same circumstances (i.e. misdiagnosing appendicitis as pelvic inflammatory disease) failure to reconsider the diagnosis if the patient does not respond to treatment may be negligent • physicians can also be held liable for the negligent actions of their employees or other individuals they are supervising •



Physician Competence and Cond uct • the competence and conduct of physicians is legally regulated in certain respects to protect

patients and society

.... ' , ,.-------, Provincial legislation deems sexual abuse of a patient as professional misconduct.

Source: Regulated Health Professions Act, 1991, section 4

.... ' , ,.-------, CMA Code of Ethics Report any unprofessional conduct by colleagues to the appropriate authority.

• physicians are legally required to maintain a license with the appropriate authority • physicians must ensure that patients have access to continuous on-call coverage and are

never abandoned

• sexual conduct with patients, even when consented to by the patient, is a serious matter

that can lead to criminal, civil, and disciplinary action sexual conduct includes intercourse, undue touching, inappropriate reference to sexual matters, sexual jokes, and physician presence when capable patients undress or dress themselves physicians may have a personal relationship with a patient providing a year has passed since the last therapeutic contact physicians are prohibited from personal relationships with patients for whom they saw for psychotherapy in Ontario, physicians must report to appropriate authorities any colleagues of whom they have information regarding sexual impropriety • physicians must maintain adequate records for each patient, including: showing that care has been continuous and comprehensive minimal standards for record keeping include: diagnosis, differential diagnosis, appropriate tests and referrals, coherent patient record (full standards available on CPSO website, www.cpso.on.ca) keeping records for 10 years in most jurisdictions although the medical record is the property of the physician or an institution, the patient or the patient's delegate must be allowed full access to information in the medical record upon (usually written) request • in the hospital environment, physicians must ensure their own competence, respect hospital by-laws and regulations, practice only within the limits of granted privileges, cooperate with other hospital personnel, and maintain adequate hospital records •











• •

Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM 7

Ethics

Ethics Principles of Eth ics • a field of inquiry that deals with: 1) the principles and values that help define what is

morally right and wrong, and 2) the rights, duties and obligations of individuals and various groups • there are two broad approaches to ethics consequentialism and deontology consequentialism distinguishes right from wrong according to an action's outcomes (e.g. the right thing to do is minimize suffering) while deontology is rule or duty-based (e.g. it is always wrong to punish the innocent) there is no one agreed upon ethical theory but most contemporary writers combine both approaches most widely used approach is 'principlism' championed by Beauchamp and Childress -





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Four Ethical Principles 1 . Autonomy 2. Beneficence 3. Non·maleficence 4. Justice



The Four Principles Approach to Medical Ethics ('principlism') 1. Respect for Autonomy recognizes an individual's right and ability to decide for themselves according to his/ her personal beliefs and values respecting, reflecting, and promoting an individual patient's personal values in decision making to empower him or her a patient's decision may differ from the recommendation of the physician and the physician should understand, appreciate, and respect the patient's perspective patients are not expected to act in ways considered reasonable by others, as long as they do not harm others (this principle is not applicable to newborn children or situations where informed consent and choice are not possible or may not be appropriate) autonomy also requires showing fidelity to incapable patients' prior capable views if known, and treating them with inherent worth and dignity •









2. Beneficence acting in the patient's 'best interests', where these represent the patient's values, beliefs, and preferences, so far as these are known the aim is to minimize harmful outcomes and maximize beneficial ones physicians recommend treatment based on evidence and professional experience to patients and help them weigh the risks and benefits of various options autonomy should be integrated with the physician's conception of a competent patient's best interests paramount in situations where consent/ choice is not possible or may not be appropriate •

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Autonomy vs. Competence

Autonomy: the right that patients have to make decisions according to their beliefs and preferences Competence: the ability or capacity to make a specific decision for one's self

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Adverse Event (AE) An unintended injury or complication resulting in disability, death or prolonged hospital stay that arises from health care management.









3. Non-Maleficence obligation to avoid causing harm; primum non nocere ("First, do no harm") patients should not be 'worse off on account of medical care efforts should be made to reduce error and adverse events and ensure patient safety a limit condition of the Beneficence principle •







4. Justice fair distribution of benefits and harms within a community, regardless of geography or privilege scarce resources are distributed based on the needs of patients and the benefit they would receive from obtaining a specific resource (e.g. organs for transplantation are fairly distributed if they go to those who are the most unwell, who are the most likely to survive the longest with the transplant, and who have waited the longest to receive a transplant) concept of fairness: Is the patient receiving what he or she deserves? How do treatment decisions impact on others? respects rules of fair play and basic human rights, such as freedom from persecution and the right to have one's interests considered and respected •







Code of Ethics • the CMA has developed and approved a Code of Ethics that acts as a common ethical

framework for Canadian physicians. It was last revised in 2004: sources include the Hippocratic Oath, developments in human rights, recent bioethical discussion may set out different standards of behaviour than does the law prepared by physicians for physicians based on the fundamental ethical principles of medicine statements are general in nature applies to physicians, residents and medical students •

• • •





The Canadian Adverse Events Study: The Incidence of Adverse Events among Hospital Patients in Canada CMAJ 2004;1 70(1 1):1678-86 Study: Review of random sample of charts in four randomly selected Canadian hospitals for the fiscal year 2000. Patients: 4174 patient charts sampled, 3745 eligible charts (> 18 years of age; nonpsychiatric, nonobstetric, minimum 24 hour admission). Results: AE rate was 7.5% per 100 hospital admissions (95% CI 5.7-9.3). Highly preventable AEs occurred in 36.9% of patients with AEs (95% CI 32.0-41 .8%) and death occurred in 20.8% (95% CI 7.8%-33.8%). An estimated 1521 additional hospital days were associated with AEs. Patients with AEs were significant� older than those without (mean age [and standard deviation) 64.9 [1 6.71 v.62.0 [1 8.41 years; p=0.016). Men & women experienced equal rates of AEs. Conclusions: The overall incidence rate of AEs of 7.5% suggests that, of the almost 2.5 million annual hospital admissions in Canada similar to the type studied, about 185 000 are associated with an AE and close to 70 000 of these are potentially preventable.

ELOAM 8

.... ' , ��------. The CMA Code of Ethics is a quasi-legal standard for physicians. If the law sets a minimal moral standard for doctors, the Code ratchets up these standards.

Ethics

Toronto Notes 2010

• CMA policy statements exist that address specific ethical issues not mentioned by the

code such as abortion, transplantation, and euthanasia

• the AMA has a Code of Medical Ethics

articulates the values of medicine as a profession defines medicine's integrity and is the source of the profession's authority to self-regulate considered an evolving document that changes as new questions arise concerning medicine's core values and its application to daily practice • the AMA develops policy positions ("AMA Policy") regarding health care issues, the health care system, internal organizational structure, decision-making processes, and medical science and technology • • •

Confidential ity .... ' , ��------. Reasons to Breach Confidentiality • Child abuse • Fitness to drive • Communicable disease • Coroner report • Duty to inform/warn

.... ' , �}-------, CMA Code of Ethics "Disclose your patients' personal health information to third parties only with their consent, or as provided for by law, such as when the maintenance of confidentiality would result in a significant risk of substantial harm to others or, in the case of incompetent patients, to the patients themselves. In such cases take all reasonable steps to inform the patients that the usual requirements for confidentiality will be breached."

• a full and open exchange of information between patient and physician is central to a

therapeutic relationship

• privacy is a right of patients (which they may forego), while confidentiality is a duty of

doctors (which they must respect barring patient consent or the requirements of the law)

• confidentiality is thus important in creating a trusting doctor-patient relationship which

allows patients to disclose personal information

• if inappropriately breached by a doctor, he or she can be sanctioned by the hospital, by the •

court or by his or her regulatory authority (see Confidentiality and Reporting Requirements, ELOAMS) based on the ethical principal of patient autonomy patients have the right to control their own information patients have the right to expect information concerning them will receive proper protection from unauthorized access by others (see Privacy of Medical Records, ELOAMS) confidentiality may be ethically and legally breached in certain circumstances, for example, the right to confidentiality can be overridden by the threat of harm to others (see Confidentiality and Reporting Requirements, ELOAMS) unlike the solicitor-client privilege, there is no 'physician-patient privilege' by which a physician, even a psychiatrist, can promise the patient 'absolute confidentiality' physicians should seek advice from their local health authority or the CMPA before disclosing HIV status of a patient to someone else many jurisdictions make mandatory not only the reporting of serious communicable diseases like AIDS, but also the reporting of those who harbour the agent of the communicable disease, such as HIV physicians failing to abide by such regulations could be subject to professional or civil actions • •

• • •





Consent ....

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CPSO Policy Consent Obtaining valid consent before carrying out medical, therapeutic and diagnostic procedures has long been recognized as an elementary step in fulfilling the doctor's obligations to the patient.

• the autonomous authorization o f a medical intervention b y a patient • applies to both the acceptance and the refusal of treatment

Elements of Ethically Valid Consent (also see Consent under the Law, ELOAM2) • Voluntary - right of the patient to come to a decision freely, without physical force or threats, including psychological coercion or manipulation of salient information • Capable - ability of the patient to understand the relevant information and appreciate the consequences of their decision • Informed - disclosure of what a 'reasonable person' in the patient's situation would need to know to make an informed choice Ethical Principles: Underlying Consent • usually the principle of respect for patient autonomy overrides the principle of beneficence • where a patient cannot make an autonomous decision, it is the duty of the substitute decision maker (or the physician in an emergency) to act on the patient's known prior wishes or, failing that, to act in the patient's best interests • there is a duty to discover, if possible, what the patient would have wanted when capable • central to determining best interests is understanding the patient's values, beliefs and cultural or religious background since these may affect the patient's perception of treatments as beneficial or harmful Obtaining Consent • a signed consent form only documents the consent - it does not replace the process for obtaining valid consent (see Figure 1 ) • consent i s not a contract to accept treatment - consent can b e withdrawn a t any point • consent is not required in certain situations (see Consent under the Law, ELOAM2)

Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM 9

Ethics

No

Is the patient capable to make this decision?

Does the patient consent?

No

No

Is this an emergency?

--------'J.�I

Discuss involvement of SDM

Treat as emergency

Treat

No

Do not treat

Figure 1 . Consent Flowchart SDM ; substitute decision maker Adapted by P. Hebert from Sunnybrook Heafth Sciences Centre Consent Guidelines

Assessing Capacity • a person is presumed capable unless there is good evidence to the contrary • capacity is the ability to:

understand information relevant to a treatment decision appreciate the reasonably foreseeable consequences of a decision or lack of a decision capacity is specific for each decision (e.g. a person may be capable to consent to having a chest x-ray, but not for a bronchoscopy) most Canadian jurisdictions distinguish capacity to make health care decisions from capacity to make financial decisions. A patient may be deemed capable of one but not the other capacity can change over time (e.g. temporary incapacity secondary to delirium) clinical capacity assessment may include: specific capacity assessment, that is, capacity specific to the decision at hand 1. effective disclosure of information and evaluation of patient's reason for decision 2. for the understanding required to accept or refuse a medical treatment, one must understand • one's condition, • the nature of the proposed treatment, • alternatives to the treatment, • the consequences of accepting and rejecting the treatment, and • the risks and benefits of the various options (test: can the patient recite back what you have disclosed to them?) 3. for the appreciation needed for decision making capacity, a person must: • acknowledge the condition that affects himself or herself, • be able to assess how the various options would affect him or her, • be able to reach a decision and adhere to it, and make a choice, not based primarily upon delusional belief (test: are their beliefs responsive to evidence?) general impressions input from psychiatrists, neurologists, etc. •

• • • •





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CPSO Policy Capacity Capacity is an essential component of valid consent, and obtaining valid consent is a policy of the CMA and other professional bodies.

ELOAM 10

Ethics

Toronto Notes 2010

• employ " Aid to Capacity Evaluation" (see Table 1 ) • a decision o f incapacity may warrant further assessment by psychiatrist(s), legal review

boards (e.g. in Ontario: the Consent and Capacity Review Board), or the courts

• judicial review is open to patients as, if found incapable, they lose certain decision-making

rights

• see

Consent Under the Law, ELOAM2

Table 1 . Aid to Capacity Evaluation Ability to understand the medical problem Ability to understand the proposed treatment Ability to understand the alternatives lif any) to the proposed treatment Ability to understand the option of refusing treatment or of it being withheld or withdrawn Ability to appreciate the reasonably foreseeable consequences of accepting the proposed treatment Ability to appreciate the reasonably foreseeable consequences of refusing the proposed treatment Ability to make a decision that is not substantially based on delusions or depression Adapted from Etchells et al. 11 996).

• ethical principles underlying capacity

patient autonomy and respect for persons physician beneficence requires that incapable persons be protected from making harmful decisions even patients found incapable to make a specific decision should still be involved in that decision as much as possible (seek assent and cooperation and explore reasons for dissent) people should be allowed to make their own informed decisions, or to appoint their own substitute decision maker agreement or disagreement does not equal capacity • age of consent for medical treatment in Canada some provinces have a specific age of consent (PEl, NB, QC SK, BC), but despite these regulations, common law and case law do deem underage legal minors capable, allowing them the right to make their own choice Ontario has no legislation establishing an age of consent to treatment •













Truth Telling

"' � ��------. CPSO Policy Truth Telling Physicians should provide patients with whatever information that will, from the patient's perspective, have a bearing on medical decision-making and communicate that information in a way that is comprehensible to the patient.

Ethical Basis • helps to promote and maintain a trusting physician-patient relationship • patients have a right to be told important information that physicians have regarding their care • enables patients to make informed decisions about health care and about their lives allows patients to seek medical attention when they should and organize their affairs as they choose •

Legal Basis • required for valid patient consent (see Consent under the Law, ELOAM2) goal is to disclose information that a reasonable person in the patient's position would need in order to make an informed decision ("standard of disclosure") • withholding information can be a breach of fiduciary duty and duty of care • obtaining consent on the basis of misleading information can be seen as negligent •

Evidence about Truth Telling • most patients want to know what is wrong with them • although many patients want to protect family members from bad news, they themselves would want to be informed in the same situation • truth telling improves compliance and health outcomes • informed patients are more satisfied with their care when compared to the less well informed • negative consequences of truth telling can include decreased emotional well-being, anxiety, worry, social stigmatization and loss of insurability (Reviewed in Hebert et aI., 2009) Difficulties in Truth Tel ling • medical error many jurisdictions and professional associations expect and require physicians to disclose medical error; any event that harms or threatens to harm patients must be disclosed to the patient or the patient's family and reported to the appropriate health authorities physicians should disclose to patients the occurrence of adverse events or errors caused by medical management but should not suggest that they resulted from negligence because: a) negligence is a legal determination and b) error is not equal to negligence; (see Negligence and Liability, ELOAM6) •



Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAMll

Ethics

disclosure allows the injured patient to seek appropriate corrective treatment promptly • physicians should avoid simple attributions as to cause and sole responsibility of others or oneself • physicians should offer apologies or empathic expressions of regret ("I wish things had turned out differently") as these can increase trust and are not admissions of guilt or liability • uniform Apology Acts, now found across Canada, protect apologies, expressions of regret and even admissions of responsibility from charges of liability and negligence • breaking bad news disclosure of difficult news is important and should be approached with care adequate support should be provided along with the disclosure of difficult news SPIKES protocol was developed to facilitate "breaking bad news" •





," ' Protocol to Break Bad News: SPIKES S Setting and listening skills P patient's perception of condition

K E S

and seriousness Invitation from patient to give information Knowledge - giving medical facts Explore emotions and empathize Strategy and summary

WF Baile and R Buckman, 2000.



Arguments Against Truth Telling • may go against certain cultural norms and expectations • may lead to patient harm and increased anxiety • 10-20% of patients prefer not to be informed • medical uncertainty may result in the disclosure of uncertain or inaccurate information Exceptions to Truth Telling • waiving the right to know: patient capably decides to decline information • physicians should explore this desire to determine if it is authentic • patients should be explicitly offered the opportunity to be told important information or for substitute decision maker / family to be informed • a patient may waive their right to know the truth about their situation when: disclosure would in itself cause physical or mental harm to the patient a strong cultural component exists that must be respected and acknowledged the patient is incapacitated he or she is in a medical emergency the more weighty the consequences for the patient from non-disclosure, the more carefully one must consider the right to ignorance; arguably, such a patient could be considered as incapacitated and a substitute decision maker may need to be found to whom disclosure can be made • the doctrine of therapeutic privilege is rarely acceptable in Canadian courts this principle refers to the withholding of information by the clinician in the belief that disclosure of this information would lead to harm or suffering, usually psychological, of the patient clinicians should avoid invoking therapeutic privilege and allow patients to make decisions since the burden of proof to justify nondisclosure will be the physician's •



• •







Resou rce Allocation • resource allocation i s the distribution o f goods and services t o programs and people • the physician's primary duty is towards his or her individual patients • physicians have the duty to inform patients about therapeutic options even if they are not

available

• ethics relate to justice: physicians must make health care resources available to patients in

a manner which is fair and equitable, without bias or discrimination need and benefit are considered morally relevant criteria for resource allocation gender, sexual orientation, religion, level of education or age alone are morally irrelevant criteria • ethical dilemmas that arise when deciding how best to allocate resources fair chances versus best outcome - favouring best outcome versus giving all patients fair access to limited resources (e.g. transplant list prioritization) priorities problem - how much priority should treating the sickest patients receive? aggregation problem - modest benefits to many versus significant benefits to few democracy problem - when to rely on a fair democratic process as the only way to arrive at a decision • guidelines for appropriately allocating resources the physician's primary obligation is to protect and promote the welfare and best interests of his or her patients choose interventions known to be beneficial on the basis of evidence of effectiveness seek the tests or treatments that will accomplish the diagnostic or therapeutic goal for the least cost advocate for one's own patients but avoid manipulating the system to gain unfair advantage for them resolve conflicting claims for scarce resources justly, on the basis of morally relevant criteria such as need and benefit, using fair and publicly defensible procedures inform patients of the impact of cost constraints on care, but do so in a sensitive way seek resolution of unacceptable shortages at the level of hospital management or government •





• •





• •





• •

..... ' � .}-------. CPSO Policy Resource Allocation Physicians should "recognize [their] responsibility to promote fair access to health care resources" and should "use health care resources prudently."

ELOAM 12

Ethics

Toronto Notes 2010

Research Ethics "' , ��------, Guiding Principles for Research Ethics 1. Respect for persons (i.e. informed consent) 2. Beneficence (i.e. balancing benefits and harms) 3. Justice (i.e. avoiding exploitation or unjustified exclusion)

"' , ��------. Informed Consent for Research • The nature of informed consent differs in the contexts of research and clinical practice in that the potential research subject must be informed about: • the purpose of the study • its source of funding • the nature and relative probability of harms and benefits • the nature of the physician's participation including any compensation • proposals for research must be submitted to a research ethics board to be scientifically and ethically evaluated and approved.

• involves the systematic analysis of ethical dilemmas arising during research involving

human subjects to ensure that: study participants are protected clinical research is conducted to serve the interests of the participants and/ or society as a whole • major ethical dilemmas arise when a physician's obligation to the patient comes into conflict with other obligations and incentives • any exceptions to disclosure for therapeutic consent do not apply in an experimental situation • •

Table 2. Ethical Principles for Research Involving Human Subjects (laid out in the Declaration of Helsinki, the Belmont Report, etc.) Include: Patient's participation in research should not put him/her at a known or probable disadvantage with respect to medical care Participant's voluntary and informed choice is usually required Consent may not be required in special circumstances: chart reviews without patient contact; emergency situations for which there is no accepted or helpful standard of care and the proposed intervention is not likely to cause more harm than such patients already face Access to the treatment that is considered standard Placebo-controlled trials are generally acceptable where patients still receive the standard of care and are informed about the placebo arm and what that entails Must employ a scientifically valid design to answer the research question Scien@c rigour ensured via peer review, expert opinion Must demonstrate sufficient value to justify the risk posed to participants Must be conducted honestly (i.e. carried out as stated in the approved protocol) Findings must be reported promptly and accurately without exaggeration, to allow practicing clinicians to draw reasonable conclusions Patients must not be enticed into risky research by the lure of money and investigators must not trade the interests of patients for disproportionate recompense by a sponsor; both participants and investigators are due, however, fair recompense for their time and efforts Any significant interventional trial ought to have a data safety monitoring board that is independent of the sponsor and can ensure safety of the ongoing trial

Physician-Industry Relations • health care delivery i n Canada involves collaboration between physicians and the • •

pharmaceutical and health supply industries in the areas of research, education, and clinical evaluation packages (product samples) physicians have a responsibility to ensure that their participation in such collaborative efforts is in keeping with their duties to their patients and society gifts or free products from the pharmaceutical industry are inappropriate sponsorship for travel and fees for conference attendance may be accepted only where the physician is a conference presenter and not just in attendance physicians receiving such sponsorship must disclose this at presentations or in written articles CMA and CPSO guidelines for ethically appropriate physician-industry relations the primary goal should be the advancement of the health of Canadians relationships should be guided by the CMA Code of Ethics the physician's primary obligation is to the patient physicians should avoid any self-interest in their prescribing and referral practices physicians should always maintain professional autonomy, independence and commitment to the scientific method the AMA Code of Medical Ethics has a number of opinions on "Practice Matters" including "Industry representatives in clinical settings," "Financial incentives and the practice of medicine," and "Gifts to physicians from industry," (see www.ama-assn.org/ ama/ pub / physician-resources / medical-ethics / code-medical-ethics.shtml) physicians are able to set limits on their practice in terms of who they will see; such limits must be free of influence by industry •





• •











Doctor-Patient Relationship • the fundamental basis o f the therapeutic relationship • a partnership based on the physician providing expert opinion, information, options and

interventions that allow the patient to make informed choices about their health care

• within this relationship, the doctor and patient share the goals of positive health outcomes,

good communication, honesty, flexibility, sensitivity, informed consent and, above all, respect

• this relationship has the potential to be unequal due to a power difference: •



patients are ill and lack medical knowledge physicians possess medical knowledge and skills and have their patients' trust

Toronto Notes 2010

• due to the nature of the doctor-patient relationship, the physician will:

place the best interests of the patient first establish a relationship of trust between physician and patient follow through on undertakings made to the patient in good faith the physician will accept or refuse patients requesting care: without consideration of race, gender, age, sexual orientation, financial means, religion or nationality without arbitrary exclusion of any particular group of patients, such as those known to be difficult or afflicted with serious disease except in emergency situations, in which case care must be rendered once having accepted a patient into care, the physician may terminate the relationship providing: it is not an emergency care has been transferred adequate notice has been given to allow the patient to make alternative arrangements they have other options to find 'medically necessary care' the physician will not exploit the doctor-patient relationship for personal advantage financial, academic or otherwise the physician will disclose limitations to the patient where personal beliefs or inclinations limit the treatment the physician is able to offer the physician will maintain and respect professional boundaries at all times including physical, emotional, and sexual boundaries regarding treatment of themselves, their families, or friends •

















• •

"

, .�------,

CPSO Policy: Treating Self and Family Members Physicians will not diagnose or treat themselves or family members except for minor conditions or in emergencies and then only if no other physician is readily available.







ELOAM 13

Ethics



"

, .}-------,

CPSO Policy: Ending the Physician-Patient Relationship Discontinuing services that are needed is an act of professional misconduct unless done by patient request, alternative services are arranged, or adequate notice has been given.





Personal and Professiona l Conduct CanMEDS Competencies • a framework of professional competencies established by the Medical Council of Canada (MCC) as objectives for the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Exam (MCCQE) • further information on MCC objectives can be found at: www.mcc.ca 1. Communicator; Culturally Aware • display sensitivity to people of all ages, races, cultures, religions, sexual orientations and

genders

• accept or refuse patients without consideration of age, race, culture, religion, sexual

orientation and gender

• understand the variation in values and morals and their impact on approaches to care and

decision-making

• elicit patients' beliefs, concerns and expectations about their illness • conduct patient-centered interviews, ensure patient comprehension

2. Collaborator • respect all members of the health care team • identify the roles and competencies of each member, and delegate tasks appropriately • consult other physicians and health care professionals effectively and appropriately • consult with patients and families regarding continuing care plans • be able to outline co-ordination of services (Public Health, Home Care, Social Services, Workers' Compensation, Children's Aid Society, etc.) 3. Health Advocate • identify determinants of health: biological (genes, impact of lifestyle) physical (food, shelter, working conditions) social (education, employment, culture, access to care) • influence public health and health policy in order to protect, maintain and promote the health of individuals and the community •





4. Manager • describe different remuneration models: fee-for-service, salary, capitation • meet regulatory requirements in an office practice (medical record-keeping, narcotic control, infection control, etc.) • be prudent in utilization of finite health care resources, based on anticipated cost-benefit balance • regulate work schedule such that time is available for continuing education 5. Professional • maintain standards of excellence in clinical care and ethical conduct • exhibit appropriate personal and interpersonal behaviour • enhance clinical competence through lifelong learning • accept responsibility for personal actions • do not exploit the physician-patient relationship for personal advantage (financial,

academic, etc.)

6. Scholar • commitment to critical appraisal, constructive skepticism • participate in the learning of peers and others (students, health care professionals, patients)

,'

, .�------,

Considerations Regarding the Elderly Patient • Identify their resuscitation options (CPR vs. DNR), if applicable • Check for documentation of advance directives and POA where applicable • For further details, see Geriatric Medicine, GMl l Considerations Regarding the Pediatric Patient • Identify the primary decision-maker (parents, guardian, wards-of-state, emancipated) • Regarding capacity assessment, see



Pediatric Aspects of Capacity Covered by the HCCA (ELOAM4) Be wary of custody issues if applicable

Considerations Regarding the Terminally III or Palliative Patient • Consider the SPIKES approach to breaking bad news • What are their goals of care, i.e. disease vs. symptom management? • Identify advance directives, POA, or SDM, if applicable • Check for documentation of resuscitation options (CPR vs. DNR) and likelihood of success • For further details, see Geriatric Medicine GMl l Considerations Pegarding the Incapable Patient • If not already present, perform a formal capacity assessment • Identify if the patient has a Substitute Decision Maker or who has their Power-of-Attorney • Check the patient's chart for any Mental Health Forms (e.g. Form 1) or any forms they may have on their person (e.g. Form 42)

ELOAM 14

Ethics

Toronto Notes 2010

Areas of Controversy .... ' , ��------. Dealing with Controversial and Ethical Issues in Practice • Discuss in a non-judgmental manner • Ensure patients have full access to relevant and necessary information • Identify if certain options lie outside of your moral boundaries and refer to another physician if appropriate • Consult with appropriate ethics committees or boards • Protect freedom of moral choice for students or trainees

Source: MCC-CLEO Objectives, 1998

.... ' , �}-------, Euthanasia: Ethically Appropriate Actions • Respect competent decisions to forgo treatment • Provide appropriate palliative measures • Decline requests for euthanasia and assisted suicide

Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide • euthanasia: a deliberate act undertaken by one person with the intention of ending the life of another person to relieve that person's suffering where the act is the cause of death • physician-assisted suicide: the act of intentionally killing oneself with the assistance of a physician who deliberately provides the knowledge and/ or the means • ethical issues and arguments: right to make autonomous choices about the time and manner of own death belief that there is no ethical difference between the acts of euthanasia / assisted suicide and foregoing life-sustaining treatments belief that these acts benefit terminally ill patients by relieving suffering patient autonomy has limits death should be the consequence of the morally justified withdrawal of life-sustaining treatments only in cases where there is a fatal underlying condition, and it is the condition (not the withdrawal of treatment) that causes death • law Canada: both euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are punishable offences under the Criminal Code of Canada U.s.: euthanasia is punishable under general homicide laws; Oregon and Washington are the only two states to have enacted legislation allowing physicians to actively assist patients who wish to end their lives • euthanasia and assisted suicide is distinguished from palliative care because in the latter, the death of the patient is not intended, drugs are used in response to symptoms, and the escalation of drugs is done in proportion to the patient's symptoms •



• •







Maternal-Fetal Conflict of Rights • conflict between maternal autonomy and the best interests of the fetus • ethical issues and arguments principle of reproductive freedom • women have the right to make their own reproductive choices coercion of a woman to accept efforts to promote fetal well-being is an unacceptable infringement of her personal autonomy • law: upholds a woman's right to life, liberty, and security of person and does not recognize fetal rights if a woman is competent and refuses medical advice, her decision must be respected even if the fetus will suffer as a result the fetus does not have legal rights until it is born alive and with complete delivery from the body of the woman • Royal Commission on New Reproductive Technologies recommendations: medical treatment must never be imposed upon a competent pregnant woman against her wishes no law should be used to confine a pregnant woman in the interest of her fetus the conduct of a pregnant woman in relation to her fetus should not be criminalized child welfare should never be used to control a woman's behaviour during pregnancy civil liability should never be imposed upon a woman for harm done to her fetus during pregnancy • ethically appropriate actions a woman is permitted to refuse HIV testing during pregnancy, even if this results in vertical transmission to fetus a woman is permitted to refuse Caesarean section in labour that is not progressing, despite evidence of fetal distress •





















.... ' , ��------, Advanced Reproductive Technologies: Ethically Appropriate Actions • Educate patients and address contributors to infertility (e.g. stress, alcohol, medications, etc.) • Investigate and treat underlying health problems causing infertility • Wait at least one year before initiating treatment with ART (exceptions - advanced age or specific indicators of infertility) • Educate and prepare patients for potential negative outcomes of ART

Advanced Reproductive Technologies (ART) • types of ART non-coital insemination: intrauterine or intravaginal insemination from either a donor or a woman's partner hormonal ovarian stimulation: increases the number of mature oocytes in vitro fertilization: hormonal ovarian stimulation is used to mature multiple ova which are retrieved and fertilized in the laboratory • ethical issues and arguments donor anonymity versus child-centred reproduction (knowledge about genetic medical history) preimplantation genetic testing for diagnosis before pregnancy lack of sufficient data regarding efficacy and complications to provide the full disclosure needed for truly informed consent use of new techniques without patients appreciating their experimental nature embryo status - the Supreme Court of Canada maintains that fetuses are "unique" but not persons under law; this view would likely apply to embryos as well access to ART • private versus public funding • social factors limiting access to ART (e.g. same-sex couples) commercialization of reproduction; reimbursement of gamete donors is currently illegal in Canada •



















Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM 15

Ethics

Fetal Tissue • pluripotent stem cells have been derived from human embryonic and fetal tissue • potential uses of stem cells in research: studying human development and factors that direct cell specialization evaluating drugs for efficacy and safety in human models cell therapy: using stem cells grown in vitro to repair or replace degenerated / destroyed/ malignant tissues (e.g. Parkinson's disease) genetic treatment aimed at altering germ cells is prohibited in Canada and elsewhere genetic treatment aimed at altering somatic cells (i.e. myocardial or immunological cells) is acceptable and ongoing • ethical issues and arguments: the opinions on embryo status range from full moral status � special moral status � collection of cells • Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (Government of Canada, 2003) embryo research is permitted up to 14 days post-fertilization embryos created for reproductive purposes that are no longer required may be used gamete providers must give free and informed consent for research use no commercial transactions in the creation and use of the embryos is permitted creation of embryos solely for research purposes is prohibited human cloning is strictly prohibited • risks of coercion must be minimized: may not pressure fertility treatment team to generate more embryos than necessary only discuss option of using fetal tissue for research after free and informed choice to have a therapeutic abortion has been made physicians responsible for fertility treatment may not be part of a stem cell research team •





• •



..... ' , ��------, The CMA remains neutral on the issue of embryonic stem cell research.



















Abortion • abortion: the active termination of a pregnancy before fetal viability fetal viability: fetus >500 g weight, or >23-24 weeks gestational age in the case of multiple pregnancy, selective termination of the nonviable or less viable fetus is allowed • ethical and legal issues and arguments: according to common law, the rights of a fetus are not equal to those of a human being who should have input into the abortion decision (e.g. male partners, patient's guardians) • no law currently regulates abortion in Canada - it is a woman's medical decision to be made in consultation with whom she wishes; no mandatory role for spouse / family • CMA policy on induced abortion: induced abortion should not be used as an alternative to contraception counselling on contraception must be readily available full and immediate counselling services must be provided in the event of unwanted pregnancy there should be no delay in the provision of abortion services no patient should be compelled to have a pregnancy terminated physicians should not be compelled to participate in abortion - if morally opposed, the physician should inform the patient so she may consult another physician no discrimination should be directed towards either physicians who do not perform or assist at induced abortions or physicians who do induced abortion should be uniformly available to all women in Canada and health care insurance should cover all the costs •























Genetic Testing • uses: confirm a clinical diagnosis detect genetic predisposition to a disease • allows preventative steps to be taken and helps patient prepare for the future give parents the option to terminate a pregnancy or begin early treatment • ethical dilemmas arise because of the nature of genetic information: it has individual and familial implications it pertains to future disease it often identifies disorders for which there are no effective treatments or preventive steps • ethical issues and arguments: obtaining informed consent is difficult due to the complexity of genetic information doctor's duty to maintain confidentiality versus duty to warn family members risk of social discrimination (e.g. insurance) and psychological harm • law: no current specific legislation exists testing requires informed consent no standard of care exists for clinical genetics but physicians are legally obligated to inform patients that prenatal testing exists and is available breach of confidentiality - duty to warn family members • only acceptable if can likely prevent serious harm, such as if treatment or prevention is available (e.g. familial adenomatous polyposis) •

























.....

' , �}-------,

Genetic Testing: Ethically Appropriate Actions • Thorough discussion and realistic planning with patient before testing is done • Genetic counselling for delivery of complex information, supportive discussion

ELOAM 16

Organization of Health Care in Canada

Toronto Notes 2010

Orga nization of Health Ca re i n Canada •







• •

one federal, three territorial, and ten provincial systems with uniform federal guidelines federal system provides care to Aboriginal groups, the RCMp, and the armed forces financed by both the public (70%) and private (30%) sectors each provincial plan must cover all medically necessary health services delivered in hospitals and by physicians; may choose to cover additional services such as home care and prescription drugs non-insured health services and fees are either covered by private insurance or by the individual workers' compensation funds cover treatment for work-related injuries and diseases

The current legal foundation of the Canadian health system based on three statutes: 1. Constitution Act (1867) deals primarily with the jurisdictional power between federal and provincial governments 2. Canada Health Act (1984) - outlines the national terms and conditions 3. Canada Health and Social Transfer Act (1996) - sets the conditions for fiscal transfers from the federal government to the provinces and territories -

History 1867

British North America Act (now Constitution Act) establishes Canada as a confederacy •



government has only minimal role in health care at this time "establishment, maintenance, and management of hospitals" under provincial jurisdiction

1947 Saskatchewan introduces universal hospital insurance • based on taxes and premiums • other provinces follow 1957

Federal government passes Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act • provinces with universal hospital insurance to receive federal funds • federal government pays for approximately 50% of insured services

1962

Saskatchewan implements universal medical care insurance • physician services included

1965

Royal Commission on Health Services (Hall Commission) recommends federal leadership

1966

and financial support with provincial government operation

Medical Care Act passed by federal government

• •

1977



• •





federal government gives "tax points" to provinces by reducing federal taxes and allowing provinces to collect more funding no longer tied to direct services --+ federal influence wanes provinces bear greater costs and impose restrictions on physicians physicians respond with "extra-billing": patients pay a supplementary fee

Canada Health Act passed by federal government • replaced Medical Care Act and Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act •

1996





Established Programs Financing Act passed by federal government •

1984

federal government contribution maintained at 50% on average, with poorer provinces receiving more funds medical insurance must be Comprehensive Portable Universal Publicly administered

extra-billing banned by new fifth criterion: Accessibility

Canada Health and Social Transfer Act passed by federal government



federal government gives provinces a single grant for health care, social programs, and post-secondary education; division of resources at provinces' discretion

1999

Social Union Framework Agreement signed by the Prime Minister and all Premiers and territorial leaders except Quebec • federal and provincial / territorial governments vow to concentrate their efforts to modernize Canadian social policy

2001

Kirby and Romanow Commissions appointed Kirby Commission (final report, October 2002)

one-member committee of the Senate: examined history of health care system in Canada, pressures and constraints of current health care system, role of federal government, and health care systems in foreign jurisdictions Romanow Commission (final report, November 2002) • one-member royal commission (former Saskatchewan Premier Roy Romanow) appointed by the Prime Minister to inquire into and undertake dialogue with Canadians on the future of Canada's public health care system •

Toronto Notes 2010 2003

ELOAM 17

Organization of Health Care in Canada

First Ministers' Accord on Health Care Renewal signed • •

First Ministers agree on an action plan to improve access to quality care for all Canadians and to prepare an annual public report on primary and home care 1st Health Council (composed of government and expert /public representatives) appointed to improve accountability in the Canadian health care system

2004

First Ministers ' Meeting on the Future of Health Care produces a 10-year plan

2005

Chaoulli v. Quebec (Attorney General), Supreme Court of Canada Decision





priorities of the plan are reductions in waiting times, development of a national pharmacare plan, and primary care reform ruled that banning private insurance is unconstitutional under the Quebec Charter of Rights, given that patients do not have access to those services under the public system in a timely way

Key Principles of the Canada Health Act 1. Public Administration

provincial health care programs must be administered by public authorities 2. Comprehensiveness provincial health care programs must cover all necessary diagnostic, physician, and hospital services 3. Universality all eligible residents must be entitled to health care services 4. Portability emergency health services must be available to Canadians who are outside their home province; the home province must pay at the host province rate within Canada and at the home province rate outside of Canada 5. Accessibility user fees, charges, or other obstructions to insured health care services are not permitted •



",,

'

,

��------.

The federal government can reduce its contributions to provinces that violate the key principles of the Canada Health Act.







Health Care Expenditure and Delivery in Canada •

• • • •

projected total health care expenditure in 2006 was $148 billion, 10.0% of the GDp, approx. $3678 USD per capita; this includes out-of-pocket, government-funded and third-party expenditures (Canadian Institute of Health Information) the 2006 Canadian health care expenditure increased 5.8% over 2005 spending

(Canadian Institute of Health Information)

the 2006 Canadian health care expenditure as a percentage of GDP ranked eighth out of 30 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member nations 70.4% of health care spending came from public sector sources in 2006, as compared to 45.8% in the u.s. in 2006 there were 2.1 physicians per 1000 population, ranking 26th out of OECD member countries

Delivery of Health Care • hospital services in Canada are publicly funded but delivered through private, not-for-profit institutions owned and operated by communities, religious organizations and regional health authorities • this differs from other countries such as the United States (a mix of public and private funding, as well as private-for-profit and private not-for-profit delivery) and the United Kingdom (primarily public funding and delivery) • in Canada there have been recent calls for increased private sector involvement in health care via private-for-profit facilities (Lewis et aI, 2001) • there is good evidence for a negative impact of investor-owned-for-profit delivery on health outcomes such as morbidity and mortality, and on the cost of health care

Payments for Care at Private For-Profit and Private Not-for-Profit Hospitals: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis CMAJ 2004;170(12):181 7-24 Meta·analysis of 8 U.S. observational studies involving more than 350 000 patients. Concluded that care provided by private for·profit hospITals was more expensive (Relative payments for care= 1 . 1 9; 95% CI= 1 .07-1 .33; p=O.OO1 ). � ha� of Canadian hospitals were converted to private for·profit institutions, an extra $3.6 billion would be paid annually.

Capital

Other health spending 6%

administration 1 Other instITutions 9%

Physicians 13%

Figure 2. Health Expenditure in Canada, 2005 Source: Canadian Institute of Health Infonnation

Role of the Provincial Licensing Authorities ®===tr •

• • •

the medical profession in Canada self-regulates under the authority of provincial legislation; Canada is the only country in the world where the medical profession still regulates itself physicians in each province are self-regulated by a licensing authority (see Professional Associations in Canada and the US); membership is mandatory to practice in that province system of self-regulation is based on the premise that the licensing authority must act first and foremost in the interest of the public Licensing Authority functions include issuing nontransferable licenses: allows doctors to practice only in that province maintaining ethical, legal and competency standards and developing policies to guide doctors •



Private health insurance 11% Out-aI-pocket 15% Social security 1% le.g. worker's compo boards) Muni

4% ��1 Federnl 0 Private sector

o Public sector

Figure 3. Canadian Health Care Dollars by Source of Funds, 2005 Source: Canadian Institute of Health Infonnation

ELOAM 18

Organization of Health Care in Canada • •

Toronto Notes 2010

investigating complaints against doctors disciplining doctors guilty of professional misconduct or incompetence (in most Canadian jurisdictions there is zero tolerance for sexual misconduct by physicians, resulting in harsh penalties including permanent suspension from the profession)

Distinction Between Licensure and Certification •

..... ' ,

.�------�

Certification by the LMCC plus either the RCPSC or CFPC is a minimum requirement for licensure by most provincial licensing authorities.



provincial licensing authorities provide nontransferable licensure to physicians the Medical Council of Canada (MCC) certifies physicians certification is known as the Licentiate of the MCC (LMCC) LMCC is acquired by passing the MCC Qualifying Examination Parts I and II the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) certifies specialists who complete an accredited residency program and pass the appropriate exam voluntary membership of RCPSC is designated FRCPC or FRCSC (Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians / Surgeons of Canada) the College of Family Physicians of Canada (CFPC) certifies family physicians who complete an accredited residency program and pass the Certification Examination in Family Medicine the RCPSC and CFPC are responsible for monitoring ongoing continuing medical education (CME) and professional development •







• •

Role of Professional Associations •

provincial medical associations represent the economic and professional interests o f doctors membership is voluntary, although fee payment is mandatory in some provinces the Canadian Medical Association (CMA) is a national association that provides leadership to doctors and advocates for access to high quality health care in Canada membership is voluntary and requires provincial medical association membership the CMA represents physicians' concerns at the national level, while the provincial medical associations negotiate fee and benefit schedules with provincial governments medical residents represented nationally by the Canadian Association of Interns and Residents represented provincially by Provincial Housestaff Organizations, which uphold the economic and professional interests of residents medical students represented at their universities by student societies these bodies collectively form the Canadian Federation of Medical Students francophone medical schools participate in the Federation of Quebec Medical Student •





• •









• •



Societies

the Canadian Medical Protective Association (CMPA), a physician-run organization, is a voluntary insurance association that protects the integrity of member physicians by providing legal defense against allegations of malpractice or negligence and by providing risk management and educational programs and general advice

Professional Associations in Canada and the U.S. Table 3. Professional Associations in Canada and the U.S. Resident Association

Licensing Authority

Medical Association

Health Insurance

Canada

Canadian Association of Interns and Residents

British Columbia

Professional Association of Residents of British Columbia

College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia

British Columbia Medical Association

Health Insurance BC

Alberta

Professional Association of Residents of Alberta

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Alberta

Alberta Medical Association

Alberta Health Care Insurance Plan

Saskatchewan

Professional Association of Interns and Residents of Saskatchewan

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Saskatchewan

Saskatchewan Medical Association

Saskatchewan Provincial Health Plan

Manitoba

Professional Association of Residents and Interns of Manitoba

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Manitoba

Manitoba Medical Association

Manitoba Health Plan

Ontario

Professional Association of Interns and Residents of Ontario

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario

Ontario Medical Association

Ontario Health Insurance Plan

Ouebec

Federation medecins residents Quebec

College des medecins du Quebec

Quebec Medical Association

Quebec Health Insurance Plan

Newfoundland & Labrador

Professional Association of Interns and Residents of Newfoundland

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Newfoundland & Labrador

Newfoundland & Labrador Newfoundland and Labrador Medical Care Medical Association Plan

New Brunswick Professional Association

of Residents in the Maritime Provinces

Canadian Medical Association

New Brunswick Medical College of Physicians and Surgeons of New Brunswick Society

Medicare

Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM19

Organization of Health Care in Canada/The U.S. Health Care System

Table 3. Professional Associations in Canada and the U.S. (continued) Resident Association

Licensing Authority

Medical Association

Health Insurance

Nova Scotia

Professional Association of Residents in the Maritime Provinces

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Nova Scotia

Medical Society of Nova Scotia

Medical Services Insurance Program

Prince Edward Island

Professional Association of Residents in the Maritime Provinces

College of Physicians and Surgeons of PEl

Medical Society of PEl

PEl Provincial Health Insurance Plan

Yukon Territories

Yukon Medical Council

Yukon Medical Association

Yukon Health Care Insurance Plan

Northwest Territories and Nunavut

Medical Registration Committee of Nunavut

NWT Medical Association

Northwest Territories Health Plan

Varies by State Medical Board

American Medical Association

Committee of Interns and Residents (USA)

USA

The U.S. Health Care System •

• •

the United States health care system i s market-based it is funded and delivered by a mixture of the public, private, and voluntary sectors; private-for-profit is the prevailing method of delivery public funding is derived from taxes raised at both the federal and state government levels

Health Care Expenditure and Delivery

------



health care spending in the U.S. represents a large economic sector health care comprises over 15% of the gross domestic product (GDP) (highest in the OECD), amounting to $6714 USD per capita in 2006 one advantage is the widespread availability of technology - the u.s. has 4 times as many MRI machines per capita than Canada the u.s. scores poorly on some indicators of population health, with a life expectancy below the OECD average and infant mortality above the OECD average. Several factors have been put forth to account for this discrepancy poor health of large uninsured population high cost of health care administration in the U.S. the provision of inefficient high-cost, high-intensity care • the higher-spending regions in the u.s. do not provide any better quality of care, access to care, health outcomes or satisfaction with care when compared to the lower-spending regions the U.s. has the highest level of obesity of all OECD nations at 34.3%; this has major implications for future health care spending •

Medicaid and SCHP

Other Public





• •





Access to Health Services •

• •

70% of Americans under the age of 65 have private health insurance, either employer­ sponsored or individually purchased, and a further 12% receive health care through public health insurance; 18%, mainly the poor, have no health insurance access to publicly funded health services occurs primarily through two programs, Medicare and Medicaid (see Table 4), which were created by the 1965 Social Security Act other federal government-funded health programs include the Military Health Services System, the Veterans Affairs Health Services System, the Indian Health Service, and the Prison Health Service

Coverage

Source: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of

the Actuary, National Health Statistics Group

Program Administration and Net Cost Prescription Drugs Nursing

Figure 5. Health Expenditure in USA, 2004

Source: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of

Table 4. Medicare and Medicaid Program Information Eligibility

Figure 4. USA Health Care Dollars by Source of Funds, 2004

the Actuary, National Health Statistics Group

Medicare

Medicaid

People over the age of 65 People with end stage renal disease People of any age meeting the Medicare definition of disability

People who receive funds through social assistance programs Pregnant women People with developmental disabilities Low·income children through the 1 997 State Children's Health Insurance Program

Basic "Part A" providing inpatient hospital care, home care, limited skilled nursing facility care, and hospice care Supplemental "Part B" covers outpatient physician and clinic clinic services, and requires payment of a further monthly fee "Part Coo is called Medicare+Choice and offers access to managed care programs for a further fee In 2006, Medicare recipients can subscribe to a "Part 0" prescription drug benefit with payment of a monthly fee

Basic coverage involves inpatient and outpatient hospital care, laboratory and x-ray services, skilled nursing care, home care, physician services, dental services, and family planning. Financing for Medicaid is provided jointly by the federal and state governments, and program details vary greatly between states A further 30 optional services are provided depending on the state program

Cost of Health Care Administration in the United States and Canada N Eng/J Med 2003; 349:768·75 Administrative costs were estimated from data on insurance ovemead, employers' costs to manage benefits, and the administrative costs of hospitals, practitioners' offices, nursing homes, and home care. In 1 999, the cost of U.S. health administration was $1 ,059 per capita, more than three times greater than the cost in Canada ($307 per capITa).

ELOAM 20

The U.S. Health Care System/Physician Responsibilities Regarding Death

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 4. Medicare and Medicaid Program Information (continued) Medicare Co-payment There is a deductible payable for each benefit period

including Part D Low-income Medicare recipients avoid the deductible and monthly fee To help pay for out-of-pocket expenditures, and to cover many of the selVices not insured by Medicare, the majority of Medicare beneficiaries buy supplemental private health insurance called Medisup

Medicaid

States may impose deductibles, coinsurance, or co-payments on some Medicaid recipients for certain selVices Emergency selVices and family planning selVices are exempt from such co-payments Certain Medicaid recipients are excluded from this cost sharing including pregnant women and children under age 18. Medicaid is not health insurance - coverage is unreliable as improvement in an individual's financial status can lead to a loss of Medicaid eligibility

Source: Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services; www.cms.hhs.gov

The U n i nsured • in a 17-year prospective study, adults who lacked health insurance at the outset had a 25%

greater mortality than those with private health insurance

• the uninsured receive fewer diagnostic and treatment services for trauma or myocardial

infarction, are less likely to access cancer screening, and the care they receive for chronic conditions such as diabetes often does not meet professional standards

Physician Responsibilities Regarding Death • physicians are required by law to complete a medical certificate of death unless the coroner

needs notification (see Role of the Coroner); failure to report death is a criminal offence

Role of the Coroner •

Coroner's Act (specific t o Ontario, similar i n other provinces) requires physicians t o notify a coroner or police officer if death occurs due to violence, negligence, misconduct, misadventure, or malpractice during pregnancy or is attributable to pregnancy suddenly and unexpectedly from disease which was not treated by a legally qualified medical practitioner from any cause other than disease under suspicious circumstances • coroner investigates these deaths, as well as deaths that occur in psychiatric institutions, jails, foster homes, nursing homes, hospitals to which a person was transferred from a facility, institution or home, etc. • in consultation with forensic pathologists and other specialists, the coroner establishes the identity of the deceased where and when the death occurred the medical cause of death the means of death • natural • accidental • suicide • homicide • undetermined • coroners do not make decisions regarding criminality or legal responsibility •

• • •

• •



Notify Coroner if Death Occurs due to: • Violence, negligence, misconduct • Pregnancy • Sudden or unexpected causes • Disease NOT treated • Cause other than disease • Suspicious circumstances

• • •

Palliative and End-of-Life Care • focus of care is comfort and respect for person nearing death and maximizing quality of • • • •

life for patient, family, loved ones appropriate for any patient at any stage of a life-threatening illness regardless of age may occur in a hospital, hospice, in the community or at home often an interdisciplinary team of caregivers addresses the medical, psychosocial, and spiritual dimensions of care

Toronto Notes 2010

ELOAM19

Organization of Health Care in Canada/The U.S. Health Care System

Table 3. Professional Associations in Canada and the U.S. (continued) Resident Association

Licensing Authority

Medical Association

Health Insurance

Nova Scotia

Professional Association of Residents in the Maritime Provinces

College of Physicians and Surgeons of Nova Scotia

Medical Society of Nova Scotia

Medical Services Insurance Program

Prince Edward Island

Professional Association of Residents in the Maritime Provinces

College of Physicians and Surgeons of PEl

Medical Society of PEl

PEl Provincial Health Insurance Plan

Yukon Territories

Yukon Medical Council

Yukon Medical Association

Yukon Health Care Insurance Plan

Northwest Territories and Nunavut

Medical Registration Committee of Nunavut

NWT Medical Association

Northwest Territories Health Plan

Varies by State Medical Board

American Medical Association

Committee of Interns and Residents (USA)

USA

The U.S. Health Care System •

• •

the United States health care system i s market-based it is funded and delivered by a mixture of the public, private, and voluntary sectors; private-for-profit is the prevailing method of delivery public funding is derived from taxes raised at both the federal and state government levels

Health Care Expenditure and Delivery

------



health care spending in the U.S. represents a large economic sector health care comprises over 15% of the gross domestic product (GDP) (highest in the OECD), amounting to $6714 USD per capita in 2006 one advantage is the widespread availability of technology - the u.s. has 4 times as many MRI machines per capita than Canada the u.s. scores poorly on some indicators of population health, with a life expectancy below the OECD average and infant mortality above the OECD average. Several factors have been put forth to account for this discrepancy poor health of large uninsured population high cost of health care administration in the U.S. the provision of inefficient high-cost, high-intensity care • the higher-spending regions in the u.s. do not provide any better quality of care, access to care, health outcomes or satisfaction with care when compared to the lower-spending regions the U.s. has the highest level of obesity of all OECD nations at 34.3%; this has major implications for future health care spending •

Medicaid and SCHP

Other Public





• •





Access to Health Services •

• •

70% of Americans under the age of 65 have private health insurance, either employer­ sponsored or individually purchased, and a further 12% receive health care through public health insurance; 18%, mainly the poor, have no health insurance access to publicly funded health services occurs primarily through two programs, Medicare and Medicaid (see Table 4), which were created by the 1965 Social Security Act other federal government-funded health programs include the Military Health Services System, the Veterans Affairs Health Services System, the Indian Health Service, and the Prison Health Service

Coverage

Source: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of

the Actuary, National Health Statistics Group

Program Administration and Net Cost Prescription Drugs Nursing

Figure 5. Health Expenditure in USA, 2004

Source: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Office of

Table 4. Medicare and Medicaid Program Information Eligibility

Figure 4. USA Health Care Dollars by Source of Funds, 2004

the Actuary, National Health Statistics Group

Medicare

Medicaid

People over the age of 65 People with end stage renal disease People of any age meeting the Medicare definition of disability

People who receive funds through social assistance programs Pregnant women People with developmental disabilities Low·income children through the 1 997 State Children's Health Insurance Program

Basic "Part A" providing inpatient hospital care, home care, limited skilled nursing facility care, and hospice care Supplemental "Part B" covers outpatient physician and clinic clinic services, and requires payment of a further monthly fee "Part Coo is called Medicare+Choice and offers access to managed care programs for a further fee In 2006, Medicare recipients can subscribe to a "Part 0" prescription drug benefit with payment of a monthly fee

Basic coverage involves inpatient and outpatient hospital care, laboratory and x-ray services, skilled nursing care, home care, physician services, dental services, and family planning. Financing for Medicaid is provided jointly by the federal and state governments, and program details vary greatly between states A further 30 optional services are provided depending on the state program

Cost of Health Care Administration in the United States and Canada N Eng/J Med 2003; 349:768·75 Administrative costs were estimated from data on insurance ovemead, employers' costs to manage benefits, and the administrative costs of hospitals, practitioners' offices, nursing homes, and home care. In 1 999, the cost of U.S. health administration was $1 ,059 per capita, more than three times greater than the cost in Canada ($307 per capITa).

ELOAM 20

The U.S. Health Care System/Physician Responsibilities Regarding Death

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 4. Medicare and Medicaid Program Information (continued) Medicare Co-payment There is a deductible payable for each benefit period

including Part D Low-income Medicare recipients avoid the deductible and monthly fee To help pay for out-of-pocket expenditures, and to cover many of the selVices not insured by Medicare, the majority of Medicare beneficiaries buy supplemental private health insurance called Medisup

Medicaid

States may impose deductibles, coinsurance, or co-payments on some Medicaid recipients for certain selVices Emergency selVices and family planning selVices are exempt from such co-payments Certain Medicaid recipients are excluded from this cost sharing including pregnant women and children under age 18. Medicaid is not health insurance - coverage is unreliable as improvement in an individual's financial status can lead to a loss of Medicaid eligibility

Source: Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services; www.cms.hhs.gov

The U n i nsured • in a 17-year prospective study, adults who lacked health insurance at the outset had a 25%

greater mortality than those with private health insurance

• the uninsured receive fewer diagnostic and treatment services for trauma or myocardial

infarction, are less likely to access cancer screening, and the care they receive for chronic conditions such as diabetes often does not meet professional standards

Physician Responsibilities Regarding Death • physicians are required by law to complete a medical certificate of death unless the coroner

needs notification (see Role of the Coroner); failure to report death is a criminal offence

Role of the Coroner •

Coroner's Act (specific t o Ontario, similar i n other provinces) requires physicians t o notify a coroner or police officer if death occurs due to violence, negligence, misconduct, misadventure, or malpractice during pregnancy or is attributable to pregnancy suddenly and unexpectedly from disease which was not treated by a legally qualified medical practitioner from any cause other than disease under suspicious circumstances • coroner investigates these deaths, as well as deaths that occur in psychiatric institutions, jails, foster homes, nursing homes, hospitals to which a person was transferred from a facility, institution or home, etc. • in consultation with forensic pathologists and other specialists, the coroner establishes the identity of the deceased where and when the death occurred the medical cause of death the means of death • natural • accidental • suicide • homicide • undetermined • coroners do not make decisions regarding criminality or legal responsibility •

• • •

• •



Notify Coroner if Death Occurs due to: • Violence, negligence, misconduct • Pregnancy • Sudden or unexpected causes • Disease NOT treated • Cause other than disease • Suspicious circumstances

• • •

Palliative and End-of-Life Care • focus of care is comfort and respect for person nearing death and maximizing quality of • • • •

life for patient, family, loved ones appropriate for any patient at any stage of a life-threatening illness regardless of age may occur in a hospital, hospice, in the community or at home often an interdisciplinary team of caregivers addresses the medical, psychosocial, and spiritual dimensions of care

A

Anesthesia a n d Perioperative Medicine Ishtiaq Ahmed, Rob Bechamp and Lillia Fung, chapter editors Dave Paskar and Roshan Razik, associate editors Chris Stamler, EBM editor Dr. Isabella Devito and Dr. Ryan Mai, staff editors

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Pediatric Anesthesia

Anesthesia Basics

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H istory a n d Physical Pre-O perative I nvestigations Fasting G u i deli nes ASA C l assification Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)

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Common Medications

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I ntrave nous I nd ucti on Agents Opi oids Vo latile I n h a latio n a l Agents Depolarizing M uscle Relaxants N o n - Depolarizing M u scle Relaxa nts Reversal Agents for N o n -Depolarizing Relaxa nts Local Anesthetic Age nts

References I nduction Agents

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M a l ig nant Hyperthermia ( M H )

M ed icati ons Hypertension E n docri n e Disorders Respiratory Diseases Aspi rati on .

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I ntrave nous Agents Vo lati l e I n h a l ational Agents M uscle Relaxants and Revers i n g Age nts

Airway Management

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Airway Anatomy Review Airway Management Tra cheal I ntu bation Rapid Sequence I n d uction ( R S I ) Difficult Ai rway

Intraoperative Management

Oxyg e n Therapy Ve nti lation Te m perature Heart Rate B l ood Pressure F l u i d Balance and Resuscitation IV F l u i d Sol utions B l ood Prod ucts

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Definition o f Regional Anesthesia Preparation for Regional Anesthesia E p i d u ra l and Spinal Anesthesia Pe riphera l N e rve B l ocks

Local Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1 Local I nfiltration, Hematoma B l ocks To pical Anesthetics Local Anesthetic Agents

Toronto Notes 2010

Anesthesia Al

Anesthesia Basics/Pre-Operative Assessment

A2 Anesthesia

Toronto Notes 2010

Anesthesia Basics 6 A's of General Anesthesia 1. Anesthesia 2. Anxiolysis 3. Amnesia 4. Areflexia (note that muscle relaxation is not always required) 5. Autonomic Stability 6. Analgesia Types of Anesthesia • general general anesthesia total IV anesthesia • regional spinal, epidural peripheral nerve block IV regional • local local infiltration topical • sedation monitored anesthesia care • note that types of anesthesia can be combined •



• •









Pre- Operative Assessment •

the purpose of the pre-operative assessment is to identify the patient's medical and surgical issues; to allow for the arrangement of further investigations, consultations and treatments for patients whose conditions are not optimized; and to plan anesthetic techniques

History & Physica l History • indication for surgery • surgical! anesthetic Hx: previous anesthetics/ complications, previous intubations, medications, drug allergies • PMHx CNS: seizures, stroke, raised intracranial pressure (ICP), spinal disease CVS: coronary artery disease (CAD), myocardial infarction (MI), congestive heart failure (CHF), hypertension (HTN), valvular disease, dysrhythmias, peripheral vascular disease (PVD), conditions requiring endocarditis prophylaxis, exercise tolerance, CCS class, NYHA class (see Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery. C32 for NYHA classification) respiratory: smoking, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), recent upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), sleep apnea GI: gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), liver disease renal: insufficiency, dialysis hematologic: anemia, coagulopathies, blood dyscrasias MSK: conditions associated with difficult intubations - arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), cervical tumours, cervical infections/ abscess, trauma to cervical spine, Down syndrome, scleroderma, obesity, conditions affecting neuromuscular junction (e.g. myasthenia gravis) endocrine: diabetes, thyroid, adrenal disorders other: morbid obesity, pregnancy, ethanol/other drug use • FHx: malignant hyperthermia, atypical cholinesterase (pseudocholinesterase), other abnormal drug/ anesthetic reactions •







• •







Physical Examination • oropharynx and airway assessment to determine the likelihood of difficult intubation • ability to assume "sniffing position" - assesses likeliness of difficult intubation - upper cervical spine extension, lower cervical spine flexion • no single test is specific or sensitive - all aid in determining the ease of intubation Mallampati Classification (see Figure 1 ) thyromental distance (the distance o f the lower mandible i n the midline from the mentum to the thyroid notch) • this measurement is performed with the adult patient's neck fully extended • 40 y.o., female >50 y.o.)

Echocardiogram

CHF. cardiomyopathy, valvular pathology, limited cardiac reserve, stroke of unknown etiology

Chest radiograph

Cardiac or pulmonary disease, malignancy, age > 60

Guidelines to the Practice of Anesthesia, Revised 2006. Supplement to the Canadian Joumal of Anesthesia, Vol 53112), Dec. 2006. Reproduced with permission © Canadian Anesthesiologists' Society.

Fasting Guidelines Fasting Guidelines Prior to Surgery (Canadian Anesthesiologists' Society) • 8 hours after a meal that includes meat, fried or fatty foods • 6 hours after a light meal (such as toast, crackers and clear fluid) or after ingestion of infant formula or nonhuman milk • 4 hours after ingestion of breast milk or jello • 2 hours after clear fluids (water, black coffee, tea, carbonated beverages, juice without pulp)

Impact of Anesthesia Management Characteristics on Severe Morbidity and Mortality Anesthesiology 2005; 1 0212):257-258 Swdy: Case-control study of patients undergoing anesthesia. Patients: 803 cases and 883 controls were analyzed among a cohort of 869,483 patients undergoing anesthesia between 1995-1997. Cases were defined as patients who either remained comatose or died within 24 hours of receiving anesthesia. Controls were defined as patients who neither remained comatose nor died within 24 hours of receiving anesthesia. Intervention: General. regional. or combined anesthesia to patients undergoing a surgical procedure. Main Outcome: coma or death wnhin 24 hours of receiving anesthesia Results: The incidence of 24-hour postoperative death was 8.8 per 10,000 anesthetics 195% CI, 8.2-9.5) and the incidence of coma was 0.5 195% CI. 0.3-0.6). Anesthesia management risk factors that were associated wnh a decreased risk of momidity and mortality were: equipment check with protocol and documentation, directly available anesthesiologist with no change during anesthesia. 2 persons present at emergence of anesthesia, reversal of muscle relaxation. and postoperative pain medication.

A4 Anesthesia

Pre-Operative Assessment/Pre-Operative Optimization

Toronto Notes 2010

American Society of Anesthesiology (ASA) Classification •

• •



• • •



common classification o f physical status a t time o f surgery a gross predictor of overall outcome, NOT used as stratification for anesthetic risk (mortality rates) ASA 1: a healthy, fit patient ASA 2: a patient with mild systemic disease, e.g. controlled Type 2 diabetes, controlled essential HTN, obesity, smoker ASA 3: a patient with severe systemic disease that limits activity, e.g. stable CAD, COPD, DM, obesity ASA 4: a patient with incapacitating disease that is a constant threat to life, e.g. unstable CAD, renal failure, acute respiratory failure ASA 5: a moribund patient not expected to survive 24 hours without surgery, e.g. ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), head trauma with increased ICP for emergency operations, add the letter E after classification

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) • •



ACC/ AHA Guidelines (2007) recommends postponing elective surgery 4-6 weeks following an MI this period carries increased risk of reinfarction / death reinfarction risk is classically quoted as: 6 months after MI - risk remains constant at 5% reinfarction carries a 50% mortality rate if operative procedure is essential and cannot be delayed, invasive monitoring and post-operative intensive care unit (lCU) monitoring reduce the risk to 6%, 2% and 1% respectively for the above time periods mortality with peri-operative MI is 20-50% initiation of perioperative beta-blockade with caution due to increased risk of CVA; continue beta-blockade if already started treatment of patients at risk for CAD with atenolol while in hospital reduces mortality and cardiovascular complications (Mangano, et al. NEJM 1 996; 335: 1 7 1 3-1 720) in high-risk patients; perioperative MI and mortality of vascular surgery is reduced by bisoprolol (Poldermans, et al. •











• •

NEJM. 1 999; 341 :1 789·1794)

Pre- Operative Optimization Medications • •

pay particular attention to cardiac and respiratory meds, narcotics and drugs with many side effects and interactions pre-operative medications to start prophylaxis • risk of GE reflux - sodium citrate 30 cc PO 30 minutes to 1 hour pre-op • risk of infective endocarditis - antibiotics • risk of adrenal suppression - steroid coverage • risk of DVT - heparin SC optimization of co-existing disease -7 bronchodilators (COPD, asthma), nitroglycerin and beta-blockers (CAD risk factors) pre-operative medications to stop oral hypoglycemics - stop on morning of surgery antidepressants (tricyclics, MAOIs) - stop on morning of surgery pre-operative medication to adjust insulin, prednisone, coumadin, bronchodilators •

• •









Hypertension • • •



mild t o moderate HTN i s not a n independent risk factor for perioperative cardiovascular complication (Lette et al. Ann. Surg. 1 992; 216:1 92·204) target sBP toxic IV dose)

Smaller dose of LA required lusually < toxic IV dose)

Continuous infusion

Use of catheter allows for continuous infusion or repeat injections

None

Regional Anesthesia/Local Anesthesia

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 6. Epidural versus Spinal Anesthesia (continued) Complications

Epidural

Spinal

Failure of technique

Failure of technique

Hypotension

Hypotension

Bradycardia if cardiac sympathetics blocked (only � T2-4 block)

Bradycardia if cardiac sympathetics blocked (only if T2-4 block), i.e. "high spinal"

Epidural or subarachnoid hematoma

Epidural or subarachnoid hematoma

Accidental subarachnoid injection can produce spinal anesthesia (and any of the above complications)

Post-spinal headache (CSF leak)

-

Systemic toxicity of LA (accidental intravenous)

-

Persistent paresthesias (usually transient) Spinal cord trauma, infection

Catheter complications (shearing, kinking, vascular or subarachnoid placement) Infection Dural puncture Combined Spinal-epidural

Combines the benefits of rapid, reliable, intense blockade of spinal anesthesia together with the flexibility of an epidural catheter

Periphera l Nerve Blocks • • •

generally used for post-operative analgesia; sometimes uses for intra-operative anesthesia relatively safe - avoid intraneural injection and neurotoxic agents e.g. brachial plexus block, femoral nerve block, digital ring block, etc.

Anesthesia A21

Reduction of Postoperative Mortality and Morbidity w�h Epidural or Spinal Anaesthesia: Results from Overview of Randomised Trials BMJ 2000; 321 :1-12 Purpose: To obtain reliable estimates of the effects of neuraxial blockade with epidural or spinal anesthesia on postoperative morbidity and mortality. Study: Systematic review of all trials with randomization to intra-operative neuraxial blockade versus not. Patients: 141 trials including 9559 patients. Main Outcomes: All cause mortality, MI, PE, OVT, transfusion requirements, pneumonia, other infections, respiratory depression, and renal failure. Results: Overall mortality was reduced by about a third in patients allocated to neuraxial blockade. Neuraxial blockade reduced the odds of PE by 55%, DVT by 44%, transfusion requirements by 50%, pneumonia by 39%, and respiratory depression by 59%. There were also reductions in MI and renal failure The proportional reductions in mortality did not clearly differ by surgical group, type of blockade (epidural or spinal), or in those trials in which neuraxial blockade was combined with general anesthesia compared with trials in which neuraxial blockade was used alone. Conclusions: Neuraxial blockade reduces postoperative mortality and other serious complications.

Loca l Anesthesia Local I nfiltration, Hematoma Blocks •

note: local anesthetics are described in Table 13

Local Infiltration • injection of tissue with local anesthetic agent (LA), producing a lack of sensation in the infiltrated area due to LA acting on nerve endings • one of the simplest and safest teclmiques of providing anesthesia • suitable for small incisions, suturing, excising small lesions • can use fairly large volumes of dilute LA to infiltrate a large area • low concentrations of epinephrine (1:100,000-1:200,000) cause vasoconstriction, thus reducing bleeding and prolonging the effects of LA by reducing systemic absorption Fracture Hematoma Block • special type of local infiltration for pain control during manipulation of certain fractures • hematoma created by fracture is infiltrated with LA to anesthetize surrounding tissues • sensory blockade may be only partial • no muscle relaxation

Topical Anesthetics • •

various preparations of local anesthetics available for topical use, may be a mixture of agents, e.g. EMLA cream is a combination of 2.5% lidocaine and prilocaine must be able to penetrate the skin or mucous membrane

Local Anesthetic Agents Definition and Mode of Action • LA are drugs that block the generation and propagation of impulses in excitable tissues: nerves, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, brain • LA substances bind to a Na channel receptor on the cytosolic side of the Na channel (i.e. must be lipid soluble), inhibiting Na flux and thus blocking impulse conduction • different types of nerve fibres undergo blockade at different rates

..... ' , ��------, Where Not to Use Local Anesthetic Agent (LA) wjth Epinephrjne Nose, Hose ( penis) , Fingers, and Toes

A22 Anesthesia

Local Anesthesia/Obstetrical Anesthesia

Toronto Notes 2010

Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism • LA readily crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) once absorbed into the bloodstream • ester-type LA (procaine, tetracaine) broken down by plasma and hepatic esterases; metabolites excreted via kidneys • amide-type LA (lidocaine, bupivicaine) broken down by hepatic mixed-function oxidases (P450 system); metabolites excreted via kidney Selection of LA • choice of LA depends on onset of action: influenced by pKa (the lower the pKa, the higher the concentration of the base form of the LA and the faster the onset of action) duration of desired effects: influenced by protein binding (long duration of action when the protein binding of LA is strong) potency: influenced by lipid solubility (agents with high lipid solubility will penetrate the nerve membrane more easily) unique needs (e.g. sensory blockade with relative preservation of motor function by bupivicaine at low doses) potential for toxicity •









Systemic Toxicity • see Table 13 for max doses, potency and duration of action for common LA agents, i.e. chloroprocaine, lidocaine, bupivicaine. • occurs by accidental intravascular injection, LA overdose, or unexpectedly rapid absorption • systemic toxicity manifests itself mainly at CNS and CVS • CNS effects first appear to be excitatory due to initial block of inhibitory fibres; then subsequent block of excitatory fibres • CNS effects (in approximate order of appearance) numbness of tongue, perioral tingling, metallic taste disorientation, drowsiness tinnitus visual disturbances muscle twitching, tremors unconsciousness convulsions, seizures generalized CNS depression, coma, respiratory arrest • CVS effects vasodilation, hypotension decreased myocardial contractility dose-dependent delay in cardiac impulse transmission • prolonged PR, QRS intervals • sinus bradycardia CVS collapse • treatment of systemic toxicity early recognition of signs 100% 02' manage ABCs diazepam or sodium thiopental may be used to increase seizure threshold if the seizures are not controlled by diazepam or thiopental, consider using succinylcholine (stops muscular manifestations of seizures, facilitates intubation) manage arrhythmias consider intralipid 20% to bind local anesthesia in circulation •

• • • •

• • •



The Effect of Epidural Analgesia on Labour, Maternal, and Neonatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review Am J Obstet Gvneco/ 2002; I 86:S69·77 Study: Meta·analysis of 14 studies with sample size of 4324 women. Selection Criteria: Randomized controlled trials and prospective cohort IPC) studies between 1 980·2001 in which epidural analgesia was compared to parenteral opioid administration during labour. Types of Participants: Healthy women with uneventful pregnancies. Intervention: Participants were random�ed to either epidural analgesia or parenteral opioid administration during labour for labour pain relief. Outcomes and Results: Matemal - there were no differences between the 2 groups in first·stage labour length, incidence of Caesarean delivery, incidence of instrumented vaginal delivery for dystocia, nausea, or mid·to·low back pain post· partum. However, second·stage labour length was longer (mean� 1 5 min) and there were greater reports of fever and hypotension in the epidural group. Also, lower pain scores and greater satisfaction with analgesia were reported among the epidural group. There was no difference in lactation success at 6 weeks and urinary incontinence was more frequent in the epidural group immediately post·partum, but not at 3 months or 1 year levidence from PC studies only). Neonatal - there were no differences between the 2 groups for incidence of fetal heart rate abnonnalities, intrapartum meconium, poor 5·min Apgar score, or low umbilical artery pH. However, the incidence of poor I ·min Apgar scores and need for neonatal naloxone were higher in the parenteral opioid group. Conclusions: Epidural analgesia is a safe intrapartum method for labour pain relief and women should not avoid epidural analgesia for fear of neonatal harm, Caesarean delivery, breastleeding difficulties, long·tenn back pain or long·tenn urinary incontinence.

• •



• •

• •

• •

Obstetrica l Anesthesia Physiologic Changes i n Pregnancy 1. airway upper airway becomes edematous and friable decreased FRC and increased O2 consumption � desaturation 2. cardiovascular system increased blood volume > increased RBC mass � mild anemia decreased SVR proportionately greater than increased CO � decreased BP prone to decreased BP due to aortocaval compression 3. central nervous system decreased MAC due to hormonal effects increased block height due to engorged epidural veins 4. gastrointestinal system delayed gastric emptying increased volume and acidity of gastric fluid decreased LES tone increased abdominal pressure combined, this leads to an increased risk of aspiration •













• •







Toronto Notes 2010

Obstetrical Anesthesia/Pediatric Anesthesia

Options for Analgesia during Labour 1. psychoprophylaxis - Lamaze method patterns of breathing and focused attention on fixed object 2. systemic medication easy to administer, but risk of maternal or neonatal depression common drugs: opioids (morphine, meperidine) 3. inhalational analgesia easy to administer, makes uterine contractions more tolerable, but does not relieve pain completely 50% nitrous oxide 4. regional anesthesia provides excellent analgesia with minimal depressant effects hypotension is the most common complication maternal BP monitored q2-5 min for 15-20 min after initiation and regularly thereafter techniques used: epidural, combined spinal epidural, pudendal blocks, spinal, paracervical, lumbar sympathetic blocks combination of local anesthetic agents (lidocaine, bupivicaine, chloroprocaine, ropivacaine) and opiods (morphine, fentanyl, meperidene) used •

• •











Anesthesia A23

..... ' , 9f-------, Nociceptive Pathways in Labour and Delivery • Labour • Cervical dilation and effacement • Visceral nerve fibres entering the spinal cord at T1 O-L 1 • Delivery • Distention of lower vagina and perineum • Somatic nociceptive impulses via the pudendal nerve entering the spinal cord at S2-S4





Options for Caesarean Section 1. regional: spinal or epidural 2. general: used when contraindications or time precludes regional blockade Potential complications of anesthesia in Caesarean section: • pulmonary aspiration under general anesthesia: due to increased gastroesophageal reflux • hypotension and I or fetal distress: caused by occlusion of the inferior vena caval aorta by the gravid uterus (aortocaval compression); corrected by turning patient into the left lateral decubitus (LLD) position or using left uterine displacement (LUD) • unintentional total spinal anesthesia • LA induced seizures: due to intravascular injection of LA • post-dural puncture headache • nerve injury (rare)

.....

' , 9�------,

Correcting Aortocaval Compression Left uterine displacement by placing wedge under right hip. Turn patient to left lateral decubitus position.

Pediatric Anesthesia Respiratory System • in comparison to adults, anatomical differences in infants include large head, short trachea I neck, large tongue, adenoids and tonsils narrow nasal passages (obligate nasal breathers until 5 months) narrowest part of airway at the level of the cricoid vs. glottis in adults epiglottis is longer, U shaped and angled at 45 degrees; carina is wider and is at the level of T2 (T4 in adults) • physiologic differences include faster RR, immature respiratory centres which are depressed by hypoxia I hypercapnea (airway closure occurs in the neonate at the end of expiration) less oxygen reserve during apnea - decreased total lung volume, vital and functional reserve capacity together with higher metabolic needs greater V/Q mismatch - lower lung compliance due to immature alveoli (mature at 8 years) greater work of breathing - greater chest wall compliance, weaker intercostals l diaphragm and higher resistance t o airflow • a pediatric breathing unit is required for all children 10% of blood volume lost • children have a high pulse rate and a low BP • CO is increased by increasing HR, not stroke volume because of low heart wall compliance; therefore, bradycardia � severe compromise in CO Temperature Regulation • vulnerable to hypothermia • minimize heat loss by use of warming blankets, covering the infant head, humidification of inspired gases and warming of infused solutions Central Nervous System • the MAC of halothane is increased from the adult (i.e. 0.75% adult, 0.87% neonates, 1 .2% infant) • the neuromuscular junction is immature for the first 4 weeks of life and thus there is an increased sensitivity to non-depolarizing relaxants

.....

' , 9�------'

En Sizing in Pediatrics

Diameter of tracheal tube in children (mm) after 1 year = [age/4] + 4 Length of tracheal tube (em) = (age/2) + 1 2

Pediatric Anesthesia/Uncommon Complications

A24 Anesthesia • •

Toronto Notes 2010

parasympathetics mature at birth, sympathetics mature at 4-6 months -7 autonomic imbalance infant brain is 12% of body weight and receives 34% of CO (adult: 2% body weight and 14% CO)

Glucose Maintenance • infants less than 1 year can become seriously hypoglycemic during pre-operative fasting and post-operatively if feeding is not recommenced as soon as possible • after 1 year children are able to maintain normal glucose homeostasis in excess of 8 hours Pharmacology • higher dose requirements because of higher TBW (75% vs. 60% in adults) and greater volume of distribution • barbiturates/opioids more potent due to greater permeability of BBB • muscle relaxants non-depolarizing • immature NMJ, variable response depolarizing • must be pretreated with atropine or may get profound bradycardia, sinus node arrest due to PNS > SNS (also dries oral secretions) • more susceptible to arrhythmias, hyperkalemia, rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinemia, masseter spasm, and malignant hyperthermia •



U ncommon Com plications M a l ignant Hyperthermia ( M H)

--------�

• •

• • •

hypermetabolic disorder of skeletal muscle due to an uncontrolled increase in intracellular Ca (because of an anomaly of the ryanodine receptor which regulates the Ca channel in the sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle) autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance incidence of 1-5:100,000, may be associated with skeletal muscle abnormalities such as dystrophy or myopathy anesthetic drugs triggering MH crises volatile anesthetics: enflurane, halothane, isoflurane, desflurane and sevoflurane (any drug ending in "-ane") depolarizing relaxants: succinylcholine (SCh), decamethonium •

Signs of Malignant Hyperthermia • Unexplained rise in end-tidal carbon dioxide • Increase in minute ventilation • Tachycardia Hyperthermia (late sign) • Rigidity



Clinical Picture • onset: immediate or hours after contact with trigger agent • hypermetabolism increased oxygen consumption increased end-tidal CO2 on capnograph tachycardia/dysrhythmia tachypnea/cyanosis increased temperature - late sign hypertension diaphoresis • muscle symptoms trismus (masseter spasm) common but not specific for MH (occurs in 1% of children given SCh with halothane anesthesia) tender, swollen muscles trunk or total body rigidity •



• • • • •



• •

Complications • death • coma • disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) • muscle necrosis/weakness • myoglobinuric renal failure/hepatic dysfunction • electrolyte abnormalities (e.g. hyperkalemia) and secondary arrhythmias • ARDS • pulmonary edema

Anesthesia A25

Uncommon Complications/Common Medications

Toronto Notes 2010

Prevention • suspect MH in patients with a family history of problems / death with anesthetic • dantrolene prophylaxis no longer routine • avoid all trigger medications (use regional if possible) and use "clean" equipment • central body temp and end-tidal CO2 monitoring Malignant Hyperthermia Management 1. notify surgeon, discontinue volatile agents and succinylcholine, hyperventilate with 100% oxygen at flows of 10 L/min or more; halt the procedure as soon as possible 2. dantrolene 2.5 mg/kg rapidly IV, through large-bore IV if possible repeat until there is control of signs of MH; sometimes up to 30 mg/kg is necessary 3. bicarbonate 1-2 mEq/kg if blood gas values are not available for metabolic acidosis 4. cool the patient with core temp >39°C lavage open body cavities, stomach, bladder, rectum, apply ice to surface, infuse cold saline IV stop cooling if temp 25% height of R

Toronto Notes 2010

Cardiac Diagnostic Tests

C8 Cardiology and CV Surgery

Ischemia/Infarction • look for the anatomic distribution of the following ECG abnormalities (see Table 1) • ischemia ST segment depression T wave inversion • injury transmural (involving the epicardium) - ST elevation in the leads facing the area injured / infarcted; transient ST elevation may occur in patients with coronary artery spasm (e.g. Prinzmetal angina) subendocardial - marked ST depression in the leads facing the affected area; it may be accompanied by enzyme changes and other signs of myocardial infarction •







Acute days (avg. 3-5 hours) ST segment elevation

Recent weeks-months T wave inversion

Old months-years (avg. > 6 months) Significant Os

Figure 9. ECG Changes with Infarction • •

evolving infarction "typical" sequential changes of evolving myocardial infarction 1st • hyperacute T waves (tall, symmetric T waves) in the leads facing the infarcted area, with or without ST elevation 2nd • ST elevation (injury pattern) in the leads facing the infarcted area • usually in the first hours post infarct • in acute posterior infarction, there is ST depression in VI-V3 (reciprocal to ST elevation in the posterior leads, that are not recorded in the standard I2-lead ECG) 3rd • significant Q waves (hours to days post-infarct) 4th • inverted T waves (one day to weeks after infarction) this classical sequence, however, does not always occur, e.g. • Q waves of infarction may appear in the very early stages, with or without ST changes • non-Q wave infarction: there may be only ST or T changes, despite clinical evidence of infarction completed infarction abnormal Q waves (note that wide Q waves may be found in III and aVL in normal individuals) • duration >40 msec (>30 msec in aVF for inferior infarction) • Q/QRS voltage ratio is >25% abnormal R waves (R / S ratio >1, duration >40 msec) in VI and more frequently in V2 are found in posterior infarction (usually in association with signs of inferior and / or lateral infarction) •

..... ' , .�------,



Differential of ST Segment Changes •



ST Elevation Acute STEMI Ventricular Aneurysm LBBB Acute Pericarditis (diffuse changes) Ischemia w/reciprocal changes Post-MI Vasospastic ( Prinzmetal's) angina Hypothermia (Osborne waves) Early repolarization (Normal variant; old ECG's) ST Depression Acute NSTEMI or ischemia LVH or RVH with strain Post-MI STEMI with reciprocal changes Left or Right BBB Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome













Table 1 . Areas of Infarction/Ischemia (right dominant anatomy) Vessel Usuallv Involved

Infarct Area (LAD and Cire)

Leads (LAD and Circ)

Left anterior descending (LAD)

Anteroseptal Anterior Anterolateral Extensive anterior

Vl, V2 V3, V4 I, aVL, V3-V6 I, aVL, Vl -V6

Right coronary artery (RCA)

Inferior Right ventricle Posterior MI (assoc. with in!. MI)

II, III, aVF V3R and V4R (right sided chest leads) Vl and V2 (prominent R waves)

Circumflex

Lateral Isolated posterior MI

I, aVL, V5-6 Vl and V2 (prominent R waves)

MISCELLANEOUS ECG CHANGES Electrolyte Disturbances • hyperkalemia (see Figure 10) mild to moderate (K 5-7 mmol / L): tall peaked T waves severe (K >7 mmol / L): progressive changes: P waves flatten and disappear; QRS widens and may show bizarre patterns, axis shifts left or right; ST shift with tall T waves •

Toronto Notes 2010

Cardiac Diagnostic Tests

-JA

Cardiology and CV Surgery C9

=J'---

Figure 1 0. Hyperkalemia •

hypokalemia (see Figure 11) ST segment depression, prolonged QT interval, low T waves, prominent U waves (U>T) •

Figure 1 1 . Hypokalemia •



hypercalcemia: shortened QT interval hypocalcemia: prolonged QT interval

Hypothermia • sinus bradycardia • when severe, prolonged QRS and QT intervals • atrial fibrillation with slow ventricular response and other atrial/ ventricular dysrhythmias • Osborne J waves: "hump-like" waves at the junction of the J point and the ST segment Pericarditis • early - diffuse ST segment elevation ± PR segment depression, upright T waves • later - isoelectric ST segment, flat or inverted T waves • tachycardia

Figure 1 2 . Osborne J Waves of a Hypothermic Patient

Low Voltage • definition: total QRS height in precordial leads 100 bpm • occurs in normal subjects with increased sympathetic tone (exercise, emotions, pain), alcohol use, caffeinated beverages, drugs (e.g. beta-adrenergic agonists, anticholinergic drugs, etc.) • etiology: fever, hypotension, hypovolemia, anemia, thyrotoxicosis, heart failure, MI, shock, pulmonary embolism, etc. • treatment: treat underlying disease; consider beta-blocker if symptomatic, rate modifying CCB if beta-blockers contraindicated Premature Beats • premature atrial contraction (PAC) ectopic supraventricular beat originating in the atria P wave morphology of the PAC usually differs from that of a normal sinus beat • junctional premature beat ectopic supraventricular beat that originates in the vicinity of the AV node P wave is usually not seen or an inverted P wave is seen and may be before or follow closely the QRS complex treatment usually not required •









Arrhythmias

Toronto Notes 2010

Atrial Flutter • rapid, regular atrial depolarization from a re-entry circuit within the atrium • atrial rate 250-350 bpm, usually 300 bpm • AV block usually occurs. It may be fixed (2:1, 3:1, 4:1, etc.) or variable • etiology: CAD, thyrotoxicosis, MV disease, cardiac surgery, COPD, pulmonary embolism, pericarditis • ECG: sawtooth flutter waves in inierior leads (II, III, aVF); narrow QR5 (unless aberrancy) • in atrial flutter with 2:1 block, carotid sinus massage (first check for bruits), Valsalva maneuver or adenosine may decrease AV conduction and bring out flutter waves • treatment acute: if unstable (e.g. hypotension, CHF, angina): electrical cardioversion if stable (1) rate control: beta-blocker, diltiazem, verapamil, or digitalis (2) chemical cardioversion: sotalol, amiodarone, type I antiarrhythrnics OR electrical cardioversion anticoagulation guidelines same as for patients with AF (see AF) long-term: antiarrhythmics, catheter ablation (high success rate)

Cardiology and CV Surgery C17

Figure 22. Atrial Flutter with Variable Block









Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia ( MAT) • irregular rhythm caused by presence of 3 or more atrial foci (may mimic AF) • atrial rate 100-200 bpm; at least 3 distinct P wave morphologies and PR intervals vary, some P waves may not be conducted • occurs more commonly in patients with COPD, and hypoxemia; less commonly in patients with hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, sepsis, theophylline or digitalis toxicity • treatment: treat the underlying cause; CCBs may be used (e.g. diltiazem, verapamil), beta-blockers may be contraindicated because of severe pulmonary disease • no role for electrical cardioversion, antiarryhthmics or ablation Atrial Fibrillation (AF) • commonest sustained arrhythmia; incidence increases with age (10% of population >80) • symptoms: asymptomatic or produce palpitations, fatigue, syncope and may precipitate or worsen heart failure. May be associated with thromboembolic event • mechanism single circuit re-entry and / or ectopic foci act as aberrant generators producing atrial tachycardia (350-600) impulses then conduct irregularly across the atrial myocardium to give rise to fibrillation ectopic foci have also been mapped to the pulmonary vein ostia and can be ablated • perpetuation the tachycardia causes atrial structural and electrophysiological remodelling changes that further promote AF, thus the longer the patient is in AF, the more difficult it is to convert back to sinus rhythm • consequences the AV node irregularly filters incoming atrial impulses producing an irregular ventricular response of 75 Diabetes Stroke/fiA Iprior)



CHAOS Stroke Score Risk ('Io/Yr)



0·1 2·3 4·6

Anticoagulation Recommendation

1 .9·2.8 1Iow) aspirin 8 1 ·325 mg 4.0·5.9 (mod) coumadin IINR 2·3) 8.5·18.2 Ihigh) coumadin IINR 2·3)





AF on ECG • no organized P waves due to rapid atrial activity (350-600 bpm) causing a chaotic fibrillatory baseline • irregularly irregular ventricular response (typically 100-180bpm), narrow QR5 (unless aberrancy or previous BBB) • wide QR5 complexes due to aberrancy may occur following a long-short cycle sequence (" Ashman phenomenon") • loss of atrial contraction thus no "a" wave seen in JVP, no 54 on auscultation

� Figure 23. Atrial Fibrillation

I

I

(

Atrial Fibrillation - AFFIRM Trial NEJM 2002; 347:1825·33

Study: Random�ed, multicenter trial with mean follow·up of 3.5 years. Patients: 4060 patients Imean age 70 yrs, 61% male, 89% white) with atrial fibrillation and a high risk of stroke or death, in whom anticoagulant therapy was not contraindicated. Intervention: Rate control lusing �·blockers, verapamil, diltiazem, or digoxin alone or in combination) vs. rhythm control lusing an antiarrhythmic drug chosen by the treating physician). Main outcome: Overall mortality. Results: There was no difference in mortality between the two groups. There were more hosprral�ations and adverse drug effects in the rhythm·control group. Conclusion: Rate·control was as effective as rhythm·control in atrial fibrillation, and may be better tolerated. Anticoagulation should be continued. See also AF·CHF trial: NEJM 2008; 358: 2667· 2677.

Arrhythmias

C18 Cardiology and CV Surgery

Oral Anticoagulants versus Antiplatelet Therapy for Preventing Stroke in Patients with Non-Valvular Atrial Fibrillation and No History of Stroke or Transient Ischemic Attacks Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;13):CD006186 Purpose: To characterize the relative effect of long­ tenn oral anticoagulant treatment compared with antiplatelet therapy on major vascular events in patients with non-valvular AF and no history of stroke or transient ischemic attack ITIA). Study Selection: All unconfounded, randomized trials in which long-tenn Imore than four weeks) adjusted-dose oral anticoagulant treatment was compared with antiplatelet therapy in patients with chronic non-valvular AF. Results: Eight randomized trials, including 9,598 patients, tested adjusted-dose wartarin versus aspirin lin dosages ranging from 75 to 325 m(lfday) in AF patients without prior stroke or TIA. The mean overall follow-up was 1 .9 years per participant. OR 195% CI) Measure All stroke 0.68 10.54 to 0.85) Ischemic stroke 0.53 10.41 to 0.68) Systemic emboli 0.48 10.25 to 0.90) Disabling or fatal strokes 0.69 10.47 to 1.01) 0.69 10.47 to 1.01) Myocardial infarction 0.93 10.75 to 1.15) Vascular death 0.99 10.83 to 1.18) All cause mortality Intracranial hemorrhage 1.98 11.20 to 3.28) Conclusions: Adjusted-dose wartarin and related oral anticoagulants reduce stroke, disabling stroke and other major vascular events by about one third in those with non-valvular AF. when compared with antiplatelet therapy.

Toronto Notes 2010

Management (adapted from ACC/ AHA/ ESC guidelines 2006) Major objectives (RACE) 1. Rate control: beta-blockers, diltiazem, verapamil (in patients with heart failure: digoxin, amiodarone) 2. Anti-coagulation: prevent thromboembolism assess stroke risk: determine CHADS2 score in patients with nonvalvular AF if no risk factors, ASA 81-325 mg daily 1 moderate risk factor, ASA or warfarin (INR 2.0-3.0, target 2.5) >1 moderate risk factor or any high risk factor (prior stroke, TIA or embolism, mitral stenosis, prosthetic valve), warfarin 3. Cardioversion (electrical) if AF 48 hrs, anticoagulate for 3 weeks prior and 4 weeks after cardioversion. if patient unstable, must cardiovert after ruling out atrial clot using trans-esophageal echo due to increased risk of embolic events mitral stenosis with Af requires cardioversion immediately 4. Etiology HTN, CAD, valvular disease, pericarditis, cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, ASD, following surgery, PE, COPD, thyrotoxicosis, SSS (Sick Sinus Syndrome), alcohol ("holiday heart") may present in young patients without demonstrable disease ("lone AF") and in the elderly without underlying heart disease restore normal sinus rhythm iffeasible •







• • •









Newly Discovered AF • if the episode is self limited and not associated with severe symptoms, no need for antiarrhythmic drugs. Anticoagulants may be beneficial high risk for stroke • if AF persists, 2 options: 1. rate control and anticoagulation (as indicated above) 2. cardioversion (as above) Recurrent AF/Permanent AF • if episodes are brief or minimally symptomatic, antiarrhythmic drug may be avoided; rate control and anticoagulation are appropriate • patients who have undergone at least one attempt to restore sinus rhythm may remain in AF after recurrence: permanent AF may be accepted (with rate control and antithrombotics as indicated by CHADS2 score) • if symptoms are bothersome or episodes are prolonged, antiarrhythmic drugs should be used no or minimal heart disease: flecainide, propafenone or sotalol LV dysfunction: amiodarone CAD: beta-blockers, amiodarone •





AV Nodal Re-Entrant Tachycardia (AVNRT) • sudden onset and offset • fast regular rhythm; rate 150-250 bpm • usually initiated by a supraventricular or ventricular premature beat • AVNRT accounts for 60-70% of all paroxysmal SVTs • retrograde P waves may be seen but are usually lost in the QRS complex • treatment acute: Valsalva or carotid massage, adenosine is first choice if unresponsive to vagal maneuvers; if no response, try metoprolol, digitalis, diltiazem; electrical cardioversion if patient hemodynamically unstable (hypotension, angina, or CHF) long-term: 1st line: beta-blocker, diltiazem, digitalis, 2nd: anti-arrhythmic drugs (flecainide, propafenone), 3rd: catheter ablation •



"

' ,

�}-------,

The carotid massage is actually a constant pressure directed posteriorly against the carotid artery for 5 - 1 0 seconds. Always listen for bruits before palpation.

Figure 24. Pathways for AVNRT

Arrhythmias

Toronto Notes 2010

Cardiology and CV Surgery C19

Pre-excitation Syndromes Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) Syndrome • congenital defect present in 1 .5-2/ 1000 of the general population • an accessory conduction tract (Bundle of Kent; can be in right or left atria) abnormally allows electrical communication between the atria to the ventricles • impulses travel at a greater conduction velocity across the Bundle of Kent thereby effectively 'bypassing' AV nodal conduction • since the ventricles are activated earlier, the ECG shows early ventricular depolarisation in the form of initial slurring of the QRS complex - the so called delta wave • atrial impulses still conduct through the AV node after earlier conduction across the Bundle of Kent generating a "fusion complex" • ECG features of WPW PR interval 200 bpm) and the QRS complex very wide • treatment: electrical cardioversion, IV procainamide or IV amiodarone • do not use drugs that slow AV node conduction (digitalis, beta blockers) as this may cause preferential conduction through the bypass tract and precipitate VF • long term: ablation of bypass tract when possible AV Re-Entrant Tachycardia (AVRT) • re-entrant loop via accessory pathway and normal conduction system • initiated by a premature atrial or ventricular complex • orthodromic AVRT: stimulus from a premature complex travels up the bypass tract (V to A) and down the AV node (A to V). Narrow QRS complex (no delta wave because stimulus travels through normal conduction system) • antidromic AVRT: more rarely stimulus goes up the AV node (V to A) and down the bypass tract (A to V). Wide and abnormal QRS as ventricular activation is only via the bypass tract • treatment acute: similar to AVNRT except avoid long-acting AV nodal blockers, e.g. digitalis & verapamil long-term: for recurrent arrhythmias, ablation of the bypass tract is recommended. Drugs such as flecainide and procainamide can be used •



Ventricular Tachyarrhythm ias Premature Ventricular Contraction (PVC) or Ventricular Premature Beat (VPB) • QRS width >120 msec, no preceding P wave, bizarre QRS morphology • origin: LBBB pattern RV site; RBBB pattern LV site • PVCs may be benign but are usually significant in the following situations: consecutive (;;,3 VT) or multiform (varied origin) PVC falling on the T wave of the previous beat ("R on T phenomenon"): may precipitate ventricular tachycardia or VFib =



=

=



Accelerated Idioventricular Rhythm • ectopic ventricular rhythm with rate 50-100 bpm • more frequently occurs in the presence of sinus bradycardia, and is easily overdriven by a faster supraventricular rhythm • frequently occurs in patients with acute myocardial infarction or other types of heart disease (cardiomyopathy, hypertensive, valvular) but it does not affect prognosis and does not usually require treatment Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) • 3 or more consecutive ectopic ventricular complexes rate >100 bpm (usually 140-200) "sustained VT" if it lasts longer than 30 sec. ECG characteristics : wide regular QRS tachycardia (QRS usually >140 msec); AV dissociation; bizarre QRS pattern. Also favour Ox of VT: left axis or right axis deviation; nonspecific intraventricular block pattern; monophasic or biphasic QRS in VI with RBBB; QRS concordance in V1-V6 •





� ,

,

,

Pramawre Ventricular Coot_ion (PVC)

� , , ,

Prerrnllure Atrial Contraction �PAC} NOI9: This OU9'am also shows

inverted T·W8V9S

© Caitlin LaFlamme 2009

Figure 26. PVC and VPB

Arrhythmias

C20 Cardiology and CV Surgery

Table 4. Wide Complex Tachycardia: Clues for Differentiating VT vs. SVT with Aberrancy*

Toronto Notes 2010

occasionally during VT supraventricular impulses may be conducted to the ventricles generating QRS complexes with normal or aberrant supraventricular morphology ("ventricular capture") or summation pattern ("fusion complexes") treatment sustained VT (longer than 30 seconds) is an emergency, requiring immediate treatment hemodynamic compromise - electrical cardioversion no hemodynamic compromise - electrical cardioversion, lidocaine, amiodarone, type Ia agents (procainamide, quinidine) •





Clinical Clues



Presenting symptoms not helpful History of CAD and previous MI VT Physical Exam Cannon "a" waves VT Variable Sl VT Carotid sinus massage! adenosine terminates arrhythmia SVT**



ECG Clues

AV dissociation Capture or fusion QRS width > 140 msec Extreme axis deviation (left or right superior axis) Positive QRS concordance (R wave across chest leads) Negative QRS concordance (S wave across chest leads) Axis shift during arrhythmia

VT VT VT

VT VT may suggest VT VT (polymorphic)

* if patient >65 and previous MI or structural heart disease, then chance of VT > 95% ** May terminate VT in some patients with no

structural heart disease

Figure 27. Ventricular Tachycardia

Torsades de Pointes • polymorphic VT - "twisting of the points" • looks like usual VT except that QRS complexes "rotate around the baseline" changing their axis and amplitude • ventricular rate greater than 100, usually 150-300 • etiology: patients with prolonged QT intervals are predisposed congenital long QT syndromes drugs - e.g. Class IA (quinidine), Class III (sotalol), phenothiazines (TCAs), erythromycin, quinolones, antihistamines electrolyte disturbances - hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia nutritional deficiencies causing above electrolyte abnormalities • treatment: IV magnesium, temporary pacing, isoproterenol and correct underlying cause of prolonged QT, electrical cardioversion if hemodynamic compromise • •





..... ' ,

�'------.

Arrhythmias that May Present as a Wide ORS Tachycardia • Ventricular tachycardia • SVT with aberrant conduction

(rate related) • SVT with preexisting BBB or

nonspecific intraventricular conduction defect • AV conduction through a bypass tract in WPW patients during an atrial tachyarrhythmia (e.g. atrial flutter, atrial tachycardia) • Antidromic AVRT in WPW patients (see Pre·excitation Syndromes)

Figure 28. Torsades de Pointes

Ventricular Fibrillation (VFibj • chaotic ventricular arrhythmia, with very rapid irregular ventricular fibrillatory waves of varying morphology • terminal event, unless advanced cardiac life-support (ACLS) procedures are promptly initiated to maintain ventilation and cardiac output, and electrical defibrillation is carried out • most frequent cause of sudden death • refer to ACLS algorithm for complete therapeutic guidelines

Figure 29. Ventricular Fibrillation

Electrophysiology (EPS) Studies •



• •

invasive test used to better characterize arrhythmias provide useful information when ECG data are nondiagnostic or unobtainable bradyarrhythmias: sinus node dysfunction, atrioventricular (AV) block, and intraventricular conduction delay tachyarrhythmias: mainly used to map for possible ablation or to assess inducibility of ventricular tachycardia

Electrica l Pacing •

the decision to implant a pacemaker usually i s based on symptoms of a bradyarrhythmia or tachyarrhythmia in the setting of heart disease

Pacemaker I ndications • SA node dysfunction (most common): symptomatic bradycardia ± hemodynamic instability) common manifestations include: syncope, near syncope, transient lightheadedness, or severe fatigue •

Arrhythmias/Ischemic Hearl Disease (IHD)

Toronto Notes 2010 •



Cardiology and CV Surgery C21

SA node dysfunction is commonly caused by: intrinsic disease within the sinus node (e.g. idiopathic degeneration, fibrosis, ischemia, or surgical trauma), abnormalities in autonomic nervous system function, and drug effects AV nodal - infranodal block: Mobitz II, complete heart block

Pacing Techniques • temporary: transvenous (jugular, subclavian, femoral) or external pacing • permanent: transvenous into RA, apex of RV or both can sense and pace atrium, ventricle or both new generation rate responsive, able to respond to physiologic demand biventricular • nomenclature e.g. "VVIR" 1. chamber paced (atrium, ventricle, dual) 2. chamber sensed (atrium, ventricle, dual) 3. response to sensing (inhibit, trigger, dual (I&T» 4. programmability (e.g. rate responsive) 5. arrhythmia control (pace, shock, dual, none) •



=



Impla ntable Cardioverter Defibrillators (lCDs) • • • • •

sudden cardiac death (SCD) usually results from ventricular fibrillation (VFib), sometimes preceded by monomorphic or polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (VT) ICDs detect ventricular tachyarrhythmias and are highly effective in terminating VT / VFib and in aborting SCD several studies demonstrate mortality benefit vs. antiarrhythmics in 2° prevention (AVID, CASH, CIDS) benefit for 1° prevention of SCD in patients with ischemic & non-ischemic cardiomyopathy, depressed left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), prolonged QRS see Heart Failure, C32 for current treatment recommendations

Catheter Ablation Tech niques • radiofrequency (RF) energy: a low-voltage high-frequency form of electrical energy (similar to cautery). RF energy produces small, homogeneous, necrotic lesions approximately 5-7 mm in diameter and 3-5 mm in depth Indications • paroxysmal SVT AVNRT: accounts for more than half of all cases • accessory pathway (orthodromic reciprocating tachycardia): 30% of SVT re-entrant rhythm, with an accessory AV connection as the retrograde limb corrected by targeting the accessory pathway • atrial flutter: flutter focus in RA • atrial fibrillation: potential role for pulmonary vein ablation • ventricular tachycardia: commonly arises from the right ventricular outflow tract and less commonly originates in the inferoseptal left ventricle near the apex (note: majority of cases of VT are due to scarring from previous MI and cannot be ablated) •





Major Complications • approximately 1% of patients • death: 0.1-0.2% • cardiac: high grade AV block requiring permanent pacemaker, tamponade, pericarditis • vascular: hematoma, vascular injury, thromboembolism, TIA/ stroke • pulmonary: pulmonary embolism

Ischemic Heart Disease ( I H D) Epidemiology • commonest cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality • atherosclerosis and thrombosis are by far the most important pathogenetic mechanisms • male:female ratio 2:1 with all age groups included (Framingham study), 8:1 for age 70 • peak incidence of symptomatic IHD is age 50-60 (men) and 60-70 (women) • for primary prevention of ischemic heart disease, please see Family Medicine • risk factors: see Table 5 =

Systematic Review: Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators for Adults with Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:251·62 Purpose: To summarize the evidence on the benefits and harms of implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) in adutt patients with LV systolic dysfunction. Swdy Selection: Twelve random�ed, controlled trials (RCTs) (8,516 patients) that reported on mortality, and 76 obselVational studies (96,951 patients) thatexamined safety or effectiveness. Results: In adult patients with LV systolic dysfunction, 86% of whom had New York Heart Association class II or III symptoms, ICDs reduced all·cause mortality by 20% in the RCTs and by 46% in the obselVational studies. Death associated with implantation of ICDs occurred during 1 .2% of procedures. The frequency of post·implantation complications per 100 patient·years included 1.4 device malfunctions, 1.5 lead problems, and 0.6 site infection. Rates of inappropriate discharges per 100 patient·years ranged from 19.1 in RCTs to 4.9 in obselVational studies. Conclusions: Implantable cardioverter defibrillators are efficacious in reducing mortality in adult patients with LV systolic dysfunction, and this benefit extends to non·trial populations. Improved risk stratification tools to identify patients who are most likely to benefit from ICD are needed.

Ischemic Hearl Disease (IHD)

C22 Cardiology and CV Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 5. Risk Factors For Atherosclerotic Heart Disease Major Risk Factors

Minor Risk Factors

Smoking

Male, postmenopausal female

Diabetes mellitus (OM)

Obesity

Hypertension (HTN)

Sedentary lifestyle

Fami)y histOlY (FHx) of MI first degree male relative < 55 or first degree female relative < 60

Hyperhomocysteinemia

Hyperlipidemia

HTN



Hypercholesterolemia



+ + Macrophage influx + Oxidized LOC + Fatty streaks + Lipid core

Cigarettes

Endothelial injury

!

-------l.�

+ + Cutotines Smooth muscle proliferation + Fibrous cap Endothelial damage

-- Growth -------'J.� Ath oma 4(



Lumen narrowing

Foam cells

t

Rupture

I

t

Calcification

Figure 30. Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis

Chronic Stable Angina .....

' ,

�}-------,

Chronic stable angina is most often due to a fixed stenosis caused by an atheroma. Acute coronary syndromes are the result of plaque rupture.

Definition • symptom complex resulting from an imbalance between oxygen supply and demand in the myocardium • factors influencing supply luminal diameter (most important factor) duration of diastole hemoglobin 5a02 • factors influencing demand heart rate contractility wall stress • • • •

Canadian Cardiovascular Society (CCS) Functional Classification of Angina • Class I: ordinary physical activity (walking, climbing stairs) does not cause angina; angina with strenuous, rapid, or prolonged activity. • Class II: slight limitation of ordinary activity: angina brought at 75

HF very likely >450 >900 > 1 800

Limitations - Age, body habitus, renal function, pulmonary embolism

,.

'

Features of Heart Failure on CXR

HERB-B Heart enlargement (cardiothoracic ratio >0.50) Pleural Effusion Re-distribution (alveolar edema) Kerley B-lines Bronchiolar-alveolar cuffing

Hearl Failure/Myocardial Disease

C34 Cardiology and CV Surgery

Can the Clinical Examination Diagnose Left-Sided Heart Failure in Adults? JAMA 1 997; 277:1712-99 "The best findings for detecting increased filling pressure are jugular venous distention and radiographic redistribution." "The best findings for detecting systolic dysfunction are an abnormal apical impulse, radiographic cardiomegaly, G­ waves or LBBB on an electrocardiogram." "Diastolic dysfunction is difficult to diagnose but is associated with elevated blood pressure during heart failure."

"' , , �,-------, Chronic Treament of CHF ACE inhibitors' Beta blockers' ± Aldosterone antagonists' (if severe CHF) Diuretic ± Inotrope ± Antiarrythmic ± Anticoagulant •

= Mortality Benefit

"' ' , �}-------, Medications Contraindicated in CHF • NSAIDS - may increase BP • class 1/111 antiarrhythmics • Metformin - CII in severe HF • Thiazolidinediones - increase edema • cGMP phosphodiesterase inhibitors (eg. sildenafil) with B/L low BP

Toronto Notes 2010

• consider PA catheter to monitor pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) if patient is

unstable or a cardiac etiology is uncertain (PCWP >18 indicates likely cardiac etiology)

• mechanical ventilation as needed • rarely used, but potentially life-saving measures: • • •

intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) L or R ventricular assist device (LVAD / RVAD) cardiac transplant

Long Term Management (ACCIAHA 2005 Guidelines) Conservative Measures 1. Symptomatic measures: oxygen in hospital, bedrest, elevation of head of bed 2. Lifestyle measures (grade B evidence): diet, exercise, DM control, smoking cessation, decrease alcohol consumption, patient education, sodium and fluid restriction 3. Multidisciplinary heart failure clinics (grade B evidence): for management of individuals at higher risk, or with recent hospitalization Pharmacological Therapy 1. Vasodilators a. ACEls: standard of care - slow progression of LV dysfunction and improve survival all symptomatic patients functional class II-IV (grade A) all asymptomatic patients with LVEF 5.2 mmol / L •

5 . Inotropes: digoxin improves symptoms & decreases hospitalizations, no effect o n mortality • indications: patient in sinus rhythm and symptomatic on ACEI (grade A), or CHF and

atrial fibrillation (grade B)

• patients on digitalis glycosides may worsen if these are withdrawn 6. Anti-arrhythmic drugs: for use in CHF with arrhythmia • can use amiodarone, beta-blocker, or digitalis (grade B) 7. Anticoagulants: warfarin for prevention of thromboembolic events • prior thromboembolic event or atrial fibrillation (grade B) • possible benefit in other patients with LVEF 130 ms, LVEF 150 ms, high diuretic requirement • ICD: mortality benefit in 10 and 20 prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death prior MI, optimal medical therapy, LVEF

'" :z:

1 10

w

"" ::>

cz: ::>

'" !:l 50

'" 13 ""

CL

CL

110

'" f3

50

"" CL

50

30

30

30

10

10

10

TIME HEART SOUNOS:

HEART SOUNDS:

I 11111111111111

Sl

Figure 34. Hemodynamics of Aortic Stenosis Stenosis across the aortic valve results in the generation of a significant pressure gradi­ ent between the left ventricle and the aorta and a crescendo-decrescendo murmur during systolic contraction. The stenosis decreases the intensity of aortic valve closure hence diminishing S2.

TIME

TIME

S2

Figure 35. Hemodynamics o f Aortic Regurgitation Regurgitation across the aortic valve during diastole causes the aortic pressure to rapidly decrease and a decrescendo murmur can be heard at the onset of diastole (after S2 is audible). The presence of regurgitant blood from the aorta increases left-ventricular end­ diastolic volume.

HEART SOUNDS:

1IIII I 1

Sl

S2

Figure 36. Hemodynamics of Acute Mitral Regurgitation During systolic contraction, blood regurgi­ tates from the left ventricle into the left atri­ um across the incompetent mitral valve resulting in an audible holosystolic murmur between S 1 and S2. The portion of left ven­ tricular end diastolic volume that regurgitates into the left atrial myocardium increases left atrial pressures resulting in a tall V-wave.

C42 Cardiolo gy and CV Surgery

Valvular Hearl Disease/Pericardial Disease

Toronto Notes 2010

110 90

30

10

'----- TIME HEART SOUNDS:

S1

I 111111111111111111111111" III

S2 os

S1

S2

Figure 37. Hemodynamics of Mitral Stenosis First note that the left atrial pressure exceeds the left ventricular pressure during diastole due to mitral stenosis and the consequent generation of a pressure gradient across the left atrium and left ventricle. In diastole, the stenotic mitral valve opens which corresponds to the opening snap (OS) and the passage of blood across the mitral stenosis results in an audible decrescendo murmur. Left atrial contraction prior to S 1 increases the pressure gradient resulting in accentuation of the murmur before S 1 is audible.

Perica rdia l Disease Acute Pericarditis Etiology of Pericarditis/Pericardial Effusion • idiopathic is most common: usually presumed to be viral • infectious viral: Coxsackie virus A, B (most common), echovirus bacterial: S. pneumoniae, S. aureus TB fungal: histoplasmosis, blastomycosis • post-MI: acute (direct extension of myocardial inflammation, 1-7 days), Dressler's syndrome (autoimmune, 2-8 weeks) • post-cardiac surgery (e.g. CABG), other trauma • metabolic: uremia (common), hypothyroidism • neoplasm: Hodgkin's, breast, lung, renal cell carcinoma, melanoma • collagen vascular disease: SLE, polyarteritis, RA, scleroderma • vascular: dissecting aneurysm • other: drugs (e.g. hydralazine), radiation, infiltrative disease (sarcoid) • •

• •

'" ' ,

��------�

Acute Pericarditis Chest Pain Friction Rub ECG Changes

Signs and Symptoms • diagnostic triad: chest pain, friction rub, and ECG changes • pleuritic chest pain - alleviated by sitting up and leaning forward • pericardial friction rub - may be uni-, bi- or triphasic • ± fever, malaise Investigations • ECG - initially diffuse elevated ST segments ± depressed PR segment, the elevation in the ST segment is concave upwards --7 2-5 days later ST isoelectric with T wave flattening and inversion • CXR - normal heart size, pulmonary infiltrates • Echo - assess pericardial effusion Treatment • treat the underlying disease • anti-inflammatory agents (high dose NSAIDs / ASA, steroids if severe or recurrent); analgesics Prognosis • complications: recurrence, atrial arrhythmia, pericardial effusion, tamponade, constrictive pericarditis (uncommon)

Toronto Notes 2010

Cardiology and CV Surgery C43

Pericardia! Disease

Pericardial Effusion Etiology • transudative (serous) CHF, hypoalbuminemia / hypoproteinemia, hypothyroidism • exudative (serosanguinous or bloody) causes similar to the causes of acute pericarditis may develop acute effusion secondary to hemopericardium (trauma, post MI myocardial rupture, aortic dissection) • physiological consequences depend on type and volume of effusion, rate of effusion development, and underlying cardiac disease •





Signs and Symptoms • may be asymptomatic or similar to acute pericarditis • dyspnea, cough • extra-cardiac (esophageal / recurrent laryngeal nerve / tracheo-bronchial / phrenic nerve irritation) • JVP increased with dominant "x" descent • arterial pulse normal to decreased volume, decreased pulse pressure • auscultation: distant heart sounds ± rub

' , �}-------,

"'

Ewart's Sign Bronchial breathing and dullness to percussion at the lower angle of the left scapula in pericardial effusion due to effusion compressing left lower lobe of lung.

Investigations • ECG - low voltage, flat T waves • CXR - cardiomegaly, rounded cardiac contour • Echo (procedure of choice) - fluid in pericardial sac • pericardiocentesis - definitive method of determining transudate vs. exudate, identify infectious agents, neoplastic involvement Treatment • mild: frequent observation with serial echocardiograms, treat the cause, anti-inflammatory agents for inflammation • severe: may develop cardiac tamponade

Cardiac Tamponade Etiology • major complication of rapidly accumulating pericardial effusion; cardiac tamponade is a clinical diagnosis • any cause of pericarditis but especially trauma, malignancy, uremia, idiopathic, proximal aortic dissection with rupture

"'

' , ��------.

Classic quartet of tamponade: hypotension, increased JVP. tachycardia, pulsus paradoxus.

Pathophysiology • high intra-pericardial pressure � decreased venous return � decreased diastolic ventricular filling � decreased CO � hypotension & venous congestion Signs and Symptoms • tachypnea, dyspnea, shock • pulsus paradoxus (inspiratory fall in systolic BP >10 mmHg during quiet breathing) • JVP "x" descent only, absent "yU descent • hepatic congestion/ peripheral edema Investigations • ECG - electrical alternans (pathognomonic variation in R wave amplitude), low voltage • Echo - pericardial effusion, compression of cardiac chambers (RA and RV) in diastole • cardiac catheterization Treatment • pericardiocentesis - Echo- or ECG-guided • pericardiotomy • avoid diuretics and vasodilators (these decrease venous return to already under-filled RV � decrease LV preload � decrease CO) • fluid administration i.e. saline load may temporarily increase CO • treat underlying cause

"' ' , ��------. Beck's Triad: hypotension, increased JVp, muffled heart sounds.

"' , ,

��------.

DDx Pulsus Paradoxus • Constrictive pericarditis • Severe obstructive pulmonary disease (eg. asthma) • Tension Pneumothorax • Pulmonary embolus • Cardiogenic shock

C44 Cardiology and CV Surgery

Pericardial Disease/Congenital Cardiac Disease/Vascular Disease

Toronto Notes 2010

Constrictive Pericarditis Etiology • chronic pericarditis resulting in fibrosed, thickened, adherent, and l or calcified pericardium • any cause of acute pericarditis may result in chronic pericarditis • major causes are idiopathic, post- infectious (viral, TB), radiation, post-cardiac surgery, uremia, MI Signs and Symptoms • dyspnea, fatigue, palpitations • abdominal pain • may mimic CHF (especially right-sided HF) ascites, hepatosplenomegaly, edema • increased JVP, Kussmaul's sign (paradoxical increase in JVP with inspiration), Friedreich's sign (prominent "y" descent) • BP usually normal (and usually no pulsus paradoxus) • precordial examination: ± pericardial knock (early diastolic sound) • see Table 15 for differentiation from cardiac tamponade •

Investigations • ECG - non-specific: low voltage, flat T wave, ± AF • CXR - pericardial calcification, effusions • Echo I CT I MRI - pericardial thickening • Cardiac catheterization - equalization of end-diastolic chamber pressures (diagnostic) Treatment • medical: diuretics, salt restriction • surgical: pericardiectomy (only if refractory to medical therapy) • prognosis best with idiopathic or infectious cause and worst in post-radiation with death resulting from heart failure Table 1 5 . Differentiation of Constrictive Pericarditis vs. Cardiac Tamponade Characteristic

Constrictive Pericarditis

JVP

"y" > "x"

Tamponade "x" > "y"

Kussmaul's sign

Present

Absent

Pulsus paradoxus

Uncommon

Always

Pericardial knock

Present

Absent

Hypotension

Variable

Severe

Congenita l Ca rdiac Disease • see Pediatrics, P18. Note: more adults than children now live with congenital heart defects

VASCULAR DISEAS E ��------� DIFFERENTIAL OF CLAUDICATION Vascular • Atherosclerotic disease • Vasculitis (e.g. Buerger's disease, Takayasu's arteritis) • Diabetic neuropathy • Venous disease (e.g. DVT, varicose veins) • Popliteal entrapment syndrome Neurologic • Neurospinal disease (e.g. spinal stenosis) • Reflex sympathetic dystrophy MSK • Osteoarthritis • Rhematoid arthritis/connective tissue disease • Remote trauma

Peripheral Arterial Disease Acute Arterial Occ l usion/Insufficiency

-------

Definition • acute occlusion I rupture of a peripheral artery • urgent management required: >6 hours results in irreversible ischemia and myonecrosis • lower extremity > upper extremity; femoropopliteal > aortoiliac Etiology • embolus cardiac embolus (80-90%): history of MI 2x normal lumen size) ascending thoracic aortic aneurysms • symptomatic, enlarging, diameter >5.5 cm or >2x normal lumen size, >4.5 cm and aortic regurgitation (annuloaortic ectasia); ;,,5 cm in Marfan syndrome • contraindications: life expectancy 80 y, treatment with indapamide, with or without perindopril, showed a trend towards reduced relative risk of fatal or non-fatal stroke

UKHDS (UKPDS)

BMJ 1 998; 31 7:703-13

Hypertensive patients with DM and tight BP control at < 1 50(85 mmHg by use of ACEi or beta-blocker reduced risk of diabetic complications and death related to diabetes and reduced risk of end-organ damage

VALUE

Lancet 2004; 363:2022-2031

Valsartan group had higher incidence of MI than amlodipine group, whereas amlodipine had a higher incidence of new onset diabetes

JUPITER

NEJM 2008; 359:21 95-2207

With low to normal LDL-C and elevated hsCRp, treatment with rosuvastatin significantly reduced major cardiovascular events. NNT with rosuvastatin for 2 years to prevent one primary endpoint 95

WHI

JAMA 2002; 288:321-333

Estrogen plus progestin therapy is associated with increased risks of cardiovascular disease and breast cancer but decreased risks of hip fracture and colorectal cancer in postmenopausal women

HYPERTENSION

MISCELLANEOUS

=

References Ischemic Heart Disease Cannon CP., et al. Intensive versus modernte lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. NEJM 2004;350115):1 495·504. Lindahl, B., et al. Marl90% ) drugs are involved in drug interactions due to competitive binding; however, plasma protein binding interactions are rarely of clinical significance •

• • •





Depots • a body compartment (i.e. a type of tissue) where drug molecules tend to be stored and released slowly over a long period of time • fat is a depot for very lipid soluble drugs (e.g. diazepam) • some oil-based medications are injected 1M for slow release (e.g. depot medroxyprogesterone; depot risperidone q2wks) Barriers (relative) • body structures that limit or prevent diffusion of drug molecules include: the placenta or blood brain barrier (BBB; a barrier composed of tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells and astrocytes) need to consider dosing route if drugs are meant to cross these barriers many of these barriers result, in part, from the activity of multidrug efflux pumps like P-glycoprotein, which serve as a natural defense mechanism against drugs and xenobiotics •

• •

Metabolism (Biotransformation) • • • •

definition: chemical transformation of a drug i n vivo sites of biotransformation: liver (main), GI tract, lung, plasma, kidney goal is to make compounds more hydrophilic to enhance renal elimination as a result of the process of biotransformation: a pro-drug may be activated to an active drug (e.g. nitroglycerin to nitric oxide) a drug may be changed to another active metabolite (e.g. codeine to morphine) a drug may be changed to a toxic metabolite (e.g. halogenated alkenes to toxins) a drug may be inactivated (e.g. procaine to PABA) •



• •

Drug Metabolizing Pathways • phase I (P450) reactions small molecular changes introduce or unmask polar chemical groups on a parent compound to increase its water solubility (e.g. oxidation-reduction, hydrolysis, hydroxylation); the change in the partition coefficient is typically minimal (demethylation, deamination, hydroxylation) compared to phase II, and often phase I places a nice polar 'handle' on a lipophilic drug for phase II mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes found in the endoplasmic reticulum or cell cytoplasm product of the reaction can be excreted or undergo phase II reactions • phase II (conjugation) reactions conjugation with large polar endogenous substrates (e.g. glucuronidation, glutathione conjugation, sulfation) dramatically increases water solubility and renal elimination •









Factors Affecting Drug Biotransformation • genetic polymorphism of metabolizing enzymes individuals may metabolize drugs faster or slower depending on their genotype, which may lead to toxicity or ineffectiveness of a drug at a normal dose genetic diversity in CYP enzymes may result in different phenotypes amongst enzymes using the same pathway, which include poor, intermediate, extensive or ultrarapid metabolizers (e.g. tamoxifen and codeine prodrugs are 2D6 substrates, or warfarin is a 2C9 substrate) enzyme inhibition may sometimes be due to competition from other drugs CYP3A4 inhibition leads to an increased concentration of the substrate drug (e.g. erythromycin, ketoconazole, indinavir and grapefruit juice inhibit CYP3A4 and predispose a patient to drug toxicity from other drugs metabolized by it) •







. ' Special .

.

.

.

.

consideration must be given In dosing patients in hypoalbuminemic states to prevent drug toxicity. Highly protein-bound drugs will exert a greater effect in these patients than in healthy individuals because of higher levels of free drug. Examples of highly protein-binding drugs: warfarin, digoxin, diazepam, furosemide, amitriptyline.

.... ' , ��------. Main Factors Governing Penetration of BBB 1. Small molecular size 1 < 500 Daltons) 2. High lipid solubility 3. Active transport mechanisms le.g. Pgp multidrug efflux pump)

....

' , ��------.

Common Drugs that Cross BBB • General anesthetics • Alcohol • Nicotine • Caffeine • L-dopa • Narcotics • Psychotropic medications

CP6

'"

Phannacokinetics (ADME)

Clinical Phannacology

' , .�------.

Cytochrome P450 System The P450 enzymes are a superfamily of heme proteins that are grouped into families and subfamilies according to their amino acid sequence. These proteins are responsible for the metabolism of drugs, chemicals and other substances. Nomenclature: CYP3A4 "CYP" = cytochrome P450 protein 1 st = family letter = subfamily 2nd = isoform

Toronto Notes 2010

• enzyme induction

certain medications enhance gene transcription leading to an increase in the activity of a metabolizing enzyme a single drug may stimulate multiple P450 isoenzymes simultaneously a drug may induce its own metabolism (e.g. carbamazepine) or that of other drugs (e.g. phenobarbital can induce the metabolism of OCP and bilirubin) by inducing the P450 enzymes system other potent enzyme inducers: phenytoin, dexamethasone liver dysfunction caused by disease (such as hepatitis, alcoholic liver, biliary cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma) may decrease drug metabolism, but this may not be clinically significant due to the liver's reserve capacity renal disease may result in decreased drug clearance if it is cleared by the kidneys extremes of age (neonates or elderly) have reduced biotransformation capacity, and doses should be adjusted accordingly nutrition insufficient protein and fatty acid intake decrease P450 biotransformation vitamin and mineral deficiencies may also impact metabolizing enzymes alcohol: while acute alcohol ingestion inhibits 2El, chronic consumption can induce this same enzyme and increase the risk of hepatocellular damage by increasing the generation of the toxic metabolite of acetaminophen smoking can induce lA2, thus increasing the metabolism of some drugs (e.g. smokers may require higher doses of theophylline, which is metabolized by lA2) •

• •





• • •



The CYP1 , CYP2, and CYP3 families me­ tabolize most drugs in humans. The most important isoforms are CYP3A4 and CYP2D6; therefore, anticipate drug interactions if prescribing drugs using these enzymes.

'" ' , .}-------, The very young and the very old are very sensitive to the actions of drugs.

Some Common Examples of P450 Inhibitors and Inducers (see www.drug-interactions.com for a comprehensive list)

P450 inhibitors "MINCE" Metronidazole Isoniazid, Indinavir Naringin or bergamottin (bioflavenoid in grapefruit) Ciprofloxacin, Cimetidine Erythromycin (macrolides) P450 inducers Phenytoin Phenobarbital Rifampin Smoking







E l i m i nation • definition: removal o f drug from the body

Routes of Drug Elimi nation • kidney (main organ of elimination) two mechanisms for renal elimination 1. glomerular filtration - a passive process, so that only the free drug fraction can be filtered - drug filtration rate depends on GFR, degree of protein binding of drug, and size of drug 2. tubular secretion - an active process that is saturable, allowing both protein-bound and free drug fractions to be excreted - two distinct transport mechanisms for weak acids (e.g. penicillin, salicylic acid, probenecid, chlorothiazide) and weak bases (e.g. quinine, quaternary ammonium compounds such as choline) - drugs may competitively block mutual secretion if both use the same secretion system (e.g. probenecid was historically used to reduce the excretion of penicillin, thereby increasing its levels) tubular reabsorption: drugs can be passively reabsorbed back to the systemic circulation, countering elimination mechanisms elimination rate depends on renal function, which decreases with age and is affected by many disease states; renal function is assessed clinically using serum creatinine (Cr) levels thus, in those with renal impairment, dosage adjustments may be required for medications affected by renal elimination • stool some drugs and metabolites are actively excreted in the bile (e.g. corticosteroids) or directly into the intestinal tract from systemic circulation enterohepatic circulation • counteracts stool elimination, and thus can substantially prolong the drug's duration in the body • some glucuronic acid conjugates are excreted in the bile and hydrolyzed in the intestines by bacteria; this results in the drug being released in its original form and allows for systemic reabsorption • lungs elimination of anesthetic gases and vapours by exhalation • saliva saliva concentrations of some drugs parallel their plasma levels (e.g. rifampin) •





Avoid toxicity from drug or metabolite accumulation by adjusting a drug's dosage according to the elimination characteristics of the patient (e.g. in renal impairment).







'"

' , .}-------,

The Cockcroft-Gault Equation can estimate creatinine clearance (CrCI) in adults 20 years of age and older:

for males CrCI (mUmin) = 111 40 - age in yrs) x Weight (kg!) x 1 .2 SCr (IlmollL) • for females, multiply above equation x 0.85





Phannacokinetics (ADME)

Toronto Notes 2010

Pharmacokinetics Calculations

Clinical Phannacology

CP7

' ,

...

��------,

For most drugs, it takes 5 half-lives to reach steady state with repeated dosing or to eliminate a drug once dosing is stopped.

• definition: the quantitative description o f the rates o f the various steps o f drug disposition,

i.e. how drugs move through the body

• the pharmacokinetic principles of ADME (absorption, distribution, metabolism and

elimination) can be graphically represented on the concentration vs. time (see Figure 2)

Time-Course of Drug Action • many kinetic parameters are measured using IV dosing, such that absorption is zero and distribution for most drugs is rapid; thus elimination is the main process being measured the concentration axis is converted to a loglo concentration to allow for easier mathematical calculations (see Figure 3)

1. Absorption Phase 2. Peak Absorption 3. Post·Absorption



Half-Life (t 1/2 ) • definition: time taken for the serum drug level to fall to 50% during elimination • typically takes five half-lives to reach steady state with repeated dosing, or for drug elimination once dosing is stopped • only applies when drug exhibits first order kinetics 3.3

# of HaH Lives Concentration

50%

75%

87.5%

this

Time to Peak Absorption

Figure 2. Time Course of Drug Action

90%

Steady State • the concentration at which the same amount of drug entering the system is eliminated from the system • time is important for therapeutic monitoring since drug levels are reliable only when the drug has reached this steady state (see Figure 4) • special situations use a loading dose for drugs with a long half-life and when there is clinical need to rapidly increase the blood concentration use continuous infusion for drugs with a very short half-life and when there is need for a long term effect and multiple or frequently repeated doses are too inconvenient (e.g. nitroprusside, insulin, unfractionated heparin) •

/ Co

' :

.. :.::.

c::::>

Antagonist binding

0

(]

o



0

.,�

c::::>

Antagonist

0 _

D

Receptor

Antagonist binding

Agonist cannot bind receptor which is irreversibly blocked by antagonist

Dose of Agonist A --> 0 increasing dose of irreversible antagonist. With one dose of antagonist, increasing dose of agonist does not completely overcome antagonism, as seen in B. Eventually with high enough antagonist concentrations, no amount of agonist can elicit a response, as seen in D.

Figure 9. The Log Dose-Response Curve for Non-Competitive Irreversible Antagonism

IRREVERSIBLE BINDING

3) Non-competitive i rreversible binding Agonist

Increased concentration of agonist overcomes antagonist binding competition

REVERSIBLE BINDING

Antagonist binding

2) Competitive irreversible binding Agonist

A

'" � o

Antagonist bound to alternative site prevents agonist from binding to receptor ALLOSTERIC CHANGE

Figure 7. Mechanism of Agonists and Antagonists

Effectiveness and Safety Effectiveness • EDso (Effective Dose - 50%): the dose of a drug needed to cause a therapeutic effect in 50% of a test population of subjects Safety • LDso (Lethal Dose - 50%): the dose of a drug needed to cause death in 50% of a test population of subjects (usually rodents) • TDso (Toxic Dose - 50%): the dose needed to cause a harmful effect in 50% of a test population of subjects

,,

'

,

��------.

The two most clinically relevant properties of any drug are effectiveness and safety.

CPI0

Clinical Phannacology Phannacodynamicstrherapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM)/Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs)

Toronto Notes 2010

Therapeutic I ndex (TI)--------� Drugs with a narrow TI have a high likelihood of causing toxicity and need close therapeutic monitoring.

• defined as TDso/ EDso (see Figure 10) • reflects the "margin of safety" for a drug - the likelihood of a high dose causing serious

toxicity or death

• the larger the TI, the safer a drug (e.g. amoxicillin has a wide TI, thus therapeutic

monitoring is not needed, whereas warfarin has a narrow TI and must have accurate therapeutic monitoring) • factors that can change the EDso, LDso or TDso presence of interacting drugs changes in drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination •



Efficacy

1 00%





Toxicity

1 00%

Tox

� 50%



50%

0::

0::

1 0% ���

� Log Dose

__ __

ED50

TD50 Log Dose

The therapeutic index (TDsoiEDso) is a measure of the margin of safety of a given drug .

-L __

__

Drug A has a much narrower therapeutic index than Drug B. The dose of Drug A required to achieve a 1 00% therapeutic response will be toxic in 50% of patients. For Drug B, this is only 1 0%.

Figure 1 0. ED50• TD50• and the Therapeutic Index (TI)

Therapeutic D rug Monitoring (TDM) • definition: using serum drug concentration data to optimize drug therapy (e.g. dose

adjustment, monitor compliance)

��------�

Examples of drugs whose levels need to be monitored: warfarin (via INR levels), digoxin, lithium.

• TDM is often used for drugs that have

narrow therapeutic index (TI) unpredictable dose-response relationship significant consequences associated with therapeutic failure or toxicity wide inter-patient pharmacokinetic variability • serum drug samples are usually taken when the drug has reached steady state (e.g. trough level - the lowest level before the next dose), and thus, before the next dose • • •



Adverse D rug Reactions (ADRs) • classification of adverse drug reactions

type A: undesirable normal / augmented responses to the drug (>80% of all ADRs) type B: reaction unrelated to the known pharmacological actions of the drug • Additional adverse drug reaction categories type C (chronic effects), type D (delayed effects), type E (end-of-treatment effects), and type F (failure of therapy) •

.... ' � ��------� In Canada, an estimated 1 .6% of patients admitted to hospitals experience a serious adverse drug reaction.





Table 3. Comparison of characteristics of type A and type B reactions Tvpe A

Type B

Predictable extension of drug's pharmacologic effect

Unpredictable

Usually dose dependent

Rarely dose dependent

High morbidity

Low morbidity

Low mortality (except heroin 00)

High mortality (some exceptions)

Responds to dose reduction

Responds to drug withdrawal

Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs)Nariability in Drug Response

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Pharmacology

CPU

Categories of Type A • side effects: excessive but characteristic pharmacological effect from USUAL dose of a drug

(e.g. beta-blockers causing bradycardia; morphine causing respiratory depression; acetaminophen causing hepatitis) • overdose / toxicity: exaggerated but characteristic pharmacological effect from SUPRA­ therapeutic dose • teratogen: drug may produce developmental defects in fetus (not always in a dose-related manner)

....

Categories of Type B • idiosyncratic: uncharacteristic response to drug, unrelated to pharmacology

(e.g. sulfa-containing medications causing toxic epidermal necrolysis)

• pseudo allergenic: mimics immune-mediated reaction • allergic / immune-mediated: does not occur on first exposure (up to 7 d), immediate with

subsequent exposure, may occur with low doses, often resolves within 3-4 days of discontinuation

Approach to Suspected ADRs • history and physical examination: signs and symptoms of the reaction (e.g. rash, fever,

• • • • •

hepatitis, anaphylaxis, etc.), timing, risk factors, DETAILED medication history including all drugs and timing, dechallenge (response when drug is removed) and rechallenge (response when drug is given again) check with literature, Health Canada and FDA; contact the pharmaceutical company differentiate between drug therapy vs. disease pathophysiology treatment: stop the drug, supportive care, symptomatic relief Canadian Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring Program: http: // www.hc-sc.gc.ca / dhp-mps / medeff/ report-declaration/ index_e.html report all suspected ADRs that are: 1 ) unexpected; 2) serious; or 3) reactions to recently marketed drugs (on the market 48h, >600 mgl24h and with MAOIs



Minimal experience outside the hospital setting



Usually for stable pain, especially in patients with GI dysfunction

Opioid Analgesics/Common Drug Endings/References

Toronto Notes 2010 Table 6. Opioid Equivalent Doses (continued)

Route Oral (mg)

IV (mg)

Dolophine ,.

20

10

• Long, variable ha�·lile, which may complicate titration • Better used lor withdrawal/abstinence therapy

Levodromoran ,.

4

2

• Long ha�·lile with relatively short dosing interval

Generic Name

Proprietary Name

Methadone

Levorphanol • • • • • •

Comments

when converting from one opioid to another. use 50·75% of the equivalent dose to allow for incomplete cross·tolerance rapid titration and pm use may be required to ensure effective analgesia for the first 24 hours dose equivalencies provided in the above table are approximate; individual patients vary the opioids often used to manage mild to moderate pain include codeine, hydrocodone, and oxycodone moderate to severe pain is often managed using morphine, hydromorphone, oxycodone, fentanyl, methadone, or levorphanol note that usual starting therapeutic doses are lower than those listed above

Titrating Opioid Analgesics with Continuous Opioid I nfusion • pain i s most effectively managed using a combination o f the basal/ continuous rate plus

PRN bolus / rescue / breakthrough doses

• at the initiation of the infusion, a loading dose of 2-5 times the hourly rate may be

required for significant pain

• minimum 8 hours required for a new rate to reach steady state, the basal / continuous rate



should be increased no sooner than 8 hours after the last basal increase - the preferable interval is 24 hours between basal increases in the interim, use PRN doses - nurse administered or patient controlled analgesia (PCA) to provide rapid response to the patient's need for pain relief a basis for future increases of the basal rate rescue /breakthrough doses are equal to 10% of the 24-hour rate 24 hours after the last basal rate adjustment, calculate the total opioid dose in those 24 hours (basal rate + PRN doses); divide the total by 24 to reach the new hourly rate when the basal rate is increased, the rescue /breakthrough dose is changed proportionately to maintain that dose at 10% of the 24-hour dose •



• • •

Common D rug Endings Table 7. Common Drug Endings Ending

Category

Example

-alii

Erectile dysfunction

sildenalil

-ane

Inhaled general anesthetic

halothane

-azepam

Benzodiazepine

lorazepam

-azole

Antifungal

ketoconazole

-0101

�-Blocker

propanolol

-pril

ACE inhibitor

captopril

-terol

�z agonist

albuterol

·tidine

Hz agonist

cimetidine

-tropin

Pituitary hormone

somatotropin

-zosin

G,

prazosin

antagonist

Note: These are some drug endings, but there are exceptions to the rule e.g. methimazole

References Baker GR, Norton PG, Flintoft V et al. The Canadian Adverse Events Study: the incidence of adverse events among hospital patients in Canada. CMAJ 2004; 170:1 678-86. Canadian Adverse Drug Reaction Monitoring Program ICADRMP) Adverse Reaction Database http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/medeff/databasdorvindex-e.html Hardman JG and Limbird LR leds) 11 996). Goodman and Gilman's the Phannacological Basis of Therapeutics 19th ed). McGraw-Hili, New York. Hardy B, Bedard M 12002). Serum Drug Concentration Monitoring. In: Compendium of Phannaceuticals and Speciatties 2002. Repchinsky C led.). Canadian Phannacists Association, Ottawa. Kalant H and Roschlau W leds1 11 9991. Principles of Medical Pharmacology 16th ed.l. Oxford University Press, New York. Katzung BG ledI 12001). Basic and Clinical Pharmacology 18th ed.). McGraw-Hili Companies, New York. Rang H, Dale M, Ritter J leds) 1 1 9991. Phannacology 14th ed.l. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh. Lewis, T. 120041 Using the NO TEARS tool for medication review. BMJ. 329174631:434.

Clinical Pharmacology

CPIS

CP16

Clinical Phannacoiogy

uVoteg

Toronto Notes 2010

D

Dermatology Janice Bacher, Erin McFadden and Emily Notman, chapter editors Aseem Bishnoi and Grace Yeung, associate editors Amy Shafey, EBM editor Dr. Perla Lansang and Dr. Neil Shear, staff editors

Introduction to Skin

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Skin Anatomy Skin Function

Definitions

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Pri mary Morph ological Lesions Secondary Morphological Les ions Other Morphological Lesions Patterns and Distribution

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations .

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Infections

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22

Bacterial I nfections Su p e rficial Skin ( E piderm a l ) Deeper S k i n ( Dermal) Common H a i r Fo l l icle I nfections Sexually Tra nsm itted I nfections Dermatophytoses Viral I nfections Yeast I nfections Pa rasitic I nfections

Pre-Malignant Skin Conditions

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Leukopla kia

Common Skin lesions

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5 Malignant Skin Tumours

Cysts Fi brous Lesions Hyperke ratotic Lesions Vascular Lesions P i g m e nted Lesions Miscellaneous Lesions

Heritable Disorders Acneiform Eruptions

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Basal Cell Carci noma Cutaneous T-cell Lymphoma M a l i g n a n t M elanoma Squamous Cell Carc i n o m a

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Ac ne Vu lgaris/Common Ac ne Perioral Dermatitis Rosacea

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Ichthyosis Vu lga ris Neu rofi bromatosis Viti ligo

Skin Manifestations of Systemic Disease Dermatitis (Eczema)

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Asteatotic Dermatitis Atopic Dermatitis Contact Dermatitis Dyshid rotic Dermatitis N u m m u l a r Derm atitis Lichen S i m p l ex C h ronicus Seborrheic Dermatitis Stasis Dermatitis

Nails and Disorders of the Nail Apparatus

Papulosquamous Diseases

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Lichen Planus Pityriasis Rosea Psoriasis .

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B u l lous Pem p h igoid Pe m p h i g us Vu lga ris Dermatitis H e rpetiformis Porphyria Cutanea Ta rda .

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H a i r G rowth N o n-Scarring ( N o n-Cicatricial) Alopecia Scarring (Cicatrici a l ) Alopecia

Pediatric Exanthems

Erythema M u ltiforme ( E M ) , Stevens-Johnson Syn d ro m e (SJS) and Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TE N ) D r u g Hypersensitivity Syndrome Exa nthematous E r u ptions Fixed Drug E r u ption Photosens itivity E ru ptions Serum Sickness- Like Reaction Angioedema Urticaria

Toronto Notes 2010

N a i l C h a n ges S u rface C h a n ges Colour Changes Local C h a n g es

Alopecia (Hair loss)

Vesiculobullous Diseases

Drug Eruptions

Auto i m m u n e Disorders E n docri ne Disorders H IV M a l i g n a n cy Others

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Erythema Nodosum

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Pruritus

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Wou nds and Ulcers

Common Medications

To pical Steroids Su nscreens a n d Preventative Thera py Dermatologic Thera pies

References

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Dennatology D1

02 Oennatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Introduction to Skin

I ntrod uction to S kin Skin Anatomy A

arrector pili muscle

B

���: 1 em Diameter

Flat Lesion

Macule (e.g. freckle)

Patch (e.g . vitiligo)

Raised Superficial Lesion

Papule (e.g. wart)

Plaque (e.g. psoriasis)

Palpable Deep (dermal or subcutaneous)

Nodule (e.g. dermatofibroma)

Tumour (e.g. lipoma)

Elevated Fluid-filled Lesions

Vesicle {e.g. herpes simplex virus (HSV))

Bulla (e.g. bullous pemphigoid)

Secondary Morphological Lesions Defin ition • develop during the evolutionary process of skin disease, or are created by manipulation or complication of primary lesion (e.g. rubbing, scratching, infection) • crust: dried fluid (serum, blood, or purulent exudate) originating from a lesion (e.g. impetigo) scale: excess keratin (e.g. seborrheic dermatitis) • fissure: a linear slit-like cleavage of the skin • excoriation: a scratch mark • lichenification: thickening of the skin and accentuation of normal skin markings (e.g. chronic atopic dermatitis) • xerosis: pathologic dryness of skin (xeroderma) , conjunctiva (xerophthalmia), or mucous membranes • atrophy: histological decrease in size and number of cells or tissues resulting in thinning or depression of the skin •

Other Morphological Lesions • comedones: collection of sebum and keratin

open comedo (blackhead) closed comedo (whitehead) • purpura: extravasation of blood into dermis resulting in hemorrhagic lesions; non-blanchable • petechiae: small pinpoint purpura ecchymoses: large flat purpura, "bruise" • •



",, '

Describe a Lesion with SCALDA S ize C olour (e.g. hyperpigmented, hypopigmented, erythematous) A rrangement (e.g. solitary, linear, reticulated, grouped, herpetiform) L esion morphology (see Table 1 ) D istribution (e.g. dermatomal, intertriginous, symmetrical! asymmetrical, follicular) A Iways check hair, nails, mucous membranes and intertriginous areas

04 Dennatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Definitions/Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Problems

• telangiectasia: dilated superficial blood vessels; blanchable • scar: replacement fibrosis of dermis and subcutaneous tissue (hypertrophic or atrophic) • wheal: a special form of papule or plaque that is blanchable and transient, formed by

edema in the dermis (e.g. urticaria)

Patterns and Distribution • • • • • • • • • • •

acral: relating to the hands and feet (e.g. hand, foot and mouth disease) annular lesions: ring shaped e.g. granuloma annulare follicular lesions: involving hair follicles (e.g. folliculitis) guttate lesions: "drop-like" lesions found on the skin (e.g. guttate psoriasis) Koebner phenomenon: isomorphic response, appearance of lesions at an injury site (e.g. molluscum, lichen planus, psoriasis, warts) morbilliform: macules and papules (e.g. measles) reticular lesions: lesions following a net-like pattern (e.g. livedo reticularis) satellite lesions: lesions scattered outside of primary lesion (e.g. candida diaper dermatitis) serpignous lesions: lesions following a snake-like pattern (e.g. cutaneous larva migrans) target (iris) lesions: concentric ring lesions (like a dartboard, e.g. erythema multiforme) other descriptive terms: discrete, clustered, linear, confluent, dermatitic

Differentia l Diagnoses of Common Presentations Table 2 . Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Problems

b

Lesion

Infectious

Inflammatory

DrugfToxin

Miscellaneous

Discrete Red Papule

Folliculitis Furuncle Scabies

Acne vulgaris Lichen planus Rosacea Psoriasis Urticaria

Bites/stings

Vascular: hemangioma, pyogenic granuloma Other: dermatofibroma, milaria rubra

Red Scales

Pityriasis rosea Secondary syphilis Tinea

Dermatitis (atopic, contact, Gold nummular, seborrheic) Discoid lupus Lichen planus Psoriasis

I

Important Dermatological Emergencies Urticaria Angioedema Steven Johnson SyndromelToxic Epidermal Necrolysis Toxic Shock Syndrome (Staph or Strep) Severe pruritis Necrotizing Fasciitis Drug-induced erythroderma Herpes zoster Varicella Meningococcemia Insect/spider bite

Post·infiammatory hyper'pigmentation

Brown Macule

UV Radiation: actinic/solar lentigo, freckle (ephelide)

Neoplastic: mycosis fungoides

Congenital: cafe·au-Iait spots, congenital nevus, epidermaVjunctional nevus Neoplasia: lentigo maligna, malignant melanoma, pigmented BCC Melasma/chloasma ("mask of pregnancy")

Vesicle

Cat-Scratch disease Acute contact dermatitis Dyshidrotic eczema Impetigo Viral: HSV, zoster, varicella, molluscum, coxsackie, scabies

Bullae

Bullous impetigo

Acute dermatitis EM/SJS/TEN Lupus erythematosus

Fixed drug eruption

Autoimmune: bullous pemphigoid, pemphigus vulgaris Dther: dermatitis herpetiformis, porphyria cutanea tarda

Pustule

Candida Dermatophyte Impetigo Sepsis Varicella

Acne vulgaris Rosacea Dyshidrotic eczema Pustular folliculitis Pustular psoriasis

Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (usually secondary to drug reaction)

Other: hidradenitis suppurativa

Oral Ulcer

Aspergillosis CMV Coxsackie Cryptococcosis HSV/HZV HIV, TB, Syphilis

Allergic stomatitis EM/SJS/TEN Lichen planus Seronegatives, SLE Recurrent aphthous stomatitis

Chemotherapy Radiation therapy

Autoimmune: pemphigus vulgaris Congenital: XX'( Hematologic: sickle cell disease Neoplasia: BCC, SCC

Skin Ulcer

Plague Syphilis TB Tularemia

RA, SLE, vasculitis Ulcerative colitis (pyoderma gangrenosum)

Dther: dermatits herpetiformis, porphyria cutanea tarda

Autoimmune: necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum (e.g. DM) Congenital: XXY Hematologic: sickle cell disease Neoplasia: SCC Vascular: arterial, neurotropic, pressure, venous, aphthous, leukoplakia, traumatic

Toronto Notes 2010

Dermatology D5

Common Skin Lesions

Common S kin Lesions Cysts Table 3. Cysts

Clinical Presentation

Epidermal Cyst (Sebaceous cyst)

Pilar (Trichelemmal) Cyst

Dermoid Cyst

Ganglion Cyst

Milium (milia pi)

Round, yellow/flesh coloured, slow growing, mobile, firm, fluctuant, nodule or tumour

Multiple, hard, varying sized nodules under the scalp, lacks central punctum

Most commonly found at lateral third of eyebrow or midline under nose

Usually solitary, rubbery, translucent; a clear gelatinous viscous fluid may be extruded

1-2 mm superficial. white to yellow subepidennal papules occuring on eyelids, cheeks, and forehead at sites of trauma and within pilosebaceous follicles

Thick walled cyst lined with stratified squamous epithelium and filled with dense keratin Idiopathic Post-trauma

Rare, congenital hamartomas, which arise from inclusion of epidennis along embryonal cleft closure lines creating a thick walled cyst filled with dense keratin

Cystic lesion that originates from joint or tendon sheath, called a mucous cyst when found on fingertip Associated with osteoarthritis

Small epidennoid cyst, primarily arising from pluripotential cells in epidermal or adnexal epithelium Secondarily from blistering, ulceration, trauma, topical corticosteroid atrophy, or cosmetic procedures

2,d most common cutaneous cyst F>M

Rare

Older age

Any age, 40-50% of infants

If nasal midline, risk of extentsion into CNS

Stable

In newboms, spontaneously resolves in first 4 weeks of life

Excision

Drainage ± steroid injection if painful Compression daily for 6 weeks Excision if bothersome

Incision and expression of contents Laser ablation and electrodesiccation Multiple facial milia responds to topical retinoid therapy

Pathophysiology Epithelial cells displaced into dennis, epidermal lining becomes filled with keratin and lipid-rich debris May be post-traumatic

Epidemiology

Most common cutaneous cyst Youth - mid age

Clinical Course Central punctum may Rupture causes pain and inflammation rupture (foul, cheesy odour, creamy colour) and produce inflammatory reaction Increase in size and number over time, especially in pregnancy Management

Excise completely before it becomes infected

Excision

Fibrous Lesions DERMATOFIBROMA Clinical Presentation • button-like, firm dermal papule or nodule with normal to red-brown colouring • majority are asymptomatic but may be pruritic and / or tender • site: legs > arms > trunk • dimple sign: lateral compression causes dimpling of the lesion Pathophysiology • benign tumour due to fibroblast proliferation in dermis Etiology • unknown; often associated with history of minor trauma (e.g. shaving) or insect bites Epidemiology • adults, F>M Differential Diagnosis • dermatofibrosarcoma protruberans, malignant melanoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, blue nevus Investigations • biopsy if there is any doubt about the diagnosis Management • no treatment required • excision or cryosurgery if bothersome

06 Oennatology

"

Common Skin Lesions

' ,

9�------�

Skin tags are also known as . . . • Acrochordons • Fibroepithelial polyps • Soft fibromas • Pedunculated lipofibromas • Cutaneous papillomas

Toronto Notes 2010

SKIN TAGS Clinical Presentation • small (1-10 mm), soft, skin-coloured or darker pedunculated papule or polyp • sites: eyelids, neck, axillae, inframammary, and groin Pathophysiology • benign outgrowth of skin Epidemiology • middle-aged and elderly, F>M, obese Differential Diagnosis • pedunculated seborrheic keratosis, compound or dermal melanocytic nevus, neurofibroma Management • snipping, electrodessication, cryosurgery





Hyperkeratotic Lesions SEBORRHEIC KERATOSIS Clinical Presentation • well-demarcated waxy papule / plaque with classic " stuck on" appearance • large variety in colour, size and shape, and surface may crumble when picked • over time lesions appear more warty, greasy and pigmented • sites: face, trunk, upper extremities (may occur at any site except palms or soles) Pathophysiology • very common benign epithelial tumour Epidemiology • unusual 1 .5 cm • Rule out leptomeningeal involvement if on head/neck

• Surgical excision if suspicious, due to increased risk of developing melanoma

Acquired Melanocytic Nevus

• Early childhood to age 40 • Involute by age 60

• Benign neoplasm of pigment-forming nevus cell • Well circumscribed, round, uniformly pigmented macules/papules • < 1 .5 cm • Can be classified according to site of nevus cells Isee below)

• Excisional biopsy required if on scalp, soles, mucous membranes, anogenital area, or if variegated colours, irregular borders, pruritic, bleeding, exposed to trauma

Junctional Nevus

• Childhood • Flat, irregularly bordered, uniformly tan-dark brown, • Melanocytes at dermal-epidermal junction above basement • Majority progress sharply demarcated smooth macule membrane to compound nevus

Compound Nevus

• Any age

Histology

Management

• Same as above

• Domed, regularly bordered, smooth, round, tan-dark brown papule • Face, trunk, extremities, scalp • NOT found on palms or soles

• Melanocytes at dermal-epidermal junction; migration into dermis

Dermal Nevus • Adults

• Soft, dome-shaped, skin-coloured to tan/brown papules or nodules, often with telangiectasia • Sites: face, neck

• Melanocytes exclusively in dermis • Same as above

Dysplastic • Childhood Nevus IClark's Melanocytic Nevus)

• Follow q2-6 months with colour photographs • Variegated macule/papule with irregular indistinct • Hyperplasia and proliferation of borders and focal elevation melanocytes in the basal cell layer • Excisional biopsy if lesion changing or highly atypical • > 6 mm • Risk factors: positive family history - 1 00% lifetime risk of malignant melanoma with 2 blood relatives with melanoma 10.8% risk for general popUlation)

Halo Nevus

• First 3 decades

• Dermal or compound neocellular • Brown oval/round papules surrounded by nevus INCN) surrounded by hypomelanosis • Same sites as neocellular nevus INCN) hypomelanosis, lymphocytes, histocytes • Spontaneous involution with regression of centrally located pigmented nevus

Blue Nevus

• Childhood and late adolescence

• Uniformly blue to blue-black macule/papule with smooth border • < 6 mm

• Pigmented melanocytes and melanophages in dermis

• Same as above

• None required • Excision if colour variegated or irregular borders • Associated with vitiligo, metastatic melanoma

• Remove if suddenly appears or has changed

Common Skin Lesions/Acneifonn Eruptions

010 Dennatology

Toronto Notes 2010

M isce llaneous Lesions .... ' � .�------. Miscellaneous Common Skin Lesions

Syringoma Small, firm, skin-coloured papules found mainly around eyelids and upper chest due to benign growth of eccrine sweat glands. Removal is for cosmetic purposes only. Nevus sebaceus Congenital lesions of the head, usually solitary made up of skin and appendageal components which are present at birth or shortly thereafter. Prophylactic excision at puberty is done due to high frequency of neoplastic changes in adulthood. Morphea (localized scleroderma) Sclerotic denmal plaques with violaceous borders and central hypopigmentation of idiopathic origin. A skin biopsy is done to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment consists of sun protection and topical, oral or injected steroids depending on symptoms and severity.

Type I Comedonal -

KELOID Clinical Presentation • firm, shiny, skin-coloured or red-bluish papules / nodules that most often arise from cutaneous injury (i.e. piercing, surgical scar, acne), but may appear spontaneously • extends beyond the margins of the original injury, and may continue to expand in size for years with claw-like extensions • can be pruritic and painful • sites: earlobes, shoulders, sternum, scapular area Pathophysiology • excessive proliferation of randomly organized collagen fibers following trauma to skin • differentiated from a hypertrophic scar which is confined to the borders of the original injury Epidemiology • predilection for darker skin • M=F Management • intralesional corticosteroid injections • cryotherapy • silicone compression

Acneiform Eruptions Acne Vu lgaris/Common Acne Clinical Presentation • a common inflammatory pilosebaceous disease categorized with respect to severity Type I come donal, sparse, no scarring Type II comedonal, papular, moderate ± little scarring Type III comedonal, papular, and pustular, with scarring Type IV nodulocystic acne, risk of severe scarring • predilection sites: face, neck, upper chest, and back •

-



Type II

Papular

-

-



-



-

Pathogenesis • increased sebum production • sebum is comedogenic, an irritant, and is converted to free fatty acids (FFA) by microbial lipases made by anaerobic diphtheroid Propionibacterium acnes • free fatty acids + bacteria � inflammation + delayed hypersensitivity reaction � hyperkeratinization of follicle lining with resultant plugging � inflammatory papules and comedones Type III Pustular -

Epidemiology • common during the teen years • severe disease affects males lOx more frequently than females • incidence decreases in adulthood Differential Diagnosis • folliculitis, keratosis pilaris (upper arms, face, thighs), perioral dermatitis, rosacea Management • see Table 7

Type IV Nodulocystic -

Figure 2. Types of Acne

Toronto Notes 2010

Acneiform Eruptions

Table 7. Acne Treatments and Mechanisms of Action Drug Name

Mechanism of Action

Notes

MILD ACNE: Topical Therapies clindamycin phosphate le.g. Dalacin I'M I

Lincosamide antibiotic; inhibits protein synthesis

Generally regarded as unsafe in lactation

erythromycin

Macrolide antibiotic; inhibits protein synthesis

Local skin reactions include burning, peeling, dryness, pruritus, erythema

benzoyl peroxide

Protein oxidant with bactericidal effect

Dry skin, contact dermatitis. Apply to the point of dryness and erythema, but not discomfort

BenzaClin'M gel

1 % clindamycin and 5% benzoyl peroxide

See above

erythromycin + benzoyl peroxide IBenzamycin 'M I

3% erythromycin and 5% benzoyl peroxide

See above

adapalene le.g. Differin 'M I

Comedolytic

Less irritating than tretinoin. No interaction with sun Expensive

tretinoin le.g. Retin-A'M I

Comedolytic

Sun sensitivity and irritation

MODERATE ACNE: After topical treatments have failed, add oral antibiotics, such as tetracycline 1500 mg PO daily to bidl, erythromycin 1500 mg PO bidl. Antibiotics require 3-6 months of use before assessing efficacy. May also consider hormonal therapy, including antiandrogens. tetracycline

Systemic antibiotic

Use caution with regard to drug interactions: do not use with isotretinoin Not to be used as the sole treatment or first line treatment

cyproterone acetate­ ethinyl estradiol IDiane-J5'MI

Cyproterone: potent anti-androgenic, progestogenic and antigonadatrophic activity Ethinyl estradiol: increases level of sex hormone binding globulin ISHBGI, reducing circulating plasma levels of androgens

After 35 years of age, estrogen/progesterone should only be considered in exceptional circumstances, carefully weighing the risklbenefit ratio with physician guidance Also used for other androgen-dependent symptoms, including seborrhea alopecia, and mild hirsutism

Dermatology Dll

.... ' , ��------, Acne Myths Debunked • Eating greasy food and chocolate does not cause or worsen acne • Blackheads (comedones) are black because of oxidized melanin, not dirt

.... ' , ��------, Acne Exacerbating Factors • Systemic medications: lithium, phenytoin, steroids, halogens, androgens, iodides, bromides, danazol • Topical agents: steroids, tars, ointments, oily cosmetics, etc . . . • Mechanical pressure or occlusion, such as leaning face on hands • Emotional stress

SEVERE ACNE: Consider systemic retinoids after above treatments have failed isotretinoin IAccutane Roche 'M, Clarus 'M I

Retinoid that inhibits sebaceous gland function and keratinization

Teratogenic: contraindicated during pregnancy Baseline lipid profile, hepatic enzymes and �-hCG before treatment May transiently exacerbate acne. Drug may be discontinued at 1 6-20 weeks when nodule count has dropped by > 70%. A second course may be initiated after 2 months pm. Refractory cases may require 3 or more courses of isotretinoin. Highly unsafe in pregnancy; generally regarded as unsafe in lactation. Reliable contraception is necessary. May cause depression. Signed informed consent is needed when prescribing

Perioral Dermatitis Clinical Presentation • discrete erythematous micropapules that often become confluent, forming inflammatory plaques on perioral and periorbital skin • commonly symmetrical, rim of sparing around vermilion border of lips • aggravated by topical glucocorticoids Epidemiology 15-40 years old • predominantly females •

Differential Diagnosis • dermatitis, rosacea, acne vulgaris Management • topical: metronidazole 0.75% gel or 0.75-1% cream to area bid • systemic: tetracycline

Rosacea Clinical Presentation • chronic acneiform, inflammatory skin disease • flushing (transient erythema) with a burning sensation is common initially, however non-transient erythema is the commonest sign of rosacea • dome-shaped red papules with or without pustules that often occur in crops, contributing to a florid, ruddy complexion • differentiated from acne by the absence of comedones

....

' , ��------,

Isotretinoin and Lipids Case reports indicate isotretinoin­ induced hypertriglyceridemia can be successfully controlled with concurrent hypolipidemic therapy.

Acneifonn Eruptions/Dennatitis (Eczema)

012 Dennatology

",,

' , .1-------.

Guidelines for the Diagnosis of Rosacea

Presence of one or more of the following primary features: • Flushing (transient erythema) • Nontransient erythema • Papules and pustules • Telangiectasia May include one or more of the following secondary features: • Burning or stinging • Plaque • Dry appearance • Edema • Ocular manifestations • Peripheral location • Phymatous changes

""

' , .}-------.

Subtypes and Variants of Rosacea and Their Characteristics SUBTYPE Erythromatotelangiectatic Flushing, persistent central facial erythema ± telangiectasia. Papulopustular Persistent central facial erythema Transient, central facial papules or pustules or both.

Phymatous Thickening skin, irregular surface nodularities and enlargement Nose, chin, forehead, cheeks or ears. Ocular Foreign body sensation in the eye, burning or stinging, dryness, itching, ocular photosensitivity, blurred vision, telangiectasia of the sclera or other parts of the eye, or periorbital edema VARIANT Granulomatous Noninflammatory, hard, brown, yellow, or red cutaneous papules or nodules of uniform size.

Toronto Notes 2010

• typically affecting the convexities of the central face, especially forehead, nose, cheeks and

chin, may also a ffect the scalp, neck, and the upper part of body

• characterized by remissions and exacerbations, and all forms of rosacea can progress from

mild to moderate to severe

• in longstanding rosacea, signs of thickening, induration, lymphedema in the skin may

become app arent

• phyma: a distinct swelling caused by lymphedema and hypertrophy of subcutaneous

tissue, and particularly affects the nose (rninophyma)

• ocular changes are common in rosacea: conjunctivitis, keratitis, iritis • exacerbating factors: heat, cold, wind, sun, stress, drinking hot liquids, alcohol, caffeine,

spices (triggers of vasodilatation)

Pathophysiology • unknown Epidemiology • although found in all skin types, highest prevalence in fair skinned people (10% prevalence in Sweden) • 30-50 years old • F>M Management • avoid topical corticosteroids • cosmetic camouflage • telangiectasia: treated by physical measures; vessels can be ablated using electrical h y frecators, vascular lasers, and intense pulsed light therap ies • phymas: treated by physical ablation or removal; paring, electrosurgery, cryotherapy, laser therapy [C02, Argon, neodymium-doped-yttrium-aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG)] • early diagnosis and prompt treatment are recommended to prevent worsening Table 8. Specific Rosacea Treatments 1 st Line

2nd Line

3rd Line

Oral tetracyclines (250-500 mg PO bid) Topical metronidazole Oral erythromycin (250-500 mg PO bid)

Topical clindamycin Topical erythromycin 2% solution Topical benzoyl peroxide Oral metronidazole Ampicillin

Oral retinoids Topical sulfur

Dermatitis (Eczema) Definition • inflammation of the skin Clinical Presentation • symptoms include pruritus and pain • acute dermatitis: papules, vesicles • subacute dermatitis: scaling, crusting • chronic dermatitis: results from scratching, lichenification, xerosis and fissuring

Asteatotic Dermatitis Clinical Presentation • diffuse, mild pruritic dermatitis secondary to dry skin • very common in elderly, especially in the winter (a.k.a. "winter itch") but starts in the fall Management • skin rehydration with moisturizing routine • ± mild corticosteroid creams

Atopic Dermatitis Clinical Presentation • subacute and chronic eczematous reaction associated with prolonged severe pruritus • distribution infant (onset at 2-6 months old): face, scalp, extensor surfaces childhood (>18 months): flexural surfaces adult: hands, feet, flexures, neck, eyelids, forehead, face, wrists • inflammation, lichenification, excoriations are secondary to relentless scratching • atopic palms: p rominent palmar creases • associated with keratosis pilaris (hyperkeratosis of hair follicles, "chicken skin") xerosis occupational hand dryness • patients usually suffer from three flares per year •

• •



• •

Toronto Notes 2010

Oennatitis (Eczema)

Pathophysiology • Type I (IgE-mediated) hypersensitivity reaction (release of histamine) and Th2 cellular response • associated with personal or family history of atopy (asthma, hay fever, anaphylaxis, eosinophilia) • polygenic inheritance: one p arent >60% chance for child; two parents >80% chance for child • frequently affects infants, children, and young adults • females only sli ghtly more at risk than males (1.3:1 over the age of 2 years) • almost 15% of children in developed countries under the age of 5 are affected; half of these cases are diagnosed by 1 year of age • the earlier the onset, the more severe and persistent the disease • long-term condition with 1 / 3 of p atients continuing to show signs of AD into adulthood • childhood onset and hereditary forms are associated with a de fect in the protein filaggrin Investigations • no prerequisite investigations to diagnose atopic dermatitis • may consider: skin biopsy, immunoglobulin serum levels (often elevated serum IgE level), patch testing, and skin prick tests to look for contact or environmental allergies Management • goal: reduce signs and symptoms, prevent or reduce recurrences, and provide long-term management to prevent progression from early disease to full AD flare • treatment maximized (i.e. less flare-ups, modified course of disease) if diagnosis made early and treatment plan individualized individualized based on age, severity, sites and extent of involvement, presence of infection, previous responses to therapy • avoid triggers of AD: irritants (detergents and solvents, certain clothing, water hardness), inappropriate bathing habits (long hot showers), microbes (5. aureus ), stress, sweating, contact allergens, an d environmental aeroallergens (dust mites) • enhance barrier function of the skin regular app lication of moisturizers ± diluted corticosteroid wet-wrap dressings • emoflients hydrate the skin and reduce pruritus • twice daily application is recommended even in absence of symptoms, especially after bathing or swimming • bathing promotes hydration when followed by the application of moisturizers to the skin • anti-inflammatory therapies A. topical corticosteroids effective, rapid symptomatic relief for acute flares best applied immediately after bathing control inflammation with a potent topical steroid; prescribe a milder one following resolution of acute flare systemic immunosuppression may be needed in severe cases flares may respond to systemic anti-staphylococcal therapy side effects • skin atrophy, purpura, striae, steroid acne, perioral dermatitis, and glaucoma when used around the eyes B. topical immunomodulators long-term management calcineurin inhibitors such as pimecrolimus (ElideJTM) and tacrolimus (Protopic™) • block ca1cineurin and inhibit inflammatory cytokine transcription in activated T-cells and other inflammatory cells significant adverse events may include skin burning and transient irritation advantages of immunomodulators over long-term corticosteroid use • rapid, sustained effect in controlling pruritus • produce no skin atrophy • safe for the face and neck • no significant systemic toxicities associated with their use •



• • •



• •

• •

• •

Complications • infections are common: diagnose early and treat appropriately (i.e. antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral therapy); infections must be resolved before applying anti-inflammatory treatments topical mupirocin or fusidic acid is often sufficient oral antibiotics (i.e. cloxacillin, cephalexin) for widespread 5. aureus infections •



Oennatology 013

Dennatitis (Eczema)

014 Dennatology

I

Toronto Notes 2010

Initial assessment of disease history, extent and severity (impact on family, psychological distress)

I Adjunctive therapy • Avoidance of triggers • Treat bacterial superinfections (topical or oral antibiotics) • Antihistamines • Psychological interventions

I

I

Patient education, daily emollient use

JJ

_ "",' m ',,,



• Topical corticosteroids or topical calcineurin i nhibitor (pimecrolimus or tacrolimus

H

FLARE

11

I

I

Disease remission (no signs or symptoms)

Maintenance therapy if disease is persistent and/or frequent recurrences • Use of topical corticosteroid or calcineurin inhibitor at earliest sign of flare • Long-term maintenance use of calcineurin inhibitors

II

Severe refractory disease • • • •

• •



Azathioprine Methotrexate Oral cyclosporin Oral steroids Phototherapy Potent topical steroids Psychotherapeutics

Figure 3, Atopic Dermatitis Treatment Algorithm Adapted from: Ellis C, et al. ICCAD II Faculty, Intemational Consensus Conference on Atopic Dermatitis II I1CCAD II): clinical update and current treatment strategies, Br J Dermato/, 2003; 14B (Suppl 63):3-10,

Contact Dermatitis ..... �

,

��-------, Clinical Presentation

Top Ten Allergens as Identified by The North American Contact Dermatitis Group Test Substance

Allergic reactions (%)

Nickel Sulfate

14,2

Found in some jewelry, buckles

Neomycin su�ate 13.1

Most commonly used topical antibiotic

Balsam of Peru

1 1 ,B

Fragrance material

Fragrance mix

1 1 .7

A mix of eight different fragrance components which was developed to allow for allergen testing in cosmetics

Thimerosal

10,9

A common preservative that is used in vaccines, contact lens solution, cosmetics

• cutaneous inflammation from the interaction between external agent(s) and the skin

Table 9. Contact Dermatitis Irritant Contact Dermatitis

Allergic Contact Dermatitis

Mechanism of Reaction

Toxic injury to skin; non-immune mechanism

Cell-mediated delayed (Type IV) hypersensitivity reaction

Type of Reaction

Erythema, dryness, fine scale, burning Acute: quick reaction, sharp margins (e,g, from acid/alkali exposure) Cumulative insult: slow to appear, poorly defined margins (e,g, from soap), more common

Erythema with a papulovesicular eruption, swelling, pnuritus

Frequency of Contact Dermatitis

Majority; will occur in anyone given sufficient concentration of irritants

Minority; patient acquires susceptibility to allergen that persists indefinately

Distribution

Palmar surface of hand usually involved

Dorsum of hand usually involved; often discrete area of skin involvement

Sodium gold

9,5

Used in jewellery, dentistry, thiosulfate electronics

Examples

Soaps, weak alkali, detergents, organic solvents, alcohol. oils

See sidebar for most common examples Many allergens are irritants, so may coincide with irritant dermatitis

Formaldehyde

9,3

A colourless gas found in many wor110% of the body surface area unsuccessful topical therap ies disease is causing psychological distress

....

' , ��------,

Woronofl's Ring Blanched halo that surrounds psoriatic lesions after topical or phototherapy treatments.

• •



Treabnent

Mechanism

Comments

Lubricants

Reduce fissure formation

Petrolatum is effective

Salicylic acid 1 - 1 2%

Remove scales

Tar (LCD: Liquor carbonis detergensl 20% coal tar solution

Inhibits DNA synthesis, increases cell turnover

Poor long term compliance

Calcipotriene (Dovonex , Dovobet'M I

Binds to skin 1 ,25-dihydroxyvitamin 03 to inhibit keratinocyte proliferation

Not to be used on face or skin folds

Corticosteroid ointment

Reduce scaling and thickness

Use appropriate potency steroid in different areas for degree of psoriasis

Tazarotene (Tazarac 'M I (geVcreaml

Retinoid derivative

Use on nails

UVB 290-320 nm or 31 1 nm Narrow Band UVB (NBUVCl

Use with topicals

UVB

Adverse Effects

Methotrexate

Bone marrow toxicity, hepatic cirrhosis

Psoralens and long wave ultraviolet radiation (PUVAI

Pruritus, burning, cataracts, skin cancer

Acitretin

Alopecia, cheilitis, teratogenicity, epistaxis, xerosis, hypertriglyeridemia

Cyclosporine

Renal toxicity, hypertension, immunosuppression

"Narrow band" UVB (31 1 -3 1 2 nml

Well tolerated

2nd line Phototherapy PUVA, UVB, Narrowband UVB Cyclosporin Methotrexate Acitretin 3rd line Biological therapies (alefacept, etanercept, infliximab, etc.)

' , ��------,

Calcipotriol is a vitamin D derivative Dovobet '" = calcipotriene combined with betamethasone dipro-portionate and is considered to be the most potent topical psoriatic therapy.

.... ' , �}-------,

Table 1 2. "Biologicals" approved in Canada Treabnent

Route

Dosing Schedule

Effectiveness

Action

alefacept (Amevive'" I

1M

weekly

+

T-cell

SC

weekly

++

T-cell

etanercept (Enbrel'M I'

SC

twice weekly initially

+++

TNF

SC

once every 2 weeks

++++

TNF

infliximab (Remicade 'M I'

IV

-every 2 months

+++++

TNF

adalimumab (Humira 'M I'

1st line Topical corticosteroids (moderate to very potent) Topical Vitamin D analogues Topical Retinoid Coal Tar Therapy Anthralin (dithranol) Topical Salicylic Acid

....

Table 1 1 . Systemic Treatment of Psoriasis Treabnent

efalizumab (Raptiva'M I

' , �}-------,

Psoriasis Treatment Approach

Table 10. Topical Treatment of Psoriasis

'M

....

'Can also be used to treat Psoriatic Arthritis

2. GUTTATE PSORIASIS ("DROP-LIKE") Clinical Presentation • discrete, scattered salmon-pink scaling papules • sites: generalized, sparing palms and soles • often antecedent streptococcal pharyngitis Management • UVB phototherapy, sunlight, lubricants • penicillin V or erythromycin if Group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus on throat culture

PUVA = Psoralens (P) and Long-Wave UV Radiation (UVA) Psora len photo chemotherapy is used for treatment of psoriasis as well as a number of other dermatologic disorders. Psoralens, which are linear furocoumarins found in plants and made synthetically, are applied topically via solutions/creams/baths or given orally followed by UVA exposure at a wavelength of 350-360 nm. The therapeutic effect of PUVA in psoriasis is due to the conjunction of psoralens with epidermal DNA which inhibits DNA replication and causes cell cycle arrest.

....

' , �}-------,

Case reports indicate that patients inadequately controlled or intolerant to etanercept may benefit from switching to efalizumab.

.... '

3. ERYTHRODERMIC PSORIASIS Clinical Presentation • generalized erythema with fine desquamative scale on surface • associated symptoms: arthralgia, severe pruritus • may present in patient with previous mild plaque psoriasis • aggravating factors: lithium, beta-blockers, NSAIDs, antimalarials, phototoxic reaction, infection

, �}-------,

Mechanism of Biologicals "-mab" = monoclonal antibody "-rcept" = receptor

Papulosquamous Diseases/Vesiculobullous Diseases

018 Dennatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Management • hospitalization, bedrest, IV fluids, sun avoidance, monitor fluid and electrolytes • treat underlying aggravating condition • methotrexate, UV', oral retinoids, biologicals



4. PUSTULAR PSORIASIS Clinical Presentation • sudden onset of erythematous macules and papules which evolve rapidly into pustules, very painful • can be generalized or localized to palms / soles • patient usually has history of psoriasis; may occur with sudden withdrawal from steroid therapy Management • methotrexate, oral retinoids, biologicals 5. PSORIATIC ARTHRITIS • 5 categories asymmetric oligoarthropathy distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint involvement (predominant) rheumatoid pattern - symmetric polyarthropathy psoriatic arthritis mutilans (most severe form) predominant spondylitis or sacroiliitis see Rheumatology. RH 20 • •

• •





Vesiculobul lous Diseases Bul lous Pemph igoid

'c'

Pemphigu.s Vulgaris vs. Bullous Pemphigoi!l S = .superficial D = !leeper at the junction

Clinical Presentation • chronic autoimmune bullous eruption characterized by pruritic, tense, subepidermal bullae on an erythematous or normal skin base • sites: flexor aspect of forearms, axillae, medial thighs, groin, abdomen, mouth (33%) Pathophysiology • IgG produced against dermal-epidermal basement membrane leads to subepidermal bullae Epidemiology • 60-80 years old • associated with malignancy (rarely) Investigations • immunofluorescence shows deposition of IgG and C3 at basement membrane • anti-basement membrane antibody (IgG) (pemphigoid antibody detectable in serum) Prognosis • generalized bullous eruption heals without scarring • can be fatal Management • prednisone ± steroid-sparing agents (e.g. azathioprine) • topical potent steroids (clobetasol) may be as effective as systemic steroids • tetracycline ± nicotinamide is effective for some cases • dapsone for milder cases

Pemphigus Vulgaris Clinical Presentation • autoimmune blistering disease characterized by flaccid, non-pruritic epidermal bullae / vesicles on an erythematous or normal skin base • may present with erosions and secondary bacterial infection • sites: mouth (90%), scalp, face, chest, axillae, groin, umbilicus • Nikolsky's sign: sliding or rubbing pressure on skin � separation of epidermis • Asboe-Hanson sign: pressure applied to bulla causes it to extend laterally

Pathophysiology • IgG produced against epidermal desmoglein 3 leads to intraepidermal bullae Epidemiology • 40-60 years old, higher prevalence in Jewish, Mediterranean, Asian populations • associated with thymoma, myasthenia gravis, malignancy, and use of D-penicillamine Investigations • immunofluorescence: shows IgG and C3 deposition intraepidermally • circulating serum anti-desmoglein IgG antibodies Prognosis and Clinical Course • begins with mouth lesions, followed by skin lesions • first localized (6-12 months) then generalized • lesions heal with hyperpigmentation but no scar • may be fatal unless treated with immunosuppressive agents Management • prednisone 2.0-3.0 mg / kg until no new blisters, then 1 .0-1 .5 mg/kg until clear, then taper • steroid-sparing agents - azathioprine, methotrexate, gold, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, intravenous immunoglobulin (lVlG), mycophenolate mofetil • plasmapheresis for acutely high antibody levels

Dermatitis Herpetiform is Clinical Presentation • grouped papules/ vesicles/ urticarial wheals on an erythematous base, associated with intense pruritus, burning, stinging • almost always excoriated, rarely seen as blisters • sites: extensor surfaces of elbows/ knees, sacrum, buttocks, scalp • lesions grouped, bilaterally symmetrical Pathophysiology • 90% have HLA B8, DR3, DQWZ • 90% associated with gluten-sensitive enteropathy (celiac) (80% are asymptomatic) • 30% have thyroid disease; some have intestinal lymphoma or iron/ folate deficiency Epidemiology • 20-60 years old, M:F = 2:1 Management • dapsone for pruritus • gluten-free diet Table 1 3. Summary of Vesiculobullous Diseases Pemphigus Vulgaris

Dermatology D19

Vesiculobullous Diseases

Toronto Notes 2010

Bullous Pemphigoid

Dermatitis Herpetiformis

Antibody

IgG

IgG

IgA

Site

Intercellular space

Basement membrane

Dermal

Infiltrate

Eosinophils and neutrophils

Eosinophils

Neutrophils

Management

High dose steroids Immunosuppressive agent (e.g. Imuran, mycophenolic acid)

Tetracycline Clobetasol cream

Gluten-free diet Dapsone

Association

Malignancy with para neoplastic pemphigus

Malignancy (rarely)

Gluten enteropathy Thyroid disease Intestinal lymphoma

Porphyria Cutanea Tarda Clinical Presentation • tense vesicles /bullae in photoexposed areas subjected to trauma • facial hypertrichosis, brown hypermelanosis vesicles, and bullae in photodistribution (dorsum of hands and feet) • sites: light-exposed areas subjected to trauma, dorsum of hands and feet, nose, and upper trunk

""

' ,

�}-------�

Pemphigus Foliaceus An autoimmune intraepidermal blistering disease that is more superficial than pemphigus vulgaris due to antibodies against desmoglein 1, an intracellular adhesion molecule. Appears as crusted patches and erosions which can initially be managed with topical steroids if localized. Active widespread disease is treated like pemphigus vulgaris.

Vesiculobullous Diseases/Drug Eruptions

020 Dennatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Pathophysiology • autosomal dominant or sporadic skin disorder associated with the presence of excess heme • associated with alcohol abuse, DM, drugs (estrogen therapy, NSAID), HIV, hepatitis C, increased iron indices Epidemiology • 30-40 years old, M>F Investigations • urine + 5% HCl shows orange-red fluorescence under Wood's lamp (UV rays) • 24-hour urine for uroporphyrins (elevated) • stool contains elevated coproporphyrins • immunofluorescence shows IgE at dermal-epidermal junctions Management • discontinue aggravating substances (alcohol, estrogen therapy) • phlebotomy to decrease body iron load • low dose hydroxychloroquine if phlebotomy contraindicated

D rug Eruptions Erythema Multiforme (EM), Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS), Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis (TEN ) • disorders with varying presence of characteristic skin lesions, blistering and mucous

membrane involvement

.... ' � ��------, Erythema multiforme is a clinical diagnosis. Resonable evidence exists for the following as precipitating factors: • HSV (predominant precipitating factor) • Histoplasma capsulatum ' Orl virus

SCORTEN: A Severity-of-liiness Score for Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis J Invest Dermatol 2000;1 15:149-153 Study: Develop and validate a specific severity-of­ illness score for cases of TEN and compare to Simplrried Acute Physiology Score and bum scoring system. Patients: To develop score and evaluate other scores: 165 patients with SJS, SJS/TEN, or TEN admitted to the ICU. For validation, a separate database of 75 patients were used. Outcome: Agreement between expected and actual mortality. Powers of discrimination. Results: Seven different risk factors for death: age >40y, malignancy, tachycardia above 1 20, initial epidermal detachment > I 0%, serum urea > I OmmoV\., serum glc > 14mmoV\., and bicarb sulfonamides > phenytoin • see Pediatric Exanthems, D39 • • • •

Fixed Drug Eruption • sharply demarcated erythematous oval patches o n the skin o r mucous membranes

sites: face, mucosa, genitalia reaccurs in same location upon subsequent exposure to the drug (fixed location) • most common causes: antimicrobials (tetracycline, sulfonamides), anti-inflammatories, psychoactive agents (barbiturates), phenolphthalein • •

Photosensitivity Eruptions • phototoxic reaction: "an exaggerated sunburn" confined t o sun-exposed areas • photoallergic reaction: an eczematous eruption that may spread to areas not exposed to light • most common causes: chlorpromazine, doxycycline, thiazide diuretics, procainamide

Serum Sickness-Like Reaction • • • •

a symmetric drug eruption resulting i n fever, arthralgia, lymphadenopathy, and skin rash usually appears 5-10 days after drug skin manifestations: usually urticaria; can be morbilliform most common causes: cefaclor in kids; buproprion (Zyban™) in adults

Angioedema • deep er swelling of the skin involving subcutaneous tissues; often involves the eyes, lips,

an cf tongue • may or may not accompany urticaria • can have hereditary or acquired forms; acquired angioedema occurs with urticaria • hereditary angioedema - does not occur with urticaria onset in childhood; 80% have positive family history recurrent attacks; 25% die from laryngeal edema triggers: minor trauma, emotional upset, temperature changes • •



"" , � �.-------� Wheal • Typically erythematous flat-topped, palpable lesions varying in size with circumscribed dermal edema • Associated with mast cell release of histamine • May be pruritic • Individual lesion lasts hrs

20 x 109 cells per litre with Sezary cells • hair loss, pruritus • fatigue, fever, often fatal •



Epidemiology • >50 years old, M:F 2:1 Differential Diagnosis • nummular dermatitis, psoriasis Investigations • skin biopsy (histology, "lymphocyte antigen cell" markers, TcR gene arrangement) • blood smear looking for Sezary cells or flow cytometry (e.g. CD4: CD8 >10 is Sezary) • imaging (for systemic involvement) Management • Mycosis fungoides treatment is dependent on stage of disease topical steroids and / or PUVA, narrow band (311-313 mm), UVB (NBUVB) • Sezary syndrome oral retinoids and interferon, extra-corporeal photophoresis may need radiotherapy -7 total skin electron beam radiation may maintain on UV therapy •



• •



Malignant Skin Tumours

Toronto Notes 2010

Dermatology D33

Malignant Melanoma ( M M ) Clinical Presentation • malignant characteristics of a mole: see mnemonic "ABCDE" • sites: skin, mucous membranes, eyes, CNS Pathophysiology • malignant neoplasm of pigment fonning cells (melanocytes and nevus cells) Epidemiology • incidence 1:100 • risk factors: numerous moles, fair skin, red hair, positive personal / family history, large congenital nevi, familial dysplastic nevus syndrome (100%) • most common sites: back (males), calves (females) • worse prognosis if: male, on scalp, hands, feet, late lesion, no pre-existing nevus present

�' Does this Patient have a Mole or Melanoma? JAMA 1 998; 279(9): 696-701 ABCDE checklist Asymmetry Border (irregular) Colour (varied) Diameter (increasing or >6 mm) Enlargement, Elevation, Evolution Sensitivity 92% (CI 82-96%) Specificity 1 00% (CI 54-1 00%)

Prognostic Indicators • ulceration or microulceration upstages risk • number of nodes more important than size of nodes • thickness of melanoma and sentinel node status are important prognostic factors for recurrence and survival Subtypes of Malignant Melanoma • lentigo maligna malignant melanoma in situ (normal and malignant melanocytes confined to the epidermis) 2-6 cm, tan/brown/black uniformly flat macule or patch with irregular borders lesion grows radially and produces complex colours sites: face, sun exposed areas 1 / 3 evolve into lentigo maligna melanoma • lentigo maligna melanoma (15% of all melanomas) malignant melanocytes invading into the dermis flat, brown, stain-like, gradually enlarging with loss of skin surface markings with time, colour changes from uniform brown to dark brown with black and blue found on all skin surfaces, especially those often exposed to sun not associated with preexisting acquired nevi • superficial spreading melanoma (60-70% of all melanomas) atypical melanocytes initially spread laterally in epidermis then invade the dermis irregular, indurated, enlarging plaques with red/white /blue discolouration, focal papules and nodules ulcerate and bleed with growth • nodular melanoma (30% of all melanomas) atypical melanocytes that initially grow vertically with little lateral spread uniformly ulcerated, blue-black, and sharply delineated plaque or nodule rapidly fatal • acrolentiginous melanoma (5% of all melanomas) ill-defined dark brown, blue-black macule palmar, plantar, subungual skin melanomas on mucous membranes have poor prognosis •

• • •







• •









• • •

�' Risk Factors for Melanoma no SPF is a SIN Sun exposure Pigment traits (blue eyes, fair/red hair, pale complexion) Freckling Skin reaction to sunlight (increased incidence of sunburn) Immunosuppressive states (e.g. renal transplantation) Nevi (dysplastic nevi; increased number of benign melanocytic nevi)



• •

Management • excisional biopsy preferable, otherwise incisional biopsy • remove full depth of dermis and extend beyond edges of lesion only after histologic diagnosis beware of lesions that regress - tumour is usually deeper than anticipated • lymph node dissection shows survival advantage if nodes uninvolved • chemotherapy (cis-platinum, BCG), high dose interferon a for stage II (regional) and stage III (distant) disease • radiotherapy is curative for uveal melanomas, palliative for bone and brain metastases •

American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging System Based on Breslow's Thickness of Invasion 5-year survival 90% • Tl 4.0 mm • Stage IV any mets a no ulceration; b ulceration =

=

.... ' , 9�------' Node Dissection for Lesions > 1 0 mm • Assess sentinel nodes • If macroscopically or microscopically positive, a lymph node dissection should be preformed prior to wide excision of the primary melanoma to ensure accurate lymphatic mapping.

034 Oennatology

Malignant Skin Tumours/Heritable Disorders

Toronto Notes 2010

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)

--------�

Clinical Presentation • indurated erythematous nodule / plaque with surface scale / crust, and eventual ulceration • more rapid enlargement than Bee • sites: face, ears, scalp, forearms, dorsum of hands Pathophysiology • malignant neoplasm of keratinocytes (primarily vertical growth) Epidemiology • primarily on sun-exposed skin in the elderly, M>F, skin phototypes I and II, chronic sun exposure, second most common type • predisposing factors include UV radiation, ionizing radiation therapy / exposure, immunosuppression, PUVA, atrophic skin lesions, chemical carcinogens such as arsenic, tar and nitrogen mustards • organ transplant recipients see is most common cutaneous malignancy increased mortality • •

Differential Diagnosis • Bee, Bowen's disease, melanoma, nummular eczema, psoriasis Management • surgical excision with primary closure, skin flaps or grafting • lifelong follow-up (more aggressive treatment than Bee) Prognosis • prognostic factors include: immediate treatment, negative margins, and small lesions • sees that arise from actinic keratosis metastasize less frequently (-1%) than other sees (e.g. arising de novo in old burns) (2-5% of cases) • overall control is 75% over 5 years, 5-10% metastasize BOWEN'S DISEASE (SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA IN SITU) Clinical Presentation • erythematous plaque with a sharply demarcated red and scaly border • often 1-3 em in diameter and found on the skin and mucous membranes • evolves to see in 10-20% of cutaneous lesions and >20% of mucosal lesions Management • biopsy required for diagnosis • same as for Bee • topical 5-fluorouracil (Efudex™) or imiquimod (Aldara™) used if extensive and as a tool to identify margins of poorly defined tumours

Heritable Disorders Ichthyosis Vu lgaris Clinical Presentation • a generalized disorder of hyperkeratosis leading to dry skin, associated with atopy and kera tosis pilaris • "fish-scale" appearance especially on extremities with sparing of flexural creases, palms and soles; scaling without inflammation 0;;'

Remember Epidemiology of Ichthyosis Vulgaris: 2 A.D. Atopic Dermatitis and Autosomal Dominant

Epidemiology • 1 :300 incidence • autosomal dominant inheritance • associated with atopic dermatitis Management • immersion in bath and oils • emollient or humectant creams, and creams or oils containing urea

Toronto Notes 2010

Dermatology D35

Heritable Disorders

Neurofibromatosis (Type I; von Reckl inghausen's Disease) Clinical Presentation • autosomal dominant disorder with excessive and abnormal proliferation of neural crest elements • diagnostic criteria include 2 or more of 1. more than 6 cafe-au-lait spots >1.5 cm in an adult, and more than 5 cafe-au-lait spots >0.5 cm in a child under age 5 2. axillary or inguinal freckling 3. iris hamartomas (Lisch nodules) 4. optic gliomas 5. neurofibromas, and others 6. distinctive bony lesion 7. first degree relative with neurofibromatosis type 1 • associated with pheochromocytoma, astrocytoma, bilateral acoustic neuromas, bone cysts, scoliosis, precocious puberty, developmental delay, and renal artery stenosis Epidemiology • autosomal dominant inheritance • incidence 1:3,000 Management • follow closely for malignancy, transformation of neurofibroma to neurofibrosarcoma • excise suspicious or painful lesions • see Pediatrics. P83

Vitiligo Clinical Presentation • primary pigmentary disorder characterized by hypopigmentation and depigmentation • acquired destruction of melanocytes characterized by sharply marginated white patches • associated with streaks of depigmented hair, chorioretinitis • sites: extensor surfaces and periorificial areas (mouth, eyes, anus, genitalia) Epidemiology • 1 % incidence, polygenic • 30% with positive family history • associated with other autoimmune diseases especially thyroid disease, DM, Addison's disease, pernicious anemia • may be precipitated by trauma (Koebner phenomenon) Investigations • rule out other autoimmune diseases: autoimmune thyroiditis, pernicious anemia, Addison's disease, Type I DM • Wood's lamp to detect lesions Management • sun avoidance and protection • topical immunomodulator (i.e. tacrolimus, pimecrolimus) or a topical steroid for 6-12 months prior to attempting phototherapy • camouflage preparations • PUVA • "bleaching" normal pigmented areas (total white colour) if widespread loss of pigmentation

Interventions for VItiligo Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006;

Issue 1 Study: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Patients: 1350 participants with vitiligo. Intervention: Topical steroids, oral psoralens plus sunlight, topical calcipotriol, oral PUVAsol Outcome: Repigmentation rates. Resu�s: Topical steroids had better repigmentation rates than placebo and were better than oral psoralens plus sunlight. Use of steroids are limited by their adverse effects. Oral PUVAsol was greater than placebo with sunlight. the adverse effects were not measured IRR 1 9.20, 95% CII.

Randomized Double-blind Trial of Treatment of Vitiligo Arch Dennato/ 2007; 143: 578 Study: Double·blinded randomized study.

Patients: 56 patients with nonsegmental vitiligo. Interventions: PUVA or NB·UVB twice per week Outcome: % of body surtace area that was repigmented and colour match compared to unaffected skin at 48 session of therapy, at the end of therapy, and at 1 2 months. Resu�s: NB·UVB is superior to PUVA.64% of 25 patients in the NB·UVB group showed greater than 50% improvement in BSA compared to 36% of 25 patients in the PUVA group. Colour match was greater in the NB·UVB group than the PUVA group IP 2 years; discontinue earlier if possible May consider rotating therapy with other drugs to minimize adverse effects of each drug Monitoring strategies: Obtain thio purine methyl transferase and G6PD levels before initiating; in the initial two weeks obtain methemoglobin levels and follow the blood counts carefully for the first few months Side effects: Neuropathy Hemolysis (Vitamin C and E supplementation can help prevent thisl Drug interactions: Substrate of CYP2C8/9 (minorl, 2C1 9 (minorl, 2El (minorl, 3A4 (majorl Often a dramatic response within hours

Dapsone

50-100-150 mg PO 00 tapering to 25-50 mg PO 00 to as low as 50 mg 2x/wk

Pemphigus vulgaris Dermatitis herpetiformis

Isotretinoin (Accutane Roche '"I

0.5-1 mglkglday given 00, to achieve a total dose of 1 20 mglkg (i.e. 1 6-20 weeksl

Severe nodular and/or inflammatory acne Contraindications: Teratogenic - in females, reliable contraception is necessary Acne conglobata Recalcitrant acne Generally regarded as unsafe in lactation Side effects: Night blindness, decreased tolerance to contact lenses. May transiently exacerbate acne Monitoring strategies: Baseline lipid profile and hepatic enzymes before treatment, �-HCG Drug interactions: Do not use at the same time as tetracycline or minocycline - both cause pseudotumour cerebri Discontinue vitamin A supplements Drug may be discontinued at 1 6-20 weeks when nodule count has dropped by > 70%. A second course may be initiated after 2 months prn Refractory cases may require > 3 courses

Itraconazole (Sporanox I

1 00-400 mg PO 00, depending on Tinea capitis infection treated Onychomycosis Supply: 1 00 mg tablet TCo, TCr: 200 mg PO 00 x 7 days, TP: 1 00 mg PO qd x May also be used in: Tinea corporis 28 days; or, 200 mg PO bid x 7 days, TV: 200 mg PO 00 x 7 days Tinea cruris Toenails with or without fingernail Tinea pedis involvement: 200 mg PO bid x 7 days once Pityriasis versicolor per month, repeated 3x If extensive or recalcitrant Fingemail involvement only: 200 mg bid PO x 7 days once per month, repeated 2x

Ivermectin (Mectizan '", Stromectol '" 1

200-250 1lglkg PO qwkly x 2 Take once as directed; repeat one week later

'"

Onchocerciasis (USA onlyl Not licensed for use in Canada Also effective for: Scabies

Side effects: Serious hepatotoxicity Contra indications: CHF Drug Interactions: Inhibits CYP 3A4. Increases concentration of some drugs metabolized by this enzyme Give capsules with food, capsules must be swallowed whole

No significant serious side effects Efficacious

044 Oennatology

Common Medications

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 29. Oral Therapies that are Important in Dermatology ( c ont inued ) Drug Name

Dosing Schedule

Indications

Comments

Methotrexate (Trexall'M)

1 0-25 mg qwk, PO, 1M, or IV Max: 30 mg/wk To minimize side effects, considerfolic acid supplementation: 1 mg to 5 mg six days/week

Psoriasis Atopic dermatitis Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma Lymphomatoid papulosis

Monitoring strategies: Baseline renal, liver, and hematological studies Contraindications: Pregnancy, lactation, alcohol abuse, liver dysfunction, immunodeficiency syndrome, blood dyscrasias, hypersensitivity to drug Restricted to severe, recalcitrant or disabling psoriasis not adequately responsive to other forms of therapy Especially efficacious in nail psoriasis Consider combining with cyclosporine to allow lower doses of both drugs

50-1 00 mg PO bid Taper to 50 mg PO 00 as acne lessens

Acne vulgaris Rosacea

Contraindications: Caution if impaired renal or liver function Drug interactions: Do not use with isotretinoin (Accutane'M ) Side effects: Extensive; affects multiple organ systems including CNS, teeth, eyes, bones, renal, and skin (photosensitivity, and blue pigmentation) Not be used as the sole treatment, or the first treatment Alternative to tetracycline

Tinea capitis Onychomycosis May also be used in: Tinea corporis Tinea cruris Tinea pedis � extensive or recalcitrant

Contraindications: Pregnancy, chronic or active liver disease Drug interactions: Potent inhibitor of CYP 206; use with caution when also taking beta-blockers, certain anti-arrhythmic agents, MAO I type B, and/or anti psychotics Drug concentrates rapidly in skin, hair and nails at levels associated with fungicidal activity

Acne vulgaris Rosacea Bullous pemphigoid

Contraindications: Severe renal or hepatic dysfunction Pregnancy�actation

Minocycline (Minocin'M)

Terbinafine (Lamisil'M) 250 mg PO 00 x 2 weeks Fingernails x 6 wks Toenails x 1 2 wks Confirm diagnosis prior to treatment

Tetracycline

250-500 mg PO daily (Acne) Taken 1 hour before or 2 hours after a meal

May also be effective in: Cutaneous sarcoidosis

Table 30. Topical Therapies that are Important in Dermatology Drug Name

Dosing Schedule

Indications

Comments

Calcipotriol (Dovonex'M)

0.005% cream, ointment, scalp solution, apply bid For maintenance therapy apply 00

Psoriasis

Burning, itching, skin irritation, worsening of psoriasis Avoid face, mucous membranes, eyes; wash hands after application Maximum weekly dosage of cream by age: 2-5 years - 25 g/wk 6-10 years - 50 g/wk 1 1 -1 4 years - 75 g/wk > 1 4, adults - 1 00g/wk

Imiquimod (Aldara'M)

5% cream applied 3x1wk Apply at bedtime, leave on 6-10 hours, then wash off with mild soap and water Max. duration 1 6 weeks

Genital Warts Cutaneous warts Actinic keratosis Superficial basal cell carcinoma

Avoid naturaVartificial sun exposure Local skin and application site reactions Erythema, ulceration, edema, flu-like symptoms Works best for warts on mucosal surfaces May induce inflammation and erosion

Permethrin (Kwellada'M P Lotion and Nix'M Dermal Cream)

5% cream, applied once overnight to all skin areas from neck down

Scabies (Kwellada-P Lotion, Nix'M Dermal Cream) Pediculosis (Kwellada-P Creme Rinse'M, Nix Creme Rinse'M)

00 not use in children < 2 yrs old Hypersensitivity to drug, or known sensitivity to chrysanthemums Local reactions only (resolve rapidly); including burning, pruritis Low toxicity, excellent results Consider 2nd application after 7 days

Pimecrolimus (Elidel'M)

1 .0% cream bid Use for as long as lesions persist and d/c upon resolution of symptoms

Atopic dermatitis (mild to moderate)

Burning Lacks adverse effects of steroids May be used on all skin surfaces including head, neck, and intertriginous areas Expensive

Tacrolimus topical (ProtopiC'M)

0.03% (children) or 0.1 % (adults) ointment bid Continue for duration of disease PLUS x 1 week after clearing

Atopic dermatitis (mild to moderate)

Burning Lacks adverse effects of steroids May be used on all skin surfaces including head, neck, and intertriginous areas Expensive

..... � ,

�}-------,

Vehicles • Ointment (water in oil): hydrate, greasy • Cream (oil in water): hydrate, variable • Lotion (powder in water): drying, cosmesis • Solutions (water, alcohol, propylene glycol) • Gel (solution that melts on contact with skin): drying

Toronto Notes 2010

References

References Textbooks Bolognia Jl, Jorizzo Jl, Rapini RP. editors. Textbook of Dermatology. Vol. 1 and 2. Toronto: Mosby, 2003. Fitzpatrick JE and Aeling Jl. Dermatology Secrets. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Hanley & Be�us, 2001. Goodheart H, Goodheart's Photoguide to Common Skin Disorders: Diagnosis and management. 3rd Edition. Philadelphia: lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2008 Johnson RA, Suurmond 0, Wolff K, editors. Colour atlas and synopsis of clinical dermatology. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2005. Kraft J, Ng C, Bertucci V. University of Toronto Pharmacology Handbook: Dermatology Chapter. Toronto: publication pending. lebwohl MG, Heymann WR, Berth·Jones J, Coulson I, editors. Treatment of skin disease: Comprehensive therapeutic strategies. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Mosby, 2006. Paller AS, Mancini AJ. HUlWitz clinical pediatric dermatology: A textbook of skin disorders of childhood and adolescence. 3rd ed. China: Elsevier, 2006. Wolff K, and Johnson RA, Fitzpatrick's Colour Atlas and Synopsis of Clinical Dermatology. 6th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill, 2009 Articles Cribier B et al. Erythema nodosum and associated diseases. Int J Dermatol. 1998;637·667. Cummings SR et al. Approaches to the prevention and control of skin cancer. Cancer Metastatis Rev. 1997; 1 6:309. DeShazo RD et al. Allergic reactions to drugs and biologic agents. JAMA. 1997;278:1895. Ellis C, et al. ICCAD II Faculty. Intemational Consensus Conference on Atopic Dermatitis II IICCAD II): Clinical update and current treatment strategies. Br J Dermatol. 2003; 148 1suppl 63):3·1 0. Faergemann J, Baron R. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, and diagnosis of onychomycosis. Br J Dermatol. 2003; 149 IsuppI 65):1·4. Friedmann PS. Assessment of urticaria and angio·edema. Clin Exper Allergy. 1 999;29 1suppl 3):109. Gordon Ml et al. Care of the skin at midlife: Diagnosis of pigmented lesions. Geriatrics. 1997;52:56·67. Krafchik, BR. Treatment of atopic dermatitis. J Cut Med Surg 3. 1 999; 3IsuppI 2):16·23. Mastrolorenzo A, Umano FG, Salimbeni l, et al. Atypical molluscum contagiosum in an HIV·infected patient. Int J Dermatol. 1998; 27:378·380. Price VH. Treatment of hair loss. NEJM. 1999;341 :964. Roujeau JC. Stevens·Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis are severe variants of the same disease which differs from erythema multiforme. J Dermatol. 1 997;274·276. Walsh SRA and Shear NH. Psoriasis and the new biologic agents: Interrupting a T·AP dance. CMAJ. 2004;170113):1933·1941. Whited JD et al. Does this patient have a mole or a melanoma? JAMA. 1 998;279·676. Wilkin J, Dahl M, Detmar M, Drake l, Feinstein A, Ddom R, Powell F. Standard classification of rosacea: Report of the National Rosacea Society Expert Committee on the Classification and Staging of Rosacea. J Amer Acad Dermatol. 2002;4614):584·587. Other Sources Canadian Dermatology Association 82nd Annual Conference. June 29·July 4, 2007. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Pope E. Pediatric Exanthems. lecture presentation to 2006·2007 University of Toronto Year 3 Medical Students. http://dermnetnz.org

Dermatology D45

046 Oennatology

Jfoteg

Toronto Notes 2010

DM

Diagnosti c Medica l I ma g i ng Emilie Lam, Vincent Leung, Arash Jaberi, and Derek MacFadden, chapter editors Aseem Bishnoi and Grace Yeung, associate editors Amy Shafey, EBM editor Dr. TaeBong Chung, Dr. Nasir Jaffer, Dr. Ali Naraghi, Dr. Vikram Prabhudesai and Dr. Eugene Yu, staff editors With contribution from Dr. Marc Freeman

Imaging Modalities

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X-Ray I m a g i n g Ultrasound (U/S) Mag netic Resonance I m a g i n g ( M R I ) Positron E m ission To m o g ra phy Sca ns (PET) Contrast Enha ncement

Chest Imaging

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Women's Imaging

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Chest X-Ray (CXR) Computer To m o g ra p hy (CT) C h est Lung Abnorma l ities Pu l m o na ry Vascular Abn orma lities Pleural Abnormalities Med iasti n a l Abnorm a l ities Tu bes, Lines, and Catheters

Genitourinary System

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M odal ities Breast I m a g i n g R e porti n g Breast F i n d i n g s

References .

. . Modal ities Approach to Abd o m i n a l X-Ray (AXR) Approach to Abd o m i n a l Computed To mogra phy (CT) Contrast Studies Specific Visceral Org a n I m a g i n g "itis" I m a g i n g Angiogra phy o f G I Tract

Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

Interventional Radiology

Va scular Procedures N o nvasc u l a r I nterve ntions

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Modal ities Gynecological I m a g i n g Selected Pathol ogy

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Modal ities Approach to the CT Head Selected Pathol ogy

Musculoskeletal System (MSK)

Modal ities Approach to I nterpretation of Bone X-Rays Tra u m a Arthritis Bone Tu m o u r I nfecti on Meta bolic Bone Disease

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Thyroid Respiratory Cardiac Bone Abdo m e n I nflam mation and I nfection Brain

Please see the Essentials of Medical Imaging software for illustrations o f the content i n this chapter

Toronto Notes 2010

Diagnostic Medical Imaging OM1

DM2 Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Imaging Modalities

Toronto Notes 2010

I maging Moda l ities X-Ray I maging Typical Effective Doses from Diagnostic Medical Exposures Diagnostic Procedure

X-ray examinations: Limbs and joints Chest Isingle PA film) Skull Thoracic spine Lumbar spine Hip Pel�s Abdomen IVU Barium swallow Barium follow through Barium enema CT head CT chest CT abdomen or peNis Radionuclide studies: Lung ventilation IXe-133) Lung perfusion ITc-99m) �dney ITc-99m) Thyroid ITc-99m) Bone lTc-99m) Dyramic cardiac ITc-99m) PEThead IF-IB FOG)

Equivalent Number of Chest x-rays

Approximate Equ�alent Period of Natural Background Radiation H.1 mSv/year)

0 (water) > -120 (fat) > -1000 (air) • adjusting the "window width" (range of Hounsfield units displayed) and "window level" (midpoint value of the window width) can maximally visualize certain anatomical structures (e.g. CT chest can be viewed using "lung", "soft tissue" and "bone" settings) • contraindications: pregnancy (relative), contraindications to contrast agents • advantages: spiral CT has fast data acquisition, CT angiography is less invasive than conventional angiography, delineates surrounding soft tissues, excellent at delineating bones, excellent at identifying lung nodules / liver metastases, may be used to guide biopsies, helical CT may allow 3D reconstruction • disadvantages: high radiation exposure, IV contrast injection, anxiety of patient when going through scanner, relatively high cost, limited availability compared to plain films

Source: European Commission, Radiation Protection Report l iB, "Referral guidelinesforimaging_" Directorate-General for the Environment of the European Commission, 1000.

U ltrasound (U/S) • high frequency sound waves are transmitted from a transducer and passed through

• • • •

• • •



tissues; reflections of the sound waves are picked up by the transducer and transformed into images reflection occurs when the sound waves pass through tissue interfaces of different acoustic densities such that part of the wave energy is reflected as an "echo" structures are described based on their echogenicity; hyperechoic structures appear bright whereas hypoechoic structures appear dark on brightness-modulated images higher ultrasound frequencies result in greater resolution but greater attenuation (i.e. deeper structures more difficult to visualize) artifacts: acoustic shadowing refers to the loss of information below an interface (e.g. gallstone) that strongly reflects sound waves; enhancement refers to the increase in reflection amplitude from structures that lie below a structure (e.g. cyst) that weakly attenuates ultrasound Doppler: determines the velocity of blood flowing past the transducer based on the Doppler effect Duplex scan: Doppler + visual images advantages: relatively low cost, non-invasive, no radiation, real time imaging, may be used for guided biopsies, many different imaging planes (axial, sagittal), determines cystic versus solid disadvantages: highly operator-dependent, air in bowel may prevent imaging of midline structures in the abdomen, may be limited by patient habitus

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DM3

Imaging Modalities

Toronto Notes 2010

Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( M R I )

--------�

• non-invasive technique that does not use ionizing radiation • able to produce images in virtually any plane • patient is placed in a magnetic field; protons (H+) align themselves along the plane of

magnetization due to intrinsic polarity. A pulsed radiofrequency beam is subsequently turned on which deflects all the protons off their aligned axes due to absorption of energy from the radiofrequency beam. When the radio frequency beam is turned off, the protons return to their pre-excitation axis, giving off the energy they absorbed. It is this energy that is measured with a detector and interpreted by a computer to generate MR images • the MR image reflects the signal intensity as picked up by the receiver. This signal intensity is dependent on: 1. hydrogen density: tissues with low hydrogen density (cortical bone, lung) generate little to no MR signal and appear black. Tissues with high hydrogen density (water) appear white on MRI 2. magnetic relaxation times (T1 and T2): reflect quantitative alterations in MR signal strength due to intrinsic properties of the tissue and its surrounding chemical and physical environment (see Table 1) Table 1. Signal Intensities in T1- and T2-weighted M R Imaging Tissue or Body Fluid

T1 -weighted

T2-weighted

Gas

Nil

Nil

Mineral-rich tissue (e.g. cortical bone, calculi)

Nil

Nil

Collagenous tissue (e.g. ligaments, tendons, scars)

Low

Low

Hemosiderin

Low

Low

Fat

High

Medium to high

Protein-containing fluid (e.g. abscess, complex cyst)

Medium

High

Synovium

Medium

High

Nucleus pulposus

Medium

High

High bound-water tissues Muscle, hyaline cartilage Liver, pancreas, adrenal

Low

Low to medium

High free-water tissues CSF, urine, bile, edema Simple cysts GU organs, including kidney Thyroid

Low

High

Low

Low

Low

High

High High

Low High

Low

High

Medium / Isointense

Medium / Isointense

Hemorrhage Hyperacute « 24 hours): hyperacute venous hemorrhage is slightly less bright than arterial on T2 due to deoxyhemoglobin Acute (1-1) days) reflects deoxyhemoglobin Chronic (> 7 days) reflects methemoglobin Intracellular Extracellular Neuropathology Ischemia Edema Demyelination Most malignant tumours Meningioma

�) �'

Remember that water is "white" on T2 as ''World War II"

Positron Em ission Tomography Scans (PET)

-------

• non-invasive technique that involves exposure to ionizing radiation (-7mSv) • nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces images of functional processes in the

body

• positron-producing radioisotope, such as 18-fluorodeoxyglucose (18-FDG) is chemically

incorporated into a metabolically active molecule (glucose), injected into subject, travels to target organ, accumulates in tissues of interest, and radioactive substance begins to decay, sending off gamma rays which are detected by PET scanner • advantages: shows metabolism and function of tissues (not only anatomic), allows oncologic diagnosis, staging, restaging (lung, breast, colorectal, lymphoma, melanoma, esophageal, head and neck), has oncologic predictive and prognostic value (breast, lymphoma), can evaluate cardiac viability • disadvantage: cost, ionizing radiation, lack of anatomic reference (unless used with CT / MRI) • contraindications: pregnancy

DM4 Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Imaging Modalities/Chest Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Contrast En hancement

�' Acute Reactions to IV Contrast Hot BUNS Hypotension Bradycardia U rticaria Nausea/vomiting Seizures

Figure 1 . Location of Fissures. Mediastinal Structures and Bony Landmarks

Contrast Agents in X-Ray Imaging • contrast media are used to examine structures that do not have inherent contrast differences relative to their surroundings • contrast can be administered by mouth (anterograde), rectum (retrograde) or intravenous injection prior to x-ray imaging • contrast agents used include barium sulphate (GI studies), iodine (intravenous pyelogram (IVP). endoscopic retrograde cholangio-pancreatography (ERCP), hysterosalpingography) and gas (air or CO2 used in GI double contrast exams) Table 2. Types of Contrast Routes Advantages

Disadvantages

Contraindications

Suppository (Barium Enema)

Delineates intraluminal anatomy. may demonstrate patency. lumen integrity. or large filling defects; under fluoroscopy. may also give information on function of an organ

Risk of contrast reaction; may cause renal failure in dehydrated patients with diabetes. myeloma or pre· existing renal disease

Previous adverse reaction to contrast. renal failure. multiple myeloma. dehydration. diabetes. severe heart failure; barium enema is also contraindicated in toxic megacolon. acute colitis. and suspected perforation (use Hypaque '")

IV Contrast

Same as above

Same as above

Previous adverse reaction to contrast. renal failure. multiple myeloma. dehydration. diabetes. severe heart failure

Contrast Agents in MR Imaging • gadolinium-chelates used to highlight the blood vessels or highly vascular structures (e.g. tumours) Figure 1 A.

Contrast Reactions • contrast agents are generally safe; adverse reactions exist but they are uncommon anaphylactoid reaction contrast induced nephropathy • treatment: diphenhydramine ± IV epinephrine • •

Chest Imaging Chest X-Ray (CXR)

Figure 1 B.

a1 a2 aa apw as ca cI co cpa di g IVC

la Ibr Ipa Iv mf mi p3 p4 pa ra rbr rpa rv

sc sp st svc tr vb

anterior 1 st rib anterior 2nd rib aortic arch aorto·pulmonary window anterior airspace carina clavicle coracoid process costophrenic angle diaphragm gastric bubble inferior vena cava left atrium left mainstem bronchus left pulmonary artery left ventricle major fissure minor fissure posterior 3rd rib posterior 4th rib main pulmonary artery right artrium right mainstem bronchus right pulmonary artery right ventricle scapula spinous process sternum superior vena cava trachea vertebral body

STANDARD VIEWS • posteroanterior (PA): patient stands erect with anterior chest against film plate to minimize distortion of the heart size • lateral: patient stands with arms above the head and left side against the film plate better visualization of retrocardiac space and thoracic spine more sensitive at picking up pleural effusions helps localize lesions when combined with PA view • anteroposterior (AP): patient is supine with x-ray beam anterior for bedridden patients (e.g. in ER, ICU or general ward) enlarged cardiac silhouette and generally a lower quality film than PA • lateral decubitus: to assess for pleural effusion and pneumothorax in bedridden patients • lordotic: angled beam allowing better visualization of apices normally obscured by the clavicles and anterior ribs •

• •





I

Film

Posterior·a nterior position

Figure 2. CXR Views

f

� �

Anterior-posterior position

Lateral position

Lateral decubitus position

:8 "" ©

Chest Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DMS

ANATOMY Localizing Lesions • silhouette sign: loss of normal interfaces due to lung pathology (consolidation, atelectasis, mass), which can be used to localize disease in specific lung segments. Note that pleural or mediastinal disease can also produce the silhouette sign Table 3. Localization Using the Silhouette Sign Location of Lung Pathology

Interface Lost Superior vena cava / right superior mediastinum

Right upper lobe

Right heart border

Right middle lobe

Right hemidiaphragm

Right lower lobe

Aortic knob / left superior mediastinum

Left upper lobe

Left heart border

Lingula

Left hemidiaphragm

Left lower lobe

APPROACH TO CXR Basics • ID: patient name, MRN, sex, age • date of exam • markers: R and / or L • technique: view (e.g. PA, Ap, lateral), supine or erect • indications for the study • comparison: date of previous study for comparison (if available) • quality of film: inspiration, penetration and rotation Analysis • tubes and lines: check position and be alert for pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum • soft tissues: neck, axillae, pectoral muscles, breasts / nipples, chest wall nipple markers can help identify nipples (may mimic lung nodules) amount of soft tissue, presence of masses and air (subcutaneous emphysema) • abdomen (see GI imaging, DMIO): free air under the diaphragm herniation of abdominal contents • bones: C-spine, thoracic spine, shoulders, ribs, sternum lytic lesions and fractures • mediastinum: trachea, heart, great vessels, mediastinum, spine cardiac enlargement, tracheal shift, tortuous aorta • hila: pulmonary vessels, mainstem and segmental bronchi, lymph nodes • lungs: lung parenchyma, pleura, diaphragm lungs on lateral film should become darker when going inferiorly over the spine comment on abnormal lung opacity, pleural effusions or thickening right hemidiaphragm usually higher than left • •

• •











RUL

'"'

Chest X-Ray Interpretation

RML "'7'L--4- RLL

Front AP

Right-Lateral

jl)[J �

L



Boo' "

Figure 3. Location of Lobes of the Lung

Basics ABCDEF • AP, PA or other view • Body position/rotation • Confirm name • Date • Exposure/quality • Films for comparison

LUL LLL

Left-Lateral

Legend: RUL: Right Upper Lobe RML: Right Middle Lobe RLL: Right Lower Lobe LUL: Left Upper Lobe LLL: Left Lower Lobe

Analysis ABCDEF • Airways, and hilar Adenopathy • Bones and Breast shadows • Cardiac silhoutte and Costophrenic angle • Diaphragm and Digestive tract • Edges of pleura • Fields (lung fields)

DM6 Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Chest Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Computed Tomography (CT) Chest APPROACH TO CT CH EST • soft tissue window thyroid, chest wall, pleura heart: chambers, coronary artery calcifications, pericardium vessels: aorta, pulmonary artery, smaller vasculature lymph nodes: mediastinal, axillary • bone window look at vertebrae, sternum, manubrium, ribs for fractures, lytic lesions, sclerosis • lung window central-trachea: patency, secretions bronchial trees: anatomic variants, mucus plugs, airway collapse lung parenchyma: fissures, nodules •

• •





• • •

TYPES OF CT CHEST Table 4. Types of CT Chest Standard

High Resolution

Low Dose

CT Angiography

Advantage

Scans full lung very quickly « 1 minute)

Thinner slices provide high definition of lung parenchyma

1/5th the radiation

Iodinated contrast highlights vasculature

Disadvantage

Poor at evaluating diffuse disease

Only 5-1 0% lung is sampled

Decreased detail

Contrast can cause severe allergic reaction and is nephrotoxic

Contrast

±

No

No

Yes

Indication

CXR abnormality Pleural & mediastinal abnormality Lung cancer staging Follow up metastases Empyema vs. abscess

Hemoptysis Diffuse lung disease (eg. sarcoidosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pneumoconiosis) Pulmonary fibrosis Normal CXR but abnormal PFTs Characterize solitary pulmonary nodule

Pulmonary embolism Screening Follow up infections, Aortic aneurysms Aortic dissection lung transplant, metastases

Figure 4. CT Thorax Windows

Lung Abnormalities

..... , ,

�}-------,

DDx of Airspace Disease o Pus (e.g. pneumonia) o Fluid (e.g. pulmonary edema) o Blood (e.g. pulmonary hemorrhage) o Cells (e.g. bronchioalveolar carcinoma; lymphoma) o Protein (e.g. alveolar proteinosis)

..... ' ,

�}-------,

DDx of Interstitial Disease o Pulmonary edema o Collagen disease (e.g. fibrosis) o Sarcoidosis o Pneumoconiosis o Metastatic disease (e.g. Iymphangitic permeation) o Inflammatory conditions (e.g. early viral pneumonia, interstitial pneumonia)

ATELECTASIS • pathophysiology: collapse of alveoli due to restricted breathing, blockage of bronchi, external compression or poor surfactant • signs increased opacity of involved segment/lobe, silhouette sign volume loss: fissure deviation, hilar / mediastinal displacement, diaphragm elevation vascular crowding compensatory hyperinflation of remaining normal lung air bronchograms (also seen in consolidation) • differential obstructive (most common): air distal to obstruction is reabsorbed causing alveolar collapse • endobronchial lesion, foreign body, inflammation (granulomatous infections, pneumoconiosis, sarcoidosis, radiation injury) or mucous plug (seen in cystic fibrosis) compressive • tumour, bulla, effusion, enlarged heart, lymphadenopathy traction (cicatrization): due to scarring, which distorts alveoli and contracts the lung adhesive: due to lack of surfactant • hyaline membrane disease, prematurity passive (relaxation): a result of air or fluid in the pleural space • pleural effusion, pneumothorax • management: in the absence of a known etiology, persisting atelectasis must be investigated (CT thorax) to rule out a bronchogenic carcinoma • •

• •













CONSOLIDATION • pathophysiology: fluid (water, blood), inflammatory exudates, or tumour in alveoli • signs air bronchograms: lucent branching bronchi visible through opacification airspace nodules: fluffy, patchy, poorly marginated appearance with later tendency to coalesce, may take on lobar or segmental distribution • •

Chest Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DM7

• differential

fluid: pulmonary edema, blood (trauma, vasculitis, bleeding disorder, pulmonary infarct) inflammatory exudates: bacterial infections, TB, allergic hypersensitivity alveolitis, BOOp, ABPA, aspiration, sarcoidosis tumour: bronchioalveolar carcinoma, lymphoma • management: in the absence of a known etiology, persisting atelectasis must be investigated (CT thorax) to rule out a bronchogenic carcinoma •





INTERSTITIAL DISEASE • pathophysiology: pathological process involving the interlobular connective tissue (i.e. "scaffolding of the lung") • signs linear: fine lines caused by thickened connective tissue septae • Kerley A: long thin lines in upper lobes • Kerley B: short horizontal lines extending from lateral lung margin • Kerley C: diffuse linear pattern throughout lung nodular: 1-5 mm well-defined nodules distributed evenly throughout lung. Seen in malignancy, pneumoconiosis and with granulomas (sarcoidosis, miliary TB) reticular (honeycomb): parenchyma replaced by thin-walled cysts suggesting extensive destruction of pulmonary tissue and fibrosis. Seen in IPF, asbestosis and CVD • NOTE: watch for pneumothorax as a complication reticulonodular: combination of reticular and nodular patterns may also see signs of airspace disease (atelectasis and consolidation) • differential occupational / environmental exposure • inorganic: asbestosis, coal miner's pneumoconiosis, silicosis, berylliosis, talc pneumoconiosis • organic: bird fancier's lung, farmer's lung (moldy hay) autoimmune: CVD, IBD, celiac diseae, vasculitis drug-related: antibiotics (cephalosporins, nitrofurantoin), NSAIDs, pheytoin, carbamazepine, fluoxetine, chemotherapy, heroin, cocaine, methadone idiopathic: hypersensitivity pneumonitis, IPF, BOOP • management high resolution CT thorax biopsy •





• •













PULMONARY NODULE (see Table 5) • signs: round opacity ± silhoutte sign note: do not mistake nipple shadows for nodules; if in doubt, repeat CXR with nipple markers • differential extrapulmonary density: nipple, skin lesion, electrode, pleural mass, bony lesion solitary nodule: • tumour: carcinoma, hamartoma, metastasis, bronchial adenoma • inflammation: histoplasmoma, tuberculoma, coccidioidomycosis • vascular: AV fistula, pulmonary varix (dilated pulmonary vein), infarct, embolism multiple nodules: metastases, abscess, granulomatous lung disease (TB, fungal, sarcoid, rheumatoid nodules, silicosis, Wegener's disease) • management clinical information and CT appearance determine level of suspicion of malignancy • if high probability, invasive testing (fine needle aspiration, transbronchial / transthoracic biopsy) is indicated • if low probability, repeat CXR or CT in 1-3 months and then every 6 months for 2 years; if no change, then >99% chance benign •









Table 5. Characteristics of Benign and Malignant Pulmonary Nodules Malignant

Benign

Margin

III-defined/spiculated ("corona radiata")

Well-defined

Contour

Lobulated

Smooth

Calcification

Eccentric or stippled

Diffuse, central, popcorn, concentric

Doubling Time

20-460 days

< 20 days or > 460 days

Other Features

Cavitation, collapse, adenopathy, pleural effusion, lytic bone lesions, smoking history

Size

>3 cm

1 5mm, eccentric cavity & shaggy internal margins

No

Satellite Lesions

No

Yes

0;;'

DDx for Cavitating Lung Nodule

WEIRD HOLES Wegener's syndrome Embolic (pulmonary, septic) Infection (anaerobes, pneumocystis, TB) Rheumatoid (necrobiotic nodules) Developmental cysts (sequestration) Histiocytosis Oncological Lymphangioleiomyomatosis Environmental, occupational Sarcoid

OMS Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Chest Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Pulmonary Vascu lar Abnormal ities PULMONARY EDEMA • signs vascular redistribution/ enlargement, pleural effusion, cardiomegaly (may be present in cardiogenic edema and fluid overloaded states) edema fluid initially collects in interstitium: • loss of definition of pulmonary vasculature • peribronchial cuffing • Kerley B lines • reticulonodular pattern • thickening of interlobar fissures as pulmonary edema progresses, fluid begins to collect in alveoli causing diffuse air space disease often in a "bat wing" or "butterfly" pattern in perihilar regions with tendency to spare the outermost lung fields • differential: cardiogenic (CHF), renal failure, volume overload, non-cardiogenic (ARDS) •





Figure 5. Pleural Effusion in Lateral View

PULMONARY EMBOUSM • signs: Westermark sign (localized pulmonary oligemia), Hampton's hump (triangular peripheral infarct), enlarged RV and RA, pulmonary edema, atelectasis, pleural effusion • management: V /Q scan, CT angiography (look for filling defect)

Pleura l Abnormal ities PLEURAL EFFUSION • sensitivity of plain film views lateral decubitus: most sensitive for pleural effusion (minimum 25 mL) upright lateral: pleural fluid becomes visible at 50 mL as a meniscus in the posterior costophrenic sulcus PA: the meniscus becomes visible on the posterior-anterior projection at a volume of about 200 mL supine film with effusion will show diffuse haziness • a horizontal fluid level is seen only in a hydropneumothorax (both fluid and air within pleural cavity) • effusion may exert mass effect, shift trachea and mediastinum to opposite side, or cause atelectasis of adjacent lung • U / 5 is superior to plain film for detection of small effusions and may also aid in thoracentesis • •



Figure 6. Pneumothorax

��------�

Elevated Hemidiaphragm suggests: • Intra·abdominal process • Pregnancy • Diaphragmatic paralysis • Atelectasis • Lung resection • Pneumonectomy Pleural effusion also may result in apparent elevation.

Depressed Hemidiaphragm suggests: • Asthma • COPD • Large pleural effusion • Tumour



PNEUMOTHORAX • signs upright chest film allows visualization of visceral pleura as curvilinear line paralleling chest wall, separating partially collapsed lung from pleural air more obvious on expiratory (increased contrast between lung and air) or lateral decubitus film (air collects superiorly) more difficult to detect on supine film; look for the "deep (costophrenic) sulcus" sign, "double diaphragm" sign (dome and anterior portions of diaphragm outlined by lung and pleural air, respectively), hyperlucent hemithorax, sharpening of adjacent mediastinal structures mediastinal shift may occur if air is under tension ("tension pneumothorax" ) • differential: spontaneous (tall & thin males, smokers), iatrogenic (lung biopsy, ventilation, CVP line insertion), trauma (associated with rib fractures), emphysema, malignancy, honeycomb lung •







ASBESTOS • asbestos exposure may cause various pleural abnormalities including benign plaques (most common) that may calcify, diffuse pleural fibrosis, effusion, and malignant mesothelioma

M ediastinal Abnormal ities ,,'

DDx Anterior Mediastinal Mass

4 Ts Thyroid Thymus Teratoma "'Terrible"' lymphoma

MEDIASTINAL MASS • the mediastinum is divided into three compartments; this provides the approach to the differential diagnosis of a mediastinal mass • anterior (anterior line formed by anterior trachea and posterior border of heart and great vessels) 4 Ts: thyroid, thymic neoplasm (e.g. thymoma), teratoma, and "terrible" lymphoma cardiophrenic angle mass differential: thymic cyst, epicardial fat pad, foramen of Morgagni hernia •



Chest Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DM9

• middle (extending behind anterior mediastinum to a line 1 cm posterior to the anterior

border of the thoracic vertebral bodies) esophageal carcinoma, esophageal duplication cyst metastatic disease lymphadenopathy (all causes) hiatus hernia bronchogenic cyst • posterior (posterior to the line described above) neurogenic tumour (e.g. neurofibroma, schwannoma) multiple myeloma pheochromocytoma neurenteric cyst, thoracic duct cyst lateral meningocele Bochdalek hernia extramedullary hematopoiesis • in addition, any compartment may give rise to lymphoma, lung cancer, aortic aneurysm or other vascular abnormalities, abscess, and hematoma •







• • • •





ENLARGED CARDIAC SILHOUETTE • heart borders on PA view, right heart border is formed by right atrium; left heart border is formed by left atrium and left ventricle on lateral view, anterior heart border is formed by right ventricle; posterior border is formed by left atrium (superior to left ventricle) and left ventricle • cardiothoracic ratio greatest transverse dimension of the central shadow relative to the greatest transverse dimension of the thoracic cavity in an adult, good quality erect PA chest film, cardiothoracic ratio of >0.5 is abnormal; DDx of ratio >0.5 • cardiomegaly (myocardial dilatation or hypertrophy) • pericardial effusion • poor inspiratory effort/ low lung volumes • pectus excavatum ratio 7 cm, splayed carina (late sign) • right ventricular enlargement elevation of cardiac apex from diaphragm anterior enlargement leading to loss of retrosternal air space on lateral increased contact of RV against sternum • left ventricular enlargement displacement of cardiac apex inferiorly and posteriorly "boot-shaped" heart Rigler's sign: on lateral film, from junction of lYe and heart at level of the left hemidiapnragm, measure 1.8 cm posteriorly then 1 .8 cm superiorly � if cardiac shadow extends beyond this point, then LV enlargement is suggested [Note: not to be confused with Rigler' s sign in the abdomen] •

=

































Tubes, Lines, and Catheters • provides information about patient health status • ensure appropriate placement and assess potential complications of lines and tubes • avoid mistaking a line / tube for pathology (e.g. oxygen rebreather mask for pneumothoraces)

Central Venous Catheter • primarily used to administer fluids, medications, and vascular access for hemodialysis also monitor central venous pressure • if monitoring pressure - catheter tip must be proximal to venous valves • tip must be located distal to (above) right atrium as this prevents catheter from producing arrhythmias or perforating wall of atrium • tip of well positioned central venous catheter projects over silhouette of sve in a zone demarcated superiorly by the anterior first rib end and clavicle and inferiorly by top of RA • course should parallel course of sve - if ap pears to bend as it approaches wall of sve or appears perpendicular possibility of cath eter damaging and ultimately perforating wall of SVe • complications: pneumothorax, bleeding (mediastinal, pleural), air embolism

..... ' , '�------. DDx of increased Cardiothoracic Ratio • Cardiomegaly (myocardial dilatation or hypertrophy) • Pericardial effusion • Poor inspiratory effort/low lung volumes • Pectus excavatum

DM10 Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Toronto Notes 2010

Chest Imaging/Gastrointestinal Tract

Endotracheal Tube • frontal chest film: tube projects over trachea and shallow oblique or lateral chest radiograph will help determine position in 3 dimensions • progressive gaseous distention of stomach on repeat imaging is concerning for esophageal intubation • tip should be located 4 cm above tracheal carina - avoids selective intubation of right/ left mainstem bronchus as patient moves, low enough so it does not rub against vocal chords • tube should not be inflated to point that it continuously and completely occludes tracheal lumen as it may cause pressure induced necrosis of tracheal mucosa and predispose to rupture or stenosis • maximum inflation diameter 6.5 cm) with mucosal changes including foci of edema, ulceration and pseudopolyps, loss of normal haustral pattern • • • •

=

=

=







,"'

Approach to AXR IT Free ABDO Identification Technical factors Free fluid Air Bowel wall thickening Densities (bones, calcifications) Organs

=

Table 7. Abnormal Air on Abdominal X-Ray Appearance

Common Etiologies

Intraperitoneal (pneumoperitoneum I

Upright film: air under diaphragm LLD film: air between liver and abdominal wall supine film: gas outlines of structures not normally seen: • Inner & outer bowel wall (Rigler's sign I • Falciform ligament • Peritoneal cavity ("football" signl

Perforated viscus Postoperative (up to 10 days to be resorbedl

Retroperitoneal

Gas outlining retroperitoneal structures allowing increased visualization: • Psoas shadows • Renal shadows

Perforation of retroperitoneal segments of bowel: duodenal ulcer, post-colonoscopy

Air Extraluminal

Intramural Lucent air streaks in bowel wall, 2 types: (pneumatosis intestinalisl 1 . Linear 2. Rounded (cystoides typeI

,,

Linear: ischemia, necrotizing enterocolitis rounded!cystoides (generally benignl: • Primary (idiopathicl • Secondary to CO PO

Intraluminal

Dilated loops of bowel, air-fluid levels

Adynamic (paralytic I ileus, mechanical bowel obstruction (see Table 81

Loculated

Mottled, localized in abnormal position without normal bowel features

Abscess (evaluate with CTI

Biliary

Air centrally over liver

Sphincterotomy, gallstone ileus, erosive peptic ulcer, cholangitis, emphysematous cholecystitis

Portal venous

Air peripherally over liver in branching pattern

Bowel ischemialinfarction

'

,

,�------,

Biliary VS. Portal Venous Air "Go with the flow": air follows the flow of bile or portal venous blood Biliary air is most prominent centrally over the liver. Portal venous air is most prominent peripherally.

DM12 Diagnostic Medical Imaging ....

'

,

9�------,

Ileocecal Valve (ICV) Function in Large Bowel Obstruction

Competent ICV Distention of large bowel between obstruction and ICV; small bowel unaffected Higher risk of perforation, especially with cecal distention > 1 0 cm Incompetent ICV Distention of large and small bowel

Toronto Notes 2010

Gastrointestinal Tract Table B. Adynamic Ileus vs. Mechanical Obstruction Feature

Adynamic Ileus

Mechanical Obstruction

Calibre of bowel loops

Normal or dilated

Usually dilated

Air-Fluid levels (erect and LLD films only)

Same level in a single loop

Multiple air fluid levels giving "step ladder" appearance, dynamic (indicating peristalsis present) "String of pearls" lrow of small gas accumulations in the dilated valvulae conniventes)

Distribution of bowel gas

Air throughout GI tract generalized or localized In a localized ileus le,g, pancreatitis, appendicitis): dilated "sentinel loop" remains in the same location on serial films, usually adjacent to the area of inflammation

Dilated bowel up to the point of obstruction (i.e, transition point) No air distal to obstructed segment "hairpin" (1 80') turns in bowel



• B

bowel wall thickening increased soft tissue density in bowel wall, thumb-like indentations in bowel wall "thumb- printing", or a pic ket-fence appearance of the valvulae conniventes ("stacked coin" appearance) encountered in lED, infection, ischemia, hypoproteinemic states, and submucosal hemorrhage • D = densities bones - look for gross abnormalities of lower ribs, vertebral column, and bony pelvis abnormal calcifications - approach by location • RUQ: renal stone, adrenal calcification, gallstone, porcelain gallbladder • RLQ: ureteral stone, appendicolith, gallstone ileus • LUQ: renal stone, adrenal calcification, tail of pancreas • LLQ: ureteral stone • central: aorta l aortic aneurysm, pancreas, lymph nodes • pelvis: phleboliths (calcified veins), uterine fibroids, bladder stones • 0 organs kidney, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, urinary bladder, psoas shadow outlines can occasionally be identified because they are surrounded by more lucent fat, but all are best visualized with other imaging modalities (CT, MRI) =







=





Approach to Abdominal Computed Tomog raphy (CT) 1 . look through all images in Gestalt fashion to identify any obvious abnormalities 2. look at each organ/ structure individually, from top to bottom evaluating size and shape of each area of increased or decreased density 3. evaluate the following soft tissue window • liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas • adrenals, kidneys, ureters, and bladder • stomach, duodenum, small bowel mesentery, and colon / appendix • retroperitoneum: aorta, vena cava, and mesenteric vessels; look for adenopathy in vicinity of vessels • peritoneal cavity for fluid or masses • abdominal wall and adjacent soft tissue lung window • visible lung (bases) bone window • vertebrae, spinal cord, and bony pelvis •





CT and Bowel Obstruction • cause of bowel obstruction rarely found on plain films - CT is best choice for imaging CT Colonography (virtual colonoscopy) • emerging imaging technique for evaluation of intraluminal colonic masses (i.e. polyps, tumours) • CT scan of the abdomen after the instillation of air into a prepped colon • computer rendering of 2-dimensional CT images into a 3-dimensional intraluminal view of the colon in order to look for polyps • lesions seen on 3D rendering correlated with 2D axial images • indications: surveillance in low-risk patients, incomplete colonoscopy, staging of identified colonic lesions

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DM13

Gastrointestinal Tract

Toronto Notes 2010

Contrast Studies Table 9 , Types o f Contrast Studies Assessment

Diseases

CelVical esophagus

Aspiration, webs, Zenker's diverticulum, cricopharyngeal bar, laryngeal tumour

Dysphagia, rio GERD, post esophageal surgery

Thoracic esophagus

Achalasia, hiatus hernia, esophagitis, cancer, esophageal tear

Double contrast study 1 ) barium to coat mucosa, then 2) gas pills for distention Patient NPD after midnight

Dyspepsia, investigate possible UGI bleed, weight loss/anemia, post gastric surgery

Thoracic esophagus, stomach, Ulcers, neoplasms, filling defects duodenum

Barium Enema

Colon filled retrograde with barium and air or CO, Bowel prep the night before procedure

Altered bowel habits, suspected LGI bleed, weight loss, anemia, rio large bowel obstruction, suspected perforation, check surgical anastamosis, history of polyps

Large bowel Rectum may be obscured by tube - therefore must do sigmoidoscopy to exclude rectal lesions

Diverticulosis, neoplasms, lBO, intussusception (can be reduced with barium or air enema), volvulus

Hypaque Enema

Water soluble contrast with or without bowel prep

Post operatively to assess anastomoses for leak/obstruction, perforation

Large bowel

Perforation, obstruction

Small Bowel Follow Through

Single contrast images following UGI series

GI bleed with nondiagnostic upper GI serieslbarium enema, weight loss! anemia, diarrhea, lBO, malabsorption, abdominal pain, post small bowel surgery

Entire small bowel

Neoplasms, lBO, malabsorption, infection

Small Bowel Enema (enteroclysis)

Duodenal intubation 1 ) barium/methyl cellulose infusion and fluoroscopic evaluation 2) CT enteroclysis with water infusion

lBO, malabsorption, weight loss/ anemia, Meckel's diverticulum

Entire small bowel

As above

Study

Description

Cine Esophagogram

Contrast agent swallowed Recorded for later playback and analysis

Barium Swallow

Contrast agent swallowed under fluoroscopy, selective images captured

Upper GI Series

Indications

Specific Viscera l Organ I maging Liver • v iS: assessment of cysts, abscesses, tumours, biliary tree • CT or MRI ± IV contrast: differentiation of benign hemangiomas from primary liver tumours and metastases, cirrhosis, portal hypertension • findings altered liver size, contour, density fatty infiltration: liver decreased density advanced cirrhosis: liver small and irregular (fibrous scarring, segmental atrophy, regenerating nodules) varices (caput medusa, esophageal varices, porto-systemic shunts, dilated splenic vein) splenomegaly and ascites • investigation of liver masses require contrast to visualize certain hepatic masses 3 phases of enhancement following IV contrast bolus • arterial phase (20-30 sec) - early and late arterial phase possible on multidetector CT - late arterial phase best for discriminating hypervascular HCC • portal venous phase (60-70 sec) - provides maximum enhancement of hepatic tissue - most tumours supplied by hepatic artery and relatively hypovascular, therefore, appear as low-attenuation masses in portal venous phase • equilibrium phase (120-180 sec) •













.... ' ,

.�------.

Normal liver appears more dense than spleen on CT. If less dense, suspect fatty infiltration,

DM14 Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Gastrointestinal Tract

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 0. Imaging of Liver Masses '0' Liver Mass DDx 5 Hs HCC Hydatid cyst Hemangioma Hepatic adenoma Hyperplasia (focal nodular)

Revised Estimates of Diagnos�c Test Senstivity and Specfficity in Suspected Biliary Tract Disease Archives of Internal Medicine. 1 54(22): 2573-81, 1994 Nov 28 Purpose: To assess the sensitivity and specrricity of tests used to diagnose cholelithiasis and acute cholecystitis, including ultrasonography, oral cholecystography, radionucleotide scanning with Technetium, MRI, CT. Study Characteristics: Meta-analysis of 30 studies evaluating the use of different imaging modalities in the diagnosis of biliary tract disease. Participants: No limits_ Main Outcomes: Sensitivity and specrricity of the different imaging modalities, using the gold standard of surgery, autopsy, or 3 month clinical follow-up for cholelnhiasis. For acute cholecystitis, pathologic findings, confirmation of an alternate disease, or clinical resolution during hospitalization for cholecystitis were uses as the standard. Results: For evaluating cholelithiasis, U/S had the best unadjusted sensnivity (0.97; 95% CI, 0.95 to 0.99) and specificity (0.95, 95% CI, 0_88 to 1 .00) and adjusted (for verification bias) sensnivity (0.84, 95% CI 0.76 to 0_92) and specificity (0.99; 95% CI, 0097 to 1 .00). For evaluating acute cholecystitis, radionucleotide scanning has the best sensitivity (0.97; 95% CI, 0.96 to 0_98) and specificity (0.90; 95% CI, 0.86 to 0_95). Conclusions: U/S is the test of choice for diagnosing cholelithiasis and radionucleotide scanning is the superior test for diagnosing acute cholecystitis_

U/S

Mass

CT

Metastases

Multiple masses of variable echotexture

Usually low attenuation on contrast enhanced scan

HCC

Single/multiple masses, or diffuse infiltration

Small: hypervascular enhances in arterial phase Large: low-attenuation

Simple Cyst

Well-defined, anechoic, acoustic enhancement

Well-defined, low attenuation, homogenous

Abscess

Poorly defined, irregular margin, hypoechoic contents

Low-attenuation lesion with an irregular enhancing wall

Hydatid Cyst

Simple!multiloculated cyst

Low-attenuation simple or multiloculated cyst; calcification

Hemangioma

Homogenous hyperechoic mass

Peripheral globular enhancement in arterial phase scans; central-filling and persistent enhancement on delayed scans

Focal Nodular Hyperplasia

Well-defined mass, central scar seen in 50%

Equal attenuation to liver in portal venous phase, enhancement in arterial phase

Hepatic Adenoma

Most common in young women taking oral contraceptives. Well-defined mass with hyperechoic areas due to hemorrhage

Well-defined margin with heterogeneous texture due to hemorrhage or fat

Spleen • VIS, CT, and / or nuclear medicine scan • primary lymphoma > s p lenic metastases • CT for splenic trauma (h emorrhage) Biliary Tree • V/S bile ducts usually visualized only if dilated, secondary to obstruction (e.g. choledocholithiasis, benign stricture, mass) • CT dilated intrahepatic ductules seen as branching, tubular structures following pathway of portal venous system • ERCP, MRCP, PTC: further evaluation of obstruction and possible intervention •



Pancreas • tumours VIS: mass is more echogenic than normal pancreatic tissue CT: preferred modality for diagnosis / staging • ductal dilation secondary to stone / tumour MRCP: imaging of ductal system using MRI cholangiography ERCP: assessment of pancreatic and bile ducts via Ampulla of Vater; therapeutic potential (stent placement, stone retrieval); complication of acute pancreatitis occurs in 5% of diagnostic procedures and 10% of therapeutic procedures • pancreatitis and/ or its complications: pseudocyst, abscess, necrosis, splenic artery aneurysm (see "itis " Imaging below) • •





Ilitis" I maging Computed Tomography and Uttrasonography to DetectAcute Appendicnis in Adults and Adolescents Annals aflnternal Medicine. 141 (7): 537-546, 2004 Oct 5 Purpose: To review the diagnostic accuracy of CT and ultrasonography in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis. Study Characteristics: Meta-analysis of 22 prospective studies evaluating the use of CT or ultrasonography, followed by surgical or clinical follow-up in patients with suspected appendicitis. Participants: Age 14 and older with a clinical suspicion of appendicitis. Main Outcomes: Sensitivity and specrricity using surgery or clinical follow-up as the gold standard. Results: CT 112 studies) had an overall sensitivity of 0_94 195% CI, 0.91 to 0.95) and a specificity of 0.95 195% CI, 0.93 to 0.96). Ultrasonography 114 studies) had an overall sensitivity of 0.86 195% CI, 0.83 to 0_88) and a specificity of 0.81 195% CI, 0.78 to 0_84) Conclusions: CT is more accurate for diagnosing appendicitis in adults and adolescents, although verification bias and inappropriate blinding of reference standards were noted in the included studies.

Acute Cholecystitis • V/S very accurate - thick wall, pericholecystic fluid, gallstones, dilated gallbladder, positive sonographic Murphy's sign • nuclear medicine (HIDA scan) may be helpful in equivocal cases, but is not often used; it has equivalent sensitivity and specificity to ultrasound Acute Appendicitis • V/S very useful - thick-walled appendix, appendicolith, dilated fluid-filled appendix, non-compressible • V/S may also demonstrate other causes of RLQ pain (e_g_ ovarian abscess, IBD, ectopic pregnancy) • CT: enlargement of appendix (>6 mm in outer diameter), enhancement of appendiceal wall, adjacent inflammatory stranding, appendicolith; also facilitates percutaneous abscess drainage Acute Diverticulitis • most common site is rectosi gmoid (diverticula are outpouchings of colon wall) • CT is imaging modality of choice, although V/S is sometimes used oral and rectal contrast given before CT to opacify bowel cardinal signs: thickened wall, mesenteric infiltration, gas-filled diverticula, abscess CT can be used for percutaneous abscess drainage before or in lieu of surgical intervention sometimes difficult to distinguish from perforated cancer (therefore, send abscess fluid for cytology and follow up with colonos copy) if chronic, may see fistula (most common to bladder) or sinus tract (linear or branching structures) • •







Toronto Notes 2010

Gastrointestinal Tract/Genitourinary (GU) System

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DM15

Acute Pancreatitis • clinical /biochemical diagnosis • imaging used to support diagnosis and evaluate for complications (diagnosis cannot be excluded by imaging alone) • V/S good for screening and follow up (although useless if ileus present as gas obscures pancreas) hypoechoic enlarged pancreas • CT is useful in advanced stages of pancreatitis and in assessing for complications and is increasingly becoming the 1st line imaging test enlarged pancreas, edema, stranding changes in surrounding fat with indistinct fat planes, mesenteric and Gerota's fascia thickening, pseudocyst in lesser sac, abscess (gas or thick-walled fluid collection), pancreatic necrosis (low attenuation gas-containing non-enhancing pancreatic tissue), hemorrhage CT-guided needle aspiration and / or drainage done for abscess when clinically indicated pseudocyst may be followed by CT and drained if symptomatic •







Angiography of G I Tract

--------�

• GI tract arterial blood supply

celiac artery: hepatic, splenic, gastroduodenal, left/ right gastric superior mesenteric artery (SMA): jejunal, ileal, ileo-colic, right colic, middle colic inferior mesenteric artery (IMA): left colic, superior rectal • imaging of GI tract vessels conventional angiogram: invasive (puncture femoral artery), catheter used • aortography: catheter injection into abdominal aorta • selective arteriography of individual vessels CT angiogram: IV contrast (no catheterization required), computer generated images •









Genitouri nary System Modalities KUB (kidneys, ureters, bladder) • a frontal supine radiograph of the abdomen • it is useful in evaluation of radio-opaque renal stones (all stones but uric acid and indinavir), as well as indwelling ureteric stents or catheters • addition of intravenous contrast excreted by the kidney (intravenous urogram) allows greater visualization of the urinary tract, but has been largely replaced by CT urography Abdominal CT • plain CT good for general imaging of renal anatomy, although specific study types have supplanted plain CT for many indications, including CT urography (upper tract uroepitheJial malignancies and renal calculi) and triphasic CT (renal masses) • CT urography excretory phase imaging allows detailed assessment of urinary tracts; it has a high sensitivity (95%) for uroepithelial malignancies of the upper urinary tracts, and is also useful for assessment of renal calculi • triphasic CT the standard imaging for renal masses, comprised of unenhanced, nephrographic, and excretory phase; this modality allows accurate assessment of renal arteries and veins and better characterization of suspicious renal masses, with particular utility in differentiating renal cell carcinoma from more benign masses •





U/S • initial study for evaluation of kidney size and nature of renal masses (solid vs. cystic renal masses vs. complicated cysts) • technique of choice for screening patients with suspected hydronephrosis (no intravenous contrast injection, no radiation to patient, and can be used in patients in renal failure) • solid renal masses: echogenic (bright on V/S) • cystic renal masses: smooth well-defined walls with anechoic interior (dark on V/S) • complicated cysts: internal echoes within a thickened, irregular-walled cyst • transrectal V/S (TRVS) useful to evaluate prostate gland and guide biopsies • Doppler V/S to assess renal vasculature Retrograde Pyelography • used to visualize the urinary collecting system via a cystoscope, ureteral catheterization, and retrograde injection of contrast medium • ordered when the intrarenal collecting system and ureters cannot be opacified using intravenous techniques (patient with impaired renal function, high grade obstruction) • only yields information about the collecting systems (renal pelvis and associated structures); no information regarding the parenchyma of the kidney

..... ' ,

.�------.

Imaging Modality Based on Presentation • Acute testicular pain = Doppler, U/S • Amenorrhea = U/S, MRI (brain) • Bloating = U/S, CT • Flank pain = U/S, CT • Hematuria = U/S, Cystoscopy, CT • Infertility = Hysterosalpingogram, MRI • Lower abdominal mass = U/S, CT • Lower abdominal pain = U/S, CT • Renal colic = U/S, KUB, CT • Testicular mass = U/S • Urethral stricture = Urethrogram

DM16 Diagnostic Medical Imaging

Genitourinary (GU) System

Toronto Notes 2010

Voiding Cystourethrogram (VCUGj • bladder filled with contrast to the point where voiding is triggered • real-time images via fluoroscopy (continuous x-ray imaging) to visualize bladder • contractility and evidence of vesicoureteric reflux • indications: children with recurrent UTIs, hydronephrosis, hydroureter, suspected lower urinary tract obstruction or vesicoureteral reflux Retrograde Urethrogram • used mainly to study strictures or trauma to the male urethra (Figure 7)

Figure 7. Retrograde Urethrogram demonstrating stricture in the membranous urethra

-

MRI • strengths: high spatial and tissue resolution, lack of exposure to ionizing radiation and nephrotoxic contrast agents • indicated over CT for depiction of renal masses in patients with previous nephron sparing surgery, patients requiring serial follow-ups (less radiation dosage), patients with reduced renal function, and patients with solitary kidneys Renal Scan • 2 radionuclide tests for kidney - renogram and morphological scan • renogram to assess renal function and collecting system useful in evaluation of renal failure, workup of urinary tract obstruction and hypertension, investigation of renal transplant intravenous injection of a radionuclide, technetium-99m pentetate (Tc99m-DTPA) or iodine-labelled hippurate, and imaged at I-second intervals with a gamma camera over 30 minutes to assess perfusion. Delayed static images over the next 30 minutes can be used to assess renal function and the collecting system • morphological to assess renal anatomy study done with Tc99m-DMSA and Tc99m-glucoheptonate useful in investigation of renal mass and cortical scars • •





Figure 8. Transabdominal Ultrasound pregnancy, 1 8 wk fetus



-



Gynecological I maging

Figure 9. Hysterosalpingogram showing left hydrosalpinx

-

UlS • transabdominal and transvaginal are the primary modalities, and are indicated for different scenarios • transabdominal requires a full bladder to push out air containing loops of bowel, and is a good initial investigation for suspected pelvic pathology • transvaginal approach provides enhanced detail of deeper / smaller structures by allowing use of higher frequency sound waves at reduced distances; permits improved assessment of ovaries, first trimester development, and ectopic pregnancies Hysterosalpingogram • useful for assessing pathology of the uterine cavity and fallopian tubes, performed by x-ray images of the pelvis after cannulation of the cervix and subsequent injection of opacifying agent • particularly useful for evaluating uterine abnormalities (bicornate uterus), or evaluation of fertility (absence of flow from tubes to peritoneal cavity indicates obstruction) CT/MRI • excellent modalities for evaluating pelvic structures, especially those adjacent to the adnexa and uterus • invaluable in staging gynecological malignancies • pregnancy should always be ruled out by beta-HCG before CT of the female pelvis (or any organ system) is performed

Selected Pathology

Figure 1 0. Triphasic CT of an Angiomyolipoma showing fat density with non-contrast scan, mildly enhancing with contrast -

--------�

Renal Masses • Bozniak classification for cystic renal masses Classes I-II are benign and can be disregarded Class IIF should be followed Classes III-IV are suspicious for malignancy, requiring additional workup • simple renal cysts Bozniak Class I: fluid-attenuating well-defined lesion, no septation, no calcification, no solid components, if wall present it is hair thin Bozniak Class II: as with Class I but with fine calcification or moderately thickened calcification in septae or walls; also includes hyperdense cysts « 3 cm) that do not enhance with contrast • complex renal cysts Bozniak Class III: thick irregular walls, may contain calcifications, some may be septated, enhancing walls or septa with contrast • • •







Toronto Notes 2010

Genitourinary (GU) System/Neuroradiology

Diagnostic Medical Imaging DM17

• renal cell carcinoma

Bozniak Class IV: as with Class III, but with soft tissue enhancement with contrast (defined as >10 Hounsfield unit increase, characterizing vascularity) with de-enhancement in venous phase ± areas of necrosis • angiomyolipoma (a benign renal neoplasm composed of fat, vascular, and smooth muscle elements) fat density seen on non-contrast CT « -10 Hounsfield units), some enhancement with contrast (less than renal cell carcinoma) •



Neu roradiology Modalities • CT is modality of choice for most neuropathology; even under circumstances when MRI is

preferred, CT is frequently the initial study because of its speed, availability and lower cost

• CT is preferred for •

• • • •

acute head trauma: CT is best for visualizing "bone and blood"; MRI is used in this setting only when CT fails to detect an abnormality in the presence of strong clinical suspicion acute stroke (MR ideal, CT most frequently used) suspected subarachnoid or intracranial hemorrhage meningitis: rule out mass lesion (e.g. abscess) prior to lumbar puncture tinnitus and vertigo: CT and MRI are used in combination to detect bony abnormalities and CN VIII tumours, respectively

Skull Films • rarely performed; CT is modality of choice • indications include screening for destructive bony lesions (e.g. metastases) metabolic disease skull anomalies post-operative changes/ post-operative confirmation of hardware placement skeletal surveys • generally not indicated for non-penetrating head trauma • •





Figure 1 1 . Triphasic CT of a Renal Cell Carcinoma Showing arterial enhancement and venous de-enhancement -

"' ' � ��------, Attenuation Bone ( = bright) > grey matter > White matter ("'fatty"' myelin) > CSF > air ( = dark)



CT • excellent study for evaluation of bony abnormalities • often done first without and then with intravenous contrast to show vascular structures or anomalies • vascular structures and areas of blood-brain barrier impairment are opaque (white / show enhancement) with contrast injection when in doubt, look for circle of Willis or confluence of sinuses to determine presence of contrast enhancement • posterior fossa obscured by extensive bony artifact • rule out skull fracture, epidural hematoma (lenticular shape), subdural hematoma (crescentic shape), subarachnoid hemorrhage, space occupying lesion, hydrocephalus, and cerebral edema • multiplanar imaging, once only available with MR, now can be performed with newer generation of CT scanners •

Myelography • introduction of water-soluble, low-osmotic-contrast media into subarachnoid space using lumbar puncture followed by x-ray or CT scan • excellent study for disc herniations, traumatic nerve root avulsions • use has decreased due to MRI MRI (see Table 1) • shows brain and spinal anatomy in fine detail • clearly distinguishes white from grey matter (especially Tl-weighted series) • multiplanar reconstruction helpful in pre-op assessment Cerebral Angiography/CT Angiography/MR Angiography • evaluation of vascular lesions such as atherosclerotic disease, aneurysms, vascular malformations, arterial dissection • conventional digital subtraction angiography (DSA) remains the gold standard for the assessment of neck and intracranial vessels; however, it is an invasive procedure requiring arterial (femoral) puncture; catheter manipulation does involve risk of vessel injury (i.e. dissection, occlusion, vasospasm) • MR angiography (MRA) methods (phase contrast, time of flight, gadolinium-enhanced) and CT angiography (CTA) are much less invasive without actual risk to intracranial or neck vessels • MRA and CTA are often used first as 'screening tests' for the assessment of subarachnoid hemorrhage, vasospasm, aneurysms

40%)

Pulse

< 1 00

> 1 00

> 1 20

> 1 40

Blood pressure

Normal

Normal

Decreased

Decreased

Respiratory rate

20

30

35

>45

Capillary refill

Normal

Decreased

Decreased

Decreased

Urinary output

30 cclhr

20 cclhr

1 0 cclhr

None

Fluid replacement

Crystalloid

Crystalloid

Crystalloid + blood

Crystalloid + blood

Table 2. Major Tvpes of Shock Hypovolemic

Cardiogenic

Distributive (vasodilation)

Obstructive

Hemorrhage (Extemal and Internal)

Myocardial Ischemia

Septic

Cardiac tamponade

Severe burns

Arrhythmias

Anaphylactic

Tension pneumothorax

High output fistulas

Congestive Heart Failure

Neurogenic (Spinal cord injury)

Diarrhea

Cardiomyopathies

Aortic stenosis

DKA

Cardiac valve problems

Constrictive pericarditis

Pulmonary embolism

"' , , ��------, Shock in a trauma patient is hemorrhagic until proven otherwise.

�' Causes of Shock SHOCKED Spinal/neurogenic, Septic Hemorrhagic Obstructive (e.g. tension pneumothorax, cardiac tamponade, pulmonary embolism) Cardiogenic (e.g. blunt myocardial injury, arrhythmia, MI) anaphylactiK Endocrine (e.g. Addison's, myxedema, coma) Drugs

ER4 Emergency Medicine

Initial Patient Assessment and Management

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Evaluation .... ' , .�------. • rapidly assess for cause of shock Estimated Systolic Blood Pressure Based on Position of Most Distal Palpable Pulse

• clinical features of acute hemorrhage •

sBP (mmHg) Radial Femoral Carotid

> 80 > 70 > 60



early: tachypnea, tachycardia, narrow pulse pressure, reduced capillary refill, cool extremities and reduced central venous pressure (CVP) late: hypotension and altered mental status, reduced urine output

Management of Hemorrhagic Shock • secure airway and supply O2 • TREAT THE CAUSE OF THE SHOCK • control external bleeding direct pressure elevate extremities if no obvious unstable fracture consider vascular pressure points (brachial, axillary, femoral) do not remove impaled objects as they tamponade bleeding tourniquet only as last resort • prompt surgical consultation for active internal bleeding • infusion of 1-2 L of NS/ RL as rapidly as possible � 2 large bore (14 gauge) IVs wide open • warm blood / lV fluids, especially for massive transfusions • replace lost blood volume at ratio of 3:1 with crystalloid • if inadequate response, consider ongoing blood loss (e.g. chest, abdomen, pelvis, extremities) � operative intervention required • indications for blood transfusion severe hypotension on arrival shock persists following crystalloid infusion rapid bleeding • transfusion options with packed red blood cells (pRBCs) cross matched if possible type-specific (provided by most blood banks within 10 minutes) • preferred to O-negative uncross-matched blood if both available O-negative (children and women of child-bearing age) O-positive if no time for crossmatch (males / postmenopausal women) anticipate complications with massive transfusions consider replacement of other blood products (plalelets, FFP) after 2u pRBCs • transfusion with fresh frozen plasma (FFP) used for clinical evidence of impaired hemostasis ongoing hemorrhage, PT >l.5x normal range •

�' Hemorrhage Management: RED Rest Elevate the bleeding area above the level of the heart Direct pressure on the bleeding site

.... ' , .�------, Since only 30% of infused isotonic crystalloids remains in intravascular space, you must give 3x estimated blood loss.









• • •

....

' , ..�------,

Initial Management of Any Patient in Shock ABCs IV fluids Oxygen Monitor (HR, BP. urine, mentation, O2 sat.) Control hemorrhage

• •

• •





• •

D. DISABILITY • assess level of consciousness by AVPU method (see below) or GCS Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) • for use in trauma patients with decreased LOC; good indicator of severity of injury and neurosurgical prognosis • often used for metabolic coma, but less meaningful • most useful if repeated and used for monitoring of trend change in GCS with time is more relevant than the absolute number patient with deteriorating GCS needs immediate attention prognosis based on best post-resuscitation GCS • best reported as a 3 part score: Eyes + Verbal + Motor Total • provides indication of degree of injury 13-15 = mild injury 9-12 = moderate injury ,,;8 severe injury • if patient intubated, GCS score reported out of 10 + T (T= tubed, i.e. no verbal component) •

• •

=



• •

�' Method of Assessing Level of Consciousness AVPU Alert Responds to Verbal stimuli Responds to Painful stimuli Unresponsive

=

Table 3. Glasgow Coma Scale Eyes Open

Best Motor Response

Best Verbal Response

Spontaneously

4

Answers questions appropriately

5

Obeys commands

6

To voice

3

Confused, disoriented

4

Localizes to pain

5

To pain

2

Inappropriate words

3

Withdraws from pain

4

No response

1

Incomprehensible sounds

2

Decorticate (flexion)

3

No verbal response

1

Decerebrate (extension)

2

No response

1

E. EXPOSURE/ENVIRONMENT • undress patient completely; logroll to examine back, digital rectal exam • essential to assess entire body for possible injury • keep patient warm with a blanket ± radiant heaters; avoid hypothermia • warm IV fluids /blood • keep providers safe (contamination, combative patient)

2 . Resuscitation • • • • • • •

done simultaneously with primary survey attend to ABCs manage life-threatening problems as they are identified vital signs q5-15 minutes ECG, BP and O2 monitors Foley catheter and nasogastric (NG) tube if indicated tests and investigations: CBC, electrolytes, BUN, Cr, glucose, amylase, INR/ PTT, �-hCG, toxicology screen, cross and type

Table 4. 2005 AHA CPR Guidelines Step/Action

Emergency Medicine ER5

Initial Patient Assessment and Management

Toronto Notes 2010

Infant: < 1 year

Child: 1-8 years

Adult: > 8yrs

Head tilt-chin lift

Airway

2 breaths at 1 second/breath

Breaths Foreign-body airway obstruction

Abdominal thrust Compressions In the center of the chest, between nipples

Compression landmarks Compression method-push hard and fast and allow for complete recoil

2 Hands: Heel of 1 hand, second hand on top

Compression depth

1 Y, to 2 inches

2 Hands: Heel of 1 hand with second on top or 1 Hand: heel of 1 hand only

I

Unproven or Harmful Treatments for Hemorrhage Shock • Trendelenberg position • steroids (used only in spinal cord injury) • MAST garments • vasopressors

Vasopressin versus Norepinephrine Infusion in Patients with Septic Shock NEJM 2008;358:877·87 Study: Multicenter, randomized, double-blind trial Patients: 778 patients with septic shock Intervention: low-dose vasopressin (0.01 to 0.03 U per minute) or norepinephrine (5 to 15 ug per minute) in addition to open-label vasopressors and a minimum of 5ug of norepinephrine. Outcome: mortality rate 28 days after start of infusions. Results: No significant difference between the vasopressin and the norepinephrine groups at 28days or 90days. However, in patients with less severe septic shock, mortality rate was lower in the vasopressin group.

Back slaps and chest thrusts

Just below nipple line 2 fingers

About '/3 to Y, the depth of the chest

Compression rate

1 �O/min

Compressionventilation ratio

30 to 2

Compression-only CPR

Hands-only CPR is preferred if the bystander is not trained or does not feel confident in their ability to provide conventional CPR or if the bystander is trained but chooses to use compressions-only

Defibrillation

Immediate defibrillation for all rescuers responding to a sudden witnessed collapse. Compression j5cycles/2minl before AED is considered if EMS arrival is > 4-5 minutes after the call

No defibrillation

3. Detai led Secondary Survey • done after rapid primary survey problems have been addressed • identifies major injuries or areas of concern • full physical exam and x-rays (C-spine, chest, pelvis - required in blunt trauma, consider

Foley Contra indications • Blood at urethral meatus • Scrotal hematoma • High-riding prostate on DRE

T-spine and L-spine)

• CT may replace screening spine x-rays

HISTORY • "SAMPLE": Signs and Symptoms, Allergies, Medications, Past medical history, Last meal, Events related to injury

NG Tube Contraindications • Significant mid-face trauma • Basal skull fracture

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION Head and Neck • pupils assess equality, size, symmetry, reactivity to light • inequality suggests local eye problem or lateralizing CNS lesion • reactivity / level of consciousness (LOC) reactive pupils + decreased LOC � metabolic or structural cause non-reactive pupils + decreased LOC � structural cause (especially if asymmetric) • extraocular movements and nysta gmus • fundoscopy (papilledema, hemorrhages) • palpation of facial bones, scalp • tympanic membranes, fluid in ear canal, hemotympanum, Battle's sign (mastoid bruising), neck tenderness • relative afferent pupillary defect (swinging light test) - optic nerve damage •



....

' , .�------,

Unilateral, Dilated, Non-reactive Pupil Think: Focal mass lesion Epidural Hematoma Subdural Hematoma



.... ' , .�------, Non-contrast head CT best imaging for for intracerebral injury.

ER6 Emergency Medicine

Initial Patient Assessment and Management

Toronto Notes 2010

Chest • inspect for flail segment: ;;0,2 rib # in ;;0,2 places. If present look for associated injuries including hemothorax, pneumothorax, and contusions • palpate for subcutaneous emphysema • auscultate lung fields Abdomen • assess for peritonitis, abdominal distention, and evidence of intra-abdominal bleeding • FAST (Focused Abdominal Sonogram in Trauma), diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) or CT • rectal exam for gastrointestinal (GI) bleed, high riding prostate and anal tone (best to do during the log roll) • bimanual exam in females as appropriate

.... ' , ��------. Signs of Increased Intracranial Pressure (Iep) • Deteriorating LDC (hallmark of increasing ICP) • Deteriorating respiratory pattern • Cushing reflex (high BP, low heart rate, irregular respirations) • Lateralizing CNS signs (e.g. cranial nerve palsies, hemiparesis) • Seizures • Papilledema (occurs late) • NN and H/A

Musculoskeletal (MSK) • examine all extremities for swelling, deformity, contusion, tenderness • check for pulses and sensation in all injured limbs • log roll and palpate thoracic and lumbar spines • palpate iliac crests and pubic symphysis, pelvic stability (lateral, Ap, vertical) Neurological • GCS • alterations of rate and rhythm of breathing are signs of structural or metabolic abnormalities progressive deterioration of breathing pattern implies a failing CNS • full cranial nerve exam • assessment of spinal cord integrity conscious patient: assess distal sensation and motor ability unconscious patient: response to painful or noxious stimulus applied to extremities •





4. Definitive Care • • • •

.... ' , �f-------. Jehovah's Witnesses • Capable adults have the right to refuse medical treatment • May refuse whole blood, PRBCs, platelets, plasma and WBCs even if life-saving • Should be questioned directly about the use of albumin, immunoglobulins, hemophilic preparations • Do not allow for autologous transfusion unless there is uninterrupted extra corporeal circulation • Usually ask for the highest possible quality of care without the use of the above interventions (e.g. crystalloids for volume expansion, attempts at bloodless surgery) • Patient will generally sign hospital forms releasing medical staff from liability • Most legal cases involve children of Jehovah's Witnesses; if life-saving treatment is refused CAS is contacted

continue therapy continue patient evaluations and special investigations specialty consultations including OR as needed disposition: home, admission, or transfer to another setting (e.g. OR, ICU)

Ethica l Considerations Consent to Treatment: Adults • Emergency Rule: consent not needed when patient is at imminent risk from a serious injury (e.g. severe suffering, loss of limb, vital organ or life) AND obtaining consent is either: a) not possible (e.g. patient is comatose); OR b) would increase risk to the patient (e.g. time delay) the emergency rule assumes that most people would want to be saved in an emergency • any capable and informed patient can refuse any treatment or part of treatment, even if it is life-saving consider: is the patient truly capable? Does pain, stress, or psychological distress impair their judgment? • exceptions to the Emergency Rule: treatment cannot be initiated if a competent patient has previously refused the same or similar treatment and there is no evidence to suggest the patient's wishes have changed an advance directive is available - e.g. do not resuscitate (DNR) order • refusal of help in a suicide situation is not an exception; care must be given • if in doubt, initiate treatment, care can be withdrawn if appropriate at a later time or if wishes clarified by family •





Consent to Treatment: Children • treat immediately if patient is at imminent risk • parents / guardians have right to make treatment decisions • if parents refuse treatment that is life-saving or will potentially alter the child's quality of life, Children's Aid Society (CAS) must be contacted - consent of CAS is needed to treat Other Issues of Consent • need consent for HIV testing of patient and for administration of blood products Duty to Report • law may vary depending on province and/ or state gunshot wounds, potential drunken drivers, suspected child abuse, various communicable diseases medical unsuitability to drive •



Emergency Medicine ER7

Traumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Tra umatology Epidemiology • statistics

leading cause of death in patients 12 ft (3.6 m) • •













• •

Considerations for Trau matic I nj u ry • important to know the mechanism of injury in order to anticipate traumatic injuries

always look for an underlying cause (alcohol, medications, illicit substances, seizure, suicide attempt, medical problem) • always inquire about head injury, loss of consciousness, amnesia, vomiting, headache and seizure activity



Motor Vehicle Collision ( MVC) • vehicle(s) involved: weight, size, speed, amount of damage • type of crash (to assess location of possible injuries) lateral/ T-bone or head-on: head, cervical spine, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic and lower extremity rear-end: hyper-extension of cervical spine (whiplash injury to neck) roll over: energy dissipated, less likely severe injury if victim restrained by seatbelt, however still significant potential morbidity • location of patient in vehicle • use and type of seatbelt lap belt: spine and abdominal injury shoulder belt: look for major vessel injury • ejection of patient from vehicle / entrapment of patient under vehicle • airbag deployment • use of helmet in motorcycle or bicycle collisions •









Pedestrian-Automobile Impact • hi gh morbidity and mortality • vehicle speed is an important factor • site of impact on car children tend to be run over adults tend to be struck in lower legs, impact again on car (truncal injury) and thrown to the ground (head injury) •



Falls • 1 storey 12 feet 3.6 m • distance of fall: 50% mortality at 4 stories and 95% mortality at 7 stories • position in which patient landed and type of surface • assess for shock, lower extremity, spine and pelvic fractures =

=

Gunshot Wounds (GSW) • type of gun handgun injuries: medium or high velocity, extent of injury may be limited to a small area • hunting and rifle injuries: high velocity, widespread injury shot gun: wide spread tissue destruction • type of ammunition (e.g. hollow point bullets) • range of shot close range: massive tissue destruction, deposition of wadding into wound • characterize route of entry and site of exit wound (if any) • GSW with hypotension: immediate transport to OR hypotension indicates severe blood loss (>2 L blood loss in 70 kg patient is required to produce hypotension) •







,, ' ,

.}-------,

Vehicle vs. Pedestrian Crash In adults look for triad of injuries (Waddle·s triad): 1. Tibia-fibula or femur fracture 2. Truncal injury 3. Craniofacial injury

ER8 Emergency Medicine

Traumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Stab Wounds '" ' , , �------, • route / direction of entry, length of blade Always completely expose and count the number of wounds.

• type of penetration (stab, slash, impalement) • victim recollection and witness reports are often inaccurate and may not correlate with

depth/ severity of wound

• if blade in-situ, DO NOT REMOVE - it may be tamponading bleeding vessel (to be

removed in OR)

Head Trau ma • see Neurosurgery. NS28 • 60% of trauma admissions have head injuries • 60% of MVC-related deaths are due to head injury

'"

' , ,.-------.

Signs of Basal Skull Fracture Battle's sign (bruised mastoid process) Hemotympanum Raccoon eyes (periorbital bruising) CSF Rhinorrhea/Otorrhea

Specific Injuries • fractures (diagnosed by CT of head, often not visible on x-ray) A. skull fractures vault fractures • linear, non-depressed - most common - typically occur over temporal bone, in area of middle meningeal artery (commonest cause of epidural hematoma) • depressed - open (associated overlying scalp laceration, torn dura) vs. closed basal skull • typically occur through floor of anterior cranial fossa (longitudinal more common than transverse) • clinical diagnosis superior (Battle's sign, raccoon eyes, CSF otorrhea/ rhinorrhea, hemotympanum) B. facial fractures (see Plastic Surgery, PL28) neuronal injury beware of open fracture or sinus fractures (risk of infection) unstable or displaced fractures (need semi-urgent plastics referral) severe facial fractures may pose risk to airway from profuse bleeding • neuronal injury A.diffuse concussion • mild: temporary disturbance of neurological function, complete recovery • classical: temporary, reversible neurological disturbance, with temporary « 6 hrs) LOC, complete recovery diffuse axonal injury • mild: coma 6-24 hrs, possibly lasting deficit • moderate: coma >24hrs, little or no signs of brainstem dysfunction • severe: coma >24hrs, frequent signs of brainstem dysfunction B. focal injuries contusions intracranial hemorrhage (epidural, subdural, intracerebral) •



• •



",

' , ,�------.

Warning Signs of Severe Head Injury • GCS < 8 • Deteriorating GCS • Unequal pupils • Lateralizing signs N.B. alteration of consciousness is a hallmark of brain injury.







• •

Canadian CT Head Rule The Lancet. May 5, 2001. 357: 9266; 1391·1 396 CT Head is only required for patients w�h minor head injuries w� any one of the following:

High risk (for neurological intervention) • GCS score < 15 at 2 h after injury • Suspected open or depressed skull fracture • Any sign of basal skull fracture (hemotympanum, "raccoon" eyes, cerebrospinal fluid otonfleal rhinorrhoea, Battle's sign) • Vomning , 2 episodes • Age , 65 years Medium risk (for brain injury on CI) • Amnesia after impact > 30 min • Dangerous mechanism (pedestrian struck by motor vehicle, occupant ejected from motor vehicle, fall from height > 3 feet or five stairs) Minor head injury is defined as witnessed loss of consciousness, definite amnesia, or witnessed disorientation in a patient with a GCS score of 13·15.

ASSESSMENT OF BRAIN INJURY History • pre-hospital status • mechanism of injury Physical Examination • assume C-spine injury until ruled out • vital signs shock (not likely due to isolated brain injury, except in infants) Cushing's response to increasing ICP (bradycardia, hypertension, irregular respirations) • severity of injury determined by 1 . level of consciousness • GCS ,;8 intubate, any change in score of 3 or more serious injury 2. pupils: size, anisocoria >1 mm (in patient with altered LOC), response to light 3. lateralizing signs (motor / sensory), may become more subtle with increasing severity of injury • re-assess frequently •



=

Toronto Notes 2010

Emergency Medicine ER9

Traumatology

Investigations • labs: CBC electrolytes, coags, glucose, tox screen • CT scan (non-contrast) to exclude intracranial mass lesions • skull x-rays - little value in the early management of obvious blunt head injury for diagnosis of calvarium fractures (not brain injury) may help localize foreign body after penetrating head injury • C-spine imaging, often with CT neck and head CT to exclude intracranial mass lesions • •

"' , , '�------, Treatment of Increased ICP • Elevate head of bed • Mannitol • Hyperventilate • Paralyzing agents/sedating agents

Management • general ABCs ensure oxygen delivery to brain through intubation and prevent hypercarbia maintain BP treat other injuries, must treat hypotension, hypoxia (both contribute significantly to mortality) • early neurosurgical consultation for acute and subsequent patient management medical • seizure treatment / prophylaxis - benzodiazepines, phenytoin, phenobarbital - steroids are of no proven value • treat suspected raised ICP --7 consider the following (reserved for head injured patients with signs of increased ICP): - raise head of stretcher 20° if patient hemodynamically stable - intubate and hyperventilate (100% O2) to a pC02 of 30-35 mmHg - mannitol 1 g / kg infused as rapidly as p ossible - consider paralysing meds if agitated/ high airway pressures - maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure is critical surgical • •

• •





Disposition • neurosurgical ICU admission for severe head injuries (HI) • in hemodynamically unstable patient with other injuries, prioritize most life-threatening injuries and try to maintain cerebral perfusion • for minor head injury not requiring admission, provide 24-hour HI protocol to competent caregiver, follow-up with neurology as even seemingly minor HI may cause lasting deficits "'

Spine and Spinal Cord Trau ma • assume cord injury with significant falls (>12 ft), deceleration injuries, blunt trauma to

head, neck or back

• spinal immobilization (cervical collar, spine board during patient transport only) must be

maintained until spinal injury has been ruled out (see Figure 2)

• vertebral injuries may be present without spinal cord injury; normal neurologic exam does

not exclude spinal injury

• spine may be unstable despite normal C-spine x-ray (SCIWARA = spinal cord injury

, , ,�------,

Collar Everyone with at Least One of the following Criteria • Midline tenderness • Neurological symptoms or signs • Significant distracting i njuries • Head injury • Intoxication • Dangerous mechanism • History of LDC

without radiologic abnormality)

• injuries can include: complete / incomplete transection, cord edema, spinal shock

History • mechanism of injury, previous deficits, SAMPLE • neck pain, paralysis/ weakness, parasthesia Physical Exam • ABCs • abdo: ecchymosis, tenderness • neuro: complete exam, including mental status • spine: maintain neutral position, palpate C-spine for tenderness, step-off; log-roll, then palpate thoracic and lumbar spine; assess rectal tone • extremities: check cap refill, suspect thoracolumbar injury with calcaneal fractures Investigations • labs: CBC, electrolytes, creatinine, glucose, coags, cross and type, tox screen • imaging full C-spine x-ray series for trauma (AP, lateral, odontoid) • thoracolumbar x-rays AP and lateral views indicated in • patients with C-spine injury • unconscious patients (with appropriate mechanism of injury) • patients with symptoms or neurological findings • patients with deformities that are palpable when patient log-rolled • patients with back pain • patients with suggestive injuries, e.g. bilateral calcaneal fractures consider CT (for subtle bony injuries), MRI (for soft tissue injuries) if appropriate •

If a fracture is found, be suspicious, look for another fracture.

"'

, , ,�------,

Note: Patients with penetrating trauma (especially gunshot and knife wounds) can also have spinal cord injury.

'"

' , ,�------,

Of the investigations, the lateral C-spine x-ray is the single most important film. 95% of radiologically visible abnormalities are found on this film.

• •



", ' , ,f-------, Cauda Equina Syndrome can occur with any spinal cord injury below Tl a vertebrae. Look for incontinence, anterior thigh pain, quadriceps weakness, abnormal sacral sensation, and variable reflexes.

Traumatology

ER10 Emergency Medicine

The Canadian C·Spine Rule For Alen IGlasgow Coma Scale Score ; IS) and Stable Trauma Patients where Cervical Spine IC-Spine) iniury is a concern

t. Any High-Risk Factor That Mandates Radiography? Age . 65 Years or Dangerous Mechanism* or Paresthesiasin Extremities Yes

**

Toronto Notes 2010

Suspected C·spine Injury based on mechanism of injury (e.g. MVC, fall, sports)



History: midline neck pain, numbness or parasthesia, presence of distracting pain, patient head·injured, patient intoxicated, loss of consciousness o r past history of spinal mobility disorder

Physical exam: posterior neck spasm, tenderness o r crepitus, any neurologic deficit o r autonomic dysfunction, altered mental state

2. Any Low-risk Factor That Allows

Safe Assessment of Range of Motion? Simple Rear·end MVCI or Sitting Position in EO or No Ambulatory at Any Time � Radiography

��Iayed Onset of Neck

�: � en

Painl /

Able

I

of Midline C·Spine Tenderness

3. Able to Actively Rotate Neck? >5" Left and Right

.

I

NO

t

C·spine cleared



Unable

C·spine cleared

No Radiography *Dangerous Mechanism: • Fall nom . 1 meterl5 stairs • Axial load to head e.g. diving • MVC high speed I> 100 krT\'1lr), rollover, ejection • Motorized recreational vehicles • Bicycle collision

"m,'

loelayed: Not immediate onset of neck pain JAMA. Oct 17, 1001. 186:115); 1 841·1 848

C·spine cleared

t

I

1 . Plain x·rays, 3 views 2. CT scan if: • Inadequate plain film survey • Suspicious plain film findings • To better delineate injuries seen on plain films • Any clinical suspicion of atlanto·axial dislocation • High clinical suspicion of injury despite normal x·ray • To include C 1 ·C3 when head CT is indicated in head trauma

I

Flexlon/ exten sion films ......-

tSimple rear·end MVC excludes: • Pushed into oncoming traffic • Hit by bus!1arge truck • Rollover • Hit by high·speed vehicle

YES

/

Neck pain

Abnormal neurological exam

/

� / Normal films



Abnormal films

Figure 2. Approach to clearing the C-spine

Can Clear C-spine if: • no posterior rilldline cervical tenderness • no evidence of intoxication • oriented to person, place, time, and event • no focal neurological deficits • no painful distracting injuries (e.g. long bone # )

1 . Anterior vertebral line 2. Posterior vertebral line (anterior margin of spinal canal) 3. Posterior border of facets 4. Laminar fusion line (posterior margin of spinal canal) 5. Posterior spinous line (along tips of spinous processes)

Figure 3. Lines of Contour on a Lateral C-Spine X-Ray

Management of Cord Injury • immobilize • evaluate ABCs • treat shock (maintain sBP >100 mmHg) • insert NG and Foley catheter • high dose steroids: methylprednisolone 30 mg / kg bolus, then 5.4 mg / kg / hr drip, start within 6-8 hrs of injury (controversial and recently has less support) • complete imaging of spine • spine consult • continually reassess high cord injuries as edema can travel up cord • if cervical cord lesion, watch for respiratory insufficiency low cervical transection (C5-T1) produces abdominal breathing (phrenic innervation of diaphragm still intact) high cervical cord injury (above C4) may require intubation and ventilation • beware of hypotension (neurogenic shock) treatment: warm blanket, Trendelenberg position (occasionally), volume infusion, consider vasopressors •





Toronto Notes 2010

Traumatology

Approach to C-Spine X-Rays • 3-view C-spine series is the screening modality of choice lateral CI-Tl ± swimmer's view (see Figure 3) (see Table 5 for interpretation) • lateral view is BEST, identifies 90-95% of injuries • odontoid view (open mouth or oblique submental view) (see Figure 4) examine the dens for fractures • beware of artifact (horizontal or vertical) caused by the radiological shadow of the teeth overlying the dens • if unable to rule out fracture, repeat view or consider CT or plain film tomography examine lateral aspects of Cl and spacing relative to C2 • AP view alignment of spinous processes in the midline s p acing of spinous processes should be equal check vertebral bodies

Emergency Medicine ERl1







• •



Supine Oblique Views • rarely used • detects some injuries not visible on the usual 3 views but CT is best • better visualization of posterior element fractures (lamina, pedicle, facet joint) • good to assess patency of neural foramina • can be used to visualize the C7-TI junction

1 . Dens 2. C 1 Lateral Mass 3. C2 To clear the x-ray ensure that: A. the dens is centred between the lateral masses of C 1 B. Cl and C2 are aligned laterally C. the lateral masses of Cl are symmetrical in size

Figure 4. C-Spine X-Ray; Odontoid View

Table 5. Interpretation of Lateral View: The ABCS A Adequacv and Alignment Must see Cl to Cl·Tl junction; if not, downward traction of shoulders, swimmer's view, bilateral supine obliques, or CT scan needed Lines of contour (in children 500 x 1 0'/L, amylase > 1 75 IU

blunt trauma: usually causes solid organ injury (spleen injury is most common) penetrating trauma: usually causes hollow organ injury or liver injury (most common)

BLUNT TRAUMA • results in two types of hemorrhage intra-abdominal bleed retroperitoneal bleed • adopt high clinical suspicion of bleeding in multi-system trauma • •

History • mechanism of injury, SAMPLE history Physical Exam • often unreliable in multi-system trauma slow blood loss not immediately apparent other injuries may mask symptoms serial examinations are required • abdomen inspect: contusions, abrasions, seatbelt sign, distention auscultate: bruits, bowel sounds palpate: tenderness, rebound tenderness, rigidity, guarding DRE: rectal tone, blood, bone fragments, prostate location placement of NG, foley catheter should be considered part of the abdo exam • other systems to assess CVS, respiratory (possibility of diaphragm rupture), pelvis, back, neuro as it pertains to abdo sensation, GU •









• •



Investigations • labs: CBC, electrolytes, coags, cross & type, glucose, creatinine, CK, lipase, amylase, liver enzymes, ABG, blood EtOH, �-hCG, U/A, tox screen • imaging: see Table 8 Table B. Imaging in Abdominal Trauma Imaging

Strengths

Limitations

X-Ray

Chest (looking for free air under diaphragm, diaphragmatic hernia, air fluid levels), pelvis, cervical, thoracic, lumbar spines

No soft tissue

CT scan

Most specific test

Radiation exposure 20x more than x-ray Cannot use if hemodynamic instability

Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage (DPL)

Most sensitive test Tests for intra-peritoneal bleed

Cannot test for retroperitoneal bleed or diaphragmatic rupture Cannot distinguish lethal from trivial bleed Results can take up to 1 hr

Ultrasound: FAST (Focused Abdominal Sonogram for Trauma)

Identifies presence/absence of free fluid in peritoneal cavity RAPID exam: less than 5 minutes Can also examine pericardium and pleural cavities

NOT used to identify specific organ injuries If patient has ascites, FAST will be falsely positive

• imaging must be done if •



• •



equivocal abdominal examination, suspected intra-abdominal injury or distracting injuries multiple trauma patient resulting in unreliable physical exam (altered sensorium, i.e. secondary to drugs, alcohol, head trauma, or distracting injury; spinal cord injury resulting in abdominal anesthesia) unexplained shock/hypotension multiple trauma patients who must undergo general anesthesia for orthopaedic, neurosurgical, or other injuries fractures of lower ribs, pelvis, spine

Management • general: ABCs, fluid resuscitation and stabilization • surgical: watchful wait vs. laparotomy • solid organ injuries: decision based on hemodynamic stability, not the specific injuries • hemodynamically unstable or persistently high transfusion requirements: laparotomy • hollow organ injuries: laparotomy • even if low suspicion on injury: admit and observe for 24 hours

Toronto Notes 2010

Emergency Medicine ER15

Traumatology

PENETRATING TRAUMA • high risk of gastrointestinal perforation and sepsis • history: size of blade, calibre / distance from gun, route of entry • local wound exploration under direct vision may determine lack of peritoneal penetration (not reliable in inexperienced hands) with the following exceptions: thoracoabdominal region (may cause pneumothorax) back or flanks (muscles too thick) •



Management • general: ABCs, fluid resuscitation and stabilization • gunshot wounds --? always require laparotomy • stab wounds --? "rule of thirds"

Genitourinary Tract I njuries • see Urology. U33

'" ' ,

�}-------.

Laparotomy is Mandatory if Penetrating Trauma and: • Shock • Peritonitis • Evisceration • Free air in abdomen • Blood in NG tube, Foley catheter, or on rectal exam

",

' ,

�}-------.

"Rule of Thirds" for stab wounds: • 1/3 do not penetrate peritoneal cavity • 1/3 penetrate but are harmless • 1/3 cause injury requiring surgery

Etiology • blunt trauma - often associated with pelvic fractures renal contusions (minor injury - parenchymal ecchymoses with intact renal capsule) renal parenchymal tears / laceration: non-communicating (hematoma) vs. communicating (urine extravasation, hematuria) extraperitoneal rupture of bladder from pelvic fracture fragments intraperitoneal rupture of bladder from trauma and full bladder anterior (bulbous) urethral damage with pelvic fractures ureter: rare, at uretero-pelvic junction • penetrating trauma damage to: kidney, bladder, ureter (rare) • acceleration/ deceleration injury renal pedicle injury - high mortality rate (laceration and thrombosis of renal artery, renal vein, and their branches) • iatrogenic ureter (from instrumentation) •





• • •







History • mechanism of injury • hematuria (microscopic or gross), blood on underwear • dysuria, urinary retention • history of hypotension Physical Examination • abdominal pain, flank pain, costovertebral angle (CVA) tenderness, upper quadrant mass, perineal lacerations • ORE: sphincter tone, position of prostate, presence of blood • scrotum: ecchymoses, lacerations, testicular disruption, hematomas • bimanual exam, speculum exam • extraperitoneal bladder rupture: pelvic instability, suprapubic tenderness from mass of urine or extravasated blood • intraperitoneal bladder rupture: acute abdomen Investigations • plain film: look for fractures (lower ribs, lower thoracic, upper lumbar vertebrae, pelvis) • renal: CT scan (best, if hemodynamically stable), intravenous pyelogram (IVP) during laparotomy, renal arteriography (if renal artery injury suspected) ureter: retrograde ureterogram • bladder: urinalysis, CT scan, urethrogram, ± retrograde cystoscopy, ± cystogram (distended bladder + post-void) • urethra: retrograde urethrography •

Management • urology consult • renal minor injuries - conservative management • bedrest, hydration, analgesia, antibiotics major injuries - admit • conservative management with frequent reassessments, serial urinalysis, ± reimaging • surgical repair (exploration, nephrectomy) (e.g. hemodynamically unstable or continuing to bleed >48h, major urine extravasation, renal pedicle injury, all penetrating wounds and major lacerations, infections, renal artery thrombosis) • ureter uretero-uretostomy •





'" ' ,

�}-------,

In the case of gross hematuria, the GU system is investigated from distal to proximal (i.e. urethrogram, cystogram, etc.)

ER16 Emergency Medicine

Traumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

• bladder

extraperitoneal • minor rupture: Foley drainage x 10-14 days • major rupture: surgical repair intraperitoneal • drain abdomen and surgical repair • urethra anterior: conservative, if cannot void --+ Foley or suprapubic cystostomy and antibiotics posterior: suprapubic cystostomy (avoid catheterization) ± surgical repair •







Orthopaedic I njuries �' Description of Fractures SOLARTAT Site Open vs. closed Length Articular Rotation Translation Alignment/Angulation Type (i.e. Salter-Harris, etc.)

• see Orthopaedics

(Shoulder, Knee, Wrist, Ankle)

Goals of ED Treatment • identify injuries accurately and address potentially life / limb threatening problems appropriately • reduce and immobilize fractures (cast/ splint) as appropriate • provide adequate pain relief • arrange proper follow-up if necessary History • use SAMPLE • mechanism of injury may be very important Physical Examination • Look (inspection): "SEADS" Swelling, Erythema, Atrophy, Deformity, Skin changes (e.g. bruises) • Feel (palpation): all joints/bones - local tenderness, swelling, warmth, crepitus, joint effusions, subtle deformity • Move: joints affected plus above and below injury - active ROM preferred to passive • Neurovascular status: distal to injury (BEFORE and AFTER reduction)

.... ' ,

.}-------, LIFE AND LIMB THREATENING INJURIES

Reasons for Emergent Orthopaedic Consultation • Compartment syndrome • Irreducible dislocation • Circulatory compromise • Open fracture • Injury requiring surgical repair

• threat to life is usually due to blood loss (e.g. up to 3 L in pelvic fractures, 1.5 L per long

bone fracture)

• threat to limb is usually due to interruption of blood supply to distal part of limb or to

susceptible part of bone

Table 9. Life and Limb Threatening Orthopedic Injuries Life Threatening Injuries

Limb Threatening Injuries

Major pelvic fractures

Fracture/dislocation of ankle (talar AVN)

Traumatic amputations

Crush injuries

Massive long bone injuries (beware of fat emboli)

Compartment syndrome

Vascular injury proximal to knee/elbow

Open fractures Dislocations of knee/hip Fractures above knee/elbow

0::' When Dealing with an Open Fracture, Remember "STAND" Splint Tetanus prophylaxis Antibiotic Neurovascular status (before and after) Dressings (to cover wound)

".

Vascular injury/compartment syndrome is suggested by "The 6 Ps": Pulse discrepancies Pallor Paresthesia/hypo esthesia Paralysis Pain (especially when refractory to usual analgesics) Polar (cold)

Open Fractures • communication between fracture site and external surface of skin - risk of osteomyelitis • remove gross debris, irrigate, cover with sterile dressing - formal irrigation and debridement often done in the OR • control bleeding with pressure (no clamping) • splint • antibiotics (1"' generation cephalosporin and aminoglycoside) and tetanus prophylaxis • must secure definitive surgical care within 6-8 hours Vascular Injuries • realign limb / apply longitudinal traction and reassess pulses (e.g. Doppler probe) • surgical consult • direct pressure if external bleeding Compartment Syndrome • increased interstitial pressure in an anatomical "compartment" (forearm, calf) with little room for expansion, resulting in decreased perfusion and potential muscle / nerve necrosis • excessive pain which is worse with passive stretching and refractory to analgesia is the hallmark sign early on; also look for "the 6 Ps" (see side bar) • requires prompt decompression - remove constrictive casts, dressings; fasciotomy may be needed emergently

Emergency Medicine ER17

Traumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

UPPER EXTREMITY INJURIES • anterior shoulder dislocation axillary nerve (lateral aspect of shoulder) and musculocutaneous nerve (extensor aspect of forearm) at risk seen on lateral view: humeral head anterior to glenoid • reduce (traction, scapular manipulation), immobilize in internal rotation, re-x-ray, out-patient appointment with ortho • with forceful injury, look for fracture • Colles' fracture (Figure 6) distal radius fracture with dorsal displacement from Fall On an Outstretched Hand (FOOSH) AP film: shortening, radial deviation, radial displacement lateral film: dorsal displacement, volar angulation reduce, immobilize with splint, out-patient with ortho or immediate ortho referral if complicated fracture if involvement of articular surface, emergent ortho referral • scaphoid fracture tenderness in anatomical snuff box, pain on scaphoid tubercle, pain on axial loading of thumb negative x-ray: thumb spica splint, re-x-ray in 1 week ± bone scan positive x-ray: thumb spica splint x 6-8 weeks risk of avascular necrosis (AVN) of scaphoid if not immobilized outpatient ortho appointment •



lateral view

��

�t1L:









• •











@-

A-P view

1 . dorsal tilt 2. dorsal displacement 3. 4. 5. 6.

ulnar styloid fracture radial displacement radial tilt shortening

Figure 6. Colles' Fracture



LOWER EXTREMITY INJURIES • ankle and foot fractures see Ottawa Ankle and Foot Rules (Figure 8) • knee injuries see Ottawa Knee Rules (Figure 9) • avulsion of the base of 5th metatarsal occurs with inversion injury supportive tensor or below knee walking cast for 3 weeks • calcaneal fracture associated with fall from height associated injuries may involve ankles, knees, hips, pelvis, lumbar spine

+----- Radius





Hamate









© Elisheva Marcus

Figure 7. Carpal Bones CD Posterior

" Posterior

egde or tip

edge or lip

of medial

of lateral

malleolus

maneolus

LATERAL VIEW

e Basse of 5th metatarsal

(;) Navicular

MEDIAL VIEW

An ankle radiographic series is required only if there is any pain in malleolar zone and any of these findings: 1 . bone tenderness at A or 2. bone tenderness at B or 3. i nability to bear weight both immediately and in emergency department A foot radiographic series is required only if there is any pain in midfoot zone and any of these findings: 1. bone tenderness at C or 2. bone tenderness at 0 or 3. inability to bear weight both immediately and in emergency department

Figure 8. Ottawa Ankle Rules

Reprinted with permission from Stiell et. al. (1 994) JAMA 271 ( 1 1 ):827-832, copyright © (1 994). American Medical Association. A knee x-ray examination is required only for acute injury patients with one or more of:

Age 55 years or older Tenderness at head of fibula • Isolated tenderness of patella' • Inability to flex to 90° • Inability to bear weight both immediately and in the emergency department (four steps)" 'no bony tenderness of knee other than patella " unable to transfer weight twice onto each lower limb regardless of limping • •

Figure 9. Ottawa Knee Rules

Reprinted with permission from: Stiell et. al. (1 997) JAMA 278(23):61 1 -5, copyright © (1 997). American Medical Association.

..... ' � �f------, Reasons for Splinting • Reduces pain • Reduces further damage to vessels and nerves • Reduces risk of inadvertently converting a closed fracture into an open fracture • Facilitates patient transport

ER18 Emergency Medicine

Traumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Wound Management Goals o f ED Treatment • identify injuries and stop any active bleeding - direct pressure • manage pain • wound examination and exploration (history and physical) • cleansing ± antibiotic and tetanus prophylaxis • repair and dressing Tetanus Prophylaxis • both tetanus toxoid (Td) and immunoglobulin (TIG) are safe (and indicated) in pregnancy Table 1 0. Guidelines for Tetanus Prophylaxis for Wounds Tetanus Prone Wounds1

Immunization History

Non Tetanus Prone Wounds TlG3 Td2

Td

TlG

Uncertain or < 3 doses

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

3 or more, none for > 1 0 years

Yes

No

Yes

No

3 or more, > 5 but < 1 0 years ago

No

No

Yes

No

3 or more, < 4 years ago

No

No

Yes

No

1

wounds > 6 hours old, > 1 cm deep, puncture wounds, avulsions, wounds resulting from missiles, crush wounds, burns, frostbite, wounds contaminated with dirt, feces, soil, or saliva 2 0.5 rnL 1M tetanus and diphtheria toxoids lTd), adsorbed 3 tetanus immune globulin ITIG), 250 units deep 1M Source: MMWR 2001; 50120); 418, 427. MMWR 1 991; 40IRRI2); 1·52.

." Acute Treatment of Contusions RICE Rest Ice Compression Elevation

Bruises • non palpable ecchymosis • palpable collection (not swelling) hematoma following blunt trauma • is patient on anticoagulants? Do they have a coagulopathy (e.g. liver disease)? =

=

.... , , •

Suture to

Close with nylon or other nonabsorbable suture

Approx. duration Idays)

Face Not Joint Joint Scalp Mucous Membrane

6·0 4·0 3·0 4·0 absorbable Ivicl)'i)

10 7 N/A

N.B. Patients on steroid therapy may need sutures in for longer periods of time

.... ' ,

.�------.

Alternatives to Sutures • Tissue glue • Steristrips '" • Staples

".

Where NOT to use local anesthetic with epinephrine: Ears, Nose, Fingers, Toes and Hose IPenis)

Abrasions • partial to full thickness break in skin • management clean thoroughly, ± local anesthetic, with brush to prevent foreign body impregnation (tattooing) antiseptic ointment (PolysporinTM or VaselineTM) for 7 days for facial and complex abrasions tetanus prophylaxis (Table 10) •





Lacerations • see also Plastic Surgery, PL8 • consider every structure deep to a laceration injured until proven otherwise • in hand injury patients, include following in history: handedness, occupation, mechanism of injury, previous history of injury • physical exam think about underlying anatomy examine tendon function actively against resistance and neurovascular status distally clean and explore under local anesthetic; look for partial tendon injuries x-ray wounds if a foreign body is suspected (e.g. shattered glass) and not found when exploring wound (remember: not all foreign bodies are radiopaque), or if suspect intra-articular involvement • management disinfect skin / use sterile techniques irrigate copiously with normal saline analgesia ± anesthesia • maximum dose of lidocaine: 7 mg/ kg with epinephrine 5 mg/ kg without epinephrine • in children, topical anesthetics such as LET (lidocaine, epinephrine and tetracaine) and in selected cases a short-acting benzodiazepine (midazolam or other agents) for sedation and amnesia are useful • secure hemostasis • evacuate hematomas, debride non-viable tissue, remove hair and remove foreign bodies • ± prophylactic antibiotics • suture unless delayed presentation, a puncture wound, or mammalian bite • take into account patient and wound factors when considering suturing • advise patient when to have sutures removed • •





• • •





Traumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

OO

Emergency Medicine ER19

-

� :;� �

digital arteroes

.� .,'

" .� .,..

Ii!�>"

o

palmar digital nerves

Figure 1 0. Digital Block - Local Anesthesia of Digits

Cellulitis • see also Plastic Surgery. PL14 • localized infection of the dermis • bacterial (5. aureus, GAS, H. injluenzae, rarely pseudomonas, MRSA) infection of skin and subcutaneous tissues • look for "rubor, calor, dolor, tumour" (erythema, warmth, pain, swelling) • have high index of suspicion in patients who are immunocompromised (e.g. HIY, DM), vasculopaths, IV drug users • treat with immobilization and elevation of infected area, antibiotics, analgesics, and close follow-up • antibiotics for common cellulitis: cefazolin IV then cephalexin PO (alt: clindamycin PO, vancomycin IV then linezolid PO); consider MRSA Abscess • may be associated with a retained foreign body • look for warm, swollen, painful, erythematous fluctuant masses • ensure absence of systemic symptoms and presence of subcutaneous air in simple abscesses • anesthetize locally • treat with incision and drainage ± antibiotics - apply warm compress, give analgesics

Trau ma i n Pregnancy • Priorities: Airway, Breathing, Circulation

Hemodynamic Considerations • near term, inferior vena caval compression in the supine position can decrease cardiac output by 30-40% use left lateral decubitus (LLD) positioning or hip bolster to alleviate compression and increase blood return • BP drops 5-15 mmHg systolic in 2nd trimester, increases to normal by term • HR increases 15-20 beats per minute by 3rd trimester •

Blood Considerations • physiologic macrocytic anemia of pregnancy (Hb 100-120) • WBC increases to high of 20,000 Shock • pregnant patients may lose 35% of blood volume without typical signs of shock (i.e. tachycardia, hypotension) • the fetus may be in "shock" due to contraction of the uteroplacental circulation • fetal HR changes are an indication of maternal circulatory compromise Management D ifferences • place bolster under right hip to stop inferior vena cava compression • fetal monitoring (continuous tocographic monitoring if possible viable fetus i.e. >20 weeks) • early obstetrical consult • do not avoid necessary x-rays, but shield as much as posssible • consider need for RhoGAM if mother Rh negative

.... ' ,

.�------,

Differential Diagnosis of Cellulitis Necrotizing Fasciitis Gas gangrene Cutaneous anthrax Vaccinia vaccination Insect bite (hypersensitivity) Acute gout DVT Fixed drug reaction Kawasaki's Pyoderma gangrenosum

�' Features of Necrotizing Fasciitis Infection ABCDE A - Anaerobic, Aerobic, Adult, Atibiotics refractory B - Bacterial synergistic gangrene, group B streptococcus, and Blood count higher than normal C - Cellulitis, Crepitus, and Coagulopathy D - Dermal gangrene, Delay in presentation almost fatal E - Erythema with spreading Edema

.... ' ,

.f-------,

Which Abscesses Need Antibiotics? • Evidence of systemic illness (e.g. cellulitis) • Immunocompromised patient • Patient at risk for endocarditis

.... ' ,

.�------,

Early wound irrigation and debridement are the most important factors in decreasing infection.

.... ' , .}-------, The best treatment for the fetus is the effective treatment of the mother.

ER20 Emergency Medicine

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Toronto Notes 2010

Approach to Common ER Presentations Abdominal Pai n

Red Flags • Extremes of age • Unstable vital signs • Fever • Signs/symptoms of shock • Rapid onset severe pain

Rule Out Life-Threatening Causes • CVS: MI, aortic dissection, ruptured AAA (tearing pain) • GI : perforated viscus, hepatic I splenic injury, ischemic bowel (diffuse pain) • GU: ectopic pregnancy Additional Differential Diag nosis • GI: appendicitis, diverticulitis, bowel obstruction, hepatitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis • urinary: cystitis, pyelonephritis, ureteral calculi • genital female: pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), endometriosis, salpingitis I tubo-ovarian abscess, ovarian torsion I cyst male: testicular torsion, epididymitis • other: diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), Herpes Zoster Virus (HZV), intra-abdominal abscess, pneumonia, lead poisoning, porphyria, sickle cell crisis •

,,'

Abdominal Assessment in all 4 quadrants DR. GERM Distention Rigidity Guarding Eviceration/Ecchymosis Rebound tenderness Masses

..... �

� ��------,

If both AST and ALT elevated, AST > ALT indicates potential alcohol related hepatic diseases ALT > AST indicates viral hepatic pathology If ALP and GGT elevated, think biliary tree

Unstable patients should not be sent for imaging.



History and Physical Examination • determine onset, course, location and character of pain: PQRST • associated GU, GI, respiratory, CV symptoms • abdominal trauma I surgeries • general appearance, vitals • respiratory, CVS • back: CVA tenderness, ecchymoses • extremities: differential pulses, psoas I obturator sign • abdomen: DRE, pelvic exam (females), genital exam (males) Investigations • do not delay consultation if patient unstable • CBC, electrolytes, glucose, LFTs, amylase, BUN I creat, U/A, + others if indicated: �-hCG, lactate, ECG • AXR: look for calcifications, free air, gas pattern, air fluid levels • CXR upright: look for pneumoperitoneum (free air under diaphragm) • U/S: biliary tract, ectopic pregnancy, AAA, free fluid • CT: trauma, AAA, pancreatitis, nephro / urolithiasis Management • NPO, IV, NG tube, analgesics growing evidence that small amounts of narcotic analgesics improve diagnostic accuracy of physical exam of surgical abdomen • consult as necessary: general surgery, vascular, gynecology, etc. •

Disposition • admission: in addition to a surgical abdomen, admission is sometimes required for workup of abnormal findings on investigation, IV antibiotics, pain control, etc. • discharge: patients with a negative lab and imaging workup who improve clinically during their stay can be discharged. Instruct the patient to return if severe pain, fever, or persistent vomiting develop. Follow up with FP in 24-48 hours

Acute Pelvic Pai n ..... �

� ��------,

All women of childbearing age assumed to be pregnant until proven otherwise.

Etiology • gynecological 2nd most common gynecological complaint after vaginal bleeding ruptured ovarian cysts - most common cause of pelvic pain, follicular cyst most common type ovarian torsion - rare, 50% will have ovarian tumour leiomyomas (uterine fibroids) - especially with torsion of a pedunculated fibroid or in pregnant patient (degeneration) ectopic pregnancy - ruptured I expanding I leaking spontaneous abortion - threatened or incomplete infection - PID, endometritis, tubo-ovarian abscess dysmenorrhea and endometriosis - rarely cause new onset acute pelvic pain • non-gynecological GI - appendicitis, constipation, bowel obstruction, gastroenteritis, diverticulitis, IBD, IBS GU - cystitis, pyelonephritis, ureteric stone other - porphyria, abdominal angina, aneurysm, hernia, zoster •



• •











• •

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Toronto Notes 2010

History and Physical Exam • determine onset, course, location and character of the pain • associated symptoms: vaginal bleeding, bowel or bladder symptoms, radiation • vitals • gynecological exam • abdominal exam Investigations • �-hCG for all women of childbearing age • CBC and differential, PTT, INR • pelvic and abdominal U/S - evaluate adnexa, look for free fluid in the pelvis or masses, evaluate thickness of endometrium • doppler flow studies for ovarian torsion

Emergency Medicine ER21 ,, ' I

��------,

Gynecological Causes of Pelvic Pain: Ovarian Cyst Dysmenorrhea Mittelshmerz Endometriosis Ovarian Torsion Uterine Fibroids/neoplasm Adnexal Neoplasm PID + Cervicitis

Management • general: analgesia, determine if admission and consults needed gynecology consult if history and physical suggestive of serious cause other consults as indicated - general surgery, urology, etc. • specific: ovarian cysts • unruptured or ruptured and hemodynamically stable - analgesia and follow-up • ruptured with significant hemoperitoneum - may require surgery ovarian torsion - surgical detorsion or removal of ovary uncomplicated leiomyomas, endometriosis and secondary dysmenorrhea can usually be treated on an outpatient basis, discharge with gynecology follow-up PID: requires broad spectrum antibiotics •











Disposition • patients requiring IV therapy or surgery should be admitted • patients to be discharged should be given clear instructions for appropriate follow up

Altered Level of Consciousness (LOC) Definitions • altered mental status - collective, non-specific term referring to change in cognitive function, behaviour, or attentiveness • delirium - acute, transient, fluctuating, potentially reversible organic brain disorder presenting as altered LOC or attentiveness (see Psychiatry. PS17) • dementia - insidious, progressive, organic brain disorder with change in memory, judgment, personality and cortical function (see Psychiatry. PS17) • lethargy - state of decreased awareness and alertness (patient may appear wakeful) • stupor - unresponsiveness from which the patient can be aroused • coma - a sleep-like state, non arousable to consciousness • use the GCS to evaluate LOC (see Initial Patient Assessment and Management, ER2)

t

2/3

Coma (GCS :s8)

I

Toxic/Metabolic

1/3

Primary C NS Disease/Trauma

I

M - Major organ failure E - Electrolyte/Endocrine T - Toxins/Temperature Brainstem Bilateral Cerebral A - Acid disorders Hemispheres (affecting cognition) B - Base disorders (affecting Recticular Activitating System (RAS)) o - decreased Oxygen level L - Lactate �� I - Insulin (diabetes)/Infection (sepsis) Compression Direct C - Cardiac/hyperCalcemia Supra/infratentorial Brainstem Diffuse lesion Diffuse trauma/ischemia tumour infarct Sub/epidural Brainstem hematoma hemorrhage

/�

Figure 1 1 . Etiology of Coma









0.1 2s) RSR' in V5 or V6 Monophasic I and V6 May see ST elevation Difficult to interpret, new LBBB is considered STEMI equivalent

Ischemia a) STEM I Metabolic a) Hyperkalemia

ST elevation in leads associated with injured area of heart Tall T waves P wave flattening QRS complex widening and flattening

b) Hypokalemia

U waves appear Flattened T waves

Digitalis Toxicity

Gradual downward curve of ST At risk for AV blocks and ventricular irritability

Syndromes a) Brugada b) Wellens c) Long QT Syndrome

RBBB with ST elevation in V1, V2 and V3 Susceptible to deadly arrhythmias, including V. Fib. Marked T wave inversion in V2 and V3 Left anterior desceding coronary stenosis

QT interval longer than V, of cardiac cycle Predisposed to ventricular arrhythmia

ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION • see Cardiology, C21 �' Immediate Treatment of Acute MI BEMOAN Beta-Blockade Enoxaparin Morphine Oxygen ASA Nitroglycerin

Management • immediate stabilization oxygen 4L / min IV access cardiac monitors STAT ECG cardiac enzymes (CK, Troponins) • ASA 160-325 mg chewed • nitroglycerin 0.3 mg SL q5min x 3 (IV for CHF, HTN, unresolved pain) • morphine 2-5 mg IV q5-30min if unresponsive to NTG • metoprolol 5 mg slow IV q5min x 3 if no contraindication (beware in inferior wall AMl) • enoxaparin (Low Molecular Weight Heparin) Img / kg SC bid (30 mg IV STAT post TNK infusion) • thrombolytics or primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCl) agents include t-PA, r-PA, Streptokinase, and TNK evaluate indications and contraindications prior to use • other - antiarrhythmics, cardioversion, defibrillation, transthoracic pacing, angioplasty • cardiology consult • •

• • •

• •

Epistaxis • see Otolaryngology, OT27 • 90% of nosebleeds stem from the anterior nasal septum (at Kiesselbach's plexus located in

Little's area)

• can be life-threatening

Etiology • most commonly caused by trauma (digital, blunt, foreign bodies), but can also be caused by barometric changes, nasal dryness, chemicals (cocaine, Otrivin™), or systemic disease (coagulopathies, hypertension, etc,) Investigations • CBC, PT / PTT (if indicated) • x-ray, CT as needed

Toronto Notes 2010

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Treatment • aim is to localize bleeding and achieve hemostasis • first-aid: ABC's, lean forward, pinch soft part of nose for 20 minutes • assess blood loss: vitals, IV normal saline, cross match 2 units packed RBC if significant • determine site of bleeding: use topical anaesthetic / vasoconstrictor to facilitate. Use nasal speculum and good lighting • attempt to control the bleeding first line: Otrivin™ or cocaine second line: cauterize with silver nitrate (one side of septum only! ) i f these fail, o r i f bleeding i s posterior --7 nasal packing if packing fails, consult ENT

Emergency Medicine ER25 ..... ' ,

.f-------,

Thrombocytopenic patients - use resorbable packs to avoid risk of re-bleeding caused by pulling out the removable pack.









Disposition • most patients can be discharged. Ensure vitals are stable, bleeding is controlled, and patient has appropriate follow-up • educate patients about prevention (e.g. humidifiers, saline spray, topical ointments, avoiding irritants, managing hypertension, etc.) • admission may be required for severe cases. Consult ENT

Headache • see also Neurology. N39

Etiology • the common common migraine (no aura) / classic migraine (involves aura) • gradual onset, unilateral /bilateral, throbbing • nausea / vomiting, photo / phonophobia • treatment: analgesics, neuroleptics, vasoactive meds tension/ muscular headache • never during sleep, gradual over 24 hours • posterior/ occipital • increased with stressors • treatment: modify stressor, local measures, NSAIDs • the deadly subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) (see Neurosurgery. NS16) • sudden onset, increased with exertion • "worst" headache, nausea and vomiting, meningeal signs • diagnosis: CT, LP (5-10% of patients with SAH have negative initial CT) - sensitivity of CT decreases with time and is much less sensitive by 48-72 hr • management: urgent neurosurgery consult increased ICP • worst in morning, supine, or bending down • physical exam: neurological deficits, cranial nerve palsies, papilledema • diagnosis: CT scan • management: consult neurosurgery meningitis (see Infectious Diseases. ID16) • fever, nausea / vomiting, meningeal signs, purpuric rash • altered level of consciousness • perform CT to rule out increased ICP then do LP for diagnosis • treatment: early empiric antibiotics (depending on age group), steroid therapy temporal arteritis (not immediately deadly but causes great morbidity) (see Ophthalmology. OP38) • unilateral scalp tenderness, jaw claudication, visual disturbances • labs: elevated ESR • temporal artery biopsy is gold standard for diagnosis • treatment: high-dose steroids immediately if TA suspected •

Note: up to 5% of patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage have a normal CT scan; if suspect SAH with a negative CT. perform a lumbar puncture.



BEWARE: every headache is serious until proven otherwise.







..:

DDx Subarachnoid Hemorrhage BATS Berry aneurysm Arteriovenous malformation/Adult polycystic kidney disease Trauma Stroke



Disposition • admit if underlying diagnosis is critical or emergent, if there are abnormal neurological findings, if patient is elderly or immunocompromised (don't manifest symptoms as well), or if pain is refractory to oral medications • most patients can be discharged with appropriate analgesia and follow up with their family physician. Instruct patients to return for fever, vomiting, neurologic changes, or increasing pain

Joint Pai n • see Rheumatology

Rule Out Life-Threatening Causes • septic joint (see Orthopaedics)

Meningitis Do not delay IV antibiotics for LP.

ER26 Emergency Medicine

Causes of Joint Pain SOFTER TISSUE Sepsis Osteoarthritis Fractures Tendon/muscle Epiphyseal, Referred, Tumour, Ischaemia Seropositive arthritides Seronegative arthritides Urate Extra-articular rheumatism (eg. polymyalgia)

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Toronto Notes 2010

Differential Diagnosis • articular pain mono articular • infectious: bacterial, viral, fungal, viral • hemarthrosis: trauma / fracture, anticoagulants, bleeding diatheses • crystal induced: gout, CPPD, hydroxyapatite • inflammatory: seropositive, seronegative • neoplasm • degenerative: osteoarthritis polyarticular • infectious: Lyme disease, bacterial endocarditis, septicemia, gonococcus, viral • post-infectious: rheumatic fever, reactive arthritis, enteric infections • inflammatory: seropositive, seronegative • degenerative: osteoarthritis • non-articular musculoskeletal • localized: tendonitis, bursitis, capsulitis, muscle sprain • generalized: fibromyalgia, PMR • other neurologic: spinal stenosis / spondylolithesis, degenerative disc disease, cauda equina syndrome, neoplasm, thoracic outlet syndrome, Charcot joint vascular: intermittent claudication •









History and Physical Examination • determine onset, course, location, and character of the pain (OPQRST) • determine which joint or joints are involved • associated symptoms: fever, constitutional symptoms, skin lesions, conjunctivitis, urethritis • patterns of joint involvement: polyarticular vs. monoarticular, symmetric vs. asymmetric • inflammatory symptoms: prolonged morning stiffness, stiffness and pain ease through the day, midday fatigue, soft tissue swelling • non-inflammatory symptoms: stiffness short lived after inactivity, short duration stiffness in the morning, pain increases with activity • assess ROM, presence of joint effusion, warmth • watch for: localized joint pain, erythema, warmth, swelling with pain on active ROM, inability to bear weight, fever as these may indicate presence of septic joint Investigations • x-ray, CBC, ESR, CRP, WBC, INR/ PTT, blood cultures, urate • joint aspirate -7 send for: WBC, protein, glucose, Gram stain, crystals Management • septic joint: IV antibiotics ± joint decompression and drainage. Antibiotics can be started empirically if possibility of septic arthritis cannot be ruled out • crystalline synovitis: NSAIDs at high dose, colchicine with in first 24 hours, corticosteroids; do not use allopurinol, as it may worsen acute attack • acute polyarthritis: NSAIDs, analgesics (acetaminophen ± opiods), corticosteroids local or systemic hospitalization is required in the presence of (1) significant, concomitant internal organ involvement; (2) signs of bacteremia, including vesiculopustular skin lesions, Roth spots, shaking chills, or splinter hemorrhages; (3) systemic vasculitis; (4) severe pain; (5) severe constitutional symptoms; (6) purulent synovial fluid in one or more joints; or (7) immunosuppression • osteoarthritis: acutely: NSAIDs, acetaminophen. Long term: weight loss, reduce joint loading, exercise regimen • soft tissue pain: allow healing with enforced rest ± immobilization. Nonpharmacologic treatment: local heat or cold, electrical stimulation, massage. Pharmacologic: oral analgesics, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, corticosteroid injections, topical agents •

Ota lgia Differential Diagnosis (see also Otolaryngology, OT6) • local infections : AOE, AOM, OM with effusion, mastoiditis, myringitis, malignant otitis in diabetics, herpes simplex / zoster, auricular cellulites, external canal abscess others: trauma, neoplasm, foreign body, cerumen impactions, Wegener's • determine onset, course, location and character of pain • otorrhea, aural fullness, hearing loss, pruritis • Q-tip use, hearing aids, headphones • associated symptoms: fever • observe for otorrhea, palpation of outer ear, otoscope to see bulging erythematous TM, perforation •



Toronto Notes 2010

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Emergency Medicine ER27

Investigations • consider audiogram if hearing loss Management • debridement and antibiotics for cerumen and infection

Seizures • see Neurology, N8

Definition • paroxysmal alteration of behaviour and / or EEG changes resulting from abnormal, excessive activity of neurons Categories • generalized seizure (consciousness always lost): tonic/ clonic, absence, myoclonic, atonic • partial seizure (focal): simple partial, complex partial • causes: trauma, intracranial hemorrhage, structural abnormality, infection, toxins / drugs, metabolic disturbance (hypo / hyperglycemia, hypo / hypernatremia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia); primary seizure disorder • differential diagnosis: syncope, pseudoseizures, migraines, movement disorder, narcolepsy / cataplexy, myoclonus History • from patient and bystander: flaccid and unconscious, often with deep rapid breathing • preceding aura, rapid onset, loss of bladder /bowel control, tongue-biting Physical Examination • injuries to head and spine and bony prominences (e.g. elbows), tongue laceration, aspiration, urinary incontinence Investigations • known seizure disorder: anticonvulsant levels • Accucheck • first time seizure: CBC, serum glucose, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, Ca, Mg; consider prolactin, i3-hCG, tox screen • initial: CT; x-ray suspected extremily injuries. Definitive: MRl, EEG Table 13. Management of Status Epilepticus Time (min)

Steps

0-5

Give oxygen; ensure adequate ventilation Monitor: vital signs, electrocardiography, oximetry Establish IV access; obtain blood samples for glucose level, CBC, Iytes, toxins, and anticonvulsant levels

6-9

Give glucose (preceded by thiamine in adults)

1 0-20

Intravenously administer either 0.1 mg/kg of lorazepam at 2 mg/min or 0.2 mg/kg of diazepam at 5 mg/min. Diazepam can be repeated if seizures do not stop after 5 min; if diazepam is used to stop the status, then phenytoin should be administered promptly to prevent the recurrence of status

21-60

If status persists, administer 1 5-20 mg/kg of phenytoin intravenously no faster than 50 mg/min in adults and 1 mg/kg/min in children

>60

If status does not stop after 20 mg/kg of phenytoin, give additional doses of 5 mg/kg to a maximal dose of 30 mg/kg. � status persists, then give 20 mg/kg of phenobarbital IV at 1 00 mg/min. When phenobarbital is given after a benzodiazepine, ventilatory assistance is usually required If status persists, then give general anaesthesia (e.g., pentobarbital). Vasopressors or fluid volume are usually necessary. Electroencephalogram should be monitored. Neuromuscular blockade may be needed.

Source: Cecil's Essentials of Medicine, 7th edition, Table 1 25·7. Used with permission.

Disposition • the decision to admit or discharge should be based on the underlying disease process identified. If a patient has returned to baseline function and is neurologically intact, then discharge with outpatient follow up is often an option. • first-time seizure patients being discharged should be referred to a neurologist for follow up. Admitted patients should generally have a neurology consult • patient should not drive until medically cleared (local regulations vary) complete notification form to appropriate authority re: ability to drive •

,,

'

,

�f-------,

Min. Workup in an Adult with 1 st Time Seizure CSC and diff Electrolytes including Ca+2, Mg+2, PO. Head CT

ER28 Emergency Medicine

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Toronto Notes 2010

Shortness of Breath • see Respirology and Cardiology

,- ' , .�------. Etiology Causes of Acute Dsypnea Cardiovascular: acute MI, CHF, cardiac tamponade. Respiratory: bronchospasm, pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, infection (bronchitis, pneumonia), upper airway obstructioin (apiration, anaphylaxis).

• categorized into one of two groups: respiratory system dyspnea or cardiovascular system

dyspnea

• respiratory system dyspnea: discomfort related to disorders of the central controller

(brain), the ventilatory pump (ventilatory muscles, peripheral nerves), and the gas exchanger (alveoli and pulmonary capillaries) • cardiovascular system dyspnea: cardiac diseases (acute ischemia, heart failure, systolic dysfunction, valvular disorders, pericardial diseases), anemia, and deconditioning

HistoryIPhysical • acute SOB is often due to a relatively limited number of conditions. Associated symptoms and signs are key to the appropriate diagnosis substernal chest pain with cardiac ischemia fever, cough, and sputum with respiratory infections urticaria with anaphylaxis wheezing with acute bronchospasm • dyspnea may be the sole complaint and the physical examination may reveal few abnormalities (e.g. pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax). Attention to historical information and review of this limited differential diagnosis are important • chest tightness may be indicative of bronchospasm • a sensation of rapid, shallow breathing may correspond to interstitial disease • a sense of heavy breathing is typical of deconditioning • vitals including pulse oximetry •

• •



Investigations • CBC+ differential (hematocrit to exclude anemia as potential cause), electrolytes, consider ABG • CXR (hyperinflation and bullous disease suggestive of obstructive lung disease, or changes in interstitial markings consistent with inflammation, infection or interstitial fluid) • serial cardiac enzymes and ECG if considering cardiac source • CT chest usually is not indicated in the initial evaluation of patients with dyspnea, but can be valuable in patients with interstitial lung disease, occult emphysema, or chronic thromboembolic disease (PE) Disposition • the history and physical examination lead to accurate diagnoses in patients with dyspnea in ap proximately two-thirds of cases; the decision to admit or discharge should be based on the underlying disease process identified • if the decision to discharge is chosen, provide appropriate discharge instructions to return in case of returning / worsening SOB. Ensure follow up with family physician

Syncope '- ' , .�------, Which Patients with Syncope should be Admitted? Those at risk of complications: • Older than 60-70 years • Significant cardiac risk factors • Recurrent syncope • Serious underlying illness

,- ' , .�------. 5 Types of Syncope 1 . Vasomotor 2. Cardiac 3. CNS Metabolic 5. Psychogenic

4.

Definition • sudden, transient loss of consciousness and postural tone with spontaneous recovery • usually caused by generalized cerebral hypoperfusion Etiology • cardiogenic: arrhythmia, outflow obstruction (e.g. PE, tamponade, tension pneumo, pulmonary HTN), MI, valvular disease • non-cardiogenic: peripheral vascular (hypovolemia), vaso-vagal, cerebrovascular disorders, CNS, metabolic disturbances History • gather details from witnesses • distinguish between syncope and seizure (see Neurology, N8) some patients may have myoclonic jerks with syncope- NOT a seizure signs and symptoms during presyncope, syncope and postsyncope past medical history, drugs • sudden loss of consciousness with no warning or prodrome means cardiac until proven otherwise •





Physical Examination • postural BP and HR • cardiovascular, respiratory and neuro exam • Physical Findings in the Elderly Patient Who Falls (I HATE FALLING): Inflammation of joints (or joint deformity) Hypotension (orthostatic blood pressure changes) Auditory and visual abnormalities Tremor (Parkinson's disease or other causes of tremor) Equilibrium (balance) problem • •

• • •

Toronto Notes 2010 • • • • • • •

Approach to Common ER Presentations

Foot problems Arrhythmia, heart block or valvular disease Leg-length discrepancy Lack of conditioning (generalized weakness) Illness Nutrition (poor; weight loss) Gait disturbance

Investigations • ECG (tachycardia, bradycardia, blocks, WPW, long QT interval), bedside glucose • as indicated: CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, ABGs, Troponin, Mg, Ca, j3-hCG • consider drug screen Management • ABCs, IV, O2, monitor • examine for signs of trauma caused by syncopal episode • cardiogenic syncope: admit to medicine / cardiology • non-cardiogenic syncope: discharge with follow-up as indicated by cause Disposition • decision to admit is based on etiology • most patients will be discharged • on discharge, instruct patient to follow up with family physician. Educate re: avoiding orthostatic or situational syncope. Patients with recurrent syncope should avoid high risk activities (e.g. driving)

Emergency Medicine ER29

�'

Causes of Syncope by System

HEAD, HEART, VeSSELS Hypoxia/Hypoglycemia Epilepsy Anxiety Dysfunctional brainstem Heart attack Embolism (PE) Aortic obstruction Rhythm disturbance Tachycardia Vasovagal Situational Subclavian steal ENT (glossopharyngeal neuralgia) Low systemic vascular resistance Sensitive carotid Sinus

Sexual Assau lt Epidemiology • 1 in 4 women and 1 in 1 0 men will be sexually assaulted in their lifetime • it is estimated that only 7% of rapes are reported General Approach • ABCs, treat acute, serious injuries • ensure patient is not left alone and provide ongoing emotional support • set aside adequate time for exam (usually 1 .5 hours) • obtain consent for medical exam and treatment, collection of evidence, disclosure to police (notify police as soon as consent obtained) • Sexual Assault Kit (document injuries, collect evidence) if 24-48 hrs: anticoagulate 3 wks prior to cardioversion or do transesophageal echo to rule out clot if symptomatic or first presentation - cardiovert • electrical cardioversion: synchronized DC cardioversion • chemical cardioversion: amiodarone, procainamide, flecainide, propafenone (if decreased LV function use amiodarone) • long term management: rate control (maybe rhythm control), consider anticoagulation •



Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias (wide ORS) • ventricular tachycardia (VT) definition: 3 or more consecutive ventricular beats at >100 bpm etiology: CAD with MI is most common cause treatment: sustained VT (>30 seconds) is an emergency • hemodynamic compromise: DC cardioversion • no hemodynamic compromise: DC cardioversion, lidocaine, amiodarone, procainamide • ventricular fibrillation - call a code, follow ACLS for pulseless arrest • torsades de pointes looks like VT but QRS 'rotates around baseline' with changing axis and amplitude etiology: prolonged QT due to drugs (quinidine, TCAs, erythromycin, quinolones, etc.), electrolyte imbalance (hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia), congenital treatment: • IV Mg, temporary pacing, isoproterenol • correct cause of prolonged QT • discontinue cardioversion if hemodynamic compromise •

• •







Toronto Notes 2010

Medical Emergencies

Emergency Medicine ER33

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (CaPO) • see Respirology, R6

History and Physical Examination • worsening dyspnea or tachypnea • acute change in frequency, quantity and colour of sputum production • trigger: pneumonia, urinary tract infection, PE, CHF, drugs Investigations • CBC, electrolytes, ABG, CXR, ECG, PFTs

"' , ,

�}-------,

Need to Rule Out with COPD Exacerbation • Pneumothorax • CHF exacerbation • Acute MI • Pneumonia and other infectious causes

Management • keep O2 sat 88-92% (BEWARE OF CO2 RETAINERS, but do not withhold O2 if hypoxic) • ipratriopium is bronchodilator of choice, add salbutamol • steroids: prednisone 40 mg PO (tapered over 3 weeks) • antibiotics: TMP-SMX, cephalosporins, quinolones (if signs of infection) • ventilation (chance of ventilation dependency) • lower threshold to admit if co-morbid illness Disposition • can use up to 4-6 puffs qid of ipratropium and salbutamol for exacerbations • continue antibiotics if started and give tapering steroids

Congestive Heart Fai l u re • also see Cardiology, C32

Etiology • decreased myocardial contractility: ischemia, infarction, cardiomyopathy, myocarditis • pressure overload states: hypertension, valve abnormalities, congenital heart disease • restricted cardiac output: myocardial infiltrative disease, cardiac tamponade • volume overload Causes of Exacerbation or Precipitants • cardiac: acute myocardial infarction or ischemia, cardiac tachyarrhythmias (e.g. atrial fibrillation), uncontrolled hypertension • medications: non-compliance with or change in cardiac medications, NSAIDS, steroids • dietary: increased sodium intake • increased cardiac output demand: infection, anemia, hyperthyroidism, pregnancy • other: pulmonary embolus, physical overexertion, renal failure History/Presentation • left-sided heart failure dyspnea, decreased exercise tolerance, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, orthopnea, nocturia, fatigue, possibly altered mental status in severe cases pulmonary edema: severe respiratory distress, pink frothy or white sputum, rales, 53 or 54 • right-sided heart failure dependant edema, jugular venous elevation, hepatic enlargement, ascites • patients often present with a combination of right-sided and left-sided symptoms •





Physical Examination • vitals: tachypnea, tachycardia, hypo- or hypertension, hypoxia • respiratory: crackles, wheezes • cardiac: laterally displaced apex, 53 or 54, jugular venous distention, hepato-jugular reflex • abdominal: hepatomegaly, ascites • peripheral vascular: peripheral or sacral edema, weak peripheral pulses, pulsus alternans (alternating weak and strong pulse), cool extremities Investigations • labs: CBC, electrolytes, AST, ALT, bilirubin, creatinine, BUN, cardiac enzymes • chest X-ray • ECG: look for MI, ischemia in CHF: LVH, atrial enlargement, conduction abnormalities • ABG: if severe or refractory to treatment hypoxemia, hypercapnia and acidosis are signs of severe CHF • echocardiogram: not usually used in emergency evaluation, previous results may aid in diagnosis • may be precipitated by arrhythmia (e.g. sudden onset AFib) - correct if new •



Causes of CHF Exacerbation FAILURE Forgot medication Arrhythmia/anemia Ischemia/Infarction/Infection Lifestyle (i.e. too much salt) Upregulation of cardiac output (pregnancy, hyperthyroidism) Renal failure Embolism (pulmonary)

Hospital Management Required if: • Acute MI • Pulmonary edema or severe respiratory distress • Severe complicating medical illness (e.g. pneumonia) • Anasarca • Symptomatic hypotension or syncope • Refractory to outpatient therapy • Thromboembolic complications requiring interventions • Clinically significant arrhythmias • Inadequate social support for safe outpatient management • Persistant hypoxia requiring supplemental oxygen

"'

, , �f-------.

CHF on CXR Grade 1 : pulmonary vascular redistribution Grade 2: perihilar infiltrates Grade 2: interstitial edema, Kerley B lines Grade 4: alveolar edema, bilateral infiltrates, may also see cardiomegaly, pleural effusions

ER34 Emergency Medicine

Medical Emergencies

Toronto Notes 2010

Management (acute) • ABC, may require intubation if severe hypoxia • sit upright, cardiac monitoring and continuous pulse oximetry • IV TKVO only, Foley catheter (to follow effectiveness of diuresis) • 100% O2 by mask if poor response may require CPAp, BiPAp, or intubation • drugs mtro 0.3 mg SL q5min PRN ± topical mtro patch (0.2-0.8 mg/hr) • if not responding or ischemia: 10-200 Ilg / min IV, titrate diuretic if volume overloaded (e.g. furoserrude 40-80 mg IV) morphine 1-2 mg IV pm • if hypotensive: dobutamine (2.5 �tg / kg / min IV) or dopamine (5-10 Il g / kg / min IV), titrate up to sBP 90-100 ASA 160 mg chew and swallow • treat precipitating factor (e.g. treat pneumoma) • cardiology or medicine consult

0;; ' Acute Treatment of CHF

LMNOP Lasix (furosemide) Morphine Nitroglycerine Oxygen Position (sit upright)











DVT and Pu lmonary Embolism--------� • see also Respirology, R17

(1 Risk Factors for VTE

Risk Factors • Virchow's triad alterations in blood flow injury to endothelium hypercoagulable state (including pregnancy, use of OCP, malignancy) • most significant risk factors major surgery or trauma permanent immobilization malignancy, other hypercoagulable state prior venous thromboembolism

THROMBOSIS Trauma, travel Hypercoagulable, HRT Recreational drugs (IVOU) Old (age >60) Malignancy Birth control pill Obesity, obstetrics Surgery, smoking Immobilization Sickness (CHF, MI, nephrotic syndrome, vasculitis)



• •

• • •



History/Presentation • DVT: calf pain, leg swelling / erythema / edema • PE: dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, tachypnea, hemoptysis, cyanosis, low O2 sat • presence of risk factors ..... ' , • climcal signs / symptoms are unreliable for diagnosis and exclusion of DVT / PE so �}-------, investigation often needed (see Figure 12 and Figure 13) Wells' Score for PE

Previous Hx of OVT(emboli HR > 1 00 Recent immobility or Sx Clinical signs of OVT Alternate Ox less likely than PE Hemoptysis Cancer Low probability = 0-2 Intermediate probability = 2-6 High probability = >6

+ 1 .5 + 1 .5 + 1 .5 +3 +3 +1 +1

Investigations • ECG and CXR are useful to look for other causes (e.g. ACS, pneumoma) • D-dimer is only useful if it is negative in low risk patients • Duplex scan has high Sn and Sp for proximal clot but only 73% Sn for DVT • CT angiography has high Sn and Sp for PE • V/Q scan useful when CT angio not available • pulmonary angiography is the gold standard but is more invasive Management of DVT/PE • LMWH unless patient also has renal failure dalteparin 200 IU / kg SC q24h or enoxaparin 1 .5 mg /kg SC q24h • warfarin started at same time as LMWH • LMWH discontinued when INR has been therapeutic (2-3) for 2 consecutive days early ambulation with analgesia is safe if appropriately anticoagulated • IVC filter or surgical thrombectomy considered if anticoagulation is contraindicated • consider thrombolysis if extensive DVT or PE causing hemodynamic compromise •

Management of DVT/PE • often can be treated as outpatient • admit if hemodynamically unstable, require supplemental O2, major comorbidities, lack of sufficient social supports, unable to ambulate, need invasive therapy • long term anticoagulation if reversible risk factor: 3-6 months of warfarin idiopathic VTE: may need longer term warfarin (5 yrs or more) •



Toronto Notes 2010

Medical Emergencies

High risk

Treat

�I

L� __ __ __

Low risk

-,

I

No DVT

Low/mod risk

Pretest probability

t

.... .. f-------1

D-dimer

�f------- ------"'--'--- ----- -------,

Duplex

L ,____ __�

----

t

,-----'--

1

Emergency Medicine ER35

Mod risk

"' , �}-------, D-dimer is only useful if it is negative. Negative predictive value > 99%.

,

Repeat Duplex

Figure 1 2. Approach to Suspected DVT

-I Low prob 1-

...J�I

'-_ --, _ _

No PE

I

,1.,

High suspicion of DVT?

I

�-----{

f-,-------'-

� I

�w

I

�I -�

Anticoagulate

f.0-1

Duplex

CT angio

l---{fr

L-----' __ __ __ __

�,--_N_O__P E

...J

__

Figure 1 3. Approach to Suspected PE

Diabetic Emergencies • see also Endocrinology. E6

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) • severe insulin deficiency resulting in dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities • history and physical examination - often young, type 1 DM, may be first presentation of undiagnosed DM (may occur in small percentage of type 2 patients) early symptoms • polyuria, polydipsia, malaise late signs and symptoms • anorexia, nausea, vomiting, dyspnea (often due to acidosis), fatigue • abdominal pain • drowsiness, stupor, coma • Kussmaul's respiration • fruity acetone breath • investigations CBC, glucose, electrolytes, BUN / creatinine, Ca, Mg, phosphate urine glucose and ketones ABG ECG (MI possible precipitant; electrolyte disturbances may predispose to arrhythmia) • management rehydration • bolus of NS, then high rate NS infusion (but beware of overhydration and cerebral edema, especially in pediatric patients) insulin • initial bolus of 5-10 U short-acting / regular insulin (or 0.2 U / kg) IV in adults (controversial - may just start with infusion) • followed by continuous infusion at 5-10 U (or 0.1 U / kg) per hour • add D5W when blood glucose 200, dBP >100, mean arterial BP >140) or hypertension associated with hemorrhagic stroke transformation, cardiac ischemia, aortic dissection, or renal damage; use IV nitroprusside or labetalol • cerebral edema control: hyperventilation, mannitol to decrease ICP if necessary • consult neurosurgery, neurology as indicated •

Medications • acute ischemic stroke: thrombolytics (rt-PA, e.g. alteplase) if within 3 hours of symptom onset with no evidence of hemorrhage on CT scan • antiplatelet agents: prevent recurrent stroke or stroke after TIAs, e.g. aspirin (1st-line); clopidogrel, ticlopidine (2nd-line)

UMN Disease Muscle groups Increased Increased Absent AbsenVminimal

LMN Disease Individual muscles Decreased/absent Decreased Present Present

' , ��------,

7 Causes of Emboli from the Heart Atrial Fib MI Endocarditis Valvular disease Dilated cardiomyopathy Left heart myxoma Prosthetic Valves

�auses of Acute Ataxia

UNABLE TO STAND Underlying weakness (mimic ataxia) Nutritional neuropathy (vitamin B 1 2 deficiency) Ateritis/vasculitis Basilar migrane Labirinthritis/vestibular neuronitis Encephalitis/infection Trauma (postconcussive) Other (rare genetic or metabolic disease) Stroke (ischemia or haemorrhage) Toxins (drugs, toluene, mercury) Alcohol Neoplasm/paraneoplastic syndrome Demyelination (Miller Fisher, Guillain Barre, MS)

ER40 Emergency Medicine

Gynecology/Urology Emergencies

Toronto Notes 2010

Gynecology/Urology Emergencies Vaginal Bleed • see Gynecology. GY13 and Obstetrics. OB22

""

' , 9�------,

Vaginal bleeding can be life threatening! Always start with ABC's and ensure your patient is stable.

Etiology • pregnant patient 1st/ 2nd trimester pregnancy: ectopic pregnancy, abortion (threatened, incomplete, complete, missed, inevitable, septic), molar pregnancy 2nd / 3rd trimester pregnancy: placenta previa, placental abruption, premature rupture of membranes, preterm labour either: trauma, bleeding cervical polyp • postpartum postpartum hemorrhage, uterine inversion, retained placental tissue, endometritis • non-pregnant patients dysfunctional uterine bleeding, uterine fibroids, pelvic tumours, trauma, endometriosis, PID, exogenous hormones •









History • last menstrual period, sexual activity, contraception, history of PID • pregnancy details • determine amount of blood • urinary, GI symptoms Physical Examination • look for signs of hypovolemia • pelvic examination - NOT if suspected placenta previa (ultrasound first) • speculum exam if pregnant use sterile speculum • bimanual examination if pregnant use sterile gloves if patient is near term with possible rupture of membranes and without other indications defer bimanual examination (infection risk) •

• •

Investigations • �-hCG test for all patients with child-bearing potential • CBC, blood and Rh type, quantitative �-hCG, PTT, INR • type and cross if significant blood loss • 1st / 2nd trimester / non-pregnant ultrasound (V/S) - intrauterine pregnancy, ectopic pregnancy, traumatic injury, foreign body must correlate V/S findings with �-hCG if V/S is non-diagnostic (transvaginal ultrasound will not see gestation in uterus if �-hCG 32.2°C involves covering patient with insulating blanket; body generates heat and re-warms through metabolic process, shivering • Active External Re-warming (AER) involves use of warming blankets beware "afterdrop" phenomenon (warming of extremities causes vasodilation and movement of cool pooled blood from extremities to core, resulting in a DROP in core temperature � cardiac arrest) safer when done in conjunction with active core re-warming • Active Core Re-warming (ACR) generally for patients with core temperature 1 40 mgIL or 1 000 flmoVL 4 hours after ingestion)

May be only sign of acetaminophen poisoning

D3 - Decontamination and Enhanced Elimination Ocular Decontamination • saline irrigation to neutralize pH; alkali exposure requires ophthalmology consult Dermal Decontamination (wear protective gear) • remove clothing, brush off toxic agents, irrigate all external surfaces .... ' ,

.�-------,

Substances NOT Absorbed by Activated Charcoal • Li • Fe • Alcohols • Lead • Caustics

Gastrointestinal Decontamination • single dose activated charcoal (SDAC) adsorption of drug/ toxin to AC prevents availability contraindications: caustics, SBO, p erforation dose: 109 / g drug ingested or 1 9 / kg body weight odourless, tasteless, prepared as slurry with H20 • whole bowel irrigation 500 mL (child) to 2000 mL (adult) of polyethylene glycol solution/ hour by mouth until clear effluent per rectum. Start slow (500 mL in an adult) and aim to increase rate hourly as tolerated indications • awake, alert patient who can be nursed upright • delayed release product • drug / toxin not bound to charcoal • drug packages (if any evidence of breakage -7 emergency surgery) • recent toxin ingestion • •

• •





Toronto Notes 2010

Toxicology

Emergency Medicine ER53

contraindications • evidence of ileus, perforation, or obstruction • surgical removal in extreme cases indicated for drugs that are toxic, form concretions, or cannot be removed by conventional means • no evidence for the use of cathartics (or ipecac) •



EXTRA·CORPOREAL DRUG REMOVAL ( ECDR) Urine Alkalinization • may be used for: ASA, methotrexate, phenobarb, chlorpropamide • weakly acidic substances can be trapped in alkali urine (pH >7.5) to increase elimination Multidose Activated Charcoal (MDAC) • may be used for: carbamazepine, phenobarb, quinine, theophylline • for toxins which undergo enterohepatic recirculation • removes drug that has already been absorbed by drawing it back into GI tract • various regimens: 12.5g (1 /4 bottle) PO q1h or 25g (1 / 2 bottle) PO q2h until non-toxic Hemodialysis • indications / criteria for hemodialysis toxins that have high water solubility, low protein binding, low molecular weight, adequate concentration gradient, small volume of distribution (Vd) or rapid plasma equilibration removal of toxin will cause clinical improvement • advantage is shown over other modes of therapy predicted that drug or metabolite will have toxic effects impairment of normal routes of elimination (cardiac, renal, or hepatic) • clinical deterioration despite maximal medical support • useful for the following toxin blood levels methanol ethylene glycol salicylates lithium • phenobarbital: 430-650 mmol / L chloral hydrate ( --+ trichloroethanol): >200 mg / kg • others include theophylline, carbamazepine, valproate, methotrexate •



• •

• •

• •



E - Examine the Patient • vital signs (including temperature), skin (needle tracks, colour), mucous membranes,

pupils, odours and CNS

• head-to-toe survey including

C-spine signs of trauma, seizures (incontinence, "tongue biting", etc.), infection (meningismus), chronic alcohol / drug abuse (track marks, nasal septum erosion) • mental status • •

Table 25. Specific Toxidromes Toxidrome

Overdose Signs and Symptoms

Anticholinergics

Hyperthermia Dilated pupils Dry skin Vasodilation Agitation/hallucinations Ileus Urinary retention Tachycardia

"Hot as a hare" "Blind as a bat" "Dry as a bone" "Red as a beet" "Mad as a hatter" "The bowel and bladder lose their tone and the heart goes on alone"

Examples of Drugs Antidepressants (e.g. TCAs) Cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril '" ) Carbamazepine Antihistamines (e.g. diphenhydramine) Antiparkinsonians Antipsychotics Antispasmotics Belladonna alkaloids (e.g. atropine)

Cholinergics

"DUMBELS" Diaphoresis, Diarrhea, Decreased blood pressure Urination Miosis Bronchospasm, Bronchorrhea, Bradycardia Emesis, Excitation of skeletal muscle Lacrimation Salivation, Seizures

Natural plants: mushrooms, trumpet flower Anticholinesterases: physostigmine, Insecticides (organophosphate, carbamatesl. Nerve gases

Extrapyramidal

Dysphonia, dysphagia Rigidity and tremor Motor restlessness, crawling sensation (akathisia) Constant movements (dyskinesia) Dystonia (muscle spasms, laryngospasm, trismus, oculogyric crisis, torticollis)

Major tranquilizers Antipsychotics

""

' ,

�f------,

Anticholinergics "Hot and Dry"

Sympathomimetics "Hot and Wet"

ER54 Emergency Medicine

Toxicology

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 25. Specific Toxidromes (continued) TDxidrome

OverdDse Signs and SymptDms

Examples Df Drugs

HemDglDbin Derangements

Increased respiratDry rate Decreased level of consciDusness Seizures Cyanosis unrespDnsive to Oz Lactic acidosis

Carbon monoxide poisoning (carboxyhemoglobin) Drug ingestion (methemoglobin, su�methemoglobin)

Hypothermia NarcDtics, Sedatives/HypnDtics, Hypotension Respiratory depression EtOH Dilated or cDnstricted pupils (pinpoint in opiate DO) CNS depression

EtOH Benzodiazepines Opiates (morphine, heroin, etc.) Barbiturates GHB

SympathDmimetics

Increased temperature CNS excitation (including seizures) Tachycardia, hypertensiDn Nausea and vomiting Diaphoresis Dilated pupils

Amphetamines, caffeine, cocaine, LSD, PCP Ephedrine and other decongestants Thyroid hormone Sedatives, EtDH withdrawal

SerDtDnin Syndrome

Mental status changes, autonomic hyperactivity, neuromuscular abnormalities, hyperthermia, diarrhea, HTN

MAOI, TCA, SSRI, opiate analgesics Cough medicine, weight reduction medications

Note: ASA poisoning and hypoglycemia mimic sympathomimetic toxidrome

G - G ive Specific Antidotes and Treatments



Urine Alkalinization Treatment for ASA Overdose • urine pH >7.5 • fluid resuscitate first, then 3 amps NaHC03 / litre of D5W @ 1.5 • add 20-40 mEq KCl/ litre if patient is able to urinate

x

maintenance

Table 26. Protocol for Warfarin Overdose INR

Management

< 5.0*

Cessation of warfarin administration, observation, serial lNRIPT

5.1-9.0*

If no risk factors for bleeding, hold warfarin x 1 -2 days and reduce maintenance dose OR Vitamin K 1 -2 mg PO if patient at increased risk of bleeding or fresh forzen plasma (FPP) if active bleed

9.1-20 . 0'

Hold warfarin, Vitamin K 2-4 mg PO, seriaI INR/PT, additional Vitamin K if necessary or FFP if active bleed

>20.0 or

FFP 1 0-1 5 mL/kg, Vitamin K 1 0 mg IV over 1 0 min, increase Vitamin K dosing (q4h) if needed

Table 27. Specific Antidotes and Treatments call local poison information centre for specific doses and treatment recommendations Toxin

Treatment

Considerations

Acetaminophen

Decontaminate (charcoal) N·acetylcysteine

Often clinically silent; evidence of liver/renal damage delayed >24 hrs Toxic dose >200 mg/kg (> 7.5 g adult) Monitor drug level immediately and @ 4 hrs post·ingestion; also liver enzymes, INR, PIT, BUN, Cr Hypoglycemia, metabolic acidosis, encephalopathy .... poor prognosis

ASA

Decontaminate (activated charcoal) Alkalinize urine; want urine pH >7.5

Monitor serum pH and drug levels closely Monitor K+ level; may require supplement for urine alkalinization Hemodialysis may be needed if intractable metabolic acidosis, very high levels, or end·organ damage (i.e. unable to diurese)

Anticholinergics

Decontaminate (activated charcoal) Supportive care

Special antidotes available. Consult PIC

Benzodiazepines

Decontaminate (activated charcoal) Supportive care

Il-blockers

Decontaminate (charcoal). Consider glucagon or high dose insulin euglycemia therapy (HOlE)

Consult PIC

Calcium Channel Blockers

CaClz 1 ·4 g of 1 0% sol'n IV if hypotensive Atropine or isoproterenol if severe Other: HOlE inotropes or aggressive supportive therapy

Order ECG, lyles (especially Ca, Mg, Na, K), glucagon may help (2·5 mg)

Cyanide

Cyanide antidote kit or hydroxycobalamin

Toxicology

Toronto Notes 2010

Emergency Medicine ER55

Table 27. Specific Antidotes and Treatments call local poison information centre for specific doses and treatment recommendations (continued) Toxin

Treabnent

Considerations

Digoxin

Decontaminate Icharcoal) Digoxin-specific Ab fragments 1 0-20 vials IV if acute; 3-6 � chronic I vial 140 mg) neutralizes 0.5 mg of toxin

Use for life-threatening arrhythmias unresponsive to conventional therapy, 6 hr serum digoxin > 1 9 nmoVL, initial K >5 mM, ingestion > 10 mg ladult) / >4 mg Ichild) Common arrhythmias include VFib, VTach, and conduction blocks

Acute Dystonic Rxn

Benztropine: 1-2 mg 1M/IV then 2 mg PO x 3 days OR Diphenhydramine 1-2 mgtkg IV, then 25 mg PO qid x 3 days

Benztropine ICogentin'") has euphoric effect and potential for abuse

Heparin

Protamine su�ate 25-50 mg IV

Insulin! Oral Hypoglycemic

Glucose IV/PO/NG tube Glucagon: 1-2 mg 1M lif no access to glucose)

Glyburide carries highest risk of hypoglycemia among oral agents; Consider octreotide for oral hypoglycemics 150-100 /1g SC q6h) in these cases; consult local PIC

Ethanol

Thiamine 100 mg IM;1V Manage airway and circulatory support

Hypoglycemia very common in children Mouthwash 70% EtOH; perfumes and colognes 40-60% EtOH Order serum EtOH level and glucose level; treat glucose level appropriately =

=

Ethylene GlycoV Methanol

Ethanol 11 0%) 1 0 mVkg over 30 min, then 1 .5 mVh CBC, Iytes, glucose, ethanol level or fomepizole 14-methylpyrazole) 1 5 mgtkg IV load Consider hemodialysis Over 30 min, then 10 mgtkg q12h

CO Poisoning

See ER46

Opioids

See ER49

TCAs

Aggressive supportive care NaHC03 bolus for wide QRS/seizures

Flumazenil antidote contraindicated in combined TCA/benzodiazepine overdose Also consider cardiac and hypotension support, gastric decontamination, seizure control Intralipid therapy Iconsult local PIC)

MDMA

Decontaminate Icharcoal), supportive care

Monitor CK; treat rhabdomyolysis with high flow fluids

Cocaine

Decontaminate Icharcoal) if oral Aggressive supportive care

�-blockers are contraindicated in acute cocaine toxicity

Disposition from the Emergency Department • methanol, ethylene glycol •

delayed onset, admit and watch clinical and biochemical markers

• TCAs

prolonged/ delayed cardiotoxicity warrants admission to monitored (lCU) bed if asymptomatic and no clinical signs of intoxication: 6 hour ED observation adequate with proper decontamination and no ECG abnormalities sinus tachycardia alone (most common finding) with history of OD warrants observation in ED • hydrocarbons / smoke inhalation pneumonitis may lag 6-8 hours consider observation for repeated clinical and radiographic examination • A5A, acetaminophen if borderline level, get second level 2-4 hours after first for A5A must have at least 2 levels going down before discharge (3 levels minimum) • oral hypoglycemics admit all patients for minimum 24 hours if hypoglycemic observe asymptomatic patient for at least 8 hours •

















Psychiatric Consultation • once patient medically cleared, arrange psychiatric intervention if required • beware - suicidal ideation may not be expressed

ER56 Emergency Medicine

Psychiatric Emergencies

Toronto Notes 2010

Psych iatric Emergencies Approach to Common Psychiatric Presentations ,, ' ,

.�------.

Key Functions of Emergency Psychiatric Assessment 1 . Is the patient medically stable? 2. Rule out medical cause 3. Is psychiatric consult needed? 4. Are there safety issues (SI, HI)? 5. Is patient certifiable?

• see Psychiatry • before seeing patient, ensure your own safety; have security / police available if necessary

History • safety assess suicidality: suicidal ideation, intent, plan, lethal means, past attempts, future planning assess homicidality: access to weapons, intended victim, history of violence command hallucinations • mood symptoms • psychotic symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized or catatonic behaviour, negative symptoms (affective flattening, alogia, avolition) • substance use history: most recent use, amount, previous withdrawal reactions • past psychiatric history, medications, compliance with medications • medical history: obtain collateral if available •





Physical • complete physical exam focusing on: vitals, neurological exam, signs of head trauma, signs of drug toxicity, signs of metabolic disorder • mental status exam: general appearance, speech, mood and affect, thought content and form, perceptions, cognition including MMSE, judgment, insight, reliability Investigations • investigations vary with: patient's age, established psychiatric diagnosis vs. first presentation, history and physical suggestive of organic cause • as indicated: blood glucose, urine and serum toxicology screen, pregnancy test, electrolytes, TSH, AST / ALT, bilirubin, serum creatinine, BUN, osmolality • blood levels of psychiatric medications • CT head if suspect neurological etiology • LP if indicated

Acute Psychosis ...

Features that suggest Organic Etiology

Age >40 years old Babbling (incoherent speech or speech difficulties) Concerning vital signs Disorientation Emotional lability Fluctuating course Global impairment of cognitive function Headaches Immodesty Just started (sudden onset) K Loss of consciousness Movement abnormalities (tremor, ataxia, psychomotor retardation) Neurological findings (focal) Other abnormalities on physical exam Perceptions (visual hallucinations)

Differential Diagnosis • primary psychotic disorder (e.g. schizophrenia) • secondary to medical condition (e.g. delerium) • drugs: substance intoxication or withdrawal, medications (e.g. steroids, anticholinergics) • infectious (CNS) • metabolic (hypoglycemic, hepatic, renal, thyroid) • structural (hemorrhage, neoplasm) Management • violence prevention remain calm, empathetic and reassuring ensure safety of staff and patients, have extra staff and / or security on hand patients demonstrating escalating agitation or overt violent behavior may require physical restraint and / or chemical tranquilization (see Violent Patient, ER57) • treat agitation: whenever possible, offer medication to patients as opposed to administering with force (helps calm and engage patient) benzodiazepines - lorazepam 2 mg PO or 1M antipsychotics - olanzapine 5 mg PO, haloperidol 5 mg PO / 1M • treat underlying medical condition • psychiatry or Crisis Intervention Team consult • •







Psychiatric Emergencies/Common Pediatric ER Presentations

Toronto Notes 2010

Suicidal Patient

Emergency Medicine ER57

'iO'.





High Risk Pabents

Epidemiology • attempted suicide F>M, completed suicide M>F • second leading cause of death in people 45 years old Depression Previous attempts Ethanol use Rational thinking lost Suicide in family Organized plan No spouse, no support system Serious illness Hospitalize if total number of risk factors " 7, consider hospitalization if 5·6 risk factor

Violent Patient Differential Diagnosis • rule out lethal organic cause (see Acute Psychosis, ER56) • leading organic causes are EtOH, drugs, and head injuries Prevention • be aware and look for prodromal signs of violence: anxiety, restlessness, defensiveness, verbal attacks • try to de-escalate the situation: address the patient's anger, empathize Restraints • pharmacological often necessary - may mask clinical findings and impair exam haloperidol 5-10 mg 1M (be prepared for dystonic reactions, especially with multiple doses of neuroleptics over a short period) + lorazepam 2 mg IM / IV look for signs of anticholinergic OD first (see Toxicology, ER48) benzodiazepines best option if suspected substance-induced violence • physical present option to patient in firm but non-hostile manner sufficient people to carry it out safely restrain supine or on side; preferably 4-point restraints, never less than 2-points (opposite arm and leg) suction and airway support available in case of vomiting • once restrained, search person/ clothing for drugs and weapons •



• •









Common Pediatric ER Presentations Modified Coma Score Table 28. Modified GCS Modified GCS for Infants Eye Opening 4 - spontaneously 3 - to speech 2 - to pain 1 - no response

Verbal Response 5 - coos, babbles 4 - irritable cry 3 - cries to pain 2 - moans to pain 1 - no response

Motor Response 6 - normal, spontaneous movement 5 - withdraws to touch 4 - withdraws to pain 3 - decorticate flexion 2 - decerebrate extension 1 no response -

Modified GCS for Children < 4 yr Eye Opening 4 - spontaneously 3 - to speech 2 - to pain 1 - no response

Verbal Response 5 - oriented, social, speaks, interacts 4 - confused speech, disoriented, consolable 3 - inappropriate words, not consolable/aware 2 - incomprehensible, agitated, restless, not aware 1 - no response

Motor Response 6 - normal, spontaneous movement 5 - localizes pain 4 - withdraws to pain 3 - decorticate flexion 2 - decerebrate extension 1 - no response

Any infant < 1 year of age with a large, boggy scalp hematoma requires skull x-rays ± CT.

ER58 Emergency Medicine

Common Pediatric ER Presentations

Toronto Notes 2010

Respi ratory Distress • see also Pediatrics

History and Physical Examination • infants not able to feed, older children not able to speak in full sentences • anxious, irritable, lethargic - may indicate hypoxia • tachypnea >60, retractions • pulsus paradoxus • wheezing, grunting, vomiting Table 29. Stridorous Upper Airway Diseases: Diagnosis Feature

Croup

Bacterial Tracheitis

Epiglottitis1

Age Range (yrs)

0.5-4

5-1 0

2-8 Minutes to hrs

Prodrome

Days

Hrs to days

Temperature

Low grade

High

High

Radiography

Steeple sign

Exudates in trachea

Thumb sign

H. flu type b

Etiology

Parainftuenza

S. aureuslGAS

Barky Cough

Yes

Yes

No

Drooling

Yes

No

Yes

Appear Toxic

No

Yes

Yes

Intubation? ICU?

No

Yes

Yes

Antibiotics

No

Yes

Yes No oral exam

NOTE: 'rare now with Hib vaccine in common use • management of croup

humidified O2 should not be given (no evidence for efficacy) racemic epinephrine qlh x 3 doses, observe for 'rebound effects' dexamethasone x 1 dose consider bacterial tracheitis/ epiglottitis if unresponsive to croup therapy • management of bacterial tracheitis start croup therapy usually require intubation, ENT consult, ICU start Abx (e.g. cloxacillin), pending C&S • management of epiglottitis 4 D's: drooling, dyspnea, dysphagia, dysphonia + tripod sitting do NOT EXAMINE OROPHARYNX or AGITATE patient immediate anaesthesia, ENT call - intubate then IV fluids, Abx, blood cultures • management of asthma supplemental O2 if sats 5 d plus 4 of 5 of the following: unilateral lymphadenopathy bilateral, non-purulent conjunctivitis cracked lips, strawberry tongue rash puffy, red palms and soles • management: admit acute phase: IVIG 2g / kg and ASA 100 mg / kg / day until fever resolves subacute: ASA 3-5 mg / kg / day until platelets normalize, or indefinitely in case of cardiac disease • ECG and echo cardiography with echo cardiography follow-up at 2, 6, 12 months •

• •

• •

• •



Common I nfections • see also Pediatrics

Table 32. Antibiotic Treatment of Pediatric Bacterial Infections Infection

Pathogens

Treatment

MENINGITIS SEPSIS Neonatal

GBS, E.coli, Listeria, S. aureus, Gram-negative bacilli

1 -3 months

same pathogens as above and below

> 3 months

S. pneumococcus, H. influenzae type b ( > 5 yrsl, meningococcus

• ampicillin + aminoglycoside (gentamicinl or • ampicillin + cefotaxime ± cloxacillin if risk of S. aureus

• ampicillin + cefotaxime

± cloxacillin if risk of S. aureus

• cefuroxime • ceftriaxone or cefotaxime, if risk of meningitis • vancomycin, if penicillin/cephalosporin-resistant pneumococci

OTITIS MEDIA 1 st line

S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae type b, M. Catarrhalis

• amoxicillin

2nd line

• high dose amoxicillin or clavulin

Treatment Failure

• high dose clavulin or cefuroxime or ceftriaxone

STREP PHARYNGITIS group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus

• penicillin/amoxicillin or erythromycin (pencillin allergyl

E. coli, Proteus, H. influenzae, Pseudomonas, S. saprophyticus Enterococcus, GBS

• amoxicillin/ampicillin or • trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole

viral, S. pneumoniae, C. trachomatis, B. pertussis, S. aureus, H. influenzae

• cefuroxime macrolide

3 months5 years

viral, S. pneumoniae, S. aureus, H. influenzae,

• ampicillin/amoxicillin or cefuroxime

> 5 years

as above

• ampicillin/amoxicillin + macrolide or cefuroxime + macrolide

UTI

PNEUMONIA 1 -3 months

± macrolide (erythromycinl or ampicillin ±

Mycoplasma pneumoniae

Toronto Notes 2010

Emergency Medicine ER61

Common Pediatric ER Presentations/procedural Sedation

Child Abuse and Neglect--------� • see also Pediatrics • obligation to report any suspected / known case of child abuse or neglect to CAS yourself

(do not delegate) • document injuries • consider skeletal survey x-rays, ophtho consult, CT head • injury patterns associated with child abuse head injuries: torn frenulum, dental injuries, bilateral black eyes, traumatic hair loss, diffuse severe CNS injury, retinal hemorrhage Shaken Baby Syndrome: diffuse brain injury, subdural / subarachnoid hemorrhage, retinal hemorrhage, minimal /no evidence of external trauma, associated bony fractures skin injuries: bites, bruises /burns in shape of an object, glove/ stocking distribution of burns, bruises of various ages, bruises in protected areas bone injuries: rib fractures without major trauma, femur fractures age Function Hypothalamic hormones: small peptides, no binding protein .... rapid degradation high [ ) in pituitary-portal blood system, low [ ) peripheral circulation Proximity of axis preserve the pulsatile output signals from the hypothalamic neurons

Toronto Notes 2010

Pituitary gland Anterior p itu itary Growth h ormo ne (GH). Pro l act in (PRL). Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Luteiniz ing hormone (LH). Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Thyroid gland Triiodothyronine (T, ). Thyroxine (T,)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Parathyroid glands Parathy roid hormone (PTH)

Adrenal gland

Cortex: aldosterone,

corti so l , androgen s Medulla: catecholemines �==�==;r=r--;:�

Pancreas I nsu lin. g l u cag on

Ovaries

Testes Testosterone

Estrogen. Progesterone

Thyroid Thyroid hormone is critical to 1 ) brain and somatic development in fetus and infants, 2) metabolic activity in adults, and 3) affects function of virtually every organ system. Adrenal Each gland, 6-8g, has 1 ) a cortex with 3 layers that act like independent organs (zona glomerulosa .... aldosterone, fasciculata .... cortisol. reticularis .... androgen and estrogen precursors). and 2) a medulla that acts like a sympathetic ganglion to store/synthesize adrenaline and noradrenaline Gonads Bifunctional: sex steroid synthesis and gamete production Sex steroids controls sexuality and affect metabolic and brain functions Parathyroid Synthesize and secrete PTH, a principle regulator of ECF Ca2+, regulated by [Ca2+], [Mg2 +) and 1 ,25(OH)2D (the active metabolite of Vit-D).

Pancreas Endocrine islet cell produce insulin: oppose glucose production (glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis), increase glucose uptake into muscle, liver and fat. Glucagon, epinephrine, cortisol, and GH are counter regulatory.

Figure 1 . Endocrine System

Oysli pidemias Definition • metabolic disorders characterized by elevations of fasting plasma cholesterol, and / or triglycerides (TG), and / or low HDL

Overview of Lipid Transport • lipoproteins are spherical complexes that consist of a lipid core surrounded by a shell of

water-soluble proteins and phospholipids

• lipoproteins transport lipids within the body

Table 1 . Lipoproteins Lipoprotein

Apolipoproteins

Function

• B-48, C, E, A-I. A-II, A-IV

• Transport dietary TG from gut to adipose tissue and muscle

VLDL

• B-l 00, C, E

• Transports hepatic synthesized TG from liver to adipose tissue and muscle

IDL

• B-l 00, E

• Product of hydrolysis of VLDL by lipoprotein lipase resulting in depletion of TG core but enriched in cholesterol esters

LDL

• B-100

• Formed by further removal of residual TG from IDL core by hepatic lipase resulting in greater enriched particles with cholesterol esters • Transports cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissues

HDL

• A-I, A-II, C, E

• Transports cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver • Acts as a reservoir for apolipoproteins

Exogenous pathway

Chylomicron Endogenous Pathway

..

c..

Endocrinology E3

Dyslipidemias

Toronto Notes 2010

-

.....

... Fony _

F



.. _ ond -...

Adlpo

.U' UpaJ. requn,

OCIivorion by Apo C·I/

Figure 2. Exogenous and Endogenous Biosynthetic Lipid Pathways

Hypercholesterolemia PRIMARY HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA Table 2. The Primary Hypercholesterolemias Hypercholesterolemia Epidemiology

EtiologylPathophysiology

Familial Hypercholesterolemia IFrederickson Type lIa)



Heterozygote: 1/500 in US population



Autosomal dominant with high penetrance Deficiency in the nonnal LDL receptor on cell membranes

Labs 1' TG 1' LDL

Clinical Presentation

Treatment

Tendinous xanthomatosis lachilles, patellar, and extensor tendons of hand) Arcus comeae Xanthelasma Heterozygotes: premature GAD 50% risk of MI in men by age 30 • Homozygotes: manifest GAD and other vascular disease early in childhood and can be fatal I 1 00 mg/dL)

Note: ethnospecific waist circumference values also available

=

exogenous

E16 Endocrinology

Obesity

"' , �}-------. Classification of Weight in Adults

Classification Underweight Normal Overweight Obese - Class I - Class I I - Class III

BMI < 1 8.5 1 8.5-24.9 25-29.9 ,,30 30-34.9 35-39.9 ,,40

Note: Classifications are different for different ethnicities. Meta-analysis: The Effect of Dietary Counseling for Weight Loss Ann Intem Med. 2007;147:41·50 Purpose: To perlorm a meta·analysis of the effect of dietary counseling compared with usual care on body mass index IBMI) over time in adults. Study Selection: English·language randomized, con· trolled tnals I> or = 1 6 weeks in duration) in over· weight adults that reported the effect of dietary coun· seling on weight. The authors included only weight loss studies with a dietary component. Resuhs: Random·effects model meta·ana�ses of 46 trio als of dietary counseling revealed a maximum net treat· ment effect of ·1.9 195% CI, ·2.3 to ·1.5) BMI units lapproximately ·6%) at 12 months. Meta·analysis of changes in weight over time Islopes) and metafegres· sion suggest a change of approximately ·0.1 BMI unit per month from 3 to 1 2 months of active programs and a regain of approximately 0.02 to 0.03 BMI unit per month during subsequent maintenance phases. Different analyses suggested that calorie recommenda· tions, frequency of support meetings, inclusion of exer· cise, and diabetes may be independent predictors of weight change. Umitations: The interventions, study samples, and weight changes were heterogeneous. Studies were generally of moderate to poor methodological quality. They had high rates of missing data and failed to explain these losses. The meta-analytic techniques could not fully account for these limrtations. Conclusions: Compared with usual care, dietary coun· seling interventions produce modest weight losses that diminish over time. In future studies, minimizing loss to follow·up and determining which factors result in more effectwe weight loss should be emphasized. Long Term Phannacotherapy for Obesity and Overweight: Updated Meta-Analysis BMJ. 2007;335:1194·9

Purpose: To summarise the long·term effcacy of anti· obesity drugs in reducing weight and improving health status. Study Selection: Double blind randomised placebo con· trolled trials of approved anti·obesity drugs used in adults lage over 18) for one year or longer. Resuhs: Thirty trials of one to four years' duration met the inclusion crrteria: 1 6 ortistat In= I 0 631 partici· pants), 10 sibutramine In = 2623), and four nmonabant In=6365). Of these, 14 trials were new and 1 6 had pre· viously been identrried. Attrition rates averaged 30-40%. Compared with placebo, ortistat reduced weight by 2.9 kg 195% confidence interval 2.5 kg to 3.2 kg), sibu· tramine by 4.2 kg 13.6 kg to 4.7 kg), and rimonabant by 4.7 kg 14.1 kg to 5.3 kg). Patients recei�ng active drug treatment were signrricantly more like� to achieve 5% and 10% weight loss thresholds. Orlistat reduced the incidence of diabetes and improved concentrations of total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol, blood pressure, and glycaemic control in patients with diabetes but increased rates of gastrointestinal side effects and slightly lowered concentrations of high den· sity lipoprotein. Sibutramine lowered concentrations of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and trig�cerides but raised blood pressure and pulse rate. Rimonabant improved concentrations of high density lipoprotein cho· lesterol and triglycerides, blood pressure, and glycaemic control in patients with diabetes but increased the risk of mood disorders. Conclusions: Orlista� sibutramine, and nmonabant modestly reduce weight, have differing effects on car· diovascular nsk profiles, and have specrric adverse effects.

Toronto Notes 2010

Obesity Definition • presence of abnormal absolute amount or relative proportion of body fat • Body Mass Index (BMI) 2 2 weight/height2 (kg / m or Ibs / inches x 703) BMI >27 leads to increased health risk • obesity: 20% or greater above ideal body weight (IBW) or BMI >30 • morbid obesity: 1 70% of IBW or BMI >40 •



Epidemiology • 15-25% of North American adults Etiology and Pathophysiology • positive energy balance: energy input > energy output • multifactorial • increasing age is a risk factor • genetic variations in energy expenditure • behaviour / lifestyle - diet and exercise • secondary causes endocrine: Cushing's syndrome, pcas, hypothyroidism drugs: antidepressants, antiepileptics, antipsychotics, high dose glucocorticoids hypothalamic injury: trauma, surgical, lesions in ventromedial or paraventricular median nucleus •

• •

Treatment • treatment should be based on medical risk • comprehensive approach including caloric restriction, increased physical activity and behaviour modification • diet caloric restriction with a balanced diet with reduced fat, sugar and alcohol • exercise • behaviour modification individual or group therapy, self-monitoring, stimulus control, stress management, cognitive change, crisis intervention • drug therapy pancreatic lipase inhibitor: orlistat (XenicaFM) satiety enhancer: sibutramine (Meridia™) • surgical therapy gastroplasty "stomach stapling" laparoscopic banding of stomach (effective but costly) liposuction • weight loss is regained by fat accumulation at the same site or elsewhere • not advocated if patient has significant medical comorbidities • does not reduce metabolic risks •



• •







Complications • cardiovascular hypertension, CAD, CHF, varicose veins, sudden death from arrhythmia • respiratory dyspnea, sleep apnea, pulmonary embolus, infections • gastrointestinal gallbladder disease, GERD, fatty liver • musculoskeletal osteoarthritis • endocrine / metabolic IGT -+ Type 2 OM, hyperuricemia, hyperlipidemia, pcas, hirsutism, irregular menses, infertility • increased risk of neoplastic diseases endometrial, post-menopausal breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers •











Toronto Notes 2010

Endocrinology E17

Pituitary Gland

Pituitary G land

GHI H H H j pl1� H 1 H H .---it H L H ! ! ! ! !

Pituitary Hormones '"

::l

dopamine

E

co

(somatostatin )

co ..c:

S c.

>:I: � o

>-



olE .� - ::l

c: _ « - 5. CD .!!l . !: a; �

u

g OO

"C c: c: co LU e,

CD c:

-"

u

0 "C c: LU CD

C> �

prolactin

TS

thyroid gland

!

'" CD c: 0

T3, T4

E

0

..c:

'" c:

co C>

� 0

breast

I

CR

GHR

AC T

G

adrenal cortex

liver

cortisol

somatomedins (lGF)

! !

GnRH

FS

endocrine cells of gonads

mal

e.----it

androgens

I

multiple target organs

f emale

estrogens, progesterone

+

I

gonadal germ cells, multiple target organs

Figure 7 . Hypothalamo-pituitary hormonal axes CRH � corticotrophin-releasing hormone; GnRH � gonadotropin-releasing hormone; GHIH � growth hormone-inhibiting hormone; GHRH � growth hormone-releasing hormone; PRH � prolactin-releasing hormone; TRH � thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Hypothalamic Control of Pituitary • trophic and inhibitory factors control the release of pituitary hormones • most hormones are primarily under trophic stimulation except prolactin which is primarily under inhibitory control with dopamine • transection of the pituitary stalk (i.e. dissociation of hypothalamus and pituitary) leads to pituitary hypersecretion of prolactin and hyposecretion of all remaining hormones Anterior Pituitary Hormones • growth hormone (GH), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and prolactin (PRL) Hypothalamic Hormones • antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin • pep tides synthesized in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus Table 1 7. The Physiology and Action of Pituitary Hormones Hormone

Function

ACTH

• Stimulates growth of adrenal • Dexamethasone cortex and secretion of its • Cortisol hormones

Inhibitory Stimulus

Physiology

Secretory Stimulus

• Polypeptide • Pulsatile and diumal variation (peaks at 02:00-04:00; lowest at

• CRH • Metyrapone • Insulin induced hypoglycemia • Fever, pain, stress

1 8:00-24:00)

ADH

• Acts at renal collecting ducts • -J, serum osmolality to stimulate insertion of aquaporin channels to increase water reabsorption thereby concentrating urine

• Octapeptide • Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus detect serum osmolality • Contracted plasma volume is a more potent stimulus than osmolality

• Hypovolemia or -J, effective circulatory volume • l' serum osmolality • Stress, pain, fever, paraneoplastic

GH

• Needed for linear growth • IGF stimulates growth of bone and cartilage

• Polypeptide • Acts indirectly through serum factors synthesized in the liver: IGF (somatomedins) • Serum GH undetectable for most of the day and is suppressed after meals that are high in glucose • Sustained rise during sleep

• Insulin induced hypoglycemia • Exercise • REM sleep • Arginine, clonidine, propranalol, L-dopa • GHRH

• Glucose challenge • Glucocorticoids • Hypothyroidism • Somatostatin • Dopamine agonists • IGF-' (long-loop) • Tonically by dopamine • 0, receptor agonists

�) �

The Pituitary Hormones GOAT FLAP GH Oxytoc i n ACTH TSH FSH LH Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Prolact in

E18 Endocrinology

Pituitary Gland

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 8. The Physiology and Action of Pituitary Hormones (continued) Hormone LH/FSH

Function • Stimulate gonads via cAMP • Ovary: - LH stimulates theca cells to produce androgens which are subsequently converted to estrogens in granulosa cells - LH induces luteinization in follicles - FSH stimulates growth of granulosa cells in ovarian follicle and controls estrogen formation • Testes: - LH stimulates testosterone from Leydig cells - FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to produce spennatozoa

Oxytocin

• Causes uterine contraction • Physiologic importance is unknown • Breast milk secretion

PRL

• Promotes milk production • Inhibits GnRH secretion

Inhibitory Stimulus • • • • •



Physiology

Secretory Stimulus

Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone Inhibin Continuous GnRH infusion

• Polypeptide • Glycoproteins Isimilar alpha subunit TSH and hCG) • Secreted in pulsatile fashion

• Pulsatile GnRH

EtOH

• Nonapeptide

• Suckling and distention of female genital tract

• Polypeptide • Episodic secretion

• Sleep stress • Pregnancy Hypoglycemia • Mid-menstrual cycle • Breast feeding TRH Sexual activity • Dopamine antagonists Drugs: psychotropics, antihypertensives, opiates, high dose estrogen





• •



• Stimulates growth of thyroid and secretion ofT, and T3 via cAMP

TSH





Circulating thyroid hormones IT3, T,) Opiates, dopamine

• Glycoprotein

TRH Epinephrine • Prostaglandins

• •

G rowth Hormone (GH) GH DEFICIENCY • cause of short stature in children (see Pediatrics, P33) • controversial significance in adults GH EXCESS • Gigantism excess GH secretion before epiphyseal fusion • Acromegaly excess GH secretion in adults (after epiphyseal fusion) •



Etiology • pituitary adenoma secreting GH, carcinoid or pancreatic islet tumours secreting ectopic GHRH resulting in excess GH Pathophysiology • secretion remains pulsatile, but the nocturnal surge, glucose suppressibility, and hypo glycemic stimulation are lost • proliferation of bone, cartilage, soft tissues, organomegaly • insulin resistance and IGT �, Signs and Symptoms of Acromegaly ABCDEF Arthralgia/Arthritis Blood pressure raised Carpal tunnel syndrome Diabetes Enlarged organs Field defect (visual)

Clinical Features • enlargement of hands and feet, coarsening of facial features, thickening of calvarium, prognathism, infraorbital puffiness, thickening of skin, increased oiliness, sweating, acne, sebaceous cysts, fibromata mollusca, acanthosis nigricans, arthralgia, degenerative osteoarthritis (OA), thyromegaly, renal calculi, hypertension, cardiomyopathy, and OM Investigations • glucose suppression test is the most specific test � increased GH in OGTT • insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) Treatment • surgery, octreotide (somatostatin analogue), growth hormone receptor antagonist, bromocriptine, radiation

Toronto Notes 2010

Pituitary Gland

Endocrinology E19

Prolactin (PRL)

--------�

HYPERPROLACTlNEMlA Etiology • prolactinoma is the most common pituitary adenoma (prolactin secreting tumours may be induced by estrogens and grow during pregnancy) • pituitary stalk lesions • primary hypothyroidism (increased TRH) • chronic renal failure resulting in decreased clearance, biliary cirrhosis • medications with anti-dopaminergic properties are a common cause of high prolactin levels: antipsychotics, antidepressants, antihypertensives, anti-migraine agents (triptans/ ergotamines), bowel motility agents (metoclopramide), H2-blockers (e.g. ranitidine) Clinical Features • galactorrhea, infertility, hypogonadism Investigations • serum PRL, TSH, liver enzyme tests, creatinine • MRI Treatment • long acting dopamine agonist: bromocriptine, cabergoline or quinagolide (Norprolac™) • surgery ± radiation (rare) • these tumours are very slow-growing and sometimes require no treatment • if medication-induced, consider stopping medication if possible

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Foll icle Sti m ulating Hormone (FSH) HYPOGONADOTROPISM Clinical Features • hypogonadism, amenorrhea, erectile dysfunction (ED), loss of body hair, fine skin, testicular atrophy, failure of pubertal development Treatment • pergonal, hCG, or GnRH analogue if fertility desired • symptomatic treatment with estrogen / testosterone HYPERGONADOTROPISM • 2° hypersecretion in gonadal failure

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH ) DIABETES INSIPIDUS (DI) Definition • disorder resulting from deficient ADH action resulting in the passage of large volumes of dilute urine Diagnostic Criteria • fluid deprivation will differentiate true DI (high urine output persists, urine osmolality < plasma osmolality) from psychogenic DI (psychogenic polydipsia) • response to exogenous ADH will distinguish central from nephrogenic DI Etiology and Pathophysiology • central Dl: insufficient ADH due to post-pituitary surgery, tumours, stalk lesion, hydrocephalus, histiocytosis, trauma, familial central DI • nephrogenic DI: collecting tubules in kidneys resistant to ADH (drugs including lithium, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia, chronic renal disease, hereditary nephrogenic DI) • psychogenic polydipsia must be ruled out Clinical Features • passage of large volumes of dilute urine, polydipsia, dehydration Treatment • DDAVP / vasopressin for total DI • DDAVP, chlorpropamide, clofibrate, or carbamazepine for partial DI • nephrogenic DI treated with solute restriction and thiazide diuretics

�. Diagnosing Subtypes of 01 with OOAVP response Concentrated urine = Central No effect = Nephrogenic

E20 Endocrinology

Pituitary Gland

Toronto Notes 2010

SYNDROME OF INAPPROPRIATE ADH SECRETION (SIAD H )

..... , , ��-------, SIADH vs. Cerebral Salt Wasting (CSW) CSW can occur in cases of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Na is excreted by malfunctioning renal tubules, mimicking findings of SIADH.

Diagnostic Criteria • hyponatremia with corresponding plasma hypo-osmolality, urine sodium concentration above 40 mEq / L, urine less than maximally diluted (>100 mOsm/ kg), euvolemia (edema absent), and absence of adrenal, renal or thyroid insufficiency Etiology and Pathophysiology • malignancy (lung, pancreas, lymphoma) • CNS disease (inflammatory, hemorrhage, tumour, Guillain-Barre syndrome) • respiratory disease (TB, pneumonia, empyema) • drugs (vincristine, chlorpropamide, cyclophosphamide, carbamazepine, nicotine, morphine, DDAVp, oxytocin) • stress (post-surgical) Treatment • treat underlying cause, fluid restriction, and demeclocycline (antibiotic with anti-ADH properties)

Pituitary Pathology PITUITARY ADENOMA (see Neurosurgery, NS13) �'

A compressive adenoma in the pituitary will impair hormone production in this order (i.e. GH-secreting cells are most sensitive to compression). "Go Look For The Adenoma Please" GH, LH, FSH, TSH, ACTH, PRL :

Clinical Features • related to size and location visual field defects (usually bitemporal hemianopsia), oculomotor palsies, increased ICP (may have headaches) skull radiograph: "double floor" (large sella or erosion), calcification - rarely done CT and MRI far more sensitive for diagnosis • related to destruction of gland hypopituitarism • related to increased hormone secretion PRL (galactorrhea), GH (acromegaly in adults, gigantism in children), ACTH (Cushing's disease Cushing's syndrome caused by a pituitary tumour), tumours secreting LH, FSH and TSH are rare •









=

EMPTY SELLA SYNDROME • occurs when subarachnoid space extends into sella turcica, partially filling it with CSF resulting in remodeling and enlargement of sella turcica and flattening of the pituitary gland • usually eupituitary • may have headaches • MRI: herniation of diaphragm sellae and the presence of CSF in the sella turcica • no treatment necessary PITUITARY APOPLEXY • acute hemorrhage / infarction of pituitary tumour • sudden severe headache, altered level of consciousness • ocular symptoms: ophthalmoplegia with pituitary tumour likely indicates apoplexy since tumour rarely gets big enough to encroach on cranial nerves • neurosurgical emergency: acute decompression of pituitary via trans-sphenoidal route HYPOPITUITARISM Etiology • the eight ''!''s Invasive: generally primary tumours Infarction: e.g. Sheehan's syndrome Infiltrative disease: e.g. sarcoidosis, hemochromatosis, histiocytosis Iatrogenic: following surgery or radiation Infectious: e.g. syphilis, TB Injury: severe head trauma Immunologic: autoimmune destruction Idiopathic: familial forms, congenital midline defects •



• • •

• •



..... '

, ��------,

Important deficiencies to recognize are: 1 ) Adrenal insufficiency 2) Hypothyroidism For concurrent adrenal insufficiency and hypothyroidism - treat with glucocorti­ coids first, then with thyroid hormone, to avoid adrenal crisis

Clinical Features • typical clinical progression in panhypopituitarism (GH (most common deficiency) LH / FSH -7 ACTH -7 TSH) • fall in GH is clinically not apparent • fall in PRL is variable, but may present as decreased lactation • gonadotropin insufficiency causes erectile dysfunction in men and amenorrhea or infertility in women • TSH deficiency produces clinical hypothyroidism • ACTH deficiency leads to adrenal insufficiency

-7

Toronto Notes 2010

Endocrinology E21

Pituitary Gland/Thyroid

Investigations • Triple Bolus Test stimulates release of all anterior pituitary hormones in normal individuals rapid sequence IV infusion of insulin, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) insulin (usual dose 0.15 units / kg of human regular insulin) � hypoglycemia � increased GH and ACTH GnRH (100 I1g IV push) � increased LH and FSH TRH (200 I1 g IV push over 60 sec) � increased TSH and PRL • •



• •

Thyroid Thyroid Hormones Thyroid Hormone Synthesis • the synthesis of T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine) by the thyroid gland involves trapping and oxidation of iodide, iodination of thyroglobulin, and release of T4 and T3 • free T4 (0.03%) and free T3 (0.3%) represent the hormonally active fraction of thyroid hormones • the remaining fraction is bound to thyroxine binding globulin (TBG) and albumin and is hence biologically inactive • T3 is more biologically active (3-8x more potent), but T4 has longer half-life • 85% of T4 is converted to T3 or reverse T3 (RT3) in the periphery by 5' or 5 deiodinase, respectively • RT3 is metabolically inactive but produced in times of stress to decrease metabolic activity • most of the plasma T3 pool is derived from the peripheral conversion of T4 C-cell-----ACf. Follicular cell

Section of the Thyroid Gland

Th''';d follicle

Jl

Capillary Capsule'___--"'� Follicular cell



IG + 1- + H202

\� 011 011 011

Mil

V CouplingV T enzymes T3

4

.l. � T4 T3 Blood vessel Colloid

Oil, diiodotyrosine; L, lysosome; MIT, monoiodotyrosine; NIC, sodium-iodine symporter, TG, thyroglobulin; T3. triiodothyronine. T4. thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)

Figure 8. Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

© Tess Peters 2009

Thyroid

E22 Endocrinology

Toronto Notes 2010

Regulation of Thyroid Function • extrathyroid stimulation of thyroid by TSH, epinephrine, prostaglandins (cAMP stimulators) T3 negatively feeds back on anterior pituitary to inhibit TSH and on hypothalamus to inhibit TRH • intrathyroid (autoregulation) increasing iodide supply inhibits iodide organification, thus decreasing T3 and T4 synthesis (Wolff-Chaikoff effect) varying thyroid sensitivity to TSH in response to iodide availability increased ratio of T3 to T4 in iodide deficiency increased activity of peripheral S' deiodinase in hypothyroidism to increase T3 production despite low T4 levels •





• • •

Table 1 8. Summary of Treatments of Hyper and Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism

Hypothyroidism

PTU MMI Beta-blockers Ablation with Radioactive Iodine Surgical Resection

L-thyroxine (dosing different if elderly)

Tests of Thyroid Function and Structure ", ' � .�-------, Thyroid Assessment 1 . Serum thyroid hormones (TSH, T" T4) 2. Antibodies 3. Thyroglobulin 4. Thyroid imaging/scans 5. Biopsy (FNA)

TSH • sensitive TSH (sTSH) is the single best test for assessing thyroid function • hyperthyroidism • primary: TSH is low and does not rise in response to TRH because of negative feedback from increased levels of circulating T3 and T4 secondary: increased TSH which results in increased T3 and T4 • hypothyroidism primary: increased TSH (most sensitive test) because of less negative feedback from T3 and T4 secondary: TSH is low with variable response to TRH depending on the site of the lesion (pituitary or hypothalamic) •





Free T3 and Free T4 • total T3 and T4 1evels depend on amount of TBG • TBG increases with pregnancy, oral contraceptive (OCP) use, acute infectious hepatitis, biliary cirrhosis • TBG decreases with androgens, glucocorticoids, cirrhosis, hyponatremia, phenytoin, ASA, NSAIDS, nephrotic syndrome, severe systemic illness • free T3 and T4 are independent of TBG and measure biological activity • standard assessment of thyroid function measures TSH and if necessary free T4 and free T3 Thyroid Autoantibodies • thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb), thyroid peroxidase (microsomal antibodies), TSH receptor inhibiting antibodies increased in Hashimoto's disease • thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) increased in Graves' disease •

Does this Patient have a Goitre? JAMA 1 995; 273:813-17 Clinical diagnosis was based on degree of lateral prominence, visibility, and palpability of the thyroid gland. Most primary studies did not report the specifics of thyroid examination technique, and therefore no evidence exists to support the superi­ ority of any one method.

The combined resutts of 9 studies detail the accura­ cy of the clinical examination for the presence of goiter (using ultrasound or autopsy as the gold standard comparitor): Sensitivity 70% (68%-73%) Specfficity 82% (79%-85%) 3.8 (3.3 to 4.5) LR + LR0.37 (0.33 to 0.40) The combined resutts of 4 studies detail the predic­ tive utility of assessing grades of thyroid gland weight: Weight Reference LR+ 95% CI 0-20 g nonnal (0.1 0-0.21 ) 0.15 20-40 g 1-2x (1.1-3.0) 1.9 >2x (2.6-175) 25.0 >40 g



Plasma Thyroglobulin • used to monitor residual thyroid activity post-thyroid ablation, e.g. for thyroid cancer recurrence • undetectable levels remission • normal or elevated levels probable persistent, recurrent, or metastatic disease =

=

Serum Calcitonin • not routinely done to investigate most thyroid nodules • ordered if suspicious of medullary thyroid carcinoma or family history of MEN IIa or lIb syndromes Thyroid Imaging/Scans • normal gland size 1S-20 g (estimated by palpation) • thyroid U/S to measure size of gland, solid vs. cystic nodule • thyroid scan (Technetium-99) differentiates between hot (functioning) and cold (non-functioning) nodules to distinguish between three major types of high-uptake hyperthyroidism • Graves' disease (diffuse uptake) • toxic multinodular goiter (multiple discrete areas) • solid toxic adenoma (single intense area of uptake) test of structure - order if there is a thyroid nodule and patient is hyperthyroid •

• •



Endocrinology E23

Thyroid

Toronto Notes 2010 • radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) • • • •



RAIU measures the turnover of iodine by thyroid gland in vivo in areas of low iodine intake and endemic goitre, 24 h RAIU may be as high as 60-90% in areas of high iodine intake, normal 24 h RAIU will be 8-30% RAIU is high in Graves' disease or toxic nodular goitre and low in subacute thyroiditis, active phase of Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and excess iodine intake (e.g. amiodarone) test of function - order if patient is hyperthyroid

Thyroid Biopsy • fine needle aspiration (FNA) for cytology differentiates between benign and malignant disease •

Table

19.

Summary of Diagnostic Testing in Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism

Hyperthyroidism TSH

• •

T4

• •

Increased in primary hyperthyroidism Decreased in secondary hyperthyrodism



Decreased in primary hyperthyroidism Increased in secondary hyperthyrodism



Decreased in primary hypothyroidism

• Increased in secondary hypothyroidism •

Increased in primary hypothyroidism Decreased in secondary hypothyroidism

RAIU

Graves - increased; homogenous Multinodular Goiter - increased; heterogenous Toxic Nodule - increased in a specific area with suppression elsewhere

No uptake - subacute thyroiditis, antithyroid drugs, recent iodine load

Antibodies

Graves - Thyroid stimulating Ig lTSI)

Hashimoto's- Antithyroid peroxidase lTPO)

Hyperthyroidism

------

Definition • excess production of thyroid hormone • thyrotoxicosis: denotes clinical, physiological, and biochemical findings in response to elevated thyroid hormone Epidemiology • 1 % of general population (4-5% of elderly women) • F:M = 5:1 Etiology and Pathophysiology Table 20, Differential Diagnosis of Hyperthyroidism Disorder Graves' disease

TSH

TJTJ

Decreased

Increased

Thyroid Antibodies

RAIU

TSI

Increased

Toxic Nodular Goitre

Decreased

Increased

Toxic Nodule

Decreased

Increased

Thyroiditis

Decreased

Increased

McCune-Albright syndrome

Decreased

Increased

Jod Basedow

Decreased

Increased

Decreased

Decreased

Increased

Decreased

Increased

Increased

Increased

Increased

Increased

Increased

Decreased

Increased

Increased

Increased Increased Up to 50% of cases

Decreased

lstruma ovariae, ovarian teratoma, metastatic follicular cal • Exogenous ldrugs)

Excessive Thyroid stimulation •

Pituitary thyrotrophoma

• Pituitary thyroid

hormone receptor resistance • Increased hCG

le.g. pregnancy)

In classical subacute thyroiditis, ESR increased At least 2 of polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, cafe au lait spots, and autonomous endocrine hyperfunction

Extrathyroidal sources of thyroid hormone • Endogenous:

Other

Iodine induced

Thyroid

E24 Endocrinology

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Features "

Signs and Symptoms of hyperTHYROIDI S M Tremor Heart rate up Yawning (fatigued) Restlessness Oligomenorrhea/amenorrhea Intolerance to heat Diarrhea Irritability Sweating Muscle wasting/weight loss

Table 2 1 . Clinical Features of Hyperthyroidism General



Cardiovascular



Fatigue, heat intolerance, irritability, fine tremor



Tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, palpitations Elderly patients may have only cardiovascular symptoms, commonly new onset atrial fibrillation

GI



Weight loss with increased appetite, thirst, increased frequency of bowel movements (hyperdefecation)

Neurology



Proximal muscle weakness, hypokalemic periodic paralysis (common in Orientals)

GU



Scant menses, decreased fertility

Dermatology



Fine hair, skin moist and warm, vitiligo, soft nails with onycholysis (plummer's nails). clubbing (acropachy), palmar erythema, pretibial mxyedema

MSK



Decreased bone mass, proximal muscle weakness

Hematology



Leukopenia, lymphocytosis, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy (occasionally in Graves' disease)

Treatment • antithyroid drugs (thionamides: propylthiouracil (PTU) or methimazole (MMI» • beta-blockers • radioactive iodine thyroid ablation • surgery Common Etiologies Table 22. Common Etiologies Hyperthyroidism

Hypothyroidism

Graves' Disease

Hashimoto's

Toxic Nodular Goitre

Congenital

Toxic Nodule

Iatrogenic

Thyroiditis

Hypothyroid phase of thyroiditis

G raves' Disease Definition • syndrome characterized by hyperthyroidism with any one of the following features including diffuse goiter, ophthalmopathy, dermopathy (need not appear together) Epidemiology • most common cause of thyrotoxicosis • occurs at any age with peak in 3rd and 4th decade • F > M = 7:1, 1.5-2% of U.s. women • familial predisposition: 15% of patients have a close family member with Graves' disease and 50% have family members with positive circulating antibodies • association with HLA B8 and DR3 • may be associated with other autoimmune disorders in family (e.g. pernicious anemia, Hashimoto's disease) Etiology and Pathophysiology • autoimmune disorder due to a defect in T-suppressor cells • beta-lymphocytes produce TSI that bind the TSH receptor and stimulate the thyroid • immune response can be triggered by pregnancy (especially postpartum), iodine excess, lithium therapy, viral or bacterial infections, glucocorticoid withdrawal • cause of ophthalmopathy uncertain (can occur even when euthyroid) antibodies against extraocular muscle antigens (fibroblasts implicated) with lymphocytic infiltration glycosaminoglycan deposition • dermopathy may be related to cutaneous glycosaminoglycan deposition •



Clinical Features • diffuse goiter ± bruit • ophthalmopathy: proptosis, lid lag, lid retraction, diplopia, characteristic stare, conjunctival injection • dermopathy (rare): pretibial myxedema (thickening of dermis) • acropachy: clubbing and thickening of distal phalanges I nvestigations • increased free T4 (and / or increased T3 ) • positive for TSI • TRH stimulation test (with a flat TSH response) is diagnostic, if sTSH and free T4 are inconclusive

Toronto Notes 2010

Thyroid

Treatment • thionamides propylthiouracil (PTU) or methimazole (MMI) inhibit thyroid hormone synthesis by inhibiting the peroxidase catalyzed reactions, thereby inhibiting organification of iodide, blocking the coupling of iodotyrosines, and inhibiting peripheral deiodination of T4 to T3 most useful in young patients with small glands and mild disease continue treatment until remission occurs (20-40% of patients achieve spontaneous remission at 6-18 mos of treatment) small goitre and recent onset are good indicators for long-term remission with medical therapy MMI contraindicated in pregnancy major side effects: hepatitis and agranulocytosis minor side effects: rash, fever and arthralgias iodinated contrast agents: sodium ipodate and iapanoic acid can inhibit conversion of T4 to T3 and is especially effective in combination with MMI • symptomatic treatment with beta-blockers 3 • thyroid ablation with radioactive 1 11 if PTU or MMI trial does not produce disease remission 3 high incidence of hypothyroidism after 1 1 1, requiring lifelong thyroid hormone replacement contraindicated in pregnancy • subtotal thyroidectomy (indicated rarely for large goitres) risks include hypoparathyroidism and vocal cord palsy • ophthalmopathy prevent drying high dose prednisone in severe cases orbital radiation, surgical decompression •

























• •

Prognosis • course involves remissions and exacerbations unless gland is destroyed by radioactive iodine or surgery • some patients remain euthyroid after treatment however many develop hypothyroidism • lifetime follow-up care needed • risk of relapse is 37%, 21%, 6% in thionamindes, radioiodine ablation, and surgery groups respectively

Subacute Thyroiditis (Thyrotoxic Phase) Definition • acute inflammatory disorder of the thyroid gland characterized by an initial thyrotoxic state followed by hypothyroidism eventually followed by euthyroidism in most cases • two subtypes: Painful and Painless Etiology and Pathophysiology • acute inflammation of the thyroid characterized by giant cells and lymphocytes • disruption of thyroid follicles by inflammatory process results in the release of stored hormone rather than excessive production of new thyroid hormone • painful viral (usually preceded by URTI), De Quervain's or granulomatous • painless postpartum, auto-immune, lymphocytic occurs in 5-10% of postpartum mothers and is symptomatic in 1 / 3 of patients =

=



Clinical Features • initially presents with fever, malaise, and soreness in neck • thyroid gland enlarges • two forms painful ("De Quervain's") thyroid, ears, jaw and occiput painless ("Silent") • postpartum: thyrotoxicosis 2-3 months postpartum with a subsequent hypothyroid phase at 4-8 months postpartum • may be mistakenly diagnosed as postpartum depression •



Laboratory Investigation • elevated free T4, T3, low TSH, RAIU markedly reduced • marked elevation of ESR in painful variety only • as disease progresses, values consistent with hypothyroidism may appear • rise in RAIU reflects gland recovery Treatment • painful - high dose anti-inflammatories (NSAIDS), increases peripheral T4 conversion, prednisone may be required for severe pain, fever, or malaise • beta-adrenergic blockade is usually effective in reversing most of the hypermetabolic and cardiac symptoms in both subtypes • if symptomatically hypothyroid may treat short-term with thyroxine

Endocrinology E25

Radioiodine Therapy for Graves' Disease and the Effect on Ophthalmopathy· A Systematic Review Clin Endocrinol (Oxfl. 2008 Apr 21 Purpose: To assess whether radioiodine therapy (RAI) for Graves' disease GO is associated with increased risk of ophthalmopathy compared with antithyroid drugs (ATDs) or surgery. To assess the efficacy of glucocorticoid prophylaxis in the prevention of occurrence or progression of ophthalmopathy, when used with RAI. Study Selection: Randomized controlled trials regardless of language or publication status. Results: RAI was associated with an increased risk of ophthalmopathy compared with ATD (Relative Risk (RR) 4.23, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.04 to 8.77) but compared with thyroidectomy, there was no statistically significant increased risk (RR 1 .59, 95% CI 0.89 to 2.81). The risk of severe GO was also increased with RAI compared with ATD (RR 4.35, 95% CI 1 .28 to 1 4.73). Prednisolone prophylaxis for RAI was highly effective in preventing the progression of GO in patients with pre·existing GO (RR 0.03; 95% CI 0.00 to 0.24). The use of adjunctive ATD with RAI was not associated with any significant benefit on the course of GO. Conclusions: Radioiodine therapy for Graves' disease is associated with a small but definite increased risk of development or worsening of Graves' ophthalmopathy compared with antrthyroid drugs. Steroid prophylaxis is beneficial for patients with pre·existing Graves' ophthalmopathy.

E26 Endocrinology

Thyroid

Toronto Notes 2010

Prognosis • full recovery in most cases, but permanent hypothyroidism in 10% of painless thyroiditis • postpartum-most resolve spontaneously without need for supplementation, however may recur with subsequent pregnancies

Toxic Adenomarroxic M u ltinodular Goitre Etiology and Pathophysiology • autonomous thyroid hormone production from a functioning adenoma that is hypersecreting T3 and T4 • may be singular (toxic adenoma) or multiple (toxic multinodular goitre, aka Plummer's disease) Clinical Features • goitre with adenomatous changes • occurs more frequently in elderly people • tachycardia, heart failure, arrhythmia, weight loss, nervousness, weakness, tremor, and sweats • atrial fibrillation is a common presentation in the elderly Investigations • low TSH, high T3 and T4 (with a larger increase in T3) • thyroid scan with increased uptake in nodule(s), and suppression of the remainder of the gland Treatment • initiate therapy with PTU or MMI to attain euthyroid state in order to avoid radiation thyroiditis • then use high dose radioactive iodine to ablate tissue over weeks • propranolol often necessary for symptomatic treatment prior to definitive therapy • surgery may be used as 2nd line treatment

Thyrotoxic Crisisrrhyroid Storm

-------

Definition • acute exacerbation of all of the symptoms of thyrotoxicosis presenting in a life threatening state secondary to uncontrolled hyperthyroidism Etiology and Pathophysiology • often precipitated by infection, trauma, or surgery in a hyperthyroid patient Differential Diagnosis • sepsis, pheochromocytoma, malignant hyperthermia, drugs Clinical Features • hyperthyroidism • extreme fever (hyperthermia), tachycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, vascular collapse, hepatic failure with jaundice, and confusion • arrhythmia � congestive heart failure, pulmonary edema • mental status changes ranging from delirium to coma Laboratory Investigations • increased free T3, T'i undetectable TSH ' • ± anemia, leukocytosis, hypercalcemia, elevated LFTs Treatment • principles are the same as in hyperthyroidism except use higher doses and frequencies • initiate prompt therapy; do not wait for confirmation from lab • propranolol (IV) for tachycardia and to decrease peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 (watch for CHF) • supportive: fluid and electrolytes, diuresis, vasopressors, cooling blanket, acetaminophen for pyrexia • high dose PTU • iodide (NaI, KI, Lugol's solution) to inhibit release of thyroid hormone • lithium to inhibit release of thyroid hormone • dexamethasone to block peripheral conversion, to lower body temperature, and to treat possible underlying autoimmune condition • if extreme, plasmapheresis or dialysis to remove high circulating thyroid hormone • treat precipitant Prognosis • 50% mortality rate

Endocrinology E27

Thyroid

Toronto Notes 2010

Hypothyroidism Definition • clinical syndrome caused by cellular responses to insufficient thyroid hormone production Epidemiology • 2-3% of general population • F:M = 10:1 • 10-20% of women over age 50 have subclinical hypothyroidism (normal T4, TSH mildly elevated) Etiology and Pathophysiology • primary hypothyroidism (90%) inadequate thyroid hormone production secondary to intrinsic thyroid defect iatrogenic: post-ablative (1311 or surgical thyroidectomy) autoimmune: Hashimoto's thyroiditis, chronic thyroiditis, idiopathic, burnt out Graves' hypothyroid phase of subacute thyroiditis drugs: goitrogens (iodine), PTU, MMI, lithium infiltrative disease (progressive systemic sclerosis, amyloid) iodine deficiency congenital (1 / 4000 births) neoplasia • secondary hypothyroidism: pituitary hypothyroidism insufficiency of pituitary TSH • tertiary hypothyroidism: hypothalamic hypothyroidism decreased TRH from hypothalamus (rare) • peripheral tissue resistance to thyroid hormone (Refetoff syndrome) •

• •







• •







Table 23. Interpretation of Serum TSH and Free T4 in Hypothyroidism Serum TSH

Free T.

Overt Primary Hypothyroidism

Increased

Decreased

Subclinical Primary Hypothyroidism

Increased

Normal

Secondary Hypothyroidism

Decreased or not appropriately elevated

Decreased

Clinical Features Table 24. Clinical Features of Hypothyroidism General

Fatigue, cold intolerance, slowing of mental and physical performance, hoarseness, macroglossia

CVS

Slow pulse, pericardial effusion, bradycardia, hypertension, worsening CHF + angina, hypercholesterolemia, hyperhomocysteinemia, myxedema heart

GI

Weight gain with poor appetite, constipation

Neurology

Paresthesia, slow speech, muscle cramps, delay in relaxation phase of deep tendon reflexes (hung reflexes"), Carpal Tunnel syndrome, asymptomatic increase in CK, seizures

GU

Menorrhagia, amenorrhea, impotence

Dermatology

Puffiness of face, periorbital edema, cool and pale, dry and rough skin, hair dry and coarse, eyebrows thinned Ilateral l/3), discolouration Icarotenemia)

Hematology

Anemia: 1 0% pernicious due to presence of anti-parietal cell antibodies

Respiratory

Decreased exercise capacity, hypoventilation secondary to weak muscles, decreased pulmonary responses to hypoxia, sleep apnea due to macroglossia

Treatment • L-thyroxine (dose range: 0.05-0.2 mg PO aD) • elderly patients and those with CAD: start at 0.025 mg daily and increase gradually (start low, go slow) • after initiating L-thyroxine, serum T4 & TSH need to be evaluated in 6 weeks; doses adjusted until TSH returns to normal reference range • once maintenance dose achieved, follow-up with patient annually • secondary / tertiary hypothyroidism: need to r / 0 and/ or treat adrenal insufficiency monitor via measuring free T4 level NOT ONLY TSH •



CONGEN ITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM • see Pediatrics, P29

Thyroid Hormone Replacement for Subclinical Hypothyroidism Cochrane Database Syst Re� 2007;13):CD00341 9 Purpose: To assess the effe1-1.5 cm • thyroid function tests • thyroid scan: 15-20% of cold nodules (minimal 1311 uptake into nodule) are malignant, very low malignant potential if hot (significant 1311 uptake into nodule)

Thyroid Malignancies • see Otolaryngology, OT37

Adrenal Cortex Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH) -J, blood glucose, trauma, infection, emotion, circadian rhythm

variability (peak: 0200-0400; trough: 1 800-2400)

, CNS

• part of a prohormone (pro-opiomelanocorticotropin, POMC) which contains alpha, beta

e re�H1J®)e ,



� ( ' ) E>

epinephrine

AC

• a polypeptide secreted i n a pulsatile fashion from the anterior pituitary with diurnal

cortisol

Adrenal gland

Figure 9. Regulation of CRH­ ACTH-Adrenal Gland Axis

and gamma MSH, beta-endorphin and Iipotropin as well as ACTH

• stimulates growth of adrenal cortex and secretion of its hormones via cAMP • stimulates release of glucocorticoids, androgens and, to a limited extent, mineralocorticoids • some melanocyte stimulating activity

Adrenocortical Hormones • all derived from cholesterol • • •

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) from zona glomerulosa glucocorticoids (cortisol) from zona fasciculata androgens from zona reticularis

Aldosterone • a mineralcorticoid, which regulates extracellular fluid (ECF) volume through Na retention and K excretion (by stimulation of distal tubule Na / K ATPase) • regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system • negative feedback to juxtaglomerular apparatus OGA) by long loop (aldosterone via volume expansion) and short loop (angiotensin II via peripheral vasoconstriction) Cholesterol

... ' , .}------, Layers of the Adrenal Cortex

1

OUTSIDE Glomerulosa produces aldosterone Fasciculata produces cortisol Reticularis p rodu ces sex steroids

INSIDE

t

Y�r;" J;_;,� J � to tGJ to teD

Progesterone

1 7 -OH-pregnenolone

17

.

.moo

CD 1 7-hydroxylase CD 3-�-dehydrogenase ED 21 -hydroxylase CD l l -hydroxylase CD 1 7-�-dehydrogenase CD Aromatase CD 5-a-reductase CD 1 8-hydroxylase ------.. DHEA-S I·�· '�m"" "",,� "" CD

t

Androstenedione

teD teD�

Corticosterone

l l -deoxycortisol

Estosterone

Aldosterone

Cortisol

Estradiol

Mineralocorticoids (zona glomerulosal

Glucocorticoids (zona fasciculatal

Dihydrotestosterone

Sex Steroids (zona reticularisl

Figure 1 0. Pathways of Major Steroid Synthesis in the Adrenal Gland and Their Enzymes

Adrenal Cortex

Toronto Notes 2010

'1' volume '1' arterial pressure

.J" volume .J" arterial pressure .J" Na delivery to macula densa

Dopamine Renal Na retention

PGs Sympathetic stimulation



t

Inhibition of JGA

Stimulation of JGA

t

ACE

Remn AngiotensinOgen

L Angiotensin I L Angiotensin II

(with negative feedback to inhibit JGAI

t

Aldosterone release --------).� Renal Na retention, K excretion Arteriolar vasoconstriction Promotion of ADH release JGA - juxtaglomerular apparatus

Figure

11.

ACE - angiotensin converting enzyme

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Axis, (see Nephrology, NP33)

Cortisol Table 26. Physiological Effects of Glucocorticoids Stimulatory Effects

Inhibitory Effects

Stimulate hepatic glucose production (gluconeogenesis)

Inhibit bone formation; stimulate bone resorption

Increase insulin resistance in peripheral tissues

Inhibit fibroblasts, causing collagen and connective tissue loss

Increase protein catabolism

Suppress inflammation; impair cell·mediated immunity

Stimulate leukocytosis and lymphopenia

Androgens • sex steroids regulated by ACTH; primarily responsible for adrenarche (growth of axillary and pubic hair) • principal adrenal androgens are dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione and ll-hydroxyandrostenedione • proportion of total androgens (adrenal to gonadal) increases in old age

Tests of Adrenocortical Function Table 2 7 . Markers o f Adrenocortical Function Plasma cortisol

Diurnal variation Response to stimulation or suppression more informative

24 hour urinary free cortisol

Correlates well with secretory rates Good screening test for adrenal hyperfunction

Serum ACTH

High in primary adrenal insufficiency Low in secondary adrenal insufficiency

Serum DHEA-S

The main adrenal androgen

Dexamethasone (DXM) Suppression Tests (DST) • gold standard to determine presence and etiology of hypercortisolism • principle: DXM suppresses pituitary ACTH, so plasma cortisol should be lowered by negative feedback if HPA axis were normal • single dose DST: simple and reasonably accurate screening test DXM 1 mg given at 2300h would suppress pituitary ACTH production in healthy individuals, so that the normal 0800h peak of plasma cortisol would fail to develop 95% of Cushing's syndrome patients would fail to suppress 3 weeks duration) primary adrenocortical tumours: adenoma and carcinoma (uncommon) bilateral adrenal nodular hyperplasia major depression and alcoholism •



• •

Clinical Features

red cheeks, acne, moon face

purple striae

osteoporosis large abdomen

Figure 12. Clinical Features of Cushing's Syndrome Clinical features suspicious for hypercortisolism

� 24 hO Normal

f



No Cushing's syndrome

+,

urinary free cortisol

� � >4X increase

2.5 • DHEA-S as measure of adrenal androgen production • 17-0H progesterone is elevated in CAH due to 21-0H deficiency Treatment • discontinue causative medications • oral contraceptives (e.g. cyproterone acetate - blocks androgen receptor; found in Diane 35™) • spironolactone - acts as peripheral androgen antagonist • cosmetic therapy • low dose glucocorticoid if CAH suspected

Adrenocortical Insufficiency PRIMARY (ADDISON'S DISEASE) Etiology Table 30. Etiology of Primary Adrenocortical Insufficiency Autoimmune (70-90%) (most common in developed world) (60-75% of pts have antibodies against adrenal enzymes and 3 zones of the cortex)

Isolated adrenal insufficiency Polyglandular autoimmune syndrome type I & II

Infection

TB (7-20%) (most common in developing world) Fungal: histoplasmosis, paracoccidioidomycosis HIV Syphilis African trypanosomiasis

Metastatic Ca

lung> stomach> esophagus > colon > breast

Adrenal hemorrhage or infection

Coagulopathy in adults or Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome in children (meningococcal or Pseudomonas septicemia)

Drugs

Inhibit coritsol: Ketoconazole, megestrol acetate Increase cortisol metabolism: rifampin, phenytoin, barbituates, heparin, coumadin

Others

Adrenoleukodystrophy Congenital adrenal hypoplasia (impaired steroidgensis) Familial glucocorticoid deficiency or resistance

Toronto Notes 2010

Adrenal Cortex/Adrenal Medulla

Endocrinology E35

SECONDARY ADRENOCORTICAL INSUFFICIENCY • •

inadequate pituitary ACTH secretion multiple etiologies (see Hypopituitarism section), including withdrawal of exogenous steroids that have suppressed pituitary ACTH production

Clinical Features Table 31, Clinical Features of Primary and Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency (AI) Primary AI (Addison's or Acute AI)

Secondary AI

Skin and mucosa

Dark

Pale

Potassium

High

Normal

Sodium

Low

Normal or Low

Associated diseases

Primary hypothyroidism, type 1 diabetes, vitiligo, neurological deficits

Central hypogonadism or hypothyroidism, growth hormone deficiency, diabetes incipidus, headaches, visual abnormalities

Associated symptoms

Weakness, fatigues, weight loss, hypotension, salt craving, postural dizziness, myalgia, arthrlalgia, GI: nx/vx abdo pain, dairrhea

NO hyperpigmentation NO salt craving Gl less common

Adapted from: Salvatori, R. JAMA 1005;194:1481·1488.

Treatment • acute condition - can be life-threatening IV NS or D5W / NS in large volumes (2-3 L) hydrocortisone 100 mg IV q6-Sh for 24h, then gradual tapering identify and correct precipitating factors • maintenance hydrocortisone 15-20 mg PO qam and 5-10 mg qpm Florinef™ (fludrocortisone, synthetic mineralocorticoid) 0.05-0.2 mg PO daily if mineralocorticoid deficient increase dose of steroids 2-3 fold for a few days during illness or surgery medical alert bracelet for patient •













Adrenal Medulla

Catecholamine Metabolism •

• •

catecholamines are synthesized from tyrosine in postganglionic sympathetic nerves and chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla predominant adrenal catecholamine epinephrine (adrenaline) predominant peripheral catecholamine norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

,"' ABC of Adrenaline Adrenaline activates Beta·receptors, increasing Cyclic AMP

=

=

Pheochromocytoma Definition • rare catecholamine secreting tumour derived from chromaffin cells of the sympathetic system Epidemiology • most commonly a single tumour of adrenal medulla • 10% extra-adrenal (95% of which are intra-abdominal), 10% multiple tumours, 10% malignant, 10% familial • rare cause of hypertension «0.2% of all hypertensives) • curable if recognized and properly treated, but fatal if not Etiology and Pathophysiology • most cases sporadic • familial: associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia II (MEN II) (50%), von Hippel­ Lindau (10-20%), paraganglioma (20%), or neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF I) (0.1-5.7%) • tumours, via unknown mechanism, able to synthesize and release catecholamines • signs and symptoms caused by hypersecretion of catecholamines ,"'

Clinical Features • 50% suffer from paroxysmal HTN; the rest have sustained HTN • classic triad: episodic "pounding" headache, palpitations / tachycardia, diaphoresis • other symptoms: tremor, anxiety, chest or abdominal pain, nausea / vomiting, visual blurring, weight loss, polyuria, polydipsia

Classic Triad of PHEochromocytoma

Palpitations Headache Episodic sweating

Adrenal Medulla

E36 Endocrinology





Toronto Notes 2010

other signs: orthostatic hypotension, papilledema, increased ESR, hyperglycemia, dilated cardiomyopathy symptoms may be triggered by stress, exertion, anesthesia, abdominal pressure, certain foods (especially tyramine containing foods)

Investigations • urine catecholamines increased catecholamine metabolites (vanillylmandelic acid + metanephrines) and free catecholamines total metanephrine (most sensitive) >6.5 �Imol / day (1.2 mg / day) • plasma catecholamines >2000 pg / ml (11.8 mmol / L) diagnostic; >950 pg / ml (5.6 mmol / L ) suggestive � proceed to clonidine suppression test (rarely done) elevated plasma epinephrine unsuppressed by clonidine (central alpha-adrenergic) is diagnostic • CT scan if CT is negative, meta-iodo-benzoguanidine (MIBG) scintigraphy, Octreoscan, or MRl may be helpful •









Treatment • adequate pre-operative preparation • alpha-blockade for BP control - phenoxybenzamine (14-21 days pre-op), IV phentolamine (peri-op) • beta-blockade for HR control - propranolol (initiate only after adequate alpha-blockade) • metyrosine (catecholamine synthesis inhibitor) + phenoxybenzamine or prazosin also used • volume restoration with vigorous salt-loading • surgical removal of tumour with careful pre-operative and post-operative lCU monitoring • rescreen urine one month post-operatively

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasm (MEN) • • • •

neoplastic syndromes involving multiple endocrine glands tumours of neuroectodermal origin autosomal dominant inheritance with variable penetrance genetic screening for RET proto-oncogene on chromosome 10 has long-term benefit early cure and prevention of medullary thyroid cancer •

Table 32. MEN Classification

�,

MEN 1- Wermer's Syndrome Affects the 3 Ps

Pituitary Parathyroid Pancreas

Type

Chromosome Implicated

MEN I Wermer's Syndrome

11 (PYGM gene)

Tissues Involved

Clinical Manifestations Ant. pituitary adenoma. often non-secreting but may secrete GH and PRL



Pituitary



Parathyroid

Primary hyperparathyroidism from hyperplasia



Entero-pancreatic endocrine

Pancreatic islet cell tumours Gastrinoma (peptic ulcers) Insulinomas (hypoglycemia) VIPomas (secretory diarrhea)





Thyroid Adrenal medulla Parathyroid Skin

Medullary thyroid cancer (MTC)? ( > 90%) Pheochromocytoma (40-50%) 1 0 parathyroid hyperplasia ( 1 0-20%) Cutaneous lichen amyloidosis

2. Familial Medullary Thyroid Ca. (a variant of lIa)



Thyroid

Medullary thyroid ca without other clinical manifestations of MEN lIa or lib

3. lib



Thyroid

Medullary thyroid ca: most common component, more aggressive and earlier onset than MEN lIa

MEN II 3 Distinct Syndromes

10 (RET proto-oncogene) autosomal dominant

1. lIa Sipple's

syndrome

• •



Adrenal medulla

Pheochromocytoma



Neurons

Mucosal neuroma, intestinal ganglioneuromas



MSK

Marfanoid habitus (no aortic abnormalities) Parathyroid hyperplasia-NOT a feature



GI

Chronic constipation Megacolon

Toronto Notes 2010

Adrenal Medulla

History • MEN I symptoms of hyperparathyroidism, gastrinoma (abdominal pain, diarrhea, peptic ulcer diseases), and insulinoma • MEN II family history of MEN syndromes symptoms related to MTC, hyperparathyroidism, or pheochromocytoma scaly skin rash (cutaneous lichen amyloidosis in MEN IIa) •



• •

Physical • clinical picture depends on the endocrine organs involved and the hormones secreted • MEN I hyperparathyroidism - nephrolithiasis, bone abnormalities, MSK complaints, generalized weakness, and alterations of mental status in severe hypercalcemia gastrinoma - upper abdominal pain due to peptic ulcers and esophagitis glucagonoma - rash, anorexia, anemia, diarrhea, glossitis pituitary tumour - headache, visual-field defects, prolactinoma (erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, amenorrhea, galactorrhea), acromegaly carcinoid syndrome - flushing, diarrhea, bronchospasm • MEN II - physical signs are very variable and often subtle MTC - neck mass or thyroid nodule; non-tender, anterior neck lymph nodes pheochromocytoma - elevated BP and HR •

• •









Investigations • MEN I laboratory • gastrinoma - elevated serum gastrin level (>200 ng / mL) after IV injection of secretin at 2 IV / kg of body weight • insulinoma - fasting blood glucose (hypoglycemia) • glucagonoma - elevated blood glucose and glucagon levels • pituitary tumours - assess GH and prolactin levels • hyperparathyroidism - PTH levels; bone density scan (DEXA) imaging • MRI for pituitary tumours, gastrinoma, insulinoma • MEN II laboratory • genetic screening for RET mutations in all index patients; if a mutation is identified, screen family members who are at risk • calcitonin levels, urine catecholamines, vanillylmandelic acid and metanephrine screen (pheochromocytoma); serum Ca and PTH levels (hyperparathyroidism) • pentagastrin ± Ca stimulation test if calcitonin level is within reference range imaging • CT or MRI for imaging of the adrenals metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scan for pheochromocytoma radionuclide scanning for determining the extent of metastasis octreoscan for examining the spread of MTC FNA for thyroid nodules •







• •





Treatment • MEN I surgery is indicated for hyperparathyroidism, insulinoma, glucagonoma, pituitary tumours (transsphenoidal approach with external radiation when medical treatment fails) • PPI for acid hypersecretion in gastrinoma • bromocriptine or other dopamine agonists to suppress prolactin secretion • somatostatin for symptomatic carcinoid tumours • MEN II surgery for MEN IIa pre-op treatment • PG inhibitors to alleviate diarrhea associated with thyroid cancer • alpha-blocker for at least 2 weeks for pheochromocytoma • hydration for hypercalcemia; if remains severely hypercalcemic, consider calcitonin or bisphosphonates post-op treatment • hormone replacement following total thyroidectomy and bilateral adrenalectomy • calcium supplement and / or vitamin D for post-op hypoparathyroidism •







Endocrinology E37

E38 Endocrinology

Toronto Notes 2010

Calcium Homeostasis

Calcium Homeostasis • • • • •

normal total serum Ca: 2.2S-2.62 mmol / L (9.0-10.5 mg / dL) ionic/free Ca levels: 1 .lS-1 .31 mmol / L (4.6-S.2S mg / dL) serum Ca is about SO% protein bound (mostly albumin) regulated mainly by two factors: parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin 0 actions mainly on 3 organs: GI tract, bone, and kidney

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) • secretion increased by low serum Ca and inhibited by chronic, low serum Mg • not influenced directly by P04 (except by P04 effect on the ionic calcium levels)

/T�,"

;

Cholecalc iferol

..

Kidney

l' Resorption

Ca and Mg reabsorption

l

Release of Ca and PO.

/



Bone l' osteoc st activity



Diet

UV light

"I

.. _----

,

25 (OH) vit D (liver)

l-a-hydroxylase



l' PO. excretion in urine and renal tubular reabsorption of PO.

l' bone resorption

Bone osteoclast





Calc itriol formation

24, 25 (OH2) vit D (inert)

l' GI Ca and HPO. absorption

Kidney � Ca and PO. excretion



PTH

l' Ca and HPO. release

Net Effect • •

l' ECF Ca, Vi t 0 � ECF phosphate

Figure 14. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Regulation

Vitamin D • necessary for Ca and P04 absorption from GI tract • cholecalciferol formed in the skin by the action of UV light Calcitonin • polypeptide secreted by thyroid C cells • secretion enhanced by Ca, GI hormones, pentagastrin • major actions � osteoclastic bone resorption (pharmacological effect) l' renal P04 and Na clearance acute net effect: � serum Ca when given in pharmacologic doses •

• •

Magnesium • major intracellular divalent cation • Ca is reabsorbed from the kidney with Mg, and thus Ca balance is difficult to maintain in Mg deficiency Phosphorus • intracellular cation • found in all tissues and necessary for most biochemical processes as well as bone formation Table 33. Summary of Effects Hormone

Net Effect

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Increased Ca Increased Vit D Decreased PO.

Vitamin D

Increased Ca Increased PO,

Calcitonin (in pharmacologic doses)

Decreased Ca

Toronto Notes 2010

Endocrinology E39

Calcium Homeostasis

Hypercalcemia

..... ' , �}-------. Corrected Ca (mmoVL) = measured Ca + 0.25 (40 - albumin)/10

Definition • total corrected serum Ca >2.62 mmol / L (10.5 mg / dL) OR ionized Ca >1.35 mmol / L (5.4 mg/ dL)

For every decrease in albumin by 10, increase in Ca by 0.25 benign (less likely malignant): Ca

Increased Ca2+ with High or Normal PTH Etiology

Risk Factors

Primary Hyperparathyroidism (#1 cause of hypercalcemiaI Solitary adenoma 81 % Hyperplasia 1 5% Carcinoma 4% MEN I and lIa

• •













Positive FHx Hx of MENI/lla Hx of childhood H + N radiation Postmenopausal woman Normal physical exam







Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism

• • • •

• •

Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia (FHHI Mutation in Ca sensing receptor gene .... inappropriate PTH secretion and tubal Ca reabsorption



Drug Induced Increased set point where PTH secretion is suppressed



• •



pathologic (more likely malignant): Ca

Px: 50% asymptomatic (esp. with prolonged diseasel Renal calculi, neuromuscular disease, low BMD IN: Serum Ca, PO., PTH, Imaging for renal calculi and osteoporosis Tx: Surveillance vs. surgery •



Renal failure: low Vit 0 synthesis Low dietary Ca GI malabsorption Bisphosphonate use



IN: increased PTH, normaVdecreased serum [Cal; renal function (Crl, Vit 0/ Ca sufficiency (25-0H Vit 0, Urinary Cal; GI w/u if high suspicion

Renal failure Prev renal transplant



Increased PTH after corrected 2nary increased parathyroidism

Asymptomatic Hypocalciuric Positive FHx (autosomal dominantl



IN: NormaV mildly increased PTH, low urinary Ca, Normal 25·0HVitD

Lithium use



IN: increased serum [Cal with hypocalciuria



High or Normal PTH

� -J.- PTH

l' or normal PhosPhate'----'

-J.- phosphate (related to l' PTHrP) .,m,d;Mi"" (l""g C•. RCC, Pheochromocytoma)

+

V D

I

...�

Hypervitaminosis D: excessive i ntake of vit 0 or its metabolites

I



Low Vit D

Vit 0 related

l' Calcidiol or

>3.25 mmol/L ( 1 3 mg/dL)





Secondary Hyperparathyroidism PT gland appropriately responds to low EC Ca, by l' absorption and l' bone resorption

3 cm ISn 92%) 2. Weight < 51 kg 3. Kyphosis ISp 92%) 4. Tooth count < 20 ISp 92%) 5. Grip strength 6. Armspan-height difference > 5 cm ISp 76%) 7. Wall-occiput distance >0 cm ISp 87%) 8. Rib-pelvis distance s 2 finger breadth ISn 88%)





Investigations • usually normal serum Ca, P04, alkaline phosphatase • also measure 25(OH)-vit D, TSH, serum and urine protein electrophoresis, celiac workup and 24 hr urinary Ca excretion to r / 0 secondary causes • Densitometry dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) - the gold standard in diagnosis of osteoporosis, (quantitative CT, ultrasonography) lumbar spine and femur compared with gender and ethnicity-matched controls bone mineral density 1 .5-2.5 SD below mean= osteopenia; >2.5 SD below mean = osteoporosis •

• •



Screening: Who should we screen? • DEXA for 1) woman and men 2:65 yr, 2) postmenopausal woman o n

0_ :;







g. ::I

'"

Ol

� � '"

S

Landmark Endocrinology Trials

Toronto Notes 2010

Landmark Endocrinology Trials Trial

Reference

Results

Diabetes DCCT

NEJM 1 993; 329:977-86

Intensive blood glucose control delayed the onset and reduced the progression of microvascular complications (retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy) in Type 1 OM

UKPDS

Lancet 1 998; 352:837-53

Intensive blood glucose control reduces microvascular, but not macrovascular complications in Type 2 OM

EDIC

NEJM 2005; 353:2644-53

Compared with conventional therapy, intensive diabetes therapy (goal HbA 1 C < 6.05%) has long-term beneficial effects on the risk of cardiovascular disease in patients with Type 1 OM

ACCORD

NEJM 2008; 358:2560-72

Compared with standard therapy, the use of intensive therapy to target normal HbA 1 c levels for 3.5 years increased mortality and did not significantly reduce major cardiovascular events

ADVANCE

NEJM 2008; 358:2545-59

Intensive glucose control that lowered the HbA 1 C value to 6.5% reduced the incidence of nephropathy but did not significantly reduce major macrovascular events, death from cardiovascular events, or death from any cause. Hypoglycemia was more common in the intensive control group

VADT

NEJM 2009; 360: 1 -1 1

In patients with longstanding poorly controlled Type 2 OM, intensive glucose control had no significant effect on the rates of major cardiovascular events, death, or microvascular complications. Adverse events, predominantly hypoglycemia, were more common in the intensive control group

BARI-2D

NEJM 2009; 360:2503-1 5

In patients with both Type 2 OM and coronary artery disease, no significant difference was found in the rates of death and major cardiovascular events in patients undergoing prompt revascularization and those undergoing medical therapy or between strategies of insulin sensitization and insulin

Steno-2

NEJM 2008; 358:580-91

In at-risk patients with Type 2 OM, intensive intervention with multiple drug combinations and behaviour modification had sustained significant beneficial effects with respect to vascular complications and mortality. Multifactorial intervention is critical in the management of Type 2 OM

Lipids 4S

Lancet 1 994; 344:1 383-89

In patients with angina or previous MI and high total cholesterol, simvastatin reduced: all-cause mortality, fatal and nonfatal coronary events, and need for coronary artery bypass surgery or angioplasty

HPS

Lancet 2002; 360:7-22

In high-risk patients with various cholesterol values, simvastatin reduced all-cause mortality, coronary deaths and major vascular events

TNT

NEJM 2005; 352: 1 425-35

Lipid-lowering therapy with atorvastatin 80 mg/day in patients with stable CHD provides clinical benefit beyond atorvastatin 10 mg/day

FIELD

Lancet 2005; 366:1 849-61

In patients with Type 2 OM, not previously on statin therapy, fenofibrate did not significantly reduce the risk of the primary outcome of coronary events. It did reduce non-fatal myocardial infarctions and revascularizations

Jupiter

NEJM 2008; 359:21 95-207

Rosuvastatin significantly reduced the incidence of major cardiovascular events in patients with elevated high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels and no hyperlipidemia

Endocrinology E55

E56 Endocrinology

References

Toronto Notes 2010

References Agus Al. Etiology of hypercalcemia. 2002 Uptodate online version 10.2. www.uptodate.com Agus Al.. Overview of metabolic bone disease. 2002 Uptodate online version 10.2. www.uptodate.com American Diabetes Association. 12002). Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes iPosition Statement). Diabetes Care 25IS1 ): S74-J7. Amold A. Classification and pathogenesis of the multiple endocrine neoplasila syndromes. 2002 Uptodate online version 1 0.2. www.uptodate.com Blood glucose control in type 2 DM-UK PDS33 on page E5 reprinted from the Lancet, 352, United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study IUKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulfon�ureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes IUKPDS 33). 837-53, 1998. With pennission from Elsevier. Braunwald E, Fauci A, Kasper 0, Hauser S, Longo 0, Jameson. J, Eds. New Vork. p. 2109-2135. Bunnan KD. Overview of thyroiditis. 2002 Uptodate online version 1 0.2. www.uptodate.com Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guidelines. Expert Committee. Canadian Diabetes Association 2003. Clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and manage­ ment of diabetes in Canada. Can J Diabetes. 2003; 27IsuppI2). Canadian Joumal of Diabetes. Dec 2003; 27 IS2) Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. CMAJ. May 25, 2004: 170 I l l ). Cheng A et al. Oral antihyperglycemic therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus. CMAJ. 1 8 January 2005; 17212): 213-226. Cheung, A et al. Prevention of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures in post-menopausal womem: recommendation statement from the Canadian Diabetes Association 2003 Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Diabetes in Canada. Cheung, A et al. Prevention of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures in post-menopausal women: recommendation statement from the Canadian Task Force on Preventive Heanh Care. CMAJ. May 25, 2004: 170 Il l ). Dayan CM. 1200l). Interpretation of thyroid function tests. Lancet 357: 61 9-624. Fodor JG et al. 2000). Recommendations for the management and treatment of dyslipidemia. CMAJ 162110): 1441-1447. Genest J et al. Recommendations of the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease: 2003 update. CMAJ Oct 28, 203: 169 19) Greenspan FS. Gamer DG. 2001. Basic and clinical endocrinology. New Vork: Lange Medical Books! McGraw Hill. p. 100-163, 201-272, 623-761. Hirsch IB et al. 11 995). Inpatient management of adults wrth diabetes. Diabetes Care 1816): 870-878. Krtabachi AE et aI. 1200l). Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 24 11): 131-152. Kronenberg HM, Larsen PR et al. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 9th edition. 1 998. W.B. Saunders Company Metlzer S et aI. I199B). Clinical practice guidelines for the management of diabetes in Canada. CMAJ 159 18 suppl). NIH Consensus Conference. 12001). Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 285:785-795. Orth DN. Evaluation of the response to ACTH in adrenal insufficiency. 2002 Uptodate online version 10.2. www.uptodate.com Physician's guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. National Osteoporosis Foundation, 2003. Powers AC. 1200l). Diabetes Mellitus. In Harrisons's Principles of Intemal Medicine. Rosen HN and Rosenblatt M. Overview of the management of osteoporosis in women. 2002 Uptodate online version 1 0.2. www.uptodate.com Ross DS. Disorders that cause hypothyroidism. 2002 Uptodate online version 1 0.2. www.uptodate.com Ryan EA. 11 998). Pregnancy in diabetes. Med Clin of N Amer 8212): 823-845. Simvastatin to lower CAD risk -The Heart Protection Study on page E15 reprinted from Lancet, 360, Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group, Heart Protection Study of Cholesterol lowering with Simvastatin in 20,536 high risk individuals: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. 7-22, 2002, with pennission from Elsevier. Statins and CHD in Dyslipidemia - 45 Trial on page E15 reprinted from the Lancet, 344. Randomized trial of cholesterol lowering in 4,444 patients with coronary heart disease: The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study 145):1 283-89, 1994, with pennission from Elsevier. Tsui E et aI. 1200l). Intensive insulin therapy with insulin lispro. Diabetes Care 24110): 1722-1727. Voung WF and Kaplan NM. Diagnoss and treatment of pheochromocytoma in adults. 2002 Uptodate online version 1 0.2. www.uptodate.com.

FM

Fam i ly Medicine Amy Ng, Krista Uunila and Julia Zhu, chapter editors Aseem Bishnoi and Grace Yeung, associate editors Amy Shafey, EBM editor Dr. Ruby Alvi and Dr. Azadeh Moaveni, staff editors

Four Principles of Family Medicine Patient-Centred Clinical Method

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Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM)

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Antimicrobial Quick Reference

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Primary Care Models Periodic Health Examination (PHE)

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Purpose of the P H E Adult Peri odic H e a lth Exam

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Health Promotion and Counselling Motivati o n a l Strate g i es f o r Behavioural Change N utriti on Obesity

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Dysl ipidemia . Exercise . . . . .

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Smoking Cessation

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Alcohol

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4 4 5 7 8 8 10 .

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Common Presenting Problems Abd o m i n a l Pa i n

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Allergic R h i n itis

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Anxiety . . . . . Asthma/COPD

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B e n i g n Prostatic Hyperplasia ( B P H )

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Bronch itis (Acute)

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Chest Pa i n

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Common Cold (Acute R h i n itis) Contraception . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Cough . . . Depress ion

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Dia betes M e l l itus ( D M )

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Dizziness

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Domestic Violen ce/E lder Abuse Dyspepsia Dyspnea Dysuria

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E recti le Dysfu ncti on ( E D) Fati g u e

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Joint Pa i n Headache

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Fever

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H e a r i n g I m pa i rment Hypertension . . . . . . Low Back Pa i n . . . . .

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Menopause/HRT

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Osteoarthritis

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Osteoporosis

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Rash . . . . . R h i n o rrhea

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Sleep Disorders Social Phobia

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Toronto Notes 2010

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Sexually Tra nsm itted I nfections (STls) S i n u s itis

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11 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 24 25 26 27 27 28 28 30 31 32 33 34 34 37 39 40 40 41 42 42 44 44 46 47

Family Medicine FM1

FM2 Family Medicine

Four Principles of Family Medicine/Patient-Centred Clinical Method/Periodic Health Examination

Toronto Notes 2010

Four Principles of Family Medicine College of Family Physicians of Canada Guidelines 1. The family physician is a skilled clinician • •

skilled in diagnosis and management of diseases common to population served recognizes importance of early diagnosis of serious life-threatening illnesses

2. Family medicine is a community-based discipline • •

has good knowledge of and access to community services responds / adapts to changing needs and circumstances of the community

3. The family physician is a resource to a defined practice population • •

serves as a health resource advocates for public policy to promote health

4. The patient-physician relationship is central to the role of the family physician • •

committed to the person, not just the disease promotes continuity of patient care

Patient- Centred Clinical Method .....

Patient's Agenda

FIFE Feelings Ideas Function Expectations

• •

explore / define patient problems and decide on management together consider both agendas and find common ground doctor's agenda: history, physical, investigation, diagnosis, plan patient's agenda: FIFE, i.e. "How do you feel about...", "What do you think is going on?", "How is this affecting you?", "What would you like to happen today?" •



Periodic Health Examination ( P H E) •

Canadian Task Force o n Preventive Health Care established i n 1976, first published in 1979, last updated in 2005 reviews the literature for evidence pertaining to prevention of conditions aids in developing clinical practice guidelines incorporates primary and secondary preventive measures most notable recommendation is the abolition of the annual physical exam; replaced by the PHE •







Purpose of the PHE

------



primary prevention identify risk factors for common diseases counsel patients to promote healthy behaviour secondary prevention presymptomatic detection of disease to allow early treatment and prevent disease progression update clinical data enhance patient-physician relationship •







• •

Adult Periodic Health Exam •

male and female evidence-based preventative care checklist forms are available online at www.cfpc.ca on the side bar "For Your Practice" > "Clinical Tools"

Toronto Notes 2010 Table 1. Periodic Health Exam General Population DISCUSSION

• • •

Dental hygiene Icommunity fluoridation, brushing, flossingl lAI Noise control and hearing protection IAI Smokers: counsel on smoking cessation, provide Nicotine replacement therapy IAI Referral to smoking cessation program IBI Dietary advice on leafy green vegetables & fruits IBI Seat belt use IBI Injury prevention Ibicycle helmets, smoke detectorsl lBI Moderate physical activity IBI Avoid sun exposure and wear protective clothing IBI Problem drinking screening and counselling IBI Counselling to protect against STls IBI Nutritional counselling and dietary advice on fat and cholesterol lBI •

Pediatrics:

• • • • •

PHYSICAL

• • •

Clinical breast exam Iwomen age 50·691 1AI Blood pressure measurement IBI BMI measurement in obese adults IBI

Home visits for high risk families IAI Inquiry into developmental milestones IBI

Adolescents: Counsel on sexual activity and contraceptive

methods IBI Counsel to prevent smoking initiation IBI





... ' , ��------.

Special Population





Family Medicine FM3

Periodic Health Examination (PHE)

Perimenopausal women:

Counsel on osteoporosis Counsel on riskslbenefits of hormone replacement therapy IBI Adults >65:

Follow·up on caregiver concem of cognitive impairment IAI Multidisciplinary post·fall assessment IAI

Pediatrics:

Repeated examinations of hips, eyes and hearing lespecially in first year of lifel lAI Serial heights, weights and head circumference IBI Visual acuity testing after age 2 1 BI

Classification of Recommendations A Good evidence to recommend the

clinical preventative action. Fair evidence to recommend the clinical preventative action. C Existing evidence is conflicting and does not allow to make a recommendation for or against use of the clinical preventative action; however, other factors may influence decision·making. D Fair evidence to recommend against the clinical preventative action. E Good evidence to recommend against the clinical preventative action. Insufficient evidence (in quantity or quality) to make a recommendation; however, other factors may influence decision·making. B

Adults >65: Visual acuity ISnelien sight chartl lBI

Hearing impairment /inquiry, whispered voice test, audioscopel lBI

First degree relative with melanoma: Full body skin exam IBI

TESTS



• • •

Multiphase screening with the Hemoccult test ladults age >50 ql ·2yrsl lAI Sigmoidoscopy ladults > 501 lfrequency not establishedl lBI Bone mineral density: if at risk 11 major or 2 minor criterial Fasting lipid profile ICI: women age > 50 or post·menopausal; earlier if at risk men age >40; earlier if at risk loptimal frequency unknown, at least q5yrsl Fasting blood glucose: age >40 q3yrs lor sooner and more frequently if risk factors presentl Syphilis screen if at risk 10 1 Men: PSA testing screening guidelines not estabilshed III Women: Mammography Iwomen age 50·691 ql ·2yrs IAI Pap smear annually Iwomen age 18·69 if ever sexually active, start after sexual debutl; q3yrs after 2 normal results Imore frequently if concemsl • •



• • •

THERAPY

• •





• •

Folic acid supplementation to women of child·bearing age IAI Varicella vaccine for children age 1 ·1 2 and susceptible adolescents/adults IAI Rubella vaccine for all non·pregnant women of child·bearing age IBI Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension with dBP >90 mmHg ladults age 21 ·64, elderly specific subgroupsl lAI Tetanus vaccine: routine booster ql Oyrs if had 10 series IAI Pertussis vaccine: routine booster of acellular vaccine once during adulthood Ican be given as dTapl

Reference: Canadian Task Force on Preventative Heatth Care, 2005. httpj/www.ctlphc.org

Pediatrics:

Routine hemoglobin for high risk infants IBI Blood lead screening of high risk infants IBI

Diabetics:

Urine dipstick IAI Fundoscopy IBI

TB high risk groups: Mantoux skin testing IAI STI high risk groups: Voluntary HIV antibody screening IAI

Gonorrhea screening IAI Chlamydia screening in women IBI FAP:

Sigmoidoscopy and genetic testing IBI

HNPCC:

Colonoscopy IBI

Pediatrics:

Routine immunizations IAI Hepatitis B immunization IAI

Influenza high risk groups: Outreach strategies for vaccination IAI

annual immunization IB), now recommended for all IB high risk groups: INH prophylaxis for household contacts/skin

test converters IBI INH prophylaxis for high risk sub·groups IBI Immunocompetent/age :.65/COPD: Pneumococcal vaccine IAI

... ' , ��------, When Ordering Fasting Bloodwork

• Results are valid only if obtained with " 1 2 hours of fasting. • Remember, "fasting" means no food, no drinks (except small quantities of water), no gum, no smoking. • Prescription medications are okay unless otherwise specified.

... ' , ��------, Guidelines Advisory Committee (GAC) Recommendations for Breast Cancer Screening

For women aged 40-69 years. there is fair evidence to recommend that routine teaching of breast self­ examination (BSE) be excluded from the PHE. Research shows fair evidence of no benefit to BSE and good evidence of harm.

FM4 Family Medicine

Health Promotion and Counselling

Toronto Notes 2010

Health Promotion and Counselling • • •

health promotion is the most effective preventative strategy 40-70% of productive life lost annually is preventable there are several effective ways to promote healthy behavioural change, such as discussions appropriate to a patient's present stage of change

Motivational Strategies for Behavioural Change Table 2. Motivational Strategies for Behavioural Change Physician's Plan

Patient's Stage of Change

Physician's Aim

Pre-contemplation

Raise issue in a sensitive manner Encourage patient to consider the possibility of change Assess readiness for change Offer (not impose) a neutral exchange of Increase patient's awareness of the problem and its risks information to avoid resistance

Contemplation

Understand patient's ambivalence and encourage change Offer opportunity to discuss pros and cons of change, using reflective listening Build confidence and gain commitment to change

Preparation

Explore options and choose course most appropriate to patient Identify high·risk situations and develop strategies to prevent relapse Continue to strengthen confidence and commitment

Offer realistic options for change and opportunity to discuss inevitable difficulties

Action

Help patients design rewards for success Develop strategies to prevent relapse Support and reinforce convictions towards long-term change

Offer positive reinforcement and explore ways of coping with obstacles Encourage se�-rewards to positively reinforce change

Maintenance

Help patient maintain motivation Review identifying high-risk situations and strategies for preventing relapse

Discuss progress and signs of impending relapse

Relapse

Help patient view relapse as a learning experience Provide support appropriate to present level of readiness post-relapse

Offer a non-judgmental discussion about circumstances surrounding relapse and how to avoid relapse in the future Reassess patient's readiness to change

Adapted from Hunt P 12001). Motivating Change. Nursing Standard, 1612): 45-52, 54-55.

Nutrition General Population • Canada's Food Guide appropriate for individuals >2 years old • counsel on variety, portion size, and plate layout (see Figure 1 )

Vegetables 50%

Meat & Alternatives 25%

Table 3 . Canada's Food Guide 2007 Recommendations for Adults

Grain Products 25%

Food Group

Servings/day

Choose more often

Grain products

6-7

Whole grain and enriched grain products

Vegetables and fruit

7-1 0

Dark green vegetables, orange vegetables and fruit

Milk products

2-3 Children 2-8 years: 2 Youth 9-18 years: 3-4 PregnanVbreastfeeding: 3-4

Lower-fat dairy products

Meat and alternatives

2-3

Lean meat, poultry, fish, peas, beans, lentils

Figure 1. Plate Layout

Cardiovascular Disease Prevention

�' Handy Serving Size Comparisons

• 30z meat, fish, poultry

-->

• 1 cup dairy (milk/yogurt) • Bread/grains

-->

palm of hand -->

size of fist

one slice, palm of hand

• y, cup rice/pasta

-->

one hand cupped

• 1 cup of fruit/vegetables

Table 4. Dietary guidelines for reducing risk of cardiovascular disease in general population Food Item

Recommendations

Effects

Fat

Fat intake < 30% of total energy Saturated fat < 7% of energy, Trans fat < 1 % of energy Cholesterol < 300 mg/d

Lower LDL

Omega-3 fatty acid rich foods

;" 2 servings/wk of fish (esp. oily fish like salmon)

Decreased: sudden death, death from CAD; Lower TG

Salt

< 6 g/d (100 mmol or 2.3 g/d of sodium)

Lower BP

Alcohol

s2

--> two

cupped hands • 1 oz cheese --> full length of thumb • 1 tsp oiVbutter --> tip of thumb • Nuts/chips/snacks

-->

palm covered

drinks/d for men s 1 drinkld for women

Excess alcohol increases risk of hypertriglyceridemia, HTN

References: Canada's Food Guide to Healthy Eating. Health Canada. Last updated 2007. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-anlfood-guide-aliment/fg-rainbowarc en cie ga e.html l Lichtenstein Af, et aI. 12006). Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation. 1 1 4: 82-96.

Table 5. Introduction to Vitamins and Minerals VitaminlMineral

Dietary Source

Signs of Deficiency

Signs of Toxicity

Folate (vit 89)

Green leafy vegetables, organ meats, dried yeast, dried beans, legumes, citrus, fortified grains

Macrocytic anemia, diarrhea, glossitis, lethargy, stomatitis

None known from foods; seizures

Megaloblastic anemia, glossitis, leukopenia, weakness, peripheral neuropathy (esp. foot drop)

None known from foods

Cyanocobalamin (vit 8'2) Meats, organ meats, beef, pork, milk, cheese, fish Ascorbic acid (vit C)

Family Medicine FMS

Health Promotion and Counselling

Toronto Notes 2010

Citrus fruits, tomatoes, potatoes, Scurvy, keratosis of hair follicles, red berries, peppers impaired wound healing, anemia, depression, lethargy, bleeding

Osmotic diarrhea, NN, oxalate kidney stones, interference with anticoagulation therapy

Vitamin A

Fish liver oils, egg yolk, dairy products, green leafy or orange/ yellow vegetables and fruit

Dermatitis, night blindness, keratomalacia, xerophthalmia

NN, headache, dizziness, deep bone pain, peeling skin, gingivitis, alopecia, hepatotoxicity

Vitamin D

Fish, fish liver oils, fortified milk, egg yolk, sunlight

Osteomalacia, muscle weakness bone pain, hypophosphatemia, hypocalcemia

Excess bone & soft tissue calcification, kidney stones, hypercalcemia, anorexia, renal failure

Vitamin E

Polyunsaturated vegetable oils, nuts, eggs, wheat germ, whole grains

Rare hemolysis, anemia, neuronal Prolonged clotting time, impaired neutrophil function axonopathy, myopathy

Vitamin K

Green leafy vegetables, liver, vegetable oils, intestinal flora

Bleeding, purpura, bruising, prolonged clotting time

Jaundice

Calcium

Dairy products, dark, green & leafy vegetables, fortified soy, fortified orange juice

Tetany, arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, altered nerve conduction, osteomalacia

Metastatic calcification, weakness, renal failure, psychosis

Magnesium

Soy, clams, wheat germ, almonds, dairy products, green leaves, nuts, cereal grains, seafood

Weakness, convulsions, neuromuscular irritability and dysfunction, failure to thrive

Hypotension, cardiac disturbances, respiratory failure

Potassium

Meat, milk, bananas, prunes, raisins, orange, grapefruit, potatoes, legumes

Polyuria, impaired muscle contraction, ECG changes (prolonged QT interval, prominent U-waves), peritoneal distention, dyspnea, paralysis, cardiac disturbances

Mental confusion, hypotension, weakness, ECG changes (flattened P-waves, peaked T-waves), paralysis, cardiac disturbances

Iron

Meat, fish, poultry, organ meats, Glossitis, fatigue, tachycardia, eggs, prunes, peas, beans, lentils, microcytic hypochromic anemia, soy, raisins, fortified grain koilonychias, enteropathy products

Nutritional hemosiderosis, organ damage

.... ' , ,}-------, Energy Content of Food

• • • •

....

Carbohydrates 4 kcal/g Protein 4 kcal/g Fat 9 kcal/g Ethanol 7 kcal/g

' , '�------,

Calculating Total Daily Energy Expenditure (T DEE)

• Roughly 35 kcal/kg/day • Varies by age, weight, sex, and activity level • Average 2000-2100 kcal/d for women, 2700-2900 kcal/d for men

.... ' , ,}-------, Canadian Cancer Society (CCS) Recommendations for Vitamin D Use

• Based on CCS research on Vitamin 0 and the prevention of colorectal, breast and prostate cancer. • In consultation with their health care provider, the Society is recommending that: • Adults living in Canada should consider taking Vitamin 0 supplementation of 1 ,000 international units (lU) a day during the fall and winter. • Adults at higher risk of having lower Vitamin 0 levels should consider taking Vitamin 0 supplementation of 1 ,000 IU/day all year round. This includes people: who are older, with dark skin, who don't go outside often, and who wear clothing that covers most of their skin_

Adapted from Mosby's Family Practice Sourcebook: An Evidence·Based Approach to Care. 4th edition. edited by Dr. Michael Evans Ipp. 343-345). Copyright © 2006 Elsevier Canada, a division of Reed Elsevier Canada, ltd. All rights reserved. Reprinted by permission of Elsevier Canada, 2009.

Table 6. Macronutrient Distribution Ranges Age (years)

Macronutrient as % of Daily Calories Protein

Fat

Carbohydrate

1 to 3

5 - 20

30 - 40

45 - 65

4 to 1 8

10 - 30

25 - 35

45 - 65

19 and older

10 - 35

20 - 35

45 - 65

Adapted from Dietary Reference Intakes Tables, Health Canada. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/table(lndex_e.html

Obesity • •

body mass index (BMI) weight (kg) / height (m)2 weight (lbs)/height (inch)2 x 703 waist circumference (WC) considered newest "vital sign"and should be measured in all adults to assess obesity related health risks specific cutoff points exist for different ethnic backgrounds (as recommended by the 2006 Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines on obesity) measurement of waist-hip ratio has no advantage over waist circumference alone =







=

....

' , ,}-------,

Burning Fat

1 pound of human fat results in 3500 kcal of energy when burned through activity_

..... ' � �}-------,

Table 7, Classification of Weight by BM!. Waist Circumference. and Associated Disease Risks in Adults 8MI Ik!JIm2)

Obesity Class

Men ",102 em 140 in) Women d8 em 125 in)

Men > 1 02 em 140 in) Women >88 em 135 in)

< 1 8. 5 1 8.5-24.9 25.0-29.9 30.0-34.9 35.0-39.9 40.0 +

I II III

Increased High Very High Extremely High

High Very High Very High Extremely High

Losing Weight

• Aim for caloric intake 500-1000 kcal/d less than TDEE • Results in 1 -2 Ib (0.5-1 kg) weight loss per week • Achieved by combination of increased activity and/or decreased caloric intake

..... ' � �1-------, Low BMI is Associated with:

• • • •

Osteoporosis Eating disorders Under-nutrition Pregnancy complications

..... ' � �,-------, Adverse Medical Consequences of Obesity

• • • • •

Type 2 DM CAD Stroke HTN Gallbladder disease • Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis • Complications of pregnancy

• • • • • • •

Underweight Normal Overweight Obesity Extreme Obesity

From: Classification of Overweight and Obesity by BMI, Waist Circumference, and Associated Disease Risks, National Institute of Health, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Obesity Education Initiative, http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/healtlVpublic/heart/obesity�ose_wVbmiJis.htm

Epidemiology • 16% (4 million) of people 18 or older are obese, 32% (8 million) are overweight in Canada, according to StatsCan (2007) • obesity rate in p eople of aboriginal origin is 1 .6 times higher than the national average • proportion of children aged 6-11 who are overweight has more than doubled in the last 25 years; percentage of overweight adolescents has tripled • overweight and obesity rates in children are directly proportional to screen time (see Exercise, FM8) • only 10-15% of population consume 25 and :s:35 kglm'

Weight maintenance and prevention of weight regain should be

+

considered as long-term goals

If 8MI > 25 kg/m' or waist circumference is above cutoff point

Devise goals and lifestyle modification program for

+

weight loss and reduction of risk factors

,-------..

Conduct clinical and laboratory investigations to assess comorbidities

Weight loss goal: 5-t 0% of body weight, or 0.5- t kg It-2 Ib) per week for 6 months

+

(Blood pressure, heart rate, fasting glucose, lipid profile Itotal cholesterol. triglycerides, LDL and HDL cholesterol, and ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol II

·'The Latest Evidence on Fad Diets. . . "

Health team to advise lifestyle modification program

+

Comparison of the Atkins, Omish, Weight Watchers, and Zone diets for Weight Loss and

,

Assess and screen for depression,

Heart Disease Risk Reduction

JAMA. Jan 2005 vol 293( 1): 43-53 Purpose: To assess the effectiveness and adherence rates of four popular diets for weight loss and reduction of cardiac risk factors. Swdy Characteristics: Single center RCT at academic medical center in Boston, MA; 160 participants were random�ed to either Atkins (carbohydrate restriction). Zone (macronutrient balanced and low glycemic load), Weight Watchers (low calorie/portion size). or Omish (fat restriction) diet groups for a period of 18 months. Participants: Adults aged 22 to 72 years with known HTN, dyslipidemia, or fasting hyperglycemia. Results: Assuming that participants who discontinued the study remained at baseline, the mean weight loss at 1 year (and self selected dietary adherence rates per seff report) were 2.1 kg for Atkins (53% of participants completed, P;0.009). 3.2 kg for the Zone (65% of participants completed, P;0.002), 3.0 kg for Weight Watchers (65% completed, P 10 min each with 6-12 month follow-up yield better results 14% abstinent with counselling vs. 10% without counselling (OR 1.55) approach depends on patient's stage of change (see Motivational Strategies for Behavioural Change, FM4)

willing to quit • • •







follow the 5 As (see sidebar) provision of social support, community resources pregnant patients - advise to quit first without pharmacotherapy; use pharmacotherapy only if benefits > risks; consult Motherisk Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT) • 19.7% abstinent at 12 months with NRT vs. 11 .5% for placebo (OR 1 .66) • no difference in achieving abstinence for different forms of NRT • reduces cravings and withdrawal symptoms without other harmful substances that are contained in cigarettes • use with caution: immediate post-MI, serious/ worsening angina, serious arrhythmia Bupropion SR (Zyban™) • 21% abstinent at 12 months vs. 8% for placebo (OR 2.73) Varenicline (ChampixTM) • partial nicotinic receptor agonist (to reduce cravings) and partial competitive nicotinic receptor antagonist (to reduce the response to smoked nicotine) • more effective than bupropion

Table 1 0. Types of Nicotine Replacement Therapy Type

Dosage

Comment

Side Effects

Nicotine gum (OTC)

2 mg if 10.0 mmol / L (180 mg/ dL) 2 hours postprandial glucose . 5-10 mmol / L (90-180 mg/ dL) • 5-8 mmol / L (90-144 mg/ dL) if HbAlc targets not being met HbAlc • ::;0.07, consider ::;0.065 in some type 2 diabetes patients to prevent nephropathy • suboptimal: 0.07-0.084; inadequate: >0.084 blood pressure • adults: 65 reported experiences of emotional or financial abuse • older adults who live with someone are more likely to be abused than those who live alone • 2 / 3 of reported abuse cases involved family members, most often adult children followed by spouses • older females are more likely to be abused than older males • men are more likely than women to be victimized by an adult child (45% vs. 35%) • women are more likely than men to experience violence at the hands of a spouse (30% vs. 19%) (Statistics Canada, 2004) • reasons for under-reporting: fear, shame, cognitive impairment, language / cultural barriers, and social and geographic isolation Risk Factors • women • older age (age 80 and older) • physical and mental frailty Screening • the Canadian Task Force determined that there was insufficient evidence to include or exclude case finding for elder abuse as part of the periodic health examination, but recommended that physicians be alert for indicators of abuse and institute measures to prevent further abuse • general questions such as "Do you feel safe at home?" and move into more specific questions about different kinds of abuse Presentation • signs that an older adult is being abused may include: • depression, fear, anxiety, passivity, unexplained injuries, dehydration, malnutrition, poor hygiene, rashes, pressure sores, and over-sedation/ inappropriate medication use Management • gather information from all sources (e.g. family members, health care providers, neighbours) • perform a thorough physical examination • ensure immediate safety and devise a plan for follow-up • additional steps depend on whether the patient accepts intervention and whether they are capable of making decisions about their care • interventions may include use of protective and legal services, senior resource nurses, elder abuse intervention teams and senior support groups

Dyspepsia • see Gastroenterology, G3

Definition and Clinical Features • defined as epigastric pain or discomfort • can be associated with fullness, belching, bloating, heartburn, food intolerance, nausea, or vomiting Epidemiology • annual incidence 1-2%, prevalence 20-40% Etiology • common: functional, peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastritis • others: cholelithiasis, irritable bowel disease, esophageal or gastric cancer, pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, and abdominal angina History • symptoms may not be useful in finding cause • association with food, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, NSAIO use • symptoms suggestive underlying pathology: weight loss, dysphagia, persistent vomiting, gastrointestinal bleeding (hematemesis, hematochezia)

Toronto Notes 2010

Common Presenting Problems

Family Medicine FM27

Investigations and Management • empiric therapy: proton pump inhibitors, H2 receptor blockers • testing for H. pylori: serology, urea breath test • upper endoscopy (preferred), upper GI series

Dyspnea • see Respirology. R2

History and Physical • cough, sputum, hemoptysis, wheezing, chest pain, palpitations, dizziness, edema • asthma, allergy, eczema, ASA/ NSAID sensitivity, nasal polyps • constitutional symptoms • smoking, recreational drugs, medications • occupational exposure, environmental exposure: pets, allergens, smoke • travel and birth place • FHx of atopy • previous CXR or PFTs • exam: vitals, respiratory, precordial, HEENT, signs of anemia /liver failure /heart failure

..... ' � �}-------, DDX of Dyspnea • Pulmonary embolism • Deconditioning • Foreign body aspiration · D KA • Anemia • Asthma • Pneumothorax

Investigations • CXR, ECG • PFTs, ABG acutely if indicated Management • ABC's • depends on cause

Dysuria • see Urology. U4

Does this Woman have an Acute Uncomplicated

Defin ition • the sensation of pain, burning or discomfort on urination Epidemiology • in adulthood, more common in women than men • approximately 25% of women report one episode of acute dysuria per year • most common in women 25-54 years of age and in those who are sexually active • in men, dysuria becomes more prevalent with increasing age Etiology • infectious • most common cause • presents as cystitis, urethritis, pyelonephritis, vaginitis, or prostatitis • non-infectious • hormonal conditions (postmenopausal hypoestrogenism), obstruction (BPH, urethral strictures), neoplasms, allergic reactions, chemicals, foreign bodies, trauma Table 21 . Etiology, Signs and Symptoms of Dysuria Infection

Etiology

Signs and Symptoms

UTI/Cystitis

E. coli, S. saprophyticus, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas

Internal dysuria throughout micturition, frequency, urgency, incontinence, hematuria, nocturia, back pain, suprapubic discomfort, low grade fever (rare)

Urethritis

C. trachoma tis, N. gonorrhea, Trichomonas, Candida, herpes

Initial dysuria, urethraVvaginal discharge, history of STI

Vaginitis

Candida, Gardnerella, Trichomonas, C. trachomatis,

External dysuria/pain, vaginal discharge, irritation, dyspareunia, abnormal vaginal bleeding

atrophic, herpes, lichen sclerosis

Prostatitis

E. coli, C. trachomatis, S. saprophyticus, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas

Pyelonephritis

E. coli, S. saprophyticus, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas

Dysuria, fever, chills, urgency, frequency, tender prostate Internal dysuria, fever, chills, flank pain radiating to groin,

eVA tenderness, nausea or vomiting

Urinary Tract Infection?

JAMA. May 2002; 287: 2701·2710 Purpose: To review the accuracy and precision of

history taking and physical examination for diagnosing UTI in women. Study Characteristics: Systematic review of 9 studies looking at the accuracy or precision of history or physical examination in diagnosing uncomplicated UTI. Participants: Healthy women. Infants, children or adolescents, pregnant women, nursing home patients, and patients with complicated UTI were excluded. Main Outcomes: Precision and accuracy of history taking and physical exam. Results: No studies examined precision as an outcome. Four symptoms and one sign significantly increased the probability of UTI: dysuria. frequency, hematuria, back pain, and eVA tenderness. Four symptoms and one sign significantly decreased the probability of UTI: absence of dysuria, absence of back pain, a history of vaginal discharge, a history of vaginal irritation, and vaginal discharge on examination. Conclusions: Women who present with 1 or more symptoms of UTI have a probability of infection approaching 50%, effectively ruling in infection. Additional historical elements, physical examination, and urinalysis is unable to lower the post·test probability of UTI to a level where it can be ruled out. Additional testing, such as culture, should be pursued.

FM28 Family Medicine

"

' , .�------.

Risk Factors for Complicated Urinary Tract Infection • Male sex • Pregnancy • Recent urinary tract instrumentation • Functional or anatomic abnormality of the urinary tract • Chronic renal disease • Diabetes • Immunosuppression • Indwelling catheter

.... ' , .�------. Prevention of UTls • Maintain good hydration (especially with cranberry juicel • Wipe urethra from front to back to avoid contamination of the urethra with feces from the rectum • Avoid feminine hygiene sprays and scented douches • Empty bladder immediately before and after intercourse

Toronto Notes 2010

Common Presenting Problems

Investigations • no investigations necessary when history and physical consistent with uncomplicated UTI - treat empirically (urinalysis can be performed when indicated by dipstick or microscopy) • radiologic studies and other diagnostic tests if atypical presentation • urinalysis/urine R&M: pyuria, bacteriuria, hematuria • urine C&S • if vaginal / urethral discharge present: wet mount, Gram stain, KOH test, vaginal pH, culture for yeast and Trichomonas • endocervical or urethral swab for N. gonorrheae and C. trachoma tis • renal U/S ± voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG) in children with recurrent UTI Management • UTI! cystitis • pregnant women with bacteriuria (2-7% ) must be treated even if asymptomatic, due to risk of preterm labour; need to follow with monthly urine cultures and retreat if still infected • in patients with recurrent UTIs (>3 per year), consider prophylactic antibiotics • if complicated UTI, patients require longer courses of broader spectrum antibiotics • urethritis • when swab is positive for chlamydia or gonorrhea must report to Public Health • all patients should return 4-7 days after completion of therapy for clinical evaluation

Epistaxis • see Otolaryngology, OT27

Table 22. Characteristics of Anterior vs. Posterior Bleeds Anterior (90%) Location/ Origin Age Common Cause

Treatment

Prognosis

Posterior (10%)

Woodruff's Plexus/Sphenopalatine Artery Little's Areal Kiesselbach's Plexus Usually >50 2·10, 50·80 Trauma (digital, fracture, foreign body), dry air, cool Systemic: hepatic disease, primary/secondary bleeding disorder, medications (ASA, NSAIDs, climate, post URTI, nasal dryness, chemical (nasal sprays, cocaine), tumour warfarin), HTN, atherosclerosis Emergency: ENTlER consult for posterior packing Conservative: • Position: upright leaning forward with direct digital pressure with an intranasal balloon/Foley catheter over soft part of nostril for > 1 0 min ("pinch" up to cartilage) Embolization/surgery • Humidifier in bedroom, nasal saline sprays, bacitriacin or Vaseline® application to Little's area • Silver nitrate • GelfoamlHemostat • Nasal packing with Vaseline® gauze, nasal catheter or sponge • Cotton soaked in vasoconstrictor (oxymetazoline 0.5%) and topical anesthetic (4% lidocaine) placed in anterior nasal cavity with direct pressure for > 1 0 min • Investigations: CBC, Hc!. cross & type, INR, PTT (only if severe), CT/nasopharyngoscopy if suspected tumour Copious bleed, often swallowed and vomited Usually stops with > 1 0 min of pressure to nose May lead to hypovolemic shock if not treated promptly

Erectile Dysfunction (ED) • see Urology, U31

Definition • consistent or recurrent inability to attain and/ or maintain penile erection sufficient for sexual performance of ;0,3 months duration Epiemiology • -20% of men aged 40 are affected • -50% of men aged 70 are affected Etiology • organic: vascular (90% ) (arterial insufficiency, atherosclerosis), endocrine (low testosterone, diabetes), anatomic (structural abnormality e.g. Peyronie's), neurologic (post-op, DM), medications (clonidine, antihypertensives, psychotropics) • psychogenic (10%)

Common Presenting Problems

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 23. Differentiation Between Organic and Psychogenic Erectile Dysfunction Characteristic

Organic

Psychogenic

Onset

Gradual Global Constant Poor Secondary Secondary Secondary

Acute Situational Varying Rigid Long history At onset Primary

Circumstances Course Non-coital erection Psychosexual problem Partner problem Anxiety and fear

Modifiable Risk Factors and Erectile Dysfunction: Can L�estyle Changes Modify Risk?

Urology 2000; 56: 302·306 Sbldy: A prospective cohort study designed to examine whether changes in smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, sedentary lifestyle, and obesity are associated with the risk of ED in men aged 40·70. Resuks: Obesity was associated with ED 1P=0.006), with baseline obesity conferring higher risk regardless of subsequent weight loss. Level of phyical activity was associated with ED 1P=0.01): those initiating physical activity or remaining active had a lower risk of ED, while those who remained sedentary had a higher risk. As compared to their sedentary peers, those who initiated exercise in midlITe had a 70% reduced ED rate. Changes in smoking or alcohol intake were not associated with ED 1P>0.3). Conclusion: Anhough making lifestyle changes in midlife may be too late to reverse the effects of smoking, obesity, and alcohol consumption on ED, inrtiating physical activity in midlife may in fact reduce ED relative to peers who remain sedentary. Adopting a healthy lifestyle early in lITe may be the best approach to reducing the risk of developing ED in later years.

Walsh: Campbell's Urology, 8th ed. Table 46·4.

History • comprehensive sexual, medical and psychosocial history • time course

• last satisfactory erection • onset: gradual or sudden • attempts at sexual activity

• quantify

• • • •

presence of morning or night time erections stiffness (scale of 1-10) ability to initiate and maintain an erection with sexual stimulation erection stiffness during sex (scale of 1-10)

• qualify

• partner or situation specific

• • • • • •

loss of erection before penetration or climax degree of concentration required to maintain an erection percentage of sexual attempts satisfactory to patient and / or his partner significant bends in penis or pain with erection difficulty with specific positions impact on quality of life and relationship

Investigations • hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis evaluation: testosterone (free + total), prolactin, LH • risk factor evaluation: fasting glucose, HbA1c, lipid profile • others: TSH, CBC, urinalysis • specialized testing • psychological and / or psychiatric consultation • in-depth psychosexual and relationship evaluation • nocturnal penile tumescence and rigidity (NPTR) assessment • vascular diagnostics (e.g. doppler studies, angiography) Management Table 24. Management of Erectile Dysfunction Nonpharmacologic

Pharmacologic

Surgical

Lifestyle changes (alcohol, smoking, exercisel

Suppository (MUSE: male urethral suppository for erectionl

Implants

Relationship/sexual counselling

Oral agents

Vascular repair

Vacuum devices

Injections

Realignment

• pharmacologic treatment

• • • •

phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors (see Table 25) alpha adrenergic blockers (e.g. yohimbine) serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitor (e.g. trazodone) testosterone - currently only indicated in patients presenting with hypogonadism and testosterone deficiency (N.B. breast / prostate cancer are absolute contraindications)

Table 25. Phosphodiesterase Type 5 Inhibitors Dosing (1 dose/dayl Specifics

Examples

sildenafil (Viagra I

25·100 mgldose

tadalafil (Cialis I

5·20 mgldose

'"

'"

vardenafil (Levitra I 2.5·20 mgldose '"

Family Medicine FM29

Side Effects

Contraindications

Take 0.5·4 hr prior to intercourse May last 24 hours

Flushing, headache, indigestion

Not to be used in patients taking nitrates

Effects may last 36 hours

As above

As above

Take 1 hr prior to intercourse

As above

As above

Common Presenting Problems

FM30 Family Medicine

Toronto Notes 2010

Fatigue Fatigue Red Flags Fever Weight loss Night sweats Neuro deficits III-appearing

Epidemiology • 25% of office visits to family physicians • peaks in ages 20-40 • women 3-4x > men • 50% have associated psychological complaints / problems, especially if 210 or dBP >120 with minimal or no target-organ damage • hypertensive emergency • high BP + acute target-organ damage

Toronto Notes 2010

Family Medicine FM35

Common Presenting Problems

Etiology • essential (primary) hypertension (>90%) • undetermined cause • secondary hypertension (10%) • watch for labile, "white coat" hypertension (office-induced elevated BP) Predisposing Factors • family history • obesity (especially abdominal) • alcohol consumption • stress • sedentary lifestyle • smoking • male gender • age >30 • excessive salt intake / fatty diet • African American ancestry • dyslipidemia

Hypertensive Emergencies 1. Accelerated malignant HTN with papilledema

2.

Hypertensive encephalopathy CVA with severe hypertension Intracerebral hemorrhage SAH

3. Cardiac:

Acute aortic dissection Acute refractory LV failure Acute MI with persistent ischemic pain after CABG 4. Renal:

5.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

Common cause

Renal

Renovascular HTN Renal parenchymal disease, glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, polycystic kidney

Endocrine

10 hyperaldosteronism Pheochromocytoma Cushing's syndrome Hyperthyroidism/hyperparathyroidism Hypercalcemia of any cause

Vascular

Coarctation of the aorta Renal artery stenosis

Drug-induced

Estrogens MADIs Cocaine

Steroids Lithium Amphetamines

9. Severe epistaxsis

NSAIDs Decongestants Alcohol

• HTN VISIT 1: measure BP, history and physical



6. Eclampsia 7. Surgical:

8. HTN following severe bums

Diagnosis



Excessive circulating catecholamines:

Severe HTN prior to emergent surgery Severe post-op HTN Post-op bleeding from vascular suture lines

Investigations • for all patients with hypertension (D) • CBC, electrolytes, Cr, fasting glucose and lipid profile, 12-lead ECG, urinalysis • for specific patient subgroups (D) • DM or renal disease: urinary protein excretion • increasing Cr or history of renal disease or proteinuria: renal ultrasound, captopril renal scan (B) • if suspected endocrine cause: plasma aldosterone, plasma renin • if suspected pheochromocytoma: 24h urine for metanephrines and creatinine (C) • echocardiogram for left ventricular dysfunction assessment if indicated (C)



Acute glomerulonephritis Renal crises from collagen vascular diseases Severe hypertension following renal transplantation Pheochromocytoma Tyramine containing foods or drug interactions with MAOIs Sympathomimetic drug use (e.g. cocaine) Rebound HTN after cessation of anti-hypertensive drugs (e.g. clonidine)

Table 30. Causes of Secondary Hypertension



Cerebrovascular:

• if hypertensive urgency / emergency � diagnosis of HTN + immediate management (D) (see Emergency Medicine, ER37) • if sBP �140 and / or dBP �90 � avg next 2 BP measurements and if still high � VISIT 2 • if sBP �130-139 and / or dBP �85-89 � annual follow-up (C) • order diagnostic tests now or at VISIT 2: see Investigations above VISIT 2: within 1 month: if BP �180 / 110 OR BP 140-179 / 90-109 with target organ damage, DM, or chronic kidney disease � diagnosis of HTN • if BP 140-179 / 90-109 � VISIT 3 or ambulatory BP monitoring (BPM) or home BP monitoring VISIT 3: if sBP �160 or dBP �100 for 3-visit avg � diagnosis of HTN (D) • if BP3 drugs) accelerated or malignant hypertension

• suspicious clinical situation

paroxysmal headache, palpitations and diaphoresis (pheochromocytoma) renal b ruits (renovascul ar hypertension) • hypokalemia and hypernatremia (hyperaldosteronism) • if no HTN diagnosis at last visit -+ annual follow-up •



The Effects of Lijestyle Modification on Diet Weight, Physical F�ness and Blood Pressure Control. IS-month Follow.up Results from the PREMIER Collaborative Research Group

Ann Intern Med. 2006 Apr 4;144111:127

Purpose: To compare effects 01 2 I�estyle modffication interventions compared to advice only on hypertension status, blood pressure, and lifestyle changes. Study: Multicentre, random�ed tnal. Patients: 810 adutts with prehypertension or stage 1 hypertension IsBP 1 20-159, dBP 80-95) Interventions: Multicomponent behavioural intervention using established recommendations ("established") ann, established recommendations plus the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension IDASH) diet I"established + DASH") ann, and advice only arm. Main outcomes: lifestyle status and blood pressure. Results: At 1 8 months, absolute blood pressures were reduced for both intervention anns compared to advice only but differences were non-significant. The odds for hypertension at 18 months were reduced for both treatment arms compared to advice only. Statistically sign�icant weight loss, fat intake and sodium intake were noted for both treatment anns.

Treatment • target BP is 60)

.... , � �}-------,

.�'

with nephropathy (urinary albumin ,,30 mg/d) Diabetes Mellitus

Family Medicine FM37

Common Presenting Problems

Toronto Notes 2010

(BP > 1 69/90) nifedipine

�·blockers Labetolol Nifedipine

=

If > 3 cardiovascular RFs Statin, ASA or established atherosclerotic disease

ACEI �·blockers not recommended as first line treatment

labetolol, Caution with use of ASA in patients with uncontrolled BP

ISA = intrinsic sympathomimetic activity, ARB = angiotensin II receptor blockers, ACEI = angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor Adapted from: McAlister FA, Zarnke KB, Campbell NRC, et al. 12002). The 2001 Canadian recommendations forthe management of hypertension: Part two Therapy. Can J Cardiol, 1816):625·641. AND The 2009 Canadian Hypertension Education Program Recommendations.

Low Back Pain • see Orthopaedics, OR22

Definition • acute: 12 weeks Epidemiology • 5th most common reason for visiting a physician • lifetime prevalence: 90% • peak prevalence: age 45-60 • largest WSIB category • most common cause of chronic disability for persons 15 apneic episodes per hour of sleep with arousal recorded • consequences • daytime somnolence, nonrestorative sleep • poor social and work performance • mood changes: anxiety, irritability, depression • sexual dysfunction: poor libido, impotence • morning headache (due to hypercapnia) • HTN (2x increased risk), CAD (3x increased risk), stroke (4x increased risk), arrhythmias • pulmonary hypertension, RV dysfunction, cor pulmonale (due to chronic hypoxemia) • memory loss, decreased concentration, confusion =

..... ' , ��------, Risk Factors • 2% women, 4% men between ages 30·60 • Obesity causing upper airway narrowing: BMI > 28 kg/m' present in 60·90% of cases • Children: commonly tonsils, adenoids • Aging which causes decreased muscle tone • Persistent URTls, allergies, nasal tumours, hypothyroidism (due to macroglossia) • FHx

Common Presenting Problems

FM46 Family Medicine

Toronto Notes 2010

• investigations

blood gas not helpful, TSH if clinically indicated evaluate BP, inspect nose, oropharynx (i.e. for enlarged adenoids or tonsils) • nocturnal polysomnography (sleep lab) • treatment • modifying factors: avoid sleeping supine, lose weight, avoid alcohol, sedatives, narcotics, inhaled steroids if nasal swelling present • primary treatment of OSA is CPAP; maintains patent airway in 95% of OSA cases • dental appliances to modify mandibular position • surgery: somnoplasty, tonsillectomy & adenoidectomy (in children), uvulopalatopharyngoplasty (UPPP) • report patient to Ministry of Transportation if OSA is not controlled by CPAP • •

• central sleep apnea

• definition

brain fails to send appropriate signals to the breathing muscles to initiate respirations • defining feature is absent respiratory effort • often secondary to CNS diseases: brainstem infarction, infection, neuromuscular disease • investigations: PFTs, nocturnal polysomnography, MRI • treatment: CPAP or mechanical ventilation (if brainstem origin) • prognosis: poor •

Social Phobia • see Psychiatry, PS14

Definition • a marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others Epidemiology • lifetime prevalence rate of up to 16%; F:M = 1.5:1 • often begins in early childhood and adolescence • can lead to significant psychiatric comorbidity including depression, other anxiety disorders, alcohol and substance abuse and eating disorders • is often under-recognized and under-treated by family practitioners History • fear of being humiliated or embarassed in one or more social or performance situations • commonly feared situations include public speaking, eating, drinking, writing in front of others, using public restrooms, speaking on the telephone and social gatherings • the fear is recognized as excessive or unreasonable • the avoidance, anticipation and distress of the social situation interferes significantly with social and occupational functioning • can often present with somatic complaints of insomnia, fatigue, palpitations, chest pain, shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling hands, sweating, blushing and GI complaints Physical • presenting with symptoms of hyperhidrosis, tremor, blushing, stuttering, hypertension and tachycardia • thorough mental status examination Management • cognitive behavioural therapy • exposure therapy, cognitive restructuring and social skills training to decrease anxiety and weaken the tendency to avoid social situations • exposure therapy is the most firmly established therapeutic maneuver • drug therapy • effective treatments include SSRIs, MAOIs and anxiolytics; no TCAs • SSRIs are becoming the new drugs of choice because of effectiveness and lack of significant negative side effects • beta-blocker or benzodiazepine in acute social situations

Toronto Notes 2010

Common Presenting Problems

Family Medicine FM47

Sore Throat (Pharyngitis) Definition • acute pharyngitis is an inflammation of the oropharynx • may be caused by a wide range of infectious organisms, most of which produce a self-limited infection with no significant sequelae Etiology • viral • adenovirus, rhinovirus, influenza virus, RSY, EBY, coxsackie virus, herpes simplex virus, CMY, HIV • bacterial • group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus (GABHS) • group C and G beta-hemolytic Streptococcus, Neisseria gonorrheae, Chlamydia

pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae Epidemiology • viral • most common cause, occurs year round • bacterial • Group A beta-hemolytic Streptococcus • most common bacterial cause • 5-15% of adult cases and up to 50% of all pediatric cases of acute pharyngitis • most prevalent between 5-17 years old • occurs most often in winter months Clinical Features • viral • pharyngitis, conjunctivitis, rhinorrhea, hoarseness, cough • nonspecific flu-like symptoms such as fever, malaise, and myalgia • often mimics bacterial infection • coxsackie virus (hand, foot and mouth disease) • primarily late summer, early fall • sudden onset of fever, pharyngitis, headache, abdominal pain and vomiting • appearance of small vesicles that rupture and ulcerate on soft palate, tonsils, pharynx • ulcers are pale gray, several mm in diameter, have surrounding erythema, may appear on hands and feet • herpes simplex virus • like coxsackie virus but ulcers are fewer and larger • EBV (infectious mononucleosis) • pharyngitis, tonsillar exudate, fever, lymphadenopathy, fatigue, rash • bacterial • symptoms: sore throat, absence of cough, fever, malaise, headache, abdominal pain • signs: fever, tonsillar or pharyngeal erythema l exudate, swollen/ tender anterior cervical nodes • complications • rheumatic fever • glomerulonephritis • suppurative complications (abscess, sinusitis, otitis media, pneumonia, cervical adenitis) • meningitis • impetigo Investigations • suspected GABHS • see Table 34 for approach to diagnosis and management of GABHS • gold standard for diagnosis is throat culture • rapid test for streptococcal antigen: high specificity (95%), low sensitivity (50-90%) • if rapid test positive, treat patient • if rapid test negative, take culture and call patient if culture positive to start antibiotics • suspected EBV (infectious mononucleosis) • peripheral blood smear, heterophile antibody test (i.e. the latex agglutination assay, or "monospot")

Seven Danger Signs in Patients with "Sore Throat" 1 . Persistence of symptoms longer than 1 week without improvement 2. Respiratory difficulty, particularly stridor 3. Difficulty in handling secretions (peritonsillar abscess) 4. Difficulty in swallowing (Ludwig's angina) 5. Severe pain in the absence of erythema (supraglottitis/epiglottitis) 6. A palpable mass (neoplasm) 7. Blood in the pharynx or ear (trauma)

FM48 Family Medicine

Toronto Notes 2010

Common Presenting Problems/Complementary and Alternative Medicine Table 34. Sore Throat Score: Approach to Diagnosis and Management of GABHS

Cough absent? �� cl � >� Tonsillar exudate? Swollen, tender anterior nodes? Age 3-1 4 years? Age 1 5-44 years? Age >45 years? In communities with moderate levels of strep infection (1 0-20% of sore throatsl: Score 0 1 2 Chance patient has strep Suggested action

2-3% 3-7% NO culture or antibiotic

POINTS 1 1 1 1 1 0 -1 3

8-16% 1 9-34% Culture all, treat only if culture is positive

4

41-61% Culture all, treat with antibiotics on clinical grounds'

'Clinical grounds include a high fever or other indicators that the patient is clinically unwell and is presenting early in the course of the illness. limitations: 'This score is not applicable to patients less than 3 years of age. 'If an outbreak or epidemic of illness caused by GAS is occuring in any community, the score is invalid and should not be used. Adapted from: Centor RM et al ( 1 98 1 ). Med Decis Making. I: 239-46. Mclssac WI, White D, Tannenbaum D, Low DE (1 998). CMAJ. 1 58(1 ):75-83.

Management • GABH5 • see Table 34 • no increased incidence of rheumatic fever with 48-hour delay in treatment • incidence of glomerulonephritis is not decreased with antibiotic treatment • antibiotic treatment: see Antimicrobial Quick Reference, FM51 • routine follow-up and / or post-treatment throat cultures are not required for most patients • follow-up throat culture recommended only for: patients with history of rheumatic fever, patients whose family member has history of acute rheumatic fever, suspected strep carrier • viral pharyngitis • antibiotics NOT indicated • symptomatic therapy: acetaminophen/ N5AIDs for fever and muscle aches, decongestants • infectious mononucleosis (EBV) • antibiotics NOT indicated; administering ampicillin produces rash • self-limiting course; rest during acute phase is beneficial • if acute airway obstruction give corticosteroids, consult ENT • supportive care, i.e. acetaminophen or N5AID5 for fever, sore throat, malaise • avoid heavy physical activity and contact sports for at least one month or until splenomegaly resolves because risk of splenic rupture

Com plementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Epidemiology • 50-75% of Canadians report some use of CAM over their lifetime, and only half will disclose this use to their physician • use is highest in Western provinces, lowest in Atlantic provinces • more likely to be used by younger patients, those with higher education and income • examples: chiropractic, acupuncture, massage, naturopathy, homeopathy, traditional Chinese medicine, craniosacral therapy, osteopathy • most commonly used for: back /neck problems, gynecological problems, anxiety, headaches, digestive problems and chronic fatigue syndromes Herbal Products • over 50% of Canadians use natural health products • most commonly used include echinacea, ginseng, ginkgo, garlic, 5t John's Wort, and soy • relatively few herbal products have been shown to be effective in clinical trials • many patients believe herbal products are inherently safe and are unaware of potential side effects and interactions with conventional medicines • all natural health products (NHPs) must be regulated under The Natural Health Products Regulations as of January 1, 2004, including herbal remedies, homeopathic medicines, vitamins, minerals, traditional medicines, probiotics, amino acids and essential fatty acids (such as omega-3) • always ask patients whether they are taking any herbal product, herbal supplement or other natural remedy. Further questions may include: • Are you taking any prescription or non-prescription medications for the same purpose as the herbal product?

Toronto Notes 2010

Complementary and Alternative Medicine/Primary Care Models

• Are you allergic to any plant products? • Are you pregnant or breast-feeding?

St. John's Wort for Depression

• information resources: National Centre for CAM (www.nccam.nih.gov), Health Canada

website

Table 35. Common Herbal Products Common Name

Reported Uses

Possible Adverse Effects

Possible Drug Interactions

Black cohosh

Menopausal symptoms, PMS, labour induction, arthritis

Hepatitis, liver failure, headaches, GI discomfort, heaviness in legs, weight problems

None reported

Chamomile

Mild sedative, anxiolytic, GI complaints, common cold

Allergic/contact dermatitis, anaphylaxis

Anxiolytics, sedatives

Echinacea

Common cold, flu, wound treatment, urinary tract infections, cancer

Hypersensitivity, hepatotoxicity with prolonged use, avoid use if immunosuppressed

Potentiates warfarin

Evening primrose Dysmenorrhea, menopausal sx, inflammation, allergies, eczema, arthritis, MS

Headache, restlessness, nausea, diarrhea, may decrease seizure threshold

Anticoagulants, antiplatelets

Feverfew

Migraine prevention, rheumatoid arthritis, anti-inflammatory

Edginess, upset stomach, skin rash, miscarriage

Anticoagulants, antiplatelets

Flaxseed oil

Laxative, menopausal sx, source of omega-3 fatty acids

Diarrhea

Do not take with other medications as fibre content can bind drugs

Garlic

Elevated lipids, hypertension, hyperglycemia, antimicrobial

GI irritation, contact dermatitis, may increase post-op bleeding

Anticoagulants, potentiates antihypertensives

Ginger

Nausea, motion sickness, dyspepsia, anti-inflammatory

Heartburn, not to be used for morning sickness

None known

Ginkgo biloba

Increases peripheral circulation (AD, dementia, intermittent claudication), premenstrual syndrome, vertigo

Headache, cramping, bleeding, mild digestive problems; reports of intracranial hemorrhage

Anticoagulants, thiazide diuretics, MAO inhibitors

Ginseng

Energy enhancer, decreases stress, adjunct support for chemotherapy/ radiation

Hypertension, nervousness, insomnia, breakthrough bleeding, palpitations

Stimulant medications, antihypertensives, hormonal therapies

Glucosamine (Chondroitin)

Osteoarthritis

GI distress, headache, drowsiness, palpitations

Caution if shellfish allergy

Saw palmetto

BPH, adjunct to finasteride

Mild GI distress

Alpha-adrenergics, finasteride

St. John's Wort

Mild to moderate depression

Photosensitivity, increased liver enzymes, drowsiness, dizziness, nausea, headaches

CNS depressants, C/I with indinavir

Valerian root

Sedative, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant, PMS

Drowsiness, headache, digestive problems, paradoxical insomnia

CNS depressants, antihistamines

References: Zink T, Chaffin J 11 9981. Herbal " health" products: What family physicians need to know, American Family Physician 58151: 1 1 33-1 1 40.; NIH National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine website Ihttp://nccam.nih.gov/)

Pri mary Care Models Table 36. Primary Care Models Characteristics Comprehensive Care Model



Model for GPs in solo practice with limited after-hours availability

Family Health Team



Groups of health care professionals (e.g. GPs, RNs, NPs, dieticians, social workers) Wider range of services (e.g. rehabilitation, palliative care), with increased after-hours availability Receives provincial funding for allied health

• •

Family Medicine FM49



Family Health Group

Group of .,3 GPs, with some after-hours availability as well as on-call to telephone health advisory services • Payment model: fee-for-service plus premiums

Family Health Network



Family Health Organization



Group of at least 3 GPs; can utilize nurse practitioners, with telephone health advisory services to provide around the clock primary care coverage • Payment model: salary-based Groups of GPs working with allied health, with after-hours clinics and Z4h telephone health advisory services • Payment model: fee-for-service plus premiums

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006; Issue 3 A meta·analysis of 37 trials, including 26 which compared St. John's Wort with placebo and 14 which compared St. John's Wort with standard antidepressants. The main outcome measure was the ratio of responders to non·responders, and the main outcome measure for adverse effects was the number of patients dropping out due to adverse experiences. Signrricant heterogeneity was noted among placebo·controlled trials, but trio als were statistically homogeneous for trials com· paring St. John's Wort with antidepressants. For major depression, compared with placebo, the OR for 6 larger trials was 1.15 and 5 smaller trials, 2.06. Compared with SSRls and tricyclics, the response rates were 0.98 and 1 .03, respectively. Fewer patients on St. John's Wort dropped out due to adverse effects compared to those taking tricyclics lOR 0.25), and a similar but non·signifi· cant trend was seen when compared with SSRls lOR 0.60). Drawing solid conclusions is difficult given the degree of study heterogeneity and num· ber of conflicting studies.

FMSO Family Medicine

Toronto Notes 2010

Antimicrobial Quick Reference

Anti m icrobial Quick Reference * Microorganisms

Antimicrobial

Acute Rhinitis (common cold)

Viral: Rhinovirus, Adenovirus, RSV, Influenza etc.

None

Pharyngitis (sore throat)

Viral: Adenovirus, Rhinovirus

None

Strep Pharyngitis

Group A beta-Hemolytic Strep

Pediatric:

Condition RESPIRATORY/ENT

pen V 25-50 mg/kg/d PO div. q6h x 1 0d amoxlclav 45 mg/kg/d PO div. q 1 2h x 1 0d clarithromycin 15 mg/kg/d PO div. bid x l Od azithromycin 12 mg/kg/d PO x 5d Adults:

pen V 500mg PO bid or 250 mg qid x 1 0d cefuroxime 250 mg PO bid x 4d clarithromycin 250 mg PO bid x 1 0d azithromycin 500 mg PO once, then 250 mg daily x4d Penicillin allergy: erythromycin Sinusitis

S. pneumoniae H. influenzae M. catarrhalis Grp A Strep

1 st line: amoxicillin 1 9 PO tid x 1 0d (If penicillin allergy: TMP/SMX DS 1 tab PO bid) 2nd line: amoxlclavulin 2000/1 25 mg PO bid x 1 0d 3rd line: clarithromycin XL 1 000 mg PO OD x l Od

Anaerobes S. Aureus

Acute Otitis Media

Viral S. pneumoniae H. influenzae M. catarrhalis

Treat if under 24 months old for 7d. If > 24 months old, treat if worsens after 48-72h < 10 y.o.: 1 st line: amoxicillin 40 mg/kg/d PO div. tid x 5d 2nd line: increased dose to 80-90 mg/kg/d (max dose 1 500 mg/d) x 3d 3rd line: macrolides > l Oy.o.: amoxicillin 500 mg PO tid x 7-lOd penicillin allergy: cefuroxime, azithromycin, clarithromycin =

Otitis Externa

Pseudomonas S. aureus

Fungal

Bronchitis

Diabetic: ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO bid x 1 4d Non-diabetic: 1 st line: Buro-sol'" 2-3 drops tid 2nd line: Cortisporin '" otic solution 4 drops tid

Viral: Rhinovirus, Coronavirus, Adenovirus, Abx not recommended for acute bronchitis RSV, Influenza, Parainfluenza S. pneumoniae H. influenzae M. pneumoniae C. pneumoniae

Community Acquired Pneumonia

Susceptible to beta-Iactams: S. pneumoniae H. influenzae S. aureus

Not susceptible to beta-Iactams: Mycoplasma Chlamydia pneumoniae Legionella pneumoniae

Dental Infections! Oral Flora Periapical and Periodontal Abscesses

Adult dosing (no respiratory comorbidities): erythromycin 500 mg PO qid x 7 -1 Od clarithromycin 250-500 mg PO bid x 7-1 Od azithromycin 500 mg PO 1 st dose then 250 mg PO OD x 4d doxycycline 200 mg PO 1 st dose then 1 00 mg PO bid x 7-10d Pen V potassium 500 mg PO qid x 7-lOd clindamycin 300 mg PO qid x 7 -1 Od

Antimicrobial Quick Reference

Toronto Notes 2010

Condition GASTROENTEROLOGY Diarrhea · Enteritis

Microorganisms

Antimicrobial

Shigella Salmonella Campylobacter E. coli Yersinia

Abx if severe, treat according to specific organism isolated.

C. difficile Diarrhea · post abx (common with clindamycin)

Add metronidazole 500 mg PO tid x 1 0-1 4d or vancomycin 1 25mg PO qid

Peptic Ulcer Disease (non·NSAIO related)

H. pylori

HP-PAC (7 blister card pack): lansoprazole 30 mg PO bid + clarithromycin 500 mg PO bid + amoxicillin 1 9 PO bid x 7d Penicillin allergy: metronidazole 500 mg PO bid + clarithromycin 250 mg PO bid + omeprazole 20 mg PO bid x 7-14d

UTI/Cystitis

Klebsiella E. coli Enterobacter Enterococci Proteus S. saprophyticus

< 20% E. coli resistance to TMP-SMX: TMP-SMX 1 OS tablet PO bid x 3d > 20% E. coli resistance to TMP-SMX: ciprofloxacin 250mg PO bid or cipro ER 500mg daily x3d Nitrofurantoin (Macrobid'") l 00 mg PO bid x 5d if su�a allergy Pregnancy: amoxicillin 250 -500 mg PO tid x 7d N.B. nitrofurantoin is contraindicated in pregnancy after 38 wks

Vaginal CandidiasislYeast

Candida

fluconazole 1 50 mg PO single dose miconazole 2% vag. cream Monistat 7 '": One applicator (5g) intravag. qhs x 7d

GENITOURINARY

=

Uce: Head and Pubic (Crabs)

Pediculosis humanus capitis Phthirus pubis

permethrin cream 1 %: apply as liquid on to washed hair for 1 Omin, then rinse. Repeat in 1 wk. M: 60 9 tube

Gonorrhea/Chlamydia

N. gonorrheae C. trachomatis

cefixime 400 mg PO single dose + azithromycin 1 9 PO single dose or doxycycline 1 00 mg PO bid x 7d

Herpes

Herpes simplex virus

acyclovir 400 mg PO tid x 7 -1 Od valacyclovir 1 9 PO bid x 1 Od famciclovir 250 mg PO tid x5d

Unclear, associated with:

metronidazole 500 mg PO bid x 7d metronidazole gel 1 applicator intravag. daily x 5d

Bacterial Vaginosis

Gardnerella vaginalis Mycoplasma hominis Prevotella sp. Atopobium vaginae

DERMATOLOGIC Mastitis

S. aureus S. pyogenes

cloxacillin 500 mg PO qid x 7d cephalexin 500 mg PO qid x 7d

Tinea CrurislPedis (Jock Itch/Athlete's Foot)

Trichophyton

clotrimazole 1 % cream - apply bid ketoconazole 2% cream - apply bid

Beta-Hemolytic Strep sp.

1 st line: cephalexin 500 mg PO q6h x 1 0-14d 2nd line: cloxacillin 500 mg PO q6h x 1 0- 1 4d or clindamycin 300 mg PO q6-8h x 1 0-1 4d, total < 1 .8 gld

Cellulitis (uncomplicated)

Staphylococcus

OPHTHALMOLOGY Conjunctivitis (viral)

Adenovirus

None Note: very contagious

Conjunctivitis (bacterial)

S. aureus S. pneumoniae E. Coli H. influenzae

sulfacetamide: 1 -2 gtts q2-6h x 7-10d gentamicin: 1 -2 gtts q4h x 7 -1 Od erythromycin ointment: apply to lid margins bid-qid, M: 3.5 9 tube

Etiology unclear

erythromycin ophthalmic ointment: of no proven benefit if associated with rosacea: doxycycline 1 00 mg PO bid x 1 4d

Blepharitis

S. aureus S. epidermidis

'All doses are adult doses unless otherwise specified 'This chart is not all·encompassing and is non·inclusive of special exceptions li.e. pregnancy, poor renal clearance etc)

Family Medicine FM51

References

FM52 Family Medicine

Toronto Notes 2010

References Abuse

Fogarty CT. Burge S, McCord E. Communicating with patients about intimate partner violence: screening and interviewing approaches. Fam Med 2002; 34(51: 369-75. National Center on Elder Abuse at the American Public Human Services Association. National Elder Abuse Incidence Study: http://Www.aoa.gov/eldfarn/Elder_RightsJElder_Abuse/AbuseReport}ull.pdf Wathen CN, MacMillan HL. Interventions for violence against women. JAMA 2003;289(51:589-99. Diabetes

Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee. Canadian Diabetes Association 2008 clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and man­ agement of diabetes in Canada. Can J Diabetes. 2008;32(suppI 1 I:S56. Nield L et al. Dietary advice for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus in aduns. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007; Issue 3. Norris SL et al. Long-term non-pharmacological weight loss interventions for adults with pre-diabetes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006; Issue 3. Saenz A et al. Metlormin monotherapy fortype 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005; issue 3. Diet and Obesity

Calle E, Thun MJ, Petrelli JM, et al. Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of US adults. N Eng J Med 1999;341 (1 51:1 097-11 05. Canada's Food Guide to Healthy Eating. Health Canada. Last updated 2007. 2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children [summaryJ. CMAJ 10-Apr-07; 176(81: SI-SI3. Classification of Overweight and Obesity by BMI, Waist Circumference, and Associated Disease Risks, National Institute of Health, National Heart Lung and Blood Institute, Obesity Education Initiative. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/heanh/publiClheart/obesity�ose wt;bmi dis.htm. Dansinger ML et al. 2005. Comparison of the Atkins, Omish, Weight Watchers, and Zone dietsforweight loss and heart disease risk reduction. JAMA, Jan 2005 vol 293(1 1: 43-53. Health Canada. Canada's Food Guide to Heanhy Eating. Last updated 2005-06-07. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-arVtood-guide-aliment!fg-rainbow-arc en cie ga e.html. - - - Health Canada. Canada's Physical Activity Guide to Healthy Active Living. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hppb/paguide/main.htrnl. Krauss RM, et al. 2000. AHA Dietary Guidelines. Revision 2000: A statement for healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the American Heart Association. Stroke: 31 : 2751-66. Litchtenstein AH, et al. Diet and Irrestyle recommendations revision 2006: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation 2006;1 1 4:82-96. Dyslipidemia, Hypertension and Heart Disease

Canadian Hypertension Education Program. 2009 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations - an annual update. Can Fam Physician 2009; 55(71:697-700. Genest J, Frohlich J, Fodor G. Recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease: summary of the 2003 update. CMAJ 2003; 169(91:921-924. McPherson R et al. Canadian Cardiovascular Society position statement - Rewmmendations for the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidemia and prevention of cardiovascu­ lar disease. Can J Cardiol 2006; 22( 1 1 1:91 3-927. Ontario Drug Therapy Guidelines for Stable Ischemic Heart Disease in Primary Care (20001. Ontario Program for Optimal Therapeutics. Toronto: Queen's Printer of Ontario, pp. 10. Lichtenstein AH, et al. (20061. Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: A scientrric statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation, 1 1 4: 82-96. Recommendations for the management of dyslipidemia and the prevention of cardiovascular disease: Summary of the 2003 update. Reprinted from CMAJ 28 October 2003; 169(11: 921-924 Smoking

Cahill K, et al. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008; Issue 3. Health Canada. Canadian Tobacco Use Monitoring Survey (CTUMSI. Annual Results 2008. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/tobac-tabac/research-recherche/stat/ctums­ esutc 2008-eng.php Hughes JR et al. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007; Issue1. Lancaster T et al. Physician advice for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004; Issue 4. Shroeder SA. What to do with a patient who smoked. JAMA 2005; 294(41: 482-7. Silagy C et al. Nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004; Issue 3. Other

Bagai A, et al. Does this patient have hearing impairment? JAMA 2006;295:416-428. Beck E, Sieber WJ, Trejo R. Management of cluster headaches. Am Fam Physician 2005; 71 (41: 71 7-24. Brown JP, Josse RG. 2002 clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in Canada. CMAJ 2002;1 67:S1-S34. Burge SK, Schneider FD. Alcohol-related problems: recognition and intervention. Am Fam Phys 1999;59(21:361-70, 372. Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. The Canadian Guide to Clinical Preventive Health Care. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada and http://Www.ctlphc.org. Centor RM et al. (19811. The diagnosis of strep throat in adults in the emergency room. Med Decis Making. 1 : 239-46. Cheung AM, Feig OS, Kapral M, et al. Prevention of osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures in post-menopausal women: Recommendation statement from the Canadian Task Force on Preventative Health Care. CMAJ 2004;1 70(1 1 1:1 665-7. Comuz J, Guessous I, Farrat B. Fatigue: a practical approach to diagnosis in primary care. CMAJ 2006; 1 74(61: 765-7. David AK, et al. Family Medicine: Principles and Practice, 6th ed. New York: Springer-Verlag Inc. 2003. Domino FJ et al. The 5-Minute Clinical Consun 2010, 18th Ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2009. Ebell MH. Evidence-based diagnosis: a handbook of clinical prediction rules. Springer, 2001. Ebell MH. Treating adult women with suspected UTI. Am Fam Physician 2006; 73(21: 293-6. Evans M. Mosby's Family Practice Sourcebook: An Evidence Based Approach to Care, 4th ed., Elsevier Canada, 2006 Evans M, Bradwejn J, Dunn L (Edsl. Guidelines forthe Treatment of Anxiety Disorders in Primary Care. Toronto: Queen's Printer of Ontario. 2002: 41. Fauci AS et al. Harrison's Principles of Intemal Medicine, 1 7th Ed. McGraw-Hili Professional, 2008. Furlan, AD, et al. Acupuncture and dry-needling for low back pain. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005; Issue 1 . Health Canada. A n advisory committee statement: National Advisory Committee o n Immunization - prevention of pertussis i n adolescents and adults. Canada communica­ ble disease report 2003; 29:ACS-5, 6. Gilbert DN et al. The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy, 39th Ed .. Spenryville, VA: Antimicrobial Therapy, Inc. 2009. Health Canada. Natural Health Products Directorate 2004. http:// www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpfb-dgpsa/nhpd-dpsrV. Holbrook AM (Chairl for Ontario Musculoskeletal Therapy Review Panel. Ontario Treatment Guidelines for Osteoarthritis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Acute, Musculoskeletal Injury. Toronto; Queen's Printer of Ontario, 2000:13-24. Hueston WJ, Mainous AG. Acute bronchitis. Am Fam Phys 1 998;57:1 270-9. Hunt P (2001 I. Motivating Change. Nursing Standard, 16(21: 45-52, 54-55. Linde K, et al. Echinacea for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrance Database of Systemic Reviews 2006, Issue 1 . Low DE, Desrosiers M, McSherry J et al. A practical guide for the diagnosis and treatment of acute sinusitis. CMAJ 1997; 156: 1 S. Marshali liR. Zinc for the common cold. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2006, Issue 3. Mcisaac WJ, White 0, Tannenbaum D, Low DE (1 9981. A clinical score to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use in patients with sore throat. CMAJ. 158(11:75-83 . Mosby's Fami� Practice Sourcebook: An Evidence Based Approach to Care, edited by Dr M. Evans, 4th ed., Elsevier Canada, 2006: 343-345.

Toronto Notes 2010

References

National Institutes of Health. Herbs at a glance: black cohosh. National Center for Complementary and Attemative Medicine. 2008. http://nccam.nih.goV/healtMllackcohosll'ataglance.htm Accessed August 23, 2009. Osteoporosis Canada. Calcium requirements. 2009. http://www.osteoporosis.ca/ndex.php/cii idi5535�a id/l .htm Accessed August 23, 2009. Rowe T et al. Canadian consensus guidelines on Human Papillomavirus - SOGC clinical practCe guidelines. JOGC 2007; 2918): Supplement 3. St. Michael's Hospital. Fasting blood tests - diagnostic laboratories. http://www.stmichaelshospital.com/programS/1abS/1asting.php Accessed August 23, 2009. Swinson RP et al. Clinical practice guidelines: management of anxiety disorders. Canadian Joumal of Psychiatry 2006: 51, Supplement 2. Toward Optimized Practice Program. Guideline for the diagnosis and management of community acquired pneumonia: adult. 2002 12008 update). Toward Optimized Practice Program. Guideline for the diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. 1999 12008 update). Toward Optimized Practice Program. Guideline for the diagnosis and management of acute pharyngitis. 1999 12008 update). Toward Optimized Practice Program. Guideline for the management of acute bronchitis. 2000 12008 update). Toward Optimized Practice Program. Guideline for the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection in adults. 2000 12009 update). Toward Optimized Practice Program. Use 01 PSA and the early diagnosis of prostate cancer. 2006 12009 update). Walsh PC et al. Campbell's Urology. 8th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co, 1 998. Wren BG. The benefits of oestrogen following menopause: why hormone replacement therapy should be offered to postmenopausal women. Med J Aust 2009; 19016):321-5. link T, Chaffin J. Herbal "health"products: What family physicians need to know, American Family Physician. 1 998. 5815):1 133-1 140. Wong T & Latham-Carmanico C. Canadian guidelines on sexually transmitted infections. Ottawa; Public Health Agency of Canada 2006 1reviewed 2008).

Family Medicine FM53

FM54 Family Medicine

vNoteg

Toronto Notes 2010

G

Gastroenterology Ashley Gilman, Rebecca Gurofsky and Courtney Jolliffe, chapter editors Ray Guo and Arnold Jacob, associate editors Shauna Dae-Phillips, EBM editor Dr. Gabor Kandel and Dr. Fred Saibil, staff editors

Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Complaints .

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NauseaNomiting Dysphagia Abdominal Distention Acute Abdominal Pa i n Chronic/Recu rrent Abdominal Pai n Acute Diarrhea Chronic Dia rrhea Constipation Dyspepsia Lower GI Bleed U pper G I Bleed

Anatomy Review

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Liver

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Overview of Gastroi ntesti nal Tract (G IT) Anatomy of Esophagus Anatomy of Stomach a n d Duodenum Anatomy of S m a l l and Large Bowel Anatomy of Liver Anatomy of B i l i a ry Tract Anatomy of Pa ncreas

Esophagus

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Dysphagia Odynophagia Dyspepsia Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease ( G E R D) Barrett's Esophagus Eosi nophilic Esophagitis Esophageal Motor Disorders Diverticula Benign Stricture Esophageal Cancer (see G e neral S u rgery. G S 1 4) Webs a n d Rings I nfectious Esophagitis

Stomach and Duodenu m

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Gastritis Gastric Acid Secretion Peptic U l cer Disease (PUD) H. pylori-I n d uced U lceration N SA I D - I n d uced U lceration Stress-I n d uced Ulceration Gastric Cancer (see General S u rgery. GS 1 7)

Small and Large Bowel

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Classification o f Dia rrhea Acute Diarrhea Travel ler's Diarrhea (see I nfectious Diseases, I D 1 7) Chronic Dia rrhea Mald igestion and Malabsorption Celiac Disease ( G l uten Enteropathy/Sprue) Bacterial Overgrowth I nflam matory Bowel Disease ( I BD) Crohn's Disease (CD) Ulcerative Colitis (UC) I rrita ble Bowel Syn d rome ( I BS)

Toronto Notes 2010

Constipation Upper Gastroi ntesti nal Bleeding Bleeding Peptic Ulcer Esophageal Va rices Mallory-Weiss Tea r Lower Gastroi ntestinal Bleeding Colorectal Cancer Colorectal Polyps Fa m i l i a l Colon Cancer Syndrome

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31

I nvestigations of Hepatobiliary Disease Hepatitis Fulminant Hepatic Fai l u re C h ronic Hepatitis Acute Viral Hepatitis Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) Hepatitis B Virus ( H BV) Hepatitis C Virus ( HCV) Chronic Hepatitis B + D Autoimmune Chronic Active Hepatitis Drug-Induced Liver Disease Wilson's Disease Hemochromatosis Alcoholic Liver Disease N on-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) Ci rrhosis Hepatoce l l u l a r Carcinoma (see General Surgery. G S4 1 ) Liver Tra nsplant (see General S u rgery, GS43) Porta l Hypertension Hepatic Encephalopathy Ascites

Biliary Tract

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Jaundice G i l bert's Syndrome Sclerosing Cholangitis Pri mary B i l iary Cirrhosis ( PBC) Secondary B i l iary C i rrhosis Ascen d i n g Cholangitis

Pancreas

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Pancreatic E nzyme Abnormalities Acute Pa ncreatitis C h ronic Pancreatitis .

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14 Clinical Nutrition

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Determination of N utritional Status Enteral N utrition (TE N ) Pa renteral N utrition (TPN)

Visualizing the GI Tract

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Common Medications

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Landmark Gastroenterology Trials References

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Gastroenterology G1

G2 Gastroenterology

Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Complaints

Toronto Notes 2010

Differentia l Diagnosis of Common Presenting Compla ints Table 1. Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Complaints NAUSEA! VOMITING

"' , ��------�

With Abdominal Pain Relieved by Vomiting Not Relieved by Vomiting

Without Abdominal Pain/Non-GI Headache/Diuiness No Other Symptoms

Gastric outlet obstruction Small bowel obstruction GERD

Cerebral tumour Migraine Vestibular Cerebellar hemorrhage

Gallbladder disease Pancreatitis Myocardial infarction Hepatitis

Commonly Forgotten Causes of Vomiting Drugs Uremia CNS Disease Pregnancy

�'

Differential Diagnosis of a Large/Bloated Abdomen 12 F's • • • • • • • •

Fat Feces Fetus Flatus Fluid Fatal Growth Full stomach Flabby muscles • Faking it/False pregnancy • Fibroids • "Feels like it" (IBS) • Combination of Factors

"' , ��-------, Acute Upper Abdominal Pain

Remember to consider "sounds from the attic" (chest) e.g. myocardial infarction, pneumonia, dissecting aneurysm.

Drugs Uremia Pregnancy Metabolic (e.g. hypercalcemia) Gastroparesis (e.g. diabetes) Ketoacidosis

DYSPHAGIA

Motility Mechanical Other Achalasia Foreign body Stricture/Esophagitis Cancer Diffuse esophageal spasm Extrinsic compression Scleroderma Schatzki ring/esophageal web Myasthenia gravis Zenker's diverticulum ABDOMINAL Fluid Flatulence Feces Other Portal HTN DISTENTION Normal Portal HTN Cancer esp. ovarian Cirrhosis Pregnancy Diet Constipation Pancreatitis Colonic obstruction Obesity Fibre Cardiac failure TB Hepatic vein Blood Lactose Gum (i.e. sorbitol, thrombosis Large tumours mannitol) LLG ACUTE Epigastric Generalized! RUG RLG LUG ABDOMINAL PAIN Periumbilical MI IBD Gastroenteritis Hepatitis Appendicitis PUD SBO IBO Pancreatitis Biliary colic Esophagitis Diverticulitis Splenic infarction Sigmoid volvulus Colonic obstruction Acute cholecystitis Ureteral stone Liver disease Mesenteric ischemia PUD Salpingitis Pyelonephritis Ureteral stone Pancreatic Pyelonephritis Ruptured corpus Salpingitis Peritonitis disease Abdominal aortic Ruptured corpus luteum cyst Ovarian torsion luteum cyst aneurysm Ruptured ectopic Sickle cell crisis Ruptured ectopic pregnancy pregnancy Perforation CHRONIC/RECURRENT Toxin ABDOMINAL PAIN Inflammatory NeoplasticNascular Other PUD Recurrent bowel obstruction Lead poisoning Mittleschmertz Mesenteric ischemia Biliary colic Endometriosis IBD Sickle cell anemia Porphyria IBS (functional) Chronic pancreatitis Radiculopathy Non-invasive ACUTE DIARRHEA Invasive Bacterial Bacterial Viral Salmonella enteritidis Staphylococcus aureus Rotavirus Campylobacter Norwalk B. cereus C. difficile C. perfringens Cytomegalovirus Vibrio cholerae E. coli (EHEC 01 57:Hll Shigella Salmonella typhi Yersinia

Protozoal Giardia lamblia

Protozoal E. histolytica (amebiasis) Strongyloides

CHRONIC DIARRHEA

Inflammatory (a) ORGANIC IBD Ischemic bowel

Secretory Stimulant laxatives Ileal resection (bile salts) Large, villous adenoma Zollinger-Ellison (ZE) Carcinoid Addison's disease VIPoma Cryptosporidiosis

(b) FUNCTIONAL IBS Constipation (overflow diarrhea) Anal sphincter dysfunction

Drugs Antibiotics Laxatives (Magnesium) Antacids Colchicine Many others Osmotic Steatorrhea Giardia lamblia Drugs/Laxatives Lactose intolerance Celiac sprue Gums (i.e. sorbitol, Chronic pancreatitis mannitol) Diabetes Mellitus

Toronto Notes 2010

Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Complaints/Anatomy Review

Table 1 . Differential Diagnosis of Common Presenting Complaints (continued) CONSTIPATION

DYSPEPSIA

UPPER GI BLEED

LOWER GI BLEED

GI

Systemic

Psychosocial

IBS Colon cancer Anorectal pathology Mechanical obstruction (e.g. neoplasm) Common Functional dyspepsia Drug side effect Peptic ulcer GERD

Electrolytes (K, Cal Hypothyroidism Scleroderma & other CTD Neurological diseases (e.g. MS, Parkinson's) Uncommon Angina Crohn's disease Cancer Gallstones Aerophagia Uncommon Tumours Arteriovenous malformation Dieulafoys lesion Gastric antral vascular ectasia

Drugs Voluntary retention Lifestyle/Diet Depression Long car tripslTraveVlnactivity Rare Giardia lamblia

Malabsorption (celiac sprue)

Common Ulcers (H. pylori, ASA, NSAIDS) Esophageal varices Mallory-Weiss tears Erosive esophagitis Erosive gastritis Hemorrhage Bleeding

Bloody Diarrhea

Rare

Diverticulosis Ischemic Post polypectomy Angiodysplasia

Colitis Infectious IBD Ischemic

Intussusception Vasculitides Stercoral Ulcer Coagulopathies

Hemorrhoids Angiodysplasia Post-polypectomy Fissures Polyps Cancer Ulcerative proctitis Radiation colitis

Rare Aorto-enteric fistulas Hemobilia

Anatomy Review Overview of Gastrointestinal Tract (G IT) • the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) runs from mouth to anus

Figure 1 . Overview of GIT

Gastroenterology G3

G4 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

Anatomy Review

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Celiac artery Common hepatic artery Hepatic proper Left hepatic artery Right hepatic artery Left gastric artery Right gastric artery Gastroduodenal artery

9. Splenic artery

1 0. 11. 1 2. 13. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8.

Superior mesenteric artery Middle colic artery Right colic artery Ileocolic artery Jejunal and Ileal branches Inferior mesenteric artery Left colic artery Sigmoid arteries Superior rectal artery

Figure 2. Arterial Supply of Gil Left gastric vein Portal vein

Right gastric vein

----+--'=----'�

:: �.;;�����.J_ Splenic vein --:;:;-;----t:':::����

Superior mesenteric vein

Middle colic vein

--fr�r:It�:""::�" intramural neuronal dysfunction -> distal esophageal muscle weakening -> aperistalsis and loss of LES tone -> reflux -> stricture -> dysphagia



Unknown

Chest x-ray: no air in stomach, with dilated esophagus • Barium studies: esophagus terminates in narrowing at the sphincter, giving a "bird's beak" appearance • Endoscopy to rio malignancy • Motility study for definitive diagnosis



Decreased pressure in LES Decreased peristalsis in body of esophagus



Barium x-ray: "Corkscrew pattern"





Etiology

• •



Pathophysiology



Diagnosis



Treatment

Dilatation of LES with balloon, ± GERD prophylaxis, 50% good response, can repeat, risk of perforation (5%) • Injection of botulinum toxin into LES (temporary) • Surgery (myomectomy)





Medical: aggressive GERD therapy (PPls bid) • Surgery: anti-reflux surgery (gastroplasty, last resort)



Reassurance not cardiac pain Medical: nitrates, calcium channel blockers, anticholinergics have variable benefit • Surgical: long esophageal myotomy if unresponsive to above treatment (rarely helpful); balloon dilatation •

Diverticula Defin ition • outpouchings of one or more layers of GI tract Clinical Features • commonly associated with motility disorders • dysphagia, regurgitation, retrosternal pain, intermittent vomiting, may be asymptomatic Classification • classified according to location • pharyngoesophageal (Zenker's) diverticulum • most frequent form of esopha geal diverticulum • posterior pharyngeal outpouching most often on the left side, above cricopharyngeal muscle and below the inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle • symptoms: dysphagia, regurgitation of undigested food, halitosis • treatment: endoscopic or surgical myotomy of cricopharyngeal muscle ± surgical excision of sac • mid-esophageal diverticulum • secondary to mediastinal inflammation, motor disorders • usually asymptomatic; no treatment required • just proximal to LES (pulsatile type) • usually associated with motor disorders • usually asymptomatic; no treatment required

Gastroenterology G9

G10 Gastroenterology

Esophagus/Stomach and Duodenum

Toronto Notes 2010

Benign Stricture • presents as intermittent or progressive dysphagia in face of reflux symptoms, but reflux

symptoms may disappear with progression

• diagnose with barium study or endoscopy

Treatment • endoscopic dilatation and indefinite PPI • anti-reflux surgery if above unsuccessful

Esophageal Cancer • see General Surgery, GS14

Webs and Rings • web = partial occlusion (upper esophagus) • ring = circumferential narrowing (lower esophagus)

Clinical Features • asymptomatic with lumen diameter >12 mm, provided peristalsis is normal • dysphagia with large food boluses • Plummer-Vinson or Patterson-Kelly syndrome • upper esophageal web with iron deficiency, plus cheilosis (dry scaling, and fissuring of the lips) and koilonychia (concave outer nail surface) • usually in middle aged females (>40 years) • elevated risk of hypopharyngeal carcinoma • Schatzki's ring • mucosal ring at squamo-columnar junction above a hiatus hernia • causes intermittent dysphagia with solids • treatment involves tearing ring with bougie

Infectious Esophagitis Definition • severe mucosal inflammation and ulceration as a result of viral or fungal infection Risk Factors • diabetes • malignancy (chemotherapeutic agents) • immunocompromised states Symptoms • odynophagia, dysphagia • diagnosis is via endoscopic visualization and biopsy Treatment • Candida (most common): nystatin swish and swallow, ketoconazole, fluconazole • Herpes (second most common): often self-limiting; acyclovir / vancyclovir / famciclovir • CMV: IV gancyclovir, famciclovir

Stomach and D uoden u m Gastritis Definition • condition rather than a disease • typically asymtompatic • histologic definition: inflammation of the stomach mucosa Etiology • most common causes (see Table 4) • Helicobacter pylori infection (erosive or non-erosive) • drugs: NSAIDs, EtOH

Toronto Notes 2010

Stomach and Duodenum

• physiological stress-related mucosal changes • other: atrophic, hypertrophic, granulomatous, lymphocytic, eosinophilic

• less common iniectious causes: TB, syphilis, CMV, fungal and parasitic iniections (all rare

Gastroenterology Gll

Table 4. Updated Sydney Classification of Gastritis Type

Common Etiology

• systemic diseases: e.g. sarcoidosis, Crohn's disease

Non atrophic

Helicobacter

Clinical Features • erosive: bleeding • non-erosive: asymptomatic (may present with upper GI symptoms e.g. nausea, early satiety)

Multifocal

Helicobacter

Lymphocytic

Celiac disease

Eosinophilic

Allergy

Management • determined by underlying etiology (see below)

Granulomatous

TB, syphilis, Crohn's disease, sarcoidosis

in North America)

Gastric Acid Secretion Stomach • chief function is mechanical grinding of food facilitating early enzymatic digestion into chyme and propulsion into duodenum • see Table 5 and Figure 6 for a summary of the gastric cell types and their products Table 5. Cells of the Gastric Mucosa Cell Type

Secretory Product

Important Notes

Parietal cells

Gastric acid (HCIl Intrinsic factor

Stimulated by histamine, ACh, gastrin Stimulated by vagal input and local acid

Chief cells

Pepsinogen

G-cells

Gastrin

Stimulates H+ production from parietal cells

Superficial epithelial cells

Mucus, HC03

Protect gastric mucosa

Gastric lumen

Interstitial fluid

.1 1' Protein kinases -



cAM P

l' ci

w cAMP

Gatrin ecePtor AChR ( M31 PG

4

Gatrin 0 (1' In ZE

syndromeI

�.L..-.J

...., ACtoO Anticholinergic "' _ _ _roi;;

Figure 6. Stimulation of H + Secretion from the Parietal Cell

Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD) -------

Definition • erosion (superficial to the muscularis mucosa, thus no scarring) or ulcer (penetrates the muscularis mucosa and can result in scarring) Etiology Table 6. Etiology of Peptic Ulcer Disease Duodenal

Gastric

H. pylori infection

90%

60%

NSAIDs

7%

35%

Physiologic stress-induced

104 CFU / mL from the jejunum • 72-hour fecal fat collection • bile acid breath tests: carbohydrate substrate metabolized to hydrogen by bacteria in small bowel; hydrogen should appear less than 3 hours after ingestion of carbohydrate to avoid effects of colon bacteria. Carbohydrate substrate can be glucose, xylose, or lactulose • bile acid breath test (14C-cholyglycine) misses 1 / 3 of cases • positive three stage Schilling test if done before and after treatment can be diagnostic (see Table 11) • low serum B1 :u high serum folate (since folate synthesized by GI bacteria) • small bowel follow-through to look for underlying cause • consider small bowel biopsy to rule out primary mucosal disease as cause of malabsorption Treatment • treat underlying etiology if possible (e.g. prokinetic agents for small bowel motility disorder, surgery or ballon dilatation for strictures) • correct nutritional deficiencies, especially deficiencies of vitamins D, E, K, A, B1 2 • eradicate bacteria: 10-14 day trial of antibiotics (best if based on culture results); 7 day course broad-spectrum antibiotics, kills anaerobes and aerobes • e.g. amoxicillin + clavulanic acid , norfloxacin, neomycin • patients may need to be treated with intermittent or continuous antibiotics indefinitely, rotate antibiotics to decrease development of resistance • discontinue acid-reducing agents if possible Table 1 1 . Schilling Test Part I

• •

1 000 mcg B'2 s.c. injection to saturate liver stores Standard dose radioactively labelled B'2 PO 48hr urine collection; measure amount labelled B'2; normal 2: 1 0% of oral dose



If urine B'2 10w, repeat part I giving intrinsic factor with oral radiolabelled B"



Part II

Interpretation • •

If part II is normal, diagnosis pernicious anemia If part II remains low, options are 1 ) Repeat part II, on day 6 & 7 of a 7-day course tetracycline 500 mg PO bid; if Schilling normalizes diagnosis bacterial overgrowth 2) Repeat part II adding pancreatic enzymes; if Schilling normalizes, diagnosis pancreatic insufficiency 3) If test remains low after 1 ) and 2), consider R protein deficiency, ileal receptor disease, severe extensive ileal Crohn's disease or failure to obtain history of ileal resection

Gastroenterology G19

Toronto Notes 2010

Small and Large Bowel

G20 Gastroenterology

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (lBD) Definition • Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC), indeterminate colitis, microscopic and collagenous colitis Pathophysiology • poorly understood • inappropriate response of the immune system to enteric flora in a genetically predisposed individual • current hypothesis emphasizes that the chief problem is lack of appropriate down­ regulation of immune responsiveness Genetics • increased risk of both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease in relatives of patients with either disease, especially siblings, early onset disease • familial risk greater if proband has Crohn's than ulcerative colitis • probably polygenomic pattern • 9 gene loci described to be associated • CARD15 gene mutation associated with Crohn's (relative risk in heterozygote is 3, in homozygote is 40), especially Ashkenazi Jews, early onset disease, ileal involvement, fistulizing and stenotic disease (NOD2) • CARD15 gene product modulates NFkB, which is required for the innate immune response to microbial pathogens, best expressed in monocytes-macrophages • other gene associations described but even less well understood Clinical Features Table 1 2. Clinical Differentiation of Ulcerative Colitis from Crohn's Colitis Disease Crohn's Disease

Ulcerative Colitis

Location

Any part of GI tract • Small bowel + colon: 50% • Small bowel only: 30% • Colon only: 20%

Isolated to large bowel Always involves rectum, may progress proximally

Rectal Bleeding

Uncommon

Very common (90%)

Diarrhea

Less prevalent

Frequent small stools

Abdominal Pain

Post-prandiaVcolicky

Pre-defecatory urgency

Fever

Common

Uncommon

Palpable Mass

Frequent (25%), RLQ

Rare (if present, cecum full of stool)

Recurrent After Surgery

Common

None post-colectomy

Endoscopic Features

Discrete aphthous ulcers, patchy lesions, pseudo polyps

Continuous diffuse inflammation, erythema, friability, loss of normal vascular pattern, pseudopolyps

Histologic Features

Transmural distribution with skip lesions Focal inflammation ± noncaseating granulomas, deep fissuring & aphthous ulcerations, strictures Glands intact

Mucosal distribution, continuous disease (no skip lesions) Granulomas absent Gland destruction, crypt abscess

Radiologic Features

Cobblestone mucosa Frequent strictures and fistulae XR: Bowel wall thickening "string sign"

Lack of haustra Strictures rare and suggests complicating cancer

Complications

Strictures, fistulae, perianal disease, abscesses

Toxic megacolon

Colon Cancer Risk

Increased from general population

More than general population

Crohn's Disease Definition • chronic inflammatory disorder potentially affecting the entire gut "from gum to bum" Epidemiology • incidence 1-6 / 100,000; prevalence 10-100 / 100,000 • bimodal: onset before 30 years, second smaller peak age 60 • incidence of Crohn's increasing (relative to UC) especially in young females • more common in Caucasians, Ashkenazi Jews, Asian's risk increases with move to Western countries • M=F; smoking incidence in Crohn's patients is higher than general population

Gastroenterology G21

Small and Large Bowel

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Features • most often presents as recurrent episodes of abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weight loss • ileitis may present with post-prandial pain, vomiting, RLQ mass mimics acute appendicitis • fistulae, fissures, abscesses are common • extra-intestinal manifestations (see Table 13) are more common with colonic involvement • natural history unpredictable • linear ulcers leading to mucosal islands and "cobblestone" appearance • deep fissures with risk of perforation into contiguous viscera (leads to fistulae and abscesses) • enteric fistulae may communicate with skin, bladder, vagina, and other parts of bowel • granulomas are found in 50% of surgical specimens, 15% of mucosal biopsies

• •

Management (see Figure 7) • medical management (most uncomplicated cases can be managed medically) • diet • fluids only during acute exacerbation • enteral diets may aid in remission but some are not palatable • those with extensive small bowel involvement or extensive resection need electrolyte, mineral and vitamin supplements (Vit D, Ca, Mg, zinc, Fe, BI2) • 5-ASA • efficacy controversial, most evidence for efficacy is for mild, colonic disease • sulfasalazine (SalazopyrinTM) a compound composed of 5-ASA bound to sulfapyridine • hydrolysis by intestinal bacteria releases 5-ASA, the active component • effectiveness is related to dose • mesal amine (Pentasa™, Salofalk™, AsacojTM, MesasajTM) 5-ASA with different coatings to release 5-ASA in the ileum and colon • steroids • prednisone 20-40 mg OD for acute exacerbations • no proven role for steroids in maintaining remissions, masks intra-abdominal sepsis • complications of steroid therapy are dose and duration dependent • note: budesonide has fewer side effects than prednisone • immunosuppressives • 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), azathioprine (Imuran™); methotrexate used less often • used to treat active inflammation and to maintain remission • most commonly used as steroid-sparing agents, i.e. to lower risk of relapse as corticosteroids are withdrawn • may require >3 months to have beneficial effect (methotrexate works faster than azathioprine); usually continued for several years • probably help to heal fistulae, decreased disease activity • have important side effects (pancreatitis, bone marrow suppression, increased risk of cancer) • antibiotics • e.g. metronidazole (20 mg / kg / d, bid or tid dosing) • decreases disease activity and improves perianal disease (short term) • side effects are common and reversible for metronidazole (50% have peripheral neuropathy after 6 months of treatment, may not be reversible) • ciprofloxacin also useful in CD • antidiarrheal agents loperamide (Imodium™) > diphenoxylate (LomotijTM) > codeine (cheap but addictive) • all work by decreasing small bowel motility • use with caution (if colitis is severe, risk of precipitating toxic megacolon); avoid in flare-ups • cholestyramine • a bile-salt binding resin • for watery diarrhea with less than 100 cm of terminal ileum diseased or resected • however, non-specific anti-diarrheals are more convenient and often just as good • biologicals • infliximab IV (Remicade®) or adalimumab SC (Humira®) = antibody to tumour necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) • proven effective for treatment of fistulae and patients with medically refractory CD • new evidence suggest first-line immunosuppressive therapy with inflixmab + immunosuppresives are more effective than using either alone • anti-TNF therapy often effective within days, generally well tolerated • side effect: reported cases of reactivated TB, PCp, other infections =

=

t



5-ASA (mesalamine)



Antibiotics (Flagyl '" , Cipro '" )



Investigations • endoscopy with biopsy to diagnose • CRP; can be used to rule out diagnosis and to monitor treatment response • barium studies, CT abdomen • bacterial cultures, O&P, c. difficile toxin to exclude other causes of inflammatory diarrhea

Nutrition Symptomatic therapy (e.g. loperamide, acetaminophen)





t

Corticosteroids (e.g. budesonide, prednisone)

t

Immunosuppression (e.g. azathioprine, 6-MP. methotrexate)

t

Immunomodulators (e.g. TNF-antagonists: infliximab, adalimumab)



t

Experimental therapy or surgery

Figure 7. Traditional Graded Approach to Induction Therapy in Crohn's Medical Management of Crohn's

Induced Maintenance Remission 5-ASA Steroids Immunosuppressive Antibiotics MTX Infliximab

+ + + + + +

+ + +

.... ' , .�------, Principles of Therapy in IBO •







Aim more for clinical than histologic/ endoscopic radiologic remission Treatment has so many side effects that, usually one disease (lBD) ends up being replaced with another (iatrogenic) Spend the time to lower expectations, discuss risks and expected benefits of Rx Don't use corticosteroids for maintenance therapy



....

' , .�------,

Many patients with Crohn's suffer from vague abdominal pain and diarrhea for years before a diagnosis of Crohn's disease is considered.

Small and Large Bowel

G22 Gastroenterology

Biological Therapies for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Gastroenterol 2009; 136: 1 1 82-97 Although the etiology of inflammatory bowel diseases IIBO) is unknown, biological therapies (BT) that target keymolecules in innate and adaptive immune pathways have been designed. Anti-TNF: (infliximab, adalimumab, certolizumab): It improves treatment 01 CO and UC. It increases mucosal healing, decreases need for hospitalizations and surgeries, and can induce steroid·free remission. At least 10% of patients develop intolerance and/or a loss of response. Selective Anti-Adhesion Molecules: (natalizumab) It increases response and remission rates, circulating leukocytes and steroid-sparing capacity in CD. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy is a rare adverse event. Promising New BT: Anti-lnterleukin-l 2!lnterleukin23 p40 target factors more often associated with CD, while antf-lFN-antibodies may treat CD and UC. BT Wnhout Established Efficacy: Recombinant human cytokines, blockade of T-call activation (daclizumab and basiliximab). and stimulators of the innate immune system. Conclusion: Anti-TNF is an effective treatment for IBO. There is a need to develop an effective treatment for patients who do not respond to a first biological drug. BTs have a safety risk, so their place in treatment algorithms must be defined carefully.

Toronto Notes 2010

• "bottom up" (beginning with least potent therapy) vs. "top down" therapy (beginning

with most potent) is controversial

• surgical treatment (see General Surgery. GS28)

• surgery generally reserved for complications such as fistulae, obstruction, abscess,

• • • •

perforation, bleeding, and for medically refractory disease • if uq 1 0% of those with IBO (CD> UC) Occurs equally in CD and UC

3-4% of IBO patients (CO>UC) 1 5-35% of patients with ileal Crohn's 1 -5% of IBO cases involving colon

�.

When Considering Complications of lBO, Think: ULCERATIVE COLITIS Urinary Calculi Liver problems Cholelithiasis Epithelial problems Retardation of growth/sexual maturation Arthralgias Thrombophlebitis Iatrogenic complications Vitamin deficiencies Eyes Colorectal cancer Obstruction Leakage (perforation) Iron deficiency Toxic megacolon Inanition (wasting) Strictures, fistulae

Small and Large Bowel

G24 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 3. Extraintestinal Manifestations of IBD (continued) System Urologic Calculi Ureteral obstruction Fistulas

Crohn's Disease

Ulcerative Colitis

Most common in CD, especially following ileal resection Characteristic of Crohn's

Others Thromboembolism Vasculitis Osteoporosis Vitamin deficiencies (B,2, Vit ADEK) Cardiopulmonary disorders Pancreatitis (rare)

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (l BS) Definition • a form of functional bowel disease; considered a specific disease, not just a label for all GI symptoms that are unexplained after investigation Epidemiology • 20% of North Americans • onset of symptoms usually in young adulthood • F>M Pathophysiology • normal perception of abnormal gut motility • abnormal perception of normal gut motility • behavioural / psychological: symptoms of IBS common in general population; increased physician seeking behaviour and expectations in small percentage reaching medical attention Diagnosis Table 1 4. Rome III Criteria for Diagnosing Irritable Bowel Syndrome IBS Rome III Criteria • 1 2 weeks or more in the past 1 2 months of abdominal discomfort or pain that has 2 out of 3 features: Relieved with defecation Associated with a change in frequency of stool Associated with a change in consistency of stool •







The following are supportive, but not essential to the diagnosis: Abnormal stool frequency ( >3/day or 1/4 of defecations Abnormal stool passage (straining, urgency, feeling of incomplete evacuation) > 1/4 of defecations Passage of mucus > 1/4 of defecations •







Diagnosis of IBS less likely in presence of " Alarm'" Features • Anemia • Weight loss • Blood or pus in stool • Fever • Nocturnal defecation • Abnormal gross findings on flexible sigmoidoscopy Normal Physical Exam

Investigations • use discretion: the more history resembles Rome III criteria or younger the patient, the less number of investigations required • aim is to rule out • enteric infections e.g. Giardia • lactose intolerance / other disaccharidase deficiency • Crohn's disease • celiac sprue • drug-induced diarrhea • diet-induced (excess tea, coffee, colas) • CBC, TSH, albumin, C-reactive protein, TTG and serology • stool for C&S, O&P, fat excretion if diarrhea present • sigmoidoscopy Management • reassurance, realistic goals, education • relaxation therapy, biofeedback, hypnosis, stress reduction • no therapeutic agent consistently effective , but some people do well with anticholinergics • bran or psyllium for constipation, loperamide for diarrhea • consider use of tricyclic antidepressants: may provide visceral analgesia

Gastroenterology G25

Small and Large Bowel

Toronto Notes 2010 • symptom-guided treatment

• pain predominant

• antispasmodic medication before meals, e.g. hyosine, trimebutine • change diet • tricyclic compounds (TCA) • selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) • visceral antinociceptive agent • diarrhea predominant • change diet • loperamide 2-4 mg tid/ qid • diphenoxylate (Lomotil™) • cholestyramine 4 g qid • constipation predominant • exercise and adequate fluid intake • add fibre • osmotic or other laxatives • 5-HT4 receptor agonist where available Prognosis • 80% improve over time • most have intermittent episodes • normal life expectancy

Constipation Definition • passage of infrequent or hard stools with straining (stool water 60), bleeding diathesis, previous history of PUD, comorbid disease, hemodynamically unstable • if high risk, consider ICU admission

Gastroenterology G27

Small and Large Bowel

Toronto Notes 2010

..... ' , ��-------.

Endoscopy

Active bleeding or non bleeding visible vessel

• •

IV PPI Endoscopic therapy: Electrocoagulation Heater probe • Injection of sclerosing agents, epinephrine, etc • Band ligation, clips Admit to ICU

Flat, pigmented spot

Clean base







IV PPI • ± endoscopic therapy Admit for observation (in case of rebleed)











Adherent clot







t





No IV PPI No endoscopic therapy may admit for observation



• •

No IV PPI No endoscopic therapy Discharge home

Figure 8. Approach to Management of Suspected Bleeding Peptic Ulcer

Esophageal Varices Clinical Features • characteristically massive upper GI bleeding Etiology • almost always due to portal hypertension • often accompanied by varices in stomach

Co-existent illness Hemodynamic instability Age > 60 years Transfusion required Proton Pump Inhib�or Treatment for Acute Peptic Ulcer Bleeding

Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;11 ):C0002094 Purpose: To review the efficacy 01 proton pump inhibitors IPPls) in acute bleeding Irom peptic ulcers IPU). Study Selection: RCTs of PPI treatment compared with placebo or H,·receptor antagonist IH2RA) in acute bleeding Irom PU. Results: 24 trials In=4373) were reviewed. There was no significant difference in all-cause mortality rates between PPI and control treatment. PPls signrricantly reduced rebleeding compared to control 110.6% PPI versus 17.3% control; OR 0.49), as well as the need for surgery 16.1% PPI versus 9.3% control; OR 0.61). Conclusion: PPls should be administered to patients with endoscopically-documented peptic ulcer bleeding Irom "high risk" ulcers lie at high risk of rebleeding: active bleeding, visible vessel. clot) at endoscopy despite the lack of evidence of an overall effect mortality. Intragastric pH w� Oral vs. Intravenous Bolus plus Infusion Proton-pump Inhibttor Therapy in Patients w� Bleeding Ulcers

Investigations • endoscopy Management • see Figure 9 1 . Assess hemodynamic stability and resuscitate



2. IV octreotide Causes splanchnic vasoconstriction Decreases portal collateral circulation and pressure •





Of�

3 . Endoscopic therapy (variceal ligation ( EVL) or sclerotherapy)



Long-term treatment to decrease risk recurrent bleed • Beta-blocker Repeat EVl)sclerotherapy • Nitrates Follow-up •

Bleeding Peptic Ulcers; Risk Factors for Mortality





PERSISTENT or RECURRENT bleed - treatment options • Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) • Balloon tamponade Liver transplant •

Figure 9. Management of Bleeding Esophageal Varices

Mallory-Weiss Tear Definition • longitudinal laceration in gastric mucosa on lesser curvature near GE junction (20% straddle junction, 5% in distal esophagus) Etiology • due to rapid increases in gastric pressure (i.e. retching-vomiting against a closed glottis) • most patients abuse alcohol • usually hiatus hernia present

Gastroenterol 2008; 1 34: 1 836-41 Study: Randomized control trial. Participants: Patients presenting with overt bleeding Irom an ulcer. Intervention: Patients received either IV lansoprazole 190-mg bolus followed by 9-m!jlh infusion; n=32) or oral lansoprazole 11 20-mg bolus followed by 30 mg every 3 hours; n=34). Primary Outcome: 24 hour pH Resuks: Intragastric pH was > 6 for > 60% of the study period in 22 168.8%) patients receiving IV and 22 164.7%) patients receiving oral PPI. At I hour, mean pHs for IV and oral were 5.3 and 3.3, respectively Idifference 2.0; P=O.OOI). After 1 .5 hours. there were no differences in mean pH between the groups. Mean pH rose above 6 after 23 hours of IV PPI and 3-4 hours of oral PPI. Conclusion: Frequent oral PPI may be able to replace the currently recommended IV bolus plus infusion PPI therapy in patients with bleeding ulcers. However. IV PPI has a more rapid increase in pH. reaching mean pH of 6 approximately I hour sooner than oral PPI.

..... ' , � �-------, If varices isolated to stomach, think of sp len i c vein thrombosis.

Small and Large Bowel

G28 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Features • hematemesis ± melena, classically following an episode of retching • can lead to fatal hematemesis Management • 90% stop spontaneously • if persistent: endoscopy with injection ± clips or surgical repair

Lower Gastrointestinal Bleeding

--------�

"

' ,

��------. When suspecting lower GI bleed, first and foremost exclude upper GI bleeding before localizing the site of the lower GI bleed.

t", Lower GI Bleed Most common cause of LGIB CHAND Colitis (radiation, infectious, ischemic, I BD IUe > CD)) Hemorrhoids/fissure Angiodysplasia Neoplastic Diverticular disease

Definition • bleed distal to ligament of Treitz Clinical Features • hematochezia (see Figure 10) • anemia • occult blood in stool • rarely melena Etiology • rule out upper source • diverticular (60% from right colon) • vascular • angiodysplasia • anorectal (hemorrhoids, fissures) • neoplasm • cancer • polyps • inflammation • colitis (ulcerative, infectious, radiation, ischemic) • post-polypectomy 1 . Assess hemodynamic stability

2. Resuscitate (IV fluids,

±

blood transfusion)

t

3 . Assess coagulation status ( C BC, INR/PT)

4. Determine site of bleeding

I • •

Massive bleeding/hemodynamically unstable? Clinical suspicion of UGIB based on risk factors? (increased possibility of UGI source)

t

Colonoscopy and OGD



Hemodynamically stable, no UGIB risk factors? (decreased possibility of UGI source)

Colonoscopy only (or flexible sigmoidoscopy)

t

For SLOW bleeding « 0.5 mVmin): radionucleotide Tc-99m-tagged RBC scan • For RAPID bleeding ( >0.5 mVmin): angiography ± embolization

Figure 1 0_ Approach to Hematochezia

Small and Large Bowel

Toronto Notes 2010

Gastroenterology G29

Colorectal Cancer • see General Surgery. GS31

Etiology/Epidemiology • environmental influences (presumed) • high dietary fat consumption • low dietary fibre consumption • genetic influences • all colorectal cancers considered to have genetic component, to varying degrees • familial syndromes (see Familial Colon Cancer Syndromes, G30) • multiple "step-wise" somatic mutations, contributed by environment, have been implicated • genetic changes implicated are • activation of proto-oncogenes (K-ras) • loss of tumour-suppressor gene activity (APC, DCC) • abnormalities in DNA repair genes (hMSH2, hMLH1), especially HNPCC syndromes (see Familial Colon Cancer Syndromes, G30) Pathophysiology • normal colon � hyperproliferative epithelium



adenoma



..... � ,

�J-------,

Some colon cancers may bleed intermittently or not at a ll. No bleeding " no cancer.

..... � ,

��------, Melena more often seen with rightsided tumours.

Hematochezia more often seen with left-sided tumours.

carcinoma

Risk Factors • 75% of new cases are in people with no known risk factors • age • 90% of cancers are in people >50 years old • at age 50, the risk of developing colorectal cancer by age 80 is 5% • adenomatous polyps • family history • sporadic cancer • risk increases 1.8 x for those with one affected relative, 2-6 x with two affected relatives • risk is greater if relative has cancer diagnosed 50. no family history should undergo one of: • FOBT every 2 years • Flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years • Combined FOBT and flex sig every 5 years • Double contrast barium enema every 5 years • Colonoscopy every 10 years People at above-average risk: • HNPCC - Genetic testing + colonoscopy q 2 years beginning at age 20 • FAP - Genetic testing + sigmoidoscopy annual� beginning at age 10-12 • Fam Hx of cancer/polyps but does not fit criteria for HNPCC/FAP - colonoscopy q 5 years beginning at age 40. or 1 0 years earlierthan the youngest diagnosed polyp/cancer case in the family.

Small and Large Bowel

G30 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

Pathology • hyperplastic - most common, no malignant potential, except sessile serrated type • inflammatory (or peudopolyps) - associated with CD and Uc, no malignant potential • hamartomas: juvenile polyps, Peutz-Jegher syndrome (characteristically small bowel) • malignant risk due to associated adenomas (large bowel) • low malignant potential � most spontaneously regress or autoamputate • adenomas - premalignant, carcinoma in situ may occur • some may contain invasive carcinoma ("malignant polyp" - 2.6-9.4%): invasion into muscularis • tubular, tubulovillous, villous (see Table 15)



Table 1 5. Characteristics of Tubular vs. Villous Polyps Tubular

Villous

Incidence

Common (60% to 80%)

Less common ( 1 0%)

Size

Small ( < Z em)

Large (usually > Z em)

Attachment

Pedunculated/sessile

Sessile

Malignant Potential

Lower

Higher

Distribution

Even

Left·sided predominance

Investigations • flexible sigmoidoscopy can reach 60% of polyps in men and 35% of polyps in women; if polyps detected, proceed to colonoscopy for examination of entire bowel and biopsy • colonoscopy still the gold standard Treatment • endoscopic polypectomy; surgical segmental resection if unsuccessful / impossible • follow-up for adenomas: repeat colonoscopy in 5 years, in 3 years if polyp diameter >1 cm, ;:::3 adenomas, sessile, high grade dysplasia, villous

Familial Colon Cancer Syndromes FAMILIAL ADENOMATOUS POLYPOSIS ( FAP)

..... ' ,

��-------,

Note that rectal cancers have a higher recurrence rate and lower 5·year survival rate than colon cancers. Therefore, do a rectal exam.

..... ' , ��------� Referral Criteria for Genetic Screening for APC

• To confirm the diagnosis of FAP (in patients with "1 00 colorectal adenomas) • To provide pre·symptomatic testing for indviduals at risk for FAP ( 1 st degree relatives who are " 1 0 years old) • To confirm the diagnosis of attenuated FAP (in patients with ,,20 colorectal adenomas)

Pathogenesis • autosomal dominant (AD) inheritance, mutation in APC gene on 5q • plays a major role in sporadic cancer Clinical Features • hundreds to thousands of colonic adenomas by an average age of 40 • extracolonic manifestations • carcinoma of duodenum, bile duct, pancreas, stomach, thyroid, adrenal, small bowel • congenital hypertrophy of retinal pigment epithelium presents early in life in 2/3 of patients • virtually 100% lifetime risk of colon cancer (because of number of polyps) • variants: • Gardner's syndrome: FAP + extraintestinal lesions (chiefly bone, desmoid tumours) • Turcot's syndrome: FAP + CNS tumours Investigations • genetic testing (80-95% sensitive, 99-100% specific) • see sidebar for criteria for genetic screening referral • if no polyposis found: annual flexible sigmoidoscopy from puberty to age 50, then regular screening Treatment • surgery indicated by age 17-20 • total proctocolectomy with ileostomy OR total colectomy with ileorectal anastomosis OR pelvic pouch with ileo-anal anastomosis • chemotherapy for intra-abdominal desmoids HEREDITARY NON-POLYPOSIS COLORECTAL CANCER (HNPCC) Pathogenesis • AD inheritance, mutation in a DNA mismatch repair gene resulting in genomic instability and subsequent mutations • plays a minor role in sporadic cancer Clinical Features • early age of onset, right > left colon, synchronous and metachronous lesions • mean age of cancer presentation is 44 years, lifetime risk 70-80% (greater for men) • Lynch syndrome 1: hereditary site-specific colon cancer • Lynch syndrome II: cancer family syndrome - high rates of extracolonic tumours (endometrial, ovarian, hepatobiliary, small bowel)

Small and Large Bowel/Liver

Toronto Notes 2010

Diag nosis • diagnosis is clinical - based on Amsterdam Criteria (see sidebar) Investigations • genetic testing (80% sensitive) - colonoscopy mandatory even if negative • refer for genetic screening individuals who fulfill EITHER the Amsterdam Criteria (as sidebar) OR the revised Bethesda criteria (see sidebar) • colonoscopy (starting age 20) every 1-2 years • surveillance for extra colonic lesions (controversial, no guidelines available) Treatment • subtotal colectomy and ileosigmoid or ileorectal anastomosis with yearly proctoscopy / sigmoidoscopy

Liver Investigations of Hepatobiliary Disease A. TEST OF LIVER FUNCTION Prothrombin Time (PT or INR) • maker of hepatic protein synthesis • increased when hepatic protein synthesis is impaired (>80%) (including all coagulation factors except VIII) • also increased by vitamin K deficiency; PT reliable marker of liver dysfunction only if vitamin K administration ruled out Serum Bili rubin • breakdown product of hemoglobin; metabolized in the RES of liver, transported through biliary system, excreted via gut • direct bilirubin = conjugated; indirect = unconjugated bilirubin • liver dysfunction causes hyperbilirubinemia (elevated direct bilirubin) Serum Albumin Level • detects prolonged (weeks) hepatic dysfunction • must exclude malnutrition and renal or GI losses, acute illness B. TESTS OF LIVER DAMAGE • increased AST, ALT = hepatocellular damage • ALT more specific to liver; AST from multiple sources (especially muscle) • elevation of both highly suggestive of liver injury • most common cause of elevated ALT is fatty liver • if AST, ALT >1000, think of common bile duct stone, virus, drugs, ischemia, autoimmune hepatitis • ALP increased disproportionally to ALT, rule out bone disease by fractionating ALP; elevated liver fraction = cholestatic disease • biochemical cholestasis (drugs) • systemic disease (e.g. sepsis), pregnancy • infiltrative disease (tumour, fat, lymphoma) • mass lesions (stone, tumour, abscess) • inflammatory (PBe, PSC)

Hepatitis

--------�

Etiology • viral infection • alcohol • drugs • immune-mediated • toxins

Gastroenterology G31

.....

' , ��------,

'"Amsterdam" Criteria for HNPCC Diagnosis

• 3 relatives with colorectal cancer. where one is 1 st degree relative of other two • 2 generations of colorectal cancer • 1 colorectal cancer before age 50 • FAP is excluded

.....

' , ��------,

Revised Bethesda Criteria - Refer for Genetic Screening for HNPCC • Individuals with cancer in families that meet the Amsterdam criteria • Patients with two HNPCC·related cancers. including synchronous and metachronous colorectal cancer or associated extracolonic cancers (endometrial. ovarian. gastric. hepatobiliary. small bowel. or transitional cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis or ureter). • Patients with colorectal cancer and a first degree relative with colorectal cancer and/or HNPCC-related extra colonic cancer and/or a colorectal adenoma with one of the cancers diagnosed before age 45 years, and the adenoma diagnosed before age 40 years. • Patients with right·sided colorectal cancer having an undifferentiated pattern (solid/cribriform) on histopathologic diagnosis before age 45 years. • Patients with signet-ring cell type colorectal cancer diagnosed before age 45. • Patients with adenomas diagnosed before age 40.

..... ' , ��------, All clotting factors except factor VIII are exclusively synthesized in the liver.

.....

' , �}-------.

Serum transaminases > 1 000 due to • Viral hepatitis • Drugs • Common bile duct stone • Hepatic ischemia • Rarely immune hepatitis

.....

' , ��------.

AST > ALT (usually AST/ALT >2 and AST AST = viral hepatitis

.....

' , ��------,

Risk of Developing Infection from Needle Puncture HBV HCV HIV

30% 3% 0.3%

Liver

G32 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

Fulminant Hepatic Failure (FHF) --------� • characteristics





• •

1. rapid (characteristically less than 8 weeks) development of hepatocellular dysfunction (usually including high bilirubin, INR) 2. encephalopathy (due to cerebral edema) 3. no prior history of liver disease causes: drugs, especially acetaminophen, hepatitis B (ask for serum HBV-DNA because sometimes HBsAg rapidly becomes negative), hepatitis A, exacerbation of chronic disease (note: hepatitis C is rare in this setting), idiopathic, ischemic management: usually in ICU, correct hypoglycemia, monitor level of consciousness (some centres still use intracranial pressure monitoring), prevent GI bleeding with PPI, vigilant for infection and multiorgan failure consider liver biopsy before INR becomes too high; chief value is to exclude chronic disease, less helpful for prognosis liver transplant: consider early, especially if rapid deterioration, age 40, cause is drug or unknown, bilirubin >300 I1mol/L INR >3.5, creatinine >200 I1mol/L

Chronic Hepatitis Definition • an increase in serum transaminases for >6 months; requires a liver biopsy to determine severity / need of treatment Etiology • viral (B, B+D, C, not A or E) • drugs (methyldopa, INH, nitrofurantoin, amiodarone) • autoimmune • genetic (Wilson's disease, aI-antitrypsin deficiency) • metabolic (nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: NASH) Clinical Features • often asymptomatic, detected incidentally • constitutional symptoms • fatigue, malaise, anorexia, weight loss • signs of chronic liver disease • hepatomegaly (firm) and splenomegaly • increased AST, ALT

Acute Viral Hepatitis Symptoms �---

anti-Hbs

anti-Hbc IgG

"----- anti-HBc IgM 2

3

4

5

6

12

24

months after inoculation Figure 1 1 . Time Course of Acute Hepatitis B Infection

Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) RNA virus fecal-oral transmission; incubation period 4-6 weeks diagnosed by elevated transaminases, positive anti-HAY IgM in childhood characteristically asymptomatic; in adults symptoms include fatigue, nausea, arthralgia, fever, jaundice • can cause fulminant hepatic failure and subsequent death, can relapse but never becomes chronic • • • •

Toronto Notes 2010

Liver

Gastroenterology G33

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) -----Table 1 6. Hepatitis B Serology HBsAg

Anti-HBs

HBeAg

Anti-HBe

Anti-HBc

Liver Enzymes

Acute HBV

+

+

IgM

Chronic HBV (high infectivity)

+

+

IgG

AL1, AST elevated

Chronic HBV (low infectivity)

+

+

IgG

ALT, AST normal

+

IgG

Recovery

+

Immunization

+

"'

, ��------�

,

Causes of a Spike in Serum Transaminases in Chronic Hepatitis B •



• •

Epidemiology • 4 phases of chronic hepatitis B: not all go through all 4 phases but all have positive HBsAg 1. immune tolerance: active virus replication with high HBV-DNA, HBeAg positive, but normal ALT / AST, characteristic of perinatal infection (or 'incubation period' in adult acquired) 2. immune clearance (or immunoactive): active virus replication, HBeAg positive, HBV­ DNA > 100,000 copies / m!, characterized by progressive disease without treatment, sometimes to cirrhosis and / or hepatocellular carcinoma; most likely to benefit from treatment 3. immune carrier: virus slowly replicating with HBV-DNA 100 copies/ m!, HBeAg negative because of promoter gene mutation, anti-HBe positive ALT / AST high, tends to progress, treatment difficult therefore prognosis poor • increased risk of hepatoma, especially if HBeAg positive, high HBV-DNA =

Management • hepatoma screening with ultrasound q6months; possible reactivation even if HBeAg negative • vaccinate against HAV if serology negative • follow blood and sexual precautions • treatment goal to reduce serum HBV-DNA to undetectable. Without treatment 8-20% develop cirrhosis within 5 years • treat pharmacologically if HBV-DNA >20,000 copies/ ml when HBeAg positive or if HBV-DNA >2,000 copies / ml when HBeAg negative • treatment options interferon, tenofovir, entacavir, lamivudine, adefovir Hepatitis D • defective RNA virus requiring HBsAg for entry into hepatocyte, therefore infects only patients with hepatitis B, causes more aggressive disease than hepatitis B virus alone • co-infection: acquire HDV and HBV together • better prognosis than superinfection • superinfection: acquire HDV once patient already has chronic HBV • HDV can present as FHF and / or accelerate progression to cirrhosis

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) --------� • RNA virus • blood-borne transmission; sexual transmission is "inefficient" • major risk factor is injection drug use; other risk factors are blood transfusion received

before 1992 (or received in developing world), tattoos, cocaine intranasal use

• clinical manifestation develops 6 to 8 weeks after exposure; symptoms mild and vague

(fatigue, malaise, nausea) therefore not commonly diagnosed in acute stage

Diagnosis • suspected on basis of elevated ALT / AST + positive serum-HeY, diagnosis established by detectable HeV-RNA in serum • virus genotype correlates with both prognosis and response to treatment; serum HeV RNA inversely correlates with response to treatment • determine severity by liver biopsy • normal transaminases can have underlying cirrhosis on biopsy, but otherwise excellent prognosis Management • blood-borne precautions; vaccinate for hepatitis B and A if serology negative; avoid alcohol

• •

Reactivation (anti-HBe converting to HBeAg; occurs especially with immunosuppressionl Seroconversion (HBeAg converting to anti-HBe; especially with Rx such as interferon) Hepatitis 0 Hepatocellular carcinoma Liver insult (alcohol, drugs, hepatitis A) Progression of disease

"' ' , ��------, • Risk of hepatoma in HBV increases irrespective of histology. • Risk of hepatoma in HCV increases only after cirrosis develops.

Liver

G34 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

• pharmacological treatment with alpha interferon + ribavarin aims to lower HCV-RNA to

• •









undetectable levels indefinitely (sustained response), but only 50% success rate and side effects common therefore not all patients treated treatment also lower risk of hepatoma clearest indication for treatment is subgroup likely to develop clinically significant liver disease - persistently elevated transaminases, liver biopsy shows fibrosis / cirrhosis and at least moderately severe necrosis / inflammation indicators of poor response to treatment: cirrhosis, genotype 1, high HCV-RNA, co-infection with HIV, black (unfortunately almost the same factors which predict poor prognosis without Rx) treatment regimen: alpha-interferon SC injection bid and ribavarin po qweekly, doses based on body weight • the higher the dose, the higher the likelihood of sustained remission stimulated by alpha-interferon length of treatment determined by time required for HCV-RNA to fall, therefore measure HCV-RNA 1 and 3 months after starting treatment • usually genotypes 2 and 3 treated 24 weeks; genotype 1 treated for 48 weeks (stop if no response after 3 months) adverse effects: depression / fatigue (contraindicated in history of psychosis), bone marrow suppression (monitor CBC regularly), fevers / myalgia, rarely precipitates autoimmune diseases

Prognosis • 80% become chronic; of these 20% evolve to cirrhosis • transaminases fluctuate with time • risk of hepatoma increases once cirrhosis has developed • risk factors for liver disease progression are alcohol intake, HIV co-infection, old age at diagnosis, genotype I • can cause cryoglobulinemia; associated with membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, lymphoma

",,

'

,

�f------,

HDV increases severity of hepatitis but does not increase risk of progression to chronic hepatitis.

Chronic Hepatitis B

+

D

• low-dose interferon has limited impact, high-dose under investigation • liver transplant more effective than in HBV alone • liver transplant for end stage disease (reinfection rate 100% but infection usually mild)

Autoimmune Chronic Active Hepatitis • can be severe: 40% mortality at 6 months without treatment • diagnosis of exclusion: rule out viruses, drugs, metabolic or genetic derangements • extrahepatic manifestations

• amenorrhea, rashes, acne, thyroiditis, Sjogren's • immune complex disease: arthritis, glomerulonephritis, vasculitis

• antibodies

• hypergammaglobulinemia

anti-smooth muscle antibody elevation is most characteristic; also elevations in anti-LKM (liver kidney microsome , especially in children), less specific are elevations in ANA (antinuclear antibody homogenous), RF (rheumatoid factor) • can have false positive viral serology (especially anti-HCV) • management: corticosteroids (80% respond) ± azathioprine (without this most relapse as corticosteroids are withdrawn) •

Drug-Induced Liver Disease Table 1 7. Classification of Hepatotoxins Direct

Indirect

Example

Acetaminophen, CCI4

Phenytoin, INH

Dose-dependence

Usual

Unusual

Latent Period

Hours-days

Weeks-months

Host Factors

Not important

Very important

Predictable

Yes

No

Specific Drugs • acetaminophen • metabolized by hepatic cytochrome P450 system • can cause FHF (transaminases >1,000 U / L )

Table 1 8. Characteristics of the Viral Hepatitides Hepatitis

Clinical Presentation

Definition

Communicability

Investigation

Treatment

Prognosis

Complications

Acute Viral Hepatitis

Most subclinical Prodrome: flu·like, may precede jaundice by 1 ·2 weeks

1 0-20x nomnal. ALP and bilirubin minimally, increased cholestasis

Virus

Transmission

Incubation

Communicability

Serology

Management

Prognosis

Complications

Hepatitis A

Fecal-oral

2-6 weeks

2-3 weeks in late incubation to early clinical phase acute hepatitis in most adults, 10% of children

Hepatitis B

Parenteral or equivalent Vertical

6 weeks - 6 months

During HBsAg+ state highly communicable increased during T3 or early post-partum

Serum sickness-like syndrome Glomerulonephritis Cryoglobulinemia Polyarteritis nodosa Porphyria cutanea tarda

Hepatitis C

Parenteral ltransiusion, IVDU, sexual < HBV) 40% have no known risk factors

5-10 weeks

Hepatitis D

Non-parenteral Iclose contact in endemic areas) Parenteral Iblood products, IVDU)

Hepatitis E

Fecal-oral lendemic: Africa, Asia, central America, India, Pakistan)

Infectious only in presence of HBV IHBsAg required for replication) 2-6 weeks

§-

Z

� '"



General hygiene Treat close contacts lanti-HAV Ig, 0.02 mglkg ASAP) Prophylaxis for high-risk groups IHAV vaccine ± HAV Ig) unless immune See Table 14 HBeAg+ state

Prevention: HBV vaccine and/or Hepatitis B Ig IHBIG): for needlestick, sexual contact, infants of infected mothers unless already immune

Chronicity in 5%

HCV RNA Idetected by PCR) Anti-HCV UgG!lgM)

Prevention: no vaccine Rx: IFN + ribavirin

Chronicity in 80%

HBsAg Anti-HDV UgG!lgM)

Prevention: HBV vaccine

Predisposes HBV carriers to severe fulminant course

Anti-HEV IlgG/lgM)

Prevention: no vaccine

Mild, except in third trimester 110-20% fulminant liver failure)

Chronic Hepatitis

Epidemiology

Time Course

Diagnosis

Management

Prognosis

Chronic Hepatitis C

50% of chronic hepatitis Commonest indication for liver transplant

At 10 years: chronic hepatits At 20 years: cirrhosis At 30 years: HCC

Serum HCV-RNA Anti-HCV 1+)

Minimize alcohol intake Strict blood precautions Vaccinate for Hep A,B HCC screen with U/S and serum alpha fetoprotein IAFP) Rx: Pegylated interferon a2a or 2b + ribavarin

20% progress to cirrhosis 3% of cirrhotics develop HCC

Chronic Hepatitis B

1-2% of healthy adults with acute hepatitis B 90% if infected at birth

Replicative Phase IHBeAg+) - infectivity Non-reactive Phase IAntiHBe+) - ?infectivity

Limit alcohol intake Blood/sex precautions Hepatoma screen Rx: interferon, lamuvidine, adefovir, entecavir, tenofivir, telbirudine

If HBV-DNA: H warn of reactivity 1+) warn of progression into cirrhosis If ALT/AST: HCC, Hep D, reactivation, flare if known to be HBeAg 1+), progression of disease, superimposed acute hepatitis

Chronic Hepatitis B+D

Ql 8

Liver Transplant

""'"

�. ...

� �

a-

t



� w 4 g/ day

• mechanism: high acetaminophen dose saturates glucuronidation and sulfation







• • •

elimination pathway -7 reactive metabolite is formed -7 covalently binds to hepatocyte membrane • presentation • first 24 hrs: nausea and vomiting usually within 4-12 hours • next 24-48 hrs: hepatic necrosis resulting in increased aminotransferases, jaundice, possibly hepatic encephalopathy, acute renal failure, death • after 48 hrs: continued hepatic necrosis/ resolution • note: potential delay in presentation in sustained-release products • blood levels of acetaminophen correlate with the severity of hepatic injury, particularly if time of ingestion known • therapy • gastric lavage / emesis (if 400 ng / ml • HFE gene analysis: 90% of idiopathic hemochromatosis have homozygous Cys 282 Tyr (C282Y) gene mutation, or less frequently His 63 Asp (H63D) (but penetrance of both gene mutations is variable) • liver biopsy (to define degree of iron overload and to detect cirrhosis) • hepatoma screening if cirrhosis Treatment • phlebotomy: once or twice weekly until anemia develops or serum iron and ferritin normalizes; then lifelong maintenance phlebotomies q2-6 months • deferoxamine if phlebotomy contraindicated (e.g. cardiomyopathy, anemia) • primary hem achromatosis responds well to phlebotomy; secondary hemochromatosis responds less well Prognosis • normal life expectancy if treated before the development of cirrhosis or diabetes

Alcoholic Liver Disease Types of Lesions • fatty liver (all alcoholics): always reversible • alcoholic hepatitis (35% of alcoholics): usually reversible if alcohol stopped • cirrhosis (10-15% of alcoholics): irreversible Pathophysiology • several mechanisms poorly understood • ethanol oxidation to acetaldehyde concomitantly reduces NAD to NADH; increased NADH decreases ATP supply to liver, impairing lipolysis so fatty acid and triglycerides accumulate in liver • ethanol is oxidized to acetaldehyde which binds to hepatocytes evoking an immune reaction • ethanol increases gut permeability so increased bacterial translocation • alcohol metabolism causes • relative hypoxia in liver zone III > zone I • necrosis and hepatic vein sclerosis • histology of alcoholic hepatitis: • ballooned (swollen) hepatocytes often containing Mallory bodies, characteristically surrounded by neutrophils • large fat globules • fibrosis: space of Disse, and perivenular

}-------.



13 g ethanol 1 .5 oz liquor

=

1 beer

=

4 oz wine

=

'- ' ,

}-------.



Biopsy + Histology of Alcoholic Hepatitis (triad) •





Hepatocyte necrosis with surrounding inflammation in zone III Mallory bodies (intracellular eosinophilic aggregates of cytokeratins) Spider fibrosis (network of intralobular connective tissue surrounding cells and venules)

G38 Gastroenterology

..... ' � �}-------, Complications of Alcohol Abuse Esophagus

61

Mallory-Weiss tear Esophageal varices (secondary to portal hypertension)

Stomach Alcoholic gastritis

Pancreas Acute pancreatitis Chronic pancreatitis

Liver Alcoholic hepatitis Fatty liver Cirrhosis Hepatic encephalopathy Portal hypertension (secondary to cirrhosis) Ascites (secondary to cirrhosis) Hepatoma (secondary to cirrhosis)

Liver

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Features • threshold for cirrhosis is >20-40 g EtOH / day in females or >40-80 g EtOH / day in males x 10-20 years; cirrhosis develops in about 5% of those who consume this amount daily on a continous basis; risk cirrhosis increases with amount of alcohol consumed above threshold • clinical findings do not predict type of liver involvement • fatty liver • mildly tender hepatomegaly; jaundice rare • mildly increased transaminases 2:1 (usually 7 L at rest and decreased pulmonary + systemic resistance (intrapulmonary shunting) • dyspnea, platypnea (increase in dyspnea in upright position, improved by recumbency) and orthodeoxia (desaturation in the upright position, improved by recumbency) • diagnosis via contrast-enhanced (inject air bubbles into peripheral vein) echocardiography (air bubbles appear in left ventricle after third heartbeat; normal = no air bubbles; in ventricular septal defect air bubbles seen 5 mmHg • pressure flow x resistance • unlikely that increased flow alone can cause portal hypertension (although described in AV-fistula or massive splenomegaly) so primary cause of portal hypetension is increased resistance • 3 sites of increased resistance • pre-sinusoidal (e,g. portal vein thrombosis, schistosomiasis, sarcoidosis) • sinusoidal (e.g. cirrhosis, alcoholic hepatitis) • post-sinusoidal (e.g. right-sided heart failure, hepatic vein thrombosis, veno-occlusive disease, constrictive pericarditis) • complications • GI bleeding from varices in esophagus, less commonly in stomach, even less frequently from portal hypertensive gastropathy • ascites • hepatic encephalopathy • renal dysfunction • sepsis • arterial hypoxemia =

..... � ,

�}-------.

Portal Hypertension Cause

=t

flow AND

t

resistance

Signs Esophageal varices Melena Splenomegaly Ascites Hemorrhoids

Management �-blockers Nitrates Shunts [e.g. transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS)]

Management • see variceal bleeding, ascites, hepatic encepathalopathy, hepato-renal insufficiency • �-blockers (propanolol, nadolol) and nitrates decreases risk of bleeding from varices • transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS): to decrease portal venous pressure • interventional radiologist creates a shunt between portal and hepatic vein via percutaneous puncture of portal vein, and (central) hepatic vein via transjugular vein catheterization • can be used to stop acute bleeding or prevent rebleeding, or treat ascites • shunt usually remains open for no longer than one year • complications = hepatic encephalopathy, deterioration of hepatic function • other surgically created shunts, nowadays done only rarely: portocaval, distal spleno-renal (Warren shunt)

Hepatic Encephalopathy Definition • acute neuropsychiatric syndrome secondary to liver disease Pathophysiology • porto-systemic shunt around hepatocytes and decreased hepatocellular function increases toxin (believed to be ammonia from gut, mercaptans, fatty acids, amino acids) delivery to brain Precipitating Factors • nitrogen load (GI bleed, protein load from food intake, renal failure, constipation) • drugs (narcotics + eNS depressants) • electrolyte disturbance (hypokalemia, alkalosis, hypoxia, hypovolemia) • infection (spontaneous bacterial peritonitis) • deterioration in hepatic function or superimposed liver disease Stages • I: apathy, restlessness, reversal of sleep-wake cycle, slowed intellect, impaired computational abilities, impaired handwriting • II: asterixis, lethargy, drowsiness, disorientation • III: stupor (rousable), hyperactive reflexes, extensor plantar responses • IV: coma (response to painful stimuli only) Investigations • distinguish from non-liver-related neuropsychiatric disease in a patient with liver problems (e.g. alcohol withdrawal or intoxication, sedatives, subdural hematoma, metabolic encephalopathy) • also distinguish from the causes of metabolic encephalopathy (e.g. renal failure, respiratory failure, severe hyponatremia, hypoglycemia); all easy to exclude / confirm

"'.

Precipitating Factors for Hepatic Encephalopathy HEPATICS Hemorrhage in GI tract/Hyperkalemia Excess dietary protein Paracentesis Acidosis/Anemia Trauma Infection Colon surgery Sedatives

Liver

G42 Gastroenterology

Toronto Notes 2010

• diagnosis chiefly clinical, supported by laboratory findings, exclusion of other

neuropsychiatric diseases

• only pathognomonic finding is fetor hepaticus • characteristic EEG findings: diffuse (non-focal), slow, high amplitude waves

Treatment • treat underlying liver disease and precipitating factors • decrease generation of nitrogenous compounds • decreased dietary protein to 50 g / day; vegetable protein is better tolerated than animal protein • lactulose • prevents diffusion of NH3 (ammonia) from the colon into blood by lowering pH and forming non-diffusible NH4 (ammonium) • serves as a substrate for incorporation of ammonia by bacteria, promotes growth in bowel lumen of bacteria which produce minimal ammonia • also acts as a laxative to eliminate nitrogen-producing bacteria from colon • if inadequate response with lactulose, may try antibiotics • broad-spectrum antibiotics (metronidazole, neomycin, rifaximin) eliminate ammonia producing bacteria from bowel lumen • neomycin is less effective than lactulose plus more side effects (ototoxicity, nephrotoxicity) • combination of the two may be more effective for resistant cases only • avoid causing severe diarrhea with lactulose to decrease fluid / electrolyte problems • best acute treatment in comatose patient is tap water enemas

Ascites Definition • accumulation of excess free fluid in the peritoneal cavity Etiology ",

'

,

9�------'

Secondary bacterial peritonitis (as opposed to primary bacterial peritonitis) usually results from a perforated viscus or surgical manipulation.

Table 21 . Serum-Ascites Albumin Gradient as an Indicator of the Causes of Ascites Serum [Alb] - Ascitic [Alb] > 1 1 gil (1.1 w'dLI

Serum [Alb] - Ascitic [Alb] < 1 1 gil (1.1 w'dLI

Cirrhosis/severe hepatitis Chronic hepatic congestion (right heart failure, Budd-Chiaril Massive liver metastases Myxedema

Peritoneal carcinomatosis TB Pancreatic disease Serositis Nephrotic syndrome'

' In nephrotic syndrome: decreased serum [AlbI to begin with therefore gradient not helpful

Pathogenesis • increased portal pressure and low oncotic pressure (i.e. low serum albumin) drives sodium / water out of the splanchnic portal circulation into abdominal cavity • but key factor in pathogenesis is increased sodium (and water) retention by the IGdney unclear if this change in IGdney handling of sodium is secondary to circulation underfilling because of fluid leaving circulation (secondary to high portal pressure, low oncotic pressure - "underfill hypothesis") or if due to a direct effect of cirrhosis on IGdney ("overflow hypothesis") • combined theory (incorporating both theories) is most popular • cirrhosis via unknown factors causes splanchnic vasodilation via nitric oxide, increasing vascular capacitance, which is underfilled relative to its capacity, but overfilled compared to before vasodilation i.e. effective intravascular volume is low (i.e. volume to capacitance ratio low, but absolute volume is high) Diagnosis • clinically detectable when >500 ml Investigations • diagnostic paracentesis - should be done on most patients • first aliquot sent for cells and differential • second aliquot sent for chemistry (esp. albumin, but also protein, amylase, TG) • third aliquot sent for C&S, Gram stain • fourth aliquot sent for cytology (usually positive in peritoneal carcinomatosis) Treatment • for non-refractory ascites • Na restriction (daily sodium intake 0.25x109 cells / L (250 cells I mm3) or WBC count >0.5x109 cells/ L (500 cells I mm3)

• Gram stain is positive in only 10-50% of patients • culture is positive in only 80% of patients (i.e. not needed for diagnosis)

• treatment

• IV antibiotics (cefotaxime 2 g q12 h is the treatment of choice for 5-10 days; modify if response inadequate, culture shows resistant organisms

• prophylaxis long-term indicated after recovery from one episode of sBp,

prophylaxis short term if GI bleeding in cirrhosis, with daily norfloxacin or TMP-SMX for 5-7 days may decrease the frequency of recurrent sBp, use if GI bleeding I previous sBP • IV albumin (1.5 g / kg first dose, 1 g / kg day 3) decreases mortality

B i l iary Tract

RBC destruction ( reticulo·endothelial system)

t t

Hb -----... globin

Jaundice

1-0"

Heme

• see Table 22, Figures 13 and 14

Signs and Symptoms • dark urine, pale stools - suggests that bilirubin elevation is from direct fraction • pruritus - suggests chronic disease • abdominal pain - suggests biliary tract obstruction from stone or pancreatic tumour (obstructive jaundice) • painless jaundice - think of pancreatic cancer Investigations • conjugated (direct) bilirubin is elevated; also, increased AST, ALT, GGT, ALP • U/S for evidence of bile duct obstruction (e.g. bile duct dilation) • direct bile duct visualization • magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) - non-invasive • endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) - invasive, most accurate, allows for therapeutic intervention • percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC) - if ERCP fails, if obstruction is in liver • liver biopsy usually not required



Bilirubin (unconjugated) � Alb

Bilirubin · Alb

t

LIVER Glucuronyl transferase conjugates bilirubin

� �

1 5·20%

reabsorbed via entero· hepatic Biliary excretion into duodenum circulation Intestinal flora

Urobilinogen

+70.85%



----�

10%

excreted via urine

Stercobilinogen

Stool

Figure 1 3 . Production and Excretion of Bilirubin

Toronto Notes 2010

Biliary Tract

G44 Gastroenterology

Table 22. Classification of Jaundice

I. Predominantly Unconjugated Hyperbilirubinemia 1 . Overproduction • Hemolysis • Ineffective erythropoiesis (megaloblastic anemias, others) 2. Decreased hepatic uptake • Gilbert's syndrome • Drugs (e.g. rifampin) 3. Decreased conjugation • Drug inhibition (e.g. chloramphenicol) • Crigler-Najjar syndromes type I and II • Neonatal jaundice • Gilbert's syndrome II. Predominantly Conjugated Hyperbilirubinemia 1 . Impaired hepatic secretion • Familial disorders (e.g. Rotor syndrome, Dubin-Johnson syndrome, cholestasis of pregnancy) • Hepatocellular disease - by far the most common • Drug-induced cholestasis (e.g. oral contraceptives, chlorpromazine) • Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) • Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) • Sepsis • Post-operative 2. Extrahepatic biliary obstruction • Intraductal obstruction Gallstones Biliary stricture Parasites Malignancy (cholangiocarcinoma) Sclerosing cholangitis • Extraductal obstruction Malignancy (e.g. pancreatic cancer, lymphoma) Metastases in peri-portal nodes Inflammation (e.g. pancreatitis) • •

• • •







Jaundice (1' serum bilirubin)

7 �'V

Fractionate bilirubin

Chi." """"i

Hemolysis Gilbert's syndrome

""i","·'

Hepatobiliary disease Abdominal ultrasound

y\

Bile duct norm

Hepatocellular disease Drugs Alcohol Virus Autoimmune Hemochromatosis Wilson's disease etc.

Bile duct dilated

bile duct obstruction Visualize bile duct endoscopic Endoscopic bile duct bile duct decompression decompression not likely likely to be to be necessary necessary MRCP

ERCP

Figure 1 4. Approach to Jaundice

Gilbert's Syndrome Definition • mild decrease in glucuronyltransferase activity leading to defective conjugation of bilirubin; complete deficiency of glucuronyltransferase - Crigler-Najjar Syndrome EtiologyIEpidemiology • some patients have decreased hepatobiliary uptake • affects 7% of population, especially males • autosomal dominant, 70% due to a mutation in the UGr gene

Toronto Notes 2010

Biliary Tract

Gastroenterology G45

Signs and Symptoms • presents in teens-20s, often as an incidental finding • only manifestation is intermittent jaundice with increased serum unconjugated bilirubin developing most characteristically while fasting; no other clinical implications • no treatment indicated (entirely benign)

Sclerosing Cholangitis ....

Definition • inflammation of biliary tree (intra and/ or extrahepatic bile ducts) leading to scarring and obliteration Etiology • primary / idiopathic • most common • associated with lED in up to 70% (usually male) • one of the most common indications for transplant • secondary - less common • long-term choledocholithiasis • cholangiocarcinoma • surgical/ traumatic injury (iatrogenic) • contiguous inflammatory process • post ERCP • associated with AIDS ("HIV cholangiopathy") Signs and Symptoms • often insidious, may present with fatigue and pruritus • may present with signs of episodic bacterial cholangitis secondary to biliary obstruction Diagnosis • hallmark increased ALp, less often increased bilirubin • minor increased AST, usually 5 times normal, the cause is almost always pancreatitis or renal disease

.... ' ,

�}-------,

Pancreatic Enzymes • • • •

Amylase Lipase Trypsin Chymotrypsin

Causes of I ncreased Serum lipase • pancreatic disease • same as above • non-pancreatic abdominal disease (mild elevations only) • same as above • non-abdominal disease • macrolipasemia • renal failure

Acute Pancreatitis Etiology Idiopathic: thought to be hypertensive sphincter or microlithiasis Gallstones (45%) Ethanol (35%) Tumours: pancreas, ampulla, choledochocele Scorpion stings Microbiological • bacterial: mycoplasma, Campylobacter, TB, M. avium intracellulare, Legionella, leptospirosis • viral: mumps, rubella, varicella, viral hepatitis, CMY, EBY, HIV, Coxsackie virus, echovirus, adenovirus • parasites: ascariasis, clonorchiasis, echinococcosis Autoimmune: SLE, polyarteritis nodosa (PAN), Crohn's Surgery / trauma • manipulation of sphincter of Oddi (e.g. ERCP), post-cardiac surgery, blunt trauma to abdomen, penetrating peptic ulcer

,"'

When thinking about the causes of acute pancreatitis remember: I GET SMASHED

G48 Gastroenterology

Pancreas

Toronto Notes 2010

Hyperlipidemia (TG >11.3 mmol / L; >1000 mg l dL), hypercalcemia, hypothermia Emboli or ischemia Drugs I toxins • azathioprine, mercaptopurine, furosemide, estrogens, methyldopa, H2-blockers, valproic acid, antibiotics, acetaminophen, salicylates, ethanol, methanol, organophosphates, steroids (controversial)

.... ' ,

��------,

Rule out other causes with specific treatment before making diagnosis of acute pancreatitis, which can only be treated by supportive means.

Differential Diagnosis • perforated peptic ulcer • biliary colic • acute cholangitis, acute cholecystitis • fatty infiltration of the liver (alcohol) • small bowel obstruction (SBO) • perforated I ischemic bowel • mesenteric infarction • dissecting aneurysm • nephrolithiasis • acute coronary occlusion / MI Pathology • activation of proteolytic enzymes within pancreatic cells � local + systemic inflammatory response • mild • peripancreatic fat necrosis • interstitial edema • severe • extensive peri pancreatic and intrapancreatic fat necrosis • parenchymal necrosis and hemorrhage � infection in 60% • release of toxic factors into systemic circulation and peritoneal space (causes multi­ organ failure) • severity of clinical features may not always correlate with pathology • 3 phases • local inflammation + necrosis � hypovolemia • systemic inflammation in multiple organs, especially in lungs, usually after IV fluids given � pulmonary edema • Tocal complications 2 weeks after presentation � pancreatic sepsis I abscess

.... ' ,

�,-------,

Increased amylase •

Sensitive, not specific

Increased lipase • •

Higher sensitivity and specificity Stays elevated longer

.... ' ,

��------,

Ranson's Criteria: Prognostic Indicator of Mortality in Pancreatitis Not due to Galstones (criteria slightly different for gallstone-induced pancreatitis) At Admission G: Blood glucose > 1 1

mmoVL (> 200 mg/dL) (with no history of hyperglycemia) A: Age >55 L: Serum LDH > 350 lUll A: AST > 250 lUll W: WBC > 1 6 x 1 09IL ( 1 6,000/mm')

During First 48 hours C: Serum calcium 1 0% 0: Arterial PO, 4 mmol/L (>4 mEqIL) B: BUN rise > 1 .8 mmoVL ( > 5 mg/dL) S: Estimated fluid sequestration > 6 L • •

Difficult course � 2 criteria present High mortality if ,,3 criteria present

Signs and Symptoms • clinical • p ain: epigastric, noncolicky, constant, can radiate to back, may improve when leaning forward (Inglefinger's sign); tender rigid abdomen; guarding • nausea and vomiting abdominal distention from paralytic ileus • fever: chemical, not due to infection • jaundice: compression or obstruction of bile duct Cullen's I Grey-Turner's signs • tetany: transient hypocalcemia hypovolemic shock: can lead to renal failure • acute respiratory distress syndrome • coma Investigations • increased serum pancreatic enzymes • increased amylase • increased lip ase • ALT >100 strong ly suggests biliary pancreatitis • increased WBC, glucose, low calcium • imaging • x-ray: "sentinel loop" (dilated proximal jejunem), calcification and "colon cut-off sign" (colonic spasm) • DIS: best for evaluating biliary tree (67% sensitivity, 100% specificity) • CT scan with IV contrast: useful for diagnosis and prognosis because contrast seen only in viable pancreatic tissue, non-viable areas can be biopsied percutaneously to differentiate sterile from infected necrosis • ERCP or MRCP if diagnosis uncertain, searching for duct stone, pancreatic or ampullary tumour, pancreas divisum Prognosis • usually a benign, self-limiting course, single or recurrent • occasionally severe leading to • shock • pulmonary edema • multiorgan dysfunction syndrome • GI ulceration due to stress • death

Pancreas

Toronto Notes 2010

• mortality according to Ranson's criteria (requires 48h to compute)

• • • •

:;;;2 criteria = ;�7m;V �== == == = Peritoneum �------

General Surgery GS3

+

Scarpa's Fascia)

�:::-:::��1 --

= = = :: � ; � ; � � � � � � � � j���I ::=========

}------ Inferior Epigastric Artery

����;i=�:: ��������� :

Below Arcuate Line

Skin "'------- Superficial Fascia "'------- External Oblique "'----- Internal Oblique ��: ------ Transversus Abdominus Transversalis Fascia Extraperitoneal Fat ______ -- Peritoneum - -

�����������������=::::::::::::::=



Figure 3, Midline Cross-Section of Abdominal Wall

Organ

Arteries

Liver Spleen

left and right hepatic (branches of hepatic proper) Splenic

Gallbladder

Cystic

Stomach

1 ) lesser curve·right and left gastric 2) Greater curve·right and left gastroepiploic (gastro·omental) 3) Fundus·short gastrics (off splenic)

Duodenum

I) Gastroduodenal 2) Pancreaticoduodenals (off superior mesenteric)

Pancreas

I ) Splenic branches 2) Pancreaticoduodenals

Small intestine

I) Superior mesenteric branches·jejunal, ileal, ileocolic

large intestine

1 . Celiac artery 2, Common hepatic artery 3, Hepatic proper

4. Left hepatic artery 5. Right hepatic artery 6. Left gastric artery 7. Right gastric artery 8. Gastroduodenal artery 9, Splenic artery

Figure 4, Blood Supply to the GI Tract

1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8.

Superior mesenteric artery Middle colic artery Right colic artery Ileocolic artery Jejunal and Ileal branches Inferior mesenteric artery Left colic artery Sigmoid arteries Superior rectal artery

I) Superior mesenteric branches·right colic, middle colic 2) Inferior mesenteric branches·left colic, sigmoid, rectal

ID U C

� @

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations

GS4 General Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations Acute Abdominal Pain Table 1 . Differential Diagnosis of Acute Abdominal Pain

..... ' , .�------, In all patients presenting with an acute abdomen, order the following lab tests: 1 . amylase/lipase 2. urinalysis 3. beta-hCG (in women) 4. consider CXR + troponins

This will help rule out "non-GI surgical" causes!

..... ' , .�------, Pancreatitis can look like a surgical abdomen, but is rarely an indication for laparotomy.

..... ' , .�------, Referred Pain

Biliary colic: to right shoulder or scapula Renal colic: to groin Appendicitis: periumbilical to right lower quadrant (RLQ) Pancreatitis: to back Ruptured aortic aneurysm: to back or flank Perforated ulcer: to RLQ (right paracolic gutter) Hip pain: to groin

RUG

EPIGASTRIC

LUG

Hepatobiliary Biliary Colic Cholecystitis Cholangitis Mirizzi Syndrome CBD obstruction (stone, tumour) Hepatitis (infection, toxic, Budd-Chiari, etc) Hepatic Abscess Hepatic Mass Hepatomegaly Fitz-Hugh Curtis Right subphrenic abscess Gastrointestinal Presentation of gastric, duodenal or pancreatic pathology (see epigastric and LUQ) Appendicitis in pregnancy > 20 wks Hepatic flexure pathology (CRC, subcostal incisional hernia) Genitourinary Nephrolithiasis! Renal Colic Pyelonephritis Renal: mass, ischemia, trauma Cardiopulmonary RLL Pneumonia RLL empyema CHF (causing hepatic congestion and R pleural effusion) MI (ischemia) Pericarditis Pleuritis Miscellaneous Herpes Zoster Trauma Costochondritis

Cardiac Aortic Dissection/Ruptured AM MI (ischemia) Pericarditis Gastrointestinal Gastritis Peptic Ulcer DiseaselDuodenal Ulcer GERD/Esophagitis Medications (NSAIDs, ASA, steroids, laxatives, narcotics, some antibiotics) Mallory-Weiss Tear Other: hepatobiliary and pancreatic causes

Pancreatic Pancreatitis (Acute vs. Chronic) Pancreatic Pseudocyst Pancreatic Tumours (note Courvosiers Sign painless mass + jaundice, but pain is still possible) Gastrointestinal See 'Epigastric' causes Splenic flexure pathology (e.g. CRC, ischemia) Splenic Splenomegaly Splenic Rupture Splenic Infarct/Abscess Splenic Aneurysm Cardiopulmonary See RUQ and epigastric causes MI (ischemia) Genitourinary See RUQ causes

DIFFUSE Peritonitis Hemo/pneumo/fecoperitoneum Perforated viscus (duodenal ulcer, sigmoid diverticulitis, meckels, appendicitis, anastomotic leak, trauma) Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis Post laparoscopic insufflation Pancreatitis Often better on leaning forward and more of a 'retroperitoneal pain' Gastrointestinal Mesenteric Ischemia ('pain out of proportion to physical findings') Inflammatory Bowel Disease (Crohn's, Ulcerative Colitis, IBD NOS) Irritable Bowel Syndrome Gastroenteritis Medications (i.e. stimulant laxatives, chemotherapy) Pan-colitis (pseudomembranous, ischemic, infectious) Constipation Bowel Obstruction Early appendicitis, perforated appendicitis Ogilvie's Syndrome Cardiovascular/Hematological Aortic Dissection/ Ruptured AM Sickle Cell Crisis Porphyria Genitourinary/Gynecological Perforated Ectopic Pregnancy PID Acute Urinary Retention Endocrinological Carcinoid Syndrome Diabetic Keto-Acidosis Addisonian Crisis Uremia Hypercalcemia Psychological Munchausen Syndrome Depression Visceral Hypersensitivity Syndrome Other Lead poisoning Tertiary syphillis

=

Toronto Notes 2010

General Surgery

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations

Table 1 . Differential Diagnosis of Acute Abdominal Pain (continued) RLG

SUPRAPUBIC

LLG

Gastrointestinal Appendicitis Appendiceal Phlegmon (post perforated appendicitis) Crohn's Disease Typhlitis (in immunosuppressed/ chemo patients) Tuberculosis of the ileocecal junction Cecal tumour Intussusception Mesenteric Lympadenitis Cecal Diverticulitis Cecal Volvulus Hernia: Amyands, Femoral, Inguinal Obstruction (and resulting cecal distention) Gynecological See 'suprapubic' Genitourinary See 'suprapubic' Extraperitoneal Abdominal wall hematoma/abscess Psoas Abscess Hepatosplenomegaly

Gastrointestinal Any etiology in either of the lower quadrants Acute appendicitis IBO Gynecological Mittelschmirtz (Ruptured Graffian Follicle) PID Ectopic Pregnancy Ovarian Torsion Hemorrhagic Fibroid Endometriosis Threatenedllncomplete Abortion Tubo-Ovarian Abscess Hydrosalphinx/Salpingitis Gynecological Tumours Genitourinary Cystitis (infectious, hemmorhagic) Hydroureter/Urinary Colic Epididymitis Testicular Torsion Acute Urinary Retention Vascular IVC thrombus Extraperitoneal rectus sheath hematoma (localized to midline)

Gastrointestinal Diverticulitis Diverticulosis Colon/Sigmoid/Rectal Ca Fecal Impaction Proctitis (Ulcerative Colitis, infectious; i.e. gonococcus or chlamydia) Sigmoid Volvulus See gynecological, urological, vascular and extraperitoneal as per RLG and suprapubic

Abdominal Mass Table 2. Differential Diagnosis of Abdominal Mass Right Upper Quadrant (RUG)

Upper Midline

Left Upper Quadrant (LUG)

Gallbladder - cholecystitis, cholangiocarcinoma, cholelithiasis

Pancreas - pancreatic adenocarcinoma, IPMT, other pancreatic cancer, pseudocyst

Spleen - splenomegaly, tumour, abscess, subcapsular splenic hemorrhage, can also present as RLQ mass if extreme splenomegaly

Biliary tract - Klatskin tumour

Abdominal aorta - AAA (pulsatile)

Stomach - tumour

Liver - hepatomegaly, hepatitis, abscess, Gastric tumour (adenocarcinoma, tumour (hepatocellular carcinoma, gastrointestinal stromal tumour, carcinoid metastatic tumour, etc.) tumour), MALT Iympoma

�dications for Urgent Operation

Right Lower Quadrant (RLG)

Lower Midline

Left Lower Quadrant (LLG)

Intestine - stool, tumour (CRC), mesenteric adenitis, appendicitis, appendicial phlegmon or other abscess, typhlitis, intussuception, Crohn's inflammation

Uterus - pregnancy, leoimyoma (fibroid), uterine cancer, pyometria, hematometria

Intestine - stool, tumour, abscess (see RLQ)

Ovary - ectopic pregnancy, cyst (physiological vs. pathological), tumour (serous, mucinous, struma ovarii, germ cell, krukenberg)

GU - bladder distention, tumour

Ovary - ectopic pregnancy, cyst, tumour (see RLQ)

Fallopian tube - ectopic pregnancy, tubo-ovarian abscess, hydrosalpinx, tumour

Fallopian tube - ectopic pregnancy, tubo­ ovarian abscess, hydrosalpinx, tumour

G I Bleeding • see Gastroenterology, G26-28

Indications for Surgery • failure of medical management • prolonged bleeding, significant blood loss (requiring >6 units of pRBCs in a short period of time), high rate of bleeding, associated with hypotension • bleeding that persists despite endoscopic and angiographic therapeutic maneuvers

IHOP Ischemia Hemorrhage Obstruction Perforation

GS5

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations

GS6 General Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Surgical Management of GI Bleeding • Upper GI Bleeding • bleeding from a source proximal to the ligament of Treitz • often presents with hematemesis and melena unless very brisk (then can present with BRBPR, hypotension, tachycardia) • traditionally managed by endoscopy; if it fails, then consider surgery • Lower GI Bleeding • bleeding from a source distal to the ligament of Treitz • often presents with BRBPR unless proximal to transverse colon (may occasionally present with melena) • initial management with colonoscopy to detect and potentially stop source of bleeding • may require more tests (angiography, RBC scan) to determine source, if no source found on above tests, then surgical intervention Table 3. Differential Diagnosis of GI Bleeding Anatomical Source

Etiology

Hematological



Nose

Excess Anticoagulation (coumadin, heparin, etc)

• •

DlC Congenital bleeding disorders



Epistaxis



Esophageal Varices Mallory-Weiss Tear Esophagitis



Gastritis Gastric Varices Dieulafoy Lesion

• •

Gastric Ulcer Gastric Cancer'

Duodenal Ulcer Perforated Duodenal Ulcer'



Duodenal Cancer'



Jejunum



Tumours'

Ileum and Ileocecal Junction



Meckel's Diverticulum (rare surgical management) • Small bowel obstruction



Crohn's Disease' Tuberculosis of ileocecal junction





Esophagus

• •

Stomach

• • •

Duodenum

Large Intestine



Colorectal Cancer' Mesenteric Thrombosis! Ischemic Bowel' • Ulcerative Colitis' (subtotal colectomy if failure of medical management) • Angiodysplasia •

Sigmoid

• •



Rectum and Anus



Diverticulosis (usually)' Sigmoid Cancer' Bleeding post polypectomy

Hemorrhoids Fissures • Rectal Cancer' • Anal Varices •

Aorto-esophageal fistula (generally post endovascular aortic repair)' • Esophageal cancer



Crohn's Disease Uess frequently presents with bleeding), Pancolitis (infectious, chemotherapy or radiation induced) • Bleeding post gastrointestinal anastamosis





Polyps' (surgical management if not amenable to colonosocopic polypectomy) • Inflammatory bowel disease OBD) •

Polyps' (surgical management if not amenable to polypectomy) • Crohn's or Ulcerative Colitis' • Solitary rectal ulcer syndrome

*Managed surgically in most cases

� "

, , �

Indirect

Direct

Urine

Urobilinogen Bilirubin

Fecal

Urobilinogen

Prehepatic Intrahepatic Posthepatic t

Differential Diagnosis • pre-hepatic: pathology occuring prior to the liver hemolysis • Gilbert's disease, Crigler-Najjar disease • hepatic: pathology occuring at the level of the liver • viral hepatitis • alcoholic hepatitis, cirrhosis • drug-induced hepatitis - acetaminophen, erythromycin, isoniazid, valproic acid, phenytoin, oral contraceptive pill Dubin-Johnson syndrome • post-hepatic: pathology is located after the conjugation of bilirubin in the liver • choledocholithiasis, cholangitis, sclerosing cholangitis, choledochal cyst • benign biliary stricture • carcinoma - bile duct, head of pancreas, ampulla of Vater, duodenum •

Bilirubin Levels Serum bilirubin

Jaundice

t

N

N

t

t

t

t

Absent

t

t

Absent

+

+

Toronto Notes 2010

General Surgery GS7

Preoperative Preparation/Surgical Complications

Preoperative Prepa rations Considerations • informed consent (see EthicaL Legal and Organizational Aspects of Medicine, ELOAM8) • consults - anesthesia, medicine, cardiology as indicated • NPO after midnight, AAT (activity as tolerated), VSR (vital signs routine) • IV - balanced crystalloid at maintenance rate (4:2:1 rule � roughly 100-125 cc/hr): normal saline or Ringer's lactate; bolus to catch up on estimated losses including losses from bowel prep • patient's regular meds including prednisone - consider pre-op stress dose if prednisone used in past year • prophylactic antibiotics (within 1 hour prior to incision): usually cefazolin (AncefTM) ± metronidazole (FlagylTM) • bowel prep: cleans out bowel and decreases bacterial population • oral cathartic (e.g. fleet Phosphosoda™) starting previous day • used for left-sided or rectal resections (routine use is controversial and probably unnecessary) • consider DVT prophylaxis for all inpatient surgery (heparin) • hold ASA x 1 week preop • smoking cessation x 6 weeks preop can significantly decrease postop complications Investigations • blood components: group and screen or cross and type depending on procedure • CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine • INR/PT, PTT with history of bleeding disorder • ABGs if predisposed to respiratory insufficiency • CXR (PA and lateral) if >50 years old or previously abnormal within past 6 months • ECG if >50 years old or as indicated by history Drains • nasogastric (NG) tube • indications: gastric decompression, analysis of gastric contents, irrigation/ dilution of gastric contents, feeding (only if necessary due to risk of aspiration � naso-jejunal tube preferable) • contraindications: suspected basal skull fracture, obstruction of nasal passages due to trauma • Foley catheter • indications: to accurately monitor urine output, decompression of bladder, relieve obstruction • contraindications: suspected disruption of the urethra, difficult insertion of catheter

""

Approach to the Critically III SurgicaVTrauma Patient ABC, I'M FINE ABC IV: 2 large bore IV's with NS, I M F I N E

wide open Monitors: 0, sat, ECG, BP Foley catheter to measure urine output Investigations: bloodwork NG tube if indicated "Ex" rays (abdomen 3 views, CXR), other imaging

�' Pre and Post·Op Orders Admit to ward X under Dr. Y Diagnosis Diet Activity V itals IV, Investigations, Ins & Outs Drugs, dressings, drains Special procedures

," '

DRUGS - 5 A's Analgesia Anti-emetic Anti-coagulation Antibiotics All other patient meds

Surgical Compl ications Post-Operative Fever • fever does not necessarily imply infection • timing of fever may help identify cause • POD #0-2

• atelectasis (most common cause of fever on POD # 1 ) • early wound infection (especially Clostridium, Group A Streptococcus - feel for crepitus and look for "dishwater" drainage)

• aspiration pneumonitis • other: Addisonian crisis, thyroid storm, transfusion reaction

• POD #3

• infections more likely • UTI, wound infection, IV site infection, septic thrombophlebitis

• POD #5+

leakage at bowel anastomosis (tachycardia, hypotension, oliguria, abdominal pain) intra-abdominal abscess (usually POD #5-10) DVT/PE (can be anytime post-op, most commonly POD # 7-10) drug fever (POD # 6-10) • other: cholecystitis, peri-rectal abscess, URTI, infected seroma /biloma/hematoma, parotitis, C. difficile colitis, endocarditis

• • • •

Treatment • treat primary cause • antipyrexia (e.g. acetaminophen)

,"

"5 W's"

of Post·Op Fever

Wind (pulmonary) Water ( urine-UTI) Wound Walk ( DVT/PE) Wonder drugs (drug fever) Correlate with time spent in post-op period.

GS8 General Surgery

Surgical Complications

Toronto Notes 2010

Wound Complications WOU N D CARE • wounds are closed to external environment 48 hours after closure • dressings applied in the operating room can be removed POD #2-4 • leave uncovered if wound is dry • remove dressings if wet, signs of infection (fever, tachycardia, pain) • examination of the wound: inspect, compress adjacent areas, swab drainage for C&S and Gram stain • skin sutures and staples can be removed POD #5 • exceptions: incision crosses crease (groin), closed under tension, in extremeities (hand) or patient factors (elderly, corticosteroid use) removed POD # 14, earlier if signs of infection • can bathe POD #2-3 • negative pressure dressings consists of gel foam and suction, promotes granulation • ideal for large (grafted sites) or nonhealing wounds (irradiated skin, ulcer) DRAINS • placed intra-operatively to prevent fluid accumulation (blood, pus, serum, bile, urine) • potential route of infection, bring out through separate incision (vs. operative wound) to decrease risk of wound infection • types of drains • open (Penrose), higher risk of infection • closed Oackson-Pratt, Blake) connected to suction • sump (Davol) suction with airflow system to prevent obstruction • monitor drain outputs daily • drains should be removed once minimal drainage WOU N D INFECTION Etiology •

S. aureus, E. coli, Enterococcus, Streptococcus spp., Clostridium spp.

Risk Factors • type of procedure • clean (elective, not emergency, not traumatic, no acute inflammation, resp/GI/biliary /GU tracts not entered): 50, smoking, BMI 3 cm) + no colonic gas

Air·fluid levels "Picture frame" appearance Proximal distention + distal decompression No small bowel air if competent ileocecal valve

Air throughout small bowel and colon

Complications • strangulating obstruction (10% of bowel obstructions) - surgical emergency • cramping pain turns to continuous ache, hematemesis, melena (if infarction) • fever, leukocytosis, tachycardia • peritoneal signs, early shock • see also Intestinal Ischemia, GS26 • other • perforation: secondary to ischemia and luminal distention • septicemia • hypovolemia (due to third spacing)

femoral hernia © Jason Sharpe 2003

Figure 1 1 . Schematic of Inguinal (Direct and Indirect) and Femoral Hernias

GS24 General Surgery

.... ' � ��-------; Increased Risk of Perforation with Distention as seen on Abdo Imaging

Small bowel " 3 em Distal colon " 6 em Proximal colon " 9 em Cecum ,, 1 2 em

Bowel Obstruction

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations • radiological • upright CXR or left lateral decubitus (LLD) to rule out free air • abdominal x-ray (3 views) to determine SBO vs. LBO vs. ileus (see Table 7) • if ischemic bowel look for: free air, pneumatosis, thickened bowel wall, air in portal vein, dilated small and large bowels, haustra become thickened (fingerlike projections) before finally becoming featureless and hoselike in appearance • other • CT provides information on level of obstruction, severity, cause • upper GI series/small bowel series for SBO (if no cause apparent, i.e. no hernias, no previous surgeries) • if suspect LBO, consider a rectal water-soluble (Gastrografin™ if given PO/ PR; Hypaque™ if given IV) enema rather than barium enema (can inspissate and cause complete obstruction) • may consider ultrasound in pregnant patients • laboratory • may be normal early in disease course • BUN, creatinine, hematocrit (hemoconcentration) to assess degree of dehydration • fluid, electrolyte abnormalities • amylase elevated • metabolic alkalosis due to frequent emesis • if strangulation: leukocytosis with left shift, lactic acidosis, elevated LDH (late signs)

Small Bowel Obstruction (SBO) t"

Top 3 Causes of SBO

Adhesions > Bulge (hernias) > Cancer (neoplasms)

Etiology • extrinsic: adhesions (60%) - if previous abdo surgery > hernia (20%) > volvulus, neoplasm, annular pancreas • intraluminal: gallstone, feces, meconium, foreign body, intussusception • intrinsic: neoplasm (15% ) > strictures (Crohn's, radiation) > congenital malformations, cystic fibrosis, superior mesenteric artery syndrome (compression of 3rd part of duodenum by aorta and overlying SMA) Treatment • consider whether complete or partial obstruction, ongoing or impending strangulation, location and cause stabilize vitals, fluid and electrolyte resuscitation (with normal saline/Ringer's first, then with added potassium after fluid deficits are corrected) NG tube to relieve vomiting, prevent aspiration and decompress small bowel by prevention of further distention by swallowed air Foley catheter to monitor in/outs SBO with history of abdo/pelvic surgery � conservative management (likely to resolve) � surgery if no resolution in 48-72 hrs or complications complete SBO, strangulation � urgent surgery after stabilizing patient trial of medical management may be indicated in Crohn's, recurrent SBO, carcinomatosis special case: early post-operative SBO (within 30 days of abdominal surgery) ­ prolonged trial of conservative therapy is appropriate, surgery is reserved for complications such as strangulation Prognosis • mortality: non-strangulating 36 hours), ischemic = up to 50%

Large Bowel Obstruction (LBO)

--------�

Etiology

.... ' � ��------� In a patient with clinical LBO, a cecum ,, 1 2 em may denote impending perforation.

• • • •

colorectal carcinoma (65%)

diverticulitis (20%) - strictures from repeated attacks volvulus (5%) - sigmoid > cecum other causes: IBD, benign tumours, fecal impaction, foreign body, adhesions, hernia (especially sliding type), intussusception (children), endometriosis, extrinsic mass

Clinical Features (unique to LBO) • open loop (10-20%) (safe) • incompetent ileocecal valve allows relief of colonic pressure as contents reflux into ileum, therefore clinical presentation similar to SBO • closed loop (80-90%) (dangerous) • competent ileocecal valve, allowing build up of colonic pressures to dangerous level • massive colonic distention � high risk of perforation, ischemia • cecum at greatest risk of perforation due to Laplace's Law (pressure = wall tension/radius) • suspect impending perforation in the presence of tenderness over the cecum

Toronto Notes 2010

Bowel Obstruction/Pseudo-Obstruction

General Surgery GS25

Treatment • initial management: correct fluid and electrolyte imbalance, NG suction, continuous observation • surgical correction of obstruction (usually requires resection + temporary diverting colostomy) • volvulus requires sigmoidoscopic or endoscopic decompression followed by operative reduction if unsuccessful • if successful, consider sigmoid resection on same admission Prognosis • overall mortality: 10% • cecal perforation + feculent peritonitis: 20% mortality

Pseudo- Obstruction Differential Diagnosis • acute: toxic megacolon, trauma, post-operative, neurologic disease, retroperitoneal disease • chronic: neurologic disease (enteric, central, peripheral nervous systems), scleroderma

Toxic Megacolon Pathogenesis • extension of inflammation into smooth muscle layer causing paralysis • damage to myenteric plexus and electrolyte abnormalities are not consistently found Etiologies • inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis > CroJm's Disease) • infectious colitis: bacterial (c. difficile, Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter), viral (cytomegalovirus), parasitic (E. histolytica) • volvulus, diverticulitis, ischemic colitis, obstructing colon cancer are rare causes Clinical Features • infectious colitis usually present for >1 week before colonic dilatation • diarrhea ± blood (but improvement of diarrhea may portend onset of megacolon) • abdominal distention, tenderness, ± local/general peritoneal signs (suggest perforation) • triggers: hypokalemia, constipating agents (opioids, antidepressants, loperamide, anticholinergics), barium enema, colonoscopy Diagnostic Criteria • must have both colitis and systemic manifestations for diagnosis • radiologic evidence of dilated colon • three of: fever, HR >120, WBC >10.5, anemia • one of: fluid and electrolyte disturbances, hypotension, altered LaC Investigations • CBC (leukocytosis with left shift, anemia from bloody diarrhea), electrolytes, elevated CRP, ESR • metabolic alkalosis (volume contraction and hypokalemia) and hypoalbuminemia are late findings • AXR: dilated colon >6 cm (right > transverse > left), loss of haustra • CT: useful to assess underlying disease Treatment • NPO, NG tube, stop constipating agents, correct fluid and electrolyte abnormalities, transfusion • serial AXRs • broad-spectrum antibiotics (reduce sepsis, anticipate perforation) • aggressive treatment of underlying disease (e.g. steroids in lED, metronidazole for C. difficile) • indications for surgery (50% improve on medical management): • worsening or p ersisting toxicity or dilation after 48-72 hrs • severe hemorrhage, perforation • procedure: subtotal colectomy + end ileostomy with 2nd operation for re-anastomosis Prognosis • average 25-30% mortality

Paralytic Ileus Pathogenesis • temporary paralysis of the myenteric plexus Associations • post-operative, intra-abdominal sepsis, medications (opiates, anesthetics, psychotropics), electrolyte disturbances (Na, K, Ca), C. difficile, inactivity

"' , �,------, Be careful when giving antidiarrheals, especially with bloody diarrhea.

Pseudo-Obstruction/Intestinal Ischemia

GS26 General Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Treatment • NG decompression, NPO, fluid resuscitation, correct causative abnormalities (e.g. sepsis, medications, electrolytes), consider TPN for prolonged ileus • post-op: gastric and small bowel motility returns by 24-48 hrs, colonic motility by 3-5 d • current interest in novel therapies such as gum chewing and pharmacologic therapy (opiod antagonists, neostigmine)

Ogilvie's Syndrome acute pseudo-obstruction distention of colon without mechanical obstruction in distal colon arises in bedridden patients with serious extraintestinal illness or trauma exact mechanism unknown, likely autonomic motor dysregulation � possibly sympathetic deprivation to colon, unopposed parasympathetic tone, and interruption of sacral parasympathetic tone to distal bowel • first presents with abdominal distention (>90%) ± tenderness • later symptoms mimic true obstruction

• • • •

Associations • most common: trauma, infection, cardiac (MI, CHF) • disability (long term debilitation, chronic disease, bed-bound nursing home patients, paraplegia), drugs (narcotic use, laxative abuse, polypharmacy), other (recent orthopaedic or neurosurgery, post-partum, hypokalemia, retroperitoneal hematoma, diffuse carcinomatosis) Investigations • AXR: cecal dilatation - if diameter >12 cm, increased risk of perforation Treatment • treat underlying cause • NPO, NG tube • decompression: rectal tube, colonoscopy, neostigmine (cholinergic drug), surgical decompression (ostomy/resection) uncommon • surgery (extremely rare): if perforation, ischemia or failure of conservative management Prognosis • most resolve with conservative management

I ntestinal Ischemia "' , ,�------, Pain "out of keeping with physical findings" is the hallmark of early intestinal ischemia.

"

' , ,�------.

An acute abdomen + metabolic acidosis is bowel ischemia until proven otherwise.

Etiology • acute: • arterial • occlusive: thrombotic, embolic, extrinsic compression (e.g. strangulating hernia) • non-occlusive: mesenteric vasoconstriction 2° to systemic hypoperfusion (preserves supply to vital organs) • trauma/dissection • venous thrombosis (prevents venous outflow): consider hypercoagulable state, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) • chronic: usually due to atherosclerotic disease - look for CVS risk factors Clinical Features • acute: severe abdominal pain out of proportion to physical findings, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, bloating, minimal peritoneal signs early in course, hypotension, shock, sepsis • chronic: postprandial pain, fear of eating, weight loss • common sites: superior mesenteric artery (SMA) supplied territory, "watershed" areas of colon (splenic flexure, left colon, sigmoid colon) Investigations • labs: leukocytosis (non-specific), lactic acidosis (late finding) • amylase, LDH, CK, ALP can be used to observe progress • hypercoagulability workup if suspect venous thrombosis • AXR: portal venous gas, intestinal pneumatosis, free air if perforation • contrast CT: thickened bowel wall, luminal dilatation, SMA or SMV thrombus, mesenteric/portal venous gas, pneumatosis • CT angiography is the gold standard for acute arterial ischemia Treatment • fluid resuscitation, NPO, prophylactic broad-spectrum antibiotics • exploratory laparotomy • angiogram, embolectomy/thrombectomy, bypass/graft, mesenteric endarterectomy, anticoagulation therapy • segmental resection of necrotic intestine • assess extent of viability; if extent of bowel viability is questionable, a second look laparotomy 12-24 hrs later is mandatory (questionable areas will declare themselves)

Toronto Notes 2010

Appendix

General Surgery GS27

Appendix Appendicitis Epidemiology • 6% of population, M>F • 80% between 5-35 years of age Pathogenesis • luminal obstruction � bacterial overgrowth � inflammation/ swelling � increased pressure � localized ischemia � gangrene/perforation � localized abscess (walled off by omentum) or peritonitis • etiology • children or young adult: hyperplasia of lymphoid follicles, initiated by infection • adult: fibrosis/stricture, fecolith, obstructing neoplasm • other causes: parasites, foreign body Clinical Features • most reliable feature is progression of signs and symptoms • low grade fever (38°C), rises if perforation • abdominal pain then anorexia, nausea and vomiting • classic pattern: pain initially periumbilical, constant, dull, poorly localized, then well localized pain over McBurney'S point • due to progression of disease from visceral irritation (causing referred pain from structures of the embryonic midgut, including the appendix) to irritation of parietal structures • McBurney's sign: tenderness 1/3 from anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) to umbilicus • signs: • inferior appendix: McBurney'S sign (see above), Rovsing's sign (palpation pressure to left abdomen causes McBurney'S point tenderness) • retrocecal appendix: psoas sign (pain on flexion of hip against resistance or passive hyperextension of hip) • pelvic appendix: obturator sign (flexion then external or internal rotation about right hip causes pain) • complications: • perforation (especially if >24 h duration) • abscess, phlegmon Investigations • labs • mild leukocytosis with left shift (may have normal WBC counts) • higher leukocyte count with perforation • beta-hCG to rule out ectopic pregnancy, urinalysis • imaging • upright CXR, AXR: usually nonspecific - free air if perforated (rarely), calcified fecolith, loss of psoas shadow • ultrasound: may visualize appendix, but also helps rule out gynecological causes overall accuracy 90-94% • CT scan: thick wall, appendicolith, inflammatory changes - overall accuracy 94-100%, optimal investigation Treatment hydrate, correct electrolyte abnormalities • surgery + antibiotic coverage • if localized abscess (palpable mass or large phlegmon on imaging and often pain >4-5 days), consider radiologic drainage + antibiotics x 14 d + interval appendectomy in 6 weeks • appendectomy • laparoscopic or open • complications: spillage of bowel contents, pelvic abscess, enterocutaneous fistula • perioperative antibiotics: • ampicillin + gentamicin + metronidazole (antibiotics x 24 h only if non-perforated) • other choices: 2nd/3rd generation cephalosporin for aerobic gut organisms •

Prognosis • morbidity / mortality 0.6% if uncomplicated, 5% if perforated

Figure 1 2. Appendix Anatomv

Laparoscopic vs. Open Appendectomy Laparoscopic Surgery

Intra·abdominal abscesses 3 times more likely Mean length of hospital stay reduced by 0.7 d • Sooner retum to nonnal activity, work & sport • Costs outside hospital are reduced • Reduced levels of pain on POD # I •



Open Surgery • •

Wound infections 2 times as likely Lower operation costs

Overview

Diagnostic laparoscopy led to a large reduction in the rate of negative appendectomies, and a reduction in surgeries with unestablished diagnosis. This was especially pronounced in fertile women due to a broader differential for appendicitis. Sauerland S, Lefering R, Neugebauer EAM. Laparoscopic versus open surgery for suspected appendicitis ICochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Ubraty, Issue 3, 2004. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, ltd. Note: EBM on this topic is current as of July 2009

Antibiotics versus Placebo for Preverrtion of Postoperative Infection after Appendectomy

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005; 3 Study: Meta-analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials IRCTs) and Controlled Clinical Trials ICCTs), on both adults and children, in which any antibiotic regime was compared to placebo in patients under­ going appendectomy for suspected appendicitis. Data Sources: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials 12005 issue I), PubMed 11 966 to April 2005), EMBASE 11 9BO to April 2005), Cochrane Colorectal Cancer Group Specialised Register IApri1 2005)' and reference lists from included studies. Patients: Wound infection, 20 studies In=2343). Post·operative Intra·abdominal abscess, 8 studies In=1033). Main Outcomes: I I ) Wound infection Idischarge of pus from the wounds) and 12) Postoperative intra abdominal abscess Ipersistent pyrexia without any other focus, after operation, palpable mass in the abdomen or discharge of pus from the rectum). Results: Treatment with antibiotics decreased infection rates with an NNT =37 Ip7 days NPO) and bowel rest • hold immunosuppressive therapy pre-op, provide pre-op stress dose of corticosteroid if patient has been on recent steroid therapy • deep vein thrombosis (DVT) prophylaxis: heparin (lBD patients at increased risk of thromboembolic events)

Crohn's Disease "' , ��------� Crohn's 3 Major Patterns

• Ileocecal 40% (RLQ pain, fever, weight loss) • Small intestine 30% (especially terminal ileum) • Colon 25% (diarrhea)

,,

' , ��------�

Findings in Crohn's •

• • • •

"Cobblestoning" on mucosal surface due to edema and linear ulcerations "Skip lesions": normal mucosa in between "Creeping fat": mesentery infiltrated by fat Granulomas: 25-30% Barium enema: "lead-pipe appearance"

Treatment • surgery is NOT curative, but over lifetime -70% of Crohn's patients will have surgery • indications for surgical management • failure of medical management • complications • SBO (due to stricture/inflammation): indication in 50% of surgical cases • abscess, fistula (enterocolic, vesicular, vaginal, cutaneous abscess), quality of life, perforation, hemorrhage, chronic disability, failure to thrive (children), perianal disease Procedures • resection and anastomosis/stoma if active or subacute inflammation, perforation, fistula • resection margin only has to be free of gross disease (microscopic disease irrelevant to prognosis) • stricturoplasty - widens lumen in chronically scarred bowel - relieves obstruction without resecting bowel (contraindicated in acute inflammation) Complications of Treatment • short gut syndrome (diarrhea, steatorrhea, malnutrition) • fistulas • gallstones (if terminal ileum resected, decreased bile salt resorption � increased cholesterol precipitation) • kidney stones (loss of calcium in diarrhea � increased oxalate absorption and hyperoxaluria � stones) Prognosis • recurrence rate at 10 years: ileocolic (25-50%), small bowel (50%), colonic (40-50%) • re-operation at 5 years: primary resection (20%), bypass (50%), stricturoplasty (10% at 1 year) • 80-85% of patients who need surgery lead normal lives • mortality: 15% at 30 years

Ulcerative Colitis Treatment • indications for surgical management • failure of medical management (including inability to taper steroids) • complications: hemorrhage, obstruction, perforation, toxic megacolon (emergency), failure to thrive (children) • reduce cancer risk (1-2% risk per year after 10 years of disease)

Inflammatory Bowel Disease/Diverticular Disease

Toronto Notes 2010

General Surgery GS29

Procedures • proctocolectomy and ileal pouch-anal anastomosis ± rectal mucosectomy (operation of choice) • proctocolectomy with permanent end ileostomy (if not a candidate for i1eoanal procedures) • colectomy and ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA) ± rectal mucosectomy • in emergency: total colectomy and ileostomy with Hartmann closure of the rectum, rectal preservation Complications of Treatment • early: bowel obstruction, transient urinary dysfunction, dehydration (high stoma output), anastomotic leak • late: stricture, anal fistula/abscess, pouchitis, poor anorectal function, reduced fertility Prognosis • mortality: 5% over 10 years • total proctocolectomy will completely eliminate risk of cancer • perforation of the colon is the leading cause of death from ulcerative colitis

Diverticular Disease Definitions • diverticulum - abnormal sac or pouch protruding from the wall of a hollow organ • diverticulosis - presence of multiple false diverticuli • diverticulitis - inflammation of diverticuli • right sided (true) diverticuli contains all layers (congenital) (see Figure 13) • left sided (false) diverticuli contains only mucosal and submucosal layers (acquired) =

=

TRUE DIVERTICULUM (full wall thickness)

FALSE DIVERTICULUM (mucosal hernations)

mucosa _____-'-

� �

5� � il\0"" f'::'1 cm, villous, multiple) • age >50 (dominant risk factor in sporadic cases): mean age 70 yrs • IBO (especially UC: risk is 1-2% /yr if UC >10 yrs) • previous colorectal cancer (also gonadal or breast) • diet (increased fat, red meat, decreased fibre) and smoking • diabetes mellitus (insulin is a growth factor for colonic mucosal cells) and acromegaly =

Screening Tools • digital rectal exam (ORE): most common exam, but not recommended as a screening tool • fecal occult blood test (FOBT) • proper test requires 3 samples of stool • still recommended annually by the World Health Organization (WHO) • results in 16-33% reduction in mortality in RCTs • Minnesota Colon Cancer Study: RCT showed that annual FOBT can decrease mortality rate by 1/3 in patients 50-80 years old • sigmoidoscopy • can identify 30-60% of lesions • sigmoidoscopy + FOBT misses 24% of colonic neoplasms • colonoscopy • can remove or biopsy lesions during procedure • can identify proximal lesions missed by sigmoidoscopy • used as follow-up to other tests if lesions found • disadvantages: expensive, not always available, poor compliance, requires sedation, risk of perforation (0.2%) • virtual colonoscopy (CT colonography): 91% sensitive, 17% false positive rate • air contrast barium enema (ACBE): 50% sensitive for large (>1 cm) adenomas, 39% for polyps • carcinogenic embryonic antigen (CEA): to monitor for initial response to treatment, and to assess for recurrence q3 months (not a screening test) Pathogenesis • adenoma-carcinoma sequence; rarely arise de novo Clinical Features (see Table 10) • often asymptomatic • hematochezia/melena, abdominal pain, change in bowel habits • others: weakness, anemia, weight loss, palpable mass, obstruction • 3-5% have synchronous lesions • spread • direct extension, lymphatic, hematogenous (liver most common, lung, rarely bone and brain) • peritoneal seeding: ovary, Blumer's shelf (pelvic cul-de-sac) • intraluminal

"' , , �}-------, Screening for Colorectal Cancer (asymptomatic, no history of UC, polyps, or CRC)

Average risk individuals, at age 50 lincl. those with 2 relat�es with CRG/adenoma, one being a 1st degree relative): • Start screening 10 years prior to the age of the relative's with the earliest onset of carcinoma • FAP genetic testing tve: • Yearly sigmoidoscopy starting at puberty lOS" recommendation) • HNPCC genetic testing tve: • Yearlycolonoscopy starting at age 20 years lOS" recommendation) •

"' ' , ��------. Elderly persons who present with iron-deficiency anemia should be investigated for colon cancer.

Coloreclal Neoplasms/Other Conditions of the Large Intestine

GS34 General Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 0 . Clinical Presentation of CRC "' ,

��------.

Staging for CRC I T" , NoMa II T3.. NoMa III T,N+Ma IV T,N,M,

, �}-------.

,, '

Prognosis for CRC Stage T, NaMa T,NaMa T3NaMa TxN , Ma TxNxM,

5

yr survival % >90 85 70-80 35-65

Combined-modality Treatment for Resectable Metastatic Colorectal Cancer to the Liver: Surgical Resection of Hepatic Hetastases in Combination with Continuous Infusion of Chemotherapy - An Intergroup Study J Clin Oncol2002 20(6):1 499-505 Background: Metastatic spread of colorectal cancer commonly targets the liver, and long­ term outcome studies of surgical resection of hepatic metastases have shown high rates of treatment failure, Arterial chemotherapy regimens targeted to the liver represent a promising adjuvant treatment to reduce recurrence rates, Methods: Patients with 1-3 resectable liver metastases were randomized preoperatively to receive no further intelVention (45 patients, control group) or post-operative floxuridine and fluorouracil (30 patients). Results: 4-year recurrence-free sUlVival rates were 25% for the control group and 46% for the chemotherapy group (P=0.04), with liver recurrence-free rates of 43% and 67% respectively (P =0.03). Conclusions: Adjuvant intra-arterial and intravenous chemotherapy shows promise in preventing hepatic recurrence after surgical resection of colorectal cancer hepatic metastases,

, ��------.

"'

APR removes distal sigmoid colon, rectum and anus, permanent end colostomy required_ LAR removes distal sigmoid and rectum with anastomosis of distal colon to anus.

Removed

Frequency

Right Colon

Left Colon

Rectum

25%

35%

30%

Pathology

Exophytic lesions with occult bleeding Annu)ar, invasive lesions

Symptoms

Weight loss, weakness, rarely obstruction

Constipation ± overflow (alternating Obstruction, tenesmus, rectal bowel patternsI, abdominal pain, bleeding decreased stool caliber, rectal bleeding

Signs

Fe-deficiency anemia, RLQ mass ( 1 0%1

BRBPR, LBO

Ulcerating

Palpable mass on rectal exam (DREI. BRBPR

Investigations • colonoscopy (best), look for synchronous lesions; alternative: air contrast barium enema ("apple core" lesion) + sigmoidoscopy • if a patient is FOBT +ve, has microcytic anemia or has a change in bowel habits, do colonoscopy • metastatic workup: CXR, abdominal CT/ultrasound • bone scan, CT head only if lesions suspected • labs: CBC, urinalysis, liver function tests, CEA (before surgery baseline) • staging (see Table 11) • rectal cancer: pelvic MRI or endorectal ultrasound to determine T and N stage Table 1 1 . TNM Classification System for Staging of Colorectal Carcinoma Primary Tumour m

Regional Lymph Nodes (Nl

TO Tis T1 T2 T3 T4

NO N1 N2 N3

No primary tumour found Carcinoma in situ Invasion into submucosa Invasion into muscularis propria Invasion through muscularis and into serosa Invasion into adjacent structures or organs

Distant Metastasis (Ml

No regional node involvement MO No distant metastasis Metastasis in 1-3 pericolic nodes M1 Distant metastasis Metastasis in 4 or more pericolic nodes Metastasis in any nodes along the course of named vascular trunks

Treatment • surgery (indicated in potentially curable or symptomatic cases - not usually in stage IV) • curative: wide resection of lesion (5 cm margins) with nodes and mesentery • palliative: if distant spread, then local control for hemorrhage or obstruction • 80% of recurrences occur within 2 years of resection • improved survival if metastasis consists of solitary hepatic mass that is resected • colectomy • most patients get primary anastomosis [e_g_ hemicolectomy, low anterior resection (LAR)] (see Figure 17) • if cancer is low in rectum, patient may require an abdominal perineal resection (APR) with a permanent end colostomy, especially if lesion involves the sphincter complex • complications: anastomotic leak or stricture, recurrent disease, pelvic abscess, enterocutaneous fistula • radiotherapy and chemotherapy • chemotherapy (5-FU based regimens): for patients with node-positive disease • radiation: for patients with node-positive or transmural rectal cancer (pre ± post-op), not effective as 10 treatment of colon cancer • adjuvant therapy: chemotherapy (colon) and radiation (rectum) • palliative chemotherapy/radiation therapy for improvement in symptoms and survival • neoadjuvant chemoradiation for T3 or N1 rectal cancer Case Finding for Colorectal Cancer (symptomatic or history of UC, polyps, or CRC) • surveillance (when polyps are found): colonoscopy within 3 years after initial finding • patients with past CRC: colonoscopy every 3-5 years, or more frequently • lED: some recommend colonoscopy every 1-2 years after 8 years of disease (especially UC) Follow-Up • intensive follow up improves overall survival in low risk patients • currently there are no data suggesting optimal follow-up • combination of periodic CT chest/abdo/pelvis, CEA and colonoscopy is recommended

Figure 1 7, Low Anterior Resection

Toronto Notes 2010

Other Conditions of the Large Intestine

General Surgery GS35

Other Conditions of the Large Intestine Angiodysplasia Definition • vascular anomaly: focal submucosal venous dilatation and tortuosity Clinical Features • most frequently in right colon of patients >60 years old • bleeding typically intermittent (melena, anemia, guaiac positive stools) and in the elderly Investigations • endoscopy (cherry red spots, branching pattern from central vessel) • angiography (slow filling/early emptying mesenteric vein, vascular tuft) • RBC technetium-99 scan • barium enema is contraindicated (obscures other x-rays, i.e. angiogram) Treatment • none if asymptomatic • cautery, right hemicolectomy, embolization, vasopressin infusion, sclerotherapy, band ligation, laser, octreotide, and rarely segmental resection if other treatments fail

Volvulus Definition • rotation of segment of bowel about its mesenteric axis • sigmoid (70%), cecum (30%) Risk Factors • age (50% of patients >70 yrs: stretching/elongation of bowel with age is a predisposing factor) • high fibre diet (can cause elongated/redundant colon), chronic constipation, laxative abuse, pregnancy, elderly, bedridden, institutionalized (less frequent evacuation of bowels) • congenitally hypermobile cecum

..... ' , ��-------; Cecal Volvulus

AXR: Central cleft of "coffee bean" sign points to RLQ.

.....

Clinical Features • symptoms due to bowel obstruction (GS23) or bowel ischemia (GS26) Investigations • AXR: "omega", "bent inner-tube", "coffee-bean" signs • barium/gastrograffin enema: "ace of spades" (or "bird's beak") appearance due to funnel-like luminal tapering of lower segment towards volvulus • sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy as appropriate • CT Treatment • initial supportive management with fluid, electrolyte resuscitation • cecum: • nonsurgical • may attempt colonoscopic detorsion and decompression • surgical: • right colectomy + ileotransverse colonic anastomosis • sigmoid • nonsurgical • decompression by flexible sigmoidoscopy and insertion of rectal tube past obstruction • subsequent elective surgery recommended (50-70% recurrence) • surgical: Hartmann procedure (if urgent) • indications: strangulation, perforation or unsuccessful endoscopic decompression

' , ��-------;

Sigmoid Volvulus

AXR: Central cleft of "coffee bean" sign points to LLQ. Barium enema: "ace of spades" or "birds beak" sign.

..... ' , ��-------; Gastric Volvulus

Brochardt's Triad Epigastric distention Failure to pass NG tube Emesis followed by inability to vomit

Treatment: exploratory laparotomy to untwist and gastropexy

Fistula/Ostomies

GS36 General Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Fistula Definition • abnormal communication between two epithelialized surfaces (e.g. enterocutaneous, colovesical, aortoenteric, entero-enteric) �' Why Fistulae Stay Open

FRIENOO

Foreign body Radiation Infection Epithelialization Neoplasm Distal obstruction (most common) Others: increased flow; steroids (may inhibit closure, usually will not maintain fistula)

Etiology • foreign object erosion (e.g. gallstone, graft) • infection, IBD (especially Crohn's), diverticular disease • iatrogenic/surgery (e.g. post-operative anastomotic leak) • congenital, trauma • neoplastic Investigations • contrast radiography (fistulogram) • sonogram • CT scan • measure amount of drainage from fistula Treatment • fluid resuscitation, manage electrolytes • bowel rest - NPO • drain any abscesses/control sepsis • nutrition - elemental/low residue, TPN • decrease secretion - octreotide/somatostatin/omeprazole • skin care (for enterocutaneous fistula) • surgical intervention - dependent upon etiology (for non-closing fistulas); uncertainty of diagnosis

"' � .�------, Colostomy/ileostomy •

Connection of proximal limb of colon or ileum to abdominal wall skin

Mucous fistula •

Connection of distal limb of colon to abdominal wall skin

lIeoconduit •

Connection of colon to ureter proximally + abdominal wall distally to drain urine

Ostomies Definition • iatrogenic connection of the GI tract to abdominal wall skin • types (see Figure 18): colostomy vs. ileostomy, temporary vs. permanent, continent vs. incontinent, end vs. loop, ileoconduit • ileostomies: Brooke (for incontinent, continuous drainage), Koch (for continent ileostomy, manual drainage - rarely used) Complications ( 1 0% ) • obstruction: herniation, stenosis (skin and abdominal wall) • peri-ileostomy abscess and fistula • skin irritation • prolapse or retraction

Ileostomy Figure 1 8. Ostomies

Colostomy

End Colostomy

Toronto Notes 2010

Anoreclum

General Surgery GS37

..... ' � �.-------.

Anorectum

Always rule out more serious causes (e.g. colon CAl in a person with hemorrhoids and rectal bleeding.

Hemorrhoids Etiology • vascular and connective tissue complexes form a plexus of dilated veins (cushion) • internal: superior hemorrhoidal veins, above dentate line, portal circulation • external: inferior hemorrhoidal veins, below dentate line, systemic circulation Risk Factors • increased intra-abdominal pressure: chronic constipation, pregnancy, obesity, portal hypertension, heavy lifting Clinical Features and Treatment • internal hemorrhoids (see Figure 19) • engorged vascular cushions usually at 3, 7, 11 o'clock positions (patient in lithotomy position) • painless rectal bleeding, anemia, prolapse, mucus discharge, pruritus, burning pain, rectal fullness • 1st degree: bleed but do not prolapse through the anus - treatment: high fibre/bulk diet, sitz baths, steroid cream, parmoxine (Anuso!TM), rubber band ligation, sclerotherapy, photocoagulation • 2nd degree: prolapse with straining, spontaneous reduction - treatment: rubber band ligation, photocoagulation • 3rd degree: prolapse requiring manual reduction - treatment: same as 2nd degree, but may require closed hemorrhoidectomy • 4th degree: permanently prolapsed, cannot be manually reduced - treatment: closed hemorrhoidectomy • external hemorrhoids (see Figure 19) • dilated venules usually mildly symptomatic • pain after bowel movement, associated with poor hygiene • medical treatment: dietary fibre, stool softeners, steroid cream (short course), parmoxine (Anuso!TM), avoid prolonged straining • thrombosed hemorrhoids are very painful • resolve within 2 weeks, may leave excess skin perianal skin tag • treatment: consider surgical decompression within first 48 hours of thrombosis, otherwise medical treatment =

Anal Fissures Definition • tear of anal canal below dentate line (very sensitive squamous epithelium) • 90% posterior midline, 10% anterior midline • if off midline: consider IBD, STIs, TB, leukemia or anal carcinoma • repetitive injury cycle after first tear • sphincter spasm occurs preventing edges from healing and leads to further tearing • ischemia may ensue and contribute to chronicity Etiology • large, hard stools and irritant diarrheal stools • tightening of anal canal secondary to nervousness/pain • others: habitual use of cathartics, childbirth Clinical Features • acute fissure • very painful bright red bleeding especially after bowel movement • treatment is conservative: stool softeners, sitz baths • chronic fissure • triad: fissure, sentinel skin tags, hypertrophied papillae • treatment • stool softeners, bulking agents, sitz baths • topical nitroglycerin or nifedipine - increases local blood flow, promoting healing and relieves sphincter spasm • surgery (most effective) - lateral internal sphincterotomy; objective is to relieve sphincter spasm � increases blood flow and promotes healing; but 5% chance of fecal incontinence therefore not commonly done • alternative treatment • botulinum toxin - inhibits release of acetylcholine (ACh), stopping sphincter spasm

Figure 1 9 . Hemorrhoids

GS38 General Surgery

Anoreclum

Toronto Notes 2010

Anorectal Abscess Definition • infection in one, or more of the anal spaces (see Figure 20) • usually bacterial infection of blocked anal gland at the dentate line • E. coli, Proteus, Streptococci, Staphylococci, Bacteroides, anaerobes

Supralevator space Supralevator abscess Levator muscle Column of Morgagni Internal sphincter Deep external sphincter Intersphincteric abscess (origin) Ischiorectal abscess

External sphincter Perianal abscess

Figure 20. Schematic of Different Types of Perianal Abscesses

Clinical Features • throbbing pain that may worsen with straining and ambulation • abscess can spread vertically downward (perianal), vertically upward (supralevator) or horizontally (ischiorectal) • tender perianal/rectal mass on exam Treatment • incision and drainage • curative in 50% of cases • 50% develop anorectal fistulas • may also require antibiotics if diabetic, has heart murmur or cellulitis

Fistula- In-Ano Definition • a connection between two epithelialized surfaces, one must be the rectum or anus • an inflammatory tract with internal os at dentate line, external os on skin Etiology • see Fistula, GS36 • same perirectal process as anal abscess therefore usually associated with abscess • other causes: post-op, trauma, anal fissure, malignancy, radiation proctitis Clinical Features • intermittent or constant purulent discharge from peri-anal opening • pain • palpable cord-like tract Treatment • identification • internal opening • Goodsall's rule (see Figure 21) - a fistula with an external opening anterior to the transverse anal line will have its internal opening at relatively the same position (e.g. external opening at 2 o'clock internal opening at 2 o'clock) whereas all external openings posterior to the line will tend to have their internal openings in the midline • fistulous tract • probing or fistulography under anesthesia =

Figure 2 1 . Goodsall's Rule

Anoreclum

Toronto Notes 2010

General Surgery GS39

• surgery

• fistulotomy: unroof tract from external to internal opening, allow drainage • low lying fistula (does not involve external sphincter) � primary fistulotomy • high lying fistula (involves external sphincter) � staged fistulotomy with Seton suture placed through tract • promotes drainage • promotes fibrosis and decreases incidence of incontinence • delineates anatomy • usually for high or complicated fistula to spare muscle cutting

Post-Operative • sitz baths, irrigation and packing to ensure healing proceeds from inside to outside Complications • recurrence • rarely fecal incontinence

Pilonidal Disease Definition • acute abscess or chronic draining sinus in sacrococcygeal area Etiology • obstruction of the hair follicles in this area



formation of cysts, sinuses or abscesses

Epidemiology • occurs most frequently in young men age 15-40 yrs Clinical Features • asymptomatic until acutely infected, then pain/tenderness, purulent discharge Treatment • acute abscess • incision and drainage • wound packed open • 40% develop chronic pilonidal sinuses • chronic disease • pilonidal cystotomy • excision of sinus tract and cyst ± marsupialization (cyst edge sewn to surrounding tissue to leave sinus tract open)

Rectal Prolapse Definition • protrusion of full thickness of rectum through anus Etiology • lengthened attachment of rectum secondary to constant straining • 3 types I false/mucosal: redundant rectal mucosa, radial furrows II - incomplete: rectal intussusception without sliding hernia III - true/complete (most common) (see Figure 22): • protrusion of entire rectal wall through anal orifice with herniation of pelvic peritoneum/cul-de-sac • circular furrows -

Epidemiology • extremes of ages - children 5th decade • 85% women

True rectal prolapse

Risk Factors • gynecological surgery • chronic neurologic/psychiatric disorders affecting motility Clinical Features • extrusion of mass with increased intra-abdominal pressure • straining, coughing, laughing, Valsalva • difficulty in bowel regulation • tenesmus, constipation, fecal incontinence • permanently extruded rectum with excoriation, ulceration and constant soiling • may be associated with urinary incontinence or uterine prolapse

External hemorrhoids

Figure 22. Rectal Prolapse (true vs. false)

Anorectum/Liver

GS40 General Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Treatment • Types I and II (false/mucosal/incomplete) • conservative - gentle replacement of prolapsed area, especially in children • hemorrhoidectomy with excision of redundant mucosa, mostly in adults • Type III (true/complete ) • conservative treatment - reduce if possible • surgery - abdominal, perineal, transsacral approaches

Anal Neoplasms ANAL CANAL Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Anal Canal (above dentate line) • most common tumour of anal canal (75%) • anus prone to human papilloma virus (HPV) infection, therefore at risk for anal squamous intraepithelial lesions (ASIL) • high grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) and low grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) terminology used • clinical features: anal pain, bleeding, mass, ulceration • treatment: chemotherapy ± radiation ± surgery • prognosis: 80% 5-year survival Malignant Melanoma ( M M ) of Anal Canal • 3rd most common site for primary MM after skin, eyes • aggressive, distant metastases common at time of diagnosis • early radical surgery is treatment of choice • prognosis: 5 cm), due to risk of malignancy and spontaneous rupture/hemorrhage Focal Nodular Hyperplasia • pathogenesis: thought to be due to local ischemia and tissue regeneration • risk factors: female, middle age • clinical features: asymptomatic, rarely grows or bleeds, no malignant potential • investigations: central stellate scar on CT scan, technetium-99 scan is helpful • treatment: may be difficult to distinguish from adenoma (malignant potential) -7 often resected MALIGNANT LIVER NEOPLASMS

�' Differential Diagnosis of Metastatic Liver Mass Some GU Cancers Produce Bumpy Lumps: Stomach Genitourinary cancers - kidney, ovary, uterus Colon Pancreas Breast Lung

Primary • usually hepatocellular carcinoma/hepatoma • others include angiosarcoma, hepatoblastoma, hemangioendothelioma • epidemiology: uncommon in North America, but represents 20-25% of all carcinomas in Asia and Africa • risk factors • chronic liver inflammation: chronic hepatitis B (inherently oncogenic) and C, cirrhosis (esp. macronodular), hemochromatosis, ul-anti-trypsin • meds: OCPs (3x increased risk), steroids • smoking, alcohol • chemical carcinogens (aflatoxin, vinyl chloride - associated with angiosarcoma) • clinical fea tures • RUQ discomfort, right shoulder pain • jaundice, weakness, weight loss, ± fever • hepatomegaly, bruit, rub ascites wi th blood (sudden intra-abdominal hemorrhage) paraneoplastic syndromes - e.g. Cushing' s syndrome, hypoglycemia • metastasis: lung, bone, brain, peritoneal seeding • investigations • elevated ALP, bilirubin, and u-fetoprotein (80% of patients) • U/S (poorly-defined margins with internal echos), triphasic CT (enhancement on arterial phase and washout on portal venous phase), MRI, CT or MRI angiography • biopsy • treatment • cirrhosis is a relative contraindication to tumour resection due to decreased hepatic reserve • surgical: resection (10% of patients have resectable tumours) • liver transplant (if cirrhosis plus solitary nodule 250 IU/l

B. During initial 48 hours 1. 2. 3. 4.

Hct drop > 1 0% BUN rise > 1 .8 mmol/l Arterial PO, < 50 mmHg Base deficit >4 mmol/l 5. Calcium 5L

C. Interpretation " 2 - difficult course " 3 - high mortality

Pathogenesis • obstruction of pancreatic duct by large or small gallstones and biliary sludge • backup of pancreatic enzymes can cause autodigestion of the pancreas Clinical Features (as with pancreatitis of any etiology) • pain (epigastric pain radiating to back), nausea, vomiting, ileus, peritoneal signs, jaundice, fever • Inglefinger's sign: pain worse when supine, better when sitting forward • rarely may have coexistent cholangitis or pancreatic necrosis • Ranson's criteria for determining prognosis of acute pancreatitis Investigation • high amylase (higher than alcoholic pancreatitis), lipase, high liver enzymes, leukocytosis • V/S may show multiple stones (may have passed spontaneously), edematous pancreas • CXR, AXR, CT (if severe to evaluate for complications) Treatment • supportive • NPO, hydration, analgesia and antibiotics for severe cases of necrotizing pancreatitis or signs of sepsis • stone often passes spontaneously (-90%); usually no surgical management in uncomplicated acute pancreatitis • cholecystectomy during same admission after acute attack has subsided (25-60% recurrence if no surgery)

Toronto Notes 2010

Pancreas

General Surgery GS49

• may need urgent ERCP + sphincterotomy if failure of conservative management (no

benefit has been shown for early ERCP + sphincterotomy if no obstructive jaundice is present) • surgical indications in acute pancreatitis (rare): • debridement and drain placement for necrotizing pancreatitis if refractory to medical management, or if septic, in lCU without other sources of sepsis

Complications • pseudocyst (collection of pancreatic juice >4 weeks old surrounded by a defined wall of granulation tissue) • abscess/infection, necrosis • splenic/mesenteric/portal vessel thrombosis or rupture • pancreatic ascites/pancreatic pleural fluid effusion • diabetes • ARDS/sepsis/multiorgan failure • coagulopathy/DIC • encephalopathy • severe hypocalcemia

Chronic Pancreatitis • see also Gastroenterology, G49

Surgical Treatment • treatment is generally medical • indications for surgery: • failure of medical treatment • debilitating abdominal pain • pseudocyst complications: persistence, hemorrhage, infection, rupture • CBD obstruction (e.g. strictures), duodenal obstruction • pancreatic fistula, variceal hemorrhage secondary to splenic vein obstruction • rule out pancreatic cancer • anatomical abnormality causing recurrent pancreatitis • pre-op CT and/or ERCP are mandatory to delineate anatomy • surgical options: • drainage procedures - only effective if ductal system is dilated • endoscopic duct decompression • Puestow procedure (longitudinal pancreatojejunostomy) - improves pain in 80% of patients • pancreatectomy - best option in absence of dilated duct • proximal disease - Whipple procedure (pancreatoduodenectomy): pain relief in 80% • distal disease - distal pancreatectomy ± Roux-en-Y pancreatojejunostomy • total pancreatectomy - refractory disease • nerve ablation • celiac plexus block - lasting benefit in 30% patients, much less invasive • pseudocyst (most resolve spontaneously with pancreatic rest) • cyst wall must be mature (4-6 weeks) • internal drainage (preferred): Roux-en-Y cyst-jejunostomy or cyst-gastrostomy • external drainage: may require second operation to treat pancreatic fistula • consider biopsy of cyst wall to rule out cystadenocarcinoma

Pancreatic Cancer Epidemiology • fourth most common cause of cancer-related mortality in both men and women in Canada in 2007 (Canadian Cancer Society) • African descent at increased risk • male:female 1 .7:1, average age: 50-70 =

Risk Factors • increased age • smoking - 2-5x increased risk, most clearly established risk factor • high fat/low fibre diets, heavy alcohol use • DM, chronic pancreatitis • chemicals: betanaphthylamine, benzidine

.... ' � �.-------, The hallmark of chronic pancreatitis is epigastric pain radiating to the back.

",,

' , �}-------,

Courvoisier's Sign

Palpable. nontender distended gallbladder due to CBD obstruction. Present in 33% of patients with pancreatic carcinoma. The distended gallbladder could not be due to acute cholecystitis or stone disease because the gallbladder would actually be scarred and smaller. not larger.

",,

' , �}-------,

Vague abdominal pain with weight loss ± jaundice in a patient over 50 years old is pancreatic cancer until proven otherwise.

"" ' , ��------, Whipple Procedure (Pancreaticoduodenectomy) 1. Removal

Choledochectomy Cholecystectomy Duodenectomy Distal pancreatectomy ± Distal gastrectomy

2. New Connections Hepaticojejunostomy (connect com­ mon hepatic duct to jejunum post cholecystectomy) Pancreaticojejunostomy (connect distal pancreas remnant) Gastrojejunostomy

Toronto Notes 2010

Pancreas

GSSO General Surgery

Clinical Features • head of the pancreas (70%) • weight loss, obstructive jaundice, vague constant midepigastric pain (often worse at night, may radiate to back) • painless jaundice (occurs more often with peri-ampullary), Courvoisier's sign • palpable tumour mass � generally incurable • body or tail of pancreas (30%) • tends to present later and usually inoperable • weight loss, vague mid-epigastric pain • 300 �Imol/L • U/S, contrast CT (also evaluates metastasis and resectability), ERCP Pathology • ductal adenocarcinoma - most common type (75-80%); exocrine pancreas • intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN) • other: mucinous cystic neoplasm (MCN), acinar cell carcinoma, islet-cell (insulinoma, gastrinoma, VIPoma, glucagonoma, somatostatinoma) Treatment • resectable (20% of pancreatic cancer) • no involvement of liver, peritoneum or vasculature (hepatic artery, SMA, SMV, portal vein, IVC, aorta), no distant metastasis • Whipple procedure (pancreatoduodenectomy) for cure 5% mortality (Figure 26) • distal pancreatectomy ± splenectomy, lymphadenectomy if carcinoma of midbody and tail of pancreas • non-resectable (palliative � relieve pain, obstruction): • most body Itail tumours are not resectable (due to late presentation) • relieve biliary I duodenal obstruction with endoscopic stenting or double bypass procedure (choledochoenterostomy + gastroenterostomy) • chemotherapy (gemcitabine), radiotherapy - only slightly increase survival -

Prognosis • most important prognostic indicators are lymph node status, size >3 cm, perineuralinvasion (invasion of tumour into microscopic nerves of pancreas) • overall 5 year survival is 1 % • average survival - 6 months i f unresected, 12-18 months with curative resection

Common hepatic duct

Stomach

Uver ------j'-

Gastrojejunostomy

Galbladder--\--r:l...:'/y

Tail of panaeas

Cystic duct

Hepaticjejunostomy Pancreas

Ampulla of vater

Duodenum

Pancreatic duct

-----/

Pancreaticojejunostomy

1-_+----- Jejunum

--....!.i'r--- Resected portioo © Caitlin O'Connell 2009

Figure 25. Schematic of Whipple Resection, Showing the Resected Components

General Surgery GS51

Spleen/Breast

Toronto Notes 2010

Spleen Splenic Trauma • typically from blunt trauma (especially in people with splenomegaly) • most common intra-abdominal organ injury in blunt trauma • may have Kehr ' s sign: left shoulder pain due to diaphragmatic irritation from splenic

rupture

• treatment

in stable patients - extended bedrest with serial hematocrit levels, close monitoring hemostatic control splenic artery embolization splenorrhaphy (suture of spleen) - if patient hemodynamically stable, patient has stopped bleeding and laceration does not involve hilum • partial splenectomy • total splenectomy if patient unstable or high-grade injury

• • • •

Splenectomy --------� Indications • splenic trauma (most common reason for splenectomy), hereditary spherocytosis, primary hypersplenism, chronic immune thrombocytopenia purpura (lTP), splenic vein thrombosis causing esophageal varices, splenic abscess, thrombotic thrombocytopenia purpura (TTP), non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, primary splenic tumour (rare) • does not benefit all thrombocytopenic states (e.g. infection, most malignancies involving the bone marrow, drugs/toxins) • probability of cure of ITP by splenectomy is 60-70%, may be predicted by response to IVlg Complications • short-term • atelectasis of left lower lung, bleeding, infection • injury to surrounding structures (e.g. gastric wall, tail of pancreas) • post-op thrombocytosis, leukocytosis • subphrenic abscess • long-term • post-splenectomy sepsis (encapsulated organisms): 4% of splenectomized patients • 50% mortality • pre-op prophylaxis with vaccinations (pneumococcal, H. inJluenzae and meningococcus) • liberal use of penicillin especially in children 65 years old and -50% of people >80 years old fall each year • approximately 20% of falls require medical attention • 5% of falls lead to hospitalization • 5-10% with serious injuries (e_g_ hip fracture, head injury, laceration) • 1-2% of falls associated with hip fracture • 15% die in hospital, 33% I-year mortality • between 25-75% do not recover to previous level of ADL function • mortality increases with age (171 / 100,000 in men >85 years old) and type of injury (25% with hip fracture die within 6 months)

Specific Tests Get Up & Go test Chair Stand Romberg test, Pull test 20 foot walk with 3600 turns

I t

Weakness of Leg Extension Impaired chair stand Slow gait Poor stair climbing



Intervention

Identification of Precipitating Activity

,

t

Alcohol Anticholinergics Anticonvulsants Antihypertensives Digoxin Nitrates Sedatives



I

I

Hypotension Orthostatic Postprandial



,

Intervention

Intervention Balance training Widen support base [i.e. shoes, cane, walker) Correct vision

t

Medi�atiQn Toxi�it¥

Poor Balance Positive Romberg test Positive Pull test Poor vision

Resistance training Quadriceps strengthening

I

Medication review [see below) Reduce or eliminate nitrates, benzodiazepines, neuroleptics, antihypertensives [if possible)

,

)

Intervention Medication review Behaviour changes [separate meals and medications, exercise) Volume maintenance [compression stockings, salt intake)

Interventions Appropriate for All Patients with Falls Evaluation and correction of loose rugs, cords, poor lighting, movable furniture, bathtubs, thresholds, clutter

Figure 2. Approach to Falls in the Elderly Adapted with pennission from: Kiel, DP (2005). Overview of falls in the elderly. In: UpToOate, Rose, BD [Ed), UpToDate, Wa�man, MA. Visit www.uptodate.comfor more infonnation

...

Key Physical Findings in the Elderly Patient Who Falls or Nearly Falls I HATE FALLING Inflammation of joints Hypotension [orthostatic changes) Auditory and visual abnormalities Tremor Equilibrium [balance) problem Foot Problems Arrhythmia, heart block or valvular disease Leg-length discrepancy Lack of conditioning [generalized weakness) Illness Nutrition Gait disturbance Fuller, George (2001). Falls in the elderly. Am Fam Phys 61 111: 21 59-2172

"

' ,

�}-------.

Drugs That May Increase the Risk of Falling

Sedative-hypnotic and anxiolytic drugs [especially long-acting benzodiazepines) Tricyclic antidepressants Major tranquilizers [phenothiazines and butyrophenones) Antihypertensive drugs Cardiac medications Corticosteroids Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Anticholinergic drugs Hypoglycemic agents Alcohol Fuller, George (2001). Falls in the elderly. Am Fam Phys 61 111: 21 59-2172

Will My Patient Fall? JAMA. 2007;297:77-86 Purpose: To identify the prognostic value of risk factors for future falls among older patients. Study Selection: Prospective cohort studies of risk factors for falls that pertonned a mu�ivariate analysis of such factors. Results: Clinically identffiable risk factors were identified across 6 domains: orthostatic hypotension, visual impainnent. impainnent of gait or balance. medication use. limnations in basic or instrumental activities of daily living. and cognitive impainnent. Eighteen studies met inclusion criteria and provided a multivariate analysis including at least 1 of the risk factor domains. The estimated pretest probability of falling at least once in any given year for individuals 65 years and older was 27% [95% confidence interval. 19%-36%). Patients who have fallen in the past year are more likely to fall again [likelihood ratio range. 2.3-2.8[. The most consistent predictors of future falls are clinically detected abnonnalities of gait or balance [likelihood ratio range. 1.7-2.4). Visual impainnent. medication variables, decreased activnies of daily living. and impaired cognition did not consistently predict falls across studies. Orthostatic hypotension did not predict falls after controlling for other factors. Conclusions: Screening for risk of falling during the clinical examination begins with detennining if the patient has fallen in the past year. For patients who have not previously fallen. screening consists of an assessment of gait and balance. Patients who have fallen or who have a gait or balance problem are at higher risk of future falls.

GM6

Geriatric Medicine

..... ' , � f-------, Fall Prevention Tips

1 . Improve lighting, especially on stairs 2. Caution while adjusting to new bifocal prescription (poor depth perception) 3. Siderails in bathtubs 4. Railings on steps 5. Connect patient to lifeline button signaling systems 6. Remove loose mats or carpets, telephone cords and other tri pp i ng hazards 7. Recommend support hose for varicose veins and swelling of ankles Goldlist B, Turpic I, Borins M. (1 997). Essential Geriatrics: Managing 6 conditions: Patient Care Canada. 8(9).

Medication as a Risk Factor for Falls: Critical Systematic Review

J Gerontal A Bioi Sci Med Sci. 2007 Oct; 62(10): 1 1 72-81 Purpose: To review all original articles systematically examining medication use as a risk factor for falls or fall-related fractures in people aged more than 60 years. Study Selection: Studies investigating '!ails" or "accidental falls" and "pharmaceutical preparations" or specrric groups of drugs were included. Studies not meeting the age criterion, not controlled with nonusers of target medicines or nonfallers, or with no clear definition of target medication were excluded. Resuks: Twenty-eight obseMitional studies and one randomized controlled trial met the inclusion criteria. The outcome measure was a fall in 22 studies and a fracture in 7 studies. The main group of drugs associated with an increased risk of falling was psychotropics: benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and antipsychotics. Antiepileptics and drugs that lower blood pressure were weakly associated with falls. Conclusions: Central nervous system drugs, especially psychotropics, seem to be associated WITh an increased risk of falls. The quality of observational studies needs to be improved, as many appear to lack even a clear definition of a fall, target medicines, or prospectivefollow-up. Many drugs commonly used by older persons are not systematically studied as risk factors for falls. Treatment of Hypertension in Patients 80 Years of Age or Older

J N EnglJ Med. 2008 May 1;358(18):1 887-98 Study: Randomized, double-blind, placebo­

controlled, mutticentre trial. Patients: 3845 patients who were 80 years of age or older and had a sustained systolic blood pressure of 160 mmHg were followed fora median 1 .8 years. Intervention: Indapamide (sustained release, 1 .5 mg) or matching placebo. The angiotensin­ converting enzyme inhibitor perindopril (2 or 4 mg), or matching placebo, was added if necessary to achieve the target blood pressure of 1 50/80 mmHg. Primary Outcome: Fatal or nonfatal stroke. Resuks: The mean age of the patients was 83.6 years and mean blood pressure while sitting was 1 73.0/90.8 mmHg. At 2 years, the mean blood pressure while sitting was 1 5.0/6.1 mmHg lower in the active treatment group than in the placebo group. Active treatment was associated with a 30% reduction in the rate of fatal or nonfatal stroke (95% confidence interval CI, -I to 51; p=0.06), a 39% reduction in the rate of death from stroke (95% CI, I to 62; p=0.05), a 21% reduction in the rate of death from any cause (95% CI, 4 to 35; p=0.02), a 23% reduction in the rate of death from cardiovascular causes (95% CI, -I to 40; p=0.06), and a 64% reduction in the rate of heart failure (95% CI, 42 to 78; p65 years old) have hypertension

• 60% of these have isolated systolic HTN

• non-pharmacologic treatments are first-line, then thiazide monotherapy is recommended

(some evidence for CCB monotherapy if isolated systolic HTN, see sidebar)

• add ACEI/ ARB if also atherosclerosis, DM, CHF or chronic kidney disease • add j3-blockers if also angina or CHF • target BP: sBP 80 cc per menstrual cycle)



Metrorrhagia: bleeding at irregular





0823

intervals, particularly between expected menstrual periods •

Not pregnant

�� 1 st trimester

that is decreased in amount •

��

Menometrorrhagia: excessive

bleeding at usual time of menstrual periods and at other irregular intervals



Endocervical or endometrial polyps • Thyroid dysfunction • Trauma

• •

• •





Endometrial cancer Endometrial hyperplasia Endometrial cervical polyps Exogenous hormone use Other tumour (vulvar, vaginal, cervical) Trauma

Figure 6. Approach to Abnormal Uterine Bleeding

� AMENORRHEA/OLIGOMENORRHEA

• pregnancy • hypothalamic dysfunction - low FSH / LH

functional - anorexia, nutritional deprivation, exercise extreme stress / systemic illness hypothalamic tumour, infiltrative disorder congenital GnRH deficiency - e.g. Kallmann's syndrome (secondary hypogonadism characterized by anosmia / hyposmia) pituitary dysfunction • brain or pituitary tumour • primary hypopituitarism • Sheehan syndrome (hypopituitarism due to postpartum hemorrhage) ovarian dysfunction - high FSH/LH • menopause • radiation, chemotherapy • gonadal dysgenesis - e.g. Turner's syndrome (Xa) • resistant ovary syndrome • chronic anovulation - e.g. pcas, ovarian / adrenal tumour uterine / outflow tract defects • congenital Mullerian (uterine/ vaginal) agenesis (e.g. Mayer-Rokitansky-KusterHauser syndrome) • imperforate hymen • transverse vaginal septum • cervical stenosis • intrauterine adhesions - e.g. Asherman's syndrome endocrine • hyperprolactinemia • hyper / hypothyroidism • hyperandrogenism - e.g. pcas, ovarian / adrenal tumour, testosterone injections • Cushing's disease other • androgen insensitivity syndrome (XY) • drugs - e.g. metoclopramide, neuroleptic, danazol • • • •











Toronto Notes 2010

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations

Gynecology GY7

MENORRHAGIA/HYPERMENORRHEA • • • • • • • • •

hormonal imbalance leiomyomata (fibroids) uterine polyps adenomyosis endometritis copper IUD cancer (endometrial, cervical, ovarian) ovarian cysts medications

METRORRHAGIA/MENOMETRORRHAGIA trauma, sexual abuse, foreign body infection - endometritis, cervicitis, vaginitis, STI benign growths - cervical/ endometrial polyps, fibroids, ectropion malignant tumours - uterine, cervical, vaginal, vulvar, ovarian (granulosa-theca cell) pregnancy-related (bleed following a missed period) • implantation bleed • ectopic pregnancy • abortion (missed, threatened, inevitable, incomplete, complete; see Obstetrics, OB23) • molar pregnancy • PCOS • weight loss / exercise / stress • DUB • diagnosis of exclusion; 90% is anovulatory • • • • •

POSTMENOPAUSAL BLEEDING • • • • • • • • •

atrophic vaginitis (most common) atrophic endometrium endometrial hyperplasia endometrial / endocervical polyps withdrawal from exogenous estrogen benign or malignant tumours of vulva, vagina or cervix ovarian malignancy (granulosa-theca cell) trauma lichen sclerosis

NON-GYNECOLOGICAL CAUSES OF AUB • blood dyscrasias

• coagulopathy - von Willebrand's Disease; more commonly diagnosed in adolescents • platelet abnormalities

immune thrombocytopenia platelet function abnormality • thrombasthenia (Glanzman's syndrome) - rare • leukemia • •

• hepatic disease

• impaired synthesis of coagulation factors • impaired metabolism of sex steroids (e.g. estrogen)

• renal failure

• impaired excretion of estrogen

• endocrine

• hyper / hypothyroidism • adrenal insufficiency (late onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia) or excess adrenal hormones (Cushing's)

• PCOS (insulin resistance) • prolactinoma • drugs

• • • • • • •

anticoagulants spironolactone danazol OCP / HRT - incorrectly used or breakthrough bleeding neuroleptics (interfere with dopamine and prolactin) chemotherapy steroids

Postmenopausal Bleeding Any bleeding that presents for > 1 year after menopause. Postmenopausal bleeding is endometrial cancer until proven otherwise.

Toronto Notes 2010

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations

GY8 Gynecology

Dysmenorrhea Dysmenorrhea Painful menstruation

• see Disorders of Menstruation, GY13 • primary / idiopathic • secondary (acquired)

• • • • • • • • • • • •

endometriosis adenomyosis uterine polyps uterine anomalies (e.g. non-communicating uterine horn) leiomyoma intrauterine synechiae ovarian cysts cervical stenosis imperforate hymen, transverse vaginal septum pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) IUD - copper foreign body

Vaginal Discharge/Pruritus • see Gynecological Infections, GY24 • physiologic discharge and cervical mucus production • non-physiologic

• genital tract infection

vulvovaginitis: candidiasis, trichomoniasis, bacterial vaginosis (BV), polymicrobial superficial infection • chlamydia, gonorrhea pyosalpinx, salpingitis • genital tract inflammation (non-infectious) local - chemical irritants, douches, sprays, foreign body, trauma, atrophic vaginitis, desquamative inflammatory vaginitis, focal vulvitis neoplasia - vulvar, vaginal, cervical, endometrial systemic - toxic shock syndrome, Crohn's disease, collagen disease, dermatologic (e.g. lichen sclerosis) IUD, OCP (secondary to progesterone) •

• • • • •

Pelvic Pain PELVIC PAIN

Chronic Pelvic Pain (CPP) Intermittent or constant pain of > 6 months duration.

Gynecological

Non-gynecological

20% of CPP patients have a history of



previous sexual abuse/assault. (remember to ask about it!)

Pyometra Pus within the uterine cavity.

Hematometra Blood within the uterine cavity.

Pregnancy-related Ectopic



Spontaneous abortion Labour



Placental abruption



Gynecological • • •



Mittelschmerz



Ruptured



ovarian cyst Hemorrhage into

Uterine •

Fibroid



degeneration Torsion of

Adhesions Dysmenorrhea



Ovarian cyst



Ovarian/tubal torsion

Acute PID



Appendicitis



Endometritis



Mesenteric adenitis



Diverticulitis

fibroid •

GU

GI



pedunculated

cyst/neoplasm •

Infectious

Pyometra!

' 180



UTI (e.g. cystitis,



pyelonephritis) •

Renal colic

Endometriosis Adenomyosis





Adnexal

Chronic PID

Non-gynecological •

Referred pain



Urinary retention Urethral syndrome



Interstitial cystitis



GI neoplasm



Pelvic congestion syndrome

' 18S ' 180 • Constipation

Ovarian remnant



syndrome

Partial bowel obstruction



Fibroid (rare)





Uterine prolapse



(rare)

• •

hematometra

Diverticulitis Hernia formation Nerve entrapment SexuaVphysicaV psychological abuse



Depression/anxiety/ somatization

Figure 7. Approach to Pelvic Pain

Toronto Notes 2010

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations

Gynecology GY9

Pelvic Mass • ovarian

functional cysts (always benign) • corpus luteum cyst • follicular cyst • theca lutein cyst • hemorrhagic cyst polycystic ovary endometrioma tubo-ovarian abscess luteoma of pregnancy benign neoplasms • dermoid cyst most common malignant neoplasms • epithelial cell most common in >40 yrs • germ cell most common in 6 months or 3 cycles after documented menarche.

Oligomenorrhea Episodic vaginal bleeding occurring at intervals >35 days.

..... ' , ,�------, 2° amenorrhea is pregnancy until proven othervvise.

Pregnancy Test

t

TSH and Prolactin



hHgh I> 1 00) or symptoms �f hyperprolactinemia CT to rule out pituitary tumour

Hypothyroidism/hyperthyroidism Progesterone Challenge + withdrawal bleed

No withdrawal bleed Uterine or Vaginal Defect

Anovulation FSH, LH High Ovarian Failure

Figure 8. Diagnostic Approach to Amenorrhea

Hypothalamic Dysfunction Istress or anovulation)

Disorders of Menstruation

GY14 Gynecology

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations (see Figure 8) • beta-hCG, hormonal workup (TSH, Prolactin, FSH, LH, androgens, and estradiol) • progesterone challenge to assess estrogen status • medroxyprogesterone acetate (Provera®) 10 mg PO OD for 10 days • any uterine bleed within 2-7 days after completion of Provera® is considered to be a positive testl withdrawal bleed • if withdrawal bleeding occurs, that means there was adequate estrogen that thickened the endometrium; thus withdrawal of progresterone results in bleeding • if no bleeding occurs, there is inadequate estrogen (hypoestrogenism) or excessive androgens • karyotype if indicated (if premature ovarian failure or absent puberty) • U/S to confirm normal anatomy, PCOS Treatment • hypothalamic dysfunction (low or normal FSH, LH)

• if low FSH / LH, consider head imaging (CT or MRI) if no obvious etiology • stop any medications, reduce stress, adequate nutrition, decrease excessive exercise • if pregnancy desired, correct underlying problem first, but may require gonadotropins to stimulate ovulation • otherwise OCP to induce menstruation (withdrawal bleed) - may not prevent manifestation of hypoestrogenic state, i.e. bone loss

• hyperprolaclinemia

• consider CT of head to document presence of pituitary micro I macro adenoma • surgery for macro adenoma (rarely) • bromocriptine if fertility desired; OCP if fertility not desired

• premature ovarian failure (high FSH, LH)

• karyotype • removal of gonadal tissue if Y chromosome present (at 18 years or earlier if dysgenic gonads) • HRT or OCP to prevent manifestations of hypoestrogenic state • treat associated autoimmune disorders (thyroid, adrenal)

• peDS

• see Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome, GY23

Abnormal Uterine Bleeding (AUB) • anovulatory (90%) - unpredictable endometrial bleeding of variable flow and duration;

sex steroids are produced but not cyclically so bleeding is irregular • estrogen dependent breakthrough bleeding: chronic estrogen production unopposed by adequate progesterone production (due to failure of ovulation) --7 continued proliferation of the endometrium --7 thickened endometrium outgrows its blood supply --7 focal necrosis with partial shedding • since shedding is not uniform and progesterone and prostaglandin related changes have not occurred, bleeding is usually irregular, prolonged, and heavy • usually due to pcos, thyroid dysfunction, elevated prolactin levels, rare estrogen producing tumours, stress, weight loss, exercise, liver and kidney disease • ovulatory (10%) - typically cyclic, but heavy or prolonged • usually due to an anatomic or physical lesion (e.g. polyp, fibroid, adenomyosis, neoplasm, foreign body), hemostatic defect, infection, trauma, or local disturbances in prostaglandins (elevated endomyometrial vasodilatory prostaglandins and decreased vasoconstrictive prostaglandins)

Etiology • see Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations, GY6 Investigations • CBC, serum ferritin • beta-hCG • TSH • consider according to presentation: • coagulation profile (esp. adolescent) - rule out von Willebrand's disease • prolactin if amenorrheic • FSH, LH • serum androgens (esp. free testosterone) • day 21 (luteal phase) progesterone to confirm ovulation • Pap test • pelvic U/S - detect polyps, fibroids; measure endometrial thickness (useful in post menopausal women) • SHG - very sensitive for intrauterine pathology (polyps, submucous fibroids) • HSG • endometrial sampling - in women >40 years or at higher risk of endometrial cancer

Toronto Notes 2010

Disorders of Menstruation

Gynecology GY15

Treatment • treat underlying disorders • if anatomic lesions and systemic disease have been ruled out, consider dysfunctional uterine bleeding

Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding (DU B) • rule out anatomic lesions and systemic disease (see Abnormal Uterine Bleeding, GY14) • 90% of DUB is due to anovulation; thus "anovulatory bleed" is often used synonymously

with DUB • 10% of DUB is due to dysfunction of corpus luteum and inadequate progesterone production, or an atrophic endometrium (i.e. 2° to OCP)

Dysfunctional Uterine Bleeding Abnormal bleeding not attributable to organic (anatomic/systemic) disease. DUB is a diagnosis of exclusion.

Investigations • exclude organic (systemic/ anatomic) causes first • ensure beta-hCG is negative • CBC - rule out anemia Treatment • medical • mild DUB • NSAIDs • anti-fibrinolytic (e.g. Cyklokapron®) at time of menses • combined OCP • progestins (Provera®) on first 10-14 days of each month if oligomenorrheic • Mirena® IUD • danazol • acute, severe DUB • replace fluid losses / consider admission • medical treatment a) estrogen (Premarin®) 25 mg IV q4h x 24h with Gravol® 50 mg IV / PO q4h or b) Ovral® 1 tab PO q4h x 24h with Gravol® 50 mg IV / PO q4h. Taper Ovral®: 1 tab tid x 2d � bid x 2d � OD • after (a) or (b), maintain patient on monophasic OCP for next several months or consider alternative medical treatment • clomiphene citrate • patients who are anovulatory and who wish to get pregnant • surgical • D&C - not for treatment; diagnosis only (usually with hysteroscopy) • endometrial ablation; consider pretreatment with danazol or GnRH agonists • if finished childbearing • repeat procedure sometimes required • hysterectomy - definitive treatment

"'. 3 Major Causes of DUB Don't ovulate Unusual luteal activity (prolonged or insufficient luteal phase) Birth control pill

Dysmenorrhea Definition • see Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations, GYS Primary Dysmenorrhea • begins 6 months-2 years after menarche (once ovulatory cycles established) • colicky pain in abdomen, radiating to the lower back, labia, and inner thighs beginning hours before onset of bleeding and persisting for hours or days (4S-72 h) • associated symptoms include nausea, vomiting, altered bowel habits, headaches, fatigue [prostaglandin (PG)-associatedl • likely due to frequent and prolonged PG-induced uterine contractions � decreased myometrial blood flow � ischemia • diagnosis: rule out underlying pelvic pathology and confirm cyclic nature of pain • treatment:

• PG synthetase inhibitors (e.g. Anaprox®) • must be started before / at onset of pain • OCP to suppress ovulation and reduce menstrual flow

Secondary Dysmenorrhea • menstrual pain due to organic disease • usually begins in women who are in their 20s, worsens with age • may improve temporarily after childbirth • associated dyspareunia, abnormal bleeding, infertility

Primary Dysmenorrhea Menstrual pain in absence of organic disease.

Secondary Dysmenorrhea Menstrual pain due to organic disease.

GY16 Gynecology

Disorders of Menstruation/Endometriosis

Toronto Notes 2010

• investigations and treatments:

• bimanual exam - uterine or adnexal tenderness, fixed uterine retroflexion, uterosacral nodularity, pelvic mass, or enlarged irregular uterus • VIS, laparoscopy and hysteroscopy may be necessary to establish the diagnosis • treat underlying cause

Endometriosis

Endometriosis The presence of endometrial tissue (glands and stroma) outside of the uterine cavity.

.... ' , ��------, Differential Diagnosis

1 . Chronic PID, recurrent acute salpingitis 2. Hemorrhagic corpus luteum 3. Benign/malignant ovarian neoplasm 4. Ectopic pregnancy

Etiology • not fully understood • proposed mechanisms (combination likely involved) • retrograde menstruation theory of Sampson • seeding of endometrial cells by transtubal regurgitation during menstruation • endometrial cells most often found in dependent sites of the pelvis • immunologic theory - altered immunity may limit clearance of transplanted endometrial cells from pelvic cavity (decreased NK cell activity?) • metaplasia of coelomic epithelium • undefined endogenous biochemical factor may induce undifferentiated peritoneal cells to develop into endometrial tissue • lymphatic flow from uterus to ovary may account for ovarian endometriosis • extrapelvic disease may be due to vascular or lymphatic dissemination of cells Epidemiology • incidence: 15-30% of premenopausal women • mean age at presentation: 25-30 years • regresses after menopause Risk Factors • family history (7-10 fold increased risk if affected 1st degree relative) • obstructive anomalies of the genital tract (earlier onset) • nulliparity • age >25 years

There may be little correlation between the extent of endometriosis and symptomatology.

....

' , �.)-------,

Classic Triad of Endometriosis

Dysmenorrhea Dyspareunia (cui de sac, uterosacral ligament) Dyschezia (uterosacral ligament, cul-de-sac, rectosigmoid attachment)

....

' , ��------,

A sharp, firm, and exquisitely tender "barb" on the uterosacral ligament is a classic feature of endometriosis.

Sites of Occurrence • ovaries - 60% patients have ovarian involvement • broad ligament - vesicoperitoneal fold • peritoneal surface of the cul-de-sac (uterosacral ligaments) • rectosigmoid colon • appendix Clinical Features • may be asymptomatic • history • menstrual symptoms • cyclic symptoms due to swelling and bleeding of ectopic endometrium, often precede menses and continue throughout and after flow • secondary dysmenorrhea • sacral backache with menses • pain may eventually become constant (chronic pelvic pain) but remains worse perimenstrually • premenstrual and postmenstrual spotting • deep dyspareunia • infertility • 30-40% of patients with endometriosis will be infertile • 15-30% of those who are infertile will have endometriosis • bowel and bladder symptoms • frequency, dysuria, hematuria • diarrhea, constipation, hematochezia, dyschezia • physical • tender nodularity of uterine ligaments and cul-de-sac felt on rectovaginal exam • fixed retroversion of uterus • firm, fixed adnexal mass (endometrioma) • physical findings not present in adolescent population Investigations • definitive diagnosis requires: • direct visualization of lesions typical of endometriosis at laparoscopy • biopsy and histologic exam of specimens (2 or more of: endometrial epithelium, glands, stroma, hemosiderin-laden macrophages)

Toronto Notes 2010

Endometriosis/Adenomyosis

Gynecology GY17

• laparoscopy

• mulberry spots: dark blue or brownish-black implants on the uterosacral ligaments,

cul-de-sac, or anywhere in the pelvis endometrioma: chocolate cysts in the ovaries "powder-burn" lesions on the peritoneal surface early white lesions and clear blebs peritoneal "pockets" • CA-125 • may be elevated in patients with endometriosis

• • • •

Treatment • depends on certainty of the diagnosis, severity of symptoms, extent of disease, desire for future fertility, and threat to GI/ GV systems • medical

• NSAIDs - e.g. naproxen sodium (Anaprox®) • pseudopregnancy

cyclic/ continuous estrogen-progestin (OCP) • medroxyprogesterone (Depo-Provera®) • pseudomenopause (2nd line: only short-term « 6 months) due to osteoporotic potential with prolonged use, unless use add-back therapy) • danazol (Danocrine®) weak androgen - side effects: weight gain, fluid retention, acne, hirsutism, voice change • leuprolide (Lupron®) GnRH agonist (suppresses pituitary) - side effects: hot flashes, vaginal dryness, reduced libido - can use ;:,12 months with add-back progestin or estrogen •

=

.... ' , ,}-------, Endometriosis is classified according to a scoring system standardized by the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Score based on location and extent of disease.

=

• surgical

• conservative laparoscopy using laser, electrocautery ± laparotomy

ablation/ resection of implants, lysis of adhesions, ovarian cystectomy of endometriomas • definitive - bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy ± hysterectomy • ± follow-up with medical treatment for pain control NOT shown to impact on preservation of fertility • best time to become pregnant is immediately after conservative surgery •

"

' , ,}-------,

Recurrence Rates

Medical therapy: 30·50% Conservative surgery: 1 4-40%

Adenomyosis • synonym: "endometriosis interna" (uterine wall may be diffusely involved)

Epidemiology • 15% of females >35 years old • mean age at presentation: 40-50 years old (older age group than seen in endometriosis) • adenomyosis is a common histologic finding in asymptomatic patients • found in 20-40% of hysterectomy specimens

Adenomyosis Extension of areas of endometrial glands and stroma into the myometrium.

Clinical Features • often asymptomatic • menorrhagia, secondary dysmenorrhea, pelvic discomfort • dyspareunia, dyschezia • uterus symmetrically bulky, usually 1 5mm before day 23 during a pre-treatment cycle. Intervention: drospirenone 3mg plus ethinylestradiol 20mcg administered in 24/4 regimen vs. 21/7 regimen. Outcome: suppression of ovarian activity IHoogland score). Results: Women on a 24/4 regimen had greater and more consistent ovarian suppression than the 21/7 group. 87.8% in the 24/4 group had no ovarian activity vs. 56% in the 21/7 group.

, ALERT FOA recently warned that women using the US version of the patch Iwhich contains 0.75 mg of ethinyl estradiol) are exposed to 60% more estrogen in a monthly cycle than women taking a typical 35 J..Ig oral contraceptive. This potential for excess estrogen exposure raises concerns for an increased risk of nausea, mastalgia, and venous thromboembolism, although the degree of risk is unclear. The pharmacokinetics of the 0.60 mg patch, which are available in Canada, are less clear. Reminder that all OCP regardless of formulation i ncreases risk of OVT. CMAI. January 2006.

Yuzpe method "Plan 8" levonorgestrel only Postcoital IUD

98% (within 24 hours) 98% (within 24 hours) 99.9%

Hormonal Methods Combined Oral Contraceptive Pills (OCP) • most contain low dose ethinyl estradiol (20-35 �Ig) plus progestin (norethinedrone, norgestral, levonorgestrel, desogestrel, norgestimate, drospirenone) • failure rate (0.3% to 8%) depending on compliance • monophasic or triphasic formulations (varying amount of progestin throughout cycle) Skin Patch (Ortho EvraTM ) • continuous release of 6 mg norelgestromin and 0.60 mg ethinyl estradiol into bloodstream • patch applied to lower abdomen, back, upper arm, buttocks, NOT breast • patch worn weekly for 3 consecutive weeks (changed every week) with 1 week off to allow menstruation • as effective as OCP in preventing pregnancy (>99% with perfect use) • may be less effective in women >90 kg body weight • 3% failure rate with typical use • may not be covered by drug plans Contraceptive Ring (Nuvaring™) • thin flexible plastic ring; releases etonogestrel 120 �Ig / d and estradiol 15 �Ig/ d • works for 3 weeks, then removed for 1 week to allow menstruation • as effective as OCP in preventing pregnancy (98%) • avoids first pass effect • side effects: vaginal infection / irritation, vaginal discharge • may have better cycle control, i.e. decreased breakthrough bleeding Starting Hormonal Contraceptives • thorough history and physical examination including blood pressure and breast exam • follow-up visit 6 weeks after hormonal contraceptives prescribed • pelvic exam can be delayed until a subsequent visit

Contraception

Toronto Notes 2010

Gynecology GY19

Table 3. Combined Estrogen and Progestin Contraceptive Methods Mecllanism 01 Action

Advantages

• CMJatorv StWllssion Ihrou(;l Millition of LH and FSH • DeciOOilization 01 endometriJ.m • Thickeni'lg rJ centicaf I'I'lICUS resufti'lg in decreased sperm penetration

H9lfy effective. reversible

Cycle reg..jation

Decreased dysmenorr!leil cn1

merorrhagia (less au;:rriaj

Decreased benign breast disease and ovaian cyst developmert Decreased risk 01 ovarian and endometrial cancer roeased ceMcaj mucus v.1lich may Klwer risk of STfs Decreased PMS symptoms rnproved acne Osteoporosis protection (possibfyl

Side Efleets

Corttraindications

EsttogelHelated

Absolute • Koo'MVsospecled pregnancy

N�. Breast dlanges (tenjemess. ","_I

Fluid retention I bIoatng / edema

• Weight gall (rae) • M�aine. headaches • Ttromboembolic events, iver adenoma (rare) Intermenstrual bleedirw;j lIow

estradiol levelsl I'fogastilHeiatlld Amenonflea / l1termenstrual bleeding

H""""" Breast lenOemess

• Und�gnosed abnormal vaginal bleedng • Pl"ior thnmboerrbolic events. ttJorrboerirbol c dmer (Fa.:;tOfV leiden mutatioo; Pfotein C. S or 38'C Ml.lCopurulent cervical d'scM'lIe Posnive cujture fot •

• •

N. YOf1O"heae. C. tra24 hours) • wound infections • post-par tum infection� • early recognition and treatment of syndrome is imperative as n i correct diagnOSiS can be fatal

Toronto Notes 2010

Gynfiological Infections/Sexuality and Sexual Dysfunction

Gynfiology GY31

Clinical Presentation

.. sudden high fever • sore throat. headache. diarrhea .. erythroderma • signs of multisystem failure .. refractory hypotension • exfoliation of palmar and plantar surfaces of the hands and feet \-2 weeks after onset of illness

Treatment

• remove potential sources of infection (foreign objects llnd wound debris) .. debride necrotic tissues • adequate hydration .. penicillinase-resistllnt llntibiotics - e.g. cloxacillin • steroid use controversial but if started within 72 hours, may reduce severity of symptoms and duration of (ever

Surgical I nfections Post Operati\le Infections in Gynecological Surgery • pelvic celluliti�

common post hysterectomy, affects vaginal vault erythema, induration. tenderness. discharge involving vaginal cuff treat if fever and leukocytosis with broad spectrum antibiotics. i.e. c1indamycin and gentamicin drain if excessive purulence or large mass can result in intra-abdominal and pelvic abscess • see General Surgery. Pos/-Operi!live F(7)rT, GS7

Sexuality and Sexual Dysfunction SEXUAL RESPONSE 1. desire - energy that allows an individual to initiate or respond to sexual �timulation

2. arousal - physical and emotional stimulation leading to breast and genital va�odilation and clitoral engorgement 3. orgasm - physical and emotional stimulation is maximized. allowing the individual to relinquish their sense of control 4. resolution - most of the congestion and tension resolves within seconds, complete resolution may take up to 60 minutes

SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION Etiology

• intrapsychic - patient's life experiences. value system • relationship / interpersonal i�sues • physical/organic

Classification

• lack of desire (60·70% of women) • lack of arousal • anorgasmia (5-10%)

primary anorgasmia: patient has never been able to achieve orgasm under any circumstances secondary anorgasmia: patient was able to achieve orgasms before but now unable to do so • dyspareunia (3-6%) - painful intercourse; superficial (pain with entry) or deep (pain with deeper penetration) vaginismus (15%) vulvodynia vulvar vestibulitis: associated with history of frequent yeast infections

riD

Treatment

• lack of desire - assess factors. rio organiC causes, relationship therapy. sensate focus exercises • anorgasmia - self-exploration/pleasuring. couple therapy if needed. bridging techniques

(different sexual positions. clitoral stimulation during intercourse)

Dyspareunia Cycle

/

Painful intercourse (in�ially due to organic etiologyl

\

2" vaginismus

\

Fear of pain with intercourse

Anxiety w�h or without sexual response

/

GY32 Gynecolog}'

Sexuality and Sexual Dysfunction/Menopause

Toronto Noles 2010

• dyspareunia

l"

-' , Kegel EurcisM Ae-gt,jar clenc�ing and unclenc�i!1g to streJlgtnen pelvic floor muscles. lIeverse Kegels 1 second contraction then 5 seconds l!f

relaxation.

Kegel and reverse Kegel exercises dilator treatment comfort with self-exam psychotherapy, other behavioural techniques female on top position - aHows for control of speed and duration vestibulitis - remove (ocal irritants, change in contraceptive methods, and dietary changes (increased citrate, decreased oxalate), vestibulectomy (rare) vulvodynia - local moisturization, cold compreAAeS, systemic nerve blocking therapy (amitriptyline, neurontin), topical anesthetic, estrogen cream

Menopause -' ,

}--------,

. •

• Mellilpause: occurrence 01 last spontarMlous menstrual period, resu/ti"ll lrom loss Ii ovarian Il.01ction (loss of oocyte response to gonadotropinsl.

• "Being in m_pause-: lack of mOO5eS for 1 yr.

• Perimenopause: period 01 time surrounding menopause (2-8 yrs preceding + 1 Yf after last mensesl crwactcrized by Hoctuat"'ll horm",," levels. irregul;lrmenstrua cycles. arod s�tom OIISel.

, ,

'to

• 8!fl. 01 women experience nOiflashes

21).mseek medicill attention

• 10% are u�e to won

-:�

steOjJorosis is the single most

important health hazard associated w�h menopause.

• c.ard�vascular disease is the leadiO\j ClIuse Ii \ieath post-menopause.

• see familyMedicine fM39

Definitions

• types of menopause

physiological; average age 51 years (follicular atresia) premature ovarian failure; before age 40 (autoimmune disorder, inf!Xtion, Turner's syndrome) iatrogenic (surgical /radiation /chemotherapy)

Clinical Features

• associated with estrogen defiCiency

vasomotor instability (tends to diSSipate with time) • hot flushes/flashes, night sweats, sleep disturbances, fonnication, nausea, palpitations urogenital atrophy involving vagina, urethra, bladder • dyspareunia, vaginal itching, vaginal dryness, bleeding, urinary frequency, urgency, incontinence skeletal • osteoporosis, jOint and muscle pain, back pain skin and soft tis�ue • decreased breast size, skin thinning / loss of elasticity psychological • mood disturbance, irritability, fatigue, decreased libido, memory loss

In\lestigations

• n i creased levels of fSH (>35 IU /L) on day 3 of cycle (if still cycling) and LH (FSH>LH) • decreased levels of estradiol (later)

Treatment

• goal s i for individual symptom management

PalhophysiolOOOlY Oe-generati"ll theca celts lail lo react to oodogooous QOIIiIdOiropins

Less estrogen is prodl.lCOO

t

...

Ot!creased rMlgati\rtl leedt>ack on

hvpothatamic·pnu�alY drenaj axis

t

Increased FSH and lH

Stromal cells C(lIllinue to produce

allO"ogens as a rest,jt 01 increased

LH stimulation

vasomotor instability • HRT (first line), c1onidine, SSR!, EffexoJ'l', gabapentin, propanolol vaginal atrophy • local estrogen - cream (rremarin®)/ vaginal suppository (Vagifem®)/ring form (Estring®) • lubricants (Replens®) osteoporosis • 1000-1 - 500 mg calcium daily, 800-1000 IU vitamin D, weight-bearing exercise, quit smoking • bisphosphonates (e.g. alendronate) • selective estrogen receptor modifiers (SERMs): raloxifene (Evista®) - mimics estrogen effects on bone, avoids estrogen-like action on breast and uterine cancer; does not help hot flashes • HRT - second-line treatment (unless for vasomotor instability as well) decreased libido • vaginal lubrication, counseling. androgen replacement (testosterone cream) cardiovascular dbease • management of cardiovascular risk factors alternative choices (not evidence-based) • black cohosh, phytoestrogens, SI. John's wort, gingko biloba, valerian, evening primrose oil, ginseng. Don Quai well-being • phYSical exercise, relaxation, yoga

Toronto Notes 2010

Menopause

Gynecology GY33

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) • • • •

sec FamilyMedicine FM39 for HRT regimens, see Table 9 primary indication is treatment of menopausal symptoms (vasomotor instability) keep doses low (e.g. 0.3 mg Prcmarin®) and duration of treatment short ( ovary > CeMX > wIw > vagioa > fallopian lUbe

Iii)

Risk Factors • T}'pe I - excess estrogen (estrogen unopposed b}' progesterone) obesity

Risk FilctolS for Endometrial Cilncer

COLO NUT Cancec cancer that uses

clinical stagf1g. This fac�itates consistent intemalionaj stagilllf with COU1l1ies mal do not have technologies such as CT arid MAl. ,\ ,

.}-------,

Cervical Canell. Pr"llnos.ls 5 Y8Sied.

GY46 Gynecolog}'

Gyn«ologicalOncology

Toronto Noles 2010

• lichen sclerosis subepithelial f.lt becomes diminished, labia become thin and atrophic,

membrane-like epithelium, labial fusion pruritus, dyspareunia, burning 'figure of 8' distribution most common in post-menopausal women but can occur at any age treatment- ultrapotent topical steroid 0.05% dobctasol x 2-4wks then taper down • mixed dystrophy (lichen sclerosis with epithelial hyperplasia) hyperkeratotic areas with areas of thin, shiny epithel ium • treatment - fluorinated corticosteroid ointment w

Tumours • papillary hidradenoma nevus • fibroma

• hemangioma MALIGNANT VULVAR LESIONS Epidemiology • 5% of genital tract malignancies • 90% squamoll� cell carcinoma; remainder melanomas, basal cell carcinoma, Paget's disease, bartholin's gland carcinoma Type I disease - HPV-related disease (50-70%)

• more likely to be younger women • 90% of VIN contain HPV ONA (usually types 16, 18) Type II disease -non HPV-related, associated with current or previous vulvar dystrophy • usually post-menopausal women

Risk Factors

• HPV infection (see above)

• VIN (vulvar intraepithelial neoplaSia): precancerous change which presents as multicentric white or pigmented plaques on vulva (may only b e visible at colposcopy) progreSSion to cancer rarely occurs with appropriate management

treatment - simple local excision (ie. superficial vulvectomy ± split thickness skin

grafting to cover defecs t [if required]) vs. ablative therapy (i.e. laser, cauterization) vs. local immunotherapy (imiquimod)

Clinical Features • many patients asymptomatiC at diagnosis (many also deny or minimize symptoms) • most lesions occur on the labia majora, followed by the labia minora (less commonly on the clitoris or perineum)

localized pruritus or mass most common • less common -raised red, whi te or pib'lllented plaque, ulcer, bleeding, discharge, pain, dysuria • patterns of spread •

local

w

groin nodes (usually inguinal -+ pelvic nodes)

• hematogenous

Investigations • phYSical examination • ± colposcopy

• ALWAYS biopsy any suspicious lesion

Table 17. FIGO Staging Classification and Treatment of Vulvar Cancer Stago

Description

o

• •

"'

WA Ml

rr6iltmeni local exdsKlnl s�lCiaI vtivEctomy

laser ablation local i1m.oother� 1i1m1iqurnod) .Io ilvolved 11011 nodes 1 IlYl1 iwasion

Radical local excision + glOll node dissection � >1 ITVII iwasion Sentinel node dtssectil)'l accept.Io ilvolved 11011 nodes

IndiviOOaiized Radicaj surgical excisoo ± chetroradiatioo

local extensJon to adjacem stru:;ttJ'es, lower Lrettra, vagina, ;nJS Suspicious or positi'le uniateral groin nodes

IndivdJalized Chemoradiation ± radical SIIgicai excision

Positive b41ateral groin nodes

Paliattve therapy

Distam spread Spread \0 upper tJ'ethra, bladder, rrucosa, recturl or pelvic bone Distaot mets inckldl:lg pelvic LN

IndillKiJalized CIlemoradiation ± radical surgical excision

suspiciollS nodes on exa"Ill1atOO

Toronto Notes 2010

Gyn«ologicalOncology

Prognosis • depends on stage and particularly nodal involvement (single most important predictor followed by tumour size) • lesions :>4 em associated with poorer prognosis • toxicities of therapy common surgical site infection • lymphedema • radiation fibrosis, cystitis proctitis • overall S-year survival rate - 79% ,

Vagina BENIGN VAGINAL LESIONS • inclusion cysts • cysts form at site of abnormal healing of laceration (e.g. episiotomy) • no treatment required • endometriosis • dark lesions that tend to bleed at time of menses • treatment is excision • Gartner's duct cysts • remnants of Wolffian duct, seen along side of cervix • treatment conservative unless symptomatic • urethral diverticulum can lead to recurrent urethral infection, dyspareunia • surgical correction if srmptomatic MALIGNANT VAGINAL LESIONS Risk Factors • associated with HPV infection (analogous to cervical cancer) i creased incidence in patients with prior history of cervical and vulvar cancer • n Investigations cytology • significant false negative rate for existing malignancy (Ie. if gross lesion present. biopsy!) colposcopy • Schiller test (normal squamous epithelium takes up Lugol"s iodine) • biopsy, partial vaginectomy (wide local excision for diagnosis) • be sure to rule out disease on cervix, vulva, or anus (most vaginal cancers are actually metastatic from one of these sites) • staging (sec Table 18) VAIN (Vaginal Intra-Epithelial Neoplasia) • grades: analogous to cervical dysplasia • treahnent must rule out invasive cancer via biopsies and colposcopy prior to conservative treatment laser ablation vs. surgical excision vs. local immunotherapy (e,g. immiquimod) Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) • BO·9O% of vaginal cancer • 2% of gynecological malignancies • most common site is upper 1/3 of posterior wall of vagina • S-year survival - 42% • clinical features asymptomatic - painless discharge and bleeding vaginal discharge (often foul·smelling) vaginal bleeding especially during/ post-coitus urinary and/or rectal symptoms 2� to compression • treatment usually concurrent chemoradiation therapy for 1" vaginal cancer • consider radical hysterectomy / upper vaginectomy if early stage lesion and young patient Adenocarcinoma • most are metastatic, usually from the cervix, endometrium, ovary, or colon • most primaries are dear cell adenocarcinomas • 2 types: non-DES and DES syndrome • management as for see

Gyn«ology GY47

GY48 Gynecolog}'

Gynecological Oncology

Toronto Notes 2010

Diethylstilbestrol (DES) Syndrome • fetal exposure to DES (due to maternal usc) predisposes to cervical or vaginal clear cell carcinoma • if exposed 40 years, beta·carotene deficiency, vitamin A deficiency) nol proven clinical features • often present during apparent pregnancy with abnormal symptoms/findings: - vaginal bleeding (97%) - excessive uterine size for LMP (51%) - theca·lutein cysts >6 em (50%) - p re-edampsia (27%) - hyperemesis gravidarum (26%) - hyperthyroidism (7%) - beta-heG >100,000 mlU/mL - no fetill heilrt detected

Toronto Notes 2010

Gynecological Oncology

Gynecology GY49

• partial (or incomplete) mole hydropic villi and focal trophoblastic hyperplasia are associated with fetus or fetal parts

often triploid (XXY, XYY, XXX) with chromosome complement from both parents • usually related to single ovum fertilized by two sperm low risk of progression to malignant sequelae « 4%) associated with fetus, which may be growth-restricted and/or have multiple congenital m alforma tions clinical features • typically pre�nt similar to threatened/spontaneous/missed abortion • pathological diagnosis often made after D&C

In\lestigations • quantitative beta-hCG levels abnormally high for GA (tumour marker) • u/S findings: • if complete - no fetus (classic "snow storm" due to swelling of villi) • if partial - molar degeneration of placenta ± fetal anomalies, multiple echogenic regions corresponding to hydropic villi, and focal intra-uterine hemorrhage • CXR (may show metastatic lesions) • features of molar pregnancies which are high risk of developing persistent GTN after evacuation of pregnancy local uterine inva�ion as high as 31% beta-hCG >100,000 excessive uterine size

prominent theca-lutein cysts

Treatment • suction D&C with sharp curettage and oxytocin • Rhogam if Rh nega tive • consider hysterectomy (if patient no longer desires fertility) • prophylactic chemotherapy of no proven benefit • chemotherapy for GTN if develops after evacuation Follow-up • contraception required to avoid pregnancy during entire follow-up period • serial beta-hCGs (as tumour marker) every week until negative x 3 (usually takes �veral weeks, then monthly for 6-12 months) - prior to trying to conceive again • increase or plateau of beta-hCG indicates GTN ..... patient needs chemotherapy GTN (MALIGNANT GTO) • invasive mole or persistent GTN diagnosis made by rising or a plateau in beta-hCG, development of metastases following treatment of documented molar pregnancy histology - molar tissue from D&C metastases are rare (4%) • choriocarcinoma often present with symptoms from metastases • highly anaplastic, highly vascular • no chorionic villi, elements of syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast • may follow molar pregnancy, abortion, ectopiC, or normal pregnancy • placental-site trophoblastic tumour rare aggressive form of GTN abnormal growth of intermediate trophoblastic cells low beta-hCG, production of hum an placental lactogen (hPL), relatively n i sensitive to chemotherapy CLASSIFICATION of GTN • nonmetastatic -15% of patients after molar evacuation • may present with abnormal bleeding • all have rising or plateau of beta-hCG • negative metastases on staging investigations • metastatic y 4% patients after treatment of complete molar pregnanc

metastasis more common with choriocarcinoma wh ich tends toward early vascular

invasion and widespread dissemination

if signs or symptoms suggest hematogenous spread, don't biopsy (they bleed) • lungs (80%) - cough, hemoptysis, CXR le�ion(s) • vagina (30%) - vaginal bleeding, "blue lesions" on speculum exam • pelvi� (20%) - rectal bleeding (if invades bowel), U/S lesion(s) • liver (10%) - elevated LFTs, U/S or cr findings • brain (10%) - headaches, dizziness, seizure (symptoms of space-occupying

lesion), cr/MRI findings

, ,

�gS a c a g an Hay ncgat"'e,

re #1 srt for m li n t GTN melastases, When pelvic exam alld chest metastatic invotvemel1t UOCOO\IIIOO1,

GY5() Gynecology

Gynecological Oncology

Toronto Notes 2010

highly vascular tumour --+ bleeding --+ anemia all have rising or plateau of beta-hCG classification of metastatic GlN • divided into good prognosis and bad prognosis • features of bad prognosis - long duration (>4 months from antecedent pregnancy) - high pre-treatment beta-hCG titre: >\00,000 IU/24h urine or >40,000 mlU/mLof blood - brain or liver metastases - prior chemotherapy - metastatic disease following term pregnancy • good prognostic features are the absence of each of these features Investigations - for staging • h istory and physical • blCHXIwork - CSC electrolytes, creatinine, beta-hCG, TSH, LFTs • imaging - CXR U /5 pelvis, CT abdo/pelvis, CT brain • if suspect brain metastasis but CT brain negative, consider lumbar puncture for CSF beta-hCG • ratio of plasma:CSF d �ensioo

ReIatM!: oon b;aj � IIrith iI.IiI < 1 holt, dabetes dus � by vascular lisease. SLE, COOIrlied

�rosm. hypEripiOOria, sieHl eel nma, gaItrolr ....

intrauterine dIMce (Ull ctWElI U1 (NoYa-JC)

!JO!jeSIEmle�

UO(Mirena�)

Copper 1110: rrikj fa"e9J �etlectslast!Ne vears body I9:tioo in en:lometr'uIl � is 10)):: to sperm iIlf alters spem1 moIitty Progesterone-releasing IUD: decOOalzatioo 01 erOOmeIrUn iIlf tJictooirg 01 ce:.kaj rru:us, tray stWt!SS owIatioo

S1E: intermoostrual lieedlrg. tmt� hea:IacOO (MI"ooa''I. increased ttlOd kiss, duratioo 01 menses iIlf � (copper UO cri;I, eqUsioo (5'Ii in !he lis! year, \Jeatest i1 fis1 monthl, � waI pa-kOOxl I1MmI, � pregnancy oco:rs, there is a grecier cIm:e!he � wi be ect� increased risk 01 1'10 wiIti1 fis1 10 days 01 insertioo

""

C,II: AbsoUte: known or suspected IJ"!9'I1flC'/, lJldiaI,p:Ised geAAaI trac1 � acute IX clwjc PlQ 1iI� ri:sl: for STh. 1.rown aIergy \0 copper IX Wisoo"s � (cqJper

"'''''I

ReIatiYe: v.;",H Il6i'I1 disease. past lisIory d P1D IX octt\)i;

�,�oIutemeCiMty,�

fbrOOs. S\M'II: � IX � (cower IUD

cri;),ooW:aIstemsis, � m.u:as

Toronto Notes 2010

References

References ..�� PsydEtri:; �. � IIId � MIruI til Ment1J limers-kulh E6ti:n. Texlilevision. �lI'I, OC. � f'sycIdri; � ".2Im MeyA, M..... �PilI'If.oents !I!I1!!di!m. EMIS lrr:.Medi::!iI � USA 1998. � FG. Mclbni!I:I PC,.-id GantNF Ifds.L WMnsObstm:s, 141h 1ll. AppIeton llld lMlgB. 1m fIid:!f If" IIId Moor! .K> l!dst Essentials til ilIstetrics.-id �. 2nd !d. IIf H1.5 thrombocytopenia not a contraindication - may need to transfuse platelets prior

Common Presenting Problems Anemia Definition



.

r't.

,

RericulocytH Retic�ocyIes are yoo"!! erytt.ocytes and are markers of eryrt.ocyte p5% excretion la nonnal excretion wIn only be seen � the low B"was dve to dietary dehciencyl



Pan 2 • • • •

Same as pan I, but rndiolat>eled B" given with otal intrinsic facto, Sllould be done on� ff first stage shows mduced excteti(ln Normal lest .estit (:> 5'Ii excretioo) _ pernicious anemia Abnormal lesl resu� I en � inMhel ... �fililOOIe(JIII"'BI,(1(lD2OCQ1l'lI1S �Ie t.f \UnII 6" on!he _otas�dosiroo �·T�d;.Qis �fmred t>,oSITIIIS60 yeilrs old

Clinical Features • neurologicill cerebral (common; reversible with B'2 therilpy) • confusion • delirium • dementia cranial nerves (rare) • optic atrophy cord (irreversible dilmage) • �ubacute combined degeneration - posterior column� - decreased vibrillion sense, proprioception ilnd 2-point discriminiltion - pyramidill trilcts - spastic weakness, hyperactive reflexes peripherill neuropilthy (variable reversibililty) • usually symmetrical, affecting lower limbs more thiln upper limbs

Investigations • CBC, reticulocyte count

ilnemia often severe ± neutropeni a ± thrombocytopcniil

• MCV>110 fL • low reticulocyte count reli!tive to the degree of anemiil « 2%) • serum B12 ilnd RBC folilte • caution: low serum B12 1eads to low RBC folate because of failure of folate polyglutilmate synthe�is in the absence of BI2

• blood film

• oval macrocytes • hypersegmented neutrophils

• bone milrrow hyperccllulilrity

• nuclear-cytoplasmic asynchrony in RBC precursors (less mature nuclei than whilt would be expected from the development of the cytoplasm)

• bilirubin and LDH

• elevated unconjugilted bilirubin and LDH due breakdown of cells in BM

• Schilling test ciln distinguish pernicious anemiil from other Cill1S('S (see Gastroenterology, G16)

Treatment

• vitilmin BI2 100 Pg 1M monthly for life or 1000-1200 tlg PO dilily if intestinal absorption n i tact

• less frequent, higher doses are probilbly a� effective (e.g. 1000 tlg 1M q3 months) • watch for hypokillemia and rebound thrombocytosis when treilting severe megilloblastic anemia

Folate Deficiency • uncommon due to extensive dietilfY supplementiltion in developed countries folilte complexes with gilstric R binder

• complex then binds to intrinsic factor in the duodenum this complex is absorbed in the jejunum

• folilte stores arc depleted in 3-6 months

Toronto Notes 2lJl0

Hemalology H23

Macrocytic Anemia/Hemostasis

Etiology • diet (folate is present in leafy green vegetables. fortified cereals) most common cause traditionally; however with universal supplementation in foods it is now less frequent seen mainly in infants, elderly, alcoholics • intestinal • malabsorption • drugs/chemicals alcohol anticonvulsants antifolates (methotrexate) birth control pills • increased demand pregnancy prematurity hemolysis hemodialysis psoriasis. exfoliative dermatitis

Clinical Features

• mild jaundice due to hemolysis of RBCs secondary to ineffective hemoglobin synthesis • glossitis and angular stomatitis • rare • melanin pigmentation • purpura secondary to thrombocytopenia • folate deficiency at time of conception and early pregnancy has been linked to neural tube defects • unlike B'2 deficiency. folate deficiency has no neurologic manifestations

Investigations

• similar to B12 deficiency (CBC, reticulocytes, film, RBC folate, serum B12) • it is crucial to rule out B'2 deficiency as the cause of the decreased RBC folate

-\ .

Never lI",e lolate �Ione to �n iod",idual wtth m"ll"lobtasti(: ar.cmia b....:ause it wi. mast B" tieficier1cy arod nl!lJrolO\licai d"llenerat>oo wiU continue.

Management • folic acid 15 mg PO 00 x 3 months; then 5 mg PO 00 maintenance if cause not reversible

Hemostasis Three Phases of Hemostasis 1.

Primary Hemostasis

• goal is to rapidly stop bleeding • vessel injury results in collagen/subendothelial matrix exposure and release of vasoconstrictors • blood flow is impeded and platelets come in contact with damaged vessel wall adhesion: platelets adhere to subendothelium via vWF activation: platelets are activated resulting in change of shape and release of Aor and thromboxane A2 aggregation: these factors further recruit and aggregate more platelets resulting in formation of localized hemostatic plug

2. Secondary Hemostasis • platelet plug (fonned through primary hemostasiS) is reinforced by production of fibrin clot in secondary hemostasis • extrinsic pathway • the only way coagulation is initiated in vivo • intrinsic pathway • allows for amplification once coagulation has started

-

.

,

.�------, Normal hemostasis occurs as a resuH

of me balance between proooagulam arod anticoagt,jant factors,

--;:hiSfil

of Hemostasis

1 . Primary hemostasis

• VaSCular response and piatelet Plull foonation via VWF

2. Secondary hemostasis • Fibrin clot/o(mation 3. Resoluti(Jn • Fibrinolysis

3. Fibrin Stabilization and Fibrinolysis (resolution) • conversion from soluble to insoluble clot • once healing initiated, clot dissolution (anticoagulant pathway)

Tests of SKondary Hltmostasis

PT/lNA: Temis is played ovrsHJe (E:minsK: Pathway)

ffi: Table Tennis is played inside {Intrinsic Pathway)

H24 Hematology

Hemostasis

Toronto Notes 2010

EXTRNSIC PATHI'IAY I I NTlItISIC P!I.�Y • .- �

l-

XI _ *, _

I�

IJ( _ IXI _

I�I .... YO.SMX �c", Ria"",,", �lhamtlrtDl �tericlnB

He,Jarin

Digoxin .4Jniodi.r(Jle oism IVTEI. Maio Res.Is: kI patierUtreaeo:! Mlll vitwm x II'IIaopIstI b. � � till rt!dudi\II II rrd:d..anentVIE rmanod �� dthe peroj d In SI1CtIhe rde;cMIt {OIl 0.18, CI 0.13'().�� kI adIitim. there_ noOOseMd �=dVlE�Iobm.i�d � \limn K, IIrta"pISt� {OR 114, 0 O.91·1.69� � pa!ieIlS who rtaMd �_�IIpersiste11 111C1!aSe 1l _risk d � � � fOFlZ.�I, O I.4I!-4.51� Cadnian: f'toIo:rqed �wr!ha.., K I!IIIagOrIStS MisICI consisl!II � 1\ Ihe

nil:It..anent VIE f!J as � itStherlIpy II C(JI!ioued. � sIWl be isw!Irw:I-,m", !he rrd: dhorm�"" "IfII � [Io.iich rt!rI81S cmstanI!!lei tWIRlIS dgeatel conc:emIIIII1 Ihe � risk It rocmmvrE f\Idid1 declnes!!lel

1ml�,*,spd1;�_1\liliII

��tkrWdtwrtment.

,' , .}-------, Initialioo Warfarin Therapy 01

RIMIIIN-es Ovellap with Heparin Therapy lor 4·5 Day�

• 10 mg loadillg dose of warfarin

cal>Ses a p4J�MCl. 29.3ttl.\O.OI"!he�� inerl!:!orHla pUs cytRn (p10% of body weight in 6 months) • night sweats =

=

Table 19. Chromosome Translocations Gene Activation

Associated Neoplasm

1(3; 14)

c-myc activatioo

BOO;itt's �

�14;18)

bcI·2 activation

FoIictkr lymphoma

t(9;2Z)

Philadtdphia ctJ"omosome (bcr-1 lymph region • usually presents as widespread disease • constitutional symptoms (fever, weight loss, night sweats) not as common as in Hodgkin's disease

\ ,

�:L:

Associated Conditions

• cytopenia: anemia ± neutropenia ± thrombocytopenia if bone marrow fails • abdominal signs •

hepatosplenomegaly

1 . ImrnlJ1odeficieocy le.g. HIV�

• retroperitoneal and mesenteric involvement (2nd most common site of involvement) • oropharyngeal involvement in 5-10% with sore throat and obstructive apnea • extranodal involvement - most commonly Gl tract, also testes. bone. kidney • CNS involvement n i t% (often with HIV)

CIfOP.IiIi � PIlls 1Iituim;Jb _ CIfOP.ib�"""" ill i>5 em • previous history of low-grade disease or AIDS Table 20. Characteristics of Selected Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas Foilieular Lymphoma Lymphoma (OlBCl) Pefcentage ofNHLs 22-30% Genetic Mutation

Bcl-Z activation

Diffuse ....rge 8-Ce11

8ut1dtt's lymphoma

33%

30'11. plasma reUs

2. Plasmacytoma 011 tissue biopsy

3. HOrjI paraproteins le�vated senrn 106, igA. or lillht chain excretoo)

Minor Criteria I. Bone marrow plasmacytosis 11)-30'l0 2. Moooclo",,1 Pfotein less than major criteria levels

3. Lytic booe �sions 4. Red�ced noo·do""l lg �v"'s

�Ian_�""!. JWdorridI

versus "'.... _1IeCIIICeHI\erO

� St.. Cal r.-,.a....n. io Bdorti PMieIa with "'.MyUI lIat200J:J7fI:12Q!1.18 :bIIr IIro:\:m;W C(II\n)I lriII ..", I rneo.DI kbi � 01 S I, I II'£dhs.

PwliPpanll: 441 �urfleated � 'MIl1�""lageo5t1J5)VS� �: F\itJo:!nts � eiIhlr� pUsprmsonelMf': nml!l6). MPpUs� lMP1; n�lZ5k to' �*'" I'Imt Kll5; 05:511·\),. Mead G/A, .I.BC d dncaI hilerrm,t,gy: � � n dnnc i,mphocyac 1!U::aerria. BMJ. 199J;314:llaJ. MessneIy M lrd !'earsoo TC. .I.BC dcD:.iI haematol:qj: � Irirllfy {!:SS8Itis. TIunas fill. fIvper� � A.rth mem Mm 2001;1,1:1433-2439. u.s, Ct.naorer Ptocb;t S3Iet'j Cumissln !!In d � Pl!iItn CerIIIi1 Ct.naorer � Bem.l � Port Irttljl /wtm,cpsc.IP'ISlJSNOi�.p(I � KA Inl Htj An CR:aI use dwmm �: lipNilll"l Rat. eo IEil� �,oDat!, I'IaIIhom, MA 2000. � KA n !U An CInK:aI use rf hepim in! I:w rrdea.8 � hepoon. lIpTo::Dat. Rose eo {Eil1 �'cilaIe, Wi*hiIn r.IA 2000. Wets !'S. et at £vakJiItm d D4ner n Ihe � rf suspectell deep>Rin1lmrbJsls. 1Ii� 2003;J49:1221·11J5, Wisoo SE.1'o'otwl HG. Cr� MA. low.rose mI vitiII'i1 K!trerapy ftr me � d� pilti!nts mil!Ned rtIem.i6nI l1CIII'ailOO D: 31:r8 review. CMAJ. 2001;110:8214.

Hematology

Hj5

H56 Hematology

u\foteg

Toronto Notes 2010

ID

Infectious Diseases Sarah Chan, Lee Fidler and Jeremy Levenstadt, chapter editors Ray Guo and Arnold Jacob, associate editors Shauna-Dae Phillips, EBM editor Dr. Wayne Gold, Dr. Jay Keystone, Dr. Michael Silverman and Dr. Sharon Walmsley, staff editors Principles of Microbiology

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.

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.

.

.

.

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.

.

.

Transmission of Infectious Diseases Bacteriology Virology Mycology Parasitology

Neufological lnfections

.

.

.

.

.

.



.

.

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.



.

.

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.

.

Meningitis Encephalitis Generalized Tetanus Rabies

.

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.



.

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.

Gastrointestinal Infections

.

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.

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.

Gilchrist's disease)

9

.

.

.

14 15

.

.

Giardia lamblia Trichomonas vagina/is Trypanosoma cruzi

Apicomplexa

Cryptosporidium spp. Plasmodium spp. (Malaria) Toxoplasma gondli' Schistosoma spp.

Cestodes (flatworms) Nematodes (roundworms) Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) Stongy/oides stercora/is (threadworm)

20

.

38

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Flagellates

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

Bone and Joint Infections

Pneumocystis jiroveci (A carini!) Cryptococcus neoformans Candida albicans Aspergillus spp.

Helminths

Acute Pyelonephritis .

.

.

.

.

.



.

.

.

.

.

.

Septic Arthritis Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis

21

Infections in the Immunocompromised Host

23

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

43

. .

Febrile Neutropenia Infections in a Transplant Patient Immune Reconstitution Syndrome

Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO)

Sepsis and Septic Shock Tuberculosis (TB) Leprosy (Hansen's Disease) Syphilis Lyme Disease Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS) Cat Scratch Disease Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever West Nile Virus

HIV and AIDS

Histoplasma capsulatum Blastomyces dermatitidis (Chicago or

Parasitic Infections

Acute Diarrhea Traveller's Diarrhea Peptic Ulcer Disease (H. pylori) Bacterial Overgrowth Acute Viral Hepatitis Chronic Hepatitis B Chronic Hepatitis C

Systemic Infections

34

Entamoeba histolyfica (Amoebas)

Infective Endocarditis

Renal Infections

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Opportunistic Fungi

Pneumonia Influenza Avian Influenza (H5Nl) Severe Respiratory Illness (SRI) Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Swine-origin Influenza A virus (S-OtV) .

6

.

Fungal Infections

Skin and Subcutaneous Infections Superficial Fungal Infections Dermatophytes Subcutaneous Fungal Infection Systemic Mycoses

Coccidioides immitis

Respiratory Infections

Cardiac Infections

2

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

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.

.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphvlococcus aureus (MRSA) 46 .

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Travel Medicine

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fever in the Returning Traveller

Antimicrobials

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Antibiotics

Antivirals . . .

28

45

47 50

. . . . .53

Antifungals

. . .54

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .

Epidemiology Pathophysiology Modes of Transmission Laboratory Diagnosis Natural History Clinical Manifestations of HIV/AIDS Management of the HIV-Positive Patient Combined Antiretroviral Treatment (cART) Prevention of HIV Infection Types of Testing Universal Routine Screening

Toronto Notes 2010

Antiparasitics . . . . . . . . .

. . .55

.

Approach to Antibotic Allergies

.

A Simplified Look at Antibiotics

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.

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.

.

Coverage

Quick Reference: Common Infections and Their Antibiotic Management References

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57

59

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InfedioU5 Di�ses

56

60

IDl

Principles of Microbiology

1D2 Infectious Diseases

Toronlo Noles 2010

Principles of Microbiology Transmission of Infectious Diseases Mechanisms • dirc I 25

+20 +23 PMNs in 4 high power fields (HPFs) positive - WBC non-inflammatolT continue symptomatic therapy + WBC inflammatory (infectious, lBO, radiation colitis): • culture for 5(1lmonel/(I, 5higel/(I, C. jejllni, E. coli • test for C. difficile cytotoxin A and B if recent/remote antibiotic use or recent chemotherapy • consider empiric therapy with a quinolone such as ciprofloxacin based on severity of illness • flexible sigmoidoscopy: biopsies useful to distinguish idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis) from infectious colitis or acute self-limited colitis • i f >1 0 days consider parasitic infection Giardia, Entamoeba hislolylica and send stool for ova & parasites • may need 3 stool samples because of sporadic passage • also consider post-infectious IBS • antibiotics prolong excretion of non-typhoidal Salmonellosis and may cause C. difficile infection clearly indicated: Sa/mollel/a Iyphi, Shisel/a, V. cholera, C. difficile, Cryplosporidillm, E'lfamocba his/olylica, immunocompromiscd patients indicated in some situations: non-typhoid SalmOllel/a, Campy/obaetcr, Ycrsinia, Giardia, ETEC (determined by severity of illness) =

=

=

Traveller's Diarrhea Epidemiology • up to 50% of travellers to developing countries affected in first 2 weeks and 10-20% after returning home Etiology • bacterial (80%): E. coli most common (ETEC), Campylobactcr, Shigella, Sa/mOlle/la, Vibrio (non-cholera) • viral: Noroviruses and Rotavirus account for about 10% • protozoal (rarely): giardiasis, amebiasis, cryptosporidium, cyclospora Prophylaxis • bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismoll» , 2 tablets (525 mg) qid up to 3 weeks (60% effective) • antibiotic prophylaxis not routinely recommended except in high-risk travellers e.g. diabetes mellitus, renal failure, inflammatory bowel disease (90% effective) Treatment • usually self-limited; 90% last less than I week • symptomatic, rehydration • ciprofloxacin in moderate-severe illness as trave!ler's diarrhea is primarily bacterial • if lasts >1 0 days consider parasitic infection Giardia, Entamoeba his/oly/ica, etc and send stool for ova & parasites; also consider post-infectious IBS

Peptic Ulcer Disease (H. pylorll • see Gastroenterology, Gil

Bacterial Overgrowth • see Gastroenterology, G19

Infectious Diseases IDI7

Gaslrointestinal lnfections

1018 Infedious Di!M'a!M's

Toronto Notes 2010

Acute Viral Hepatitis -

'

Definition • viral hepatitis lasting :bocw•. iIII'rInIIo.

-

""'��tId!n, �S>v*&no. ...�--

"""-'-......

"

� '111' .�

_.Noogjn b.olo99.99% rapid test; Sn 96%. Sp >99.9%; higher false positives, therefore need to confirm with Western blot PCR: detects KJV DNA in plasma for diagnosis and HIV RNA in plasma for monitoring viral load • p24 antigen detection by ELISA; only positive in acute phase and late symptomatic stages

HIV and AIDS

Toronto Notes 2010

Infectious Diseases ID29

Natural History

c:: 0 ..j:l

� c::

(l)

'-'

c:: 0

Acute

Asymptomatic

Symptomatic

Infection

Stage

Stage

\ \ \ \ \

'-'

\

I

I

I

AIDS

.-

CD4 cell count anti-HIV1 antibodies

(l) > ..j:l ctI

viral loads

e 1 2 3 months

4

5 6 years

7

8

9

10

11

Figure 4. Relationships between CD4 T cell Count, Viral Load, and Anti-HIV Antibodies

Acute Retroviral Syndrome • 40-70% experience a mononucleosis-like acute retroviral syndrome from 1-6 weeks after

initial infection generally lasting 10-15 days

• fever, pharyngitis, lymphadenopathy, rash, myalgias, headaches, leukopenia • aseptic meningitis is the most common neurologic presentation and occurs in 10-20% of

patients; HIV RNA and/ or p24 may be detected in CSF

• associated with high level plasma viremia and therefore high risk of transmission

Asymptomatic Phase • progression of disease is highly variable: within 10 years after HIV infection, 50% of

untreated individuals develop AIDS, an additional 30% have milder symptoms related to immunodeficiency, and less than 20% are persistently asymptomatic • CD4 counts usually greater than 200 cells / mm3 • persistent generalized lymphadenopathy occurs in 35-60% of asymptomatic patients

Symptomatic Phase • CD4 counts 200 cells / mm3 • HIV-related pulmonary hypertension

Gastrointestinal • diarrhea: bacteria

(Salmonella, Shigella, Enterobacteriaceae, C. difficile), protozoa (G. lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, Isospora belli, coccidian, microsporidia), viral (CMV), HIV-associated

enteropathy, medication side effects

• bloody diarrhea: CMV colitis, HSY, • • • •

• •

Chlamydia, GC, or Kaposi's in the rectum; if history is + for oral / anal contact think amebiasis HIV cholangiopathy: CMY, MAC, microsporidium, HIV itself proctitis: Chlamydia, gonococcal HPV-related anal carcinoma in men Lymphogranuloma Venereum (LGV): Chlamydia-like organism that can present with conjuctivitis ± conjuctival granulomas, lymphadenopathy, fever, malaise, or multiple fistulas primarily seen in the MSM population Rx: 21 day course of doxycycline

Renal • HIV-associated nephropathy: FSGS, proteinuria, progressive renal insufficiency

Genital • HSV: recurrent genital ulcers

Vaginal and Cervical • candidiasis: vulvovaginitis, white exudates • HPV: cervical dysplasia and cancer

Toronto Notes WID

HIV and AIDS

Neurological • HIV-related dementia (subcortical): progressively poor concentration, diminished memory, slowing of thought processes, gait ataxia, spastic weakness of extremities, loss of bowel and bladder function; test with "MOCA" exam- higher sensitivity and specificity as compared to the MMSE in detC38.3'C on several occasions (inlection Illt �esent/lflClbating on aOOlission)

• Dia!PJsJs oocertain after 3 days of

irrvestigOOon, irclJding at least 2 days incubation 01 etrues

Neutropenic FUO

HIV..associatl!d FUO

• TerJ1l >38.3"C on several oo;asJons • Nevtrophi count 38.3'C on severa! occasions • llIxation > 4 weeks lor OUIjlatients, >3 days !or hospitalized patioots • Diagnos� lIlCertain 2-3 RBCs / HPF on microscopy HEMATURIA

-ve dipstick, no RBCs

+ve dipstick, +ve RBCs

+ve dipstick, no RBCs

Pseudohematuria Food (beets), dyes, medication (rifampin)

(true hematuria) • Hemoglobin (hemolysis)



• •



I

Renal

Hematological

Urologic

Coagulopathy, sickle cell

• • • •

Primary • • • • • •

Myoglobin (rhabdomyolysis)

Nephrolithiasis, trauma, tumour, prostatitis, urethritis Dysuria or flank pain common Isomorphic RBCs, no casts Blood at beginning (urethritis) or end (prostate, bladder) of stream

Secondary

Membrano·prolif. GN Post·strep. GN Rapidly·progressive GN Interstitial nephritis (acute and chronic) Papillary necrosis IgA nephropathy

• • •

CTD (Connective Tissue Diseases) • Wegener's, Goodpasture's, SLE, Churg·Strauss, HSP Infection • Pyelonephritis Hereditary • Alport's, polycystic kidney disease (PCKD)

Figure 6. An Approach to Hematuria

Investigations for Hematuria

• Hx and Px: family history of nephrolithiasis, hearing loss (Alport' s), cerebral aneurysm

(PCKD), diet, recent URTI, irritative and obstructive urinary symptoms (UTI)

• urine R&M, C&S, urea, Cr • 24-hr urine stone workup: calcium, oxalate, citrate, magnesium, uric acid, cysteine • further workup (if casts and/ or proteinuria): CBC, electrolytes, 24-hr urine protein and Cr,

serology: ANA, RF, C3, C4, p-ANCA, c-ANCA, ASOT, abdo/ pelvic ultrasound, cystoscopy ± urology consult

Volume Overload • volume overload due to renal impairment can manifest as either secondary hypertension

and / or generalized edema • for a list of the secondary causes of hypertension, see Family Medicine, FM34 • for the differential diagnosis of generalized edema, see Cardiology, CS

Assessment of Renal Function Measurement of Renal Function Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) rate of filtration of plasma by the glomeruli most renal functions decline in parallel with a decrease in GFR GFR is often estimated using serum creatinine concentrations [Cr] creatinine (Cr) is a metabolite of creatine (intermediate in muscle energy metabolism) Cr is freely filtered at the glomerulus with no tubular reabsorption and minimal secretion (10%) • rate of production determined by muscle mass • Cr excreted Cr filtered (at steady state)

• • • • •

=

=

Toronto Notes WID

Ways to Estimate GFR 1. Calculate creatinine clea.ra.nce (crC!) • calculation provides reasonable estimate of GFR • requires blood and 24-hr urine samples; measure plasma [Cr], 24-hr urine volume and urine {Crl • GFR = urine {Cr] x urine volume/plasma {Cr] x duration of urine collection in minutes • therefore GFR is proportional to l /plasma rCr] • 2 major errors limiting the accuracy of CrCl • increasing Cr secretion can overestimate true CFR, particularly in azotemic patients • incomplete urine collection can underestimate true CFR; over-collection of urine overestim.lIes it 2. Cockcroft-Gault (ormula • serum Cr used along with age, gender and weight (kg) to estimate GPR • CrCl (ml/min) (140 - age)(weight) x 1.2 /plasma {Cr] (/imol /L) • multiply above result by 0.85 for women • normJI fJnge is >90 ml/min (>1.5 ml/s) 3. MDRD (Modification of Diel in Renal Disease) formula most common way in which CFR is estimated • this is a complex formula requiring only information on the following variables: 'g' • gender • serum Cr • African descent • most helpful way to use this formula is by entering values n i to online calculators (www.ukidney.com) • GFR is reported as ml/min/l .73m2 body surface area =

Limitations of Using Serum Cr Measurements I. must be in steady state • constant CFR Jnd rate of production of Cr from muscles • sudden injury may reduce GFR substantially, but it takes time for Cr 10 accumulate and then re-€stablish steady state 2. GFR must fall substantially before plasma {Cr] rises above normal laboratory range (see Figure 7) • with progressive renal failure, remaining nephrons compensate with hyperfiltrJtion • GFR is relatively preserved despite significant structural damage 3. plasma {Cr] is influenced by the rate of Cr production lower production with smaller muscle mass (i.e. female, elderly, low weight) e.g. consider plasma {Cr] of 100 /imol/L (I .13 mg/dL) in both of these patients . 20 year-old man who weighs 100 kg, GFR 144 mL/min • 80 year-old woman who weighs .50 kg, CFR = 30.6 mL/min 4. contribution of tubular secretion to Cr excretion is increa&cd when CFR is low • CrCl overestimates CFR • certain drugs (cimetidine, trimethoprim) interfere with Cr secretion 5. errors in Cr measurement • very high bilirubin level causes {Cr] to be falsely low • acetoacetate (a ketone body) and certain drugs (cefoxitin) create falsely high {Cr] =

Measurement of Urea Concentration • urea is the major end product of protein metabolism • plasmJ urea concentration is a measurement of renal function but should not be use alone as it is modified by a variety of factors • urea production reflects dietary n i take of protein and catabolic rate; increased protein intake or catabolism (sepsis, trauma, Gl bleed) causes urea level to rise • ECF volume depletion causes a rise in urea independent of GFR or plasma {Cr] • in addition to filtrJtion, a significant Jmount of urea is reJbsorbed along the tubule • reabsorption is increased in sodium-avid states such as ECF volume depletion • typical ratio of urea to [Cr] in serum is 1:20 in Canadian units (using mmol/L for urea and /imol/L for Cr), and 5:1 in US units (Cr in mg/dL)

Urinalysis • usc dipstick in freshly voided urine specimen to assess the following: 1.

Nephrology NP7

Assessment of Renal Function

Specific Gravity

• ratio of the mass of equal volumes of urine/H�O



range is 1.001 to 1.030



value usually 1.010 in end stage renal disease (isosthenuria)

• values 1.020 reflect concentrated urine 2. pH • urine pH is normally between 4.5-7.0; if persistently alkaline, consider: renal tubular acidosis .. UTI with urease-producing bacteria (e.g. ['rotells)

GFR

Figure 7. Serum Creatinine (;()ncentration as a Function of GFR

,' ,

!.'

Cr,_ _ Cr....-

(CrJ"..... x GfR _ (Crl..- x urine flow rate (mUmin) GFR = ICrl..- X urine flow rate - � - ICrl;::;:-­ therefore, GFR proponional to_ _ '_ (Crl_

,' ,

: ·kcroft-GaUk formula !XI

(rnVrni11 = !J4O-iKIcIx WI!ku)x 1.2 ( x O.8Sinwomen) (Crl_ joodll)

,' , .,}-------, There is an inverse relationship between serum Cr concentration and CrCl at steady state.

,' , .,}-------, Cli/lical Settillfl in which UrN level is Affected Independent III Ranal FUIICtilln

Oisptllportionate illQ"ease in Urea

Volume depletion (prerenat azotemia) GI hcrnoohaQl.! H91 protein diet Sepsis Catabolic state wim tiSSI.le breakdown Corticosteroid or cytotoxic agents OisptllPllnionate decrease in Ure;l Low protein diet liver disease

��

r n. Collactilln 1 . Oiscard first mornill\l specimen 2. CoIled night 3. Refrigerate between voids 4. CoIle800 mOsrM;g) urine' I

I

N, Is trine osmole excretion rate

dillfelics, waler replacement • Diaysis I renal fabe

>750 mOsmId ?

I

I

y" • IJiuetics lioopi • Osmotic diuresis

N, Positive renal

response to DDAVP 5(». incfease in oone osmoalityl?

I

yO' • klsensible water loss • Respiratory, skin • Gl ldiarrheal • Osmotic llactoose, malabsorptionI • Remote renaj loss

- Hyperglycemia - Endogenous lurea with excess NG protein feedsl

I No • Neptrogeric DI

y" • Central [)

Fillure 10. An Approach to Hypernatremia

Signs and Symptoms • with Jcute hypcrnJtrcmia no time for adilptJlion, therefore more likely to be symptomatic • adaptive response: cells import and generate new osmotically active particle� to normalize size • due to brJin cell shrinkage: altered mentOll stiltus, weilkness, neuromuscul Jr irrit.Jbility, focal neurologiC deficits, seizures, coma, death; ± polyuria, thirst, signs of hypovolemia Complications • n i creJscd risk of vasculJr rupture resulting in intracraniJI hemorrhage • rapid correction may lead to cerebral edema due to ongoing brain hyperosmolarity Treatment of Hypovolemic Hypernatremia • general measures for all patients • give free water (orJI or IV) • treat underlying cause • monitor serum Na frequently to ensure corrcrtion is not occurring too rJpidly • if evidence of hemodynamic instability, must fir�t correct volume depletion with NS bolus loss of WOlter is often i1ccompanied by loss of Na but 01 proportionJlely larger water loss • in piltients with presumed normal tOIJI body Na, use formulil to cal culate WOlter deficit: HP defiat IBW x(serum Na· 14()) (TBW 0.6 x wt(kg) for men, O.s x wt(kg) for women) 140 =

=

Toronto Notes WID

Eleclrol}1e Disorders

• replace free water deficit; "free water" is water without sodium • encourage patient to drink pure water, as oral route is preferred for fluid administration • if unable to replace PO or NC, correct H�O deficit with hypotonic IV solution • IL D5W approximately equals 1 L free water • IL 0.45% N5 approximately equals 500 mL free water • use formula (see Hyponatremia, NP'13) to estimate expected change in serum Na with lL n i fusate

• administer fluids over appropriate time frame to lower Na by no more than 12 mmol /L in 24 hours (0.5 mmol/L/hr)

• must also provide maintenance fluids and replace ongoing losses Treatment of Hypervolemic Hypernatremia • general measures as above • hypervolemic hypematremia: remove excess total body Na with diuresis or dialysis (if renal failure present), then replace water deficit using D5W

DIABETES INSIPIDUS (Oil • collecting tubule is impermeable to water because of an absence of ADH or absence of

response to ADH

• centrlll defect in relellse of ADH (central DO or renal response to ADH (nephrogenic 00 Etiology • central Ol: neurosurgery, granulomatous diseases, traumll, vascular events, mlllignancy • nephrogenic 01: li thium (most common), hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, congenital Diagnosis • urine osmolality n i appropriately low in patient with hypernatremia

(U".m 2.0 mg/mmol in males > 2.8 mg/mmol in females

Diabetes and the Kidney/Cystic Diseases of the Kidney

NP34 Nephrology

..... � ,

�}-------,

ACEI can cause hyperkalemia. Therefore, be sure to watch serum K, especially if patient has DM and renal insufficiency.

2. • • • •

3. Renal Outcomes with Telmisartan, Ramipril. or Both in People at High Vascular Risk (ONTARGET Study)

Lancet 2008;372:547·553 Study: Prospective, multicentre, double·blind, randomized controlled trial. Participants: 25,620 patients with median follow· up of 56 months. Intervention: Patients received either ramipril (10 m!l'd; N=8576), telmisartan (80 m!l'd; N=8542) or a combination of both drugs (N=8502). Primary Outcome: Composite of dialysis, doubling of creatinine level, and death. Results: The number of outcome events was similar for telmisartan (n= 1 147) and ramipril (1 1 50; HR 1 .00, CI 0.92·1.09), but was increased with combination therapy (1 233; HR 1 .09, 1 .01·1.18, p=0.037). The need for dia�sis or doubling of serum creatinine, was similar with telmisartan (1 89) and ramipril (174; HR 1 .09, 0.89·1.34) and more frequent with combination therapy (212; HR 1 .24, 1.01-1.51, p=0.038). Estimated GFR declined least with ramipril compared with telmisartan or combination therapy (p60 mL / min: ACE I or ARB - CrCI 30% rise in serum Cr or hyperkalemia, cliscontinue medication and consider 2nd line agent • consider holding ACE!, ARB and / or diuretic with acute illness and in women before becoming pregnant • consider referral to nephrologist if ACR >60 mg/ mmol, eGFR 1000xlO'APMNs

i 2 min

Reflex asymmetry Of unilateral Babinski sign may be indicative of a focal lesion.

Treat as

Status Epilepticus

�.



1. ABCs

2. Vil�1 signs J. Laborcnory investigations

. Indtoos SUogeSI"'" 0f EpI'1epsy: abnormal spikes. po/vs!like discharges.

with Gr�m stain oed

4. 05WIV 5. Lorazepam 0.1·2 mglkg IV (or Diazepam 1 0 mg IV over 2 minI

spike·wave compklxes.

Lumbar Puncture

If fever 01 meningismus

Treat pret!mptively with antibiotics

t

,)....

,

;;59'4

Fosphen'(!oin 1000-1500 mg IV al iSO mglmin

of first EEG are pos�ive in "P�epsy. 59·92"4 of epilll\lSy is picked up with repeated EEGs.

"

Phen,(!oin 1000·I 500 mg IV at a max of 50 mglmin



Another 10 mglkg of

Fosphen'(!oin or Phen,(!oin



Phenobarbital 1000·1500 mg IV slowly 1·2 h

(refractory SEII

1 . ICU



2. Continuous infusion of Midazolarn/ p!"opofoVpenlobarbital

1 Burst supp!"ession (on EEGI

Figure 10. Status Epilepticus

Behavioural Neurology • see Psychiatry. PSt7

Acute Confusional StatelDelirium Table 8. Selected Intracranial Causes of Acute Confusion Kev Clinical Features EtioIogV

-< 0C",'IrHJm " IS· 8 med,c' ..�, emergency

carrying signmcil1 yeilr • with TCese lasts.

dr ess. Mi\'IV sUk aside from

Agnosia Definition • disorder in the recognition of the significilnce of sensory stimuli in the presence of intact senS

right visual field defect

Visual Fields Defects

optic nerve

"

J "

...:....J :_ z

optic chiasm optic tract�' temporal ...--.;s - _, ,;­

::.- -.-J&...

radiation (Mever's loop) �� .. parietal =

LGB

?'' ,.

radiation

(LGB

..

4

,r rcalcaline fissure

lateral IICniculate bodyl

1

' 0. 1 �. 3 ()() . ()() 5 �� 6 ��

right anopsia (light o¢ic nerve klsionl right anopsia and left upper

quadranlaoopsia uurctional scotOfM)

bitemporol hemiooOjlsia (chiasmal klsionl

left homonymoos hemianopsia (light optk: tract lesion) left upper quadrantaoopsia (light temporai �SiOf1I

left klwer QUildrootanopsia (right paliet� lesiOll)

Figure 14, Chat"llcteristic Visual Field Defects with Lesions Along the Visual Pathway

Neuro-Ophthalmology

Nll Neurology

Toronlo Noles 2010

Abnormalities of Eye Movements Disorders of Lateral Gaze Etiology • brainstern infarcts • multiple sclerosis • tumours

-' ,

}--------,

. •

A lesion in a cerebral �emisphefe

causes eyes to 100k away' from the hemipjegia.

A lesion in the braiostem causes the

e\, SIl!Iey wal

l003

Figure 15, Internuclear Ophthalmopliegia -'

,

.}--------,

Diplopia worse at end of the day sUllllests myasthenia gravis (e.g. fat'ouablel.

-. ,

--;':

y diplopia on extr""",s of gaze, cover each eye in isolation duri"ll

extremes of \jiIle.

The covered eye that makes the outermost image disappear is the one w�h pathology.

Pathophysiology • voluntary eye movements are triggered in the frontal eye fields, located anterior to the precentral gyrus, bilaterally n i the frontal lobes • each frontal eye field controls voluntary saccades to the contralateral side via connections to the contralateral paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF) • a unilateral lesion in one frontal eye field: prevents voluntary saccades to the opposite side, eyes deviate toward the side of the lesion • can be overcome with doll's eye maneuver • a unilateral lesion n i the PPRF in the pons: prevents voluntary saccades to the ipsilateral side, eyes deviate away from the lesion • cannot be overcome with doll·s eye maneuver • seizure involving a frontal eye field: cause eye deviation towards the opposite side

Internuclear Ophthalmoplegia (lNO) Etiology • MS (most common; sec Multiple Sclerosis, N49) • brain stem infarction • neoplasm • AV malformations • Wernicke's encephalopathy Pathophysiology • results from a lesion in medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) which disrupts coordination between eN VI nucleus in pons and the contralateral eNII! nucleus in midbrain ..... disrupts conjugate horizontal gaze Clinical Features • on gaze away from the side of the lesion: 1 ) adduction of ipSilateral eye is impaired, 2) full excursion of contralateral eye in abduction but with monocular abduction nystagmus • cannot be overcome by caloric testing • accommodation reflex intact • may be bilateral • up beating nystagmus on upward gaze often present

Diplopia Monocular • mostly due to relatively benign optical problems (refractive error. cataract functionJI) Binocular • cranial nerve palsy (see Crrmifli Nerves, N17) eN II! (oculomotor) • diabetes, Jneurysm, tumour, trauma • isolated eN II! palsy with pupil spilring usually due to OM and most will resolve spontaneously in several months • isolated eN II! palsy with pupil involved usually indicates compressive lesion (especially posterior communicating ilrtery aneurysm) eN IV (trochlear) • diabetes, trauma eN VI (abducens) • diabetes, tumour, trauma muscle • thyroid eye exophthalmos • neuromuscular junction • myasthenia gravis (MG) (see MYflslhem·fI GrlWis, N32) • other orbital trauma, tumour Wernicke's encephalopathy Miller·Fischer variant of CBS leptomeningial disease

Toronto Notes WID

Neurology N23

Neuro-Ophthalmology

Nystagamus •

definition: rapid, involuntary, small amplitude movements of the eyes that are rhythmic in nature • direction of nystagmus is defined by the rapid component of the eye movement • can be categorized by movement type (pendular, jerking, rotatory, coarse) or as normal vs. pathologiCilI

Abnormalities of Pupils Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect (RAPD) (Marcus-Gunn Pupil) •

see also Ophthalmology, OP34

Definition • a failure of direct pupillary responses to light, caused by a defect in the visual afferent pathway anterior to the optic chiasm • clinical testing swinging light tcst • swing light from one eye to the other; both pupils should constrict n i itially • when normal side is illuminated, both pupils constrict • when damaged side is illuminated, both pupils paradoxically dilate because the damaged eye perceivcs less light relative to normal eye pupil reacts poorly to light, and better to accommodation • differential diagnosis optic neuritis is the most common cause of RAPD other causes: optic nerve compreSsion, large retinal detachment, central retinal artery / vein occlusion, advanced glaucoma .�

""m"-=====:;t '-== ( "'_� �f' 11II1 -f-7'7.L---�'!Ji1>

1l

Pretec!aI n• •• ••

AquMlIC1

Edinge'·Wes!pMj noc.leos

N.rm�1 p""i!ia'l' Rolpotlle

\

CD Swi"lli"ll lightT...,

\

1=1'---7"''-7L

OcuiomOlOl nerves 1111) �-

""""""""' ''_fllJp;I.tt>_moI

---., .. ----1-----7;6

Ciliary """"lion

Optic

C"rnmictor muscles 01 P"piI

Fi!lure

16. RAPO

(3) Swinging light Test

"", (II)

----=>..��V

---

;...,. _ to ddot.

N24 Neurology

Neuro-Ophthalmology

Toronlo Noles 2010

Horner's Syndrome

CPe -'> STN -'> CPi -'> thalamus -'> motor cortex • activation of this pathway causes inhibition of the thalamus and ultimately prevents movement direct: cortex -'> striatum -'> Cre -'> CPi � thalamus � motor cortex activation of this pathway activates STN which removes the inhibitory effect of the CPi on the thalamus, thereby allowing movcment

-= r : : l "i 1--: ; ,���J� y:':::>bilateral

ReI100rbital

Dllrillion

Minutes -days

H0\i'5 days

10 min-2 hcus

0_

Gradllal; worse in PM

Grilrua� worse in PM

Dady headache for \WIts,

Quality

Band-like; constllfll

TIYobbD;i

Constant, aching. stabbD;i

Severity

M�d-moderate

Moderate·severe

Severe (wakes from sjeepJ ,.,. ,�"

Provoking

Fromo-ternporal -

Depressioo

No�e "," Sl1ainD;i CooghD;i

Sleep d�tion

ActMty

"-

Palliating Associated Sx

"...

No vomitD;i No photophobia

","

Walking armrd

NauseMtomiting

Red 1W!ery eye

Phot!VphooJphobia '"'

Nasal congestioo or mooot.ea Unilateral Homer's

PhVSical signs

Muscle tension in scalJ4{)yrsJ� headidJe the pte"/iI!nc! is M\ {o.o.s.J')I� Ho.o.-. illhJse � ..,.;m new (f dmpI heado::lIe the � � J2'Io 12442\1. a'Id" IhJse �wiIh��1h1 �1$43'; {2(j.1i8'\I. Inb.ffiI�,tI.l dhealfmunwa$ ftrXId to be IMfLj in '*'i1 WI. �t nram­

niiII p;lId:Jgy il ilf!IeiI'Iirr# �. �. _·

m:mths, nocttmal

Anxiety "'"

u· l.IniIiIUfaI iJooln N · Nausea If� D· � irlerIiI!y

TempGfat Arteritis

Incidence

60

Sex bias

No bias

No bjas

No !Mas

location

Generalized; stiff neck

f.nv location

T""","

Dllration

Variable

ClYonic

�iabfe

0_

Meningitis: oolJrHiays SAH: tIU1derdap onset

Gradual; worse in AM

V�iabfe

Quality

Variable

!Mike any previous I"eadache

fuobbing

Severity

"""

S....,

VOOable; can be severe

� n:MJwI tili:at featlres weasilar insufficiency due subclavian stenosis associated w�h left arm lISe causing vertigo, headaches, left arm datKIication.

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations • bloodwork: CSC ESR, VDRL, semm glucose, cholesterol and lipids • ECG · CT ± MRI • lumbar puncture (rule out subarachnoid hemorrhage) • intrarterial angiography or MRA (anterior circulation TIA� or dissection) • carotid doppler or transcranial doppler •

echocardiography

Hypertensive Stroke - 185. dBP > 110, aggmssive Rx 10 decreaSl! B� uncontrolled serum glllCose. thrombocytopenia. PMH ICH. Sx 01 SAH/pcricardilOslMI, pregnant. -. ,

."-------,

R8Ialive contraindications to tPA

Early sIgns of large cerebral infarction, NIHSS >22, resOstant HTN. age >85, Hx AVM or anetlrysm.

-. , •

50'¥, of ICH due to I f A is lalailll

I.sfririr iIIII Heparir it Acaa Slroke­ IMerna1irNI Strote Trial LR:6199J;:l49:I!">6UI

SbrItf � op!!ItriI wIh 6 rn:J1Ih krbv­ ..

I'IIirrotI: IHJ5patien1$lS4'J,ITII!III WIth � IICUle iIchemI:: strob d recMonset I�ss 1fIiI148

h). with no!iYidm:ed ��. nI no eN irdio::iUns kJ. tJ � to. hepnrtJ�

� fWthol pa!IeIt$ \WI! ab:ated � "' {SOCO tJI2,SD.llJt..fI, !IId

�we� neYer � trepn; Sifilirt/. hiliwet! ab::attC astm 1XI mg daiIj". 1M Il'JeIItSwet! rnIo:rrt,o iI&SiJJed 1ll � aspnr, 1Je!sJr. bodr. .-. 1lr;Jta-""" � wirM1,"", we!.!l:; nltlea!htJ depel"dmc'i at 611D11ts. ResR: ftJ bcII1 � \'$. no lreplm nI astm \'$. noaspm,1hetti was III SI'jJ"Iifcint drr'ferenc! in deal1 at 2-.wets. tJ de20 mmHg • goals: keep lCP 70 mmHg, MAP >90 mmHg General Measures • elevate head of bed at 30-45°, maintain neck in neutral position -> increases intracranial venous outflow • prevent hypotension with fluid and vaoopressors, dopamine, norepinephrine prn • ventilate to normocarbia (pCOz 35-40 mmHg) ..... prevents vasodilatation • oxygen prn to maintain p02 >60 mmHg -> prevents hypoxic brain injury

Herniation Syndromes/Hydrocephalus

Toronto Notes WID

Specific Measures (proceed stepwise prn) • osmolar diuresis (mannitol 20% IV solution 1-1.5 g/kg. then 0.25 g/kg q6h to serum osmolarity of 315-320) • can give rapidly, acts in 30 minutes, must maintain sSP >90 mmHg

• sedJtion ("light" e.g. bJfbiturJtes/codcine � "heavy" e.g. fcntJnyI/MgSo.,) • paralysis with vecuronium � reduces sympathetic tone, HTN n i duced by muscle contraction • hyperventilate to pCOz 30-35 mmHg • use for brief periods only - also results in decreased cerebral blood flow • drain 3-5 ml CSF viJ ventricles, assess eJch situJtion independently • n i sert external ventricuiJr drain (if Jcute) or shunt • corticosteroids � decrease edema over subsequent dJys around brain tumour, Jbscess, blood • no proven vJlue n i heJd injury or stroke • hypothermiJ - cool body to 34''C • no proven vJlue n i heJd injury • barbiturate coma induced with pentobJfbital to reduce cerebral blood flow and metabolism (10 mg/kg over 30 min, then 1 mg/kg qlh continuous infusion) • decreases mortality, but no improvement in neurological outcome • decompressive craniectomy is a last resort

Neurosurgery NS7

-. , .,}-------, TreJIs dIte ttl!!e ReT i'o:io:lItW rosiJbt�.,arvW; �,.ca'JI�ilyWll5 *ted between !he tnaIs. � OCTCOO'C)iIed!llJCll �!U\WRTwithsup=c1D1m !hI ll!I'(>'!ed ro��"� ��nmu�lIltes.t.d tIw!�WII5 ��f!hmgI'lSl' su[,JCilWBlll Redsollte RCT1IIiI! � WBIlT!its �s wiIh IWRTm ni:aed 3 �n..lIo'eIfl!III;'�5lI'oiv50.

Rupttred

Slbaadnoid bridgiJ;j vessels ",,',,'"

associated with '""'"

before lOC.

Age >50, ETOH

0Ite0 asymptomatic

Hypodense crescentic mass

iIlti·coag�ed

Milar HlA. conlusiorl. signs of n:reased K:P Sudden onset

Hi� density blood

tIul:l� headache, signs of i"creased K:P

over time)

Slbaacmoid bridgiJ;j vessels

"'""".

Tral.ll1a,

Age 55-60 20% cases trlder

--,

(anetII'(SlTIS,

",45

idiopathic, AVM)

hemi�s

> 1 cm

Pupilaty �es

(sens�ivity decreases

NPO. N NS. ECG, Foley,

m of SI.IVivors have moderate

(ninodipiool: open vs. endovaSCkD" surgery 10 repair � reb� Intra Cerebral

H,_

1flN._

abnonnaiity,

1UITlOIXS, I:1fectioos,

CDagtAopathy

Age >55, male. (hjg use (cocane,

ErnH, amp/1etill1ine)

TIA-1ike symptoms, sgns of ilcreased K:P

Hi� density biood

""',

Medical: decrease BF. controllCP Strgicai: Craniotomy

44% mortality rue 10

cerebral herniation

Extradural ("Epidural'" Hematoma Etiology •

temporill-p,uietal skull fracture ..... 85% are due to ruptured middle meningeal artery. Remainder of cases arc due to blccding from middle meningeal vein, or dUfill sinus, or bone/diploic veins

Epidemiology • young adult, male > female

=

4:1. Rare before age of 2 or after age 60

Clinical Features • in 60%, there is ludd interval of several hours between concussion and coma • then, obtundation, hemiparesis, ipSilateral pupillary dil atation • signs and symptoms depend on severity but can include H/A, N/V, amnesia, altered LOC, HTN and respimtory distress. Deterioration can take hours to days Investigations • cr without contrast � high density biconvex mass against skull, "lenticular-shaped." usually with uniform density and sharp margins, usually limited by suture lines Treatment • 55 years) • male gender • hypertension • Black/ Asian :> Caucasian • previous CVA of any Iype (23x risk) • ooth acute and chronic heavy alcohol use; cocaine, amphetamines • liver disease Clinical Features • T1A-like symptoms often precede ICH, can localize to site of impending hemorrhage • location: basal gllnglia/internllJ capsule (50%), thlliamus (15%), cerebral white mlltter (15%), cercbellum/brainstem (15%) • gradual onset of symptoms over minutes to hours, usually during activity • H/A, vomiting. decreased LOC are common • specific symptoms/deficits depend on location of ICH Investigations • high density blood on cr without contrast Treatment • medical decrease SP to pre-morbid level or by -20%; check PIT, INR, and correct coagulopathy (stop anticoagulation for 1-2 weeks) control raised ICP (see Intmeminlal Pressure Dynamics section, NS4) phenytoin for seizure prophylaxis follow electrolytes (SIADH common) angiogram to rio vascular lesion unless:>45 yrs, known HTN, and putamen/ thalamic/posterior fossa ICH (yield 0%) • surgical craniotomy with evacuation of dot under direct vision, treatment of source of ICH (i.e. AVM, tumour, cavernoma), ventriculostomy to tTeat hydrocephalus indiclltions • symptoms appear related to raised lCP or mass effect • rapid deterioration (especially with signs of brainstem compression) • favourable location, e.g. cerebellar, non-dominant hemisphere • young patient « SO yrs) • if tumour, AVM, aneurysm, or cavernoma suspected (resection or dip to decrease risk of rebleed) contraindicalions • small bleed: minimal symptoms, GCS :>1O (not necessary) • poor prognosis: massive hemorrhage (especially dominant lobe). low GCS/coma, losl brainstem function • medical reasons [e.g. very elderly; severe coagulopathy, difficult location (e.g. basal ganglia. thalamus)] -

Prognosis • 3O-day mortality rate is 44%, mostly due to cerebral herniation • rebleed rate is 2-6%, higher if HTN poorly controlled

Neurosurgery NSI9

NS20 Neurosurgery

Cerebrova3cular Disease

Toronlo Noles 2010

Intracranial Aneurysms Epidemiology • prevalence -5% (20% are multiple) • female > male; age 35-65 years

10

1 CN 11 2 r.emal CiSOtid a� 3 Pituital'f �aoo

• CN 111

5 Basilar anarysm 6 CNVl

7 Verte/To _ ITIIIIt3inedIor �to J \M'S IbiI rri p=O,QJI.

� klp;llien!s wilhrqmndlo'lrilClil ltrtoh� � coiIng 1$ am Iib!tt to resUI in i'depetd!nt SIIVM!I at I IM'!Im I\IUOSU�

� tile SlIYPt'aI beneIit rorlIIleS Itr 1f�!ISt J

'!\lifS,Therist.d.!�is tow. tuis�

w:mu>a'ter�coiIng!lm.

--

Risk Factors • autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (15%) • fibromuscular dysplasia (7-21%) • AVMs • polycystic kidney disease • connective tissue diseases (Ehlers-Danlos, Madan's) • FHx • bacterial endocarditis • Osler-Webcr-Rendu syndrome • atherosclerosis and HTN lhereditary hemorrhagic telengiectasia (HHT)] • trauma Types • saccular (berry) most common type • located at branch points of major cerebral arteries (Circle of Willis) • 85-95% in carotid system, 5-15% in vertebrobasilar circulation • fusiform • atherosclerotic • more common in vertebrobasilar system, rarely rupture • mycotic secondary to any infection of vessel wall, 20% multiple • 60% Streptococcus and Staphylococcus • 3-15% of patients with SBE Clinical Presentation • rupture (90%), most often SAH, but 30% ICH, 20% IVH, 3% subdural bleed • sentinel hemorrhage ("thunderclap H /A") -+ requires urgent clipping/coiling to prevent catastrophic bleed • mass effect (giant aneurysms) internal carotid or anterior communicating aneurysm may compress: • the pituitary stalk or hypothalamus causing hypopituitarism • the optic nerve or chiasm producing a visual field defect basilar artery aneurysm may compress midbrain, pons (limb weakness), or CN III posterior communicating artery aneurysm may produce CN III palsy intracavernous aneurysms (CN III, IV, V" V,-, VI) • small infarcts due to distal embolization (amaurosis fugax etc.) • seizures • headache (without hemorrhage) • incidental CT or angiography finding (asymptomatic) Investigations • CT angiogram (CTA), magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), angiogram Treatment • ruptured aneurysms overall trend towards better outcomewith early surgery or coiling (48-96 hours after SAH) treatment options: surgical placement of clip across aneurysm neck, trapping (clipping of proximal and distal vessels), thrombosing using Gugliemi detachable coils (coiling), wrapping as last resort choice of surgery vs. coiling not yet well defined, consider location, size, shape, and tortuosity of the aneurysm, patient comorbidities, age, and neurological condition on an individual basis in deciding on management. In general: • coiling: posterior > anterior circulation , deep/eloquent location, basilar artery bifurcation/apex, patient age, presence of comorbidities, presence of vasospasm • clipping: superficial > deep, broad aneurysmal base, branching arteries at the aneurysm base, tortuosity/atherosclerosis of afferent vessels, dissection, hematoma, acute brainstem compression • unruptured aneurysms 1% annual risk of rupture: risk dependent on size and location of aneurysm no clear evidence on when to operate: need to weigh life expectancy risk of morbidity/mortality of SAH (20%/50%) vs. surgical risk (2%/5%) generally treat unruptured aneurysms> 10 mm consider treating when aneurysm 7-9 mm in middle-aged, younger patients or patients with a family history of aneurysms follow smaller aneurysms with serial angiography

Toronto Notes WIO

Cerebrovascular DiseasefVascuiar Malformations

Carotid Stenosis Definition • narrowing of the internal carotid artery lumen due to atherosclerotic plaque formation, usually near common carotid bifurcation into internal and external carotids Risk Factors • for atherosclerosis: HTN, smoking, DM, CVD or CAD, dyslipidemia Clinical Features • may be asymptomatic • symptomatic stenosis may present as transient ischemic attack (T1A), reversible ischemic neurologic deficit (RIND), or stroke • retinal insufficiency or infarct due to emboli occluding central retinal artery or branches permanently or temporarily (amaurosis fugax), (see Neurology, N20 and Ophthalmology, OP38) • middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusive symptoms Investigations • CBC PTT, INR (hypcrcoagulable states) • fundoscopy -+ cholesterol emboli in retinal vessels (Hollenhorst plaques) • auscultation over carotid bifurcation for bruits • carotid duplex Doppler ultrasound: determines size of lumen and blood flow velocity, safest but least accurate, unable to scan above mandible • angiogram: " gold standard" but invasive and 1/200 risk of stroke (not for screening) • MRA: safer than angiogram, may overestimate stenosis Treatment • control of HTN, lipids, diabetes (risk factor management) • antiplatelet agents (ASA ± dipyridamole, clopidogrcl) -25% relative risk reduction • carotid endarterectomy (generally if symptomatic and >70% stenosis, sec Prognosis) • endovascuJar angioplasty ± stenting (utility being evaluated) Prognosis Table 1, Symptomatic Carotid Stenosis: North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET) % Stenosis on Angiogram

Risk of Major Strollo or Death

70·99 %

Medical Rx 26% over 2 years

Medical + Surgical R. !}%fJVet2 �rs

5050or women, and most commonly occurs at the CS-C6 > C6-C7 levels Pathogenesis • with neck extension, the cervical cord is pinched. With neck flexion, the canal dimensions increase slightly to relieve pressure on the cervical cord

Figure 20B. Axial section of Thoracic Spine with Vascular and Functional Territories

Clinical Features • insidious onset of mechanical neck pain exacerbated by excess vertebral motion (pJfticulJrly rotation and lateral bend with a vertical compressive force - Spurling's test) • occipital heJdache is common • radiculopathy may involve 1 or more roots, and symptoms include neck, shoulder and arm pJin. paresthesias and numbness • cervicJI myelopathy may be characterized by weakness (upper> lower extremity), decreJsed dexterity and sensory changes. UMN findings such as hyperreflexia, clonus, Babinski reflex may be present. The most worrisome complJint is lower extremity weakness (corticospinal tracts) • myelopathy mJY be associated with funicular pain, characterized by burning and stinging ± Lhermitte's sign (lightning-like sensation down the back with neck flexion) Investigations • x-ray of cervical spine ± flexion/extension or oblique views (studied for changes in Luschka and facet joints, oSlcophytes and disc space nJrrowing), MRI, CT, EMG Treatment • NSAIDS, moist heat, strengthening and range of motion exercises, anJlgesics, cervical collar. cervical traction • surgery - indications: myelopathy with motor impairment. progressive neurologic impJirment, n i tractable pain

Figure 20C. Axial section of Lumbar Spine with Vascular and Functional Territories

Lumbar Disc Syndrome Etiology • laterally herniated lumbar disc compresses nerve root. central herniation causes cauda equina or lumbar stenosis (neurogenic claudication) Epidemiology • common (>95% of herniated lumbar disks) - L5 and 51 roots

Toronto Notes WID

Extradural Lesions

Neurosurgery NS15

Clinical Features • leg pain > back pain • limited back movement (especiillly forward flexion) due to pilin • motor weilkness, dermatomill sensory changes, reflex changes • exacerbation with coughing, sneezing or straining. Relief with flexing the knee or thigh • nerve root tension signs strilight leg rilise (SLR: Lilsegue's test) or crossed 5LR (pain should occur i1t less than 60 degrees) suggest LS, 51 root involvement femorill stretch suggest L2, L3 or L4 root involvement Investigations • x-ray spine (only to rule out other lesions), CT, MRI • myelogram and post-myelogram CT (if surgery contemplated and plain CT not conclusive) Treatment • conservative (same as cervical disc disease) • surgical indications • same as cervical disc + cauda equina syndrome

Figure 200. Axial section of Sacral Spine with Vascular and Functional Territories

_....

Prognosis i prove spontaneously within 4 to 8 weeks • 95% m Table 10. Lateral Lumbar Disc Syndromes l>4

[ and < 300 feet/second), worse wiil1 high velocity and lor high missile mass • low velocity: highest damage to structures on entry/exit path high velocity: highest damage away from missile tract •

Scalp Injury • rich blood supply • considerilble blood loss (vessels contrilct poorly when ruptured) • minimill risk of infection due 10 rich vilscularity Skull Fractures depressed fractures "'" double density on skull x-ray (outer table of depressed segment below inner tilblc of skull), CT with bonc windows is gold stilndard • simple fractures (closed injury) ...,. no need for antibiotics, no surgery • compound fractures (open injury) "'" increased risk of infection, surgical debridement within 24 hours is necessary internal fractures into sinus "'" meningitis, pneumocephalus, risk of operiltive bleed may limit trcatmcnt to anti bioti cs basal skull fractures ...,. not readily seen on x-ray, rely on clinical signs retroauricular ecchymoses (Biltlle's sign) periorbital ecchymoses (raccoon eyes) hemotympanum CSF rhinorrheil, otorrhea (suspect CSF if halo or target sign present) suspect with Lefort " or 111 midface frilcture (seen on imaging) •



-

'

,

}-------,

. •

Head Injury CoiIn involve:

Scalp. Sku'. Mcning.es. Brain

-;;:

i logies

• WNA 130,5�) • falls I15·35'!') • Gun Shot Wound 15·20%)

Laven 01 Scalp SCALP Skin

Connective lissue Idense) Aponeurosis 1\I 1 5 min GraDe 3: any luss of consciousness

::N

�,:""nl ASsociated w�h AAN ,

,

.

�tM1er symplwls

IIm.m to normaI lCIM!y �

��dear.m:lun 15 m"l:;

2

fIernoye fiOOl IClM!y for 1 da\', Ihen rwI5line CTorMRUlI'b odler

���orlos!>1

-, IIeIIIn kl normaIlCIM!y liter 1 1

weet wrthwt syrnptOOlS

Emeruentnetlloexam t � I nUiI �OO\ is � "lilY go � 'M!h eIo$e � iii'

AdmiIi"¥IVsirJIs 01 patI1oIooov or PO!l;�!� abnormal men\lII Slll!1IS CTorMIllit ftA orother symptoms IbnefCOOOJ$$IOII I I ....� . retum 00 normaI aclMly fri( liter

Z --u wi!hoot sympIums

-\ ,

"

SlAm.. ..... hyponatrem�, 01 ..... hYPIlfMlremia

Primary Impact Injury • mechanism of injury determines pathology: penetrating injuries, gunshot wounds low velocity "'" locill dilmage high velocity ..... distant damage possible (due to wave of compreSSion), concussion • concussion: "a trauma-induced alteration in mental status that mayor may not involve loss of consciousness" AAN Classification • Grade I: altered mental status 15 min • Grilde 3: any loss of consciousne$S no parenchymal abnormalities on CT • coup (damage at site of blow) contre-coup (damage at opposite site of blow) • acute decompression cau5CS cavitation followed by a wave of acute compression • contusion (hemorrhagic) high density areas on CT ± mass effect commonly occurs with brain impaet on bony prominences (inferior frontal lobe, pole of temporal lobe) • diffuse axonal injury/shearing may tear blood vessels -+ hemorrhagic foci wide variety of damage results all brain injury causes shear often the cause of decreased LOC if no space occupying lesion on CT •





• •





Secondary Pathologic Processes • same subsequent biochemical pathways for each traumatic etiology 1/3 of in-hospital mortalities following head injury were able to talk after the injury • delayed and progressive injury to the brain due to high glutamate release ...., NMDA -+ cytotoxic cascade cerebral edema intracranial hemorrhages ischemia /infaretion raised ICP, intracranial HTN • hydrocephalus •

Extracranial Conditions • hypoxemia trauma: chest, upper airway, brain�tem exceptionally damaging to traumatized brain cells leads to ischemia, raised ICr h}'percarbia • leads to raised ICP (secondary to vasodilation) • systemiC hypotenSion caused by blood loss, not by head injury (e.g. ruptured spleen) cerebral autoregulation lost in trauma leads to decreased crr, ischemia • hyperpyrexia • leads to increased brain metabolic demands -+ ischemia • Ouid and electrolyte imbalance iatrogenic (most common) syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) secretion (from head injury) diabetes insipidus (Dr) from head injury may \cad to cerebral edema and raised rcp • coagulopathy • •





• • •

Figure 24. CT Showing Coup-Contre-Coup Injury

Toronto Notes 2010

Neurotrauma

Intracranial Conditions • raised ICP due to traumatic cerebral edema OR traumatic intracranial hemorrhage

Brain Injury Outcomes • mildly traumatic (GCS 13-15): post-concussive symptoms: H/A, fatigue, dizziness

nausea, blurred vision, diploplia, memory difficulty, tinnitus, irritability, low concentration; 50% at 6 weeks, 14% at 1 year • moderately traumatic (GCS 9-12): proportional to age (>40) and CT findings; 60% good recovery, 26% moderately disabled, 7% severely disabled, 7% vegetative/ dead • severe (GCS 32°C, no electrolyte/ acid-base / endocrine disturbance

• absent brainstem reflexes

absent pupillary light reflex absent corneal reflexes absent oculocephalic response absent caloric responses (e.g. no deviation of eyes to irrigation of each ear with 50 cc of ice water - allow 1 min after injection, 5 min between sides) • absent pharyngeal and tracheal reflexes • absent cough with tracheal suctioning • absent respiratory drive at PaC02 >60 mmHg or >20 mmHg above baseline (apnea test) • 2 evaluations separated by time, usually performed by two specialists (e.g. neurologist, anesthetist, neurosurgeon) • confirmatory testing: flat EEG, absent perfusion assessed with cerebral angiogram • • • •

Altered Level of Consciousness Evaluation of Patient History • • • • • • • • •

previous/recent head injury (hematomas) sud dent collapse (ICH, SAH) cardiovascular surgery, prolonged cardiac arrest (hypoxia) limb twitching, incontinence, tongue biting (seizures, post-ictal state) recent infection (meningitis) other medical problems (diabetes mellitus, renal failure, hepatic encephalopathy) psychiatric illness (drug overdose) telephone witnesses, read ambulance report, check for medic-alert bracelet neurologic symptoms (headache, visual changes, focal weakness)

Physical Examination • Glasgow Coma Scale (see sidebar, Neurotrauma, NS28) • pupils - reactivity and symmetry, papilledema (increased ICP) • reflexes

• corneal reflex: normal bilateral blinking response • gag reflex: normal gag • oculocephalic reflex (doll's eye): normal eyes move in opposite direction of head, as if trying to maintain fixation of a point • vestibulocochlear response (cold caloric): normal nystagmus fast phase away from stimulated ear • deep tendor reflexes • plantar reflexes: normal flexor plantar response tone spontaneous involuntary movements assess for meningeal irritation, increased temperature asses for head injury, battle sign, raccoon eyes, skin rashes, and joint abnormalities that may suggest vasculitis =

=

=

=

=

• • • •

�' Caloric Reflexes

COWS Cold Opposite Warm Same

Neurotrauma/Pediatric Neurosurgery

NS34 Neurosurgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Coma Definition • an unrousable state in which patients show no meaningful response to environmental

stimuli

Pathophysiology • coma can be caused by lesions affecting the cerebral cortex bilaterally, the reticular

activating system (RAS) or their connecting fibres

• focal supratentorial lesions do no alter consciousness except by herniation (with

compression on the brainstem or on the contralateral hemisphere) or by precipitating seizures

Classification • structural lesions (tumour, pus, blood, infarction, CSF): 1 /3 of comas

• supratentorial mass lesion - leading to herniation • infra tentorial lesion - compression of or direct damage to the RAS or its projections • metabolic disorders/ diffuse hemispheric damage: 2/3 of comas • deficiency of essential substrates (e.g. oxygen, glucose, vitamin B 12) • exogenous toxins (e.g. drugs, heavy metals, solvents) • endogenous toxins/systemic metabolic diseases (e.g. uremia, hepatic encephalopathy, electrolyte imabalances, thyroid storm) • infections (meningitis, encephalitis) • trauma (concussion, diffuse shear axonal damage)

Investigations and Management • ABCs • labs: electrolytes, TSH, LFTs, Cr, BUN, Ca, Mg, PO", toxin screen, glucose • CT /MRI, LP, EEG

Persistent Vegetative State Definition • a condition of complete unawareness of the self and the environment accompanied by

sleep-wake cycles with either complete or partial preservation of hypothalamic and brainstem autonomic function • 'awake but not aware' • follows comatose state

Etiology/Prognosis • most commonly caused by cardiac arrest or head injury • due to irreversible loss of cerebral cortical function BUT with intact brainstem function • average life expectancy is 2-5 years

Ped iatric Neurosu rgery Spinal Dysraphism SPINA BIFIDA OCCULTA Definition • congenital absence of a spinous process and variable amounts of lamina • no visible exposure of meninges or neural tissue

Epidemiology • 15-20% of the general population; most common at L5 or 51

Etiology • failure of fusion of the posterior neural arch

Clinical Features • no obvious clinical signs • presence of lumbosacral cutaneous abnormalities (dimple, sinus, port-wine stain, or

hair tuft) should increase suspicion of an underlying anomaly (lipoma, dermoid, diastomatomyelia)

Toronto Notes 2010

Pediatric Neurosurgery

Neurosurgery NS35

Investigations • plain film - absence of the spinous process along with minor amounts of the neural arch • U/S or MRI to exclude spinal anomalies

Treatment •

requires no treatment

MENINGOCELE (SPINA BIFIDA APERTA) Definition • a defect consisting of a herniation of meningeal tissue and CSF through a defect in the

spine, but not neural tissue

Etiology • primary failure of neural tube closure

Figure 26. Spina Bifida Occulta

Clinical Features • most common in lumbosacral area • usually no disability, low incidence of associated anomalies and hydrocephalus

Investigations • plain films, CT, MRI, U/S, echo, genitourinary (GU) investigations

Treatment • surgical excision and tissue repair (excellent results)

MYELOMENINGOCELE Definition • a defect consisting of a herniation of meningeal tissue and CNS tissue through a defect in

Figure 27. Meningocele

the spine

Etiology •

same as meningocele

Clinical Features • sensory and motor changes distal to anatomic level producing varying degrees of

weakness

• urine and fecal incontinence • 65-85% of patients with myelomeningocele have hydrocephalus • most have Type II Chiari malformation, see NS36

spinal cord roots

Investigations • plain films, CT, MRI, U/S, echo, GU investigations

Treatment • surgical closure

• indications: preserve neurologic status, prevent CNS infections

Prognosis • operative mortality close to 0%, 95% 2-year survival • 80% have IQ >80 (but most are 80-95), 40-85% ambulatory, 3-10% have normal

urinary continence

• most common cause of early mortality are complications from Chiari malformation

(respiratory arrest and aspiration), whereas late mortality is due to shunt malfunction

Intraventricular Hemorrhage (lVH) • see Pediatrics, P71

Hydrocephalus in Pediatrics Etiology • congenital

• • • • •

aqueductal anomalies, primary aqueductal stenosis in infancy secondary gliosis due to intrauterine viral infections (mumps, varicella, TORCH) Dandy-Walker malformation (2-4%) Chiari malformation, especially Type II myelomeningocele

Figure 28. Myelomeningocele

Pediatric Neurosurgery

NS36 Neurosurgery

Toronto Notes 2010

• acquired

• post meningitis • post hemorrhage (SAH, IVH) • masses (vascular malformation, neoplastic)

Clinical Features • symptoms and signs of hydrocephalus are age related in pediatrics • increased head circumference (HC), bulging anterior fontanelle, widened cranial sutures • irritability, lethargy, poor feeding and vomiting • "cracked pot" sound on cranial percussion

• scalp vein dilation (increased collateral venous drainage) • sunset sign - forced downward deviation of eyes • episodic bradycardia and apnea

Investigations • skull x-ray, VIS, CT, MRI, ICP monitoring

Treatment • similar to adults (see Hydrocephalus, NS7)

Dandy-Walker Malformation

--------�

Definition • atresia of foramina of Magendie and Luschka, resulting in:

• complete or incomplete agenesis of the cerebellar vermis with widely separated, hypoplastic cerebellar hemisphere • posterior fossa cyst, enlarged posterior fossa • dilatation of 4th ventricle (also 3rd and lateral ventricles) • associated anomalies • hydrocephalus (90%) • agenesis of corpus callosum (17%) • occipital encephalocele (7%)

Epidemiology

• 2-4% of pediatric hydrocephalus

Clinical Features • 20% are asymptomatic, seizures occur in 15% • symptoms and signs of hydrocephalus combined with a prominent occiput in infancy • ataxia, spasticity, poor fine motor control common in childhood

Investigations

• skull x-ray, CT

Treatment • asymptomatic patients require no treatment • associated hydrocephalus requires surgical treatment

• supratentorial lateral ventricular or cystoperitoneal shunt

• prognosis: 75-100% survival, 50% have normal IQ

Chiari Malformations Definition • malformations at the medullary-spinal junction

Etiology • unclear, likely maldevelopment/ dysgenesis during fetal life

Categories • Type I (cerebellar ectopia):

• definition: cerebellar tonsils lie below the level of the foramen magnum epidemiology: average age at presentation 41 years • clinical features: • many are asymptomatic • scoliosis • brain compression • central cord syndrome (65%) • syringomyelia (50%) • foramen magnum compression syndrome (22%) • cerebellar syndrome (11%) • hydrocephalus (10%)

Figure 29. Chiari Malformations

Neurosurgery NS37

Pediatric Neurosurgery

Toronto Notes 2010 • Type II

• definition: part of cerebellar vermis, medulla and 4th ventricle extend through the foramen magnum often to midcervical region • epidemiology: present in infancy • clinical features: findings due to brainstem and lower cranial nerve dysfunction • syringomyelia, hydrocephalus in >80%

Investigations • MRI or CT myelography

Treatment • indications for surgical decompression

• Type 1: symptomatic patients (early surgery recommended; 1 60 bpm for 1 60 for > 30 min. Erratic baseline

Variability

6-25 bpm (moderate) s 5 (absent or minimal) for < 40 min.

5 (absent or minimal) for 40·80 min 25 bpm for > 1 0 min.

s5 for 80 min. Sinusoidal

Decelerations

None or occasional variable 60 sec. Late deceleration(s)

Accelerations in 2 accelerations with acme of " 1 5 bpm, lasting 1 5 sec. over Term Fetus < 40 min. ot testing

2 accelerations with acme of " 1 5 bpm, lasting 1 5 sec. in 40-80 min.

80 min.

Accelerations in Preterm Fetus « 32 weeks)

> 2 accelerations with acme of > 1 0 bpm, lasting 1 0 sec. in 10 bpm, lasting 10 sec. in 40-80 min.

1 0 bpm, lasting 10 sec. in >80 min.

Action

FURTHER ASSESSMENT OPTIONAL, FURTHER ASSESSMENT REQUIRED URGENT ACTION REQUIRED An overall assessment of the based on total clinical picture situation and further investigation with U/S or BPP is required. Some situations will require delivery.

Reprinted with permission from SOGe, Fetal Heafth SU/veillance: Antepartum and Intrapartum Consensus Guideline, September 2007.

BIOPHYSICAL PROFILE (BPP) Definition • consists of a

30 minute U/S assessment of the fetus (see Table 3) ± NST

Indication • BPP is the test of choice for

• • • •

non-reassuring NST post-term pregnancy decreased fetal movement any other suggestion of fetal distress or uteroplacental insufficiency

Operating Characteristics • false positive rate risks

Table 3. Scoring of the Biophysical Profile Parameter

Reassuring (2 points)

Non-Reassuring (0 points)

AFV'

Fluid pocket of 2 cm in 2 axes

Oligohydramnios

Breathing

At least one episode of breathing lasting at least 30 seconds

No breathing

Limb Movement

Three discrete movements

Two or less

Fetal Tone

At least one episode of limb extension followed by flexion

No movement

'Amniotic fluid volume IAFVI is a marker of chronic hypoxia, all other parameters indicate acute hypoxia

Prenatal Screening • testing should only occur following counselling and with the informed consent of the

patient

OB8 Obstetrics

Prenatal Care

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 4. High-Risk Population Screening Tests Disease [Inheritance]

Population(s) at Risk

Screening Test(s)

Thalassemia [AR]

Mediterranean, South East Asian, Western Pacific, African, Middle Eastern, Caribbean, South American

CBC (MCV & MCH), Hb electrophoresis or HPLC'

Sickle Cell [AR]

African, Caribbean, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Indian, South American

CBC (MCV & MCH), Hb electrophoresis or HPLC

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) [AR]

Mediterranean, Finnish, Caucasian, or FHx

CFTR gene DNA analysis

Tay Sachs Disease [AR]

Ashkenazi Jewish', French Canadians, Cajun Enzyme assay HEXA', or DNA analysis HEXA gene

Fragile X Syndrome [X-linked] Family history - confirmed or suspected

DNA analysis: FMR·1 gene

1· high pertormance liquid chromatography 2· hexosaminidase A * If both partners Ashkenazi Jewish, test for Canavan disease and FD (Familial Dysautonomial: IT family history of a specITic condnion, look for carrier status: e.g. Gaucher, CF, Bloom syndrome, Niemann·Pick disease, etc. In all cases, if both partners positive, refer for genetic counselling.

Table 5. Gestation-Dependent Screening Investigations

,, ' , ��------, Routine Second Trimester U/S 1 8·22 weeks, helps determine: Number of Fetuses GA (if no prior U/S) Location of placenta Fetal anomalies

Gestational Age (weeks)

Investigations

8-12

Dating U/S

1 0-12

Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

1 1 -14

First Trimester Screening Integrated Prenatal Screening Part 1

1 1 -13

Nuchal Translucency U/S

1 5-1 6 to term

Amniocentesis

1 5-1 8

Integrated Prenatal Screening Part 2

1 6-1 8

Maternal Serum Screen

1 8-20 to term

Fetal Movements (quickening)

1 8-20

U/S for dates, structural assessment

24-28

50g oral glucose challenge test (OGeT)

28

Repeat CBC RhlG for all Rh negative women

36

Rh antibody screen if indicated Group B Streptococcus (GBS) Screen

6 weeks postpartum

Discuss contraception Breast & pelvic exam incl. Pap smear Depression/mental health

Ultrasound Screening • dating ultrasound best between 8-12 weeks GA

• measurement of crown-rump length (margin of error ± 3 days) • change EDC to U/S date if >1 week discrepancy from EDC based on LMP • nuchal translucency ultrasound (NTUS) at 11-14 weeks GA • measures the amount of fluid behind the neck of the fetus • early screen for serious congenital anomalies (Down syndrome) • fetal growth and anatomy ultrasound routinely done at 18-20 weeks GA (margin of error ± 7 days) • earlier or subsequent ultrasounds performed when medically indicated

Toronto Notes 2010

Obstetrics OB9

Prenatal Care

Table 6. Comparison of FTS, MSS and I PS First Trimester Screen (FTS)

Maternal Serum Screen (MSS)

Integrated Prenatal Screen (IPS)

1 1-14 wks

1 5·18 wks

Nuchal translucency on 1 2 wk U/S FTS at 1 1 ·14 wks MSS + inhibin A at 1 5-18 wks

Measures 1 . Nuchal translucency on U/S 2. Beta-hCG 3. Pregnancy·associated plasma protein A (PAPP-A)

Measures 1 . Maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) 2. Beta-hCG 3. Unconjugated estrogen (estriol or uE3)

Risk estimate for 1 . Down syndrome (Trisomy 2 1 ): increased NT, increased beta-hCG, decreased PAPP-A

Risk estimate for 1 . Open neural tube defect (oNTO) increased MSAFP (sensitivity 80-90%) 2. Trisomy 21 : decreased MSAFp, increased beta-hCG, decreased iJE3 (sensitivity 65%) 3. Trisomy 18: decreased MSAFp, decreased beta-hCG, decreased iJE3 (sensitivity 80%)

Risk estimate for oNTO, Trisomy 21, Trisomy 1 8

Only offered alone if patient missed the time window for IPS or FTS 8% baseline false positive rate for t21, lower for oNTO and t18 Patients with positive screen should be offered U/S or amniocentesis

Sensitivity -85-90% 2% false positive rate Patients with positive screen should be offered U/S and/or amniocentesis

Note: does not measure risk of oNTO and should be combined with MSAFP at 1 6 weeks Useful where patient wants results within the first trimester More accurate estimate of Down syndrome risk than MSS, sensitivity -85% (when combined with age) 5% false positive rate Patients with positive screen should be offered CVS or amniocentesis

Note: In twins, FTS, MSS and IPS are not applicable; screen with NT for chromosomal abnonmalities and MSAFP for oNTOs.

ISOIMMUNIZATION SCREENING Definition • isoimmunization: antibodies (Ab) produced against a specific RBC antigen (Ag) as a result

of antigenic stimulation with RBC of another individual

Etiology • maternal-fetal circulation normally separated by placental barrier, but sensitization can

occur (see below) and can affect the current pregnancy, or more commonly, future pregnancies • in pregnancy, anti-Rh Ab produced by a sensitized Rh-negative mother can lead to fetal hemolytic anemia • overall risk of isoimmunization of an Rh-negative mother with an Rh-positive ABO­ compatible infant is 16% (2% antepartum, 7% within 6 months of delivery, and 7% in the second pregnancy) • sensitization routes • incompatible blood transfusions • previous fetal-maternal transplacental hemorrhage (e.g. ectopic pregnancy) • invasive procedures in pregnancy (e.g. prenatal diagnosis, cerclage, D&C) • any type of abortion • labour and delivery

Investigations • routine screening at first visit for blood group, Rh status, and antibodies are measured by

the indirect Coombs test

• if Rh positive with antibodies present, the severity of fetal anemia is determined primarily

by antibody concentration • Ab titres 1:16 necessitates amniocentesis to determine severity of fetal anemia (which correlates with the amount of biliary pigment in amniotic fluid from 27 wks +) • a positive titre means that the fetus is at risk of hemolytic anemia, not that it has occurred or will develop • Kleihauer-Betke test used to determine extent of fetomaternal hemorrhage • fetal red blood cells identified on a slide treated with citrate phosphate buffer because adult hemoglobin elutes through cell membrane in presence of acid more readily • detailed VIS for hydrops fetalis

Prophylaxis

• exogenous Rh IgG (Rhogam™ or WinRho TM ) binds to Rh Ag of fetal cells and prevents it

from contacting maternal immune system • Rhogam™ (300 �Ig) given to all Rh negative women in the following scenarios: • routinely at 28 weeks GA (provides protection for -12 wks) • within 72 hours of the birth of an Rh positive fetus • with a positive Kleihauer-Betke test

..... ' � ��------, DDx of increased MSAFP • Incorrect GA • > 1 fetus (e.g. twins) • Fetal demise • oNTO • Abdominal wall defects (e.g. omphalocele)

DDx of decreased MSAFP • Incorrect GA • Gestational trophoblastic neoplasia • Missed abortion • Chromosomal anomalies • Maternal DMI/DMII

," ' Risk Factors for Neural Tube Defects GRIMM • Genetics: family history of NTD (risk of having second child with NTD is increased to 2-5%), consanguinity, chromosomal (characteristic of trisomy 1 3 , 1 8, and 21 ) • Race: European Caucasians > than African Americans, 3-fold higher in Hispanics • Insufficient vitamins: zinc and folate • Maternal chronic disease (e.g. diabetes) • Maternal use of anti-epileptic drugs I'general population risk for

NTD is 0.1%)

..... ' � ��------, Hydrops fetalis = abnormal edema in 2 or more fetal compartments e.g. ascites, pericardial effusion. Classified as immune (caused by isoimmunization) or non-immune (caused by many different end-stage fetal diseases)

Prenatal Care

OB10 Obstetrics

Screening vs. Risk-based Approach for GBS Prevention in Newborns N Eng/ J Med 2002; 347:233-9 Study: Large retrospective cohort study comparing

the effectiveness of screening and risk-based approaches in preventing early-onset GBS disease Iwithin 7 days of birth). Patients: From a stratified random sample of 629,912 live births in areas where there was active surveillance for GBS infection, the records for 5144 live births Iscreened group: n;2628; risk-based group: n; 2515) were random� selected to be reviewed, including all births where newboms had eany-onset disease In;31 2). fntervention: Screening approach lroutine screening with cultures for GBS between 35-37 wks GA, and offering intrapartum antiobiotic prophylaxis to carriers) vs. risk-based approach loffering intrapartum antiobiotic proph�axis to women presenting at time of labour with clinical risk factors for GBS transmission -fever, prolonged ROM, pretenn delivery, etc.). Main outcome: Eany-onset GBS disease Results: Infants of women in the screened group had a significantly lower risk of eany-onset disease compared to those in the risk-based group IRR;0.46; 95% CI;0.36 to 0.60). The greatest risk factors for eany-onset disease were la) intrapartum fever IRR;5.99; 95% CI;4.28-8.38) and Ib) history of a previous child with GBS disease IRR;3.79, 95% CI;1 .30-1 1 . 1 1 ). Conclusion: Routine screening for GBS during pregnancy is more effective for preventing GBS infection in newboms thanthe risk-based approach.

.... � ,

��------,

Indications for GBS Intrapartum Prophylaxis • GBS bacteriuria during current pregnancy Irectovaginal culture at 35-37 wks GA not required) • GBS status unknown within six weeks of delivery and any of the following: • 38°C positive CBS screen during current pregnancy

Clinical Features • not harmful to mother • danger of vertical transmission (neonatal sepsis, meningitis or pneumonia)

Investigations • SOCC recommends: offer screening for all women at 35-37 weeks with vaginal and

anorectal swabs (vaginal done first, then rectal) for C&S

Treatment • treatment of maternal CBS at delivery decreases neonatal morbidity and mortality • indications for antibiotic prophylaxis: positive CBS screen or CBS status unknown and

one of the risk factors (see above)

• antibiotics for CBS prophylaxis



• penicillin C 5 million V IV then 2.5 million V IV q4h until delivery • penicillin allergic but not at risk for anaphylaxis - cefazolin 2 g IV then 1 g q8h • penicillin allergic and at risk for anaphylaxis - clindamycin 900 mg IV q8h or erythromycin 500 mg IV q6h if fever, broad spectrum antibiotic coverage is advised

Chromosomal Screening Indications • maternal age >35 (increased risk of chromosomal anomalies) • risk factors in current pregnancy

• teratogen exposure • abnormal VIS • abnormal prenatal screen (FTS, MSS or IPS) • past history I family history of: • previous pregnancy with chromosomal anomaly or genetic disease • either parent a known carrier of a genetic disorder or balanced translocation • family history of chromosomal anomaly, genetic disorder, birth defect, or undiagnosed mental retardation • consanguinity • three or more spontaneous abortions

Toronto Notes 2010

Prenatal Care/Tennination of Pregnancy

AMNIOCENTESIS

• VIS-guided transabdominal extraction of amniotic fluid

Indications • identification of genetic anomalies (15-16 weeks gestation) as per indications above • assessment of fetal lung maturity (T3) via the L/S ratio (lecithin:sphingomyelin)

• if >2:1, respiratory distress syndrome (ROS) is less likely to occur

• assessment of amniotic fluid bilirubin concentration in Rh-isoimmunized pregnancies

Advantages • also screens for oNTO (acetylcholinesterase and amniotic AFP) - 96% accurate • in women >35 years, the risk of chromosomal anomaly (1/180) is greater than the

Obstetrics OBll

.... ' , ,�------, LIS Ratio (Lecithin/Sphingomyelin Ratio) Lecithin levels increase rapidly after 35 weeks gestation, whereas sphingomyelin levels remain relatively constant. The US ratio is a measure of fetal lung maturity - less than 2:1 indicates pulmonary immaturity. Presence of blood or meconium in the amniotic fluid can affect the ratio.

increased risk of miscarriage from the procedure

• more accurate genetic testing than CVS

Disadvantages • 0.5% risk of spontaneous abortion and risk of fetal limb injury • results take 14-28 days

CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING (CVS) • biopsy of fetal-derived chorion using a trans-abdominal needle or trans-cervical catheter

at 10-12 weeks

Advantages • enables pregnancy to be terminated earlier than with amniocentesis • rapid karyotyping and biochemical assay within 48 hours, including FISH analysis • high sensitivity and specificity

Disadvantages • 1-2% risk of spontaneous abortion and risk of fetal limb injury • does not screen for neural tube defects • 1-2% incidence of genetic mosaicism � false negative results

Table 7. Characteristics of Amniocentesis and CVS Characteristic

Amniocentesis

CVS

Accuracy of prenatal cytogenetic diagnosis

99.8%

97.5%

Detection of cytogenetic abnormality

3.4%

5.6%

Laboratory failure

0.1%

2.3%

Risk of spontaneous abortion

0.5%

1 -2%

Term i nation of Pregna ncy Definition • active termination of a pregnancy before fetal viability (usually 2:1 - deliver by CIS

ABRUPTIO PLACENTAE ,, ' ,

9�------,

Abruptio Placenta Abdominal PAIN and/or backache Uterine TENDERNESS INCREASED uterine tone Uterine IRRITABILITY/CONTRACTIONS Usually NORMAL fetal presentation FHR may be ABSENT or Non-reassuring Shock and anemia OUT OF PROPORTION to apparent blood loss May have COAGULOPATHY

Definition • premature separation of a normally implanted placenta after 20 weeks gestation

Etiology • most are idiopathic

Epidemiology • incidence: 1-2% of all pregnancies

Risk Factors • • • • •

previous abruption (recurrence rate 5-16%) maternal hypertension (chronic or PIH in 50% of abruptions) or vascular disease cigarette smoking (>1 ppd), excessive alcohol consumption, cocaine multiparity and / or maternal age >35 (felt to reflect parity) PPROM

Obstetrics OB25

Bleeding in Pregnancy

Toronto Notes 2010

• rapid decompression of a distended uterus (polyhydrarrmios, multiple gestation) • uterine anomaly, fibroids • trauma (e.g. motor vehicle collision, maternal battery)

Clinical Features • classification

• • • •

total (fetal death inevitable) vs. partial external / revealed / apparent: blood dissects downward toward cervix internal / concealed (20%): blood dissects upward toward fetus most are mixed

• presentation

• PAINFUL vaginal bleeding, uterine tenderness, uterine contractions • pain: sudden onset, constant, localized to lower back and uterus • ± fetal distress, fetal demise (15% present with demise), bloody amniotic fluid

Complications • fetal complications: perinatal mortality 25-60%, prematurity, intrauterine hypoxia • maternal complications: 34 weeks with significant oligohydramnios • liberal use of C IS since IUGR fetus withstands labour poorly

• • • • •

Macrosomia Definition • infant weight >90th percentile for a particular GA or >4000 g

Etiology/Risk Factors • maternal obesity, gestational diabetes mellitus, past history of macrosomic infant,

prolonged gestation, multiparity

Clinical Features • increased risk of perinatal mortality • cephalopelvic disproportion (CPO) and birth injuries (shoulder dystocia, fetal bone

fracture) more common

• complications of OM in labour (see Medical

Conditions in Pregnancy, OB12)

Investigations • serial SFH • further investigations if mother at high risk or SFH >2 cm ahead of GA • U/S predictors

• • • •

polyhydramnios third trimester abdominal circumference (AC) >1.5 cm / week head circumference (HC)/ AC ratio 4500 g in diabetic women

• there is no evidence that prophylactic CIS improves outcomes • early induction of labour is not recommended for non-diabetic mothers • risks and benefits of early induction (chance of CIS vs. chance of dystocia) must be

weighed in diabetic mothers, as the research is currently unclear

Polyhydramnios Definition • amniotic fluid volume (AFV) >2,000 cc at any stage in pregnancy • U/S criteria: >8 x 8 cm (3.1 x 3.1 in) pocket of amniotic fluid

Etiology • idiopathic: most common (40%) • maternal

• Type 1 0M: causes abnormalities of transchorionic flow

• maternal-fetal

• • • • fetal • • • •

chorioangiomas multiple gestation fetal hydrops (increased erythroblastosis) chromosomal anomaly (up to 2 / 3 of fetuses with severe polyhydramnios) respiratory: cystic adenomatoid malformed lung CNS: anencephaly, hydrocephalus, meningocele GI: tracheoesophageal fistula, duodenal atresia, facial clefts (interfere with swallowing)

Epidemiology • incidence: 1 / 250 deliveries

Clinical Features • pressure symptoms from overdistended uterus (dyspnea, edema, hydronephrosis) • uterus large for dates, difficulty palpating fetal parts and hearing fetal heart tones

Toronto Notes 2010

Growth Discrepancies

Complications • cord prolapse, placental abruption, malpresentation, preterm labour, uterine dysfunction

and postpartum hemorrhage (PPH)

• increased perinatal mortality rate

Management • determine underlying cause

• screen for maternal disease I infection • complete fetal U/S evaluation • depends on severity • mild to moderate cases require no treatment • if severe, hospitalize and consider therapeutic amniocentesis

Oligohydramnios Definition • amniotic fluid index of 5 cm (2 in) or less • an important sign of chronic placental insufficiency

Etiology • early onset oligohydramnios

• decreased production: renal agenesis or dysplasia, urinary obstruction, posterior urethral valves (male), chronic hypoxemia leading to IUGR results in shunting away from the kidneys to ensure profusion of the brain • increased loss: prolonged amniotic fluid leak (although most often labour ensues) • late onset oligohydramnios • amniotic fluid normally decreases after 35 weeks • common in post-term pregnancies • u/S Doppler studies (umbilical cord and uterine artery Dopplers)

Epidemiology • occur in -4.5% of all preganancies • severe form in 41 weeks (-12%)

Clinical Features • cord compression • increased risk of adverse fetal outcomes • early onset:

• 15-25% have fetal anomalies • amniotic fluid bands (Tl ) can lead to Potter's facies, limb deformities, abdominal wall defects • late onset • pulmonary hypoplasia • marker for infants who may not tolerate labour well

Investigations • always warrants admission and investigation:

• rule out rupture of membranes (ROM) • fetal monitoring (NST, eTG, BPP) • u/S Doppler studies (umbilical cord and uterine artery Dopplers)

Management • maternal hydration with oral or IV fluids to help increase amniotic fluid • vesicoamniotic shunt: if etiology is related to fetal obstuctive uropathy, however,

pulmonary function not may be restored with restoration of amniotic fluid.

• injection of fluid via amniocentesis will improve condition for -1 wk - may be most

helpful for visualizing any associated fetal anomalies

• consider delivery if at term • amnio-infusion may be considered during labour via intra-uterine catheter, evidence to

show improved fetal outcomes is equivocal

Prognosis • poorer with early onset • high mortality related to congenital malformations and pulmonary hypoplasia when

diagnosed during T2

Obstetrics OB31

Normal Labour and Delivery

OB32 Obstetrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Normal La bour and Del ivery

Occiput Anterior

Occiput Posterior

Left Occiput Anterior

Right Occiput Anterior

Figure 7. Fetal Positions

The Fetus • fetal lie

• orientation of the long axis of the fetus with respect to the long axis of the uterus (longitudinal, transverse, oblique)

• fetal presentation

• fetal part presenting at pelvic outlet • breech (complete, frank, footling) - see Figure 9, OB42 • cephalic (vertex, face, asynclitic) • transverse (shoulder) • compound (fetal extremity prolapses along with presenting part) • all except vertex are considered malpresentations (see High Risk Labour and Delivery section, OB39)

• fetal position

• position of presenting part of the fetus relative to the maternal pelvis • occiput anterior (OA): most common presentation ("normal") - left OA most common • occiput posterior (OP): most rotate spontaneously to OA; may cause prolonged second stage of labour • occiput transverse (OT): leads to arrest of dilatation • normally, fetal head enters maternal pelvis and engages in OT position • subsequently rotates to OA position or OP (in a small percentage of cases)

.�-------, Presenting Parts include: Occiput for vertex Sacrum for breech Mentum for face



attitude

• flexion/ extension of fetal head relative to shoulders • brow presentation: head partially extended (requires CIS) • face presentation: head fully extended - mentum posterior always requires CIS, mentum anterior will deliver vaginally

• station

• position of presenting part relative to ischial spines - determined by vaginal exam • at ischial spines station 0 engaged • em above (-5 --+ -1) or em below (+1 --+ +5) =

=

Normal Labour and Delivery

Toronto Notes 2010

Obstetrics OB33

The Cervix • • • • • •

dilatation: latent phase: 0-3 cm; active phase: 4-10 cm effacement: thinning of the cervix by percentage or length of cervix (cm) consistency: soft vs. hard position: posterior vs. anterior application: contact between the cervix and presenting part i.e. well or poorly applied for Bishop score, see Table 18, OB38

Definition of Labour • regular, painful contractions associated with progressive dilatation and effacement of

cervix and descent of presenting part, or station • preterm (>20 but 42 weeks GA) • Braxton-Hicks contractions ("false labour" ) • irregular, occur throughout pregnancy and not associated with any dilatation, effacement or descent

Four Stages of Labour First Stage of Labour • latent phase

• uterine contractions typically infrequent and irregular • slow cervical dilatation (usually to 3-4 cm) and effacement • active phase • rapid cervical dilatation to full dilatation (nulliparous - 1 .2 cm/h, multiparous -1.5 em /h) • phase of maximum slope on cervical dilatation curve (see Figure 10, OB46) • painful, regular contractions -q2 min, lasting 45-60 seconds • contractions strongest at fundus, weakest at lower segment

Second Stage of Labour • from full dilatation to delivery of the baby • mother feels a desire to bear down and push with each contraction • women may choose a comfortable position that enhances pushing efforts and delivery

• upright (semi-sitting, squatting) and LLDP have studies supporting their favour

• progress measured by descent

Third Stage of Labour • separation and expulsion of the placenta • can last up to 30 minutes before intervention indicated • start oxytocin IV drip or give 10 U 1M after delivery of anterior shoulder in anticipation of

placental delivery

• routine oxytocin administration in third stage of labour can reduce the risk of PPH by >40%

Fourth Stage of Labour • • • • • •

first postpartum hour monitor vital signs and bleeding repair lacerations ensure uterus is contracted (palpate uterus and monitor uterine bleeding) inspect placenta for completeness and umbilical cord for presence of 2 arteries and 1 vein 3rd and 4th stages of labour most dangerous to the mother (i.e. hemorrhage)

Table 1 5. Course of Normal Labour Stage

Nulliparous

Multiparous

First

6-18 hours

2-10 hours

Second

30 min-3 hours

5-30 minutes

Third

5-30 minutes

5-30 minutes

.... ' , 9}------, Signs of Placental Separation 1 . Gush of blood 2. Lengthening of cord 3. Uterus becomes globular 4. Fundus rises

Normal Labour and Delivery

OB34 Obstetrics

Toronto Notes 2010

The Cardinal Movements of the Fetus During Delivery

--------�

engagement descent flexion internal rotation (to OA position ideally) extension (delivery of head) • external rotation (restitution); head rotates in line with the shoulders • expulsion (delivery of the shoulders and body) • • • • •

...

2. Engagement, descent, flexion

' ,

�}-------,

Consider OB Consultation if: • VBAC • HTN • active antepartum hemorrhage • PTl./PPROM • Malpresentation • Operative deliveries • Failure to progress/descend • Induction/augmentation if high risk • Tears: 3rd or 4th degree • Retained placenta "indications vary by institution

3. Further descent, internal rotation

4. Complete rotation, beginning extension

Continuous Support for Women During Childbirth Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007,

Issue 3 Study: Systematic review of 1 6 RCTs from 1 1 countries, 1 3,391 women in labour. Intervention: Continuous support during labour vs. usual care. Outcome: Effects on mothers and their babies. Resu�s: Continuous intrapartum support increased likehood of shorter labour, spontaneous vaginal birth, decrease in analgesia use, and a decrease in dissatisfaction with childbirth experience. Greatest benefit when provider is not a health care professional.

5. Complete extension

6. Restitution (external rotation)

7 . Delivery of anterior shoulder

8 . Del ivery of posterior shoulder

Figure 8. Cardinal Movements of Fetus During Delivery (adapted from illustration in Williams Obstetrics, 19th Ed.1

Toronto Notes 2010

Nonnal Labour and Delivery

Obstetrics OB35

Fetal Monitoring in Labour • see Fetal Heart Rate Tutorial

Vaginal Exam • • • • •

membrane status cervical effacement (thinning), dilatation, consistency, position, application fetal presenting part, position, station bony pelvis size and shape monitor progress of labour at regular intervals and document in a partogram

Intrapartum Fetal Cardiotocography (CTG) • intermittent fetal auscultation with Doppler device q15-30 minutes for one minute in first

stage active phase following a contraction, q5 minutes during second stage when pushing has begun • continuous electronic FHR monitoring reserved for non-reassuring auscultation, prolonged labour, and labour which is induced or augmented • routine use of continuous electronic monitoring shown to lead to higher intervention rates and no improvement in outcome for the neonate • techniques for continuous monitoring include external (Doppler) vs. internal (fetal scalp electrode) monitoring • fetal scalp sampling should be used in conjunction with electronic monitoring (eTG) to resolve the interpretation of non-reassuring patterns

.... ' ,

.�------.

Membrane Status Determined by • Pooling of fluid on speculum exam • Increase pH of vaginal fluid • Ferning of fluid under light microscopy • Decrease AFV on U/S

Electronic Fetal Heart Rate (FHR) Monitoring • FHR measured by Doppler; contractions measured by tocometer • described in terms of baseline FHR, variability (short term, long term) and periodicity

(accelera tions, decelerations)

• Baseline FHR

• normal range is 110-160 bpm • parameter of fetal well-being vs. distress • Variability

physiologic variability is a normal characteristic of fetal heart rate effect of vagus nerve on fetal heart demonstrable fetal heart rate variability indicates fetal acid-base status is acceptable variability decreases intermittently even in healthy fetus can only be assessed by electronic fetal monitoring (eTG) if absent or decreased variability lasts more than 40 min, need to assess fetal well being • causes of absent or decreased fetal heart rate variability: persistant hypoxia causing acidosis, fetal sleep, narcotics, sedatives, �-blockers, MgS04 preterm fetus, ' fetal tachycardia, congenital anomalies

• • • • • •

• Periodicity

• accelerations: increase of ;;,15 bpm lasting ;;,15 seconds, in response to fetal movement or uterine contraction

• decelerations: 3 types, described in terms of shape, onset, depth, duration recovery, occurrence, and impact on baseline FHR and variability, see Table 1 7

Table 1 6. Factors Affecting Fetal Heart Rate Fetal Tachycardia IFHR > 1 60)

Fetal Bradycardia IFHR 60 bpm below baseline > 60 s in duration with slow return to baseline

• •







BPM Variable in shape, onset, and duration Most common type of periodicity 1 60 seen during labour FHR May or may not be repetitive 1 40 Often with abrupt drop in FHR; usually variable in duration, 1 20 no effect on baseline FHR or variability intensity, and timing Due to cord compression or, in second 1 00 stage, forceful pushing with contractions Benign unless repetitive, with slow recovery, or when associated with other abnormalities of FHR eTG Tracing of Variable Deceleration

,

Management if non reassuring: • • • •

.....

'

,

9�------'

Approach to the Management of Abnormal FHR Ensure fetal tracing Call for help Change position to LLDP 1 00% 0, by mask Stop oxytocin Correct maternal hypotension Fetal scalp pH/fetal scalp electrode Vaginal exam to rule out cord prolapse Rule out fever, dehydration, drug effects, prematurity Amnioinfusion or tocolytics in selected cases CIS when necessary

Intrauterine resuscitation Amnioinfusion Confirm fetal well being Consider operative delivery (vacuum, forceps, CIS)

late Decelerations •











Uniform shape with onset late in contraction, lowest depth after peak of contraction, and return to baseline after end of contraction May cause decreased variability and change in baseline FHR Must see 3 in a row, all with the same shape to define a late deceleration Due to fetal hypoxia and acidemia, maternal hypotension or uterine hypertonus Usually a sign of uteroplacental insufficiency (an ominous sign)

BPM

onset of deceleration

1 60 1 40 1 20

--� -

1 00

30 seconds of

/.

........;.,. ...

nadir of deceleration



FHR

.... -... -. �

recovery time

lag time

Uterine Contraction

1

'-----

onset of contraction

' end of

contraction

Management if persistent: • • • •

Intrauterine resuscitation Confirm fetal well being Consider operative delivery See fetal blood sampling

eTG Tracing of Late Deceleration

Fetal Scalp Blood Sampling • indicated when non-reassuring fetal heart rate (NRFHR) is suggested by clinical

parameters including heavy meconium or moderately to severely abnormal FHR patterns, including unexplained absent baseline variability, repetitive late decelerations, complex variable decelerations, fetal cardiac arrythmias • pH ;;e7.25: normal, repeat if abnormal FHR persists • pH 7.21-7.24: repeat assessment in 30 minutes or consider delivery if rapid fall since last sample • pH ,;7.20: indicates fetal acidosis, delivery is indicated • contraindications • known or suspected fetal blood dyscrasia (hemophilia, von Willebrand) • active maternal infection (HI\', genital herpes)

Toronto Notes 2010

Nonnal Labour and Delivery/Induction of Labour

Obstetrics OB37

Fetal Oxygenation



uterine contractions during labour decrease uteroplacental blood flow, which results in reduced oxygen delivery to the fetus most fetuses tolerate this reduction in flow and have no adverse effects distribution of oxygen to the fetus depends on maternal, uteroplacental and fetal factors



maternal factors

• •

• decreased maternal oxygen carrying capacity

significant anemia (iron deficiency, hemoglobinopathies) carboxyhemoglobin (smokers) • decreased uterine blood flow • hypotension (blood loss, sepsis) • regional anesthesia • maternal positioning • chronic maternal conditions • vasculopathies (lupus, Type 1 0M, chronic HTN) • antiphospholipid syndrome • cyanotic heart disease • COPD •





utero placental factors

• uterine hypertonus • hyperstimulation secondary to oxytocin, prostaglandins or normal labour • placental abruption • uteroplacental dysfunction • placental abruption • placental infarction (dysfunction marked by IUGR, oligohydramnios, abnormal Doppler studies) • chorioamnionitis • placental edema (diabetes, hydrops) • placental senescence (post dates)



fetal factors

• cord compression • oligohydramnios • cord prolapse or entanglement • decreased fetal oxygen carrying capability • significant anemia (isoimmunization, feto-maternal bleed) • carboxyhemoglobin (exposure to smokers)



fetal response to hypoxia/asphyxia

• decreased movement, tone, and breathing activities • redistribution of fetal blood flow • increased flow to brain, heart, and adrenals • decreased flow to kidneys, lungs, gut, liver, and peripheral tissues • increase in blood pressure • transient fetal bradycardia followed by fetal tachycardia • anaerobic metabolism (decreased pH)

I n d uction of Labour Definition •

artificial initiation of labour before its spontaneous onset for the purpose of delivery of the fetus and placenta

Prerequisites for Labour Induction • •





capability for CIS if necessary maternal • short, thin, soft, anterior cervix with open os ("inducible" or "ripe") • if cervix is not ripe, use prostaglandin vaginal insert (CervidWM), prostaglandin gel (PrepidiFM), or Foley catheter fetal • reassuring fetal heart tracing • cephalic presentation • adequate fetal monitoring available likelihood of success determined by Bishop score (see Table 18) • cervix considered unfavourable if 6 • score of 9-13 associated with high likelihood of vaginal delivery

..... ' , �,}------. Induction is indicated when the risk of continuing pregnancy exceeds the risks associated with induced labour and delivery.

Induction of Labour

OB38 Obstetrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 8. Bishop Score Cervical characteristic

Position

"

' ,

.�------,

Consider the Following before Induction • Indication for induction • Contraindications • GA • Cervical favourability • Fetal presentation • Potential for CPO • Fetal well-being/FHR • Membrane status

2

0

Posterior

Mid

3

Anterior

Consistency

Firm

Medium

Soft

Effacement (%)

0·30

40-50

60-70

>80

Dilatation (cm)

0

1 -2

3·4

,, 5

Station of fetal head

-3

-2

·1

+1

Indications • post-date pregnancy (generally >41 weeks) • maternal factors

• significant antepartum hemorrhage • gestational HTN • other maternal medical problems, e.g. diabetes, renal or lung disease • maternal-fetal factors • isoimmunization, PROM, chorioamnionitis, post-term pregnancy • fetal factors • suspected fetal jeopardy as evidenced by biochemical or biophysical indications • fetal demise, severe IUGR

Risks • • • • •

failure to achieve labour and / or vaginal birth uterine hyperstimulation and fetal compromise uterine rupture uterine atony and PPH maternal side effects to medications

Contraindications • maternal

• prior classical or inverted-T incision or uterine surgery (e.g. myomectomy) • unstable maternal condition • gross CPD (although diagnosis cannot be made until active labour) • active maternal genital herpes • invasive cervical carcinoma • pelvic structure deformities • maternal-fetal • placenta previa or vasa previa • cord presentation • fetal • fetal distress, malpresentation, preterm fetus without lung maturity

Induction Methods Use of Prostaglandins in Cervical Ripening and Induction Intravenous Prostaglandin for Induction of labour

Cochrane Review. The Cochrane Libraty, 2000 Issue 2 • Prostaglandin E2 and F2 alpha can be used for cervical ripening and induction of labour. A meta·analysis comparing intravenous prostaglandin with oxytocin concluded that intravenous prostaglandin was no more likely to result in vaginal delivery IRR 0.85). Prostaglandins were associated with signrricantly more matemal side effects including gastrointestinal problems, thrombophlebitis and pyrexia. Currently, there is not enough evidence to draw any conclusions about the relative effects of prostaglandins vs. oxytocin and the choice is between the patient and the physician. • Intravaginal prostaglandins are associated with higher rate of uterine hypertonus, uterine hyperstimulation, and fetal heart rate abnormalities. • Prostaglandins are associated with reduced rate of CIS, instrumental vaginal delivery, and failed induction.

CERVICAL RIPENING Definition • use of medications or other means to soften, efface and dilate cervix to increase likelihood

of induction success

• ripening of an unfavourable cervix (Bishop score 30 mm has high negative predictive

value for PTL before 34 weeks

• identification of bacterial vaginosis (Rx - metronidazole) and ureaplasma urealyticum

(Rx - erythromycin) infections - routine screening not supported by current data but it is reasonable to screen high risk women • fetal fibronectin - a glycoprotein in amniotic fluid and placental tissue functioning to maintain integrity of chorionic-decidual interface in asymptomatic women, a positive fetal fibronectin in cervicovaginal fluid (>50 ngl mL) at 24 weeks gestation predicted spontaneous PTL at 2 / 3 of nasal side of iris in shadow (see Figure 9)

EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES Alignment • Hirschberg corneal reflex test

examine in primary position of gaze (e.g. straight ahead) with patient focusing on distant object • shine light into patient's eyes from -30 cm away • corneal light reflex should be symmetric and at same position on each cornea • strabismus testing as indicated (cover test, cover-uncover test, prism testing) (see Strabismus section) •

Movement •

"' , ��------� • CN 111 - Superior, Medial and Inferior Rectus, Inferior Oblique • CN IV - Superior Oblique (SO) • CN VI - Lateral Rectus (LR)

• • • • • •

examine movement of eyeball through six cardinal positions of gaze (Figure 8) (with six muscles responsible for extra-ocular movement) ask patient if diplopia is present in any position of gaze observe for horizontal, vertical or rotatory nystagmus (rhythmic, oscillating movements of the eye) resolving horizontal nystagmus at end gaze is usually normal cranial nerve III: superior rectus (SR), medial rectus (MR), inferior rectus (lR), inferior oblique (10) cranial nerve IV: superior oblique (SO) cranial nerve VI: lateral rectus (LR)

The Ocular Examination

Toronto Notes 2010

Ophthalmology OP7

EXTERNAL EXAMINATION • the four L's

• • • •

SA"

lymph nodes (preauricular, submandibular) lids lashes lacrimal system

LA-

IA/

SLIT-LAMP EXAMINATION • systematically examine all structures of the anterior segment + anterior vitreous

lids (including upper lid eversion if necessary), lashes, and lacrimal system conjunctiva and sclera cornea iris anterior chamber (for depth, cells, and flare) • to observe cells and flare 1. Dark room 2. High power beam 3. 1 mm beam height 4. Thin beam 5. Highest magnification 6. Approach at angle and focus on anterior chamber (space between cornea and lens) • lens • anterior vitreous • when necessary, use • fluorescein dye - stains Bowman's membrane in de-epithelialized cornea, appearing green with cobalt blue filterered light • Rose Bengal dye - stains devitalized corneal epithelium • special lenses (78 or 90 diopter) used with the slit-lamp allow a binocular, stereoscopic view of the fundus and vitreous

• • • • •

Schematic drawing of the slit lamp

10 "

- MA Ml-

\.so

;SR •

-LA

s/ \.111

© Sherry H. La; 2006

Figure 8. Diagnostic Positions of Gaze to Isolate Primary Action of Each Muscle deep light source

shallow

The ophthalmology note: Slit lamp exam ,.--....

LLL SC K AC Iris 2 + N S Lens

ok injected 1 + edema 2+ cells

Q1::: �

ok ok clear d+q ok ok

,.--....

0

'---""

s/EyelaShes Conjunctiva/Sclera/Episclera Cornea/Iris/Anterior surface of lens

10



; 10

9

Figure 9. Estimation of Anterior Chamber Depth

Note: R I G HT EYE d rawn on the left, LEFT EYE

1 1 -----;Io±==r=of.), 12

drawn on the right (as if looking at patient's face).

LLL SC K AC d+q NS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Power switch (on/off) Slit lamp joystick control Locking knob Ocular Magnification adjustment knob Brightness adjustment lever Slit beam height adjustment knob Slit beam width adjustment knob Patient-positioning frame Forehead strap Patient chin rest Chin rest height adjustment knob

Figure 7. Slit-Lamp

Lids, lashes, lacrimal Sclera, conjunctiva Cornea Anterior chamber Deep (not shallow) and quiet (no cells i n AC) Nuclear sclerosis (cataract)

Any abnormal ity or pathology is d rawn on the sketch in the appropriate location, and is labelled (e.g. trichiasis, conjunctivitis/ episcleritis/scleritis, corneal abrasion/ulcer, foreign body, etc.)

..... ' ,

��------�

Central Corneal Thickness Average eeT = 550 pm A thick cornea overestimates lOP by GAT A thin cornea underestimates lOP by GAT

OPS Ophthalmology

The Ocular Examination/Optics

Toronto Notes 2010

TONOMETRY

T,6

• measurement of intraocular pressure (lOP) (Figure 10) • normal range is 10-21.5 mmHg, with a mean of 15 mmHg • commonly measured by

. 14

Note: RIGHT EYE intraocular pressure (lOP) always listed on top. Always note which method used to measure lOP (Goldmann, Tonopen, airpuff).

• Goldmann applanation tonometry (GAT) - gold standard, performed using slit-lamp with special tip (prism) • Tonopen - benefit is portability and use of disposable probe tips. Use when cornea is scarred/ assymetric, rendering GAT inaccurate • air puff (non-contact and least reliable readings) • use topical anesthetic for Goldmann and Tonopen

Figure 1 0. Tonometry

OPHTHALMOSCOPY/FUNDOSCOPY &;!,

Desired Myers Pattern on GAT



Note: Thick Myers overestimate the lOP and are a result of excess fluorescein.

..... ' , .}---------------------, Quick Tips on Direct Ophthalmoscopy

1 . Examine in a dark room. 2. Ask patient to focus on a distant object. 3. Match ophthalmoscope light aperture to size of pupil (i.e. smaller aperture for undilated eye). 4. Use moderate light intensity. 5. Use your left/right eye and hand to examine patient's left/right eye respectively. 6. Get in close! Proximity to patient's eye is key with hand resting on patient's cheek.

@DIMN (normal disc, macula, vessels)

• can be performed with • direct ophthalmoscope (monocular with small field of view, only posterior pole visualized)

• slit-lamp with 78D or 90D lens (binocular view, visualization to mid-periphery of retina)

• indirect ophthalmoscopy with headlamp and 20D or 28D lens (binocular view, visualization of entire retina to ora serrata / edge of retina)

• assess red reflex • light reflected off the retina produces a "red reflex" when viewed from -1 foot away • anything that interferes with the passage of light will diminish the red reflex (e.g . large vitreous hemorrhage, cataract)

• examine the posterior segment of the eye (Figure 11) • vitreous • optic disc (colour, cup / disc ratio, sharpness of disc margin) • macula (-2 disc diameters temporal to disc), fovea (foveal light reflex)

• retinal vessels • retinal background • best peformed with pupils fully dilated (see Table 8 for list of mydriatics and cycloplegics) • contraindications to pupillary dilatation • shallow anterior chamber - can precipitate acute angle closure glaucoma • iris-supported anterior chamber lens implant • potential neurologic abnormality requiring pupil evaluation • use caution with cardiovascular disease - mydriatics may cause tachycardia

Optics REFRACTION • determining the lens parameters needed to correct refractive errors of the eye • two techniques used

C:O 0.3

C:O 0.4

Note: RIGHT EYE drawn on the left,

LEFT EYE drawn on the right las il looking at patient's lace l. C:D

Cup: Oisc ratio Fovea

Any abnormality or pathology 01 the fundus is drawn on the sketch in the appropriate location, and is labelled (e.g. hemorrhages, neovascularization, cotton-wool spots, drusen, retinal tear/detachment, etc.l.

Figure 1 1 , Fundus

..... ' , ..-------, Structures Responsible for Refractive Power 1 . Cornea (2/3) 2. Lens (1/3)

..... ' , ..-------, Diopter (D) = measurement of refractive power of a lens, equal to the reciprocal of the focal length in meters • "Negative" lens = concave, corrects for myopia • "Positive" lens = convex, corrects for hyperopia

• Flash / Streak Retinoscopy - refractive error determined objectively by use of lenses and retinoscope • Manifest - subjective trial using phoropter (device the patient looks through that is equipped with lenses) • a typical lens prescription would contain • sphere power in diopters (D), negative lens for myopes, positive lens for hyperopes • cylinder power in D to correct astigmatism (always positive value) • axis of cylinder (in degrees) • "add" (bifocal/ progressive reading lens) for presbyopes • e.g. -1 .50 + 1 .00 x 120 degrees, add +2.00

REFRACTIVE EYE SURGERY • permanently alters corneal refractive properties by ablating tissue to change curvature of the cornea

• used for correction of myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism • common types include photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) and laser-assisted in-situ keratomileusis (LASIK)

• potential risks / side-effects: infection, undercorrection / overcorrection, decreased night vision, corneal haze, dry eyes, regression, corneal flap completely cut (LASIK only)

Ql 8

Table 2. Optics Treatment

Pathophysiology

Clinical Features

Emmetropia



Image of distant objects focus exactly on the retina lFigure 1 2)



Myopia



Globe too long relative to refractive mechanisms, or refractive mechanisms too strong • Light rays from distant object focus in front of retina .... blurring of distant vision lFigure 1 2)



"Nearsightedness" • Usually presents in 1 st or 2nd decade, stabilizes in 2nd and 3rd decade; rarely begins after 25 years of age except in patients with diabetes or cataracts • Blurring of distance vision; near vision usually unaffected • Prevalence of 30-40% in U.S. population



Hyperopia







Astigmatism

Presbyopia

Globe too short relative to refractive mechanisms, or refractive mechanisms too weak • Light rays from distant object focus behind retina .... blurring of near ± distant vision lsee Figure 1 2) • May be developmental or due to any etiology that shortens globe

Z

"Farsightedness" Youth: usually do not require glasses lstill have sufficient accommodative ability to focus image on retina), but may develop accommodative esotropia lsee Strabismus section) • 30s-40s: blurring of near vision due to decreased accommodation, may need reading glasses • > 50s: blurring of distance vision due to severely decreased accommodation •



Retinal tear/detachment, macular hole, open angle glaucoma, complications not prevented with refractive correction









� ["

Normal aging process lespecially over 40 years) • If initially emmetropic, person begins to hold reading Hardening/reduced defonnability of the lens results in material further away, but distance vision remains unaffected decreased accommodative ability • If initially myopic, person begins removing distance glasses • Accommodative power is 1 40 at age 1 0, diminishes to read li.e. may mask symptoms) • If initially hyperopic, symptoms of presbyopia occur earlier to 3.50 by 40 • Near images cannot be focused onto retina lfocus is behind retina as in hyperopia) •



When symptomatic, correct with positive Diopter/convex('plus" • Angle-closure glaucoma, particularly later in life as lenses to converge light rays lsee Figure 1 3) lens enlarges Refractive eye surgery - see Refractive Eye Surgery section

Correct with cylindrical lens lif regular), try contact lens lif irregular) • Refractive eye surgery - see Refractive Eye Surgery section

Difference in refractive errors between eyes

� '"

Correct with negative diopter/concave('negative" lenses to diverge light rays lsee Figure 13) • Refractive eye surgery - see Refractive Eye Surgery section

• Light rays not refracted uniformly in all meridians due • Affects approximately 30% of popUlation, with prevalence to non-spherical surface of corneas or non-spherical increasing with age lens le.g. football-shaped) • Mild astigmatism unnoticeable • Higher amounts of astigmatism may cause blurry vision, • Two types of astigmatism • Regular - curvature uniformly different in meridians squinting, asthenopia, or headaches at right angles to each other • Irregular - distorted cornea, caused by injury, keratoconus lcone-shaped cornea), corneal scar, or severe dry eye



§-

No refractive error



Anisometropia

Complications

Correct vision with positive diopter/convex('plus" lenses for reading

Second most common cause of amblyopia in children = CD _ � Ol n e. < CD m � � C> �

"" _ CCI . = � CD ..... ... ' n C> � � CD

III � o· = C>

-

::I: -< '0 co a '0 OJ

s::

-< 0 '0 0;' o :::::

co ("') _. CD 0 c.. < CD :E -' � ;:::.: =r en

:::J CD n co


80,000 with >90% neutrophils, protein level >4.4 mg/ dL, glucose level « blood glucose level, no crystals, positive Gram stain results) rule out heart murmurs

Treatment •

• •

IV antibiotics, empiric therapy (based on age and risk factors), adjust pending joint aspirate C&S for small joints: needle aspiration, serial if necessary until sterile for major joints such as knee, hip, or shoulder: decompress and drain surgically in emergent fashion

Osteomyelitis Etiology ,,

' , ��------.

Plain Film Findings of Osteomyelitis 1 . Soft tissue swelling 2. Lytic bone destruction' 3. Periosteal reaction (formation of new bone, especially in response to #)'

• • • •

most common organism is Staphylococcus aureus consider Salmonella typhi in patients with sickle cell disease neonates and immunocompromised patients are susceptible to Gram-negative organisms hematogenous (bacteremia) or exogenous (open fractures, surgery, local infected tissue) spread

Clinical Presentation •

'Generally not seen on plain films until 1 0- 1 2 days after onset of infection

localized extremity pain ± fever or swelling 1 to 2 weeks after respiratory infection or infection at another non-bony site

Investigations • •

blood culture, aspirate cultures, ESR, CRp, CBC (leukocytosis) x-ray, bone scan (increased uptake within 24-48 hours after onset in majority of patients), MRI most sensitive/specific

Orthopaedic Emergencies

Toronto Notes 2010

Orthopaedics OR9

Treatment • IV antibiotics, empiric therapy, adjust pending blood and aspirate cultures • surgical decortication and drainage ± local antibiotics (e.g. antibiotic beads) if MRI

suggests an abscess or if patient does not improve after 36 hours on IV antibiotics • serial I&D (if required), IV antibiotics eventually changed to PO, splint limb for several weeks followed by protective weight-bearing of the limb

... ' � ��------. Acute osteomyelitis is a medical emergency which requires an early diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial and surgical treatment.

Compartment Syndrome Definition • increased interstitial pressure in an anatomical "compartment" (forearm, calf) where

muscle and tissue are bounded by fascia and bone (fibro-osseous compartment) with little room for expansion • interstitial pressure exceeds capillary perfusion pressure leading to muscle necrosis (in 4-6 hrs) and eventually nerve necrosis

Etiology • intracompartmental: fracture (particularly tibial fractures, pediatric supracondylar

fractures, and forearm fractures), crush injury, revascularization

• extracompartmental: constrictive dressing (circumferential cast), circumferential burn Increased pressure from blood and intra compartmental swelling



decreased venous drainage decreased lymphatic drainage



intracompartmental pressure g reater than perfusion pressure

acido sis

.... "II1II"'"



muscle and nerve anoxia

transudation into tissue surrounding compartment

...

leaky basement membranes

..... muscle and ..,.. nerve necrosis

",,' 5 p's of Compartment Syndrome •

Figure 7. Pathogenesis of Compartment Syndrome

Physical Examination • pain with passive stretch • 5 P's � late sign

• •

Clinical Features • • • •



pain with active contraction of compartment pain with passive stretch swollen, tense compartment suspicious history



... ' � �'-------.

Investigation • usually not necessary as compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis • in children or unconscious patients where clinical exam is unreliable, compartment

pressure monitoring with catheter AFTER clinical diagnosis is made (normal elevated :2:30 mmHg or :2:30 mmHg of diastolic BP)

Pain • Out of proportion for injury • Not relieved by analgesics • Increased with passive stretch of compartment muscles (most specific) Pallor Paresthesia Paralysis: late finding Pulselessness: late finding

=

0 mmHg;

Most important sign is increased pain with passive stretch. Most important symptom is pain out of proportion to injury.

Treatment • non-operative

• remove constrictive dressings (casts, splints), elevate limb at the level of the heart

• operative

• urgent fasciotomy • 48-72 hours post-op: wound closure ± necrotic tissue debridement

Complications • rhabdomyolysis, renal failure secondary to myoglobinuria, Volkmann's ischemic

contracture (ischemic necrosis of muscle, followed by secondary fibrosis and finally calcification; esp. following supracondylar fracture of humerus)

Cauda Equina Syndrome • see Neurosurgery. NS25

Cauda equina syndrome is a surgical emergency.

Toronto Notes 2010

Orthopaedic Emergencies/Shoulder

ORIO Orthopaedics

.... ' , ��------. Up to 50% of patients with hip dislocations suffer fractures elsewhere at the time of injury.

Hip Dislocation • full trauma survey (see see Emergency Medicine,

Management, ER2, ER16)

Initial Patient Assessment and

• examine for neurovascular injury PRIOR to open or closed reduction • reduce hip dislocations ASAP (ideally within 6 hours) to decrease risk of AVN of the

femoral head

• hip precautions (no extreme hip flexion, adduction, internal or external rotation) 6 weeks

post-reduction

• also see

Hip Dislocation after THA, 0R28

ANTERIOR HIP DISLOCATION © Janet SM Chan 2009

• mechanism: posteriorly directed blow to knee with hip widely abducted • clinical features: shortened, abducted, externally rotated limb • treatment

• closed reduction under GA • post-reduction CT to assess joint congruity

Figure 8. Rochester Method

.... ' , ��------. Rochester Method • Patient lying supine with hip & knee flexed on injured side • Surgeon stands on patient's injured side • Surgeon passes one arm under patient's flexed knee, reaching to place that hand on patient's other knee (thus supporting patient's injured leg) • With other hand, surgeon grasps patient's ankle on injured side, applying traction • Reduction via traction, int. rotation, then ext. rotation once femoral head clears acetabular rim

.... ' , �}-------,

POSTERIOR HIP DISLOCATION • most frequent type of hip dislocation • mechanism: severe force to knee with hip flexed and adducted [e.g. knee into dashboard

in motor vehicle accident (MVA)]

• clinical features: shortened, adducted and internally rotated limb • treatment

• • • •

CENTRAL HIP DISLOCATION (rare) • mechanism: traumatic injury where femoral head is pushed through acetabulum toward

pelvic cavity

COMPLICATIONS FOR ALL HIP DISLOCATIONS • • • • • •

There are 4 Joints in the Shoulder: glenohumeral. acromioclavicular (AC), sternoclavicular (SC), scapulothoracic

....

' , ��------.

Factors Causing Shoulder Instability • Shallow glenoid • Loose capsule • Large mobility

closed reduction under GA ORIP if unstable, intra-articular fragments or posterior wall fracture post-reduction CT to assess joint congruity and fractures if reduction is unstable, put in traction x 4-6 weeks

post-traumatic arthritis AVN fracture of femoral head, neck, or shaft sciatic nerve palsy in 25% (10% permanent) heterotopic ossification (HO) thromboembolism

Shou lder Shoulder Dislocation • the glenohumeral joint is the most commonly dislocated joint in the body since stability is

sacrificed for motion

Prognosis

• recurrence rate depends on age of 1st dislocation: 40 yrs

3

I

2

J/

=

2-4%

=

60-70%;

Complications • • • •

tuberosity fracture, glenoid rim fracture rotator cuff or capsular tear, shoulder stiffness injury to axillary nerve/ artery, brachial plexus recurrent/unreduced dislocation (most common complication)

ANTERIOR SHOULDER DISLOCATION ( > 90%) Mechanism

• abducted and externally rotated arm or blow to posterior shoulder

1 . manubrium 2. sternoclavicular joint 3. clavicle 4. coracoid process 5. acromioclavicular joint 6. acromion 7. humerus 8. glenohumeral joint 9. scapula

Figure 9. Shoulder Joints

Clinical Features

pain arm held in slight abduction, external rotation; internal rotation is blocked "squared off" shoulder +ve apprehension test: apprehension with shoulder abduction and external rotation to 90° since humeral head is pushed anteriorly and recreates feeling of anterior dislocation • +ve relocation test: a posteriorly directed force applied during the apprehension test relieves apprehension since anterior subluxation is prevented • • • •

Toronto Notes 2010

Orthopaedics ORll

Shoulder

• +ve sulcus sign: presence of subacromial indentation with distal traction on humerus indicates inferior shoulder instability • neurovascular exam including: • axillary nerve (sensory patch over deltoid and deltoid contraction) • musculocutaneous nerve (sensory patch on lateral forearm and biceps contraction) Table 3. An EBM Perspective on Tests of Anterior Shoulder Instability Apprehension

Relocation

Surprise

Sensitivity

52.78%

45.83%

63.89%

Specificity

98.91%

54.35%

98.91%

PPV

97.73%

43.86%

98.22%

NPV

72.82%

56.26%

77.86%

Anterior apprehension sign

An Evaluation of the Apprehension, Relocation, and Surprise Tests for Anterior Shoulder Instability. The American Journal of Sports Medicine 32:301-307 12004).

Investigations • x-rays: Ap, trans-scapular, axillary

X R ay Findings -

• dislocation • axillary view: humeral head is anterior • trans-scapular view: humeral head is anterior to the centre of the "Mercedes-Benz sign" • ± Hill-Sachs lesion: divot in posterior humeral head due to forceful impaction of an anteriorly dislocated humeral head against the glenoid rim • ± bony Bankart lesion: avulsion of the anterior glenoid labrum (with attached bone fragments) from the glenoid rim

Sulcus sign

Treatment • closed reduction with IV sedation and muscle relaxation • 2 methods • Traction-countertraction: assistant stabilizes torso with a folded sheet wrapped across the chest while the MD applies gentle steady traction (see Figure 11) • Stimson: while patient lies prone with arm hanging over table edge, hang a 5 lb weight on wrist for 15-20 min • obtain post-reduction x-rays • check post-reduction neurovascular status (NVS) • sling x 3 weeks, followed by shoulder rehabilitation

Posterior apprehension sign

Figure 1 0. Apprehension Tests

POSTERIOR SHOULDER DISLOCATION (5%)

• up to 60-80% are missed on initial presentation due to poor physical exam and radiographs

Mechanism • • • •

adducted, internally rotated, flexed arm fall on an outstretched hand (FOOSH) 3 E's (epileptic seizure, EtOH, electrocution) blow to anterior shoulder

Clinical Features • arm is held in adduction and internal rotation; external rotation is blocked • anterior shoulder flattening, prominent coracoid, palpable mass posterior to shoulder • posterior apprehension ("jerk") test: with patient supine, flex elbow 90° and adduct, internally rotate the arm while applying a posterior force to the shoulder; patient will "jerk" back with the sensation of subluxation

Investigation

• x-rays: A P, trans-scapu Jar, axillary

© Tabby Lulham 2010

Figure 1 1 . Traction-Countertraction

X R ay Findings -

• dislocation • AP view: partial vacancy of glenoid fossa (vacant glenoid sign) and >6 mm space between anterior glenoid rim and humeral head (positive rim sign), humeral head may resemble a lightbulb due to internal rotation (lightbulb sign) axillary view: humeral head is posterior • trans-scapular view: humeral head is posterior to center of "Mercedes-Benz sign" • reverse Hill-Sachs lesion (75% of cases): divot in anterior humeral head • reverse bony Bankart lesion: avulsion of the posterior glenoid labrum from the bony glenoid rim

Treatment • closed reduction: inferior traction on a flexed elbow with pressure on the back of the humeral head • obtain post-reduction x-rays • check post-reduction neurovascular status • sling x 3 weeks, followed by shoulder rehabilitation

Figure 1 2. Anterior Dislocation Causing Hill-Sachs and Bankart Lesions

Shoulder

OR12 Orthopaedics

Toronto Notes 2010

Rotator Cuff Disease Rotator Cuff Muscles

• rotator cuff consists of 4 muscles that act to stabilize humeral head within the glenoid

SITS Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres minor Subscapularis

fossa

Table 4. Rotator Cuff Muscles

acromioclavicular ligament

Muscle

Muscle attachments

Supraspinatus Infraspinatus

Nerve supply

Muscle function

Scapula --> greater tuberosity of humerus

Suprascapular nerve

Abduction

Scapula --> greater tuberosity of humerus

Suprascapular nerve

External rotation

Teres minor

Scapula --> greater tuberosity of humerus

Axillary nerve

External rotation

Subscapularis

Scapula --> lesser tuberosity of humerus

Subscapular nerve

Internal rotation and adduction

SPECTRUM OF DISEAS E : IMPINGEM ENT, TENDONITIS, MICRO OR MACRO TEARS

Etiology • compression of rotator cuff tendons (primarily supraspinatus) and subacromial bursa c



@

Figure 1 3. Muscles of the Rotator Cuff

between the head of the humerus and the acromion; leads to bursitis, tendonitis and, if left untreated, can lead to rotator cuff thinning and tear • anything that leads to a narrow subacromial space 1 . glenohumeral muscle weakness leading to abnormal motion of humeral head 2. scapular muscle weakness leading to abnormal motion of acromion 3. acromial abnormalities such as congenital narrow space or osteophyte formation

Clinical Features • • • •

night pain and difficulty sleeping on affected side pain worse with active motion weakness and loss of range of motion (e.g. trouble with overhead activities) tenderness to palpation over greater tuberosity

Table 5. Rotator Cuff Special Tests

© Tabby Lulham 2010

Figure 1 4. Neer's Test

Test

Examination

Positive Test

Jobe's Test

Supraspinatus - place the shoulder in 90 degrees of abduction and Weakness with active resistance suggests a 30 degrees of forward flexion and internally rotate the arm so supraspinatus tear that the thumb is pointing toward the floor

Lift-off Test

Subscapularis - internally rotate arm so dorsal surface of hand rests Inability to actively lift hand away from back on lower back. Patient instructed to actively lift hand away from suggests a subscapularis tear back against examiner resistance

Posterior-cuff Test

Infraspinatus and Teres minor - arm positioned at patient's side in 90 degrees of flexion. Patient instructed to extemally rotate arm against the resistance of the examiner

Weakness with active resistance suggests posterior cuff tear

Neer's Test

Rotator Cuff Impingement - passive shoulder flexion

Pain elicited between 1 30-170 degrees suggests impingement

Hawkins­ Kennedy Test

Rotator Cuff Impingement - shoulder flexion to 90 degrees and passive internal rotation

Pain with internal rotation suggests impingement

Painful Arc Test

Rotator Cuff Tendinopathy - patient instructed to actively abduct the shoulder

Pain with abduction greater than 90 degrees suggests tendinopathy

Investigations • x-rays: AP view may show high riding humerus relative to glenoid, evidence of chronic

tendonitis

• MRI: coronal/sagittal oblique and axial orientations are useful for assessing full/partial tears and tendinopathy, ± arthrogram: geyser sign (injected dye leaks out of joint through

rotator cuff tear)

• arthrogram: see full thickness tear, difficult to assess partial thickness tears

Treatment and Prognosis • mild ("wear")

• treatment is non-operative (physiotherapy, NSAIDs)

• moderate ("tear")

• non-operative treatment ± steroid injection

• severe ("repair")

• impingement that is refractory to 2-3 months physio and 1-2 injections • may require surgical repair, i.e. acromioplasty, rotator cuff repair

© Erin Duff 2009

Figure 1 5. Hawkins Test

Toronto Notes 2010

Orthopaedics OR13

Shoulder

Acromioclavicular (AC) Joint Pathology • 2 main ligaments attach clavicle to scapula: acromioclavicular (AC) and coracoclavicular

(CC) ligaments

Mechanism • fall onto shoulder with adducted arm (fall onto tip of shoulder) 1 . Jobe's test

Clinical Features • palpate step deformity between distal clavicle and acromion (with dislocation) • pain with adduction of shoulder and/or palpation over AC joint • limited ROM

Investigations • x-rays: AP, Zanca view (10-15° cephalic tilt), axillary ± stress views (10 lb weight in

patient's hand)

Treatment • non-operative (most-common): sling 1-3 weeks, ice, analgesia • operative

• indications: AC and CC ligaments are both torn and/ or clavicle displaced posteriorly • procedure: excision of lateral clavicle with AC/CC ligament reconstruction

2. Lift-off test

Clavicular Fracture • incidence: proximal (5%), middle (80%), or distal (15% ) third of clavicle • common in children (unites rapidly without complications)

Mechanism • fall on shoulder (87%), direct trauma to clavicle (7%), FOOSH (6%)

3. Posterior cuff test © Tabby Lulham 2010

Clinical Features • pain and tenting of skin • arm is clasped to chest to splint shoulder and prevent movement

Figure 1 6. Rotator Cuff Tests Jobe's, Lift-Off, Posterior

Treatment • evaluate neurovascular status of entire upper limb • proximal and middle third clavicular fractures

• sling x 1-2 weeks • early ROM and strengthening once pain subsides • if ends overlap >2 cm, consider ORIF • distal third clavicular fractures • undisplaced (with ligaments intact): sling x 1-2 weeks • displaced (CC ligament injury): ORIF

Complications • • • •

cosmetic bump usually only complication non-union/mal-union shoulder stiffness, weakness with repetitive activity pneumothorax, injuries to brachial plexus and subclavian vessel (all very rare)

Pneumothorax or pulmonary contusion are potential complications of severe acromioclavicular joint dislocation

,, ' , ��------� Associated Injuries with Clavicular Fractures • Up to 9% of clavicular fractures are associated with other fractures (most commonly rib fractures) • Majority of brachial plexus injuries are associated with proximal third fractures

Frozen Shoulder (Adhesive Capsulitis) Definition • disorder characterized by progressive pain and stiffness of the shoulder usually resolving

spontaneously after 18 months

Mechanism • primary adhesive capsulitis

• idiopathic, usually associated with diabetes mellitus • may resolve spontaneously in 9-18 months • secondary adhesive capsulitis • due to prolonged immobilization • shoulder-hand syndrome - type of reflex sympathetic dystrophy characterized by arm and shoulder pain, decreased motion and diffuse swelling • following myocardial infarction, stroke, shoulder trauma

"

' , ��-------,

Conditions Associated with an Increased Incidence of Adhesive Capsulitis • Prolonged immobilization (most significant) • Female gender • Age > 49 years • Diabetes mellitus (5x) • Cervical disc disease • Hyperthyroidism • Stroke • Myocardial infarction • Trauma

Shoulder/Humerus

OR14 Orthopaedics

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Features • gradual onset (weeks to months) of diffuse shoulder pain with:

• decreased active and passive ROM • pain worse at night and often prevents sleeping on affected side • increased stiffness as pain subsides: continues for 6-12 months after pain has disappeared

Investigations • x-rays may be normal, or may show demineralization from disease

Treatment • • • •

active and passive ROM (physiotherapy) NSAIDs and steroid injections if limited by pain MUA (manipulation under anesthesia) and early physiotherapy arthroscopy for debridement/ decompression

H u merus Proximal Humeral Fracture ",, ' ,

��------�

Anatomic neck fractures disrupt blood supply to the humeral head and avascular necrosis (AVN) of the humeral head may ensue.

Mechanism • young: high energy trauma (MVA) • older: FOOSH from standing height in osteoporotic individuals

Clinical Features • pain, swelling, tenderness, painful ROM

Investigations greater tuberosity

• test axillary nerve function • x-rays: AI', trans-scapular, axillary are essential • CT scan: to evaluate for articular involvement and fracture displacement

Classification • Neer classification is based on 4 fracture fragments: head, greater tuberosity, lesser

tuberosity, shaft

surgical neck

• can be

• nondisplaced: displacement 450 • dislocated/subluxed: humeral head dislocated/subluxed from glenoid

Treatment • non-operative

• sling immobilization (nondisplaced): begin ROM in 7-10 days to prevent stiffness • closed reduction (minimally displaced)

• operative

Figure 1 7. Fractures of the Proximal Humerus

• ORIF (anatomic neck fractures, displaced, dislocated): hemiarthroplasty may be necessary, especially in elderly

Complications • AVN, axillary nerve palsy, non-union / mal-union, shoulder stiffness, post-traumatic

arthritis

Humeral Shaft Fracture ",, ' ,

��------�

Acceptable Humeral Shaft Deformities for Nonoperative Treatment • 2-3 weeks to avoid stiffness.

• direct trauma to posterior aspect of elbow (fall onto the point of the elbow)

Clinical Features •

± loss of active extension due to avulsion of triceps tendon

Treatment • undisplaced « 2 mm, stable): cast 3 wks (elbow in 45° flexion) then gentle ROM • displaced: ORIF (plate and screws or tension band wiring) and early ROM if stable

Elbow Dislocation • third most common joint dislocation after shoulder and patella • most commonly occurs in young people (5-25 years) in sporting events or high speed

MVAs, dislocation of ulna

• 90% are posterior / posterolateral, anterior are rare • collateral ligaments disrupted

Mechanism • elbow hyperextension via FOOSH or valgus/supination stress during elbow flexion

Clinical Features • elbow pain, swelling, deformity • flexion contracture • ± absent radial or ulnar pulses © Desmond Ballance 2006

Figure 1 9 . Lateral View of Elbow

Treatment • closed reduction under anesthesia (post-reduction x-rays required) • long-arm splint with forearm in neutral rotation and elbow in 90° flexion • early ROM « 2 weeks)

Complications • stiffness (loss of extension), intra-articular loose body, neurovascular injury (ulnar nerve,

median nerve, brachial artery), heterotopic bone formation, radial head fracture

Epicondylitis • lateral epicondylitis

"tennis elbow", inflammation of the common extensor tendon as it inserts into the lateral epicondyle • medial epicondylitis "golfer's elbow", inflammation of the common flexor tendon as it inserts into the medial epicondyle =

=

Mechanism • repeated or sustained contraction of the forearm muscles

Clinical Features • point tenderness over humeral epicondyle • pain upon resisted wrist extension (lateral epicondylitis) or wrist flexion (medial epicondylitis)

Toronto Notes 2010

Elbow/Forearm

Orthopaedics OR17

Treatment • • • • •

rest, ice, NSAIDs use brace/strap PI, stretching and strengthening corticosteroid injection surgery: percutaneous release of common tendon from epicondyle (only after 6-12 months of conservative therapy)

Forearm Both Bones Fracture (Radius and Ulna) Mechanism • commonly a FOOSH or direct blow

Investigations • x-ray: 1 ) AP and lateral of forearm; 2) Ap, lateral, oblique of elbow and wrist • CT if fracture is close to joint

Treatment • goal is anatomic reduction since imperfect alignment significantly limits forearm

pronation and supination

• ORIF with compression plates and screws

Complications • compartment syndrome • non-tmion • mal-union

Monteggia Fracture Definition • fracture of the proximal ulna with radial head dislocation

"' � ��------� In all isolated ulna fractures, assess proximal radius to rule out a Monteggia fracture.

Mechanism • direct blow on the posterior aspect of the forearm • hyperpronation • fall on the hyperextended elbow

Clinical Features • decreased rotation of forearm ± palpation lump at the radial head • ulna angled apex anterior and radial head dislocated anteriorly (rarely the reverse

deformity occurs)

Treatment • ORIF of ulna with indirect radius reduction in 90% • splint and early post-op ROM if elbow completely stable; otherwise immobilization in

plaster with elbow flexed for 6 weeks

Complications • compartment syndrome •

radial/posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) injury

• non-tmion/mal-union • decrease ROM

© Joey Trautmann 2007

Figure 20. Monteggia Fracture

Nightstick Fracture Definition • isolated fracture of ulna

Mechanism • direct blow to forearm (holding arm up to protect face)

Treatment • non-displaced: below elbow cast (10 days) followed by forearm brace (-8 weeks) • displaced: ORIF if >50% shaft displacement or >100 angulation

Figure 21 . Nightstick Fracture

Foreann/Wrist

ORIS Orthopaedics

"' , �}-------, For all isolated radius fractures assess DRUJ to rule out a Galeazzi fracture.

Fracture of distal radius

Toronto Notes 2010

Galeazzi Fracture Definition • fracture of the distal radial shaft with disruption of the distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) • most commonly in the distal 1/3 of radius near junction of metaphysis/ diaphysis

Mechanism • usual cause is fall on the hand (mechanical axial loading of pronated forearm)

Investigations • x-rays

• shortening of distal radius >5 mm relative to the distal ulna • widening of the DRUJ space on AP • dislocation of radius with respect to ulna on true lateral

Treatment Dislocation of ulna

• ORIF of radius • if DRUJ is stable, splint with early ROM • if DRUJ is unstable, DRUJ pinillng and long arm cast in supination x 6 weeks

© SUl Bateson 2006

Figure 22. Galeazzi Fracture

Wrist Colies' Fracture Definition • transverse distal radius fracture (about 2 cm proximal to the radiocarpal joint) with dorsal displacement ± ulnar styloid fracture

Epidemiology Lateral view

��

�� /-'

(ID -

AP view

1 . Dors al tilt 2. Dorsal displacement 3. Ulnar styloid fracture 4. Radial displacement 5. Radial tilt 6. S hortening Figure 23. Colles' Fracture and Associated Bony Deformity

• most common fracture in those >40 years, especially in women and those with osteoporotic bone

Mechanism • FOOSH

Clinical Features • " dinner fork" deformity • swelling, ecchymosis, tenderness

Investigations • findings on x-ray (see Figure 23)

Treatment • goal is to restore radial height, radial inclination (22°) and volar tilt (11°) • closed reduction (think opposite of the deformity):

• hematoma block (sterile prep and drape, local anesthetic injection directly into fracture site) or conscious sedation • closed reduction - traction with extension (exaggerate injury), then traction with ulnar deviation, pronation, flexion of distal fragment - not at wrist) • dorsal slab/below elbow cast for 5-6 weeks • x-ray q1 week to ensure reduction is maintained • obtain post-reduction films immediately; repeat reduction if necessary, consider external fixation or ORIF

Smith's Fracture Definition

• volar displacement of the distal radius (i.e. reverse Colles' fracture)

Mechanism • fall onto the back of the flexed hand

Treatment • • • •

usually unstable and needs ORIF if patient is poor operative candidate, may attempt non-operative treatment closed reduction with hematoma block (reduction opposite of Colles') long-arm cast in supination x 6 weeks

Toronto Notes 2010

Wrist

Orthopaedics OR19

Complications of Wrist Fractures • most common complications are poor grip strength, stiffness, and radial shortening • distal radius fractures in individuals BC � positive Rinne, which is normal • Weber test • 512 Hz tuning fork is held on vertex of head and patient states whether it is heard centrally (Weber negative) or is lateralized to one side (Weber right, Weber left) • can place vibrating fork on patient's chin while they clench their teeth, or directly on teeth to elicit more reliable response • will only lateralize if difference in hearing loss between ears is >6 dB •

Minimum hearing loss to have NEGATIVE Rinne (BC > AC) (dB)

256 512 1 024

15 30 45

,,

Table 5. The Interpretation of Tuning Fork Tests Examples

Weber

Rinne

Normal or bilateral sensorineural hearing loss

Central

AC > BC (+) bilaterally

Right·sided conductive hearing loss, normal left ear

Lateralizes to Right

BC>AC H right

Right·sided sensorineural hearing loss, normal left ear

Lateralizes to Left

AC > BC ( +) bilaterally

Right·sided severe sensorineural hearing loss or dead right ear, normal left ear

Lateralizes to Left

BC>AC H right'

a vibrating tuning fork on the mastoid stimulates the cochlea bilaterally, therefore in this case, the left cochlea is stimulated by the Rinne test on the right, i.e. a false negative test These tests are not valid if the ear canals are obstructed with cerumen Ii.e. will create conductive loss) •

Frequency of Tuning Fork (Hz)

'

,

��------.

Weber Test Lateralization = Ipsilateral conductive hearing loss or Contralateral sensorineural hearing loss When conductive hearing loss is present, the Weber test is more sensitive in detecting the CHL than the Rinne test

OIlO Otolaryngology

,, ' , �}-------, Sound Characteristics

Intensity/Loudness = amplitude of sound waves in decibels (dB) Pitch/Tone = frequency of vibration in Hertz (Hz) Timbre/Quality = overtones superimposed on the pure tone

Toronto Notes 2010

Hearing Loss

Pure Tone Audiometry • threshold is the lowest intensity level at which a patient can hear the tone 50% of the time • thresholds are obtained for each ear for frequencies 250 to 8000 Hz • air conduction thresholds are obtained with headphones and measure outer, middle, inner

ear, and auditory nerve function

• bone conduction thresholds are obtained with bone conduction oscillators which bypass

the outer and middle ear

Degree of Heari ng Loss • determined on basis of the pure tone average (PTA) at 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz "

' , ��------.

Range of frequencies audible to human Ear --> 20 to 20,000 Hz Most sensitive frequencies --> 1 ,000 to 4,000 Hz Range of human speech --> 500 to 2,000 Hz

"

X

AC Unmasked

=

> = BC Unmasked D = Ac Masked BC Masked )

' , �}-------,

Air conduction thresholds can only be equal to or greater than bone conduction thresholds.

500

1 000 2000

--� - - -

4000 8000 -10 , --.......; 0 10 20 :I: 30 � 40 Z 50 G"l 60 r 70 80 c: 90 � 100 110 120

- ----

250

500

1 000 2000

...--

'"

=

./"

A. Normal Audiogram 250

500

1000 2000

4000 8000 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

250

500

1 000 2000

;7

....... ./ -'""'

C. Conductive Hearing Loss (Otosclerosis)

,

� �

B.

Conductive Hearing Loss (Otitis Media)

4000 8000 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1 00 110 1 20

250

Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Noise Induced)

500

-- -

�� / '\. /

D.

4000 8000 -10 0 10 20 :I: 30 � 40 Z 50 G"l 60 r 70 80 90 � 100 110 120

'"



' , ��------,

Hearing loss most often occurs at higher frequencies. Noise-induced (occupational) HL is seen at 4000 Hz. HL associated with otosclerosis is seen at 2000 Hz (Carhart's notch).

"

250

Interpretation

1000 2000

,

--.......;

E.

---

4000 8000 -1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 " 70 80 90 100 110 120

,--

"

Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Presbycusis)

Figure 1 7. Types of Hearing Loss and Associated Audiograms PURE TONE PATTERNS Degree of Hearing Loss Decibel Loss

Degree of Hearing Loss

o to 1 5 dB

Normal

1 6 t0 25 dB

Slight

26 to 40 dB

Mild

41 to 55 dB

Moderate

56 to 70 dB

Moderate - Severe

71 to 90 dB

Severe

?

Profound

91 dB

1 . Conductive Hearing Loss (CHL) (Figure 17B) • bone conduction (BC) in normal range • air conduction (AC) outside of normal range • gap between AC and BC thresholds >10 dB (an air-bone gap) 2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss (SNHL) (Figure 17D) • both air and bone conduction thresholds below normal • gap between AC and BC 10 dB (an air-bone gap)

Speech Audiometry Speech Reception Threshold (SRT) • lowest hearing level at which patient is able to repeat 50% of two syllable words which

have equal emphasis on each syllable (spondee words)

Speech Discrimination

% of words identified

Speech Discrimination

90 to 1 00%

Excellent

80 to 90%

Good

60 to 80%

Fair

40 to 60% SRI, therefore degree of hearing loss is taken into account • patients with normal hearing or conductive hearing loss score >90% • score depends on extent of SNHL

Toronto Notes 2010

Otolaryngology OTll

Hearing Loss

• a decrease in discrimination as sound intensity increases is typical of a retrocochlear lesion

(rollover effect)

• investigate further if scores differ more than 20% between ears • used as best predictor of hearing aid response

Impedance Audiometry Tympanogram • the eustachian tube equalizes the pressure between external and middle ear • tympanograms graph the compliance of the middle ear system against pressure gradient

ranging from to --400 to +200 mmH20

• tympanogram peak occurs at the point of maximum compliance where the pressure in the

external canal is equivalent to the pressure in the middle ear

• normal range: -100 to +50 mm H20 High

Type A '" u co '"

I '-'

Type B

Type B





Low

+ o Air Pressure • normal pressure peak at 0 • Note: with otosclerosis, peak is still at o mm H20 but has a lower amplitude

+

o Air Pressure • no pressure peak • poor TM mobility indicative of middle ear effusion (OME) or pertorated TM

+ a Air Pressure • negative pressure peak • indicative of chronic eustachian tube insufficiency (e.g. serous or secretory otitis media)

Figure 1 8. Tympanograms Static Compliance • volume measurement reflecting overall stiffness of the middle ear system • normal range: 0.3 to 1 .6 cc • negative middle ear pressure and abnormal compliance indicate middle ear pathology Acoustic Stapedi a l Reflexes • stapedius muscle contracts 2° to loud sound • acoustic reflex thresholds 70 to 100 dB greater than hearing threshold; if hearing =

• • • • • • •

threshold >85 dB, reflex likely absent stimulating either ear causes bilateral and symmetrical reflexes for reflex to be present, CN VII must be intact and no conductive hearing loss inmonitored ear if reflex is absent without conductive or severe sensorineural loss � suspect CN VIII lesion acoustic reflex decay test ability of stapedius muscle to sustain contraction for 10 s at 10 dB normally, little reflex decay occurs at 500 and 1000 Hz with cochlear hearing loss, acoustic reflex thresholds 25 to 60 dB with retrocochlear hearing loss (acoustic neuroma) � absent acoustic reflexes or marked reflex decay (>50%) within 5 seconds =

=

Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR) • measures neuroelectric potentials (waves) in response to a stimulus in five different

anatomic sites. This test can be used to map the lesion according to the site of the defect • delay in brainstem response suggests cochlear or retrocochlear abnormalities (tumour or multiple sclerosis) • does not require volition or co-operation of patient

Otoacoustic Emissions • objective test of hearing where a series of clicks is presented to the ear and the cochlea

generates an echo which can be measured

• often used in newborn screening

�.-------�

This objective test can be used to screen newborns or to uncover normal hearing in malingering patients.

0T12 Otolaryngology

Toronto Notes 2010

Hearing Loss/Vertigo

Aural Rehabilitation • dependent on degree of hearing loss, communicative requirements, motivation,

expectations, age, physical, and mental abilities

• negative prognostic factors

.... ' � .�------. Pre-lingual deaf infants are the best candidates for aural rehabilitation because they benefit from developmental plasticity.

poor speech discrimination narrow dynamic range (recruitment) unrealistic expectations cosmetic concerns • types of hearing aids • behind the ear • all in the ear • bone conduction - bone anchored hearing aid (BAHA): applied and attached to the skull • contralateral routing of signals (eROS) • assistive listening devices • direct / indirect audio output • infrared, FM radio, or induction loop systems • telephone, television, or alerting devices • cochlear implants • electrode is inserted into the cochlea to allow direct stimulation of the auditory nerve • for profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss not rehabilitated with conventional hearing aids • established indication: post-lingually deafened adults, pre- and post-lingually deaf children

• • • •

Vertigo Evaluation of the Dizzy Patient • vertigo: illusion of rotational, linear, or tilting movement of self or environment

• vertigo is produced by peripheral (inner ear) or central (brainstem-cerebellum) stimulation

• it is important to distinguish vertigo from other disease entities that may present with

.... ' � .}-------, Vertigo Symptom Description • Dizziness • Spinning • Lightheadedness • Giddiness • Unsteadiness

similar complaints of "dizziness" (e.g. cardiovascular, psychiatric, neurological, aging)

Table 6. Peripheral vs. Central Vertigo Symptoms

Peripheral

Imbalance

Mild-Moderate

Severe

Nausea and vomiting

Severe

Variable

Central

Auditory symptoms

Common

Rare

Neurologic symptoms

Rare

Common

Compensation

Rapid

Slow

Nystagmus

Unidirectional

Bidirectional

Horizontal

Horizontal or vertical

Table 7. Differential Diagnosis of Vertigo Based on History Hearing Loss

Tinnitus

Aural Fullness

Minutes to hours Precedes attack

UnVbilateral, fluctuating

+

Pressure/Warmth

Hours to days

Unilateral

Labyrinthitis

Days

Unilateral

Whistling

Recent AOM

Acoustic neuroma

Chronic

Progressive

+

Ataxia CN VII palsy

Condition

Duration

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo IBPPV)

Seconds

Meniere's disease Vestibular neuronitis

Other Features

Otolaryngology 0T13

Vertigo

Toronto Notes 2010

Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BP PV) Defin ition • acute attacks of transient vertigo lasting seconds to minutes initiated by certain head

positions, accompanied by torsional nystagmus (geotropic

=

fast phase towards the floor)

Etiology • due to canalithiasis (migration of free floating otoliths within the endolymph) or

cupulolithiasis (otolith attached to the cupula of the semicircular canal) • can affect each of the 3 semicircular canals, although the posterior canal is affected in >90% of cases • causes: head injury, viral infection (URTI), degenerative disease, idiopathic • results in slightly different signals being received by the brain from the two balance organs resulting in sensation of movement

Diag nosis • history and positive Dix-Hallpike maneuver Dix-Hallpike Positional Testing (see website for video and illustrations) • the patient is rapidly moved from a sitting position to a supine position with the head

hanging over the end of the table, turned to one side at 45° holding the position for 20 seconds • onset of vertigo is noted and the eyes are observed for nystagmus • 5 key points of the Dix-Hallpike maneuver • geotropic rotatory nystagmus • fatigues with repeated maneuver • reversal of nystagmus upon sitting • latency of 20 seconds • crescendo-decrescendo vertigo 20 seconds

'" ' , 9.-------. 5 signs of BPPV seen with

Dix-Hallpike Maneuver • Geotropic rotatory nystagmus (you MUST have nystagmus for a positive test) • Fatigues with repeated maneuver • Reversal of nystagmus upon sitting up • Latency of - 20 seconds • Crescendo/decrescendo vertigo -20 seconds

'" ' , 9}-------. Patients can wear Frenzel's magnifying eyeglasses during the Dix-Hallpike Maneuver for better visualization of the eyes.

-

Treatment • reassure patient that process resolves spontaneously • particle repositioning maneuvers

• Epley's maneuver (performed by MD) • Brandt-Daroff exercises (performed by patient)

• surgery for refractory cases • anti-emetics for nausea / vomiting • drugs to suppress the vestibular system delay eventual recovery and are therefore not used

6

5

UT - Utricle PSC - Posterior Semicurcular Canal

A, Epley's M a neuver Figure 1 9, Epley's and Dix-Hallpike Maneuvers

B, Dix-Hallpike M aneuver

0T14 Otolaryngology

Vertigo

Toronto Notes 2010

Meniere's Disease (Endolymphatic Hydrops) Definition • episodic attacks of tinnitus, hearing loss, aural fullness, and vertigo lasting minutes to hours Proposed Etiology • inadequate absorption of endolymph leads to endolymphatic hydrops (over accumulation)

that distorts the membranous labyrinth

Epidemiology • peak incidence 40 to 60 years • bilateral in 35% of cases Vertigo, Tinnitus and Hearing Loss

'" ' , ..-------. Drop Attacks (Tumarkin's Otolithic Crisis) are sudden falls occurring without warning and without LOC.

'" ' , .}-------, Before proceeding with gentamicin treatment, perform a CT Head to rule out CPA tumour as the cause of symptoms.

Clin ical Features • syndrome characterized by vertigo, fluctuating hearing loss, tinnitus, and aural fullness • ± drop attacks (Tumarkin crisis), ± nausea and vomiting • vertigo disappears with time (minutes to hours), but hearing loss remains • early in the disease, fluctuating sensorineural hearing loss • later stages are characterized by persistent tinnitus and low-frequency hearing loss • attacks come in clusters and may be very debilitating to the patient • may be triggered by stress Treatment • acute management may consist of bed rest, antiemetics, antivertiginous drugs

[e.g. betahistine (Serc™)], and low molecular weight dextrans (not commonly used)

• long term management may include

• medical • low salt diet, diuretics (e.g. hydrochlorothiazide, triamterene, amiloride) • local application of gentamicin to destroy vestibular end-organ • Serc™ prophylactically to decrease intensity of attacks • surgical - selective vestibular neurectomy or trans tympanic labyrinthectomy • may recur in opposite ear after treatment

Vestibular Neuronitis Definition • acute onset of disabling vertigo often accompanied by nausea, vomiting and imbalance

without hearing loss that resolves over days leaving a residual imbalance that lasts days to weeks

Etiology • thought to be due to a viral infection (e.g. measles, mumps, herpes zoster) • -30% of cases have associated URTI symptoms • other possible etiologies: microvascular events, diabetes, autoimmune process • considered to be the vestibular equivalent of Bell's palsy, sudden hearing loss, and acute

vocal cord palsy

Clin ical Features • acute phase

• severe vertigo with nausea, vomiting, and imbalance lasting 1 to 5 days • irritative nystagmus (fast phase towards the offending ear) • patient tends to veer towards affected side • convalescent phase • imbalance and motion sickness lasting days to weeks • spontaneous nystagmus away from affected side • gradual vestibular adaptation requires weeks to months • incomplete recovery likely with the following risk factors: elderly, visual impairment, poor ambulation • repeated attacks can occur

Treatment • acute phase

• bed rest, vestibular sedatives (GravoFM), diazepam

• convalescent phase

• progressive ambulation especially in the elderly • vestibular exercises: involve eye and head movements, sitting, standing, and walking

Toronto Notes 2010

Vertigo/Tinnitus

Otolaryngology OT1S

Labyrinthitis Definition • acute infection of the inner ear resulting in vertigo and hearing loss Etiology • may be serous (viral), or purulent (bacterial) • occurs as a complication of acute and chronic otitis media, bacterial meningitis,

cholesteatoma, and temporal bone fractures

• bacterial: S. pneumoniae, H, inJluenzae, M. catarrhalis, P • viral: rubella, CMV, measles, mumps, varicella zoster

aeruginosa, P mirabilis

Clin ical Features • sudden onset of vertigo, nausea, vomiting, tinnitus, and unilateral hearing loss, with no

associated fever or pain

• meningitis is a serious complication

Investigations • CT head • if meningitis is suspected: lumbar puncture, blood cultures Treatment • treat with IV antibiotics, drainage of middle ear ± mastoidectomy

Acoustic Neuroma Definition • schwannoma of the vestibular portion of CN VIII Pathogenesis • starts in the internal auditory canal and expands into cerebellar pontine angle (CPA),

compressing cerebellum and brainstern • when associated with type 2 neurofibromatosis (NF2): bilateral tumours of CN VIII, cafe-au-lait skin lesions, multiple intracranial lesions

Clin ical Features • usually presents with unilateral sensorineural hearing loss or tinnitus • dizziness and unsteadiness may be present, but true vertigo is rare as tumour growth

occurs slowly • facial nerve palsy and trigeminal (VI) sensory deficit (corneal reflex) are late complications

..... ' � �}-------, Acoustic neuroma is the most common intracranial tumour causing hearing loss and the most common cerebellopontine angle tumour.

..... ' � �}-------, In the elderly, unilateral tinnitus or SNHL is acoustic neuroma until proven otherwise.

Diagnosis • MRI with gadolinium contrast is the gold standard • audiogram - sensorineural hearing loss • poor speech discrimination relative to the hearing loss • stapedial reflex absent or significant reflex decay • acoustic brainstem reflexes (ABR) - increase in latency of the 5th wave • vestibular tests: normal or asymmetric caloric weakness (an early sign) Treatment • expectant management if tumour is very small, or in elderly • definitive management is surgical excision • other options: gamma knife, radiation

Ti n n itus Definition • an auditory perception in the absence of an acoustic stimuli, likely related to loss of input

to neurons in central auditory pathways and resulting in abnormal firing

History • subjective vs. objective (see Figure 15) • continuous vs. pulsatile (vascular in origin) • unilateral vs. bilateral • associated symptoms: hearing loss, vertigo, aural fullness, otalgia, otorrhea

..... ' � �}-------, Glomus Tympanicum/Jugular Tumour Signs and Symptoms • Soh blowing tinnitus • Hearing loss • Blue mass behind TM

Tinnitus/Diseases of the External Ear

0T16 Otolaryngology

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations • audiology • if unilateral

• ABR, MRI/ CT to exclude a retrocochlear lesion • CT to diagnose glomus tympani cum • MRI or angiogram to diagnose AVM • if suspect metabolic abnormality: lipid profile, TSH

Treatment • if a cause is found, treat the cause (e.g. drainage of middle ear effusion, embolization or

excision of AVM) with no treatable cause, 50% will improve, 25% worsen, 25% remain the same avoid loud noise, ototoxic meds, caffeine, smoking tinnitus workshops identify situations where tinnitus is most bothersome (e.g. quiet times), mask tinnitus with soft music or "white noise" • hearing aid if coexistent hearing loss • tinnitus instrument • combines hearing aid with white noise masker • trial of tocainamide • • • •

Diseases of the External Ea r ..... ' , .}-------, Cerumen impaction is the most common cause of conductive hearing loss in 1 5 to 50 year olds.

..... ' , .�------. SYRINGING

Indications • Totally occlusive cerumen with pain, decreased hearing, or tinnitus Contraindications • Non-occlusive cerumen • Previous ear surgery • Only hearing ear • TM perforation Complications • Failure • Otitis externa • TM perforation • Trauma • Pain • Vertigo • Tinnitus • Otitis media Method • Establish that TM is intact • Gently pull the pinna up and back • Using warm water, aim the syringe nozzle upwards and posteriorly to irrigate the ear canal

Cerumen Impaction --------� Etiology • ear wax is a mixture of secretions from ceruminous and pilosebaceous glands, squames of

epithelium, dust, and debris

Risk Factors • hairy or narrow ear canals, in-the-ear hearing aids, cotton swab usage, osteomata Clin ical Features • hearing loss (conductive) • ± tinnitus, vertigo, otalgia, aural fullness Treatment • ceruminolytic drops (bicarbonate solution, olive oil, glycerine, Cerumenol™, Cerumenex™) • syringing • manual debridement (by MD)

Exostoses Definition • bony protuberances in the external auditory canal composed of lamellar bone Etiology • believed to be associated with swimming in cold water Clinical Features • usually an incidental finding • if large, they can cause cerumen impaction or otitis externa Treatment • no treatment required unless symptomatic

Otitis Externa (OE) Etiology • bacteria (-90% of OE): Pseudomonas • fungus: Candida albicans, Aspergillus

aeruginosa, Pseudomonas vulgaris, E. coli, S. aureus niger

Risk Factors • associated with swimming ("swimmer's ear") • mechanical cleaning (Q_tipsTM), skin dermatitides, aggressive scratching • devices that occlude the ear canal: hearing aids, headphones, etc.

Toronto Notes 2010

Diseases of the External Ear/Diseases of the Middle Ear

Clin ical Features • acute

• pain aggravated by movement of auricle (traction of pinna or pressure over tragus) • otorrhea (sticky yellow purulent discharge) • conductive hearing loss ± aural fullness 2° to obstruction of external canal by swelling and purulent debris • post-auricular lymphadenopathy • complicated OE exists if the pinna and / or the periauricular soft tissues are erythematous and swollen • chronic • pruritus of external ear ± excoriation of ear canal • atrophic and scaly epidermal lining, ± otorrhea, ± hearing loss • wide meatus but no pain with movement of auricle • tympanic membrane appears normal

Otolaryngology 0T17

,, ' � �'-------. Otitis externa has two forms: a benign infection of the outer canal that could occur in anybody and a potentially lethal disease which usually occurs i n elderly, immunosuppressed or diabetic patients.

"' � �.-------. Pulling on the pinna is extremely painful in otitis externa, but is usually well tolerated in otitis media.

Treatment • clean ear under magnification with irrigation, suction, dry swabbing, and C&S • bacterial etiology

• antipseudomonal otic drops (e.g. gentamicin, ciprofloxacin) or a combination of

antibiotic and steroid (e.g. Garasone™ or Cipro HCTM) • do not use aminoglycoside if the tympanic membrane (TM) is perforated because of the risk of ototoxicity • introduction of fine gauze wick (pope wick) if external canal edematous • ± 3% acetic acid solution to acidify ear canal (low pH is bacteriostatic) • systemic antibiotics if either cervical lymphadenopathy or cellulitis • fungal etiology • repeated debridement and topical antifungals (gentian violet, Mycostatin™ powder, boric acid, Locacorten™, Vioform™ drops) • ± analgesics • chronic otitis externa (pruritus without obvious infection) --7 corticosteroid alone e.g. diprosalic acid

Malignant (Necrotizing) Otitis External Skull Base Osteomyelitis Defin ition • osteomyelitis of the temporal bone Epidemiology • occurs in elderly diabetics and immunocompromised patients Etiology • rare complication of otitis externa • Pseudomonas infection in 99% of cases Clin ical Features • otalgia and purulent otorrhea that is refractory to medical therapy • granulation tissue on the floor of the auditory canal Complications • lower cranial nerve palsies • systemic infection, death Management • imaging: high resolution temporal bone CT scan, gadolinium scan, technetium scan • requires hospital admission, debridement, IV antibiotics, hyperbaric O2 • may require OR for debridement of necrotic tissue /bone

Diseases of the Middle Ear Acute Otitis Media (AOM) and Otitis Media with Effusion (OM E) • see Pediatric Otolaryngology, 0T38-39

"' � ��------, Gallium and Technetium Scans Gallium scans are used to show sites of active infection. Gallium is taken up by PMNs and therefore only lights up when active infection is present. It will not show the extent of osteomyelitis. Technetium scans provide information about osteoblastic activity and as such are used to demonstrate sites of osteomyelitis. Technetium scans help with diagnosis whereas gallium scans are useful in follow-up.

Diseases of the Middle Ear

OIlS Otolaryngology

Toronto Notes 2010

Cholesteatoma Definition • a cyst composed of keratinizing squamous epithelium in an abnormal place (e.g. middle

ear, mastoid, temporal bone)

Congenital • presents as a "small white pearl" behind an intact tympanic membrane or as a conductive

hearing loss

"

' , �}-------.

Mechanisms of Acquired Cholesteatoma Formation 1 . Epithelial migration through TM perforation 2. Invagination of TM 3. Metaplasia of middle ear epithelium 4. Basal cell hyperplasia

• believed to be due to aberrant migration of external canal ectoderm during development • not associated with otitis media

Acq u i red ( more common) • generally occurs as a consequence of otitis media and chronic eustachian tube dysfunction • frequently associated with retraction pockets in the pars flaccida and marginal

perforations of the tympanic membrane

• the associated chronic inflammatory process causes progressive destruction of

surrounding bony structures

Cli nical Features • symptoms

• history of otitis media (especially if unilateral), ventilation tubes, ear surgery • progressive hearing loss (predominantly conductive although may get sensorineural hearing loss in late stage) • otalgia, aural fullness, fever • signs • retraction pocket in TM, may contain keratin debris • TM perforation • granulation tissue, polyp visible on otoscopy • malodorous, unilateral otorrhea

Complications

Table 8. Complications of Cholesteatoma Local

Intracranial

Ossicular erosion: conductive hearing loss

Meningitis

Sensorineural hearing loss from inner ear erosion

Sigmoid sinus thrombosis

Dizziness from inner ear erosion or labyrinthitis

Intracranial abscess (subdural, epidural, cerebellar)

Temporal bone infection: mastoiditis, petrositis Facial paralysis Investigations • audiogram and CT scan Treatment • there is no conservative therapy for cholesteatoma • surgical: mastoidectomy ± tympanoplasty ± ossicle reconstruction

Mastoiditis ..... ' , ��-------, Mastoiditis is now rare due to rapid and effective treatment of acute otitis media with antibiotics.

Definition •

infection (usually subperiosteal) of mastoid air cells, most commonly seen approximately two weeks after onset of untreated or inadequately treated acute suppurative otitis media

Etiology • acute mastoiditis caused by the same organisms as AOM:

S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes,

S. aureus, H. inJluenzae Clin ical Features • classic triad

• otorrhea • tenderness to pressure over the mastoid • retroauricular swelling with protruding ear • fever, hearing loss, ± TM perforation (late) • radiologic findings: opacification of mastoid air cells by fluid and interruption of normal trabeculations of cells

Toronto Notes 2010

Diseases of the Middle Ear/Diseases of the Inner Ear

Otolaryngology OT19

Treatment

• IV antibiotics with myringotomy and ventilating tubes - usually all that is required acutely • cortical mastoidectomy • debridement of infected tissue allowing aeration and drainage • requires lifelong care • indications for surgery • failure of medical treatment after 48 hours • symptoms of intracranial complications • aural discharge persisting for 4 weeks and resistant to antibiotics

Otosclerosis Defi nition

• fusion of stapes footplate to oval window so that it cannot vibrate Etiology

• autosomal dominant, variable penetrance approximately 40% • female > male, progresses during pregnancy (hormone responsive) Clinical Features

• progressive conductive hearing loss first noticed in teens and 20's (may progress to sensorineural hearing loss if cochlea involved) • ± pulsatile tinnitus • tympanic membrane normal ± pink blush (Schwartz's sign) associated with the neovascularization of otosclerotic bone • characteristic dip at 2,000 Hz (Carhart's notch) on audiogram (see Figure 17C)

", ' � .�------� Otosclerosis is the second most common cause of conductive hearing loss in 1 5 to 50 year olds (after cerumen impaction).

Treatment

• monitor with serial audiograms if coping with loss • hearing aid • stapedectomy or stapedotomy (with laser or drill) with prosthesis is definitive treatment

Diseases of the I nner Ear Congenital Sensorineural Hearing Loss Hereditary Defects

• genetic factors are being identified increasingly among the causes of hearing loss • non-syndrome associated (70%) (often idiopathic, autosomal recessive), connexin 26 (GJB2) most common • syndrome associated (30%) • Waardenburg's - white forelock, heterochromia iridis, wide nasal bridge and increased distance between medial canthi • Pendred's - deafness associated with thyroid gland disorders, SLC26A4 gene, enlarged vestibular aqueducts • Treacher-Collins - first and second branchial cleft anomalies • Alport's - hereditary nephritis Prenatal TORCH Infections

• toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV), herpes simplex, others (e.g. HIV) Perinatal

• • • •

Rh incompatibility anoxia hyperbilirubinemia birth trauma (hemorrhage into inner ear)

Postnatal

• meningitis • mumps • measles H i g h Risk Registry ( For Hearing Loss in Newborns)

• risk factors (no longer of clinical significance with advent of universal newborn screening) • low birth weight / prematurity • perinatal anoxia (low APGARs) • kernicterus - bilirubin >25 mg / dL • craniofacial abnormality

, �

�.

.

. ...

Congenital SNHL IS decreaSing In inCIdence due to the availability of vaccines and improved neonatal care.

ono Otolaryngology

Diseases of the Inner Ear

Toronto Notes 2010

• family history of deafness in childhood • 1st trimester illness - CMV, rubella • neonatal sepsis • ototoxic drugs • perinatal infection, including post-natal meningitis • consanguinity • 50-75% of newborns with sensorineural hearing loss have at least one of the above risk factors, and 90% of these have spent time in the NICU • presence of any risk factor: auditory brainstern response (ABR) study performed before leaving NICU and at 3 months adjusted age • early rehabilitation improves speech and school performance

Presbycusis .... ' , ��------, Presbycusis is the most common cause of sensorineural hearing loss.

.... ' , ��------� Recruitment Phenomenon results in a large rise in sensitivity to loud noises with relatively small changes in sound intensity.

Definition

• sensorineural hearing loss associated with aging (5th and 6th decades) Etiology

• • • •

hair cell degeneration age related degeneration of basilar membrane cochlear neuron damage ischemia of inner ear

Clin ical Features

• progressive, gradual bilateral hearing loss initially at high frequencies, then middle frequencies (see Figure 17E) • loss of discrimination of speech especially with background noise present - patients describe people as mumbling • recruitment phenomenon: inability to tolerate loud sounds • tinnitus Treatment

• hearing aid if patient has difficulty functioning, hearing loss >30-35 dB • ± lip reading, auditory training, auditory aids (doorbell and phone lights)

Sudden Sensorineural Hearing Loss ....

' , ��------�

Sudden sensory neural hearing loss may easily be confused with ischemic brain events. It is important to keep a high index of suspicion especially with elderly patients presenting with sudden sensory neural hearing loss as well as vertigo.

Clin ical Features

• presents as a sudden onset of significant hearing loss (usually unilateral) ± tinnitus, aural fullness • usually idiopathic, rule out other causes • autoimmune causes ESR, rheumatoid factor, ANA • MRI to rule out tumour and/ or CT to rule out ischemic/hemorrhagic stroke if associated with any other focal neurological signs (e.g. vertigo, ataxia, abnormality of CN V or VII, weakness) -

Treatment

• treat with oral corticosteroids within 3 days of onset: prednisone 1-2 mg / kg/ day, tapering over 2 weeks Prognosis (depends on degree of hearing loss and other factors)

• 70% resolve spontaneously within 10 to 14 days • 20% experience partial resolution • 10% experience permanent hearing loss

Autoimmune Inner Ear Disease Etiology

• idiopathic • may be associated with systemic autoimmune diseases (ie. rheumatoid arthritis, SLE), vasculitides (i.e. Wegener's, polyarteritis nodosa), and allergy Epidemiology

• most common between ages 20-50 Clin ical Features

• rapidly progressive or fluctuating bilateral SNHL • ±tinnitus, aural fullness, vestibular symptoms (i.e. ataxia, disequilibrium, vertigo)

Diseases of the Inner Ear

Toronto Notes 2010

Otolaryngology OT21

Investigations

• autoimmune work-up: CBC, ESR, ANA, rheumatoid factor Treatment

• high-dose corticosteroids • treat early for at least 30 days • consider cytotoxic medication for steroid non-responders

Drug Ototoxicity

--------�

Aminog lycosides

• • • • • • • • • •

toxic to hair cells by any route: oral, IV, and topical (only if the TM is perforated) destroys sensory hair cells - outer first, inner second high frequency hearing loss develops earliest ototoxicity occurs days to weeks post-treatment streptomycin and gentamicin (vestibulotoxic), kanamycin and tobramycin (cochleotoxic) must monitor with peak and trough levels when prescribed, especially if patient has neutropenia, history of ear or renal problems q24h dosing, with amount determined by creatinine clearance, not serum creatinine aminoglycoside toxicity displays saturable kinetics therefore once daily dosing presents less risk than divided daily doses duration of treatment is the most important predictor of ototoxicity treatment: immediately stop aminoglycosides

Salicylates

• hearing loss with tinnitus, reversible if discontinued Antimalarials (Quinine)

• hearing loss with tinnitus • reversible if discontinued but can lead to permanent loss Others

• many antineoplastics agent are ototoxic (weigh risks vs. benefits) • loop diuretics

Noise-Induced Sensorineural Hearing Loss Pathogenesis

• 85 to 90 dB over months or years causes cochlear damage • early-stage hearing loss at 4000 Hz (because this is the resonance frequency of the temporal bone), extends to higher and lower frequencies with time (see Figure 17D) • speech reception not altered until hearing loss >30 dB at speech frequency, therefore considerable damage may occur before patient complains of hearing loss • difficulty with speech discrimination, especially in situations with competing noise Phases of Hearing Loss

• dependent on: intensity of sound x duration of exposure • temporary threshold shift • when exposed to loud sound, decreased sensitivity or increased threshold for sound • may have associated aural fullness and tinnitus • with removal of noise, hearing returns to normal • permanent threshold shift • hearing does not return to previous state Treatment

• hearing aid • prevention • ear protectors: muffs, plugs • machinery which produces less noise • limit exposure to noise with frequent rest periods • regular audio logic follow-up

Inner Ear Diseases that cause Vertigo • see Vertigo section • benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) • Meniere's disease (endolymphatic hydrops) • vestibular neuronitis • labyrinthitis • acoustic neuroma (AN)

"'

' ,

��-------,

Short exposures to louder sounds can cause significant SNHl.

..... ' ,

��-------,

Limits of Noise Causing Damage • Continuous sound pressure > 85 dB • Single sound impulse > 1 35 dB

Diseases of the Inner Ear

0T22 Otolaryngology

Toronto Notes 2010

Temporal Bone Fractures Types 1 . transverse fractures • extends into bony labyrinth and internal auditory meatus (20%) 2. longitudinal fractures • extends into middle ear (80%) ,,�+--- 2



in reality, the fractures rarely adhere to either of these patterns

Figure 20. Types of Temporal Bone Fractures Table 9. Features of Temporal Bone Fractures (see Figure 20) Transverse

Longitudinal

Incidence

1 0 to 20%

70 to 90%

Etiology

FrontaVoccipital trauma

Lateral skull trauma

eN pathology

CN VII palsy (50%)

CN VII palsy ( 1 0 to 20%)

Hearing loss

Sensorineural loss due to direct cochlear injury

Conductive hearing loss secondary to ossicular

Vestibular symptoms

Sudden onset vestibular symptoms due to direct semicircular canal injury (vertigo, spontaneous nystagmus)

Rare

Other features





Intact external auditory meatus, tympanic membrane ± hemotympanum • Spontaneous nystagmus • CSF leak in eustachian tube to nasopharynx ± rhinorrhea (risk of meningitis)

Torn tympanic membrane or hemotympanum Bleeding from external auditory canal • Step formation in external auditory canal • CSF otorrhea mastoid ecchymoses • Battle's sign • Raccoon eyes periorbital ecchymoses •

=

=

.... ' � �}-------. Signs of Basilar Skull Fracture • Battle's Sign: ecchymosis of the mastoid process of the temporal bone • Racoon Eyes • CSF Rhinorrhea/Otorrhea • Cranial Nerve involvment Ifacial palsy - CN VII, nystagmus - CN VI, facial numbness - CN V)

The halo sign is the double ringed appearance of CSF fluid on white filter paper as it separates out from blood.

.... ' � �}-------. Hemotympanum can also be indicative of temporal bone trauma.

Diag nosis

• otoscopy • do not syringe or manipulate external auditory meatus due to risk of inducing meningitis via TM perforation • CT head • audiology, facial nerve tests (for transverse fractures), Schirmer's test, stapedial reflexes if CN VII palsy • if suspecting CSF leak: look for halo sign, send fluid for beta-2-transferrin Treatment

• ABC's • medical - expectant, prevent otogenic meningitis • surgical - explore temporal bone, indications are: • CN VII palsy (complete) • gunshot wound • depressed fracture of external auditory meatus • early meningitis (mastoidectomy) bleeding intracranially from sinus • CSF otorrhea (may resolve spontaneously) •

Complications

• acute otitis media ± labyrinthitis ± mastoiditis • meningitis/ epidural abscess/brain abscess • post-traumatic cholesteatoma

Otolaryngology OT23

Facial Nerve Paralysis

Toronto Notes 2010

Facial Nerve Pa ra lysis Etiology

• supranuclear and nuclear (MS, poliomyelitis, cerebral tumours) • infranuclear - see table below (these are of interest to the otolaryngologist) Treatment

• treat according to etiology plus provide corneal protection with artificial tears, nocturnal lid taping, tarsorrhaphy, gold weighting of upper lid • facial paralysis that does not resolve with time or with medical treatment will often be referred for possible reanimation techniques to restore function • common reanimation techniques include: • direct facial nerve anastomosis • interpositional grafts • anastomosis to other motor nerves • muscle transpositions Table 1 0. Differential Diagnosis of Peripheral Facial Paralysis (PFP) Etiology

Incidence

Findings

Investigations

Treatment, Follow-up, and Prognosis

Bell's Palsy • Idiopathic, IHSV) infection of the facial nerve • Diagnosis of exclusion

• 80 to 90% of PFP

Hx: • Acute onset • Numbness of ear • Schirmer's test - measures lacrimation • Recurrence 11 2%) • + FHx 11 4%) • Hyperacusis 130%)

1 , Stapedial reflex absent 2, Audiology nomnal lor baseline) 3, Electromyogram IEMG)- best measure for prognosis 4, Topognostic testing 5, MRI with gadolinium - enhancement of CN VII & VIII 6, High resolution CT

Rx: 1 , Protect the eye to prevent exposure keratitis with patching or tarsorraphy 2, Systemic steroids may lessen degeneration and hasten recovery 3. Consider antiviral lacyclovir)

Risk Factors: • Diabetes • Pregnancy • Viral prodrome 150%)

FlU: • Spontaneous remission should begin within 3 weeks of onset • Delayed 13 to 6 months) recovery portends at least some functional loss

PIE: • Paralysis or paresis of all muscle groups on one side of the face • Absence of signs of CNS disease • Absence of signs of ear or CPA diseases

Px: 1 , 90% recover spontaneously and completely overall; 95 to 100% if incomplete paralysis 2, Poorer px if hyperacusis, > 60 yrs, diabetes, HTN, severe pain Ramsay-Hunt Syndrome IHerpes Zoster Oticus) • varicella loster infection of CN VllNlli

Temporal Bone Fracture - longitudinal 190%)

• 4.5 to 9% of PFP Risk Factors: • >60 years • Impaired immunity • Cancer • Radiotherapy • Chemotherapy



20% have PFP

Hx: • Hyperacusis • Sensorineural Hl • Severe pain of pinna, mouth, or face PIE: • Vesicles on pinna, ext, canal lerrupt 3·7 days after onset of pain) • Associated herpes loster ophthalmicus luveitis, keratoconjunctivitis, optic neuritis, or glaucoma)

Hx: • Blow to side of head

Rx: 1 , PI. should avoid touching lesions to prevent spread 3. Viral ELISA studies to confirm of infection 4, MRI with gadolinium 186% of facial nerves enhance) 2, Systemic steroids can relieve pain, vertigo, avoid postherpetic neuralgia 3. Acyclovir may lessen pain, aid healing of vesicles

1 , Stapedial reflex absent

2, Audiology - sensorineural loss

FlU: 2 to 4 weeks Px: • Poorer prognosis than Bell's palsy; 22% recover completely, 66% incomplete paralysis, 1 0% complete

1 , Skull X-rays 2, CT head

Px: • Injury usually due to stretch or impingement; may recover with time

1 , Skull X-rays 2, CT head

Px: • Nerve transection more likely

1 , Wait for lidocaine to wear off 2, EMG

Rx: • Exploration if complete nerve paralysis • No exploration if any movement at all

PIE: • Trauma to side of head • Neuro findings consistent with epiduraVsubdural bleed - Transverse 110%)



40% have PFP

Hx: • Blow to frontal or occipital area PIE: • Trauma to front or back of head

Iatrogenic

• Variable Idepending on level of injury)

Source: Paul Warrick, icarus,med,utoronto,ca/carrimanuaVafnptable,html

Rhinitis

0T24 Otolaryngology

Toronto Notes 2010

Rhinitis Definition

• inflammation of the lining (mucosa) of the nasal cavity Table 1 1 . Classification of Rhinitis

'- ' � ��------. Rhinitis medicamentosa is rebound congestion due to the overuse of intranasal vasoconstrictors. For prevention, use of these medications for only 5-7 days is recommended.

Inflammatory

Non-Inflammatory





Perennial non-allergic Asthma, ASA sensitivity Allergic Seasonal Perennial Atrophic Primary: Klebsiella ozena (especially in elderlyl Acquired: post-surgery if too much mucosa or turbinate has been resected Infectious Viral: e.g. rhinovirus, influenza, parainfluenza, etc. Bacterial: e.g. S. aureus Fungal Granulomatous: TB, syphilis, leprosy Non-infectious Sarcoidosis Wegener's granulomatosis Irritant Dust Chemicals Pollution •

















Rhinitis medicamentosa Topical decongestants Hormonal Pregnancy Estrogens Thyroid Idiopathic vasomotor •











• • •



• •



• • •

Table 1 2 . Nasal Discharge: Character and Associated Conditions Character

Associated Conditions

Watery/mucoid

Allergic, viral, vasomotor, CSF leak (halo signl

Mucopurulent

Bacterial, foreign body

Serosanguinous

Neoplasia

Bloody

Trauma, neoplasia, bleeding disorder, hypertension/vascular disease

Allergic Rhinitis (Hay Fever) Definition

,-

' � ��------.

Congestion reduces nasal airflow and allows the nose to repair itself. Treatment should focus on the initial insult rather than target this defense mechanism.

• rhinitis characterized by an IgE-mediated hypersensitivity to foreign allergens • acute-and-seasonal or chronic-and-perennial • perennial allergic rhinitis often confused with recurrent colds Etiology

• when allergens contact the respiratory mucosa, specific IgE antibody is produced in susceptible hosts • concentration of allergen in the ambient air correlates directly with the rhinitis symptoms Epidemiology

• age at onset usually 5 days) of nasal drops and sprays (Dristan™, OtrivinTM) Clin ical Features

• • • • •

chronic intermittent nasal obstruction, varies from side to side rhinorrhea: thin, watery nasal allergy must be ruled out mucosa and turbinates: swollen, pale between exposure symptoms are often more severe than clinical presentation suggests

Treatment

• • • •

elimination of irritant factors parasympathetic blocker (AtroventTM nasal spray) steroids (e.g. beclomethasone, fluticasone) surgery (often of limited lasting benefit): electrocautery, cryosurgery, laser treatment or removal of inferior or middle turbinates • vidian neurectomy (rarely done) • symptomatic relief with exercise (increased sympathetic tone)

Sin usitis Development of Sin uses

• • • •

sinus pneumatization begins in 3rd-4th month of fetal life. Maxillary sinus first to develop neonate - clinically significant ethmoid and maxillary buds present age 9 - maxillary full grown; frontal and sphenoid cells starting age 18 - frontal and sphenoid cells full grown

Drainage of Sinuses

• frontal, maxillary, anterior ethrnoids: middle meatus • posterior ethmoid: superior meatus • sphenoid: sphenoethmoidal recess Pathogenesis of Si nusitis

• inflammation of the mucosal lining of the paranasal sinuses • anything that blocks mucus from exiting the sinuses predisposes them to inflammation Definition

• inflammation of the mucosal lining of the sinuses Classification

• acute: 3 months

"'

, ,

��------.

FESS = Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Opening of the entire osteomeatal complex in order to facilitate drainage while sparing the sinus mucosa.

0T26 Otolaryngology

Sinusitis

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 3 , Etiologies of Sinusitis Ostial Obstruction

Inflammation

• •

Mechanical

URTI Allergy



Septal deviation Turbinate hypertrophy • Polyps • Tumours • Adenoid hypertrophy • Foreign body • Congenital abnormalities i.e. cleft palate •

Non-ostial Obstruction

Immune



Wegener's granulomatosis Lymphoma, leukemia • Immunosuppressed patients (e.g. neutropenics, diabetics, HIV) •

Direct Extension

• •

Cystic fibrosis 1mmotile cilia (Kartagener's)

Dental



Infection

Trauma



Facial fractures

Systemic

Source: Dr. J. Chapnik. icarus.meds.utoronto.caiotolaryngologylOTl300isinusitis.pdf

Acute Suppurative Sinusitis Definition

I

Acute Sinusitis Complications Consider hospitalization if any of the following are suspected

1 . Orbital (Chandler's classification) a. Periorbital cellulitis b. Orbital cellulitis c. Subperiosteal abscess d. Orbital abscess e. Cavernous sinus thrombosis 2. Intracranial a. Meningitis b. Abscess 3. Bony a. Subperiosteal frontal bone abscess ("'Pott's Puffy Tumour") b. Osteomyelitis 4. Neurologic a. Superior orbital fissure syndrome (CN III/IVNI palsy, immobile globe, d ilated pupils, ptosis, V1 hypoesthesia) b. Orbital apex syndrome (as "au above, plus neuritis, papilledema, decreased acuity)

• acute infection and inflammation of the paranasal sinuses • clinical diagnosis requiring at least 2 major symptoms or 1 major and 2 minor symptoms major symptoms • minor symptoms • facial pain/ pressure • headache • facial fullness/ congestion • halitosis • nasal obstruction • fatigue • purulent/ discoloured nasal discharge • dental pain • hyposmia/ anosmia • cough • fever • ear pressure / fullness Etiology

• • • •

viral vs. bacterial children are more prone to a bacterial etiology than adults, but viral is still more common maxillary sinus most commonly affected must rule out fungal causes (mucormycosis) in immunocompromised hosts (especially if painless, bloodless mucosa on examination) • organisms • viral (most common): rhinovirus, influenza, parainfluenza • bacterial: S. pneumoniae (35%), H. injluenzae (35%), M. catarrhalis, anaerobes (dental)

Clin ical Features

• sudden onset of • nasal blockage / congestion and / or • nasal discharge / posterior nasal drip • ± facial pain or pressure, hyposmia • signs more suggestive of a bacterial etiology are erythematous nasal mucosa, mucopurulent discharge, pus originating from the middle meatus and the presence of nasal polyps of a deviated septum • acute viral rhinosinusitis lasts 2 weeks in a smoker, laryngoscopy must be done to rule out malignancy. Acute < 2 weeks, chronic > 2 weeks.

Definitions • hoarseness: change in voice quality, ranging from voice harshness to voice weakness

reflects abnormalities anywhere along the vocal tract from oral cavity to lungs • dysphonia: a general alteration in voice quality • aphonia: no sound emanates from vocal folds

Acute Laryngitis Etiology

• • • •

viral: influenza, adenovirus bacterial: Group A Streptococcus acute voice strain � submucosal hemorrhage toxic fume inhalation



vocal cord edema



hoarseness

Clinical Features

• URTI symptoms, hoarseness, aphonia, cough attacks, ± dyspnea • true vocal cords erythematous/ edematous with vascular injection and normal mobility

Toronto Notes 2010

Hoarseness

Treatment

• • • • • •

self-limited, resolves within -1 week voice rest humidification hydration avoid irritants (e.g. smoking) treat with antibiotics if there is evidence of coexistent bacterial pharyngitis

Chronic Laryngitis Definition

• long standing inflammatory changes in laryngeal mucosa

Otolaryngology OT29

,- ' , ��------. Vocal Cord Paralysis

Unilateral - affected cord lies in the parmedian position, inadequate glottic closure during phonation .... weak, breathy voice. Bilateral - cords rest in midline therefore voice remains good but respiratory function is compromised and may present as stridor. Treatment options - voice therapy, injection laryngoplasty (collagen, fat), cord medialization.

Etiology

• • • • • • •

repeated attacks of acute laryngitis chronic irritants (dust, smoke, chemical fumes) chronic voice strain chronic sinusitis with postnasal drip (PND) chronic alcohol use esophageal disorders: GERD, Zenker' s diverticulum, hiatus hernia systemic: allergy, hypothyroidism, Addison's

Clin ical Features

• chronic dysphonia - rule out malignancy • cough, globus sensation, frequent throat clearing 2° to GERD • cords erythematous, thickened with ulceration / granuloma formation and normal mobility Treatment

• • • •

remove offending irritants treat related disorders e.g. antisecretory therapy for GERD speech therapy with voice rest ± antibiotics, ± steroids to decrease inflammation

Vocal Cord Polyps Definition

• structural manifestation of vocal cord irritation • acutely, polyp forms 2° to capillary damage in the subepithelial space during extreme voice exertion Etiology

• voice strain (muscle tension dysphonia) • laryngeal irritants (GERD, allergies, tobacco) • most common benign tumour of vocal cords Epidemiology

,- ' , �}-------. Vocal Cords: Polyps vs. Nodules Polyps

Nodule

Unilateral, asymmetric

Bilateral

Acute onset

Gradual onset

May resolve spontaneously

Often follow a chronic course

Subepithelial capillary breakage

Acute: submucosal

Soft, smooth, fusiform, pedunculated mass

Acute: small, discrete

• 30 to 50 years of age • M>F Clinical Features

• • • • •

hoarseness, aphonia, cough attacks ± dyspnea pedicled or sessile polyp on free edge of vocal cord typically asymmetrical, soft and smooth more common on the anterior 1 / 3 of the vocal cord intermittent respiratory distress with large polyps

Treatment

• avoid irritants • endoscopic laryngeal microsurgical removal

Vocal Cord Nodules Definition

• vocal cord callus • "screamer's or singer's nodules" Etiology

• • • •

early nodules occur 2° to submucosal hemorrhage mature nodules result from hyalinization which occurs with long term voice abuse chronic voice strain URTI, smoke, alcohol

hemorrhage or edema Chronic: hyalinization within submucous lesion nodules Chronic: hard, white, thickened fibrosed nodules

Surgical excision if persistent or in presence of risk factors for laryngeal cancer

Surgical excision if refractory

Hoarseness/Salivary Glands

OBO Otolaryngology

Toronto Notes 2010

Epidemiology

• frequently in singers, children, bartenders, and school teachers • F>M Clin ical Features

• hoarseness worst at end of day • on laryngoscopy: • red, soft nodules • often bilateral • at the junction of the anterior 1 / 3 and posterior 2 / 3 of the vocal cords - point of maximal cord vibration chronic nodules may become fibrotic, hard, and white



Treatment

• • • • •

voice rest hydration speech therapy avoid irritants surgery rarely indicated for refractory nodules

Benign Laryngeal Papillomas Etiology

• human papilloma virus (HPV) types 6, 11 • possible hormonal influence, possibly acquired during delivery Epidemiology

• biphasic distribution - 1 ) birth to puberty (most common laryngeal tumour) and 2) adulthood Clin ical Features

• • • • • •

hoarseness / "frog voice" and airway obstruction can seed into tracheobronchial tree highly recurrent some juvenile papillomas resolve spontaneously at puberty papillomas in adults may undergo malignant transformation laryngoscopy shows wart-like lesions in supraglottic larynx and trachea

Treatment

• CO2 laser and microsurgery • adjuvants under investigation: interferon, cidofovir, acyclovir • GardasiFM HPV vaccine may prevent/ decrease the incidence but more research is needed

Laryngeal Carcinoma • see Neoplasms of the Head and Neck section

Sal iva ry G la nds Sia ladenitis Definition •

inflammation of salivary glands

Etiology • • • •

viral most common (mumps) bacterial causes: s. aureus, s. pneumoniae, H. inJluenzae obstructive vs. non-obstructive obstructive infection involves salivary stasis and bacterial retrograde flow

Predisposing Factors • • • • • •

HIV anorexia/bulimia Sjogren's syndrome Cushing's, hypothyroidism, DM hepatic/ renal failure meds that increase stasis: diuretics, TCAs, beta-blockers, anticholinergics, antibiotics

Toronto Notes 2010

Salivary Glands

Clin ical Features

• acute onset of pain and edema of parotid or submandibular gland that may lead to marked swelling • ± fever • ± leukocytosis • ± suppurative drainage from punctum of the gland

Otolaryngology OT31

.....

, I

�}-------�

Mumps usually presents with bilateral parotid enlargement, ± sensorineural hearing loss, ± orchitis.

Investigations

• U/S imaging to differentiate obstructive vs. non-obstructive sialadenitis Treatment

• bacterial: treat with cloxacillin ± abscess drainage • viral: no treatment

Sialolithiasis Definition

• ductal stone (mainly hydroxyapatite) leading to chronic sialadenitis • 80% in submandibular gland, 40

Inflammatory

Possible Causes of Neck Lump •

3 months (OME) • lack of response to >3 months of antibiotic therapy (OME) • persistent effusion for �3 months after episode of AOM (OME) • recurrent episodes of AOM (>7 episodes in 6 months) • bilateral conductive hearing loss of >20 dB (OME) • chronic retraction of the tympanic membrane or pars flaccida (OME) • bilateral OME lasting >4 to 6 mos • craniofacial anomalies predisposing to middle ear infections (e.g. cleft palate) (OME) • complications of AOM

Mcisaac WJ. Coyle PC. Croxford R. Asche CV. Friedberg J. Feldman W. Otolaryngologists' perceptions of the indications for tympanostomy tube insertion in ch ildren. CMAJ. 1 62(91:1 285-8, 2000 May 2. Myringotomy and tympanostomy tubes. In: 2000 clinical indicators compendium. Alexandria (VAl: American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery; 1 999.

Complications of AOM • otologic TM perforation chronic suppurative OM ossicular necrosis cholesteatoma persistent effusion (often leading to hearing loss) • CNS meningitis brain abscess facial nerve paralysis • other mastoiditis labyrinthitis sigmoid sinus thrombophlebitis •





• •

• • •

• • •

Otitis Media with Effusion (OM E) Defin ition • presence of fluid in the middle ear without signs or symptoms of ear infection Epidemiology • not exclusively a pediatric disease • follows AOM frequently in children middle ear effusions have been shown to persist following an episode of AOM for 1 mo in 40% of children, 2 mo in 20% and 3+ mo in 10%



Risk Factors • same as AOM

Otolaryngology OT39

Pediatric Otolaryngology

Antibiotics for Acute Ot�is Media in Children Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004;1 Study: Meta·analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) on children (>6 mo) with acute otitis media comparing any antibiotic regime to placebo. Data Sources: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (2003 issue I), MEDLINE (January 2000 to March 2003), and EMBASE (January 1 990 to March 2003) without language restrictions. Main Outcomes: 1 ) Pain at 24 hours, and 2-7 days. 2) Hearing measured by tympanometry at 1 and 3 months. Patients: Pain: 24 hours, 4 studies (n= 717); 2-7 days 9 studies (n=2287). Hearing: 1 month, 3 studies (n=472); 3 months, 2 studies (n=370). Results: Treatment with antibiotics had no signilicant impact on pain at 24 hours. However, pain at 2-7 days was lower in the antibiotic groups with an NNT of 16 (p10 +20 kg: 1,500 cal + 20 cal / kg / day for each kg >20 •

=



=



• •



-

P4 Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Primary Care Pediatrics

Primary Care Pediatrics Reg ular Visits •

usual schedule: newborn, within 1 week post-discharge, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 24 months yearly until age 6, then every other year yearly again after age 11 history physical exam immunization (see Immunization, P5) counselling/ anticipatory guidance (see Nutrition P7, Colic P10, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) P11, and Injury Prevention Counselling P11 sections) •

• •







Developmenta l M ilestones Table 4. Developmental Milestones

�) �,

Pediatric Developmental Milestones 1 year: - Single words 2 years: - 2 word sentences - Understands 2 step commands 3 years: - 3 word combos - Repeats 3 digits - Rides tricycle 4 years: - Draws square - Counts 4 objects

t;J

Developmental Red Flags Gross motor: Not walking at 1 8 mos Fine motor: Handedness at < l O mas Speech: 6 year- old; d ys.uri a; chn nge ill gros colou r, od ou r, sh�[Hl'I; s(o'COndary or dlurnal

ENURESIS •

• •



wet only at during leep, C'dn be fionnai llp to age 6 prevcllen ce: 10% of 6-YI!M olds, 3% of 12'YI! ductus venosus > IVC > R atrium > oxygenated blood shunted through foramen ovaIe > L atrium > L ventricle > aorta > brain / myocardium / upper extremities deoxygenated blood returns via SVC to R atrium > 1 / 3 of blood entering R atrium does not flow through foramen ovale and flows to the R ventricle > pulmonary arteries > ductus arteriosus > aorta > systemic circulation > placenta for reoxygenation •







At Birth • with first breath, lungs open up and pulmonary resistance decreases allowing pulmonic blood flow • with separation of low resistance placenta, systemic circulation becomes a high resistance system • with closure of the fetal shunts and changes in pulmonic / systemic resistance, infant circulation assumes normal adult flow • increasing pulmonic flow increases left atrial pressures leading to foramen ovale closure • increased oxygen concentration in blood after first breath leads to decreased prostaglandins leading to closure of the ductus arteriosus • as the umbilical cord is clamped, the umbilical vein closes, systemic vascular resistance increases and the ductus venosus closes

Toronto Notes 2010

Pediatrics P19

Cardiology

Embryologic Development • most critical period of fetal heart development is between 3-8 weeks gestation • single heart tube grows rapidly forcing it to bend back upon itself and begin to assume the shape of a 4 chambered heart • insults at this time are most likely to lead to CHD Epidemiology • 8 / 1,000 live births can present with heart murmur, heart failure, or cyanosis • ventricular septal defect is the most common lesion Table 1 5. Risk Factors for Common CHO INFANT FACTORS/GENETIC CONDITIONS Abnormality Dominant cardiac defect

MATERNAL FACTORS Abnormality 1% risk) Dominant cardiac defect

Prematurity

PDA

Prior child with CHD 12-4% risk)

CHARGE association

TOF, AVSD, ASD, VSD

Torch esp. rubella 135%)

PDA, PS

DiGeorge

Aortic arch anomalies

Diabetes Mellitus 12-3%)

TGA, coarctation, VSD

Down syndrome

AVSD, VSD, ASD, TDF

PKU 125-50%)

TOF

Ehlers-Danlos

Mitral prolapse, dilated aortic root

SLE 120-40%)

Complete heart block

Kartagener's

Dextrocardia

Alcohol 125-30%)

ASD, VSD

Marfan

Mitral prolapse, aortic dissection or insufficiency, dilated aortic root

Noonan

Pulmonary stenosis, ASD

Medications: Phenytoin

VSD, ASD, PS, AS, coarctation

Osteogenesis Imperfecta

Aortic incompetence

Medications: Valproate

Coarctation, HLHS, AS, VSD

Turner

Coarctation, bicuspid aortic valve

Medications: Retinoic acid

Aortic arch abnormalities

VSD = ventricular septal defect; ASD = atrial septal defect; PDA = patent ductus arteriosus; TOF = tetralogy of Fallot; TGA = transposition of great arteries; PS = pulmonary stenosis; AS = aortic stenosis; HLHS = hypoplastic left heart syndrome; AVSD = atrioventricular septal defect

..... ' ,

��------�

Investigations • Echo, ECG, CXR

Characteristic Chest X-Ray Findings in Congenital Heart Disease •

CYANOTIC VS. ACYANOTIC CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE • cyanosis: blue mucous membranes, nail beds, and skin secondary to an absolute concentration of deoxygenated hemoglobin of at least 3 g / dL • cyanotic heart disease: (i.e. R > L shunt) blood bypasses the lungs > no oxygenation occurs > high levels of deoxygenated hemoglobin enters the systemic circulation > cyanosis • acyanotic heart disease: (i.e. L > R shunt, obstruction occurring beyond lungs) blood passes through pulmonic circulation > oxygenation takes place > low levels of deoxygenated blood in systemic circulation > no cyanosis





Boot-Shaped Heart - Tetralogy of Fallot, Tricuspid Atresia Egg-Shaped Heart - Transposition of Great Arteries "Snowman" Heart - Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return

CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE I Cyanotic 15 'T' lesions )

Acyanotic

I

I L > R shunt A. Patent Ductus Arteriosus

Obstructive

R > L shunt

Other

TGA

B. Transposition of Great

Arteries

ASD

Coarctation

TOF

VSD

Aortic stenosis

Ebstein's anomaly

PDA

Pulmonic stenosis

I

Hypoplastic left heart syndrome

Atrioventricular

Truncus arteriosus

Septal defect

Total anomalous

lendocardial

pulmonary venous

cushion defect)

drainage Tricuspid atresia

Figure 2. Common Congenital Heart Diseases

Cardiology

P20 Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Acyanotic Congenital Heart Disease 1. LEFT TO RIGHT SHUNT LESIONS

• extra blood is displaced through a communication from the left to the right side of the heart

-7

increased pulmonary blood flow

-7

increased pulmonary pressures

• shunt volume dependent upon three factors: size of defect, pressure gradient between chambers or vessels, peripheral outflow resistance

• untreated shunts can result in pulmonary vascular disease, right ventricular hypertension and hypertrophy (RVH), and eventually R

-7

L shunts

Atrial Septal Defect (ASD) • three types: ostium primum (common in Down syndrome), ostium secundum (most common type, 50-70%), sinus venosus (defect located at entry of superior vena cava into right atrium) • epidemiology: 6-8% of congenital heart lesions • natural history: 80-100% spontaneous closure rate if ASD diameter 50 mmHg exercise restriction required •



Pulmonary Stenosis • valvular (90%), subvalvular, or supravalvular • usually part of other congenital heart lesions (e.g. Tetralogy of Fallot) or in association with other syndromes (e.g. congenital rubella, Noonan syndrome) • critical pulmonic stenosis: inadequate pulmonary blood flow, dependent on ductus for oxygenation, progressive hypoxia and cyanosis • history: spectrum from asymptomatic to CHF • physical exam: wide split 52 on expiration, 5EM at UL5B, pulmonary ejection click • investigations ECG: RVH CXR: dilated post-stenotic pulmonary artery • treatment: surgical repair if critically ill or severe PS, or if presence of symptoms in older infants / children • •

Cyanotic Congenital Heart Disease • systemic venous return re-enters systemic circulation directly • most prominent feature is cyanosis (02 sat 37 wk Home with/before mom No hospitalizations No prior antibiotics use No treated unexplained hyperlbilirubinemia No chronic disease

Infectious Diseases

PSO Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 28. Antibiotic Treatment of Pediatric Bacterial Infections (continued) Treatment

Pathogens

Infection

Pneumonia (Community Acquired, Bacterial) C. trachomatis, S. aureus, Listeria

Neonatal

GBS, Gram-negative bacilli (E. colt),

S. pneumoniae, C. trachomatis, B. pertussis, S. aureus, H. influenzae

1 -3 mos

• Ampicillin + gentamicin, add erythromycin if Chlamydia suspected • Cefuroxime ± macrolide (erythromycin) • Ampicillin ± macrolide

or

3 mos-5 yrs

• Ampicillin!amoxicillin or clavulin or cefuroxime S. pneumoniae, S. aureus, H. influenzae, Mvcoplasma pneumoniae

> 5 years

As above

• Macrolide ( 1 st line)

or cefuroxime or ampicillin!amoxicillin or clavulin

Fever Febrile Infants at Low Risk for Serious Bacterial Infection - An Appraisal of the Rochester Cr�eria and Implications for Management Febrile Infant Collaborative Study Group. Pediatrics. 1 994; 9413):390-396 Purpose: To test the hypothesis that infants unlikely to have serious bacterial infection ISBI) can be correctly identified using the Rochester criteria. Study Characteristics: Prospective study with 1057 infants. Participants: Febrile infants less than 60 days old. Interverrtion: Application of Rochester criteria. Main Outcomes: Cunure of speciments of blood, cerebrospinal fluid and urine for bacteria. Results: Of the 1057 febrile infants that were involved, 931 were well-looking and 437 met the remaining low risk criteria. The negative predictive value of the low risk criteria was 98.9% 195% CI, 97.2%-99.6%) for SBI. Conclusions: low risk Rochester criteria are useful in identifying infants at decreased risk of SBI and antibiotic use may be delayed in these patients.

'" ' ,

�}-------.

Observation option only appropriate if fo ll ow- up can be ensured if persistent symptoms.

• admit, full SWU'

antibiotics pending results or IF age 28-90 days non-toxic and reliable FlU' and • low risk3 criteria

• • •

· admit, full SWU ' and treat (IV antibiotics)

1

• SWU+Abx • may consider treating as outpatient'

• CBC



• observation • FlU' in 24 hours

urine R&M



urine R&M

�I-W-BC->-1� 11 \·�I-W-BC-� < 15 5 • • • •

blood C&S urine C&S acetaminophen amoxicillin 60 mg/kg/day

• • • •

blood C&S observation acetaminophen FlU' in 24 hours

NOTES: 1. Full Septic Workup (SWU) - blood C&S, CBC and differential, urine R&M, C&S, lP, CXR if respiratory SSx, stool C&S if GI SSx 2. Follow-up is crucial - IT adequate FlU is not assured, a more aggressive diagnostic and therapeutic approach may be indicated 3. low-Risk (Rochester) Criteria 4. Considerable practice variation exists in terms of empirical Abx treatment 5. Important Principles - the younger the child, the greater the difficulty to clinically assess the degree of illness

Figure 3. Approach to the Febrile Child

Acute Otitis Media (AOM) A Review of Antibiotics for AOM in Children Comparing any Arrtibiotic Against Observation Indicates that Antibiotic Use has No Significant Impact on Pain at 24 hours and No Significant Effect on Hearing Cochrane 2004

In older children > 6 years, it is appropriate to consider a "wait and see prescription", with instructions for re-evaluation if the child has not improved significantly within 72 hours. In children 39°C • non-severe illness: mild otalgia and fever 50

38°C

Clinical Features

Sore throat Rhinorrhea/cough Conjunctivitis Hoarseness Rash

Sore throat NO rhinitis! cough Nausea Abdominal discomfort HEENT findings: red pharynx, tender cervical nodes, tonsillar exudates palatal petechiae

Pediatrics P53

Infectious Diseases

P54 Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Streptococcal (GAS) Pharyngitis 0;;' Mcisaac Criteria Hot LACE Fever >38' C

Lymphadenopathy- anterior, tender, cervical Age 3-1 4 N o Cough Erythematous, exudative tonsils

Clinical Features • Group A Streptococcus (GAS) infection • most commonly school aged, uncommon in children 38°C, age 3-14 score 0-1: no culture, no antibiotic; 2-3: culture, treat if positive; 4: antibiotics •

Management • >2 years old, culture before treatment or do rapid Strep antigen test rapid strep test only 70-90% sensitive (pick up 20% of carriers of GAS), culture if negative (throat swab for culture is gold standard, sensitivity 90-95%) • symptomatic if 1 symptom, no culture or antibiotics if >1 symptom, culture -7 antibiotics • penicillin V or amoxil 40 mg / kg / day PO divided bid x 10 days • erythromycin 40 mg/kg / day PO divided tid x 10 days if allergic to penicillin • acetaminophen for discomfort can prevent rheumatic fever if treated within 9-10 days antibiotics do not alter the risk of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis tonsillectomy for proven, recurrent streptococcal tonsillitis • complications if untreated, can lead to • suppurative complications: otitis media, sinusitis, cervical adenitis, pneumonia, mastoiditis • direct extension: retropharyngeal / peritonsillar abscess • scarlet fever, rheumatic fever • hematogenous spread: bone / joint infection, meningitis, SBE acute glomerulonephritis (irrespective of antibiotic treatment) invasive GAS disease: illness associated with isolation of GAS from normally sterile sites (blood, CSF, or pleural fluid) • treatment of invasive GAS disease admit IV clindamycin 40 mg/ kg divided into 3-4 doses + IV penicillin 250 000-400 000 U /kg/ day divided into 6 doses • other illnesses caused by strep: impetigo, cellulitis, bacteremia, vaginitis, toxic shock syndrome • streptococcal toxic shock: illness associated with isolation of GAS from normally sterile sites (blood, CSF, or pleural fluid) + hypotension, renal impairment, coagulopathy, liver impairment, RDS, rash, soft tissue necrosis (necrotizing fasciitis, myositis, or gangrene) •







• •







• •

.,;

'

Scarlet Fever 4 S and 4 P

Sore throat Strawberry tongue Sandpaper rash Perioral Sparing Non-Pruritic Non-Painful Peeling

SCARLET FEVER • erythrogenic strain of Group A Streptococcus • acute onset of fever, sore throat, strawberry tongue • 24-48 hours after pharyngitis, rash begins in the groin, axillae, neck, antecubital fossa • within 24 hours, "sandpaper" rash becomes generalized with perioral sparing, non-pruritic, non-painful • rash fades after 3-4 days, may be followed by peeling • treatment: penicillin, amoxicillin or erythromycin (if penicillin allergic) x 10 days RHEUMATIC FEVER • Jones Criteria (revised) requires 2 major OR 1 major and 2 minor PLUS evidence of preceding strep infection (history of scarlet fever, group A streptococcal pharyngitis culture, rapid Ag detection test (only useful if positive), anti-streptolysin 0 titers (ASOT» major criteria: "SPACE" • Subcutaneous nodules, pea-sized, firm, non-tender nodules typically on extensor surfaces • Pancarditis involving pericardium, myocardium, endocardium • Arthritis (migratory): very tender, red, warm, swollen joints, affects mostly large joints • Chorea (Sydenham's): may be characterized by clumsiness, difficulty with handwriting • Erythema marginatum: begins as pink macules on trunk with central blanching; non-pruritic minor criteria • previous history of rheumatic fever or rheumatic heart disease • polyarthralgia • fever • elevated ESR or C-reactive protein or leukocytosis • prolonged PR interval

Toronto Notes 2010

Infectious Diseases

• treatment

penicillin or erythromycin for acute course x 10 days ASA for arthritis prednisone if severe carditis • secondary prophylaxis with daily penicillin or erythromycin; course depends on: without carditis: 5 years or until 21 years old, whichever is longer with carditis but no residual heart disease (no valvular disease): 10 years or longer carditis and residual heart disease (persistant valvular disease): at least 10 years since last episode, sometimes life long prophylaxis • complications acute: myocarditis, conduction system (sinus tachycardia, atrial fibrillation), valvulitis (acute MR), pericarditis chronic: rheumatic valvular heart disease - mitral and / or aortic insufficiency / stenosis, increased risk of infectious endocarditis ± thromboembolic phenomenon onset of symptoms usually after 10-20 year latency from acute carditis of rheumatic fever •

• •













Infectious Mononucleosis • • • •

the "great imitator": systemic viral infection that affects many organ systems Epstein-Barr virus (EBV): a member of herpesviridae incubation: 1-2 months spread through saliva ("kissing disease"), sexual activity

Clinical Features • prodrome: 2-3 days of malaise, anorexia • infants and young children: often asymptomatic or mild disease • older children and young adults: may develop typical infectious mononucleosis syndrome fever, tonsillar exudate, generalized lymphadenopathy, pharyngitis ± hepatosplenomegaly ± rash (rash more frequent with patients treated with amoxicillin / ampicillin) any "-itis" (including arthritis, hepatitis, nephritis, myocarditis) chronic fatigue • resolves over 2-3 weeks although fatigue may persist for several months • administration of amoxicillin results in rash in >90% of cases •

• •

• •

Complications • aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, Guillain-Barre, splenic rupture, agranulocytosis, myocarditis (rare) Diagnosis • heterophil antibody test (Monospot™ test) 85% sensitive in adults and older children, only 50% sensitive 4500 g • maternal asthma • male sex Clinical Presentation • tachypnea within the first few hours of life, mild retractions, grunting, nasal flaring, without signs of severe respiratory distress • usually resolves in 24-72 hours • CXR: fluid in fissures, increased vascularity, slight cardiomegaly Treatment • supportive: O2, careful fluid administration, may use CPAP Prognosis • full recovery expected within 2-5 days • in the past it was generally believed that TTN was a self-limiting condition which, once resolved, had no long-term sequelae. Current research suggests that children with TTN may be at increased risk of developing wheezing syndromes (such as asthma) in childhood

Meconium Aspiration Syndrome (MAS) • 10-15% of all infants are meconium stained at birth, -5% of meconium stained infants get MAS • usually associated with fetal distress in utero, or post-term infant Clin ical Presentation • respiratory distress within hours of birth • small airway obstruction, chemical pneumonitis � tachypnea, barrel chest with audible crackles • CXR: hyperinflation, streaky atelectasis, patchy and coarse infiltrates • 10-20% have pneumothorax Complications • hypoxemia, hypercapnea, acidosis, PPHN, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, pneumonia, sepsis, respiratory failure, death Treatment • supportive care, assisted ventilation (important to maintain adequate oxygenation) • ventilated infants often require sedation • may benefit from surfactant replacement (surfactant function is inhibited by presence of meconium) • inhaled nitric oxide, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation at some centres Prevention • in utero: careful monitoring • after delivery of the head: suction oro / nasopharynx • at birth: intubate and suction below cords if infant is depressed • note: presence of meconium staining alone is NOT an indication for tracheal suctioning If the infant is vigorous, intubation and suctioning of lower airway is unncessary

Pneumonia • see Pediatric Respirology, PS9 • consider in infants with prolonged or premature rupture of membranes (PROM), maternal fever, or if mother CBS positive

• suspect if infant exhibits temperature instability, WBC low or left-shifted • symptoms may be non-specific • CXR: hazy lung + distinct infiltrates (may be difficult to differentiate from RDS)

Toronto Notes 2010

Pediatrics P67

Neonatology

Diaphragmatic Hernia • i f resuscitation required a t birth, D O NOT mask - bag because air will enter stomach and further compress lungs; infant requires endotracheal intubation

Clinical Presentation • respiratory distress, cyanosis • scaphoid abdomen and barrel-shaped chest • affected side dull to percussion and breath sounds absent, may hear bowel sounds instead • heart sounds shifted to contralateral side • asymmetric chest movements, trachea deviated away from affected side • resultant pulmonary hypoplasia on affected and contralateral side • may present outside of neonatal period • often associated with other anomalies (cardiovascular, CNS lesions) • CXR: portion of GI tract in thorax (usually left side), displaced mediastinum Treatment • surgery

Chronic Lung Disease (CLD)



---------------

• also known as BPD (bronchopulmonary dysplasia) • most frequently associated with very preterm birth • may develop after prolonged intubation/ ventilation with high pressures and high O2 concentration (often after ventilation for RDS)

• defined as O2 requirement at 28 days / 36 wks GA and abnormal CXR findings (lung

op acification, then cysts with sites of over distention and atelectasis, appears spongy)

• chronic respiratory failure may lead to pulmonary hypertension, poor growth, and right-sided heart failure

Treatment • no good treatments • gradual wean from ventilator, optimize nutrition • dexamethasone may help decrease inflammation and encourage weaning, however use of dexamethsone is associated with increased risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcome so indications for use are limited Prognosis • patients with BPD continue to have significant impairment and deterioration in lung function late into adolescence • studies show an inverse relationahip between FEV1 at school age and duration of supplemental oxygen • some lung abnormalities may persist into adulthood including: airway obstruction, airway hyperreactivity, and emphysema • associated with increased risk of adverse neurodevopmental outcome

Hypoglycemia • glucose 85 I1 mol / L per day or >220 �lmol / L before 4 days of age) conjugated bilirubin >35 �lmol / L (2.0 mgl dL) persistent jaundice lasting beyond 1-2 weeks of age • investigations • unconj ugated hyperbilirubinemia: • hemolytic work-up: CBC, blood group (mother and infant), peripheral blood smear, Coombs test, bilirubin (conjugated, unconjugated) • if baby is unwell or has fever, septic work-up: CBC + differential, blood and urine cultures ± LP , CXR • other: TSH, G6PD screen (in males) conjugated hyperbilirubinemia: consider liver enzymes (AST, ALT), coagulation studies (PI, PTT), serum albumin, ammonia, TSH, TORCH screen, septic work-up, galactosemia screen (erythrocyte galactose-I-phosphate uridyltransferase levels), metabolic screen, abdominal VIS, HIDA scan, sweat chloride •



• •



TREATMENT OF UNCONJUGATED HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA • to prevent kernicterus (see below) • breast feeding does not need to be discontinued, ensure adequate feeds and hydration • get lactation consultant support, mother to pump after feeds • treat underlying causes (e.g. sepsis) • phototherapy insoluble unconjugated bilirubin is converted to excretable form via photoisomerization serum bilirubin should be monitored during and immediately after therapy (risk of rebound because photoisomerization reversible when phototherapy discontinued) contraindicated in conjugated hyperbilirubinemia: results in "bronzed" baby side effects: hypernatremic dehydration, eye damage, skin rash, diarrhea use published guidelines for initiation of phototherapy • exchange transfusion prevents toxic effects of bilirubin by removal from body indications: depending on level and rate of rise of bilirubin side effects: infections, transfusion reactions most commonly performed for hemolytic disease and G6PD •



• • •





• •

KERNICTERUS Etiology • unconjugated bilirubin concentrations exceed albumin binding capacity and bilirubin enters and is deposited in the brain resulting in permanent damage (often basal ganglia or brainstem) • incidence increases as serum bilirubin levels increase above 340 �lmol / L (19.8 mg l dL) • can occur at lower levels in presence of sepsis, meningitis, hemolysis, hypoxia, hypothermia, hypoglycemia and prematurity Clinical Presentation • up to 15% of infants have no obvious neurologic symptoms • acute form first 1-2 days: lethargy, hypotonia, poor feeding, high-pitched cry, emesis, seizures middle of first week: hypertonia, opisthotonic posturing, fever, bulging fontanelle, pulmonary hemorrhage • chronic form (first year and beyond) •





hypotonia, delayed motor skills, extrapyramidal abnormalities (choreoathetoid cerebral palsy), gaze palsy, MR, sensorineural hearing loss

Prevention • exchange transfusion Complications • sensorineural deafness, choreoathetoid cerebral palsy (CP), gaze palsy, mental retardation BI LIARY ATRESIA • atresia of the extrahepatic bile ducts • cholestasis and increased conjugated bilirubin after the first week of life • incidence: 1 I 10,000-15,000 live births Clinical Presentation • dark urine, pale stool, jaundice (persisting for >2 weeks), abdominal distention, hepatomegaly Diagnosis • HIDA scan • liver biopsy

,, � ,

��------,

"Bronzed" Baby in Infants with Conjugated Hyperbilirubinemia

Phototherapy results in the production and accumulation of a toxic metabolite which also imparts a bronze hue on the baby's skin.

P70 Pediatrics

Neonatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Treatment • surgical drainage procedure • hepatoportoenterostomy (Kasai procedure most successful if before 8 weeks of age) • usually ultimately requires liver transplantation • Vitamins A, D, E, and K diet should be enriched with medium-chain triglycerides to ensure adequate fat ingestion

Bleeding Disorders i n Neonates Clinical Presentation • oozing from the umbilical stump, excessive bleeding from peripheral venipuncture / heel stick sites / lV sites, large caput succedaneum, cephalohematomas (in absence of significant birth trauma), and prolonged bleeding following circumcision. Approach to Bleeding Disorders in Neonates • 4 major categories 1 . increased platelet destruction • maternal ITP, SLE • neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT) • infection • Die • drugs • extensive localized thrombosis 2. decreased platelet production/function: • bone marrow replacement • pancytopenia • Fanconi anemia • trisomy 13 and 18 3. metabolic: • congenital thyrotoxicosis • inborn error of metabolism 4. coagulation factor deficiencies/presence of inhibitors (see Hematology) • haemophilia A • haemophilia B • hemorrhagic disease of the newborn NEONATAL ALLOIMMUNE THROMBOCYTOPENIA (NAIT) Pathophysiology • platelet equivalent of Rh disease of the newborn • occurs when mother is negative for human platelet antigen (HPA) and fetus is positive • development of maternal IgG antibodies against HPA antigens on fetal platelets Epidemiology • 1 /4000-5000 live births Clinical Features • clinical features: petechiae, purpura, thrombocytopenia in otherwise healthy neonate • severe NAIT can lead to intracranial bleeding Diagnosis • maternal and paternal platelet typing and identification of platelet alloantibodies Treatment • IVIG to mother prenatally, starts in second trimester; treat neonate with IVIG and transfusion of infant with washed maternal platelets or donor HPA negative platelets AUTOIMMUNE THROMBOCYTOPENIA Pathoph ysiology • caused b y antiplatelet antibodies from maternal ITP or SLE • passive transfer of antibodies across placenta Clinical Presentation • similar presentation to NAIT but bleeding usually less severe Treatment • steroids to mother x 10-14 days prior to delivery, or IVIG to mother before delivery or to infant after dehvery • caution: transfusion of infant with maternal or random donor platelets will result in destruction of platelets

Toronto Notes 2010

Neonatology

H EMORRHAGIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN • caused by vitamin K deficiency • factors II, VII, IX, X are vitamin K-dependent, therefore both PT and PTT are abnormal Etiology and Clinical Presentation • neonates at risk of vitamin K deficiency because: • vitamin K poorly transferred across the placenta • insufficient bacterial colonization of colon at birth (synthesize vit K) • dietary intake of vitamin K inadequate in breastfed infants • 2 types 1 . early vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB) • caused by maternal ingestion of oral anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, or antituberculosis agents • presents with ICH within the first 24 hours of life 2. classical VKDB • occurs in infants who did not receive vit K at birth and are breast feeding • presents between days 1 and 7 Prevention • vitamin K 1M administration at birth to all newborns

Necrotizing Enterocol itis ( NEe) • intestinal inflammation associated with focal o r diffuse ulceration and necrosis • primarily affecting terminal ileum and colon • affects 1-5% of preterm newborns admitted to NICU Pathophysiology • postulated mechanism of bowel ischemia � mucosal damage, and enteral feeding providing a substrate for bacterial growth and mucosal invasion, leading to bowel necrosis or gangrene and perforation Risk Factors • prematurity (immature defenses) • asphyxia, shock (poor bowel perfusion) • hyperosmolar feeds • enteral feeding with formula (breast milk can be protective) • sepsis Clinical Presentation • distended abdomen • increased amount of gastric aspirate / vomitus with bile staining • frank or occult blood in stool • feeding intolerance • diminished bowel sounds • signs of bowel perforation (sepsis, shock, peritonitis, DIC) Investigations • abdominal x-ray: intramural air ("train tracks"), free air, fixed loops, thickened bowel wall, portal venous gas • Pneumonitis Intestinalis - gas in the bowel wall (seen on abdominal x-ray). In neonatal period, this is most commonly associated with necrotizing enterocolitis. • CBC, ABG, blood culture • high or low WBC, low platelets, hyponatremia, acidosis, hypoxia, hypercapnea Treatment NPO (minimum 1 week), vigorous IV fluid resuscitation, NG decompression, supportive therapy • TPN • antibiotics (usually ampicillin, gentamicin ± metronidazole if risk of perforation x 7-10 days) • serial abdominal x-rays detect early perforation • peritoneal drain/ surgery if perforation • surgical resection of necrotic bowel and surgery for complications (e.g. perforation, strictures) •

Intraventricular Hemorrhage ( lVH) • intracranial hemorrhage originating in the periventricular subependymal germinal matrix (GM) • incidence and severity inversely proportional to GA Risk Factors • extreme prematurity, need for vigorous resuscitation at birth, pneumothorax, ventilated preterm infants, sudden increase in arterial blood pressure with volume expansion, hypotensive event, hypertension, RDS, fluctuating cerebral blood flow, coagulopathy

Pediatrics P71

P72 Pediatrics

Neonatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Clinical Presentation • many infants with IVH are asymptomatic • subtle signs: apnea, bradycardia, changes in tone or activity, altered level of consciousness • catastrophic presentation: bulging fontanelle, drop in hematocrit, acidosis, seizures, hypotension Classification • Papile classification grade I: GM hemorrhage grade II: IVH without ventricular dilatation grade III: IVH with ventricular dilatation grade IV: GM hemorrhage or IVH with parenchymal extension • parenchymal hemorrhage may also occur in the absence of intraventricular hemorrhage • 50% of IVH occurs within 8 hours of birth; 90% occurs by day 3 • routine head ultrasound screening of all preterm infants 40 mg / m2/h is nephrotic range) urine dipstick is the least accurate (false positives if urine pH >8 or SG >1 .025) protein / creatinine ratio on spot urine is more accurate (normal F • occurs 1-3 weeks following group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infection of skin or throat Pathophysiology • antigen-antibody mediated complement activation • diffuse, proliferative glomerulonephritis Diagnosis • elevated serum antibody titres against strep antigens (ASOT, anti DNAseB)

�:

Nephritic Syndrome

PHAROH Proteinuria « 50 mg/kg/d) Hematuria Azotemia RBC casts Oliguria Hypertension

Prognosis • 95% of children recover completely within 1-2 weeks • 5-10% have persistent hematuria Management • symptomatic treatment: fluid restriction, antihypertensives, diuretics • in severe cases: hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis may be necessary • eradication of infection (penicillin or erythromycin) Table 45. Major Causes of Acute Glomerulonephritis Decreased C3

Normal C3

Renal

Post·infectious GMN Membranoproliferative Type 1 150·80%) Type Il l> 80%)

IgA Nephropathy Idiopathic rapidly progressive GMN Anti-GBM disease

Systemic

SLE SBE Shunt nephritis Cryoglobulinemia

Polyarteritis nodosa Wegener's granulomatosis Goodpasture's syndrome Henoch-Sch5nlein purpura lHSP)

Nephrotic Syndrome Clinical Presentation • severe proteinuria (>50 mg / kg / day or > 40 mg / m2 / hr) • hypoalbuminemia 5.17 mmol / L (200 mg / dL) • secondary findings: hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, hypercoagulability (decreased PTT)

.,;'

PALE Proteinuria (> 50 mg/kg/d) HypoAlbuminemia « 20g/l) Hyperlipidemia Edema

Nephrology

P78 Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Etiology Primary Nephrotic Syndrome

• minimal change disease (MCD) (76%)

peak occurrence between 2-6 years of age, more common in boys than girls (2:1) often treated empirically with steroids without kidney biopsy, 90% steroid responsive • membranous glomerulonephritis (8%) • focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS) (7%) • membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (5%) •



Secondary Nephrotic Syndrome

• • • • • •

vasculitis infections (e.g. hepatitis B & C, syphilis, HIV) medications (e.g. captopril, penicillamine, NSAIDs, anticonvulsants) malignancy hereditary (e.g. sickle cell disease, Alport syndrome) metabolic, inflammatory (e.g. lupus nephropathy, rheumatoid arthritis)

Complications • risk of infections (e.g. spontaneous peritonitis, cellulitis, sepsis) • hypercoagulability due to decreased intravascular volume and antithrombin III depletion (pulmonary embolism, renal vein thrombosis) • side effects of drugs (diuretics, steroids, immunosuppressants) • hypotension, shock, renal failure Investigations • to rule out secondary causes of NS: serum complement levels, BUN, Cr, serum chemistries, ANA, antistreptolysin 0 titre, in certain cases HI\!, Hep B 1 C and syphilis titers • consider kidney biopsy if HTN (higher risk of FSGS), steroid resistant, frequent relapses (>2 relapses in 6 month period), low serum complement, severely decreased renal function presentation before first year of life (high likelihood of congenital nephrotic syndrome) presentation after 10 years of age to rule out more serious renal pathology than MCD •





Management • salt and water restriction, diuretic may be required • optimal nutrition, including high-quality protein • daily weights to assess therapeutic progress • varicella antibody titre if not immune • pneumococcal vaccine after remission (avoid live vaccines) • initial treatment of MCD 2 oral prednisone (or equivalent) 60 mgl m 1 day in divided doses (max. dose 80 mg l day) for up to 12 weeks a negative tuberculin skin test should be performed before starting steroid medications a measurable decrease in protein excretion may take at least 7 to 10 days following initiation of treatment, and proteinuria clears by third week of oral prednisone • up to 2 1 3 of patients experience relapses • if unresponsive to steroids, frequent relapses or steroid-resistant (proteinuria continues beyond 3 months) • consider renal biopsy or treat with cytotoxic agent (i.e. cyclophosphamide or chlorambucil), immunomodulating agents such as levamisole and cyclosporine A, and high-dose pulse corticosteroid with guidance of a pediatric nephrologist •





Hypertension in Childhood Etiology • consider white coat hypertension for all ages Table 46. Etiology of Childhood Hypertension by Age Group System

< 1 year

Cardiovascular

Coarctation of the aorta

Endocrine Metabolic Renal

Renal artery/vein thrombosis Congenital renal disease

Respiratory

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia Hypercalcemia

1·6 years

7·12 years

Neuroblastoma Coarctation of aorta

> 1 3 years

Essential hypertension

Wi 1m's tumour

Endocrine causes (hyperthyroid, hyperparathyroid, Cushing, primary hyperaldosteronism)

Endocrine cause

Renal artery stenosis Renal parenchymal disease

Renal parenchymal disease abnormalities of renal vasculature

Renal parenchymal disease

Essential hypertension

Toronto Notes 2010

Pediatrics P79

Nephrology/Neurology

Table 47. 95th Percentile Blood Pressures (mmHg) Age (Years) 50th Percentile for Height

Female 75th Percentile for Height

Male 50th Percentile for Height

75th Percentile for Height

1 04/58 1 1 1m

1 05/59

1 02/57

1 04/58

1 1 2/73

1 1 4/74

1 1 5/75

12

1 23/80

1 24/81

1 23/81

1 25/82

17

1 29/84

1 30/85

1 36/87

1 38/88

Adapted from "Update on the 1987 Task Force Repolt on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents working group repolt from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program".

Investigations • labs • urine dipstick for blood and protein (suggests renal disease) • urine catecholamines and their metabolites (may suggest pheochromocytoma) electrolytes, creatinine, catecholamines, renin, aldosterone • imaging echocardiography abdominal U/S • doppler studies, angiography, or radionuclide imaging of renal arteries •

• •

Management • treat underlying cause • weight reduction, reduction in salt intake, exercise • first line antihypertensives are thiazide diuretics, but none of the antihypertensives have been formally studied in children • referral to specialist • medications used in hypertensive emergencies: nifedipine, hydralazine, labetalol, sodium nitroprusside • assessment and management of end organ damage (e.g. retinopathy, LVH)

Neurology Seizure Disorders • see Neurology Differential Diagnosis of Seizures in Children • benign febrile seizure (most common) • hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy ("asphyxia") • intracranial hemorrhage, trauma • metabolic causes (e.g. hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, hyponatremia) • CNS infection • idiopathic epilepsy and epileptic syndromes • neurocutaneous syndromes • CNS tumour • arteriovenous malformation • ingestions I drug withdrawal • rule out conditions that mimic seizure: • breath holding • night terror • benign paroxysmal vertigo • narcolepsy pseudoseizure syncope tic hypoglycemia • rIA •

• • •

Investigations • CBC, electrolytes, calcium, magnesium, glucose • toxicology screen if indicated • EEG, CT, LP, if indicated EEG may be indicated for first-time non-febrile seizure EEG I CT not indicated for benign febrile seizures recurrence risk, determine seizure type, or epileptic syndrome • •

..... ' ,

��------�

Heart problems such as long QT syndrome and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy are often misdiagnosed as epilepsy. Include cardiac causes of syncope in your differential diagnosis. particularly when the episodes occur during physical activity.

Neurology

P80 Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

CHILDHOOD EPILEPTIC SYNDROMES Infantile Spasms onset 4-8 months brief, repeated symmetric contractions of neck, trunk, extremities (flexion and extension) lasting 10-30 seconds occur in clusters; often associated with developmental delay 20% unknown etiology; may have good response to treatment 80% due to metabolic or developmental abnormalities, encephalopathies, or are associated with neurocutaneous syndromes; these have poor response to treatment can develop into West syndrome (infantile spasms, psychomotor developmental arrest, and hyperarrythmia) or Lennox Gastaut typical EEG: hypsarrhythmia (high voltage slow waves, spikes and polyspikes, background disorganization) treatment: ACTH, vigabatrin, benzodiazepenes • •

• • •







KETOGENIC DIET Seizures Decreased Rapidly After Testing Preliminary Studies of the Ketogenic Diet Freeman JM, Viny DP. Arch Ped Adol Med. 1999; 1 5319): 946·949 low protein, low carb, high fat diet resulting in ketosis. Used to treat se�ure disorders. Shown to decrease seizure frequency by > 50% in lennox·Gastaut.

Lennox-Gastaut onset commonly 3-5 years of age characterized by triad of 1 ) multiple seizure types, 2) diffuse cognitive dysfunction and 3) slow generalized spike and slow wave EEG seen with underlying encephalopathy and brain malformations treatment: valproic acid, benzodiazepines and ketogenic diet; however, response often poor • •





Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy (Janz) adolescent onset (12-16 years of age); autosomal dominant with variable penetrance myoclonus particularly in morning; frequently presents as generalized tonic-clonic seizures typical EEG: 3.5-6 Hz irregular spike and wave, increased with photic stimulation requires lifelong treatment (valproic acid); prognosis excellent • •





Childhood Absence Epilepsy multiple absence seizures per day that may generalize in adolescence or resolve spontaneously peak age of onset 6-7, F>M, strong genetic predisposition each seizure is less than 30 seconds, no post-ictal state, may have multiple seizures per day typical EEG: 3 / sec spike and wave treatment: valproic acid or ethosuximide •









Benign Focal Epilepsy of Childhood with Rolandic/Centrotemporal Spikes onset peaks at 5-10 years of age, 16% of all non-febrile seizures focal motor seizures involving tongue, mouth, face, upper extremity usually occuring in sleep-wake transition states remains conscious but aphasic post-ictally remits spontaneously in adolescence; no sequelae typical EEG: repetitive spikes in centro temporal area with normal background treatment: frequent seizures controlled by carbamazepine, no medication if infrequent seizures •







• •

Treatment • anticonvulsants often initiated if >2 unprovoked afebrile seizures within 6-12 months 1. initiate: treatment with drug appropriate to seizure type 2. optimize: start with one drug and increase dosage until seizures controlled 3. if no effect, switch over to another before adding a second anticonvulsant 4. continue anticonvulsant treatment until patient free of seizures for 2 years or more, then wean medications over 4-6 months • ketogenic diet (high fat diet) - used in patients who do not respond to polytherapy or who do not wish to take medication (valproic acid contraindicated in conjunction with ketogenic diet because may increase hepatotoxicity) • education for patient and parents privileges and precautions in daily life (e.g. buddy system, showers instead of baths) • legal obligation to report to Ministry of Transportation if patient wishes to drive, Ministry will determine if driver's license is permitted •

Generalized and Partial Seizures • see Neurology. N8

Toronto Notes 2010

Neurology

Pediatrics PBl

Benign Febrile Seizures Epidemiology • most common cause of seizure in children • 3-5% of all children, M>F • age 6 months-6 years Clinical Presentation • thought to be associated with initial rapid rise in temperature • no neurologic abnormalities or developmental delay before or after seizure • no evidence of CNS infection / inflammation before or after seizure • no history of non-febrile seizures • duration 1 in 24-hour period) previous neurological impairment these seizures are not the benign, simple type, and require further investigations •

• •





Risk Factors for Recurrence • 33% chance of recurrence, 75% recur within 1 year 50% chance of recurrence if 1 year of age • family history of febrile seizures or epilepsy • risk factors include developmental or neurological abnormalities of child prior to seizures, family history of non-febrile seizures, and an atypical initial seizure, multiple simple febrile seizures •



..... ' � ��------, If a febrile seizure lasts > 1 5 minutes, suspect meningitis or a toxin.

Randomized, Controlled Trial of Ibuprofen Syrup Administered During Febrile Illnesses to Prevent Febrile Seizure Recurrences van Stuijvenberg M. etal. Pediatrics. 10215):E51, 1 998 Nov Purpose: To assess the efficacy of intermittent antipyretic treatment in the prevention of febrile seizure recurrences. Study: Double blind RCT with 220 children and 2 year follow·up. Participaots: Children age 1·4 with febrile seizure within the last month, and at least one risk factor for febrile seizure recurrence: either family history of febrile seizures, previous recurrent febrile seizures, temperature < 40.0 C at the initial seizure, or muniple type initial seizure. Interventions: Ibuprofen 5 mwkg every 6 houffi during fever Irectal T >38.4 C) or placebo. Main Outcomes: Fiffit recurrence of febrile seizure. Results: On an intention·to·treat ana�sis, the 2·year recurrence probabilities were 32% in the ibuprofen group and 39% in the placebo group, wrth a non· significant risk reduction of 0.9 195% CI, 0.6·1 .5). Conclusions: There is no evidence to support intermittent antipyretic therapy in preventing febrile seizures.

Workup • history: determine focus of fever, description of seizure, meds, trauma history, development, family history • exam: LOC, signs of meningitis, neurological exam • septic work-up including LP if suspecting meningitis (if child 18 months, do LP if meningeal signs) • EEG not warranted unless complex febrile seizure or abnormal neurologic findings • if simple febrile seizure, investigations unnecessary except for determining focus of fever Management • counsel and reassure patient and parents (febrile seizures do not cause brain damage, very small risk of developing epilepsy; 9% in child with multiple risk factors; 2% in child with febrile simple seizures compared to 1% in general popUlation) • antipyretics (e.g. acetaminophen) and fluids for comfort (neither prevent seizure) • prophylaxis not recommended • if high risk for recurrent or prolonged seizures, have rectal or sublingual lorazepam at home (danger of lorazepam is that it may hide signs of a CNS infection) • treat underlying cause of fever, (e.g. otitis media)

Recurrent H eadache • see Neurology Assessment • if unremarkable history, and neurological and general physical exam is negative, likely diagnosis is migraine or tension-type headache • obtain CT or MRI if history or physical reveals red flags • inquire about level of disability, academic performance, after-school activities Differential Diagnosis • primary headache: tension, migraine, cluster • secondary headache: see Neurology MIGRAINE • 4-5% of school aged children • prevalence F:M 2:1 after puberty • heterogeneous autosomal dominant inheritance with incomplete penetrance (majority of patients have a positive family history) =

Headache - Red Flags

New headache Worst headache of their lives Acute onset Focal neurological deficits Constitutional symptoms Worse in morning Worse with bending over, coughing, straining Change in level of consciousness

Neurology

P82 Pediatrics

Toronto Notes 2010

Types • common (without aura) -most common in children, associated with intense nausea and vomiting • classic (with aura) • complicated: e.g. basilar, ophthalmoplegic, confusional, hemiplegic Clinical Features • in infancy, symptoms include spells of irritability, sleepiness, pallor, and vomiting • in a young child, symptoms include periodic headaches with nausea and vomiting; relieved by rest • usually unilateral throbbing headaches in kids with photophobia or phonophobia Prognosis and Treatment • over 50% of children undergo spontaneous prolonged remission after 10 years of age • early analgesia (ibuprofen) and rest in quiet, dark room • non-pharmacological treatment and prophylaxis: avoid triggers (poor sleep, stress, cheese, chocolate, caffeine), biofeedback techniques, exercise • pharmacological prophylaxis: beta-blockers (propranolol), antihistamines, antidepressants (e.g. amitryptiline), calcium-channel blockers, anticonvulsants (e.g. divalproex sodium) • children >12 years can use sumatriptan nasal spray, other tryptans TENSION H EADACHES • usually consists of bilateral pressing tightness anywhere on the cranium or suboccipital region, usually frontal, hurting or aching quality, non-throbbing • lasts 30 minutes to days, waxes and wanes, may build in intensity during the day • no nausea/vomiting, not aggravated by routine physical activity • most children have insight into the origin of headache: poor self-image, fear of school failure • red flags: sudden mood changes, disturbed sleep, fatigue, withdrawal from social activities, chronic systemic signs (e.g. weight loss, fever, anorexia, focal neurological signs) • treatment reassurance and explanation about how stress may cause a headache rule out refractory errors in eyesight as cause of headache mild analgesia (NSAIDs, acetaminophen) supportive counselling •

• •



ORGANIC HEADACHES • organic etiology often suggested with occipital headache and red flags below • with increased ICP etiology: brain tumours, hydrocephalus, meningitis, encephalitis, cerebral abscess, pseudo tumour cerebri, subdural hematoma characteristics: diffuse early morning headaches, early morning vomiting, headache worsened by increased ICP (cough, sneeze, Valsalva); as ICP increases, headache is constant and child is lethargic and irritable • without increased ICP etiology: cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM), aneurysm, collagen vascular diseases, subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke •





Hypotonia • decreased resistance to movement - "floppy baby" • proper assessment of tone requires accurate determination of gestational age • evaluate

spontaneous posture (spontaneous movement, movement against gravity, frog-leg position) important in evaluation of muscle weakness joint mobility (hyperextensibility) muscle bulk, presence of fasiculations • postural maneuvers traction response - pull to sit, look for flexion of arms to counteract traction and head lag axillary suspension - suspend infant by holding at axilla and lifting; hypotonic babies will slip through grasp because of low shoulder girdle tone ventral suspension - infant is prone and supported under the abdomen by one hand; infant should be able to hold up extremities; inverted "u" posturing demonstrates hypotonia, i.e. baby will drape self over examiner's arms • investigations will depend on history and physical exam rule out systemic disorders blood glucose enhanced CT of brain peripheral CK, EMG, muscle biopsy chromosome analysis, genetic testing • treatment: counsel parents on prognosis and genetic implications; refer patients for specialized care, refer for rehabilitation, OT, PT, assess feeding ability •

• •







.....

'

,

�}-------.

Causes of hypotonia that respond to rapid treatment: hypokalemia, hypermagnesemia, acidemia, toxins, drugs, hypoglycemia, seizure, infection, intracranial bleeding, hydrocephalus.



• •





Differential Diagnosis • central chromosomal (e.g. Down syndrome, Prader-WiIIi, Fragile X) metabolic (e.g. hypoglycemia, kernicterus) • •

Toronto Notes 2010

Neurology

Pediatrics P83

perinatal problems (e.g. asphyxia, ICH) endocrine (e.g. hypothyroidism, hypopituitarism) infections (e.g. TORCH) CNS malformations dysmorphic syndromes • peripheral motor neuron (e.g. spinal muscular atrophy, polio) peripheral nerve (e.g. Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndrome) neuromuscular junction (e.g. myasthenia gravis) muscle fibres (e.g. mitochondrial myopathy, muscular dystrophy, myotonic dystrophy) •

• • •











Cerebral Palsy (CP) • a symptom complex, not a disease • nonprogressive central motor impairment syndrome due to insult to or anomaly of the

immature CNS, extent of intellectual impairment varies, presentation of the impairment changes with age • incidence: 1.5-2.5:1,000 live births (developing countries) • life expectancy is dependent on the degree of mobility and intellectual impairment, not on severity of CNS lesion

Etiology • often obscure, no definite etiology identified in 1 / 3 of cases only 10% related to intrapartum asphyxia 10% due to postnatal insult (infections, asphyxia, prematurity with intraventricular hemorrhage and trauma) association with low birth weight babies • •



Clinical Presentation Table 48. Types of Cerebral Palsy Type

% of Total CP

Spastic

70-80%

Truncal hypotonia in 1 st year Increased tone, increased reflexes, clonus Affects one limb (monoplegia), one side of body (hemiplegia), both legs (diplegia), both arms and legs (quadriplegia)

Area of Brain Involved

Characteristics

UMN of pyramidal tract Diplegia associated with periventricular leukomalacia (PVL) in premature babies Quadriplegia associated with HIE (asphyxia), associated with higher incidence of MR •



Athetoid! Dyskinetic

1 0- 1 5%

Athetosis (involuntary writhing movements) ± chorea (involuntary jerky movements) Can involve face, tongue (results in dysarthria)

Basal ganglia (may be associated with kernicterus)

Ataxic

6 weeks and / or 'B' symptoms) •



• • • • • • •

• •

.... ' � ,�------, Most common cause of acute bilateral cervical LAD is viral illness.

Toronto Notes 2010

Respirology

PSS Pediatrics

Respirology Approach to Dyspnea • see Table 1 "Average Vitals at Various Ages", P3 Pu l mon a ry

I

I

Upper Airway Foreign body Croup Laryngeal edema Epiglottitis Retropharyngeal abscess •









Lower airway Tracheitis Bronchiolitis Pneumonia Atelectasis Asthma • •



I

Other

Cardiac

Pleura Pleural effusion Empyema Pneumothorax











CHF Cardiac tamponade Pulmonary embolus

• • •

1' ICP Ascites Scoliosis



• •

Figure 6. Approach to Dyspnea in Childhood

Upper Respi ratory Tract Diseases • see Otolaryngology • disease above the thoracic inlet characterized by inspiratory stridor, hoarseness, and suprasternal retractions

• differential diagnosis of stridor • • • • • •

croup bacterial tracheitis epiglottitis foreign body aspiration subglotic stenosis-congenital or iatrogenic laryngamalacia / tracheomalacia - collapse or epiglottis cartilage on inspiration

Table 49. Common Upper Respiratory Tract Infections Croup (Laryngotracheobronchitis)

Bacterial tracheitis

Epiglottitis

Anatomy

Subglottic laryngitis

Subglottic tracheitis

Supraglottic laryngitis

Epidemiology

Common 6 mo·4 yrs Peak incidence: fall and early winter

Rare All age groups

Rare Usually older (2-6 yrs)

Etiology

Parainfluenza (75%) Influenza A and B RSV Adenovirus

S. aureus H. influenzae

H. influenzae

beta-hemolytic strep

alpha-hemolytic strep Pneumococcus

Maraxella catarrhalis

Clinical presentation

Hoarse voice Barking cough Stridor Worse at night

Similar symptoms as croup but more rapid deterioration with high fever Toxic appearance Does not respond to croup treatments

Toxic appearance Rapid progression Severe airway obstruction Drooling Stridor Tripoid position Sternal recession anxious

Investigations

Clinical diagnosis CXR in atypical presentation: "steeple sign" from subglottic narrowing

Clinical diagnosis Endoscopy: definitive diagnosis

Clinical diagnosis Avoid examining the throat to prevent further respiratory exacerbation

Treatment

Humidified O2 Dexamethasone: PO 1 dose Racemic epinephrines: nebulized, 1 -3 doses, q1-2 hours Intubation if unresponsive to treatment

Start therapy for croup Usually requires intubation Antibiotics

Intubation Antibitoics Prevented with Hib vaccine

Lower Respiratory Tract Diseases • obstruction of airways below thoracic inlet, produces more expiratory sounds • classic symptom: wheezing

Toronto Notes 2010

Respirology

Differential Diagnosis of Wheezing • common • asthma: recurrent wheezing episodes, identifiable triggers • bronchiolitis: first episode of wheezing • recurrent aspiration: often neurological impairment • pneumonia: fever, cough, malaise • uncommon • foreign body: acute wheezing and coughing • cystic fibrosis: prolonged wheezing, unresponsive to therapy • bronchopulmonary dysplasia: often develops after prolonged ventilation in the newborn • rare • congestive heart failure • mediastinal mass • bronchiolitis obliterans • tracheobronchial anomalies

Pneumonia • inflammation of pulmonary tissue, associated with consolidation of alveolar spaces Clinical Presentation • incidence is greatest in first year of life • viral cause is more common in children 6 years patients with moderate or severe asthma will need regular prophylaxis in addition to bronchodilators (e.g. daily inhaled steroids, long-acting beta-agonists, anticholinergics, sodium cromoglycate, theophylline, leukotriene receptor antagonist) • Canadian Paediatric Asthma Consensus Guidelines for assessing adequate control of childhood asthma: 1. daytime symptoms F • benign, self limited disorder, usually occurs after upper respiratory tract infection, pharyngitis, bronchitis, otitis media

Clinical Presentation • afebrile or low-grade fever, pain typically occurs in hips, knees, painful limp but still capable of ambulating • symptoms resolve over 7-10 days Investigations • ESR, WBC within normal limits • x-ray is typically normal • U/5 may show joint effusion • must exclude septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, AVN, slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) Treatment • symptomatic and anti-inflammatory medications

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA)

--------�

• formerly known as Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis (JRA) • a heterogenous group of conditions characterized by persistent arthritis in children under ::0-1 joints lasting >11 weeks in child 90 % of cases) • large, expanding erythematous macule with fever erythema migrans of Lyme arthritis • management: doxycycline or amoxicillin for 30 days; do not treat children 24 hours, including ulcers) • irrigation and debridement: surgical • topical antibacterial creams (e.g. bacitracin) - avoid inhibitors of epithelialization • systemic antibiotics indicated if there is concern of inflammation or infection of the surrounding tissue (eg. redness, swelling, pain, clinically unwell) • closure: final closure via secondary intention (most common), delayed wound closure (3° closure), skin graft or flap; successful closure depends on decreased bacteria count to ,;100,000/gram prior to closure and frequent dressing changes BITES Dog and Cat Bites • pathogens: Pasteurella multocida, S. aureus, S. viridans • investigations: same as for human bites; see below • treatment: Clavulin® (500 mg PO q8h started immediately - amoxil + clavulinic acid) consider rabies prophylaxis if animal has symptoms of rabies • ± rabies Ig (20 IV /kg around wound, or 1M) and 1 of the 3 types of rabies vaccines (1.0 ml 1M in deltoid, repeat on days 3, 7, 14, 28) debridement secondary closure for small wounds (see Emergency Medicine. ER46) contact Public Health if animal status unknown •

• • •

Human Bites (Staph > oc-hemolytic Strep > Eikenella corrodens > Bacteroides) • mechanism: most commonly over dorsum of MCP from a punch in mouth; "fight-bite" • serious, as mouth has 109 rnicroorganisms/mL, which get trapped in joint space when fist unclenches and overlying skin forms an air-tight covering ideal for anaerobic growth - can lead to septic arthritis • investigations radiographs prior to therapy to rule out foreign body (tooth)/fracture culture for aerobic and anaerobic organisms, Gram stain • treatment urgent surgical exploration of joint, drainage and debridement of infected tissue wound must be copiously irrigated Clavulin® 500 mg PO q8h, clindamycin 300 mg PO q6h + ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO q12h (if allergic to penicillin) + secondary closure (see Emergency Medicine. ER46) splint •











Reconstruction SKIN G RAFTS Definition • a segment of skin detached from its blood supply at the donor site and dependent on revascularization from the recipient site Donor Site Selection • must consider size, hair pattern, texture, thickness of skin, and colour (facial grafts best if taken from "blush zones" above clavicle e.g. pre/post auricular or neck) • partial thickness grafts usually taken from inconspicuous areas (e.g. buttocks, lateral thighs, etc.) Partial Thickness Skin Graft Survival • 3 phases of skin graft "take" 1. plasmatic imbibition - diffusion of nutrition from recipient site (first 48 hours) 2. inosculation - vessels in graft connect with those in recipient bed 3. neovascular ingrowth - graft revascularized (day 3-5) • requirements for survival bed: well-vascularized (unsuitable: bone, tendon, heavily irradiated, infected wounds, etc.) contact between graft & recipient bed: fully immobile (decreased shearing and hematoma formation) staples, sutures, splinting, and appropriate dressings (pressure) are used to prevent movement of graft and hematoma or seroma formation site: low bacterial count « 105, to prevent infection) •







.... ' ,

.�------�

Reconstruction Ladder • • • • •

Primary closure Skin graft Local flap Regional flap Free tissue transfer

Wounds

PL12 Plastic Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Classification 1. by species autograft: from same individual allograft (homograft): from same species, different individual xenograft (heterograft): from different species (e.g. porcine) 2. by thickness: (see Table 5) • •



Table 5. Skin Grafts

Split Thickness Skin Graft (STSG)

Full Thickness Skin Graft (FTSG)

Definition

Epidermis and part of dermis

Epidermis and all of dermis

Donor Site

More sites

Limited donor sites (full thickness skin loss, must be closed 10 or with STSG)

Healing of Donor Site

Re-epithelialization via dermal appendages in graft and wound edges

Primary closure or split thickness skin graft

Re-harvesting

- 1 0 days (faster on scalp)

N/A

Graft Take

Easier; shorter nutrient diffusion distance (better with thinner graft)

Lower rate of survival (thicker, slower vascularization)

Contraction

Less 1 0 contraction, greater 20 contraction (less with thicker graft)

Greater 10 contraction, less 20 contraction

Sensation

Poor

Better than STSG

Aesthetic

Poor

Good

Comments

Can be meshed for greater area (see below) Allows for extravasation of bloocVserum

May use on face and fingers

Advantage

Takes well in less favourable conditions

Resists contraction, potential for growth, texture/pigment more normal

Disadvantage

Contracts significantly, abnormal pigmentation, high susceptibility to trauma

Requires well vascularized bed Must remove fat from graft before application

Uses

Large areas of skin, granulating tissue beds

Face (colour match), site where thick skin or decreased contracture is desired (e.g. finger)

• mesh graft •



advantages • prevents accumulation of fluids • covers a larger area • best for contaminated recipient site disadvantages • poor cosmesis ("alligator hide" appearance) • has significant contractures

OTHER G RAFTS Table 6. Various Tissue Grafts Graft Type

Use

Preferred Donor Site

Bone

Repair rigid defects

Cranial, rib, iliac, fibula Ear, nasal septum, costal cartilage

Cartilage

Restore contour of ear and nose

Tendon

Repair damaged tendon

Palmaris longus, plantaris

Nerve

Conduit for regeneration across nerve gap

Sural, forearm, cutaneous arm

Vessel

Bridge vascular gaps (i.e. free flaps)

Dermis

Contour restoration (± fat for bulk)

Forearm or foot vessels for small vessels, saphenous vein for larger vessels Thick skin of buttock or abdomen

FLAPS • definition: tissue transferred from one site to another with vascular supply (pedicle) intact (not dependent on neovascularization, unlike a graft) • may consist of: sIGn, subcutaneous tissue, fascia, muscle, bone, other tissue (e.g. omentum) • classification: based on blood supply to sIGn (random, axial) and anatomic location (local, regional, distant) • indications for flaps reconstruction - replaces tissue loss due to trauma or surgery provides sIGn and temporary soft tissue coverage through which surgery can be carried out later improves blood supply to poorly vascularized bed (e.g. bone) may improve sensitivity (nerves to sIGn flap intact) • main complication: flap loss due to vascular thrombosis, flap necrosis caused by extrinsic compression (dressing too tight) or excess tension on wound closure, hematoma, seroma, infection, fat necrosis •







Toronto Notes 2010

Wounds

Plastic Surgery PL13

Random Pattern Flaps (see Figure 15) • blood supply by dermal and subdermal plexus to skin and subdermal tissue with random vascular supply • limited length:width ratio to ensure adequate blood supply (on face 4:1, lower extremity 2:1) • types rotation: cover wounds of various sizes; common use: sacral pressure sores transposition: useful when not enough laxity of surrounding tissue to create other types of flaps Z-plasty: used to reorient and lengthen a scar at the expense of width (release scar contractures); common use: Dupuytren's disease advancement flaps (single/hipedicle, V-Y, Y-V) • V-Y flaps: wounds with lax surrounding tissue; the pedicle is the deep tissue underlying the flap • •





- -.

�? - --�(."- ,

,

:

�/

rw �

/

:

,/

.../

Rotation Flap

Z-plasty

Limberg Flap (transposition)

Single Pedicle Advancement Flap

v-v Advancement Flap

Figure 1 5. Wound Care Flaps - Random Pattern

Axial Pattern Flaps (Arterialized) • flap contains a well defined artery and vein • allows greater length: width ratio (5-6:1) • types peninsular flap - skin and vessel intact in pedicle (see Figure 16) island flap - vessel intact, but no skin in pedicle (see Figure 17) free flap - vascular supply anastomosed at recipient site by microsurgical techniques • can be sub-classified according to tissue content of flap: e.g. musculocutaneous/myocutaneous [Transverse Rectus Abdominal Myocutaneous (TRAM)] vs. fasciocutaneous • • •



Figure 1 6. Peninsular Axial Pattern Flap

Free Flaps • transplanting expendable donor tissue from one part of the body to another by isolating and dividing the dominant artery and veins to a flap and performing a microscopic anastomosis between these and the vessels in the recipient wound • survival rates >95% • types: muscle and skin (common), bone, nerves, tendons, jejunum, omentum e.g. radial forearm, scapular, latissimus dorsi •

Figure 1 7. Island Axial Pattern Flap

Table 7. Free Flap Characteristics Characteristic

Normal

Aterial lnsufficiency

Venous Insufficiency

Colour

Pink

Pale

Purple or blue

Temperature

Warm

Cool

Warm or cool

Arterial Pulse (Doppler)

Present

Maybe present

Maybe present

Turgor

Soft, but with tissue turgor

Poor turgor

Increased (i.e. tense)

..... ' , 9�------� Monitor flap viability using skin colour, capillary refill « 2 sec), post-puncture bleeding, and Doppler monitoring.

Soft Tissue Infections

PL14 Plastic Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Soft Tissue Infections Erysipelas Table 8. Classification of Soft Tissue Infections by Depth Erysipelas Superficial with subcutaneous tissue involvement Cellulitis

Full thickness with subcutaneous tissue involvement

Fasciitis

Fascia

Myositis

Muscle

Definition • acute skin infection that is more superficial than cellulitis Etiology • typically caused by Group A f)-hemolytic Streptococcus (GABHS) Clinical Features • intense erythema, induration, and sharply demarcated borders (differentiates it from other skin infections) Treatment • penicillin or first generation cephalosporin (e.g. cefazolin or cephalexin)

Cell u l itis Definition • non-suppurative infection of skin and subcutaneous tissues

,, ' , Etiology ��------� • skin flora most common organisms: S. aureus, f)-hemolytic Streptococcus Cellulitis vs. Erysipelas • immunocompromised: Gram-negative rods and fungi Cellulitis: indistinct borders Erysipelas: sharp borders

Clinical Features • source of infection trauma, recent surgery PVD, diabetes - cracked skin in feet/toes foreign bodies (IV, orthopaedic pins) • systemic symptoms: fever, chills, malaise • pain, tenderness, edema, erythema with poorly defined margins, tender regional lymphadenopathy • can lead to ascending lymphangitis (visible red streaking in skin proximal to area of cellulitis) •

• •

Investigations • CBC, blood cultures • culture and Gram stain wound/ aspirate from wound • plain radiographs rio bone invasion (osteomyelitis) if crepitus present, may see gas in soft tissues (occurs in closed wounds and requires surgical treatment) •



Treatment • antibiotics: first line IV penicillin G 2 million units q6-8h + IV cloxacillin 1 g q6-8h • outline area of erythema to monitor success of treatment • immobilize and splint -

Necrotizing Fasciitis

,, ' , �}-------� Soft tissue infections: Suspect

necrotizing fasciitis with rapidly spreading erythema and edema. Must demarcate erythematous area on admission in order to determine amount of spread.

Definition • rapidly spreading, very painful infection of the deep fascia with necrosis of tissues • some bacteria create gas that can be felt as crepitus and be seen on x-rays • infection spreads rapidly along deep fascial plane and is limb and life threatening Etiology • Type I: f)-hemolytic Streptococcus • Type II: polymicrobial Clinical Features • severe pain, fever, edema, tenderness, crepitus (subcutaneous gas from anaerobes) • infection spreads very rapidly • patients are often very sick and toxic in appearance • skin turns dusky blue and black (secondary to thrombosis and necrosis) • induration, formation of bullae • cutaneous gangrene, subcutaneous emphysema (type II)

Soft Tissue Infections

Toronto Notes 2010

Plastic Surgery PUS

Investigations • generally a clinical diagnosis • CT scan • severely elevated CK: usually means myonecrosis • hemostat easily passed along fascial plane; fascial biopsy in equivocal situations Treatment • rigorous resuscitation • multiple surgical debridements: remove all necrotic tissue, copious irrigation • IV antibiotics: as appropriate for clinical scenario; consider ampicillin + gentamicin • urgent consultation with infectious disease specialist is recommended

Special Considerations HAND INFECTIONS Principles • trauma is most common cause • 5 cardinal signs: rubor (red), calor (hot), tumour (swollen), dolor (painful) and functio laesa (loss of function) • 90% caused by Gram-positive organisms • most common organisms (in order) - S. aureus, S. viridans, Group A Streptococcus, S. epidermidis, and Bacteroides melaninogenicus TYPES OF I NFECTIONS Deep Palmar Space Infections • uncommon, involve thenar or mid-palm, treated in OR Felon • definition: subcutaneous abscess in the fingertip that commonly occurs following severe paronychia or a puncture wound into the pad of digit; may be associated with osteomyelitis • treatment: elevation, warm soaks, cloxacillin 500 mg PO q6h (if in early stage); I&D and PO cloxacillin if obvious abscess Flexor Tendon Sheath Infection (Staph > Strep > Gram-Negative Rods) • definition: acute suppurative tenosynovitis commonly caused by a penetrating injury and can lead to tendon necrosis and rupture if not treated • clinical features: Kanavel's 4 cardinal signs: 1 . point tenderness along flexor tendon sheath (earliest and most important) 2. severe pain on passive extension of DIP (second most important) 3. fusiform swelling of entire digit 4. flexed posture (increased comfort) • treatment OR incision and drainage, irrigation, IV antibiotics, and resting hand splint until infection resolves • •







Herpetic Whitlow (HSV- 1 , HSV-2) • definition: painful vesicle(s) around fingertip • often found in medical/dental personnel and children • clinical features: can be associated with fever, malaise and lymphadenopathy • patient is infectious until lesion has completely healed • treatment: routine culture and viral prep protection (cover), consider oral acyclovir Paronychia (acute Staph; chronic Candida) • definition: infection (granulation tissue) of soft tissue around fingernail (beneath eponychial fold) • etiology acute paronychia - a "hangnail", artificial nails, and nail biting chronic paronychia - prolonged exposure to moisture • treatment acute paronychia - warm compresses and cephalexin 500 mg PO q6h ± drainage if abscess present chronic paronychia - anti-fungals with possible debridement and marsupialization, removal of nail plate =

• •





=

....

'

,

��------�

MRSA positive cultures are increasingly more common. Cultures must be taken. Choices of antibiotics may need to be adjusted.

Ulcers

PL16 Plastic Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Ulcers Lower Lim b U lcers Traumatic Ulcers • failure of lesions to heal, usually due to compromised blood supply and unstable scar • usually over bony prominence, ± edema, ± pigmentation changes, ± pain • treatment: resection of ulcer, unstable scar and thin skin; reconstruction with local or distant flap ..... , , •

Ankle-brachial index (ABI) in diabetics can be falsely normal due to incompressible arteries secondary to plaques/calcification.

..... , , •

Diabetic ulcers indicate mainly small vessel disease, while gangrene most likely has small and large vessel involvement.

..... , , •

Table 9. Venous vs. Arterial vs. Diabetic Ulcers Characteristic

Venous (70% vascular ulcers)

Arterial

Diabetic

Cause

Valvular incompetence Venous HTN

2' to small and/or large vessel disease Be aware of risk factors

Peripheral neuropathy: decreased sensation Atherosclerosis: decreased regional blood flow

History

Dependent edema, trauma Rapid onset ± thrombophlebitis, varicosities

Arteriosclerosis, claudication Usually > 45 years Slow progression

Diabetes mellitus Peripheral neuropathy

Distribution

Medial malleolus

Distal locations

Pressure point distribution

Appearance

Yellow exudates Granulation tissue

Pale/white, necrotic base ± dry eschar covering

Necrotic base

Wound Margins

Irregular

Even ("punched out")

Irregular or "punched out" or deep

Depth

Superficial

Deep

Surrounding Skin Venous stasis discolouration (brown) Thin shiny dry skin, hairless, cool

SuperficiaVdeep Thin dry skin ± hyperkeratotic border Hypersensitive/ischemic

Pulses

Normal distal pulses

Decreased distal pulses

Decreased pulses likely

Vascular Exam

ABI >0.9 Doppler; abnormal venous system

ABI 6 hours of pressure 4. ulcer - necrotic area breaks down - N.B. skin is like tip of an iceberg Classification (National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel 2007) Stage I: nonblanchable erythema present >1 hr after pressure relief, skin intact Stage II: partial-thickness skin loss Stage III: full-thickness skin loss into subcutaneous tissue, but not through fascia Stage IV: through fascia into muscle, bone, tendon, or joint if an eschar is present, must fully debride before staging possible •

Ulcers/Management of Skin Lesions/Bums

Toronto Notes 2010

Plastic Surgery PL17

Prevention • good nursing care (clean dry skin, frequent repositioning), special beds or mattress (Kin AirTM), proper nutrition, activity, early identification of individuals at risk (e.g. immobility, incontinence, fever and/or hypotension) Treatment • depends on individual patient and condition • treat underlying medical issues including nutrition • continue with preventative measures (up to 95% preventable) • clean and dry wound, debridement of necrotic tissue, dressings • topical antibiotics questionable, systemic antibiotics for complications • debridement is definitive for deep/complicated ulcers; assess for possible reconstruction (e.g. osteomyelitis) • surgical intervention for definitive treatment of deep/ complicated ulcers Complications • cellulitis, osteomyelitis, sepsis, gangrene, bacterial endocarditis

Management of Skin Lesions Skin Lesions • see Dermatology, 02-5 and 031-34

Burns Burn Inj uries Causal Conditions • thermal (flame contact, scald) • chemical • radiation (lJV, medical/therapeutic) • electrical Most Common Etiology • children: scald burns • adults: flame burns Table 1 0. Skin Function and Burn Injury Skin Function

Consequence of Burn Injury

Intervention Required

Thermoregulation

Prone to lose body heat

Must keep patient covered and warm

Control of fluid loss

Loss of large amounts of water and protein from the skin and other body tissues

Adequate fluid resuscitation is imperative

Mechanical barrier to bacterial invasion and immunological organ

High risk of infection

Antibiotic ointments (systemic if signs of specific infection present) Tetanus prophylaxis if necessary

Pathophysiology of Burn Wounds • see Figure 1 8 • amount o f tissue destruction i s based o n temperature, time o f exposure, and specific heat

of the causative agent vasodilation from inflammation; entirely viable, cells recover within 7 days; contributes to systemic consequences seen with major burns • zone of stasis (edema) decreased perfusion; microvascular sludging and thrombosis of vessels results in progressive tissue necrosis -7 cellular death in 24-48 hours without proper treatment factors favoring cell survival: moist, aseptic environment, rich blood supply zone where appropriate early intervention has most profound effect in minimizing injury • zone of coagulation (ischemia) no blood flow to tissue -7 irreversible cell damage -7 cellular death/necrosis

• zone of hyperemia

Dermis: Nerves Vessels

-

-



-

� Zone of hyperemia o Zone of stasis o Zone of coagulation Blood vessels and nerves are found in the dermis Figure 1 8. Zones of Thermal Injury

Bums

PL1S Plastic Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Diagnosis and Prognosis • burn size (see Figure 1 9 )

% o f total body surface area (TBSA) burned - rule o f 9 ' s for 2 ° and 3° burns only (children

Plastic Surgery PU9

Bums

Toronto Notes 2010 Table 1 1 . Burn Depth ( 1 '" 2nd, 3rd degree) Nomenclature

Traditional Nomenclature

Depth

Clinical Features

Erythema/Superficial

First degree

Epidermis

Painful, sensation intact, erythema, blanchable

Superficial-Partial Thickness

Second degree

Into superficial dermis

Painful, sensation intact, erythema, blisters with clear fluid, blanchable, hair follicles present

Deep-Partial Thickness

Second degree

Into deep (reticular) dermis

Difficult to distinguish from full thickness, ± pain, does not blanch, some hair follicles still attached, softer than full thickness burn

Full Thickness

Third degree Fourth degree

Through epidermis and dermis Painless (nerve endings destroyed), Injury to underlying tissue hard leathery eschar that is black, grey, structures (e.g. muscle, bone) white, or cherry red in colour, hairs do not stay attached, may see thrombosed veins

Indications for Transfer to Burn Centre American Burn Association Criteria • total 2° and 3° burns >10% TBSA in patients 50 years of age • total 2° and 3° burns >20% TBSA in patients any age • 3° burns/ full thickness >5% TBSA in patients any age • 2° or 3° burns posing a serious threat of functional or cosmetic impairment (i.e. circumferential burns, burns to face, hands, feet, genitalia, perineum, major joints) • inhalation injury (may lead to respiratory distress) • electrical burns, including lightning (internal injury underestimated by TBSA) • chemical burns posing a serious threat of functional or cosmetic impairment • burns associated with major trauma/serious illness

Acute Care of Burn Patients • adhere to ATLS protocol • resuscitation using Parkland formula to restore plasma volume and cardiac output

4 cc Ringer's/kg/% TBSA over first 24 hours (1/2 within first 8 hours of sustaining burn, 1 /2 in next 16 hours) extra fluid administration required if burn >80% TBSA 4° burns associated traumatic injury electrical burn inhalation injury delayed start of resuscitation pediatric burns monitor resuscitation urine output is best measure - maintain at >0.5 cc/kg/hr (adults) and 1 .0 cc/kg/hour (children 40% TBSA; suggestion of inhalation or upper airway injury) prevent and / or treat burn shock - 2 large bore IVs identify and treat immediate life-threatening conditions (e.g. inhalation injury, CO poisoning) determine BSA affected 1st, since depth is difficult to determine initially (easier to determine after 24 hours) tetanus prophylaxis if needed all patients with burns >10% TBSA, or deeper than superficial partial thickness, need 0.5 ml tetanus toxoid also give 250 U of tetanus Ig if prior immunization is absent/unclear, or the last booster > 10 yrs ago baseline laboratory studies (Hb, U/A, BUN, CXR, electrolytes, ECG, cross-match, ABG, carboxyhemoglobin) cleanse, debride, and treat the burn injury •







.... ' , ,}------, Signs of CO Poisoning • • • •

Headache Confusion Coma Arrhythmias

• • • •













• •









• •

.... ' , ,}------, Inhalation Injuries 1 0 1 1 . Indicators of Inhalation Injury

Injury in a closed space Facial burn Singed nasal hair/eyebrows Soot around nares/oral cavity Hoarseness Conjunctivitis Tachypnea Carbon particles in sputum Elevated blood CO levels (i.e. brighter red) 2. Suspected inhalation injury requires immediate intubation due to impending airway edema. Failure to diagnose inhalation injury can result in airway swelling and obstruction, which, if untreated, can lead to death. 3. Neither CXR or ABG can be used to rule out inhalation injury. •

• • •

• • • •



Burns

PL20 Plastic Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Respiratory Problems • 3 major causes burn eschar encircling chest • distress may be apparent immediately • perform escharotomy to relieve constriction carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning • may present immediately or later • treat with 100% O2 by facemask (decreases half-life of carboxyhemoglobin from 210 to 59 minutes) until carboxyHb women, often presents in 5th-7th decade of life, associated with but not caused by alcohol use and diabetes aponeurosis © Monika Musial

Figure 32. Dupuytren's Disease

Accuracy of the Clinical Assessment for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Phalsensi en'st: ivity: specip c ty: 0.47 Tiners: sensitivity: 0.60 specificity: 0.67 3. Carpal Tunnel Compression es : sensitivity: 0.87 specificity: 0.90

Hand Surgery Update 1 996; .223 1. 0.75 fi i 2. •



T t



Clinical Features • order of digit involvement (most common to least common): ring > little > long > thumb > index • may also involve feet (Lederhosen's) and penis (Peyronie's - see Urology. U30) • stages 1 . palmar pit or nodule - no surgery 2. palpable band/cord with no limitation of extension of either MCP or PIP - no surgery 3. lack of extension at MCP or PIP - surgical fasciectomy indicated 4. irreversible periarticular joint changes/scarring - surgical treatment possible but poorer prognosis compared to stage 3 Treatment • surgical fasciectomy is indicated with any functional impairment or when MCP joint contractures exceed 30° with no PIP contracture. Fasciotomy is not curative but can provide a temporary relief • may recur, especially in Dupuytren's diathesis early age of onset, strong family history, and involvement of sites other than palmar aspect of hand •

Development and Validation of Diagnostic Criteria for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome J Hand Surg, 2006, Vol 31 NO. 6 p.9 1 9 Purpose: To develop a clinical diagnostic criteria for carpal tunnel syndrome that modeled the clinical diagnostic practices of experts. Methods: Out of 57 clinical findings associated with CTS, eight were ranked highly by a panel of expert clinicians. Using 256 case histories, a panel of experts decided whether a case did or did not have a diagnosis of CTS. This diagnosis represented the dependent variable for a logistic regression model. to which the eight clinical findings were applied. The regression model was then validated against the consensus of a second panel on the diagnosis of CTS for the case histories. Resuks: The correlation between the probability of CTS predicted by the regression model and the panel of clinicians was 0.71 . The following is the final list of unweighted clinical diagnostic criteria that contributed significantly to the model: 1. Numbness and tingling in median nerve distribution 2. Noctumal numbness 3. Weakness and/or atrophy of the thenar musculature 4. Tiners sign 5. Phalen's test 6. Loss of 2·point discrimination

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) Definition • median nerve compressed by nearby anatomic structures Etiology • median nerve entrapment at wrist • primary cause is idiopathic • secondary causes: space occupying lesions (tumours, hypertrophic synovial tissue, fracture callus, and osteophytes), metabolic and physiological (pregnancy, hypothyroidism, and rheumatoid arthritis), infections, neuropathies (associated with diabetes mellitus or alcoholism), and familial disorders Epidemiology • female:male 4:1, most common entrapment neuropathy =

Clinical Features • sensory loss in nerve distribution (often discriminative touch lost first) • classically, patient awakened at night with numb/painful hand, relieved by shaking/ dangling/ rubbing • distribution: radial 3.5 digits • decreased light touch, 2-point discrimination, especially fingertips • job/hobby related repetitive trauma, especially forced wrist flexion • advanced cases: wasting/weakness of abductor pollicis brevis • ± Tiners sign (tingling sensation on percussion of nerve) • ± Phalen's sign (wrist flexion induces symptoms)

Hand/Brachial Plexus

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations • nerve conduction velocities (NCV) and EMG may coniirm, but do not exclude, the diagnosis Treatment • avoid repetitive wrist and hand motion, wrist splints when repetitive wrist motion required • conservative: night time splinting to keep wrist in neutral position • medical: NSAIDs, local corticosteroids injection, oral corticosteroids • surgical decompression: transverse carpal ligament incision to decompress median nerve • indications for surgery: numbness and tingling ± sensory loss, weakness ± muscle atrophy, unresponsive to conservative measures • complications: injury to median motor branch, palmar cutaneous branch or superficial transverse vascular arch, local pain (pilar pain), scar

Rheumatoid Hand General Principles • non-surgical treatments form the foundation in the management of the rheumatoid hand • surgery only for patients whose goals (improved cosmesis or function) may be achieved Surgical Treatment of Common Problems • synovitis: requires tendon repair if ruptured; can lead to carpal tunnel syndrome and trigger finger • ulnar drift: MCP arthroplasty, resection of distal ulna, soft tissue reconstruction around wrist • thumb deformities: can be successfully treated by arthrodeses (surgical fixation of joint to promote bone fusion)

Brachial Plexus Etiology • common causes of brachial plexus injury: complication of childbirth and trauma • other causes of injury: compression from tumours, ectopic ribs

Com mon Palsies Table 1 7 , Named Neonatal Palsies of the Brachial Plexus Mechanism of Injury

Features

Palsy

Location of Injury

Duchenne-Erb Palsy

Upper brachial plexus (C5-C6) Head/shoulder distraction (e.g. motorcycle)

Waiter's tip deformity (shoulder internal rotation, elbow extension, wrist flexion)

K1umpke's Palsy

Lower brachial plexus (C7-Tl ) Traction on abducted arm

May include Horner's syndrome ("claw hand")

Differential Diagnosis • trauma (blunt, penetrating) • thoracic outlet syndrome

neurogenic - associated with cervical rib; compression of C8 /T1 vascular - pain or sensory symptoms without cervical rib; cessation of radial pulse with provocative maneuvers • tumour schwannoma - well-defined margins makes it easier for total resection neurofibromas - associated with neurofibromatosis type I (NF-1) other - e.g. Pancoast's syndrome (lung tumour) • neuropathy (compressive, post-irradiation, viral, diabetic, idiopathic) • •







Investigations · EMG • MRI - gold standard for identifying soft tissue masses • CT myelogram - better than MRI for identification of nerve root avulsion and identification of pseudomeningocele, Important for preoperative identication of patients likely to require neurotisation procedures (esp. for patients with blunt trauma)

Plastic Surgery PL27

Does This Patient Have Carpal Tunnel Syndrome? JAMA, 2000, Vol 283 No.23 p.31 10 1 . Hyperalgesia in median nerve territory lR 3.1 2. Use of Katz diagram Iclassic or probablel lR 2.4 3. Weak thumb abduction strength lR 1.8 little diagnostic value: noctumal paresthesia, Phalen-Tiners signs, thenar atrophy, 2-point vibratory, monofilament sensory testing.

"" ' � ��------, Radiographic Evolution of the Rheumatoid Hand

Earliest sign: erosion of the ulnar styloid Progression: chracterized by symmetrical joint space narrowing and erosions of the carpal bones, MCP and PIP Iwith DIP relatively spared) Late stage: Swan neck and Boutonniere deformities

Brachial Plexus/Craniofacial Injuries

PL28 Plastic Surgery

Toronto Notes 2010

Management Table 1 8 . Management of Brachial Plexus Injuries Non·Penetrating Trauma

Penetrating Trauma

Type

Treatment

Concussive/compressive

Usually improves (unless expanding mass, e.g. hematoma)

Traction/stretch

If no continued insult, follow for 3-4 mo for improvement

Obstetric palsy

Surgery if no significant improvement and/or residual paresis at 6 mos of age

Sharp or vascular injury

Explore immediately in OR

Blunt

Repair within 2-3 weeks

Craniofacial Injuries .... ' , .�------,

Patients with major facial injuries are at risk of developing upper airway obstruction (displaced blood clots, teeth or fracture fragments; swelling of pharynx and larynx; loss of support of hyomandibular complex .... retroposition of tongue).



• • •

Approach to Facial I nj uries • •

• • •

• •



.... ' , .}-------,

Suspect C-spine injury with any facial trauma. C-spine evaluation before radiographs are ordered.

.�------,

Consider intracranial trauma; rule out skull fracture.

.... ' , .�------, Signs of Basal Skull/Le Fort III Fracture

1. 2. 3. 4.

Battle's sign (bruised mastoid process) Hemotympanum Raccoon eyes (periorbital bruising) CSF otorrhea

.... ' , .�------,

Most facial bone fractures (especial y orbital injuries) require ophthalmology consult.

low velocity vs. high velocity injuries determine degree of damage fractures � bruising, swelling and tenderness � loss of function frequency: nasal > zygomatic > mandibular > maxillary management: can wait up to 10 days for swelling to decrease before ORIF required

ATLS protocol wound irrigation with physiologic solution and remove foreign materials palpate/explore wounds for injury to underlying structures (e.g. facial nerve) visual assessment tetanus prophylaxis, antibiotics if indicated radiological evaluation conservative debridement of detached or nonviable tissue repair when patient's general condition allows (soft tissue injury: M

Classified as incomplete/ complete & unilbilateral Isolated (common in females) or in conjunction with cleft lip (common in males)

Special bottles for feeding Speech pathologist Surgery (6,9 months): Von Langenbeck or Furlow Z-Plasty ENT consult - often recurrent OM, requiring myringotomy tubes

1 in 2000 live newboms; M:F 52:48 Syndromic includes: Crouzon's, Apert's, SaethreChotzen, Carpenter's, Pfeiffer's Jackson-Weiss and Bostontype syndromes

Syndromic - assoc, with genetic mutation Secondary (to microcephaly, hyperthyroid, rickets, etc,) Ox: irregular head shape, craniofacial abnormalities, x-ray

Multidisc, team (incl. neurosurg, ENT, genetics, dentistry, peds, SLP) Early surgery prevents secondary deformities l' ICP is an indication for emergent surgery ICU bed may be req'd post-surgically

Definition

Cleft Lip Incomplete Cleft Palate

=

A Defects of soft palate only -

Cleft Palate

Complete Cleft Palate

s- Defects of soft and herd palate c



Epidemiology

Craniosynostosis Premature fusion of 1 + cranial sutures Primary - abnormal suture, no known cause This may limit brain development in the direction perpendicular to the suture and cause compensatory growth parallel to the fused suture

=

Congenital Hand Anomalies Table 2 6 , American Society for Surgery of the Hand (ASSH) Classification of Congenital Hand Anomalies

Cleft Lip and Palate C Defects of soft palate to -

alveolus, usually involving lip

Classification

Example

Features

Treatment

A, Failure of formation

Transverse Absence (congenital amputation)

At any level (often below elbow/wrist)

Early prosthesis

Longitudinal Absence (phocomelia) Absent humerus Thalidomide-assoc,

D - Complete

blieteral cleft

Radial Deficiency (radial club hand) Radial deviation Thumb hypoplasia M>F

Physio + splinting Soft tissue release if splinting fails Distraction osteogenesis (llizarov) ± wedge osteotomy Tendon transfer Pollicization

Thumb Hypoplasia

Degree ranges from small thumb with all components to complete absence

Depends on degree - may involve no treatment, webspace deepening, tendon transfer, or pollicization of index finger

Ulnar Club Hand

Rare, compared to radial club hand Stable wrist

Splinting and soft-tissue stretching therapies Soft,tissue release (if above fails) Correction of angulation (llizarov distraction)

Cleft Hand

Autosomal dominant Often functionally normal (depending on degree)

First web space syndactyly release Osteotomy/tendon transfer of thumb (if hypoplastic)

© Adrian Yen 2006

Figure 37, Types of Cleft Lips and Palates

Pediatric Plastic Surgery/Common Medications

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 26. American Society for Surgery of the Hand (ASSH) Classification of Congenital Hand Anomalies (continued) Classification

Example

Features

Treatment

Fusion of 2+digits 1/3000 live births M:F 2:1 Classified as partiaVcomplete Simple (skin only) vs. complex (osseous or cartilaginous bridges)

Surgical separation before 6-1 2 mo of age Usually good result

Symbrachydactyly

Short fingers with short nails at fingertips

Digital separation (more difficult) Webspace deepening

Camptodactyly

Congenital flexion contracture (usually at PIp, esp. 5th digit)

Early splinting Volar release Arthroplasty (rarely)

Clinodactyly

Radial or ulnar deviation Often middle phalanx

None (usually). If severe, osteotomy with grafting

C. Duplication

Polydactyly

Congenital duplication of digits May be radial (increased in Aboriginals and Asians) or central or ulnar (increased in Blacks)

Amputation of least functional digit Usually > 1 yr of age (when functional status can be assessed)

D. Overgrowth

Macrodactyly

Rare

None (if mild) Soft tissuelbony reduction

E. Undergrowth

Brachydactyly

Short phalanges

Removal of non-functional stumps Osteotomies/tendon transfers Distraction osteogenesis PhalangeaVfree toe transfer

Symbrachydactyly (Brachysyndactyly)

Short webbed fingers

As above + syndactyly release

AKA amniotic (annular) band syndrome

Variety of presentations

Urgent release for acute, progressive edema distal to band in newbom Other reconstruction is case-specific

B. Failure of differentiation! Syndactyly separation

=

F. Constriction band syndrome

G. Generalized skeletal abnormality

Achondroplasia, Marfan's, Variety of presentations Madelung's

Treatment depends on etiology

Common Medications Table 27. Commonly Used Medication Drug Name (Brand Name)

Dosing Schedule

Indications/Comments

cefazolin (Ancel'") cloxacillin

1 -2 g IV q8h 250-500 mg PO q6h

Surgical prophylaxis, flexor tenosynovitis Staph infections - felons, skin infections

cephalexin (Keflex'")

500 mg PO q6h

Staph infections - paronychia, skin infections

amoxicillin + clavulanate potassium (Clavulin '" )

250-500 mg PO q8h

Skin infections - human bites, animal bites

clindamycin (Biaxin'" in PO form) 1 50-450 mg PO q6h 1 .2-1 .8 g/day IV divided bid or tid

Human bites with penicillin allergy (add ciprofloxacin)

ciprofloxacin (Cipro '" )

250-500 mg PO bid

Human bites with penicillin allergy

acetaminophen + codeine (Tylenol #3 '")

1 -2 tabs PO q4-6h pm

Pain relief

acetaminophen + oxycodone (Percocet '" )

1 -2 tabs PO q4-6h pm

Pain relief - for patients with codeine allergy

dimenhydrinate (Gravol'")

25-50 mg PO/IV/IM q4-6h pm

Anti-emetic

lidocaine (Xylocaine®) (with or without epinephrine)

Plain: 4 mg/kg (max) With epi: 7 mg/kg (max)

Local anesthetic ± vasoconstrictor (epinephrine)

bupivicaine (Marcaine®)

2 mg/kg (max)

Local anesthetic, longer lasting

Plastic Surgery PL35

PL36 Plastic Surgery

References

Toronto Notes 2010

References General Plastic Surgery Concepts Brown DL, Borschel GH. Michigan manual of plastic surgery. Philadelphia: Saundeffi, 2004. Daver BM, Antia NH, Fumas Ow. Handbook of plastic surgery for the general surgeon second edition. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1 995. Georgiade GS, Riefkohl R, Levin LS. Georgiade plastic, maxillofacial and reconstructive surgery third edition. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1997. HuntTK. Wound Healing. In: Doherty GM, Way LW, eds. Current surgical diagnosis & treatment twelfth edition. Norwalk, CT: McGraw-Hili, 2006. Janis JE. Essentials of Plastic Surgery: A UT Southwestem Medical Center Handbook. S1. Louis, MO: Duality Medical, 2007. Noble J. Textbook of primary care medicine third edition. S1. Louis: Mosby Inc, 2001 . Plastic Surgery Educational Foundation. Plastic and reconstructive surgery essentials for students. Arlington Heights, IL: Plastic Surgery Educational Foundation, 2007. http://www.plasticsurgery.org/medical professionals/publications!Essentials-for-Students.cfm. Richards AM. Key notes in plastic surgery. Great Britain: Blackwell Science ltd, 2002. Sermer NB. Practical plastic surgery for non-surgeons. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc, 2001. Smith OJ, Brown AS, Cruse CW et al. Plastic and reconstructive surgery. Chicago: Plastic Surgery Educational Foundation, 1987. Stone C. Plastic surgery: facts. London: Greenwich Medical Media Ltd, 2001 Townsend CM. Sabiston textbook of surgery - the biological basis of modem surgical practice sixteenth edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 2001. Vasconez HC, Ferguson REH, Vasconez La. Plastic & reconstructive surgery. In: Doherty GM, Way LW, eds. Current surgical diagnosis & treatment twelfth edition. Norwalk, CT: McGraw-Hili, 2006. Weinzweig J. Plastic surgery secrets. Philadelphia: Hanley and Be�us Inc, 1999. Hand American Society for Surgery of the Hand. The hand: examination and diagnosis third edition. Philadelphia: Churchill-Livingston, 1 990. Beredjiklian PK, Bozenika OJ. Review of hand surgery. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004. Graham B, Regehr G, Naglie G, Wright J. Development and validation of diagnostic criteria for carpal tunnel syndrome. J Hand Surg 2006; 31 161: 91 9.e1 - 919.e7.

PH

Popu lation and Com m u n ity H ealth Nori Bradley, Sarah Moore and Tara Mullowney, chapter editors Aseem Bishnoi and Grace Yeung, associate editors Amy Shafey, EBM editor Dr. Ian Johnson and Dr. Fran Scott, staff editors

Historical Context of Public Health

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Public Health Services in Canada Legislation and Public Health in Canada .

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Measurements of Health and Disease in a Population

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Epidemiology

Determinants of Health

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Concepts of Health Vulnerable Populations Disease Prevention Health Promotion Strategies

Occupational Health

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Appendix 1 . Reportable Diseases

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Types of Study Design

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Appendix 2. Global Health Statistics

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Health Promotion and Protection Disease Prevention Treatment and Rehabilitation Legislation Ontario's Workplace Safety and Insurance Act Taking an Occupational Health History Occupational Hazards

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Definitions

Ecological Study Prevalence Study Case-Control Study Cohort Study Ra ndomized Controlled Trial Meta-Analysis Qualitative Studies

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Assessing Evidence Data Analysis Effectiveness of Interventions Common Statistical Tests Distributions Causation Continuous Quality Improvement Cost Analysis

Outbreak of Infectious Diseases Definitions Steps to Controlling an Outbreak Epidemic Curves

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Environmental Health Jurisdiction Hazard Identification Air Water Soil Food Heavy Metal Toxicity

Toronto Notes 2010

PH I

PH2 Population and Community Health

Historical Context of Public Health

Toronto Notes 2010

Historical Context of Public Health

For the LMCC exam, it is recommended that you read all of Chapter 15 in Shah CP. Public Health and Preventative Medicine in Canada. 5th edition. Elsevier Canada. 2003.

Definitions • Population Health health of the population as measured by health status indicators (e.g. life expectancy, low birth weight rates) influenced by: physical, biological, social, environmental and economic factors; personal health behaviours; health care services refers to the prevailing or desired level of health in the population of a specific country / region/ subset of population • Public Health systematic societal efforts to protect, promote and restore the health of the public refers to the practices, procedures, institutions and disciplines required to achieve the desired state of population health • Community Medicine the postgraduate study of health and disease in the population or a specified community goal: to identify and address health problems and evaluate the extent to which health services and others address these issues •













Source: Last

JM.

A Dictionary of Epidemi% gv,

4th ed. Oxford University Press. 200 1 .

Historical Perspective Public health has evolved through three main epidemiological phases: 1.

Infectious diseases examples of this era: smallpox, plagues, and tuberculosis most illnesses (e.g. malaria) were successfully treated in the developed world but still remain an issue in some developing countries recent notable successes: eradication of smallpox and near eradication of polio •





2. Chronic diseases examples of this era: heart disease and cancer progression of chronic disease results in the most common causes of death and disability due to • changes in lifestyle (e.g. increased prevalence of smoking and sedentary lifestyle) • reduction in infectious disease mortality resulting in increasing life span and therefore prevalence of chronic diseases • exposure to other factors (e.g. asbestos) leading to cancer • increasing urbanization and changes in social structure •



3. Re-emerging infectious diseases examples of this era: AIDS, hantavirus, and drug-resistant tuberculosis, HINI this new era has emerged due to • encroachment on natural environments and contact with unfamiliar pathogens (e.g. HIV) • fast international travel facilitating the rapid spread of organisms • inefficient and inappropriate use of antibiotics leading to drug-resistant organisms (e.g. drug resistant TB, MRSA, VRE) • global warming, possibly increasing the size of regions at high-risk for transmission of vector-borne diseases (e.g. malaria and dengue, west nile virus) •



.... ' ,

��------.

Five Core Functions for All Public Health Units 1.

Population health assessment Health surveil ance Health promotion Disease and injury prevention 5. Health protection

2. 3. 4.

Public H ea lth Services i n Canada Mission: to promote and protect the health o f Canadians through leadership, partnership, innovation and action in public health • local public health units and services within regional health authorities provide programs and activities for health protection, promotion and disease prevention at local and regional levels • catchment-area populations range from one hundred to two million people, covering areas of 15 to 1.5 million km2

Toronto Notes 2010

Historical Context of Public Health

Population and Community Health PH3

Legislation and Public Health i n Canada Federal • 3 divisions of the federal government are responsible for public health: Health Canada • responsible for helping Canadians maintain and improve their health, while respecting individual choices and circumstances. • provides health services to First Nations and Aboriginal peoples • approves new drugs and medical devices • liaises with other national health organizations, e.g. WHO Canadian Food Inspection Agency • monitors genetically modified foods • monitors food importation • deals with animal-related infections (e.g. BSE) Public Health Agency of Canada • an independent body created to strengthen public health capacity but reports to federal government via the Chief Public Health Officer • created to deliver the federal government's commitment to protect the health and safety of Canadians • focuses on preventing chronic diseases, preventing injuries and responding to public health emergencies and infectious disease outbreaks • oversees immigration screening, protects Canadian borders (e.g. airport health inspection) •





Provincial • legislation is in the form of Acts and Regulations • each province has its own Public Health Act or equivalent. In Ontario, it is the Health

Promotion and Protection Act •

• •



designates the creation of local health units or geographic areas for the provision of public health services gives powers to the Chief Medical Officer of Health to control public health hazards specifies infectious diseases to be reported to public health units by physicians, laboratories and hospitals (see Appendix 1 ) has the ability t o mandate programs that address public health issues, i.e. injury prevention programs, infectious disease control programs, environmental health (for example safe food and water) and chronic disease prevention

Municipal • local boards of health deliver programs mandated by provincial legislation in accordance with local needs • boards of health can be connected directly with regional governments, or can be automous with municipal representation • boards of health are responsible for the delivery of most public health services, such as: infectious disease control, including the follow-up of reported diseases and management of outbreaks inspection of food premises including those in hospitals, nursing homes and restaurants family health services including pre-conception, preschool, school-aged and adult health programs tobacco control legislation enforcement assessment and management of local environmental health risks collection and dissemination of local health status reports some public dental health services to children • by-laws may be legislated by municipal government to facilitate public health issues (e.g. anti-idling to reduce air pollution) •









• •

Medical Officer of Health • appointed to each public health unit by the board of health • boards of health are composed of individuals appointed by the municipality and the province • full-time position that can only be held by a licensed physician with public health training • physicians can also be appointed as Associate Medical Officers of Health • responsibilities of the Medical Officer of Health include: reporting to the board of health on matters of public health supervision of community sanitation, including food premises and places of lodging control of infectious and reportable diseases, including immunization implementation of disease and injury prevention as well as health promotion and protection programs as needed collection and analysis of epidemiological data occupational and environmental health surveillance implementation of health programs, including • counseling •













PH4 Population and Community Health

Historical Context of Public Health/Determinants of Health

Toronto Notes 2010



family planning services parenting programs, prenatal courses • preschool and school health services • disease screening programs to reduce morbidity and mortality • tobacco use prevention programs • nutrition services to schools and seniors' centres • authority the Medical Officer of Health can require an individual to take or refrain from any action due to a public health hazard including an order to: • vacate a premises or close a business • update or maintain a business or home with maintenance work • receive treatment by a physician if infected (for specified diseases only) • give a blood sample the Medical Officer of Health can also • investigate and manage health hazards • order the isolation or quarantine of individuals who have or may have specified communicable diseases •





",

' , 9f-------,

Determinants of Health

First multidimensional definition of health, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1 948: ';II Definitions of Health •

complete state of physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of illness"

WHO updated the definition (socioecological definition) of health in •

1 986: 'The ability to identify and to realize aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is therefore a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living, Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities",

'" ' , 9}-------,

Income and social status Social support networks Education and literacy Employment and working conditions Social environment Physical environment Personal health practices and coping skil s 8. Healthy child development 9. Biology and genetic endowment 1 0. Health services 1 1 . Gender 1 2. Culture Determinants of Health

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Concepts of Health • • • • •

Disease: abnormal, medically defined changes i n th e structure o r function of the human body Illness: an individual's experience or subjective perception of a lack of physical or mental well-being and consequent inability to function normally in social roles Impairment: any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function Disability: any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity within the range considered normal for a human being Handicap: the disadvantage for an individual arising due to impairment and disability. A handicap limits or prevents the fulfilment of an individual's normal role as determined by society and depends on age, sex, social and cultural factors. A handicap changes the individual's relationship with the physical and social environment

Determinants of Health • over 30 years ago Marc Lalonde, Minister of Health presented the health field concept entitled A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians (see below) which included four elements that interact to determine health: human biology, environment, lifestyle and the health care organization • comprehensive view of the determinants of health put forward in 1 974 • the Population Health Model expanded on the previous list of health determinants and can be organized into 5 categories:

Education Social support network, culture Employment, income, social status

Source: Public Heafth Agency 01 Canada

I

Deaths by Neighbourhood Income Ouintile and by Sex in Urban Canada in 1 996 (05 - Poorest) Total

Men

"" � I

Genetic endowment and gender

Women

01 02 03 04 05

4881 8020 3 1 39 5504 9055 3551 61 72 10145 3973 1 1 757 7 1 42 461 5 1 4 1 01 8886 521 5 Source: James p. Wilkins R, Detsky A, Tugwell P.

Manuel D, Avoidable mortality by neighboumood incoime in Canada: 25 years after the establishment of heafth insurance. J. Epidemiol Community Health, 2007;61: 287·296,

Housing Working conditions Peace and security

/ � I

ealth Determinan

'" ' , 9}-------,

Ouintile

Physical environment

Social environment

Biology and personal health practices/behaviours

Coping skills Diet and exercise Smoking, substance abuse

Figure 1 .

Population Health Model

Health services

Access to timely and appropriate health services

I

Population and Community Health PHS

Detenninants of Health

Toronto Notes 2010

Vulnerable Populations Table 1 . Health Determinants o f Vulnerable Populations PsychosociaVSocioeconomic

Physical Environment

Lifestyle and Behaviour

Aboriginal Peoples

Low income Family violence Low education status Unemployment Homelessness

Crowded housing Inefficient ventilation Environmental toxins

Smoking Substance abuse Problem gambling Poor nutrition Sedentary lifestyle High BMI High risk behaviours

Seniors

Elder abuse Lack of emotional support

Low hazard tolerance Institutionalization

Inactivity Polypharmacy Medical co-morbidities

Children in Poverty

Low income Family dysfunction Lack of educational opportunities

Housing availability Unsafe housing Lack of recreational space

Poor supervision Food insecurity High risk behaviours

People with Disabilities

Low income Low education status Discrimination

Institutionalization (7%) Barriers to access Transportation challenges

Substance abuse Poor nutrition Inactivity Dependency for ADLs

Immigrants

Access to community services Cultural perspectives

Diseases and conditions in country of origin (e.g. smoke from wood fires, incidence of TB, etc.)

Homeless Persons

Low income Mental illness

Exposure to temperature extremes

Substance abuse Violence

Disease Prevention Disease Prevention Strategies • measures aimed at preventing, interrupting or slowing the progression of disease Primary Prevention • implemented to prevent disease from occuring • immunization programs exist in most countries to address 6 major causes of pediatric morbidity and mortality that are preventable by vaccines, e.g.: 1. measles 2. diphtheria 3. pertussis 4. tetanus 5. polio 6. tuberculosis (not routine in Canada or the U.s.) • additional immunization are offered in Canada depending on jurisdiction: mumps, rubella, hepatitis B, Haemophilus injluenzae type B, varicella, HPY, conjugated pneumococcal and meningococcal vaccines (see Pediatrics, P5) Secondary Prevention (Screening) • presumptive identification of unrecognized disease or defect by the application of tests, examinations or other procedures which can be applied rapidly • types of screening mass screening: screening all members of a population for a disease, e.g. phenylketonuria and hypothyroidism in newborns selective screening: screening of a specific subgroup of the population at risk for a disease, e.g. mammography in women >50 years old multiphasic screening: the use of many measurements and investigations to look for many disease entities, e.g. periodic health exam • ideal criteria for screening tests disease • must cause significant suffering and / or death • natural history must be understood • must have an asymptomatic stage that can be detected by a test • early detection and intervention must result in favourable outcomes • incidence is not too high or too low test • high specificity and sensitivity • safe, rapid, easy, relatively inexpensive • acceptable to providers and population

Primary Prevention Example: Gardasil Vaccine and �s Efficacy in the Prevention of Cervical Cancer Gardasil" is a quadrivalent HPV vaccine covering strains 6,1 1,16,18. The efficacy of Gardasil" was studied in 4 randomized, double blind, placebo controlled trials on females between 1 6 and 26 years of age and was found to prevent nearly 1 00% of precancerous celVical changes for up to 4 years after vaccination.

.... ' , ,}-------, Disease Prevention Strategies •



















before disease occurs, e.g. immunizations, seatbelt use, smoking cessation programs for lung cancer prevention early detection of disease, e.g. mammography, routine Pap smears treatment and rehabilitation of existing disease, e.g. ACEI for hypertension measures that operate without the person's active involvement. e.g. airbags in cars measures that a person must do on their own, e.g. wearing a seatbelt Primary:

Secondary:

Tertiary:

Passive prevention:

Active prevention:

PH6 Population and Community Health

Determinants of Health



Toronto Notes 2010

healthcare system • adequate capacity for reporting, follow-up and treatment of positive screens • cost effective • sustainable program • clear policy guidelines

Tertiary Prevention • treatment and rehabilitation of disease after it has been diagnosed so as to prevent progression and permanent disability (e.g. ACEI for hypertension, insulin, eye and foot monitoring for diabetes, etc.)

H ea lth Promotion Strategies .... ' , ,�------. Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care Grading of Health Promotion Actions A: Good evidence to recommend

the preventive health measure B: Fair evidence to recommend the preventive health measure Existing evidence is conflicting and does not allow making a recommendation for or against use of the clinical preventive action, however other factors may influence decision-making Fair evidence to recommend against the preventive health measure E: Good evidence to recommend against the preventive health measure Insufficient evidence (in quantity andlor quality) to make a recommendation, however other factors may influence decision­ making

C:

D:

Source: Canadian Task Force on Preventive Health Care. 2003. CMAJ 169 (3):213-214

Table 2 . Disease Prevention versus Health Promotion Approach Disease Prevention

Health

=

absence of disease

Medical model (passive role)

Health Promotion

Health

=

positive and multidimensional concept

Participatory model of health

Aimed mainly at high-risk groups in the population

Aimed at the population in its total environment

Concerns a specific pathology

Concerns a network of issues

One-shot strategy

Diverse and complementary strategies

Directive and persuasive strategies

Facilitating and enabling approaches

Directive measures enforced in target groups

Incentive measures offered to the population

Focused mostly on individuals and groups of subjects

Focus on a person's health status and environment

Preventive programs considered the affairs of professional groups from health disciplines

Non-professional organizations, civic groups, local, municipal, regional and national governments necessary for achieving the goal of health promotion

Source: Shah CP. Public Health and Preventive Medicine in Canada. 5th ed. Elsevier Canada. 2003.

Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion ( 1 986) • health promotion: the process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health • the charter states that governments and health care providers should be involved in a health promotion process that includes 1 . building healthy public policy 2. creating supportive environments 3. strengthening community action 4. developing personal skills 5. re-orienting health services Jakarta Declaration on Health Promotion i nto the 2 1 st Century (WHO 1 997) • reiterated the commitment of health promotion • first of the health promotion conferences to involve the private sector • formally cited poverty as the greatest threat to health • priorities for health promotion: promote social responsibility for health increase investments for health development consolidate and expand partnerships for health increase community capacity and empower the individual secure an infrastructure for health promotion •



Healthy Public Policy • characterized by an explicit concern for health and equity in all areas of policy and by an accountability for health impact • main aim: to create a supportive environment to enable people to lead healthy lives, thereby making healthy choices easier for citizens • government sectors must take into account health as an essential factor when formulating policy and should be accountable health consequences of their policy decisions Source: Adelaide Conference on Health Promotion 1_

.... ' , ,�------, Labonte Model of Community Development • • • • •

Personal empowerment Small group development Community organization Coalition advocacy Political action

Fiscal tax and pricing policies established to impose additional costs to undertake "unhealthy" behaviours • e.g. taxes on tobacco and alcohol 2. Legislative implementation of legal deterrents to individual behaviours • e.g. anti-smoking bylaws, seat belt legislation, bicycle helmet bylaws, legal drinking age 3. Social responsibility of improving health beyond providing traditional health services, the premise of universal health care under the Canada Health Act • e.g. providing affordable housing and ensuring adequate income may improve the health of the population independently of the health care system •







Population and Community Health PH7

Detenninants of Health

Toronto Notes 2010

Community Development • process of community members identifying issues and problems affecting their community and subsequently developing the skills and capacity to implement change Community-Based Prevention • public health service (prevention or promotion) focused on an entire community as opposed to only high risk groups • "community-based approaches" are population-based multifactorial initiatives that make use of communication-behaviour change, community organization, and social marketing to elicit change at the community level e.g. Canadian Heart Health Initiative • numerous preventable risk factors are being addressed by multiple health promotion strategies •

Health Marketing • application of the principles of commercial marketing to promote healthy changes • involves target group analysis and segmentation of the market for specific messages and promotion strategies • employed by both the health care system (e.g. pamphlets providing health information about HIV) and by industry (e.g. in medication advertisements) Behaviour Change • Health Education serves to increase knowledge and skills encourage positive lifestyle changes and discourage unhealthy choices • Health Education is an important component of eliciting behaviour change, however behaviour is not only dictated by knowledge, e.g. many smokers know smoking is bad for them but they still continue to smoke • behaviour is a result of three factors 1. Predisposing factors - knowledge, attitude, beliefs, values, intentions 2. Enabling factors - skills, supports 3. Reinforcing factors - health care professionals and the social context of family and community • Health Belief Model (1975) behaviours undertaken by individuals in order to remain healthy are a function of a set of interacting beliefs beliefs include an individual's perception of his or her susceptibility to a disease, the severity of the disease and the benefits and costs of health related actions beliefs are modified by socio-demographic and psychosocial variables individuals must believe that the action will have positive consequences individuals must be in a state of readiness behaviour can be stimulated by cues to action, which are specific events that can encourage preventive health decisions and actions, e.g. physician recommendation, public advertising • Stages of Change Model provides a framework in which the Health Belief Model is applied to facilitating behaviour change (see Figure 2) •







• •







1 . Precontemplation: the individual is not seriously considering change (for various reasons) and is not interested in any kind of intervention 2. Contemplation: the individual begins to seriously consider making

the change within the foreseeable future (often defined as six months) 3. Preparation: the individual begins experimenting, making

small changes; he or she resolves to make a serious attempt in the future (usually defined as 30 days) 4. Action: the individual is actively involved in making

the change, using different techniques 5. Maintenance: the individual must learn to

successfully cope with temptations to return to the previous behaviour pattern

"

"-

\

�,� Relapse: \ atpossible any stage I '� �,

�\ /

i

/

/

Figure 2. Stages of Change Model Source: Prochaska JO, DeClement CC, and Norcross JC, In Search of How People Change. Applications to Addictive Behaviours. Am Psycho/ 47191:1 1 02·1 1 1 4, 1992.

",, '

good health what a person must give up he or she accepts the product "pursuing good health" 3. the distribution channels used to reach the consumer le.g. distributing pamphlets at the doctor's office) 4. the way in which the product is promoted to the consumer

4 p's Influencing Health Marketing 1 . Product = 2. Price = if Place

=

Promotion

=

Example of Harm Reduction Strategy Summary of Findings from the Evaluation of a Pilot Medically SupelVised Safer Injecting Facility CMAI 2006 1 7511 1):1399·1404 Background: This study discusses the outcomes among a population of illicit injection drug users IIDUs) after initiating a supervised safe injecting facility in Vancouver, Septennber 2003. Legal exemption by the Canadian govemement was granted such that an evaluation of its resutts be conducted over a 3 year period. Study Population: IDUs of the Vancouver area were allowed to inject previously obtained illicit drugs under the supervision of nurses and physicians. IOUs were offered addicition counselling and supports for appropriate community resources. A random sample of 670 IOUs was recruited and monitored from Oec 2003 . July 2004. Resu�s: Characteristics of IDUs who used the safe injecting facility included age < 30 years, history of public drug use, homelessness, daily heroin and/or cocaine injection, and recent history of overdose. Mean measures of public order problems were taken 6 weeks before and 1 2 weeks after initiation of the safer injection facility. It was found that the mean number of IOUs injecting in daily public, along with the mean number of publically discarded syringes were reduced by approximately hall. Conclusions: Overall it has been found that the safer injecting facility in Vancouver has been successful in attracting IOUs at increased risk of HIV, overdose, and public injection of substances. This has resulted in lower incidences of public drug use, publically discarded syringes and sharing of needles. Other studies associated with this one have demonstrated that there has been no increase in the drug dealing, drug related crimes, or rates of new IDUs in the area surrounding the safer injecting facility.

PHS Population and Community Health

.... ' , .�------� Characteristics of Innovations that Influence Adaptability of the Change • • • • • • • •

Simple Workable Reversible Flexible Advantageous Cost effective Low risk Compatible with value systems

Detenninants of Health/Measurements of Health and Disease

Toronto Notes 2010

Risk Reduction Strategies • risk reduction: lower the risk to health without eliminating it, e.g. avoiding sun to lower risk of skin cancer • harm reduction: tolerance of some degree of risk behaviour, while aiming to minimize the adverse outcomes associated with these behaviours, e.g. needle exchange programs Innovation-Diffusion Theory • theory that describes the process by which health promotion efforts spread in populations • aims to identify the most effective methods of health promotion within a population • Roger's diffusion theory illustrates the following hierarchy within populations: early adapters (community leaders) early majority late majority group late adapters •

• • •

Measurements of Health and Disease in a Population .... ' , .�------� Top 5 Causes of Mortality in Canada, 2005, by Sex Female

I. 2. 3.

Ischemic Heart Disease Lung Cancer Stroke Non-ischemic heart disease(s) 5. Breast Cancer I . Ischemic Heart Disease 2. Lung Cancer 3. Stroke COPDI chronic lower respiratory disease 5. Diabetes Mellitus 4.

Male

4.

Source: Statistics Canada. CANSIM, 2005. Table 102-0552 and Catalogue No.84F5029X.

.... ' , .�------, Top 5 PYLL Mortality Causes in Canada, 2001

I. 2. 3.

Neoplasm Ci rculatory disease Unintentional injuries Suicide 5. Respiratory disease

4.

Source: Statistics Canada. Heafth Indicators, 2001. Catalogue No.82·31 1 ·XE

Life Expectancy • the average number of years that an individual will live • usually qualified by country, gender, and age Crude Death Rate • mortality rate from all causes of death per 1,000 in the population Standardized Mortality Rate • the ratio of the observed (actual) number of deaths to the expected number of deaths for a group (e.g. age, race, gender, etc.) • useful for comparing populations that are significantly different in some aspect (e.g. the causes of death in developing and developed countries) Potential Years of Life lost ( PVll) • calculated for a population using the difference between the actual age of death and a standard age (e.g. 75) • heavier weight is therefore given to early mortality • males are more likely to die at younger ages due to unintentional injuries; this causes PYLL to be higher in males than females Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) • number of deaths among children under 1 year of age reported during a given time period divided by the number of live births reported during the same time period and expressed per 1,000 live births Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) • annual number of deaths of women during pregnancy and due to puerperal causes per 100,000 live births Proportional Mortality Ratio ( PM R) • proportion of deaths in a specified population over a given period of time attributable to a specific cause. Each cause is expressed as a percentage of all deaths, with the sum of all causes adding to 100% • these proportions are not mortality rates, as the denominator is all deaths and not the specific population in which the deaths occurred Disability Adjusted Life Year (DAlV) • quantitative indicator of the burden of disease that reflects the total amount of healthy life years lost. Includes loss from premature mortality or loss due to a degree of disability over a specific period of time; these disabilities can be physical or mental • two purposes: 1 . measure the burden of disease 2. increase the budget allocative efficiency by identifying health interventions that will afford the largest improvement in health Quality Adjusted Life Year (QAlV) • a value from a to 1 assigned to a year of life based on its quality. A year in perfect health is considered equal to 1 QALY. The value of a year in ill health would be lowered based on the burden of disease For additional rate calculations, see Outbreak of Infectious Diseases, PH20

Toronto Notes 2010

Epidemiology

Population and Community Health PH9

Epidemiology Definitions Population • a collection of individuals who share a common trait. Most commonly applied to a geographic area but it could be another factor such as ethnic group Sample • a selection of individuals from a population or set of possible observations • types: random - all are equally likely to be selected systematic - an algorithm is used to randomly select a subset stratified - separate representation of more than one subgroup cluster - grouped in space / time to reduce costs convenience - non-random •









Sample Size • sample size contributes to the statistical precision of the estimate • increasing the sample size decreases the probability of type I and type II error Bias • non-random error leading to a deviation of inferences or results from the truth • any trend in the collection, analysis, interpretation, publication or review of data that can lead to conclusions that are systematically different from the truth lead-time: time between early diagnosis with screening and when diagnosis would have been made without screening lead-time bias: over-estimation of survival when the estimate is made from the time of actual diagnosis, instead of the time when the disease would have been diagnosed without screening incidence-prevalence bias: when prevalent cases include long-term survivors who have a better prognosis than incident cases length time bias: overestimation of the survival time due to the sampling of prevalent as opposed to incident cases. Selection of prevalent cases will favour the over-inclusion of longer-living cases rather than newly-diagnosed incident cases, some of whom may have short survival times sampling bias: occurs when a selection of a sample that does not truly represent the population. Sampling procedures should be chosen to prevent or minimize bias recall bias: when individuals with a disease are more prone to recalling or believing they were exposed to a possible causal factor than those who are free of disease •











Confounder • a variable that is related to both the exposure and outcome but is not measured or is not distributed equally between groups • distorts the apparent effect of an exposure or risk because it is not logically possible to separate the contribution of a single causal factor to an effect, e.g. smoking and alcohol with head and neck cancer Prevalence • total number of cases in a population over a defined period of time (see sidebar) • two forms of prevalence point prevalence: attempts to measure the frequency of all disease at one specific point in time, therefore knowledge of the time of onset of disease is not required period prevalence: measure constructed from prevalence at a point in time, plus new cases and recurrences over a defined period of time • depends on incidence rate (see sidebar) and disease duration from onset to termination • favours the inclusion of chronic over acute cases and therefore presents a biased picture of the disease • prevalence studies are cross-sectional and cannot be used for causal inferences • prevalence figures are useful for determining the extent of a disease and can aid in the rational planning of facilities and services •



Standardization • adjustment made to the crude rate of a health-related event in a specific population when compared to a "standard" population • standard population is one with a fixed number of persons in each age and sex group, e.g. the 1991 census data for Canada using 5 year age groups for males and females • adjustment can be made on the basis of any characteristics of a population

,- ' , ��------.

Interrelation between exposure (E), disease (0) and confounding factors (eF).

'- ' , �f-------, Incidence and Prevalence

number of new cases of disease in a time interval total population at risk x [per unit population (e.g. 100,000)) (measures the rate of new infections) number of existing cases of disease at apoint in time total population x [per unit population (e.g. 100,000)1 (measures the disease at a point in time) Incidence

=

Prevalence

=

PH10 Population and Community Health Figure 3. Understanding Sensitivity and Specificity 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Figure 3a. Hypothetical Population 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

:r

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 · · · · · · ·

·

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Figure 3b. Results of Diagnostic Test on Hypothetical Population

Epidemiology

Toronto Notes 2010

• standardization prevents bias which could be made by comparing crude rates from two dissimilar populations, e.g. crude death rates between decades are not comparable as the population age distribution has changed with time Sensitivity • proportion of people with disease who are correctly identified by a positive test Specificity • proportion of people without disease who are correctly identified by having a negative test Likelihood Ratio ( LR) • likelihood that a given test result would be expected in a patient with disease compared with the likelihood that the same result would be expected in a patient without disease • LR+ indicates how much the probability of disease increases if the test is positive • LR- indicates how much the probability of disease decreases if the test is negative Positive Predictive Value ( PPV) • proportion of people with a positive test who have the disease Negative Predictive Value ( N PV) • proportion of people with a negative test who are free of disease Pre-test Probability • an estimate of the likelihood a particular patient has a given disease based on known factors Post-test Probability • a revision of the probability of disease after a patient has been interviewed and examined. The calculation process can be more explicit using results from epidemiologic studies, knowledge of the accuracy of tests and Bayes' theorem • the post-test probability from clinical examination is the basis of consideration when ordering diagnostic tests or imaging studies. After each iteration the resultant post-test probability becomes the pre-test probability when considering new investigations

Figure 3c. Sensitivity of Test

Intention-To-Treat • a strategy for analyzing data in which all participants are included in the group to which they were assigned, whether or not they completed the requirements of that group. This is to limit the bias introduced by issues of compliance and to simulate real world situations in which not all patients comply Relative Risk (RR) • ratio of the incidence of a health outcome among the exposed population to the incidence of the health outcome in the non-exposed population

•• • • • ••• • • •••••••••• •••••••••• Figure 3d. Specificity of Test o - well person •

- person with disease

Dark grey - positive test result Light grey - negative test result Source: Loong TW. Understanding sensitivity and specificity with the right side of the brain. BMJ. 2003; 327:716·719

Attributable Risk (AR) • rate of a health outcome attributable to a hypothetical risk factor for that outcome • [incidence in exposed population] - [incidence in non-exposed] • attributable risk assumes causation Odds Ratio (OR) • ratio of the odds of exposure to a hypothetical risk factor among cases to the odd of exposure among non-cases • can be interpreted as the ratio of the odds of developing the outcome (i.e. disease) among those exposed to the hypothetical risk factor to those who are not exposed • OR approximates RR when the prevalence of disease in the population is low Source: Last JM. A Dictionary of Epidemiologv, 4th ed. Oxford University Press. 200 1 .

TP

=

Population and Community Health PHll

Epidemiology

Toronto Notes 2010

True positive TN

=

True Negative FP

=

False Positive FN

Disease

Total Result

Sensitivity

=

Negative

Positive

TP

FP

Negative

FN

TN

Total Result

TP/(TP + FN )

Present

Negative

Positive

68

1 47

Negative

216

2234

Total

284

2381

Specificity = TN/(TN+ FP)

Sensitivity

=

68/284

LR+ = Sensitivity = [TP/TP + FN)]

Specificity

=

2234/238 1

LRPPV

=

NPV=

[FP/(TN + FP)]

1 - Sensitivity Specificity

=

=

LR+

[FN/(TP + FN)] [TN/(TN + FP)]

LR-

TP TP + FP

Relative Risk (RR)

=



NPV =

1 - NPV Attributable Risk

= =

=

=

=

=

=

[TP/(TP + FN)] [FN/(TN + FN)]

=

0.1

0.2 0.5

10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80

23.9 1 - 93.8

90 95

1 - 23.9 93.8

99 Pre-Test Probability 1%)

2234 (2234 + 1 47)

Post-test odds Post-test odds + 1

�'

Disease (e.g. lung CA) Present

Absent

Total

Present

A

B

A+B

Absent

C

0

C + D

Total

A + C

B + D

A + B + C + D

....

Exposure

Case-Control Study

Cohort Study

A A+B

_ _

relative risk (RR)

__ C o

=

..A..lL..!L B x C

incidence rate of disease in smokers _C_ C+D � A+B

90

0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001 0.0005

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

0.5 0.2

likelihood Ratio

0.1 Post-Test Probability (%)

use a specific test to ru e a hypothesis. Note that specific tests have very few false positives. If you get a positive test, you can count on it being a true positive. use a sensitive test to rule a hypothesis. Note that sensitive tests have very few false negatives. If you get a negative test, you can count on it being a true negative. SPIN:

SNOUT:

.A.. B

95

x LR

From Collins J, Lieberman 0, Durbin T, Weiss D. Accuracy of Screening for Fecal Occult Blood on a Single Stool Sample Obtained by Digital Rectal Examination: A Comparison with Recommended Sampling Practice. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2005; 142 121: 81·85 likelihood Ratio Nomogram

odds ratio (OR)

2000 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 5 2 1

A LR greater than 1 gives a post·test probability which is higher than the pre·test probability. A LR less than 1 gives a post-test probability which is lower than the pre·test probability. When the pre· test probabilty is between 30·70%, test resutts with a high LR Isuch as 101 rule in disease. A low LR Isuch as 0.11 virtually rules out the chance that the patient has the disease. To use the nomogram you plot out the pre·test probability 1%1 and the LR and draw a staright line through those two points and where the lines crosses on the post test probabilty is the post test probabilty %.

Figure 4. Clinical Epidemiology Equations with Examples from FOBT Testing for Advanced Neoplasia

1 e.g. smokingI

99 98

98

Prevalence 1 - Prevalence

Post-test Probability =

Likehood Ratio Nomogram

93.8

PPV - 1 - NPV [TP/(TP + FN)] - [FN/(TN + FN)]

Post-test Odds = Pre-Test Odds



23.9

68 PPV = ( 68 + 1 47 )

TN TN + FN

Pre-test Odds



Advanced Neoplasia

Present

1 - Specificity

.... ,

False Negative

=

C_ _ C+D

Figure 5. Results Tabulation by Study Design

=

incidence rate of disease in non-smokers

attributable risk (AR)

� A+B

C C+D

_ _

l in

out

' � �.-------,

Sensitivity and specificity are characteristics of the test. LR depends on the test characteristics, not the prevalence. PPV and NPV depend on the prevalence of the disease in the population.

PH12 Population and Community Health

Types of Study Design

Toronto Notes 2010

Types of Study Design ",,'

Formulating A Research Ouestion

PICO Patient Characteristics Intervention of Interest Comparison Group or Control Group Outcome that you are trying to prevent or achieve

Observational Studies • ecological study • prevalence study (cross-sectional) • case-control (retrospective) • cohort (prospective, incidence, longitudinal) Experimental Studies • non-randomized control trials (e.g. allocation by clinic or other non-random basis) can be performed when randomization is not possible • randomized controlled trial (ReT) clinical trial: tests a treatment or laboratory test in human subjects •

Ecological Study -------" Definition • observational study of an aggregate Subjects • population rather than individuals (e.g. geographic areas such as countries or census tracts) ",,

' ,

9�------�

An example of an ecological study would be one looking at the association between smoking and lung cancer rates in different countries.

Methods • hypotheses generated, often providing accurate descriptions of the average exposure or risk of disease for a population Advantages • quick, easy to do, makes use of readily available data Disadvantages • cannot be used for direct assessment of causal relationships because adequate control of all confounding variables cannot be achieved • cannot infer about an individual in the population; this is an ecological fallacy e.g. an ecological study may show that France has a higher rate of red wine consumption and a lower rate of death from cardiovascular (eVS) causes in the above case, one cannot conclude that red wine drinking leads to lower risk of death from evs disease because the individuals dying from evs disease were not investigated for their red wine drinking habits •



Prevalence Study (Cross-Sectional Study) Definition • status of individual with respect to presence and absence of both exposure and disease assessed at one point in time Subjects • a population (total or sample)

""

' ,

9�------�

Anis oneexampl of a cross thateexami ned thesectidisotrinalbutistudy on of 8MI by age in Ontario.

Methods • collect information from each person at one particular time (or retrospectively from one particular time) • tabulate the numbers in groups (i.e. by presence or absence of disease and presence or absence of a factor) • do appropriate analysis (i.e. make 2 x 2 table and compare groups) Advantages • allows for determination of association between variables Disadvantages • does not allow for assessment of temporal relationship between variables

Case-Control Study (Retrospective) Definition • samples a group of people who already have a particular outcome (cases) and compares them to a similar sample group without that outcome (controls) Subjects • two study populations are compared: cases and controls

Toronto Notes 2010

Types of Study Design

Population and Community Health PH13

Methods • retrospective • hypothesizes that cases have had significantly more exposure to the risk factors than controls • select all the cases of a specific disease during a specific time frame cases should be representative of spectrum of clinical disease under investigation • select control(s) controls should represent the general population • to minimize risk of bias, may select more than one control group and / or match controls to cases (i.e. age, gender) • if a presumed risk factor is present in cases significantly more frequently than in controls, then an association exists between the risk factor and the disease (expressed as an odds ratio, an estimate of relative risk) •



Advantages • commonly used when disease in population is rare (less than 10% of popUlation) due to increased efficiency • less costly and time consuming than cohort studies

..... ' � ��------,

An example of a famous case control study is by Sir Richard Doll who demonstrated the link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer.

Disadvantages • may suffer from recall bias (see PM9 for definition) • confounding may occur • selection bias for controls • only one outcome can be measured

Cohort Study (Prospective, Incidence, Longitudinal) Definition • subjects are sampled and, as a group, classified on the basis of presence or absence of exposure to a particular risk factor Subjects • population separated into cohorts cohort is a group of people with a common characteristic (e.g. year of birth, place of residence, occupation, exposure to a suspected cause of disease) •

Methods • subjects are followed for a specific period of time (often years) to determine development of disease in each exposure group • start with persons who are free of disease and follow forward for a period of time • measure exposure to a risk factor (e.g. smoking) • define one or more outcomes • collect information on factors from all persons at the beginning of the study • tabulate the number of persons who develop the disease or other measured outcomes of morbidity • provides estimates of incidence, relative risk, attributable risk Advantages • can show an association between a factor and an outcome / several outcomes • generally provides stronger evidence for causation than case-control study Disadvantages • by itself, cannot establish causation • confounding fators are common as the cohort self-selects the exposure • cost and duration of time needed to follow cohort are high

Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) Definition • subjects are randomly assigned to two or more groups, one of which is the control group, the other group(s) receive(s) an experimental intervention Subjects • individuals are separated into groups of exposures; these exposures are assigned by random rather than by unknown reasons Methods • random distribution of individuals into two or more treatment groups • one group receives placebo or standard therapy • one or more groups receive(s) the intervention(s) under study • the outcome is measured and the groups are compared • all other conditions are kept the same between groups

..... ' � ��------,

The Framingham study was a longitudinal cohort study.

PH14 Population and Community Health

Types of Study Design

Toronto Notes 2010

Advantages • "gold standard" of studies, upon which the school of EBM is founded • provides the strongest evidence for causation • with sufficient sample size and appropriate randomization, confounding variables are eliminated • allows prospective assessment of the effects of intervention without introducing bias Disadvantages • some concepts are not amenable to randomization (e.g. cannot randomized subjects to poverty / wealth or to harmful exposures such as smoking) • costly Considerations A. What is the method of randomization? is it a centralized concealed process? single-blind: subjects do not know group assignment (intervention or placebo) double-blind: subject and observer both unaware of group assignment triple-blind: subject, observer, and analyst unaware of group assignment •







B. Are the groups truly randomized? are the groups balanced on demographics and other potential confounders? if not, was there selection bias in group assignment? •



C. Is the follow-up of sufficient duration to assess potential harm? How many subjects have been lost to follow-up? D. Are the groups treated equally except for the intervention being studied? E. Are the outcomes meaningful?

Meta-Ana lysis Definition • combine the results of independent studies that address a common reasearch hypothesis into one large study Subjects • combination of all the subjects used in original studies Methods • selection of studies from the published literature • regression models used to combine the results of each independent study Advantages • attempts to overcome the problem of reduced power due to small sample sizes • ability to control for inter-study variation Disadvantages • sources of bias are not controlled for • reliance on published studies may increase the effect as it can be difficult to publish studies that show no sig nificant results (publication bias) • the decision to include / reject a particular study is subjective

Qualitative Studies Definition • a study undertaken to understand complex social phenomena Method • inductive approach primarily concerned with discovery and description • in dept interviewing, participant observation, and focus groups are the major data collection techniques • hypotheses usually developed during the research • analysis in narrative rather than numerical form Advantages • can be used for exploratory or hypotheses generating purposes • open ended questions and flexible study design • provides descriptions of how people experience a research issue Disadvantages • labour intensive • difficult to replicate findings • researcher bias

Critical Appraisal

Toronto Notes 2010

Population and Community Health PHIS

Critical Appraisal Assessing Evidence • critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining research evidence to assess validity, results and relevance before using it to inform a decision

..... ' , ��------,

the degree to which the outcome observed in the study can be attributed to the intervention

Validity •

5 Questions About the Validity of Primary Studies

Were the patients randomized? Was the follow·up of patients sufficiently long and complete? 3. Were all patients analyzed in the groups to which they were randomized? 4. Were the groups treated equally except for the intervention? 5. Were the patients and cl i n i c i a ns kept blind to treatment? Were the groups similar (i.e. demographics, prognostic factors) at the start of the trial? Were the appropriate and valid exposure and outcome measures obtained? Were outcome assessors aware of group allocation? Was contamination reported? Were ethical issues continuously upheld? 1. 2.

Other Questions to Consider •

Background Information / Expert Opinion

Figure 6. Pyramid of Pre-Appraised Evidence





A. Are the results of the study valid? see below for classifications of evidence that has already been assessed; see sidebar for assessing primary studies •

B. What are the results? what was the impact of the treatment effect? how precise was the estimate of treatment effect? what were the confidence intervals and power of the study? •





C. Will the results help me in caring for my patients? are the results clinically significant? can I apply the results to my patient population? were all clinically important outcomes considered? are the likely treatment benefits worth the potential harm and costs? •



• •

Levels of Evidence: Classifications cited in guidelines/consensus statements

Level l evidence: based on RCTs (or meta·analysis of RCTsl big enough to have low risk of incorporating FP or FN results Level II evidence: based on RCTs too small to provide Level l evidence; may show positive trends that are non·significant, or have a high risk of FN results Level III evidence: based on non·randomized, controlled or cohort studies; case series; case·controlled; or cross-sectional studies Level IV evidence: based on opinion of respected authorities or expert committees, as published consensus conferences/guidelines Level V evidence: opinions of the individuals who have written/reviewed the guidelines (i.e. Level IV evidence I, based on experi­ ence/knowledge of literature/peer discussion Notes: These 5 levels of evidence are not direct evaluations of evidence quality or credibility; they reflect the nature of the evi­ dence. While RCTs tend to most credibility (with >1111, level III evidence gains credibility when multiple studies from different loca­ tions and/or time periods report consistent findings. Level IV and V evidence reflects decision-making that is necessary but in the absence of published evidence. Figure 7. Levels of Evidence Classifications

Data Analysis Statistical Hypotheses • null (Ha) no relationship exists between the two stated variables, i.e. no association between the proposed risk factor and the disease • alternative (H1) a relationship does exists between the two stated variables •







PH16 Population and Community Health

Critical Appraisal

Toronto Notes 2010

Type I Error (a Error) • the null hypothesis is falsely rejected, i.e. declaring an effect to be present when it is not • the probability of this error is denoted by the p-value Type II Error (13 Error) • the null hypothesis is falsely accepted, i.e. declaring a difference / effect to be absent when it is present can also be used to calculate statistical power •

Actual Situation

Results of Statistical Analysis

Figure 8. Types of Error. p =

No Effect (Ho)

Effect (H1)

No Effect

No error (p = l oa)

Type II (�) error (p=�)

Effect

Type I (a) error (p=a)

No error (p= l -�)

probability

Power • probability of correctly rejecting a null hypothesis when it is in fact false i.e. the probability of finding a specified difference to be statistically significant at a given p-value • power increases with an increase in sample size • power 1 �, and is therefore equal to the probability of a true positive result =

-

Statistical Significance • the probability that the statistical association found between the variables is due to random chance alone (i.e. that there is no association) • the preset probability is set sufficiently low that one would act on the result; frequently p=O.05 • when statistical tests result in a probability less than the preset limit the results are said to be statistically significant, i.e. p­ " c cr

>

E

10 o

dr. forgot patient forgot not important inconveni lab hoursent depressed chooses not to speci have it done spoimleden patibloeodnt refuses work Defect Type/Cause

Figure 1 1 . Pareto Chart

Cost Analysis Cost Benefit Analysis • a process of, either explicitly or implicitly, weighing the total expected costs against the total expected benefits of one or more actions in order to choose the best or most profitable option • all costs are adjusted for the time value of money, so that costs that may change over time are expressed on a common basis in terms of their present value Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) • a comparison of the relative expenditure (costs) and outcomes (effects) of two or more courses of action • cost-effectiveness analysis is often used where a full cost-benefit analysis is inappropriate • a CEA is commonly expressed in terms of a ratio: the denominator is a gain in health from a measure (years of life, premature births averted, sight-years gained) and the numerator is the cost of the health gain • the most commonly used outcome measure is quality-adjusted life years (QALY)

PH20 Population and Community Health

Outbreak of Infectious Diseases

Toronto Notes 2010

Outbreak of Infectious Diseases Definitions

,,

'

,

��------�

Outbreak • occurrence of new cases clearly in excess of the baseline frequency of the disease in a defined community or population over a given period of time • synonymous with epidemic, although generally considered to be an epidemic that is localized; has an acute onset or is relatively short in duration

Contact

Epidemic • any disease, iniectious or chronic, occurring at a greater frequency than usually expected in a defined community or institutional population over a given time period (i.e. excessive rate of disease)

Airborne

Endemic • constant presence of disease or infectious agent in a given geographic area or population subgroup (i.e. usual rate of disease)

Droplet

Pandemic • epidemic over a wide area, crossing international boundaries and affecting a large number of people

Infection Control Precautions

(Impetigo, Chicken Pox, Warts) Wash hands Gloves Gown Wipe equipment after use (SARS) Wash hands N95 mask Keep door closed (Influenza, Mumps, Pneumonia) Wash hands Goggles Surgical mask Wipe equipment after use

Attack Rate • cumulative incidence of infection within a defined group observed during a specific period of time in an epidemic • calculated by dividing the total number of people who develop clinical disease by the population at risk, usually expressed as a percentage Secondary Attack Rate • number of cases among contacts occurring within the incubation period following exposure to the primary case, in relation to the total exposed contacts • infectiousness reflects the ease of disease transmission and is usually measured by the secondary attack rate Pathogenicity Rate • power of an organism to produce clinical disease in those that are affected Virulence • severity of the disease produced by the organism in a given host • expressed as the ratio of the number of cases of severe and fatal iniection to the total number of clinically affected Case-Fatality Rate • proportion of individuals contracting a disease who die as a result of that disease • most frequently applied to a specific outbreak of acute disease in which all patients have been followed for an adequate period of time to include all attributable deaths • must be clearly differentiated from the mortality rate Mortality Rate/Death Rate • estimation of the portion of the population that dies during a specified period from all causes of death All-Cause Mortality Rate • estimation of the portion of the population in a given age group that dies during a specific period from all causes of death for that age group Morbidity Rate • estimation of the portion of the population that suffers illness or ill health during a specified period

Toronto Notes 2010

Population and Community Health PH21

Outbreak of Infectious Diseases

Steps to Controlling a n Outbreak

-------

1 . Define the Problem • is it an outbreak? 2. Appraise Existing Data and Institution of a Surveillance System • case definition: formulated from the most common symptoms or signs; definition includes the likely date of onset of illness of the first case example: any person with onset of fever higher than 38.5°C and cough within past 28 days laboratory confirmation of the clinical diagnosis via culture or serology is sought as soon as possible as results can define a case more precisely • active surveillance: identify those who may have been exposed to the infectious agent and who fit the case definition through active efforts, including contacting emergency rooms, physicians' offices, local schools obtaining records from other health units, mortality or laboratory records •







3. Formulate Hypotheses and I mplementation of Initial Control Measures • depends on symptoms, suspected agent, population at risk and location • effective outbreak management includes infection control when outbreak is due to infectious agent 4. Test the Hypothesis through Analysis of Surveillance Data or Special Studies • analyze raw data and generate epidemic curves

"' , , .�------,

Surveil ance Defining purpose Data collection Data analysis Interpretation Dissemination Action to prevent disease/injury Outreach such as visits or phone calls by the public health/surveil ance authority to detect unreported cases (e.g. an infection control nurse goes to the ward and reviews temperature charts to see if any patient has a nosocomial infection) A surveil ance system where the public health/surveil ance authority depends on others to submit standardized forms or other means of reporting cases (e.g. ward staff notify infection control when new cases of nosocomial infections are discovered) Steps to Controlling an Outbreak •

• •

Active Surveillance

Passive Surveillance

5. Draw Conclusions, Re-Adjust Hypothesis and Control Measures 6. Write Report, Make Recommendations for Long-term Prevention and Surveillance • modify control measures to stop the outbreak remove / neutralize agent (e.g. isolating residents in a facility) strengthen resistance of hosts (e.g. immunization) interrupt means of transmission in environment (e.g. improvements in food processing) • communicate outbreak information to the public in an effective manner provide education recommend specific prevention and control strategies clearly deliver a unified message, e.g. local public health department, chief officer of health •

• •

• •



For specific examples, see "Communicable Diseases" section in: Shah CPO Public Health and Preventive Medicine in Canada. 5th edition. Elsevier Canada. 2003.

Figure 1 2. Epidemic Curves 14 �t2

Example of a Point Source Epidemic CUlve

JlO ."

11 8 �6

4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 I111213141516171819 21 2223242526272829

I

Dav of Onset

Figure 1 2a. Point Source Epidemic Curve

Epidemic Curves

II

10 9

Example of a Common Source Epidemic Curve

Epidemic Curve • generated from data collected in active surveillance • usually a frequency histogram, with the number of cases plotted on the vertical axis and their dates or times of onset along the horizontal axis • curve can indicate whether the epidemic (outbreak) has a common source or whether it is propagated Common-Source Epidemics • people become ill because of exposure to a single (common) source of infection • point source epidemic: exposure is brief and essentially simultaneous (see Figure 12A) • extended source epidemic: exposure lasts for a period of days to weeks extended exposure can be continuous (no irregular peaks, see Figure 12B) or intermittent (irregularly spaced peaks)

�8

u 7

�5

E �4 5

2 J

0 1 2 1

J

I4 5

5

I

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Dav of Onset

Figure 1 2b. Common Continuous Source Epidemic Curve



Example of a Propagated Epidemic Curve

Propagated Epidemic • begins with only a few exposed persons but is maintained by person-to-person transmission (e.g. measles/ influenza); epidemic curve shows a series of peaks (see Figure 12C)

Figure 1 2c. Propagated Source Epidemic Curve

PH22 Population and Community Health

Environmental Health

Toronto Notes 2010

Environmental Health Definition • study of conditions in the natural and human-made environment that influence human health and well-being • environmental exposures four main reservoirs: air, food, water and soil three main routes: inhalation, ingestion or absorption (skin) • usually divided into two main settings: workplace: often high level exposure in healthy adults (see Occupational Health, PH25) non-workplace: generally low level but chronic exposure; population at risk includes extremes of age, developing fetuses, and ill or immunocompromised •







Environmental Health J u risdiction Public Health Unit • enforcement of water and food safety regulations (including restaurant food safety) • sanitation • assessment of local environmental risks • monitoring and follow-up of reportable diseases Municipal Government • garbage disposal • recycling Provincial and Territorial Government • water and air quality standards • industrial emission regulation • toxic waste disposal Federal Government • designating and regulating toxic substances • regulating food products (e.g. Health Canada) • setting policy for pollutants that can travel across provincial boundaries International • multilateral agreements (e.g. Kyoto Protocol, UN Convention on Climate Change, International Joint Commission)

Haza rd Identification •

two major approaches toxicological: examines the adverse effects of poisons on animals (including humans), has the potential to identify health hazards before humans become ill epidemiological: provides information about health hazards in humans after humans have become ill •



Air Physical Contaminants • sound waves • ionizing radiation radon is naturally produced by soil containing uranium or radium, can contaminate indoor air and is associated with a small proportion of lung cancers ultraviolet radiation is increasing due to ozone layer destruction caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and increases risk of skin cancer alpha-particles are larger and damage the skin and bronchial lining (airway irritation) beta-particles are smaller and cause deeper damage (alveoli) • non-ionizing radiation electromagnetic fields •









Chemical Contaminants • ground-level ozone main component of smog worsens asthma, irritates upper airway levels increasing in Canadian cities • • •

Toronto Notes 2010

Environmental Health

Population and Community Health PH23

• carbon monoxide (fossil fuel related)

combustion byproduct invisible, odourless gas aggravates cardiac disease at low levels headache, nausea, dizziness at moderate level fatal at elevated concentrations levels decreasing in Canadian cities sulphur dioxide (fossil fuel related), nitrogen oxides contribute to acid rain exacerbate breathing difficulties levels decreasing in Canadian cities organic compounds benzene, methylene chloride, tetrachloroethylene, among others variety of health effects at high levels, e.g. benzene is a known carcinogen tend to be fat soluble, easily absorbed through skin and difficult to excrete heavy metals e.g. nickel, cadmium, chromium present in industrial emissions variety of health effects, upper airway disease, asthma, decreased lung function second hand tobacco smoke respiratory problems, increase risk of lung cancer •





















• •





• •







Biological Contaminants • particulates pollen, fungal spores, aerosols associated with decreased lung function, asthma, upper airway irritation levels decreasing in Canadian cities • biological agents moulds thrive in moist areas; 10-15% of the population allergic bacteria survive as spores and aerosols, can be distributed through ventilation systems (e.g. Legionella) dust mites and pollens can trigger upper and lower-airway symptoms • dust mites are year-round and concentrate indoors • pollen is seasonal and outdoors •

• •







Climate Change • anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) leading to adverse changes in the global environment increased extreme weather conditions (e.g. floods, hurricanes, heat waves) increased distribution of vectors of disease (e.g. mosquitoes and malaria) increased malnutrition from crop failures increased diarrheal diseases • •





Water Biological Contaminants • mostly due to human and animal waste • aboriginal Canadians, rural Canadians at higher risk • bacteria: Escherichia coli (e.g. Walkerton, ON), Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Shigella • protozoa: Giardia, Cryptosporidium (e.g. North Battleford, SK) Chemical/Industrial Contaminants • chlorination by-products (e.g. chloroform can cause cancer at high levels) • volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, pesticides and other industrial waste products can be present in groundwater • fluoride at high levels (greater than that of municipal fluoridation) can cause skeletal fluorosis

Soil • contamination sources: rupture o f underground storage tanks, use o f pesticides and

herbicides, percolation of contaminated water runoffs, leaching of wastes from landfills, dust from smelting and coal burning power plants, direct discharge of industrial wastes, lead deposition, leakage of transformers • most common chemicals: petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, lead, pesticides, motor oil, other industrial waste products • health effects: infants and toddlers at highest risk of exposure dependent on contaminant: leukemia, kidney damage, liver toxicity, neuromuscular blockade, developmental damage to the brain and nervous system, skin rash, eye irritation, headache, nausea, fatigue • •

PH24 Population and Community Health

Environmental Health

Toronto Notes 2010

Food Table 4. Comparison of Select Biological Contaminants and Effects on Human Health Salmonella

Campylobacter

Escherichia coli Listeria monocytogenes Clostridium botulinum

Source

Effects

Raw eggs, poultry, meat

GI symptoms

Raw poultry, raw milk,

Joint pain, GI symptoms

Various including meat, sprouts Primarily undercooked hamburger

Watery or bloody diarrhea Hemolytic uremic syndrome (esp. children)

Unpasteurized cheeses, prepared salads, cold cuts

Listeriosis: nausea, vomiting, fever, headache, rarely meningitis or encephalitis

Unpasteurized honey, canned foods

Dizziness, weakness, respiratory failure, GI symptoms: thirst, nausea, constipation

Prion (BSE)

Beef and beef products

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Avian influenza

Occupational agricultural exposure to poultry (note: consumption of poultry is not a risk)

Spectrum from mild flu-like illness to death

SSE



bovine spongiform encephalopathy

• other biological food contaminants include • • • • •

viruses mould toxins (e.g. aflatoxin "" liver cancer) parasites (e.g. toxoplasmosis, tapeworm) paralytic and shellfish poisoning (rare) genetically modified organisms (GMO) - controversial

Chemical Contaminants • many persistent organic pollutants are fat soluble so they "bio-accumulate" with increasing amount of the contaminant in organisms higher up the food chain • drugs (antibiotics, hormones) emerging field of study, organic pollutants can have hormonal effects and cause endocrine disruption • inadequately prepared herbal medications • food additives and preservatives nitrites can be converted to carcinogenic nitrosamines; highest in cured meats sulphites commonly used as preservatives; associated with sulphite allergy (hives, nausea, shock) rarely • pesticide residues older pesticides (i.e. DDT) have considerable human health effects many older pesticides still being used in countries where restrictions are less strict than in Canada current debate about DDT use in malaria-endemic countries, weighing risks of DDT vs. risks of malaria • polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) levels continue to increase in the Arctic effects (severe acne, numbness, muscle spasm, bronchitis) much more likely to be seen in occupationally exposed individuals than in the general population • dioxins and furans levels highest in fish and marine mammals, also present in breast milk can cause immunosuppression, liver disease, respiratory disease •















• •

Heavy Metal Toxicity Background • 100+ elements, 80 are metals, male • age: onset in 25-50 year age group • family history: depression, alcohol abuse, sociopathy • childhood experiences: loss of parent before age 11, negative home environment (abuse, neglect) • personality: insecure, dependent, obsessional • recent stressors (illness, financial, legal) • postpartum 65 years old • high suicide risk due to social isolation, chronic medical illness • suicide peak: males aged 80-90; females aged 50-65 • often present with somatic complaints (e.g. changes in weight, sleep, energy) or anxiety symptoms • refer to Table 4 to compare with delirium and dementia Treatment • biological: antidepressants, lithium, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, electroconvulsive therapy (EeT), light therapy • psychological individual therapy: psychodynamic, interpersonal, cognitive behavioural therapy family therapy group therapy • social: vocational rehabilitation, social skills training • experimental: deep brain stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, vagal nerve stimulation •

• •

Prognosis • one year after diagnosis of a MDE without treatment, 40% of individuals still have symptoms that are sufficiently severe to meet criteria for a full MDE, 20% continue to have some symptoms that no longer meet criteria for a MDE, 40% have no mood disorder

Psychiatry PS9

Antidepressants for Depression in Medical Illness ICochrane Review) Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004; Issue 3 last substantive amendment: 22 August 2000. This systematic review of 18 RCTs compared anti· depressants to placebo or no treatment in patients with a physical disorder le.g. cancer, MI) who have been diagnosed as depressed. Conclusions: Antidepressants cause a signrricant improvement in patients with physical diseases, as compared to placebo or no treatment INNT 4).

St Johns Wart for Major Depression Cochrane Database of Sys Rev 2008;3 Study: Systematic review of trials that were 1 1 ) randomized, double·blinded 12) with patients with major depression 13) comparing St. John's wort Ihypericum extracts) with placebo or standard antidepressants and 14) included clinical outcomes. Patients: 5489 patients with major depression. Outcomes: 1 . Effectiveness: treatment response measured by a depression scale 2. Safety: the proportion of patients who dropped out due to adverse effects. Intervention: St. John's wort vs. Placebo; St.John's wart vs. standard antidepressants. Results: 29 trials, 5489 patients, with 18 comparisons with placebo and 1 7 with antidepressants. St John's wart is more effective than placebo Iresponse rate ratio = 1 .87, 95% CI), and similarly effective as antidepressants IRRR= 1 .02, 95%CI). less adverse effects with hypericum extracts. However, the effect s�e is dependent on the country of origin.

PSI0 Psychiatry

Cogn�ive Therapy vs. Medications in the Treatment of Moderate to Severe Depression Arch Gen Psychiatl}'. 2005;62:409·416 Study: Randomized control trial. Patients: 240 outpatients with moderate to severe MOD, aged 18·70. Intervention: 16 weeks of paroxetine with or without augmentation with lithium camonate or desipramine hydrochloride In= 120) versus cognitive behavioural therapy In=60). Response up to 8 weeks was controlled by pill placebo In=60) Main Outcomes: The Haminon Depression Rating scale was used to detennine response to treatment. Results: At 8 weeks, 50% 195%CI 41·59%) of patients on medication and 43% 195%CI 31 ·56%) of patients on CBT had responded in comparison to 25% 195%CI 16·38%) of patients on pill placebo. There was no significant difference between medication and CBT. At 1 6 weeks, 46% of patients on medication and 40% of patients on CBT achieved remission. Summary: There is no difference in efficacy between CBT vs. paroxetine in the treatment of moderate to severe depression.

Mood Disorders

Toronto Notes 2010

DYSTHYMIA DSM·IV·TR Diagnostic Criteria for Dysthymic Disorder Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Text Revision, Fourth Edition, ICopyright 2000). American Psychiatric Association.

A. depressed mood for most of the day, for more days than not, as indicated either by subjective account or observation by others, for ;::2 years. Note: In children and adolescents, mood can be irritable and duration must be at least 1 year B. presence, while depressed, of ;::2 of the following poor appetite or overeating insomnia or hypersomnia low energy or fatigue low self-esteem poor concentration or difficulty making decisions feelings of hopelessness C. during the 2-year period (1 year for children or adolescents) of the disturbance, the person has never been without the symptoms in criteria A and B for more than 2 months at a time D. no MDE has been present during the first 2 years of the disturbance (1 year for children and adolescents); i.e. the disturbance is not better accounted for by chronic MDD, or MDD in partial remission E. there has never been a Manic Episode, a Mixed Episode, or a Hypomanic Episode, and criteria have never been met for Cyclothymic Disorder F. the disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of a chronic Psychotic Disorder, such as Schizophrenia or Delusional Disorder G. the symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a GMC H. the symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning • • • • •



Epidemiology • point prevalence: 3%; life prevalence: 6%; M:F

=

1 :2-3

Treatment • psychological treatment principle treatment for dysthymia individual, group, and family therapy • medical treatment antidepressant therapy (SSRIs/ SNRIs) as an outpatient • •



Health Canada Advises of Potential Adverse Effects of SSRls and Other Antidepressants on Newborns August 9, 2004 Health Canada was concemed that newboms exposed to SSRls and other antidepressants during the third trimester of pregnancy may be adversely affected, because of reports of complications at birth requiring longer hospitalization, breathing support and tube feeding. Advisory applied to: bupropion lused for depression or smoking cessation), citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, mirtazapine, paroxetine, sertraline and venlafaxine. Conclusions: Physicians and patients should carefully consider risks, benefits and options for both the mother and unborn baby when treating depression in pregnant women. Consider tapering in the third trimester. Women should consult their doctors before stopping these medications.

Antidepressant Treatment for Post-natal Depression ICochrane Review) Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004; Issue 3 Last substantive amendment: 1 2 January 2001 This systematic review of trials included only one trial in which postpartum depressed women received fluoxetine or placebo. Conclusions: Fluoxetine was significantly more effective than placebo, and as effective as a course of CBT in the short tenn. More trials are needed.

Postpartum Mood Disorders Postpartum "Blues" • transient period of mild depression, mood instability, anxiety, decreased concentration, increased concern over own health and health of baby - considered to be normal emotional changes related to the puerperium • occurs in 50-80% of mothers; begins 2-4 days postpartum, usually lasts 48 hours, can last up to 10 days • does not require psychotropic medication • patient at increased risk of developing postpartum depression Postpartum Depression ( PPD) • diagnosis: MDE, onset within 4 weeks postpartum • clinical presentation typically lasts 2 to 6 months; residual symptoms can last up to 1 year may present with psychosis - rare (0.2%), usually associated with mania, but can be MDE severe symptoms include extreme disinterest in baby, suicidal and infanticidal ideation • epidemiology: occurs in 10% of mothers, risk of recurrence 50% • risk factors previous history of a mood disorder (postpartum or otherwise) psychosocial factors: stressful life events, unemployment, marital conflict, lack of social support, unwanted pregnancy, colicky or sick infant • treatment psychotherapy short-term safety of maternal SSRIs for breastfeeding infants established; long-term effects unknown supportive, non-directive counselling by trained home visitors if depression severe, consider ECT • prognosis: impact on child development - increased risk of cognitive delay, insecure attachment, behavioural disorders; treatment of mother improves outcome for child at 8 months through increased mother-child interaction • •







• •





Mood Disorders

Toronto Notes 2010

Psychiatry PSll

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)

------

Reprinted with permi ss i on from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Text Revision, Fourth Edition, (Copyright 2000). Ame rican Psychiatric As soc i ati on

DMS-IV-TR Diagnostic Criteria for Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder .

A. in most menstrual cycles during the past year, five (or more) of the following symptoms were present for most of the time during the last week of the luteal phase, began to remit within a few days after the onset of the follicular phase, and were absent in the week post-menses, with at least one of the symptoms being one of the first four listed 1. markedly depressed mood, feelings of hopelessness, or self-deprecating thoughts 2. marked anxiety, tension, feeling of being "keyed up" or "on edge" 3. marked affective lability 4. persistent and marked anger, irritability, or increased interpersonal conflicts 5. decreased interest in usual activities 6. difficulty concentrating 7. lethargy, easily fatigued, lack of energy 8. change in appetite - overeating or specific food cravings 9. hypersomnia or insomnia 10. a sense of being overwhelmed or out of control 11. physical symptoms - breast tenderness or swelling, headaches, joint or muscle pain, sensation of bloating or weight gain B. the disturbance markedly interferes with work, school, social activities, or relationships with others C. the disturbance is not merely an exacerbation of the symptoms of another disorder such as Major Depressive Disorder, Panic Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder or Personality Disorder D. Criteria A, B and C must be confirmed by prospective daily recordings and/ or ratings during at least two consecutive symptomatic cycles Treatment • 1st line: SSRls highly effective in treating PMDD fluoxetine and sertraline most studied can be used intermittently in luteal phase x 14 days • 2nd line clomipramine alpraxolam (Xanax®) for anxiety symptoms • 3rd line OCP containing progesterone drospirenone (e.g. Yasmin®) GnRH agonists (e.g. leuprolide) • if GnRH agonist completely relieves symptoms may consider definitive surgery (i.e. total abdominal hysterectomy + bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy) •



• •





Bipolar Disorders BIPOLAR I / BIPOLAR II DISORDER Definition • Bipolar I Disorder disorder in which at least one manic or mixed episode has occurred commonly accompanied by at least 1 MDE but not required for diagnosis • Bipolar II Disorder disorder in which there is at least 1 MDE and at least 1 hypomanic episode no past manic or mixed episode • •





Epidemiology • prevalence: 0.6-0.9%; M:F • age of onset: teens to 20' s

=

1 :1

Risk Factors • slight increase in upper socioeconomic groups • 60-65% of bipolar patients have family history of major mood disorders Classification • classification of bipolar disorder involves describing the current or most recent mood episode as either manic, hypomanic, mixed or depressed • the current or most recent episode can be further classified as without psychotic features, with psychotic features, with catatonic features, with postpartum onset, with seasonal pattern, with rapid cycling (at least 4 episodes of a mood disturbance in the previous 12 months that meet criteria for a Major Depressive, Manic, Mixed, or Hypomanic Episode)

A Randomized Controlled Trial of Cognitive Therapy for Bipolar Disorder: Focus on Long. ienn Change J Clin Psvchiatry. 2006 Feb; 67(2):277·86 Study: Randomized, blinded clinical trial. Patients: 52 patients with DSM·IV bipolar 1 or 2 disorder. Intervention: Patients allocated to either a 6 month trial of cognitive therapy (eT) with emotive techniques or treatment as usual. Both groups received mood stabilizers. Main Outcomes: Relapse rates, dysfunctional attitudes, psychosocial functioning, hopelessness, self·control, medication adherence. Patients were assessed by independent raters blinded to treatment group. Results: At 6 months, CT patients experienced fewer depressive symptoms and fewer dysfunctional attitudes. There was a non·significant (p= .06) trend to greater time to depressive relapse. At 12 month follow up, CT patients had lower Young Mania Rating scores and improved behavioural sell· control. At 18 months, CT patients reported less severity of illness. Conclusions: CT appears to provide benefrts in the 12 months succeeding completion of therapy.

Mood Disorders/Anxiety Disorders

PS12 Psychiatry

Toronto Notes 2010

Treatment • biological: mood stabilizers, anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, antidepressants, ECT (Note: Treatment of bipolar depression must be done extremely cautiously, as a switch from depression to mania can result. Monotherapy with antidepressants should be avoided) • psychological: supportive and psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive or behavioural therapy • social: vocational rehabilitation, leave of absence from school / work, drug and EtOH cessation, substitute decision maker for finances, sleep hygiene, social skills training, education for family members CYCLOTHYMIA Diagnosis • presence of numerous periods of hypomanic and depressive symptoms (not meeting criteria for MDE) for �2 years; never without symptoms for >2 months • no MDE, manic or mixed episodes; no evidence of psychosis • symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or GMC • symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functiorung Treatment • similar to Bipolar I • anticonvulsants ± psychotherapy

Anxiety Disorders Definition • anxiety is a universal human characteristic involving tension, apprehension, or even terror, which serves as an adaptive mechanism to warn about an external threat by activating the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) • manifestations of anxiety can be described along a continuum of physiology, psychology, and behaviour physiology - main brain structure involved is the amygdala; neurotransmitters involved include serotonin, cholecystokinin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine psychology - one's perception of a given situation is distorted which causes one to believe it is threatening in some way behaviour - once feeling threatened, one responds by escaping or facing the situation, thereby causing a disruption in daily functioning • anxiety becomes pathological when fear is greatly out of proportion to risk/ severity of threat response continues beyond existence of threat or becomes generalized to other similar / dissimilar situations social or occupational functiorung is impaired •











Differential Diagnosis Table 3. Differential Diagnosis of Anxiety Disorders Cardiovascular Post-MI, arrhythmia, congestive heart failure, pulmonary embolus, arrhythmia, mitral valve prolapse Respiratory

Asthma, COPD, pneumonia, hyperventilation

Endocrine

Hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, hypoglycemia, hyperadrenalism, hyperparathyroidism

Metabolic

Vitamin B ' 2 deficiency, porphyria

Neurologic

Neoplasm, vestibular dysfunction, encephalitis

Substance-Induced

Intoxication (caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine, thyroid preparations, DTe for colds/decongestants), withdrawal (benzodiazepines, alcohol)

Other Psychiatric Disorders Psychotic disorders, mood disorders, personality disorders (DCPD), somatoform disorders

Medical Workup of Anxiety Disorder • routine screening: physical examination, CBC, thyroid function test, electrolytes, urinalysis, urine drug screening • additional screening: neurological consultation, chest x-ray, electrocardiogram (ECG), CT scan

Toronto Notes 2010

Psychiatry PS13

Anxiety Disorders

Panic Disorder DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic Criteria for Panic Disorder without Agoraphobia Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Text Revision, Fourth Edition, (Copyright 2000). American Psychiatric Association.

A. both (1) and (2) (1) recurrent unexpected panic attacks: a discrete period of intense fear or discomfort, in which �4 of the following symptoms develop abruptly and reach a peak within 10 minutes • palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate • sweating • trembling or shaking • sensations of shortness of breath or smothering • feeling of choking • chest pain or discomfort • nausea or abdominal distress • feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded, or faint • derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself) • fear of losing control or going crazy • fear of dying • paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations), chills or hot flushes (2) at least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 month (or more) of �1 of the following • persistent concern about having additional attacks • worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences (e.g. losing control, having a heart attack, "going crazy") • a significant change in behavior related to the attacks B. absence of agoraphobia C. the panic attacks are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or GMC D. the panic attacks are not better accounted for by another mental disorder, such as Social Phobia, Specific Phobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Separation Anxiety Disorder •



Epidemiology • prevalence: 1 .5-5% (one of the top five most common reasons to see a family doctor); M:F 1 :2-3 • onset: average late 20's, familial pattern =

Treatment • supportive psychotherapy, relaxation techniques (visualization, box-breathing), cognitive behavioural therapy (correct distorted thinking, desensitization / exposure therapy) • pharmacotherapy SSRIs: fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, fluvoxamine, sertraline SNRI: venlafaxine with SSRI / SNRIs start low, go slow, aim high to prevent non-compliance due to physical side effects, explain symptoms to expect prior to initiation other antidepressants (TCAs: clomipramine, imipramine, mirtazapine, MAOIs) benzodiazepines (short term, low dose, regular schedule, long half-life, no pm) •









Prognosis • 6-10 years post-treatment: 30% well, 40-50% improved, 20-30% no change or worse • clinical course: chronic, but episodic with psychosocial stressors Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia • agoraphobia anxiety about being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult (or embarrassing) or where help may not be available in the event of having an unexpected panic attack fears commonly involve situations: being out alone, being in a crowd, standing in a line, or travelling on a bus • situations are avoided, endured with anxiety or panic, or require companion • treatment: as per panic disorder •



Genera lized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) DSM-IV-TR Diagnostic Criteria for Generalized Anxiety Disorder Reprinted with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Text Revision, Fourth Edition, (Copyright 2000). American Psychiatric Association.

A. excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation), occurring more days than not for at least 6 months, about a number of events or activities (such as work or school performance)

"'' f'·' Increased anxiety

and generalization

to other situations

Figure 1 .

·-r



Mentally

associated with situation

Panic Attack

"'" Criteria for Panic Disorder (;04)

STUDENTS FEAR the 3 C's Sweating Tremb l ing Unsteadiness, dizziness Depersonalization, Derealization Excessive heart rate, palpitations Nausea Tingling Shortness of breath Fear of dying, losing control, going

crazy 3 C's: Chest pain, Chills, Choking

PS14 Psychiatry

'"' Criteria for GAD (,,3)

BE SKIM Blank mind Easily fatigued Sleep disturbance Keyed up Irritability Muscle tension

Anxiety Disorders

Toronto Notes 2010

B. the person finds it difficult to control the worry C. the anxiety and worry are associated with ;::3 of the following 6 symptoms (with at least some symptoms present for more days than not for the past 6 months). Note: Only one item is required in children 1. restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge 2. being easily fatigued 3. difficulty concentrating or mind going blank 4. irritability 5. muscle tension 6. sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless unsatisfying sleep) D. the focus of the anxiety and worry is not confined to features of an Axis I disorder, such as panic disorder, social phobia, etc. E. the anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning F. the disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance or a GMC and does not occur exclusively during a Mood Disorder, a Psychotic Disorder, or a Pervasive Developmental Disorder Epidemiology • I -year prevalence: 3-8%; M:F = 1 :2; if considering only those receiving inpatient treatment, ratio is 1:1 • most commonly presents in early adulthood Treatment • psychotherapy, relaxation, mindfulness, and CBT • caffeine and EtOH avoidance, sleep hygiene • pharmacotherapy: benzodiazepines (short term, low dose, regular schedule, long half-life, no pm) buspirone (tid dosing) others: SSRls/ SNRI, TCAs, beta-blockers • combinations of above •





Prognosis • chronically anxious adults become less so with age • depends on pre-morbid personality functioning, stability of relationships, work, and severity of environmental stress • difficult to treat

Phobic Disorders Specific Phobia • definition: marked and persistent fear that is excessive or unreasonable, cued by presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation • lifetime prevalence 12-16%; M:F ratio variable • types: animal / insect, environment (heights, storms), blood / injection / injury, situational (airplane, closed spaces), other (loud noise, clowns) Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder) • definition: marked and persistent fear of social or performance situations in which person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others; person fears he / she will act in a way that may be humiliating or embarrassing (e.g. public speaking, initiating or maintaining conversation, dating, eating in public) • lifetime prevalence may be as high as 13-16%; M6 months)

Somatization Disorder • recurring, multiple, clinically significant physical complaints which result in patient seeking treatment or having impaired functioning

• 6 months), frequent intrusive behaviour • impact of ODD: poor school performance, few friends, strained parenti child relationships • may progress to CD •

�'

ODD kids "ARE BRATS": Annoying Resentful Easily annoyed Blames others Rule breaker Argues with adults Temper Spiteful/vindictive

Treatment • establish generational boundaries • parent management training and psychoeducation • individual / family therapy • pharmacotherapy for comorbid disorders • school / daycare interventions to help with behaviour management SEE PEDIATRICS : CHILD ABUSE CHRONIC RECURRENT ABDOMINAL PAIN DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY ELIMINAT ION DISORDERS LEARNING DISABILITY INT ELLECT UAL DISABILIT Y SLEEP DIST URBANCES

Psychodynamic Therapies • theory: one's present outlook is shaped by one's past and unconscious psychological • •

forces insight allows change in personality and behaviour conflict - three stages non-resolvable conflict attempt to repress return of conflict in disguised form (symptom or character trait) emphasis on early interaction with caregiver sources of information past and present experiences and relationships relationship with therapist • transference: unconscious re-enactment of early interpersonal patterns in relationship with therapist • countertransference: therapist's transference to patient • resistance: elements in the patient which oppose treatment techniques free association - patient says whatever comes to mind dream analysis stage of change important for all conflict resolutions • •

• •















Defense Mechanisms • defence mechanisms are unconsciously activated b y the patient i n response to anxiety provoking events and feelings

The Role of the Therapeutic Alliance in Psychotherapy and Phannacotherapy Outcome: Findings in the National Institute of Mental Heakh Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program J Gonsuft Glin Psychol. 1996 Jun; 6413):532-9 Study: Randomized clinical trial. Participants: 255 male and female adults fulfilling research criteria for major depressive episode and who completed follow-up Itotal of 619 sessions). Intervention: Four treatment arms: cognitive­ behavioural therapy, interpersonal therapy, imipramine plus clinical management and placebo plus clinical management. Methods: Clinical raters scored videotapes of early, middle and late therapy session. Outcomes: Patients' and clinicians' perspectives and depressive symptomatology. Resuks: Therapeutic alliance was found to have a signrricant effect on outcome in all treatment anns. Patient contribution to alliance had a significant effect on outcomes, whereas therapist contribution to alliance had no significant effect. Conclusions: Therapeutic alliance is a common factor which significantly influences outcome.

PS40 Psychiatry

Psychodynamic Therapies

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 3. Defense Mechanisms Level l : Psychotic Defenses Common in psychosis; normally seen throughout childhood and in dreams

Level 2: Immature Defenses Common in personality disorders, severe depression. Normally seen throughout adolescence

• • •

• • • • • • •

Level 3: Neurotic Defenses Common in adults

• • • • • • • • • • •

Level 4: Mature Defenses Common in emotionally healthy adults

• • • • •

Denial: replacing external reality with wishful fantasy Distortion: reshaping of reality to meet inner beliefs, resulting in unrealistic and overvalued ideas Projection: interpreting intemal impulses as though they are outside se�; in psychosis seen as frank delusion about reality (i.e. persecutory delusions)

Acting out: express unconscious wish through impulsive action, rather than inhibit it Blocking: of thinking, affect, or impulse Hypochondriasis: exaggeration of illness in order to avoid anxiety-provoking situations Introjection: internalizing qualities of an object (i.e. victim identifying with aggressor) Passive-aggressive behaviour: express aggression through passivity and masochism Regression: returning to an earlier stage of development to avoid present stressors Somatization: unconscious expression of psychic pain/tension as physical symptoms

Controlling: managing events to reduce inner conflict Displacement shifting emotional response to an objecVidea resembling that which is anxiety provoking Externalization: attributing personal aspects (i.e. moods, attitudes, conflicts) to external world and objects Inhibition: limiting function to avoid anxiety producing intemal conflicts Intellectualization: using intellectual processing to avoid experiencing affect Isolation: separating objects!ldeas from their associated affect (which is repressed) Rationalization: using rational explanations to justify behaviours that are unacceptable Dissociation: temporary modification of sense of self to avoid emotional distress Reaction formation: transforming an unacceptable impulse into its opposite Repression: withholding or removing from consciousness an idea/feeling Sexualization: bestowing sexual importance to objects

Altruism: constructive service to others to experience empathy Anticipation: planning for future discomfort Asceticism: denying pleasurable effects of an experience (i.e. gratification from renunciation) Humour: overt expression of feelings in a comic fashion Suppression: postpone attention to impulse or conflict

Varieties of Psychodynamic Therapy • psychoanalysis (exploratory psychotherapy)

original therapy developed by Freud, goal is self-revelation and insight the exploration of the meaning of early experiences and how they affect emotions and patterns of behaviour presently time intensive (e.g. 4-5 times / week for 3-7 years) for individuals who can tolerate ambiguity in explorations of feelings and treatment • supportive psychotherapy goal is not insight but reduction of anxiety strengthen healthy defense mechanisms to assist day-to-day functioning techniques include; enhancing self-esteem, clarification, confrontation, rationalization, reframing, encouragement, rehearsal / anticipation, de-catastrophizing, allowing "ventilation" of frustrations • short term/brief psychotherapy resolution of particular emotional problems, or acute crisis number of sessions agreed on at outset (6-20) • interpersonal psychotherapy short-term treatment looking at relationship patterns and teaching coping mechanisms focus on personal social roles and relationships to help deal with problems in current functioning •



• •















Behaviou r Therapy • modification of internal or external events which precipitate or maintain emotional distress; useful in the treatment of anxiety disorders, substance abuse, paraphilias

• systematic desensitization: mastering anxiety-provoking situations by approaching them gradually and in a relaxed state that limits anxiety

• flooding: confronting feared stimulus for prolonged periods until it is no longer frightening • positive reinforcement: strengthening behaviour and causing it to occur more frequently by rewarding it

• negative reinforcement: causing behaviour to occur more frequently by removing a noxious stimulus when desired behaviour occurs

• extinction: causing a behaviour to diminish by not rewarding it • punishment (aversion therapy); causing a behaviour to diminish by applying a noxious stimulus

Psychodynamic Therapies/Pharmacoterapy

Toronto Notes 2010

Psychiatry PS41

Cogn itive Therapy • theory: moods and feelings are influenced by one's thoughts • psychiatric disturbances are frequently caused by habitual errors in thinking • goal is to help patient become aware of automatic thoughts and correct assumptions with a more balanced view

• useful for depression, anxiety disorders, self-esteem problems • use of this therapy presupposes a significant level of functioning • patients asked to keep thought journal (often in chart form, with column headings

"situation", "feeling", "thought" and "cognitive distortion") to monitor their thoughts, when/ where they think these thoughts, how the thoughts make them feel and what their underlying error in thinking might be

Cogn itive Behaviour Therapy • combines cognitive and behaviour therapies to teach the patient to weaken connections between thinking patterns, habitual behaviours and mood/ anxiety problems

• good for treatment of mild/ moderate depression / anxiety

Other Therapies • group psychotherapy

goals: self-understanding, acceptance, social skills creates a microcosm of society family therapy family system considered more influential than individual structural focus • here and now • re-establish parental authority • strengthen normal boundaries • re-arrange alliances hypnosis: mixed evidence for the treatment of pain, phobias, anxiety, and smoking cessation dialectical behaviour therapy: a form of CBT originally developed for borderline patients but since found to be effective for the treatment of several other disorders; focuses on four types of skills: mindfulness, emotion regulation, interpersonal effectiveness, and distress tolerance; individual and group therapy settings mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: derived from Buddhist meditative practices; aims to help people attend to thoughts, behaviours and emotions non-judgmentally and in the moment using guided breathing exercises •









• •



P harmacotherapy Antipsychotics • "antipsychotics" and "neuroleptics" are terms used interchangeably • indications: schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, mood disorders with or without psychosis, violent behaviour, autism, Tourette's, somatoform disorders, dementia, OCD

• onset: immediate calming effect and decrease in agitation; thought disorder responds in 2-4 weeks

Table 14. Pathophysiology of Schizophrenia vs. Mechanism of Action of Antipsychotics Brain Area

Pathophysiology in Schizophrenia Typical Antipsychotic

Limbic System

Excess DA +ve symptoms (hallucinations, delusions)

D2 blockade treats + ve symptoms

Weak 5HT block, D2/1 blockade maintained treats +ve symptoms

Frontal Cortex

Decreased DA -ve symptoms (flat affect, anhedonia, avolitionl, cognitive impairment

D2 blockade May worsen -ve symptoms and cognitive impairment

Robust 5HT block increases DA transmission Theoretical improvement in negative/cognitive symptoms only observed with clozapine

Basal Ganglia

Unchanged

D2 blockade relative Ach excess causes EPS symptoms

Robust 5HT block increases DA transmission Decreased EPS incidence

Tuberoinfundibular Tract

Unchanged

D2 blockade hyperprolactinemia

5HT block increases DA Less hyperprolactinemia

Atypical Antipsychotic

Note: specific "typical" and "atypical" antipsychotics vary in terms of binding to adrenergic, 5-HT, cholinergic and histaminergic sites leading to different side effect profiles

Two·year Randomized Controlled Triaf and Foffow· up of Dialectical Behaviour Therapy vs. Therapy by Experts for Suicidal Behaviours and Borderfine Personality Disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 Jul; 63111:757-66 Objective: To determine how oBT compares with non-behavioural psychotherapy. Study: One-year randomized controlled trial followed by one year follow-up period. Patients: 100 women with recent suicidal and self­ injurious behaviours meeting oSM criteria and matched to various demographic data. Intervention: One year of oBT or one year of non­ behavioural therapy. Outcomes: Trimester assessments of suicidal behaviour, emergency services use, general psychological well-being. Results: Patients receiving oBT were hall as like� to attempt suicide, required less hospitalization for suicidal ideation, had lower medical risk for suicide attempts, were less likely to drop out of therapy and had fewer emergency room visits for suicidal ideation. Conclusions: oBT is effective in reducing suicidal behaviour in patients with borderline personality disorder.

PS42 Psychiatry

Phannacotherapy

Toronto Notes 2010

Rational Use of Antipsychotics • no reason to combine antipsychotics • choosing an antipsychotic all antipsychotics are equally effective atypical antipsychotics are as effective as typical antipsychotics but have better side effect profiles choose a drug patient has responded to in the past or that was used successfully in a family member • route: PO; short-acting or long-acting depot 1M injections; dissolvable • minimum 6 months, usually for life •





Table 1 5. Common Antipsychotic Agents Starting Dose

Maintenance

Maximum

Pimozide 10rap'" ) Haloperidol lHaldol '")

0.5-1 mg PO bid

2-1 2 mg/d PO

20 mg/d PO

2-5 mg 1M q4-8h 0.5-5 mg PO b/tid 0.2 mg/kg/d PO

Based on clinical effect

20 mg/d PO

Fluphenazine enanthate IModiten '", Modecate'M for 1M formulation)

2.5-1 0 mg/d PO

1 -5 mg PO qhs

20 mg/d PO

Zuclopenthixol HCI IClopixol'")

20-30 mg/d PO

Relative Potency Img)

Typicals

On order of potency from high to low)

25 mg IMiSC ql-3 weeks 20-40 mg/d PO

Zuclopenthixol acetate IAcuphase '" ) 50-150 mg 1M q48-72h

1 00 mg/d PO

4

400 mg 1M Iq2 weeks)

Zuclopenthixol decanoate ICloxipol Depot 'M )

1 00 mg 1M ql-4 weeks

Trifluoperazine IStelazine '" )

2-5 mg PO bid

2-1 5 mg PO bid

Perphenazine ITrilafon '" )

8-1 6 mg PO b/tid

4-8 mg PO t/qid

64 mg/d PO

10

Loxapine HCl lLoxitane '" )

10 mg PO tid 12.5-50 mg 1 M q4-6h

60-100 mg/d PO

250 mg/d PO

10

Thioridazine IMellaril '" )

25-100 mg PO tid

1 00-400 mg PO bid

800 mg/d PO

1 00

Chlorpromazine ILargactil'")

1 0-15 mg PO blt/qid

400 mg/d PO

1 000 mg/d PO

1 00

Risperidone IRisperdal '" , Risperdal Consta ," for 1M long acting preparation)

1 -2 mg OD/bid

4-8 mg/d PO

8 mg/d PO

OIanzapine IZyprexa'" , Zydis '")

5 mg/d PO

1 0-20 mg/d PO

Ziprasidone IZeldox '")

40 mg/d 1M

80-160 mg/d 1M

1 60 mg/d 1M

Clozapine IClozaril '" )

25 mg PO bid

300-600 mg/d PO

900 mg/d PO

Quetiapine ISeroquel '" )

25 mg PO bid

400-800 mg/d PO

800 mg/d PO

Aripiprazole Inot yet approved in Canada)

1 0-15 mg/d PO

1 0-1 5 mg/d PO

30 mg/d PO

1 50-300 mg 1M q2 weeks 600 mg 1M/week 60 mg/d PO

Atypicals

High potency

25 mg 1M q2 weeks 30 mg/d PO

Low potency

Side Effects of Typical Antipsychotics • low potency: anticholinergic, antiadrenergic, anti-histaminic side effects • high potency: risk of movement disorder side effects (extrapyramidal side effects) and neuroleptic malignant syndrome (allergic reaction)

Ql 8

§-

Z

� '"

� Table 1 6. Commonly Used Atypical Antipsychotics Risperidone IRisperdal'")

OIanzapine IZyprexa '" , Zydis '")

Ouetiapine ISeroquel'")

Clozapine IClozaril '")

Ziprasidone IZeldox " )

Mechanism

Blocks 5·HT2' 02 and adrenergic receptors

Blocks 5·HT2, 3,S' 01 ·04, muscarinic, adrenergic, histaminergic receptors

Blocks 5·HT2A' 0 1 · 2 , adrenergic and histaminergic receptors

Blocks 5·HT2, 3 ' 01 ·4, muscarinic, histaminergic receptors

Blocks 5·HT2A' and moderate 02 receptor antagonism; moderately potent adrenergic and histaminergic blocker

Advantages

Low incidence of EPS at lower doses 1 < 8 mgl

Better overall efficacy compared to haloperidol Well tolerated Low incidence of EPS and TO

Associated with less weight gain compared to clozapine and olanzapine

Most effective for treatment·resistant schizophrenia Ooes not worsen tardive symptoms; may treat them Approximately 50% of patients benefit, especially paranoid patients and those with onset after 20 years

Disadvantages

SE: insomnia, agitation, EPS, h/a, anxiety, prolactin, postural hypotension, constipation, dizziness, weight gain

SE: mild sedation, insomnia, dizziness, minimal anticholinergic, early AST and ALT elevation, restlessness

SE: H/A, sedation, dizziness, constipation

SE: drowsiness/sedation, hypersalivation, tachycardia, dizziness, EPS, NMA

Most sedating of first line atypicals

1 % agranulocytosis

Weight gain associated with increased risk of diabetes mellitus and hyperlipidemia Comments

Quick dissolve IM·tabs), and long·acting IConsta®) formulations available

Quick dissolve formulation IZydis '" ) used commonly in ER setting for better compliance 1M form available

'

;q

SE: sedation, nausea, constipation, dyspepsia

§

� �

Weekly blood counts for at least 1 month, then q2weeks

00 not use with drugs which may cause bone marrow suppression due to risk of agranulocytosis

Note: Risk of weight gain: Clozapine/Olanzapine > Risperidone/Quetiapine > Ziprasidone

I �

PS44 Psychiatry

Pharmacotherapy

DPD

Mediastinal

IBD (UC, CD) Chronic infections Laxative abuse Polyposis Malignant tumours Cirrhosis HCC

B

« ABC < 1 760 « ABD < 1 920

Table 5. Differential Diagnosis of Clubbing CF Pulmonary fibrosis Chronic pus in the lung (bronchiectasis, abscess, infections, etc,) Lung CA (primary or mets) Mesothelioma A-V fistula

Most common cause is bronchitis 90% of hemoptysis is from the bronchial arteries Considered "massive" if >600 cc/24 hours

Normal

Reprinted from Principles of Pulmonary Medicine, 2nd edition, SE Weinberger, Copyright (1 992). with permission from Elsevier,

Pulmonary

GERD Asthma Post-nasal drip Post -vira l ACE inhibitor

useful i n differentiating the pattern o f lung disease (obstructive vs, restrictive) (Table 6) assess lung volumes, flow rates, and diffusion capacity (see Figures 4a and 4b below) normal values for FEV 1 are approximately ±20% of the predicted values (for age, sex and height); race may affect predicted values

i !i+ -IC

>

.:!.T_

FRC

i

TIME

-TLC

j

Figure 4a. Subcompartments of Lung Volumes

�;�:::rictive o",�C>� n� e marker timsecond s: �

2

0

-I yi.;

\

S---'--,_T

6 4 2 LUN G VOLUM E (L)

,8 vc

1

0

Figure 4b. Expiratory Flow Volume Curves

Reprinted from Principles of Pulmonary Medicine, 2nd edition, SE Weinberger, Copyright (1 9921, with permission from Elsevier,

Obstructive Lung Disease • characterized by obstructed airflow, decreased flow rates (most marked during expiration), air trapping (increased RV / TLC), and hyperinflation (increased FRC, TLC) • differential diagnosis includes asthma, chromc obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), and bronchiectasis Restrictive Lung Disease • characterized by decreased lung compliance and lung volumes • differential diagnosis includes interstitial lung disease, neuromuscular disease, chest wall disease, pleural disease, and parenchymal disease (pulmonary fibrosis)

.... ' , .�-------. Lung Volumes

FEV - Forced Expiratory Volume in one second MMFR - Maximal Mid-expiratory Flow Rate FVC - Forced Vital Capacity FEF - Forced Expiratory Flow Rate FRC - Functional Residual Capacity TLC - Total Lung Capacity VC - Vital Capacity RV - Residual Volume Dco - Diffusion Capacity of Carbon Monoxide 1

Toronto Notes 2010

Approach to the Respiratory Patient

R4 Respirology

Table 6. Comparison of Lung Flow and Volume Parameters in Obstructive vs. Restrictive Lung Disease Obstructive

Restrictive

Flow Rates

FEV, FVC FEV,IFVC FEF25_75

Decreased Decreased Decreased Decreased

Decreased or N Decreased Increased or N Increased or N

Lung Volumes

TLC FRC VC RV RV;TLC

Increased or N Increased or N Decreased or N Extremely increased Increased

Decreased Decreased Decreased Decreased N

Diffusion Capacity

DCa

Decreased or N

Decreased or N

.... ' , ��------, D" decreases with: 1 . Decreased surface area (i.e. emphysema) 2. Decreased hemoglobin (i.e. anemia) 3. Interstitial lung disease 4. Pulmonary vascular disease

r

FEV/FVC > 80% predicted Non Obstructive Defect (Restrictive)

I I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Low

t

I

Rise in FEV, > 1 2%

I

I

I

Decreased TLC and FRC + increased RV

t

I

I I

NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASE

I

Decreased TLC and FRC + normal RV 'f

CHEST WALL DISEASE

I I

I

I

No change in FEV, Flow volume loop, Lung volumes, OeD

Normal TLC and OeD

t

CHR NIC B RONCHITIS

I

I

Lung volumes normal

I

I

FEV/FVC normal

I

I

I

Give bronchodilator

INTER TiTAL LUNG DISEASE

I

I

FEV/FVC < 80% predicted Airflow Obstruction

I

I

Lung volumes low, especially TLC, RV

Normal

I Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs) I I Reduced FEV, 1 night/week Silent chest FEV, or PEF (peak expiratory flow) 3 times/day

"

, �}-------.

Central cyanosis is not detectable until the SaO, is < 85%. It is more easily detected in polycythemia and less readily detectable in anemia.

Adapted with permission from CMAJ 1 999; 161 1 1 1 Suppll: SI·61

Table 1 0. Criteria for determining whether asthma is well controlled No asthma-related absence from work/school Betaz-agonist use < 4 times/wk FEV, or PEF >90% of personal best Mild, infrequent exacerbations

Daytime symptoms < 4 days/wk Night-time symptoms, < 1 night/wk Normal physical activity PEF diurnal variation < 1 0-1 5%

,' , �,)-------. Asthma Triad • • •

Adapted with permission from CMAJ 2005; 1 73 1 1 1 Suppll: S4

Investigations • O2 saturation • AB Gs decreased Pa02 during attack (V/Q mismatch) decreased PaC02 in mild asthma due to hyperventilation normal or increased PaC02 is an ominous sign as patient is no longer able to hyperventilate (worsened airway obstruction or respiratory muscle fatigue) • PFTs (may not be possible during severe attack, do when stable) spirometry: increase in FEV! >12% with beta2-agonist, or >20% with 10-14 days of steroids, or >20% spontaneous variability provocation testing: decrease in FEV! >20% with methacholine challenge •









Treatment • environmental control: avoid relevant triggers • patient education: features of the disease, goals of treatment, self-monitoring • pharmacological therapy symptomatic relief in acute episodes: short-acting beta2-agonist, anticholinergic bronchodilators, oral steroids, addition of a long acting beta2-agonist long-term prevention of acute episodes: inhaled / oral corticosteroids, anti-allergic agent, long-acting beta2-agonist, methylxanthine, leukotriene receptor antagonists (LIRA) •



Guidelines for Asthma Management

+ Additional : therapy Short-acting i3,-agonist on demand

Severity of asthma

(

Very mild

Symptom characteristics

(

)(

Subclinical

Intermittent

)(

)(

Figure 9. Guidelines for Asthma Management

Mild

)( Persistent

Randomized, Placebo Conbolled Trial of Effect of a Leukotriene Receptor Antagonist, Montelukast, on Tapering Inhaled Corticosteroids in Asthmatic Patients BMJ 1 999;319:87·90 Study: Double blind, randomized, placebo controlled, parallel group, municentre study with a follow·up of 1 2 weeks. Patients: 226 clinically stable patients Imean age 41 yrs, 52% female) with chronic asthma requiring moderate to high doses of corticosteroids for control. Intervention: Patients were randomized to receive either montelukast 1 0 mg PO qhs or placebo while undergoing a tapering protocol in which their dose of inhaled corticosteroids was tapered, maintained, or increased Irescue) every 2 weeks based on a standardized clinical score. Primary Outcomes: Lowesttolerated dose of inhaled corticosteroids. Resuks: Patients taking montelukast were able to taper their inhaled corticosteroid dose to a significantly greater degree than those taking placebo 147% vs. 30%, P=0.046). ln addition, those taking montelukast were significantly less likely to require discontinuation of the tapering protocol due to failure of increased corticosteroid dose/rescue to maintain clinical stability 116% vs. 30%, P=O.OOl , NNT = 8). Conclusion: Montelukast allows significantly greater reduction in the dose of inhaled corticosteroids required to maintain clinical stability in chronic asthmatics fonmerly requiring moderate to high doses.

"

Environmental control and education

)( )( )

Moderate Moderately Severe Severe

)

Canadian Asthma Consensus Report, 1999 - Reprinted with permission from CMAJ Supplement Nov. 30, 1 999; 161 I I I Suppl) by permission of the publisher. © 1999 Canadian Medical Association.

Asthma ASA/NSAID sensitivity Nasal polyps

, �}------,

Remember to step down therapy to lowest doses which control symptoms! signs of bronchoconstriction.

R8 Respirology

Toronto Notes 2010

Diseases of Airway Obstruction

Emergency Management of Asthma (see also Emergency Medicine, ER31) 1 . inhaled beta2-agonist first line (MDI route and spacer device recommended) 2. add anticholinergic therapy 3. ketamine and succinylcholine for rapid sequence intubation in life-threatening cases 4. SC / IV adrenaline, IV salbutamol if unresponsive 5. all patients admitted to ER for asthma exacerbations should be considered for corticosteroid therapy at discharge

.... ' , �}-------, Natural Progression of CO PO 40s Chronic productive cough,

wheezing occasionally 50s

1 st acute chest illness

60s

Dyspnea on exertion, increasing amounts of sputum production, more frequent acute exacerbations

Late Hypoxemia with cyanosis, Stage polycythemia (RSCs),

hypercapnia (morning headache), hypoxemia, cor pulmonale

Pulmonary Embolism in Patients with Unexplained Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Prevalence and Risk Factors Ann Intern Med. 2006; 144:390-396 Study: Prospective cohort study of 2 1 1 patients with COPD (all current and former smokers) who were admitted to hospital for severe exacemation of their COPD of unknown origin. Measurements: All patients received a spiral CT angiogram (CTA) and venous compression unrasonography of both legs. Results: 25% of patients met diagnostic criteria for PE (+ CTA or + U/S). Conclusions: Prevalence of PE in patients hospitalized for COPD exacemation of unknown origin is 25%. Therefore, all patients presenting to hospital with COPD exacemation without an obvious cause require a PE workup (leg dopplers or eTA - decision of which to use depends on pre-test probability of the patient). Early Use of Non�nvasive Ventilation for Acute Exacerbations of COPO on General Respiratory Wards - A Mutticentre Randomized Controlled Trial Lancet 2000;355: 1931-5 Study: Prospective, randomized, controlled, municentre trial. Patients: 236 adult patients (mean age 69 yrs, 50% female) admitted to hospital for an acute exacemation of COPD, who were also tachypneic (RR >23) and acidemic (pH 7.25-7.35) with a high P,CO, (>45 mmHg). Intervention: Patients were random�ed to receive either standard treatment (oxygen, salbutamol. ipratropium, corticosteroids, antibiotics) or standard treatment with the addition of non-invasive ventilation (NIV, bilevel assist-mode). Primary Outcomes: Need for endotracheal intubation as defined bV objective criteria. Results: Fewer patients in the NIV group required endotracheal intubation compared with those in the standard treatment group (1 5.3% vs. 27.1%, p1,000 ng / mL) presence of Aspergillus-specific IgE or IgG peripheral blood eosinophilia • treatment consists of blunting the immune response to the organism with corticosteroids, eradication of Aspergillus may hasten resolution • commonly leads to remission but may recur as corticosteroid treatment is tapered • • • •







Tropical Eosinophilia • cough, wheeze and fever (especially at night) in someone who has recently visited the tropics • positive filarial complement fixation test • CXR: diffuse bilateral micronodules Churg-Strauss Syndrome (see Pulmonary Vasculitis, R21) Associated With Collagen Vascular Disease (see Pulmonary Vasculitis, R21)

Bronchiolitis Obliterans with Organizing Pneumonia (BOOP) • acute inflammation o f bronchioles with granulation tissue and mononuclear cell infiltrate plugs

• idiopathic [Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia (COP)] but may follow toxic fume

inhalation/ viral infection in children; associated with connective tissue diseases, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, drugs, radiation • presents over weeks to months with systemic symptoms, dyspnea and non-productive cough. May have URTI 2-4 months prior to SOB • crackles on chest exam

.... ' , �)------, The CXR in chronic eosinophilic pneumonia shows a peripheral alveolar infiltrate referred to as the " photographic negative of pulmonary edema" (pattern is often migratory).

R16 Respirology

Interstitial Lung Disease • •





Toronto Notes 2010

CXR, CT: bilateral patchy airspace disease; may also see ground glass and interstitial infiltr ates bronchoscopy usually needed to exclude infection biopsy may be needed to confirm diagnosis treatment: corticosteroids (usually responds quickly and gratifyingly, unlike IPF) often improves within days continue high dose for 2-3 months; taper slowly •



Known Etiologic Agents Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis •

also known a s extrinsic allergic alveolitis



exposure usually related to occupation or hobby Farmer's Lung (Thermophilic actinomycetes) Bird Breeder's/ Bird Fancier's Lung (Chlamydia psittaci in bird droppings) Humidifier Lung (Aureobasidium pullulans) Sauna Taker's Lung (Aureobasidium spp)

• non-IgE mediated inflammation of lung parenchyma (acute, subacute, and chronic forms) • caused by intense / repeated inhalation and sensitization to certain organic agents • lymphocytic granulomas present, airway centred • •

• •

Signs and Symptoms • acute presentation: (4-6 hours after exposure) dyspnea, cough, fever, chills, malaise (lasting 18-24 hrs) PFTs: modestly and transiently restrictive CXR: diffuse infiltrates type III (immune complex) reaction • subacute presentation: more insidious onset than acute presentation • chronic presentation insidious onset dyspnea, cough, malaise, anorexia, weight loss PFTs: progressively restrictive CXR: predominantly upper lobe, nodular / reticulonodular pattern type IV (cell mediated, delayed hypersensitivity) reaction (see Rheumatology, R42) • in both acute and chronic reaction, serum precipitins may be detectable (neither sensitive nor specific) •







• •







Treatment • goal is to prevent chronic fibrotic changes • early diagnosis: avoidance of further exposure is critical as chronic changes are irreversible • systemic corticosteroids can relieve symptoms in acute phase • steroids for persistent disease

Pneumoconioses ",,

' , �)-------,

• reaction to inhaled inorganic dusts 0.5-5 11M in size



no effective treatment, therefore key is exposure prevention through the use of protective equipment

CXR Fibrotic Patterns

Asbestosis: lower > upper lobes Silicosis: upper > lower lobes Coal: upper > lower lobes

""

' , �)-------,

Remember to involve occupational health at place of work for data collection and treatment plan. Also counsel re: worker's insurance as per jurisdiction (e.g. WSIB in Ontario).

Asbestosis • population at risk: insulation, shipyard, construction, brake linings, pipe fitters, plumbers • slowly progressive diffuse interstitial fibrosis from dose-related inhalation of asbestos • etiology: usually >10-20 yrs of exposure; may develop with shorter but heavier exposure; typically prolonged interval (20-30 yrs) between exposure and clinical manifestations of disease • signs and symptoms insidious onset SOB on exertion usually first symptom with increased dyspnea as disease progresses cough: paroxysmal, non-productive fine end-respiratory crackles (increased at bases) clubbing (much more likely in asbestosis than silicosis or coal workers' pneumoconioses), edema, jugular venous distention • investigations: CXR lower > upper lobe early: fibrosis with linear streaking later: cysts and honeycombing asbestos exposure can also cause pleural and diaphragmatic plaques (± calcification), pleural effusion, round atelectasis • • • • •



• •



Toronto Notes 2010 • • •

Interstitial Lung Disease/Puimonary Vascular Disease

microscopic examination reveals ferruginous bodies: yellow-brown rod-shaped structures which represent asbestos fibres coated in macrophages complications: increases risk of bronchogenic CA and malignant mesothelioma risk of lung cancer dramatically increased for smokers treatment: removal from exposure smoking cessation, proper nutrition, exercise home oxygen PRN treatment of respiratory infections, annual influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations •

• • •



Silicosis • at risk population: sandblasters, rock miners, stone cutters, quarry and highway workers • etiology: generally requires >20 years exposure; may develop with much shorter but heavier exposure • signs and symptoms: dyspnea, cough and wheezing • investigations: CXR upper > lower lobe early: nodular disease (simple pneumoconiosis) late: nodules coalesce into masses (progressive massive fibrosis) • when nodules become larger and coalesce into masses, disease has changed from simple silicosis to complicated silicosis (progressive massive fibrosis) • possible hilar lymph node enlargement (frequently calcified), especially "egg shell" calcification • complications: mycobacterial infection (i.e. TB) • treatment: prevention, removal from exposure, treat associated TB if present, supportive measures (oxygen, bronchodilators), lung transplant •

• •

Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis (CWP) • at risk population: coal workers, graphite workers • etiology: coal and silica, coal is less fibrogenic than silica • pathologic hallmark is coal macule: coal dust surrounded by minimal tissue reaction and focal emphysema found around respiratory bronchioles • simple CWP no signs or symptoms CXR: multiple nodular opacities, mostly upper lobe respiratory function well preserved • complicated CWP (also known as progressive massive fibrosis) dyspnea CXR: opacities larger and coalesce • course: few patients progress to complicated CWP • Caplan's syndrome: rheumatoid arthritis and CWP present as larger nodules • treatment: minimize future exposure, cardiopulmonary rehabilitation, follow periodically •





• •

• •

ILD Associated with Drugs or Treatments Drug-Induced • antineoplastic agents: bleomycin, mitomycin, busulfan, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, chlorambucil, BCNU (carmustine) • antibiotics: nitrofurantoin, penicillin, sulfonamide • cardiovascular drugs: amiodarone, tocainide • anti-inflammatory agents • gold salts • illicit drugs (heroin, methadone) Radiation-Induced • early pneumonitis: approximately 6 weeks post-exposure • late fibrosis: 6-12 months post-exposure • infiltration conforms to the shape and field of the irradiation

Pulmonary Vascular Disease Pu lmonary Hypertension • •

mean pulmonary arterial pressure >25 mmHg a t rest and >30 mmHg with exercise, o r a systolic pulmonary artery pressure of >40 mmHg at rest in the past, pulmonary hypertension was classified as primary or secondary pulmonary hypertension, but this classification was modified to a more clinically useful, treatment based classification (Table 16)

Respirology R17

RIB Respirology

Pulmonary Vascular Disease

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 6. Diagnostic Classification of Pulmonary Hypertension (WHO 1 998) Classification

Causes

Pulmonary arterial hypertension

Primary pulmonary hypertension - sporadic vs. familial related to: Collagen vascular disease (scleroderma, SLE, RA) Congenital systemic-to-pulmonary shunts (Eisenmenger syndrome) Portopulmonary hypertension HIV infection Drugs and toxins (e.g. anorexigens)

Pulmonary venous hypertension

Left-sided atrial or ventricular heart disease (e.g. LV dysfunction) Left-sided valvular heart disease (e.g. aortic stenosis, mitral stenosis) Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease Extrinsic compression of central pulmonary veins (tumour, adenopathy, fibrosing mediastinitis)

Associated with disorders of the respiratory system and/or hypoxemia

Parenchymal lung disease (COPD, interstitial fibrosis, cystic fibrosis) Chronic alveolar hypoxia (chronic high altitude, alveolar hypoventilation disorders, sleep disordered breathing)

Due to chronic thrombotic and/or embolic disease

Thromboembolic obstruction of proximal pulmonary arteries Obstruction of distal pulmonary arteries - PE (thrombus, foreign material, tumour, schistosomiasis, in situ thrombosis, sickle cell disease)

Due to disorders directly affecting the pulmonary vasculature

Inflammatory (sarcoidosis, schistosomiasis) Pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis

Mechanisms of Pulmonary Hypertension • the approach is simplified, as some causes could fall under more than one mechanism: hypoxic vasoconstriction • chronic hypoxia causes pulmonary vasoconstriction by a variety of actions on the pulmonary artery endothelium and smooth muscle cells, such as: down regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and alteration of voltage gated potassium channels leading to vasoconstriction • causes: COPD, chronic alveolar hypoxia decreased area of pulmonary vascular bed • a decrease in the area of the pulmonary vascular bed causes rise in resting pulmonary arterial pressure • causes: collagen vascular disease, HIV infection, drugs and toxins, thrombotic or embolic disease, inflammatory, pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis, interstitial fibrosis, cystic fibrosis volume and pressure overload • significant hypertension only occurs with excessive volume overload, since pulmonary artery pressure will not rise in otherwise normal lung until pulmonary blood flow exceeds 2.5 times the basal rate • causes: congenital systemic to pulmonary shunts (e.g. VSD, ASD, PDA), portopulmonary hypertension, left-sided heart conditions, pulmonary veno-occlusive disease, extrinsic compression of central pulmonary veins •





Guildelines for Vasodilator Response

1 . Evidence for the use of CCBs after a positive vasodilator challenge is limited to patients with IPAH. 2. The precise definition about what constitutes a "positive" result is controversial. The latest consensus according to the European Society of Cardiology was that a positive result constitutes a fall of mean PAP pressure of 1 0 mmHg to less than or equal to 40 WITHOUT a change in cardiac output. 3. Best agents to use: NO or epoprostenol (prostacyclin) analogue (best safety profile). 4. Those who have a "significant" response (as determined by the criteria in #2) should be treated cautiously with a CCB (nifedipine, diltiazem, amlodipine are good choices, NOT verapamil). Evidence suggests these patients will have improved survivals. Reference: Badesch et al. Medical Therapy For Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. ACCP Evidence· Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. CHEST 126, Supplement, July, 2004.

IDIOPATHIC PULMONARY ARTERIAL HYPERTENSION [AKA PRIMARY PULMONARY HYPERTENSION (PPH)] Definition • pulmonary hypertension in the absence of a demonstrable cause (exclude left-sided cardiac valvular disease, myocardial disease, congenital heart disease, and any clinically significant parenchymal lung disease, systemic connective-tissue, or chronic thromboembolic disease) Epidemiology • disease of young women (20-40 years); mean age of diagnosis is 36 years • most cases are sporadic; familial predisposition in 10% of cases, linked to mutations in BMPR2 Signs and Symptoms • exertional dyspnea, fatigue, syncope, exertional chest pain, Raynaud's syndrome (Table 17) Prognosis • 2-3 year mean survival from time of diagnosis • may be associated with the use of anorexic drugs (e.g. Aminorex®, Fenfluramine®), also amphetamines and cocaine • survival decreases to approximately 1 year if severe pulmonary HTN or right-heart failure

Toronto Notes 2010

Respirology R19

Pulmonary Vascular Disease

Table 1 7. Signs and Symptoms of Pulmonary Hypertension Symptoms

Signs

Dyspnea Fatigue Substernal chest pain Syncope Symptoms of underlying disease

Loud, palpable P2 RV heave Right-sided S4 1due to RVH) Systolic murmur ITR) If RV failure: right sided S3, increased JVP, positive HJR, peripheral edema, TR

Investigations • CXR: enlarged central pulmonary arteries, cardiac changes due to RV enlargement (filling of retrosternal air space) • ECG RVH / right-sided strain and RA enlargement, rightward axis deviation R/S ratio >1 in VI increased P wave amplitude in lead II incomplete or complete R bundle branch block • 2-D echo doppler assessment of RVsBP • cardiac catheterization: direct measurement of pulmonary artery pressures • PFTs to rule out lung disease. DLco usually reduced • spiral CT to assess lung parenchyma and possible PE • V/Q scan ± pulmonary angiogram to rule out thromboembolic disease • serology: ANA positive in 30% of patients with primary pulmonary hypertension •







Treatment • for primary pulmonary hypertension anticoagulation in patients at increased risk for intrapulmonary thrombosis and thromboembolism (anticoagulation of choice is warfarin, target INR approximately 2.0) calcium channel blockers: nifedipine, diltiazem, NOT verapamil vasodilators: oral (sildenafil, bosentan), parenteral (epoprostenol, treprostanil) lung transplantation • for other forms of pulmonary hypertension continuous oxygen therapy for patients who are hypoxic treat underlying condition before irreversible damage occurs phlebotomy for polycythemia (rarely required) treatment of exacerbating factors: smoking, infection, sleep apnea epoprostenol - beneficial in cardiomyopathy, and NYHA class III-IV symptoms endothelin receptor antagonists (bosentan, sitaxentan) phosphodiesterase inhibitors (sildenafil) •

,}-------,









Virchow's Triad •

Venous stasis Endothelial cell damage • Hypercoagulable states •







• •



Pu lmona ry Embolism (PE)

-------

Definition • lodging of a blood clot in the pulmonary arterial tree with subsequent increase in pulmonary vascular resistance and possible obstruction of blood supply to the lung parenchyma Etiology and Pathophysiology • one of the most common causes of preventable death in the hospital • proximal leg thrombi (popliteal, femoral or iliac veins) are the source of most clinically recognized pulmonary emboli • thrombi often start in calf, but must propagate into proximal veins to create a sufficiently large thrombus for a clinically significant PE • fewer than 30% of patients have clinical evidence of DVT (i.e. leg swelling, pain or tenderness) • always suspect PE if patient suddenly collapses 1-2 weeks after surgery Risk Factors (Virchow's Triad) • stasis immobilization: paralysis, stroke, bed rest, prolonged sitting during travel, immobilization of an extremity after fracture obesity, CHF chronic venous insufficiency • endothelial cell damage post-operative injury, trauma • hypercoagulable states underlying CA (particularly adenocarcinoma) cancer treatment (chemotherapy, hormonal) exogenous estrogen administration (OCP, HRT) pregnancy, post-partum prior history of DVT / PE, family history nephrotic syndrome coagulopathies: Factor V Leiden, Prothrombin 20210A variant, inherited deficiencies of antithrombin/ protein C / protein S, antiphospholipid antibody, hyperhomocysteinemia, increased Factor VIII levels, and myeloproliferative disease • increasing age •

• •













Clinical Prediction Rule for Pulmonary Embolism Thrombosis and Hemostasis 2000; 8313):41 6·20

Clinical signs of OVT No more likely alternative diagnosis lusing H&P. CXR, ECG) Immobil�ation or surgery in the previous 4 weeks Previous PE/DVT Heart rate > 1 00 beats/min Hemoptysis Malignancy Risk Factors

Points

3.0 3.0 1 .5 1 .5 1 .5 1 .0 1 .0

Clinical probability Low 3% Intennediate 28% High 78% Simplified wells: >4 likely; � 4 unlikely for PE JAMA 2006

",, ' � ,�------, Evaluation of a Suspected Pulmonary Embolism Low clinical probability of embolism: D-dimer I+ve) -> CT scan I+ve) -> ruled in I-ve) .), I-ve) .), ruled out ruled out Intermediate or high probability:

CT scan I-ve) I+ve) .), ruled in

->

ruled out

Notes: • Use O·dimers only if low clinical probability, otherwise, go straight to spiral CT • If using VlQ scans ICT contJast allergy or renal failure): • Negative VlQ scan rules out the diagnosis • High probability VlQ scan only rules in the diagnosis IT have high clinical suspicion • Inconclusive VlQ scan requires ultrasound, or spiral CT

R20 Respirology

'" ' , ,}-------, Classic ECG fi nd i ng of PE is S l -Q3-T3 (inverted T,) , but most commonly see only sinus tachycardia.

Pulmonary Vascular Disease

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations (if highly suspicious, go straight to spiral CT) • D-dimer (products of thrombotic/ fibrinolytic process) ELISA better than latex agglutination D-dimer results alone do not rule in or out DVT / PE consider only in out-patients with low pretest probability need to use in conjunction with leg Dopplers • spiral CT scan with contrast is both sensitive and specific for PE diagnosis and management uncertain for small filling defects spiral CT may identify an alternative diagnosis if PE is not present CT scanning of the proximal leg and pelvic veins can be done at the same time and may be helpful • venous duplex ultrasound or doppler with leg symptoms • positive test can rule in a proximal DVT • negative test can rule out a proximal DVT without leg symptoms • positive test rules in proximal DVT • negative test does not rule out a DVT - patient may have a non-occlusive or calf DVT • ECG findings not sensitive or specific sinus tachycardia most common; may see non-specific ST segment and T wave changes RV strain, RAD, RBBB, Sl-Q3-T3 with massive embolization • CXR frequently normal; no specific features atelectasis (subsegmental), elevation of a hemidiaphragm pleural effusion - usually small Hampton's hump - cone-shaped area of peripheral opacification representing infarction Westermark's sign - dilated proximal pulmonary artery with distal oligemia / decreased vascular markings (difficult to assess without prior films) dilatation of proximal PA - rare • V/Q scan (very sensitive but low specificity) order scan if • CXR normal, no COPD • contraindication to CT (contrast allergy, renal dysfunction) avoid V/Q scan if • CXR abnormal or COPD • inpatient • suspect massive PE results • normal - excludes the diagnosis of PE • high probability - most likely means PE present, unless pre-test probability is low • 60% of V/Q scans are nondiagnostic • echo little diagnostic value increased RVSp, RV hypokinesis, seen in massive PE • ABG of NO diagnostic use in PE (insensitive and nonspecific) respiratory alkalosis (due to hyperventilation) •

• • •













Excluding Pulmonary Embolism at Bedside Ann Intern Med 2001;1 35:98-107 Study: Municentre, prospective cohort study. Patients: 930 patients with suspected PE at emergency departments at 4 tertiary care hospitals in Canada. Intervention: A Wells score was used to detennine patient's pretest probability IPTP) of pulmonary embolism and then a D-dimer test was pertonned. Patients wrth low PTP and a negative D·dimer test had no further testing and the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism was excluded. All other patients had VlQ scanning, and IT non­ diagnostic, had bilateral deep venous ultrasonography. Further serial ultrasonograpy and angiography were done depending on the patients PTP and lung-scanning results. Main outcomes: Diagnosis of pulmonary embolism and the development of thromboembolic events at 3 months follow-up. Results: One of 759 patients in whom PE was initially ruled out developed a thromboembolic event during follow-up 10.1 % ICI 0.0%-0.7%]). One of the 437 patients with negative D-dimers and low clinical PTP developed PE during follow up (NPV 99.5%, CI99.1-100%). Conclusion: Managing patients wrth suspected pulmonary embolism on the basis of PTP and 0dimer resuns is safe and decreases the need for diagnostic imaging.































Treatment • admit for observation (patients with DVT only are often sent home on LMWH) • oxygen: provide supplemental O2 if hypoxemic or short of breath • pain relief: analgesics if chest pain - a narcotic or NSAID • acute anticoagulation: therapeutic-dose SC LMWH or IV heparin - start ASAP anticoagulation stops clot propagation, prevents new clots and allows endogenous fibrinolytic system to dissolve existing thromboemboli over months get baseline CBC, INR, aPTT ± renal function ± liver function for SC LMWH: dalteparin 200 U / kg once daily or enoxaparin 1 mg / kg bid - no lab monitoring - avoid or reduce dose in renal dysfunction for IV heparin: bolus of 75 U / kg (usually 5,000 U) followed by infusion starting at 20 U / kg / hr - aim for aPTT 2-3 times control • long term anticoagulation: warfarin - start the same day as LMWH /heparin - overlap warfarin with LMWH /heparin for at least 5 days and until INR in target range of 2-3 for at least 2 days LMWH instead of warfarin for pregnancy, active cancer, high bleeding risk • IV thrombolytic therapy: if patient has massive PE (hypotension or clinical right heart failure) and no contraindications - hastens resolution of PE but may not improve survival or long-term outcome and doubles risk of major bleeding •









Pulmonary Vascular Disease

Toronto Notes 2010 •





interventional thrombolytic therapy: massive PE is preferentially treated with catheter directed thrombolysis by an interventional radiologist - works better than IV thrombolytic therapy and fewer contraindications IVC filter: only if recent proximal DVT + absolute contraindication to anticoagulation duration of long-term anticoagulation: individualized, however generally: if reversible cause for PE (surgery, injury, pregnancy, etc.): 3-6 months if PE unprovoked: 6 months to indefinite if ongoing major risk factor (active cancer, anti phospholipid antibody, etc.): indefinite • •



Thromboprophylaxis • mandatory for most hospital patients: reduces DVT, PE, all-cause mortality, cost-effective • start ASAP • continue at least until discharge or at least 10 days if major orthopaedic surgery Table 1 8. VTE Risk Categories and Prophvlaxis Risk Group

Prophylaxis Options

Low thrombosis risk: • Medical patients - fully mobile • Surgery - 2 years

Doubles in > 1 month or < 2 years

solitary pulmonary nodule

t I

check previous CXR looks benign or unchanged

.. I

repeat CXR in 3-6 months



changed

1

.. I----' CT thorax....

t

cancer

t

calcification

stage and treat

observe

cancer

inflammatory

stage and treat

treat cause

t

t

t

no diagnosis

• I

bronchoscopy



t

t

repeat CXR every months x 1 year

� �------------�--------------�

..

t

unchanged x 1 year

I

t

observe

I

transthoracic needle aspiration

$ t resect for diagnosis still no diagnosis

Figure 1 1 . Evaluation of a Solitary Pulmonary Nodule

Benign Lung Tumours Epidemiology • less than 5% of all primary lung neoplasms • bronchial adenomas and hamartomas comprise 90% of the benign neoplasms of the lung • uncommon benign neoplasms of the lung include fibromas, lipomas, leiomyomas, hemangiomas, papillomas, chondromas, teratoma and endometriosis Signs and Symptoms • cough, hemoptysis, recurrent pneumonia, wheezing, atelectasis • can present without symptoms or signs as a solitary pulmonary nodule (see previous section) Classification • bronchial adenomas slow-growing, low-grade endobronchial tumours that rarely metastasize may be carcinoids (90%), adenocystic tumours, or mucoepidermoid symptoms • systemic symptoms usually absent • patients may complain of chronic cough, wheezing or give a history of recurrent pneumonia • hemoptysis may be present • bronchial carcinoids often in young adults; smoking not a risk factor clinical presentation: follows a slow course, metastasizes late carcinoid syndrome (flushing, diarrhea, cardiac valvular lesions, wheezing) is rarely associated with pulmonary carcinoids may cause paraneoplastic syndromes (see Table 25) treatment and prognosis: amenable to resection; 5-year survival is 95% atypical carcinoid: more aggressive form, tends to metastasize • hamartomas composed of tissues normally present in lung (fat, epithelium, fibrous tissue and cartilage), but they exhibit disorganized growth peak incidence at age 60, more common in men, 10% of benign lung lesions [2nd to infectious granuloma (80%)] usually peripheral, clinically silent, and benign in behaviour CXR: clustered "popcorn" pattern of calcification is pathognomonic for hamartoma • • •



• •

• • •





• •

Toronto Notes 2010

Respirology R31

Neoplasms

Mal ignant Lung Tumours Pathological Classification • bronchogenic cancer (90% of primary lung cancers) (for characteristics, see Table 24) classified into small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-SCLC (NSCLC, i.e. adenocarcinoma, squamous cell, large cell), bronchioalvelolar cancer (BAC) incidence of adenocarcinoma is increasing • lymphoma • secondary metastases: breast, colon, prostate, kidney, thyroid, stomach, cervix, rectum, testes, bone, melanoma •



.... ' ,

��------.

Malignant lung tumours are the most common cause of cancer mortality throughout the world in both men and women.

Table 24. Characteristics of Bronchogenic Cancer Cell Type

Incidence

Histology

Metastasis

Peripheral

Glandular, mucin producing

Early, distant

Correlation Location with smoking

Adenocarcinoma M-35% F-40% Weak Squamous cell cancer (SCC)

30%

Strong

Central

Keratin, intercellular bridges

Local invasion and distant spread, may cavitate

SCLC

25%

Strong

Central

Oat cell, neuroendocrine

Disseminated at presentation origin in endobronchial cells

Strong

Peripheral

Anaplastic, undifferentiated

Early, distant

Large cell cancer 1 0-1 5%

Epidemiology • most common non-skin cancer in men and women • most common cause of cancer death in men and women • 18% of all cancer related deaths Risk Factors • cigarette smoking: 85% of lung cancer related to smoking • asbestos 5x increased risk, asbestos + smoker 80-90x increased risk • radiation: radon, uranium (especially if smoker) • arsenic, chromium, nickel • genetic damage • parenchymal scarring: granulomatous disease, fibrosis, scleroderma • passive exposure to cigarette smoke • air pollution: exact role is uncertain · HIV Signs and Symptoms • cough (75%); beware of chronic cough that changes in character • dyspnea (60%) • chest pain (45%) • hemoptysis (35%) • other pain (25%) • clubbing (21 % ) • constitutional signs: anorexia, weight loss, fever, anemia Presentation by Location of Tumour Extension • lung, hilum, mediastinum, pleura: pleural effusion, atelectasis, wheezing • pericardium: pericarditis, pericardial tamponade • esophageal compression: dysphagia • phrenic nerve: paralyzed diaphragm • recurrent laryngeal nerve: hoarseness • superior vena cava syndrome: obstruction of SVC causing neck and facial swelling, as well as dyspnea and cough other symptoms associated with SVC compression: hoarseness, tongue swelling, epistaxis, and hemoptysis physical findings include dilated neck veins, increased number of collateral veins covering the anterior chest wall, cyanosis, edema of the face, arms, and chest, Pemberton's sign milder symptoms if obstruction is above the azygos vein • lung apex (Pancoast tumour): Horner's syndrome, brachial plexus palsy, most commonly C8 and Tl nerve roots • rib and vertebrae: erosion • distant metastasis to brain, bone, liver, adrenals • paraneoplastic syndromes (see Table 25) a group of disorders associated with malignant disease, not related to the physical effects of the tumour itself most often associated with SCLC •









0;;' Horner has a MAP of the Coast A Pancoast tumour compresses the

cervical sympathetic plexus causing a Horner's syndrome Miosis Anhydrosis Ptosis

R32 Respirology

.....

' , �}-------,

2/3 of primary lung acancer is found in the upper lung; 2/3 of metastases occur in the lower lung (hematogenous spread secondary to increased blood flow to the base of the lungl.

Neoplasms

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 25. Paraneoplastic Syndromes Clinical Presentation

Associated Malignancy

Skeletal

Clubbing

NSCLC

Dermatologic

Acanthosis nigricans Dermatomyositis

Bronchogenic cancer Bronchogenic cancer

Endocrine

Hypercalcemia (osteolysis or PTHRP) Hypophosphatemia Hypoglycemia Cushing's syndrome (ACTH) Somatostatinoma syndrome SIADH

Squamous cell cancer Squamous cell cancer Sarcoma SCLC Bronchial carcinoid SCLC

Neuromyopathic

Lambert-Eaton syndrome Polymyositis Subacute cerebellar degeneration Spinocerebellar degeneration Peripheral neuropathy

SCLC

System

Vascular/Hematologic Nonbacterial endocarditis

Trousseau's syndrome (migratory thrombophlebitis) DlC

Bronchogenic cancer NSCLC

Nephrotic syndrome

Renal

Investigations • initial diagnosis imaging: CXR, CT chest + upper abdomen, PET scan, bone scan cytology: sputum biopsy: bronchoscopy, percutaneous, mediastinoscopy • staging work-up blood work: electrolytes, LFTs, calcium, ALP imaging: CXR, CT thorax and upper abdomen, bone scan, neuroimaging invasive: bronchoscopy, mediastinoscopy, mediastinotomy, thoracotomy •

• •







Staging/Treatment Table 26. SCLC VS. NSCLC Stage SCLC

Median Survival

Radiation ± chemo ± prophylactic to brain

1-2 years 6 months

Chemotherapy

Stage (TNM ISS)

Treatment

5 Year Survival

Surgery Surgery + radiation

-50% 30%

II iliA IIIB IV

No invasion beyond lung and nodes negative No invasion beyond lung and ipsilateral hilar Nodes positive Direct extension to chest wall, pleura, pericardium or ipsilateral mediastinal nodes positive Advanced local involvement (malignant effusion, major structures), or contralateral nodes positive Distant metastasis

Chemotherapy + radiation 1 5% followed by surgery Radiation ± chemo ± surgery 5% Palliative

50% reduction in ventilation for ;0, 1 0 seconds -

Continuous Positive Airways Pressure for Obstructive Sleep Apnea The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 2 Study: Pooled analysis of 36 RCTs 11718 people) comparing noctumal CPAP with an inactive control or oral appliances in adults with obstructive sleep apnea. Conclusions: The use of CPAP showed significant improvements in objective and subjective measures including cognitive function, sleepiness, measures of quality of life, and a lower average systolic and diastolic blood pressure. People who responded equally well to CPAP and oral appliances expressed a strong preference for oral appliances; however, participants on OA were more likely to withdraw from therapy.

R34 Respirology

Sleep-Related Breathing Disorders/Introduction to Intensive Care

Toronto Notes 2010

Signs and Symptoms • obtain history from spouse / partner • secondary to repeated arousals and fragmentation of sleep: daytime somnolence, personality and cognitive changes, snoring • secondary to hypoxemia and hypercapnia: morning headache, polycythemia, pulmonary / systemic HTN, cor pulmonale / CHF, nocturnal angina, arrhythmias • OSA typically presents in a middle-aged obese male snorer • CSA can be due to neurological disease Investigations • sleep study (polysomnography) evaluates sleep stages, airflow, ribcage movement, ECG, O2 saturation, limb movements indications • excessive daytime sleepiness • unexplained pulmonary HTN or polycythemia • daytime hypercapnia • titration of optimal nasal CPAP • assessment of objective response to other interventions •



..... ' ,

��------,

CPAP has been shown to reduce cardiovascular risk and cardiovascular related deaths in patients with obstructive sleep apnea.

Treatment • modifiable factors: weight loss, decreased alcohol / sedatives, nasal decongestion, treatment of underlying medical conditions • OSA or MSA: nasal CPAp, postural therapy (i.e. no supine sleeping), dental appliance, uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, tonsillectomy • CSA or hypoventilation syndromes: nasal BiPAP / CPAp, respiratory stimulants (e.g. progesterone) in select cases • tracheostomy rarely required and should be used as last resort for OSA Complications • depression, weight gain, decreased QOL, workplace and vehicular accidents, cardiac complications (OSA is independent risk-factor for HTN), reduced work/ social function

Introduction to Intensive Care • • •



goal of the intensive care unit (ICU) is to provide stabilization in the setting of an acutely or severely ill patient insults that result in hemodynamic, respiratory or cardiac instability, or widespread infection warrant ICU admission ICUs are intended to reverse the abnormal physiology, contain the underlying problem and create a favourable environment for recovery until the patient is stable enough to be transferred features unique to ICU are: high nurse to patient ratio extensive invasive cardiopulmonary and other system support monitoring • •

..... ' ,

��------,

A catheter "wedged" in the distal pulmonary artery measures pressure transmitted from the pulmonary venous system. This is known as the pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP). The PCWP reflects left atrial pressure (as long as there is no pulmonary venous disease) and LV diastolic pressure (as long as there is no mitral valve disease). Source: Cecil Essentials ofMedicine, 6th EdITion.

leu Basics lines and Catheters • arterial lines used to monitor beat-to-beat blood pressure variations, obtain blood for routine ABGs, can use to monitor cardiac compliance (common sites are femoral or radial lines) • central venous catheter (central line) used to administer IV fluids, monitor central venous pressure, insert pulmonary artery catheters, give parenteral nutrition, give agents which are too irritating to be given via a peripheral line, when peripheral access is not possible common sites include: internal jugular vein, subclavian vein, femoral vein • pulmonary arterial catheter uses a balloon "sail" to guide the catheter from a major vein to the right heart "wedged" in the pulmonary artery temporarily to take a variety of measurements as a result of associated complications, now rarely used indications • diagnosis of shock states • differentiation of high- versus low-pressure pulmonary edema • diagnosis of primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) • assessment of response to treatment in patients with PPH • diagnosis of valvular disease, intracardiac shunts, cardiac tamponade, and pulmonary embolism (PE) • monitoring and management of complicated MI •













Toronto Notes 2010

Introduction to Intensive Care

Respirology R35



assessing hemodynamic response to therapies management of multiorgan system failure and/ or severe burns • management of hemodynamic instability after cardiac surgery absolute contraindications: • tricuspid or pulmonary valve mechanical prosthesis • right heart mass (thrombus and / or tumour) • tricuspid or pulmonary valve endocarditis •



Table 27. Useful Equations and Cardiopulmonary Parameters Body Surface Area (BSA)

=

[Ht (cm) + Wt (kg) - 60]11 00

PCWP (Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure) Cardiac Index (CI)

=

Stroke Volume Index (SVI) RV Ejection Fraction

=

=

P:F ratio

=

LVEDP (Left Ventricular End Diastolic Pressure)

=

CI/Heart Rate

SV/RVEDV

Systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI) 0, Index

=

Cardiac OutpuVBSA

=

[(MAP - right atrial pressure (RAP)) + 80]lCI

(MAP * FiO,)/pO, PaO,/FiO,

leu Approach to Management • the initial assessment o f the critically ill patient focuses on life-threatening processes that require immediate diagnostic and / or therapeutic intervention

• management is based on the understanding of the pathophysiology of the disease process taking into consideration organ-system dependence

Organ Fai l u re • respiratory failure (see Respiratory Failure, R26) • coagulopathy

see Hematology. H23 for disorders of 1 ° and 2° hemostasis coagulopathies commonly occur in acutely and severely ill patients monitor for: • thrombocytopenia • INR, PTT elevations • DIe (increase in fibrin degradation products and reduction in fibrinogen) • liver failure (see Gastroenterology, G32) manifested by rise in transaminases, bilirubin, and INR • renal failure (see Nephrology, NP9) the kidney is the major organ responsible for the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis damage sustained by hypovolemia, nephrotoxins patients typically develop acute tubular necrosis (ATN) goal of treatment: correct volume and electrolyte status, eliminate toxins common treatment modalities: diuretics, dialysis (early aggressive daily dialysis is key) •









Intensive Insulin Thera py in Critically III Patients NEJM. 2001; 345:1 359·67 Study: Prospective, randomized controlled clinical outcome study. Patients: 1548 patients admitted to the leu Intervention: At admission, patients were randomly assigned to either intensive insulin therapy or conventional therapy. Those in the intensive group had an infusion started IT BG exceeded 61 mmoVl, and maintained to keep BG between 4.4 to 6.1 mmoVl. Those in the conventional group were started on insulin only if BG exceeded 1 1 .9, and the infusion was adjusted for a target between 10.0 and 1 1 . 1 mmoVl. Primary Outcome: Death from any cause during leu stay. Results: 35 patients (4.6%1 died in the intensive group in the leU, versus 63 patients (8.0%1 in the conventional group. This represents a 32% mortality reduction (p=0.041. lntensive insulin therapy also reduced overall in·hospital mortality, lowered deaths due to sepsis, muni·organ failure. Most of the mortality benefit was seen in long stay patients (>5 daysl. Conclusion: Intensive insulin therapy in the leu reduces mortality by 32%, and improves in-hospital mortality and morbidity.



• •



Shock • inadequate tissue perfusion potentially resulting in end organ injury •

classifications of shock include • hypovolemic: hemorrhagic, dehydration, vomiting, diarrhea, interstitial fluid redistribution • cardiogenic: myopathic (myocardial ischemia ± infarction), mechanical, arrhythmic, pharmacologic • obstructive: massive PE (saddle embolus), pericardial tamponade, constrictive pericarditis, increased intrathoracic pressure (e.g. tension pneumothorax) • distributive: sepsis, anaphylactic reaction, neurogenic, endocrinologic, toxic

,, ' � �}-------, Shock: Clinical Correlation Hypovolemic: patients have cool

extremities due to peripheral vasoconstriction. Cardiogenic: patients usually have signs of left-sided heart failure. Obstructive: varied presentation. Distributive: patients have warm extremities due to peripheral vasodilation.

R36 Respirology

Toronto Notes 2010

Introduction to Intensive Care Table 28. Changes Seen in Different Classes of Shock Hypovolemic

Cardiogenic

Obstructive l'

Distributive

l'

HR

l'

1', N, or -J,.

BP

-J,.

-J,.

-J,.

-J,.

JVP

-J,.

l'

Extremities

Cold

Cold

N or Cold

Warm

Other

Look for visible hemorrhage or signs of dehydration

Bilateral crackles on chest exam

Depending on cause may see pulsus paradoxus, Kussmaul's sign, or tracheal deviation

Look for obvious signs of infection or anaphylaxis



• •

l'

-J,.

treatment should be directed at underlying etiology once it becomes clear treatment goal is to return critical organ perfusion to normal (e.g. normalize BP) common treatment modalities include: fluid resuscitation inotropes, vasopressors (e.g. norepinephrine, dobutamine), vasopressin revascularization or thrombolytics for ischemic events •

• •

I nfection/Sepsis Effect of Treatment with Low Doses of Hydrocortisone IHC) and Fludrocortisone IFC) on Mortality in Patients with Septic Shock JAMA 2002:288:862·71 Study: Placebo·controlled, randomized, double·blind outcome study. Patients: 300 adult patients admitted to ICU with septic shock. Intervention: Patients were randomly assigned to receive erther HC 150 mg q6h) and FC 150 mg q24h) or placebo for 7 days. Primary Outcome: 28·day survival in patients with relative adrenal insufficiency Inonresponders to corticotropin stimulation test). Results: Of the 229 nonresponders, 53% of patients died in the steroid group versus 63% in the placebo group. This corresponds to a 1 5.9% relative risk reduction 1P=0.02). There was no signrricant difference between groups in the responders. Conclusion: Corticosteroid therapy in the ICU reduces mortality wrthout increasing adverse events.

Corticosteroids for Treating Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004, Issue 1 Study: Meta·analysis of 1 5 random�ed and quasi randomized control trials examining the efficacy of corticosteroids on death at one month in patients wrth severe sepsis and septic shock. Results: Overall, there was no difference in 28·day all cause mortality. However, a subgroup of five trials that used long·tenm low dose corticosteroids 1200·300 mg IV) showed a significant benefit in 28 day mortality IRR-0.80 95% CI 0.67·0.95). Data from this subgroup also showed a significant reduction of in·hospital mortality and increased shock reversal by day seven. Conclusions: The lack of an overall benefit to corticosteroids in sepsis was attributed to significant study heterogeneity. Low dose and long· tenm corticosteroids appear to have significant benefit for patients with sepsis. However, further research is needed to identify patients wrth sepsis who have adrenal insufficiency. Moreover, the optimal time to start treatment and the optimal dose require further trials.

• • • •

the leading cause of death in noncoronary ICU settings is multi-organ failure due to sepsis treating sepsis is one of the biggest challenges faced by ICU staff as the underlying pathophysiology of this condition is not fully understood the predominant theory is that sepsis is attributable to uncontrollable immune system activation formal definitions for sepsis-related terms are as follows: infection: pathologic process caused by the invasion of normally sterile tissue or fluid by pathogenic or potentially pathogenic microorganisms bacteremia: the presence of viable bacteria in the blood Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS): clinical insults, including both infectious and noninfectious entities that result in a generalized inflammatory reaction manifested by one or more of the following: • body temperature >38°C or 90/ min • respiratory rate >20 / min or PaC02 12000 cells / mL or 38°C) or Hypothermia « 36°C) Heart rate > gO/min sBP < gO mmHg, MAP < 70, or a sBP decrease > 40 mmHg Tachypnea Altered mental status Positive fluid balance ( > 20 mL/kg over 24 hrs) Hyperglycemia (BG >7.7 mmol!l) in the absence of diabetes Leukocytosis (WBC > 1 2,000(L) Leukopenia (WBC 1 0% immature forms Plasma C·reactive protein > 2 SO above the normal value

Arterial hypoxemia (PaO,/FiO, 1 .5 or aPTI >60 secs) Ileus (absent bowel sounds) Thrombocytopenia (platelet count < 1 OO,OOO(L ) Hyperbilirubinemia (plasma total bilirubin >4 mg/dL or 70 mmol!l) Tissue perfusion variables

Hyperlactatemia (> 1 mmol!l) Decreased capillary refill or mottling

Table adapted with permission from Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, Abraham E, Angus D, Cook D, Cohen J, Opal SM, Vincent J.L, Ramsay G. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Critical Care Medicine. 2003;3114):1 250·6

Toronto Notes 2010

Introduction to Intensive Care

Basic Principles for the Management of Sepsis • identify the cause and source of infection: blood, sputum, urine Gram stain and culture and sensitivity • initiate empiric antibiotic therapy • monitor, restore and maintain hemodynamic function early goal-directed therapy that involves adjustments of cardiac preload, afterload and contractility to balance oxygen delivery with demand provides significant outcome benefits • early goal-directed therapy should be started immediately and completed within 6 hours of recognition of severe sepsis / septic shock •

Early Goal Directed Therapy • for initiation of therapy patient should meet SIRS criteria and sBP 4 mmol / L. Therapy should be initiated ASAP after presentation and for >6 hours 1. supplemental oxygen ± intubation and mechanical ventilation 2. central venous and arterial catheterization 3. if CVP 70% IRx'd with transfusion of pRBCs until hemotacrit >30, then inotropic agents). Standard therapy in the emergency department consisted of ensuring MAP > 65, CVP between 8·12 mmHg, and urine output >0.5 mg!'rF

Peripheral Arthritis

Symmetrical Small and large joints DIP less involved

Usually larger joints, lower extremities (psoriatic arthritis may be the exception) Dactylitis Enthesitis DIP in Psoriatic arthritis

Pelvic/Axial Disease

No (except for C-spine)

Yes

Enthesitis

No

Yes

Extra-Articular

Nodules Vasculitis Sicca Raynaud's phenomenon

Iritis ( Anterior Uveitis) Oral ulcers GI GU Dermatological features =

SOFTER TISSUE Sepsis OA Fracture Tendon/muscle Epiphyseal Referred Tumour Ischemia Seropositive arthritides Seronegative arthritides Urate (gout)/other crystal Extra-articular rheumatism (polymyalgia/fibromyalgia)

RH4 Rheumatology

Differential Diagnoses of Common Presentations/Septic Arthritis/Degenerative Arthritis: Osteoarthritis

Toronto Notes 2010

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases

Connective Tissue Disease

Glucosamine Therapy for Treating Osteoarthritis eochrone Database of Systemic Reviews 2005, Issue 2. Art. No.: C0002946. 001: 10,1 002}1 4651858. CD002946. pub2 Study: Meta-analysis of 20 RCTs (n;2750) examining the efficacy of glucosamine on OA. Results: Overall analysis 01 1 5 RCTs favoured glucosamine over placebo for total reduction in pain (measured by a variety of methods). Signrricant differences between glucosamine and placebo were also observed when compared to Levesque Index scores. Only the glucosamine containing Rotta preparation was found to be significant. No significant differences in WOMAC (in pain, stiffness and function subscales) were found between glucosamine and placebo when only studies with adequate allocation concealment were included. There was evidence to suggest that glucosamine may slow the radiologic progression of OA at 3 years. Glucosamine had an excellent safety profile. Conclusion: Glucosamine appears helpful for pain when all studies (low qualITY and older studies) are included. However, when only the higher quality studies are included, there is no longer a difference between glucosamine and placebo. Glucosamine was very well tolerated with low toxicity. Rotta preparation of glucosamine may be of some benefit.

Meta-analysis: Chondroitin for osteoarthr�is of the knee and hip Annals of Internal Medicine, 1 7 April, 2007. Volume 1 46(8):580-590 Study: Meta-analysis of 20 RCTs (n;3846) examining the efficacy of chondroitin on OA. Results: The ana�sis of this review was hampered by significant trial heterogene�. Trials with poor methodology (small numbeffi, inadequate randomization concealment, no intention to treat analysis) showed larger effect sizes in favour of glucosamine than more recent trials. When the authoffi analyzed only the newer and more robust trials, an effect size of -0.3 (CI 95%: -0.13 to 0.07) was generated. Conclusion: There is high quality evidence to suggest there is no difference between chondroitin and placebo. Chondroitin should be disregarded from routine use in clinical practice.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome (APS) SclerodermaIProgressive Systemic Sclerosis (PSS) Polymyositis/Dermatomyosistis (PM/DM) Sjogren's Syndrome Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD)

I

Vasculitides

Small Vessel: Non-ANCA-associated ANCA-associated (i.e. Wegener's Granulomatosis) Medium Vessel: Polyarteritis Nodosa Kawasaki's Large Vessel: Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA)

Figure 3. Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases

Septic Arthritis • Septic Arthritis is a Medical Emergency! For any monoarticular arthritis one must rule

out septic etiology. Consider empiric antibiotic treatment until septic arthritis is excluded by history, physical exam and synovial fluid analysis (see Infectious Diseases, ID21 / Orthopaedics, OR8)

Degenerative Arthritis : Osteoarthritis (OA) Definition • primary (idiopathic) most common, of unknown etiology • secondary post-traumatic or mechanical post-inflammatory (e.g. RA) or post-infectious heritable skeletal disorders (e.g. scoliosis) endocrine disorders (e.g. acromegaly, hyperparathyroidism, hypothyroidism) metabolic disorders (e.g. gout, pseudogout, hemochromatosis, Wilson's disease, ochronosis) neuropathic (also known as Charcot joints) • atypical joint trauma due to loss of proprioceptive senses (e.g. diabetes, syphilis) avascular necrosis (e.g. fracture, steroids, alcohol, gout, sickle cell) other (e.g. congenital malformation) •







• •







Etiology and Pathophysiology • altered joint function and damage • primary event is deterioration of articular cartilage due to local biomechanical factors and release of proteolytic and collagenolytic enzymes OA develops when cartilage catabolism > synthesis loss of proteoglycans and water exposes underlying bone • abnormal local bone metabolism further damages joint • synovitis is secondary to cartilage damage therefore may see small effusions in OA •



Epidemiology • most common arthropathy (12% of age 25-74) • increased prevalence with increasing age (35% of 3D-year olds, 85% of 8D-year olds) • • • • • • •

Hand (DIP, PIp, 1 st CMC) Hip Knee 1 st MTP L-spine (L4-L5, L5-S 1 ) C-spine Uncommon: ankle, shoulder, elbow, MCP, rest of wrist

Figure 4. Common Sites of Involvement in OA

Risk Factors • genetic predisposition, advanced age, obesity (for knee OA), female, trauma Signs and Symptoms • signs and symptoms localized to affected joints (not a systemic disease) • pain is often insidious, gradually progressive, with intermittent flare-ups and remissions

Toronto Notes 2010 Table 4. Signs and Symptoms of OA Signs

Symptoms

Joint line tenderness; stress pain Bony enlargement at affected joints Malalignment/deformity (angulation) Limited ROM Crepitus on passive ROM Inflammation (mild if present) Periarticular muscle atrophy

Joint pain with motion; relieved with rest Short duration of stiffness « 1/2 hr) after immobility Joint instability/buckling Joint locking due to "joint mouse" (bone or cartilage fragment) Loss of function or other internal derangements (e.g. meniscal tear)

..... ' , ,�------. OA of Mep joints can be seen in hemochromatosis or chondrocalcinosis.

Bouchard's node

Joint Involvement • asymmetric • any joint can be affected: especially knee, hip, hand, spine (see Figure 4) • hand DIP (Heberden's nodes osteophytes � enlargement of joints) PIP (Bouchard's nodes) (see Figure 5) CMC (usually thumb squaring) MCP is usually spared (except the 1st MCP) • hip usually presents as groin pain but other sites are also found dull or sharp pain in trochanter, anterior thigh, or knee internal rotation and abduction are lost first • knee narrowing of one compartment of the knee is the rule, medial > lateral standing x-rays must be done (not supine) • foot common in first MTP • lumbar spine very common especially L4-L5, L5-S1 degeneration of intervertebral discs and facet joints reactive bone growth can contribute to neurological impingement (e.g. sciatica, neurogenic claudication) or spondylolisthesis (displacement of vertebrae) • cervical spine commonly presents with neck pain, especially in lower cervical area •

Rheumatology RH5

Degenerative Arthritis: Osteoarthritis

I

=







Figure 5. Bouchard's and Heberden's Nodes



• •



Hint: Bouchard's is closer to the Body











...... ' , ,}-------. The Radiographic Hallmarks of OA 1. joint space narrowing

2. subchondral sclerosis 3. subchondral cysts 4. osteophytes



Investigations • blood work normal CBC and ESR negative RF and ANA • synovial fluid � non-inflammatory (see Table 1 7) • radiology: 4 hallmark findings (see sidebar) •



Treatment • presently no treatment alters the natural history of OA • non-pharmacological therapy weight loss (minimum 5-10 lb loss) rest/ low-impact exercise physiotherapy with heat/ cold, exercise programs occupational therapy � aids, splints, cane, walker, bracing • medical therapy NSAIDs, acetaminophen (see Table 18) hyaluronic joint injections (HyalganTM, Synvisc™, etc.) nutraceuticals: glucosamine ± chondroitin • surgical treatment joint debridement, osteotomy, total and / or partial joint replacement, fusion • • •











Arthroscopic Debridement for Knee Osteoarthritis Cochrane Database Syst Re� 2008;ll):CD0051 1 8 Purpose: To identify the effectiveness of AD in knee OA on pain and function. Study Selection: Randomised controlled tlials IRCT) or controlled clinical trials ICCT) assessing effectiveness of AD compared to another surgical procedure, including sham or placebo surgery and other non-surgical interventions, in patients with a diagnosis of primary or secondary OA of the knees, who did not have other joint involvement or conditions requiring long term use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs INSAIOs). The main outcomes were pain relief and improved function of the knee. Resuks: Three RCTs were included with a total of 271 patients. They had different comparison groups and a moderate risk of bias. One study compared AD wrth lavage and with sham surgery. Compared to lavage the study found no signrricant difference. Compared to sham surgery placebo, the study found worse outcomes for AD at two weeks IWMD for pain 8.7, 95% CI 1 .7 to 15.8, and function 7.7, 95% CI 1.1 to 1 4.3; NNTH=5) and no significant difference at two years. The second trial, at higher risk of bias, compared AD and arthroscopic washout, and found that AD significantly reduced knee pain compared to washout at five years IRR 5.5, 95% Cl l .7 to 1 5.5; NNTB=3). The third trial, also at higher risk of bias, compared AD to closed­ needle lavage, and found no significant difference. Conclusion: There is 'gold' level evidence that AO has no benefit for undiscriminated OA Imechanical or inflammatory causes).

RH6 Rheumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

Seropositive Rheumatic Disease : Connective Tissue Disorders Table 5. Features of Seropositive Arthropathies Rheumatoid Arthritis

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Scleroderma

Dermatomyositis

History

Symmetrical Polyarthritis (small joint involvementl AM stiffness (> 1 hrl

Multisystemic disease: rash, photosensitivity, Raynaud's, alopecia, cardiac and pulmonary serositis, CNS symptoms, glomerulonephritis

Raynaud's, stiffness of fingers, skin tightness, heartburn/dysphagia, pulmonary hypertension, renal dysfunction

Heliotrope rash (eyelids!, Gottron's papules, macular erythema and poikiloderma (shoulders, neck and chest!, proximal muscle weakness ± pain

Physical Examination

Effused joints Tenosynovitis Nodules Bone-on-bone crepitus Joint deformities

Confirm historical findings (rash, scrositis, etc.l ± effused (typically small I joints (can be minimal, look for soft tissue swelling I

Skin tightness on dorsum of hand, facial skin tightening, telangiectasia, calcinosis, non-effused joint

Rash, proximal muscle weakness

Non-specific

Increased ESR in 50-60% Increased platelets Decreased Hb Decreased WBC (Felty'sl

Increased ESR Decreased platelets (autoimmunel Decreased Hb (autoimmunel Decreased WBC (leukopenia, lymphopenia I

Increased ESR Increased platelets Decreased Hb Normal WBC

Possible increased ESR Normal platelets Decreased Hb Normal WBC

Specific

RF +ve in -80%

ANA + ve in 98% Anti-SM +ve in 30% Anti-dsDNA +ve in 50-70% Decreased C3, C4, total hemolytic complement False positive VDRL (in lupus subtypesl Increased PIT (in lupus subtypes; e.g. anti phospholipid Abl

ANA +ve in >90% Anti-topoisomerase 1 (diffusel Anti-centromere (usually in CREST, see RH121

CPK elevated in 80% ANA +ve in 33% anti-Jo-1 , anti-Mi-2 Muscle biopsy - key for diagnosis EMG MRI

Synovial Fluid

Inflammation Leukocytosis (> 1 0,0001

Mild inflammation with +ve ANA Not spec�ic

Radiographs

Demineralization Symmetric/concentric Joint space narrowing Marginal erosions Absence of bone repair

Nondestructive/nonerosive ± osteopenia ± soft tissue swelling

Clinical Features

Laboratory

± pulmonary fibrosis ± esophageal dysmotility ± calcinosis

Not specific ± esophageal dysmotility ± interstitial lung disease ± calc�ications

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)

"' , .}-------, Common Presentation •

• •



Morning stiffness >30 min, improves with use Symmetric joint involvement Initially involves small joints of hands and feet Constitutional symptoms

"' , .�------, Criteria are 91 -94% sensitive and 89% specific for RA.

Definition • chronic, symmetric, erosive synovitis of peripheral joints (i.e. wrists, MCP joints, and MTP joints) • characterized by a number of extra-articular features Table 6. Classification Criteria: RA diagnosed if 4 or more of the following 7 criteria present Criteria

Definition

1 . Morning stiffness 2. Arthritis of three or more joint areas

Joint stiffness > 1 hour for > 6 weeks At least 3 active joints for > 6 weeks; commonly involved joints are PIp, MCP, wrist, elbow, knee, ankle, MTP

3. Arthritis of hand joints

At least one active joint in wrist, MCP or PIP for > 6 weeks

4. Symmetric arthritis

Bilateral involvement of PIp, MCP, or MTP for > 6 weeks

5. Rheumatoid nodules

Subcutaneous nodules over bony prominences, extensor surfaces or in juxta-articular regions

6. Serum RF

Found in 60-80% of RA patients

7. Radiographic changes

Erosions or periarticular osteopenia, likely to see earliest changes at ulnar styloid, 2nd and 3rd MCP and PIP joints

American Rheumatism Association, 1987

Etiology and Pathophysiology • autoimmune disorder, unknown etiology • hallmark of RA is hypertrophy of the synovial membrane activated rheumatoid synovium (pannus) grows into and over the articular surface resulting in destruction of articular cartilage and subchondral bone •

Toronto Notes 2010

Rheumatology RH7

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

• two theories attempt to explain chronic remissions and exacerbations seen in RA •



sequestered Ag • during inflammation, immune complexes (ICs) are deposited at avascular cartilage-bone junction � rcs (free of reticulo-endothelial system) get released as further cartilage breaks down � triggers inflammatory cascade molecular mimicry • cartilage damage � altered cartilage resembles undefined offending agent � triggers inflammatory cascade Unknown Ag(s)

• • (CD4 + ) _______ Activated T-Cell • B-cell activation � Antigen presenting cell

,I . . . IgG Productlo including RF



r

Immune complex format n joint

Activation of monocytes, 0'0 macrophages, synovial fibroblasts

�� � � � �

Angiogenesis

IL-l

r

B- and T-cell accumulation in SY ViUm



Neutrophil recruitment

inflammatory symptoms

Release of inflammatory mediators

Release of elastase protease

Activation of complement cas de

, Accumulation of PMNs;





t

, Degradation of peptidoglycan of cartilage



TNF-a

Promotes inflammation



� . Osteoprotegenn ligand

j

IL-6



Osteoclastogenesis

Pannus formation

Matrix metalloproteinases

I

• •

.

Proliferation of synovial fibro lasts

/,



tI

• • • • •

Figure 6. Common Sites of Joint Involvement in RA

lnvaSion of cartilage

Cartilage and bone destruction ..... ------------'

Figure 7. Proposed Pathogenesis of RA

Epidemiology • incidence 0.6-2.9 per 1,000 population / yr, prevalence 1% of adult population • F:M 3:1; age of onset 20-40 yrs • genetic predisposition: HLA-DR4 / DR1 association (93% of patients have either HLA type) =

Signs and Symptoms • variable course of exacerbations and remissions • morning stiffness >1 hr, improves with use, aggravated by rest • symmetric joint involvement (see Figure 6) • signs of disease activity: synovitis (assessed by tender and swollen joint count), elevated serum markers of inflammation such as ESR or CRp, decreased grip strength, increased pain • signs of mechanical joint damage: loss of motion, instability, deformity, crepitus • constitutional symptoms: profound fatigue; rarely myalgia or weight loss • extra-articular features (see Figure 8) and radiographic damage • limitation of function and decrease in global functional status Extra-Articular Features (EAF) • classified in terms of the underlying process: either vasculitis or a lymphocytic infiltrate Extra-Articular Features Vasculitis • Episcleritis, scleritis • Periungual infarction • Cutaneous ulcers • Palpable purpura • Peripheral neuropathy • Sensory: stocking-glove • Mononeuritis multiplex

Figure 8. Extra-Articular Features of RA

I

Lymphocytic infiltrate • Rheumatoid nodules • Pulmonary fibrosis • Pleural effusion/pleuritis • Pulmonary nodules • Peri-/myocarditis, valvular disease • Hashimoto's thyroiditis • Sjogren's syndrome • Felty's syndrome • Hepatosplenomegaly

PIP MCP Wrist, not 1 st CMC Elbow Shoulder Knee Ankle MTP C-spine



RH8 Rheumatology

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations • RF positive in 80% of patients non-specific, also seen in other rheumatic diseases (e.g. SLE, Sjogren's), chromc inflammation (e.g. SBE, hepatitis, TB) and 5% of healthy population • anti-CCP (cyclic citrullinated peptide): sensitivity (-80%) • increased disease activity is associated with decrease Hb (anemia of chronic disease), increased platelets, elevated ESR, CRp, and RF • x-rays are essential for diagnosing and following this disease (see Table 5) • MRI is occassionaly used in imaging of hands for early erosive change, bone edema and synovitis •

Classification of Global Functional Status in RA (American College of Rheumatology, 1 99 1 ) • Class I : able t o perform usual ADLs (self-care, vocational, avocational) • Class II: able to perform self-care and vocational activities, restriction of avocational activities • Class III: able to perform self-care, restriction of vocational and avocational activities • Class IV: limited ability to perform self-care, vocational, avocational activities

Hammer Toe

Complications of Chronic Synovitis • joint deformities (see Figure 9) swan neck deformity, boutonniere deformity ulnar deviation of MCP; radial deviation of wrist joint hammer toe, mallet toe, claw toe flexion contractures • atlanto-axial and subaxial subluxation C-spine instability neurological impingement (long tract signs) difficult intubation • limited shoulder mobility, spontaneous tears of the rotator cuff leading to chronic spasm • tenosynovitis --7 may cause rupture of tendons • carpal tunnel syndrome • ruptured Baker's cyst (outpouching of synovium behind the knee); presentation similar to acute DVT • decreased functional capacity and early mortality • •

• •





Figure 9. Joint Deformities

"" ' , .�------. Poor prognostic features of RA include young age of onset, high RF titer, elevated ESR, activity of > 20 joints, and presence of EAF.

Treatment • goals of therapy control disease activity relieve pain and stiffness maintain function and lifestyle prevent or control joint damage key is early diagnosis and early intervention with disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) • •

• • •

"" ' , .}-------, Syndromes in RA 1 . Sjogren's syndrome (sicca complex

- dry eyes and mouth) - common 2. Caplan's syndrome (multiple pulmonary nodules and pneumoconiosis) - rare 3. Felty's syndrome (arthritis, splenomegaly, neutropenia) - rare

"" ' , .�------, Side Effects of Steroids • • • • •

• • • •

Osteoporosis, avascular necrosis (AVN) Hypertension Cataracts, glaucoma Peptic ulcer disease Susceptibility to infection and easy brusing Hypokalemia, hyperglycemia Hyperlipidemia, weight gain Acne Mood swings

"" ' , .�------, Only OMAROs (not analgesics or NSAIOs) alter the course of RA!

Education, Occupational Therapy, Physiotherapy, Vocational Counselling • therapeutic exercise program (isometrics and active ROM exercise during flares, aquatic/ aerobic/ strengthening exercise between flares), assistive devices and patient education • patients may need job modification, time off work or change in occupation • The Arthritis Society (Canada) and Arthritis Foundation (U.s.) Medical • NSAIDs, DMARDs, biologic response modifiers and corticosteroids are the mainstay of pharmacological therapy

1. Reduction of Inflammation and Pain • NSAIDS individualize according to efficacy and tolerability contraindicated or cautioned in some patients (e.g. PUD, pregnancy, see Table 18) • analgesics add acetaminophen ± opioid pm for synergistic pain control • corticosteroids local • intra-articular injections to control symptoms in a specific joint • eye drops for eye involvement systemic (prednisone) • low dose (5-10 mg/ day) useful for (a) short term to improve symptoms if NSAIDs ineffective, (b) to bridge gap until DMARD takes effect or (c) for refractory disease • moderate to high dose (20-60 mg/ day) for cardiopulmonary disease • high dose (1 mg / kg / day) for vasculitis • do baseline DEXA bone density scan and start bisphosphonate, calcium, and vitamin D therapy if using corticosteroids >3 months at >7.5 mg/ day cautions / contraindications: active infection, osteoporosis, hypertension, gastric ulcer, diabetes, TB •











Toronto Notes 2010

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

2. Disease Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Drugs (DMARDs) • DMARDs are the standard of care • start DMARDs within 3 months of diagnosis to decrease disease progression, symptoms and signs • DMARDs reduce or prevent joint damage, and are associated with better long-term disability index • delayed onset of action (may take 8-12 weeks) • many DMARDs have potential toxicities that require periodic monitoring • if repetitive flares, progressive joint damage, or ongoing disease activity after 3 months of maximal therapy --7 change or add other DMARDs • mild and early stages: hydroxychloroquine or sulfasalazine monotherapy preferred • moderate to severe disease (especially if unfavourable prognostic factors): methotrexate is the gold standard single regimen with methotrexate or leflunomide (Arava™) combination therapy: methotrexate + sulfasalazine + hydroxychloroquine; methotrexate + cyclosporine; methotrexate + leflunomide • biologics: indicated if persistent disease activity (see Table 19) commonly used after failure of other DMARDs; however, evidence suggests benefit of use in early RA as well (e.g. infliximab, etanercept, abatacept, adalimumab, golimumab etc.) •









Surgical Therapy • synovectomy: debridement and / or removal of inflamed synovium from individual joints (surgical or radioactive) • joint replacement (hip, shoulder, knee) • joint fusion (wrist, thumb, ankle, C-spine) • reconstruction (tendon repair) • surgery indicated for structural joint damage

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)

-------

Definition • chronic inflammatory multisystem disease of unknown etiology, characterized by production of autoantibodies and diverse clinical manifestations Table 7. Diagnostic Criteria of SLE: 4 or more of 1 1 must be present serially or simultaneously Criteria

Description

Clinical

Malar rash Discoid rash Photosensitivity OraVnasal ulcers Arthritis Serositis Neurologic disorder

Classic "butterfly rash", sparing of nasolabial folds, no scarring May cause scarring due to invasion of basement membrane Skin rash in reaction to sunlight Usually painless Symmetric, involving 2: 2 small or large peripheral joints, non-erosive Pleuritis or pericarditis Seizures or psychosis

Laboratory

Renal disorder Hematologic disorder Immunologic disorder

Antinuclear antibody lANA)

Proteinuria 1>0.5 g/day or 3+) Cellular casts IRBC, Hb, granular, tubular, mixed) Hemolytic anemia, leukopenia, lymphopenia, thromboctyopenia Anti-dsDNA Ab, anti-Sm Ab Antiphospholipid antibodies based on the finding of serum anti cardiolipin Ab, lupus anticoagulant, or false positive VDRL Most sensitive test 198%)

Note: "4, 7, 1 1 " rule -> 4 out of 11 criteria 14 lab, 7 clinical) for diagnosis American College of Rheumatology, 1997 update

Pathophysiology • production of autoantibodies causing multi-organ inflammation, including peripheral polyarthritis (symmetric involvement of small and large joints) Proposed Etiology • multifactorial etiology (see Figure 10) • genetics • common association with HLA-B8 / -DR3; -10% have positive family history • estrogen prepubertal and postmenopausal women have similar incidence to men • men with SLE have higher concentration of estrogenic metabolites • infection viral (nonspecific stimulant of immune response) •



Rheumatology RH9

Comparison of Treatment Strategies in Early Rheumatoid Arthritis Ann Intern Med 20 March 2007:14616) Study: RCT of 508 patients comparing 4 different treatment strategies for earty rheumatoid arthritis. Intervention: Group 1 : Sequential Monotherapy with traditional DMARDs Group 2: Step-Up Combination Therapy Group 3: InITial Combination Therapy with prednisone Ihigh dose) Group 4: InITial Combination Therapy with infliximab Results: Patients in groups 3 and 4 responded faster and had significantly greater overall change in physical function scores after the first year of treatment. By end of the second year, groups 1 and 2 had achieved a similar response to groups 3 and 4. Groups 3 and 4 also showed significantly less radiologic progression of their disease over 2 years than groups 1 and 2. There were no significant differences in toxicity levels between the 4 groups. Conclusions: Initial combination therapy with prednisone or infliximab results in faster response rates. Whether faster initial response rates leads to better long-term disease outcomes has not yet been studied. The Safety of Infliximab, Combined wrrh Background Treabnents, among Patients wITh Rheumatoid Arthrrris and Various Comorbidities ISTARn Mhritis Rheum 2006;54:1 075·86 Study: Randomized, placebo-controlled multicentre trial. Patients: 1084 patients Imean age 52 yrs, 80% female) with active moderate to severe rheumatoid arthritis despite treatment with methotrexate. Intervention: Patients were randomized to receive infusions of placebo, inftiximab dosed at 3 mgtkg, or infliximab dosed at 10 mgtkg at 0, 2, 6, and 14 weeks, in addition to methotrexate therapy. Primary Outcome: Incidence of serious infection within 22 weeks of random�ation. Results: Compared with the placebo group, the relative risk of developing serious infection was 1.0 195%CI 0.3·3.1 , P=0.995) in patients receiving infliximab at 3 mgtkg and 3.1 195%CI 1 .2-7.9, P=0.013) in patients receiving infliximab at 1 0 mgtkg. In addition, 3 1 % of patients receiving infliximab at 3 mgtkg and 32% of patients receiving infliximab at 1 0 mgtkg were able to achieve remission at 22 weeks compared with only 14% of those receiving placebo IP10 years) • inactive SLE, inactive nephritis, atherosclerosis secondary to long-term steroids and partially due to chronic inflammation =





Signs and Symptoms • characterized by periods of exacerbation and remission • systemic fever, malaise, fatigue, lymphadenopathy, weight loss • vascular Raynaud's phenomenon, livedo reticularis (mottled discolouration of skin due to narrowing of blood vessels, characteristic lacy or net-like appearance), thrombosis, vasculitis • dermatologic oral ulcers, photosensitivity, alopecia (hair loss), malar rash, maculopapular rash, purpura, panniculitis (inflammation of subcutaneous fat and muscle tissue), urticaria • ophthalmic conjunctivitis, episcleritis, keratoconjunctivitis, cytoid bodies (cotton wool exudates on fundoscopy infarction of nerve cell layer of retina) • gastrointestinal pancreatitis, lupus enteropathy, hepatitis, hepatomegaly • pulmonary pleuritis, interstitial lung disease, pulmonary hypertension, PE, alveolar hemorrhage • musculoskeletal arthralgias, arthritis, avascular necrosis, myositis • neurologic depression, personality disorder, cerebritis, transverse myelitis, seizures, headache, peripheral neuropathy •







=

.... ' , ��------. Consider septic arthritis and avascular necrosis in patients with SLE and joint pain.









Investigations • serologic hallmark: high titer ANA, detected by immunofluorescence • ANA has high sensitivity (98%), but poor specificity -? can be used as a screening test, followed by further investigations, if positive • anti-dsDNA Ab (detected by Crithidia test, Farr radioimmunoassay) and anti-Sm Ab are specific for SLE (95-99%) • anti-dsDNA titer and serum complement (C3, C4) are useful to monitor treatment response in patients who are clinically and serologically concordant • lupus anticoagulant may cause increased risk of arterial and venous clotting and increased PTT Treatment • principles of therapy treat early and avoid long term steriod use, if possible if high doses of steroids necessary for long-term control, add steroid sparing agents and taper when possible treatment is tailored to organ system involved and severity of disease all medications used to treat SLE require periodic monitoring for potential toxicity • dermatologic preventative: use sunscreen, avoid UV light and estrogens topical steroids for rash, antimalarials • musculoskeletal bisphosphonates, calcium, vitamin D to combat osteoporosis antimalarials (hydroxychloroquine if no serious internal organ involvement -? improves long term control and prevents flares) NSAIDs ± gastroprotective agent for arthritis (also beneficial for pleuritis and pericarditis • organ threatening disease systemic steroids to minimize end organ damage secondary to inflammation high-dose oral prednisone / IV methylprednisolone in severe disease steroid sparing agents: azathioprine, methotrexate, mycophenolate IV cyclophosphamide for serious organ involvement (e.g. cerebritis or SLE nephritis) • •

















• •

Toronto Notes 2010

Rheumatology RHll

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome (APS) Defin ition • multisystem vasculopathy manifested by recurrent thromboembolic events, spontaneous abortions and thrombocytopenia • often presents with migraine type headaches, livedo reticularis, Raynaud's phenomenon • circulating antiphospholipid autoAbs (anticardiolipin Ab and lupus anticoagulant) interfere with coagulation cascade • primary vs. secondary primary APS occurs in the absence of other connective tissue disease secondary APS occurs in the setting of a connective tissue diseases (including SLE), malignancy, drugs (hydralazine, procainamide, phenytoin, interferon, quinidine), and infections (HIV, TB, hepatitis C, infectious mononucleosis) • catastrophic APS potentially fatal condition with development within one week of small vessel thrombotic occlusion causing involvement in three or more organ systems in the setting of anti-phospholipid antibodies •





Signs and Symptoms • primary manifestation is thrombosis (venous or arterial) venous thrombosis --7 DVT, PE, renal and retinal vein thrombosis arterial thrombosis --7 stroke / TIA, multi-infarct dementia, MI, valvular incompetence, limb ischemia • recurrent spontaneous abortions including first and second trimester fetal loss, premature birth « 34 wks gestational age) • hematologic abnormalities thrombocytopenia, hemolytic anemia, neutropenia • skin • livedo reticularis, purpura, leg ulcers, and gangrene •





Investigations • serology diagnosis: autoAb positive on 2 occasions, at least 12 weeks apart (lupus anticoagulant or anti cardiolipin [IgG / IgMJ or beta2-glycoprotein [IgG orIgM]) •

Treatment • thrombosis lifelong anticoagulation with warfarin --7 target INR 2.0-3.5 • recurrent fetal loss heparin / low molecular weight heparin, ± steroids ± aspirin • catastrophic APS high-dose steroids, anticoagulation, cyclophosphamide, plasmapheresis •





SclerodermaJProgressive Systemic Sclerosis (PSS) Definition • a non-inflammatory disorder characterized by widespread small vessel vasculopathy and fibrosis, which occurs in the setting of immune system activation and autoimmunity Diag nosis • diagnostic criteria: 1 major or ;0,2 minor criteria major criterion: proximal scleroderma minor criteria: sclerodactyly, digital pitting scars or loss of substance from finger pads, bibasilar pulmonary fibrosis • serology anti-topoisomerase 1: specific but not sensitive for systemic sclerosis anti-centromere: favours diagnosis of CREST variant (limited systemic sclerosis) •







Etiology and Pathophysiology • idiopathic vasculopathy (not vasculitis) leading to atrophy and fibrosis of tissues • intimal proliferation and media mucinous degeneration --7 progressive obliteration of vessel lumen --7 fibrotic tissue resembles malignant hypertension •

Epidemiology • F:M 3-4:1, peaking in 5th and 6th decades • associated with HLA-DR1 • associated environmental exposure (silica, epoxy resins, toxic oil, aromatic hydrocarbons, polyvinyl chloride) =

..... ' ,

��------,

Manifestations of APS

Thromboembolic events Recurrent fetal loss Thrombocytopenia A Systematic Review of Secondary Thromboprophylaxis in Patients with Antiphospholipid Antibodies A1thrftis Rheum. 2007;57:1487-95 Purpose: To systematically review the efficacy and safety data of different therapeutic approaches in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies laPl) and thrombosis. SbJdV Selection: Randomized controlled trials, prospective and retrospective cohort studies, and subgroup ana�sis In > 15) that focused on the secondary thromboproph�axis in patients with aPl were selected. Results: Sixteen studies were selected. Patients with venous events and a single test for aPl showed a low recurrence rate while receiving oral anticoagulation at a target intemational normalized ratio IINR) of 2.0-3.0. Patients wnh stroke and a single positive aPl test had no increased risk compared with those without aPl. Recurrence rates in patients with definite antiphospholipid syndrome lAPS) and previous venous thromboembolism were lower than in patients with arterial and/or recurrent events, both with and without therapy. Only 3.8% of recurrent events occurred at an actual lNR >3.0. Mortality due to recurrent thrombosis was higher than mortality due to bleeding 118 patients versus 1 patient reported). Conclusion: For patients with definite APS, the authors recommend prolonged wartarin therapy at a target INR of 2.0·3.0 in APS patients with first venous events and >3.0 for those with recurrent and/or arterial events. For patients with venous thromboembolism or stroke and a single positive aPl test, the authors recommend further testing to determine if they have a persisting antibody. ff they do not, the same therapy as for the general population should be used Iwartarin at a target INR of 2.0-3.0 and low-dose aspirin, respectively).

"

Toronto Notes 2010

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

RH12 Rheumatology

SCLERODERMA

, ��------.

CREST Syndrome Calcinosis - calcium deposits on skin Raynaud's phenomenon Esophageal dysfunction - acid reflux Sclerodactyly - tightening of skin Telangiectasia - superficial dilated blood vessels

��

Localized (no involvement of internal organs) Mostly children and young adults



/�

Morphea Hard oval patches on the skin •



,'

, ��------.

Linear Line of thickened skin •

Generalized (systemic sclerosis)

� �

Limited systemic sclerosis • Skin sclerosis restricted to hands, face, neck 3rd to 4th decade • Pulmonary hypertension common CREST (see sidebar) •



Diffuse systemic sclerosis • Widespread skin disease (proximal to wrist, can involve trunk), tendons • Early visceral involvement (renal, pulmonary fibrosis)

Figure 1 1 . Forms of Scleroderma

Signs and Symptoms Table 8. Clinical Manifestations of Scleroderma System

Features

Dermatologic

Initial phase characterized by painless non·pitting edema Progressive bilateral swelling of fingers, hands and feet leading to skin tightening Characteristic face: mask-like facies with tight lip, beak nose, radial perioral furrows Atrophy, ulcerations, hypo/hyperpigmentation, telangiectasias, calcinosis, periungual erythema, pruritus

Vascular

Episodes (minutes to hours) of well·demarcated blanching and/or cyanosis of digits followed by erythema (Raynaud's phenomenon), tingling and pain Due to vasospasm following cold exposure or emotional stress If severe, can result in infarction of tissue at fingertips .... digital pitting scars, frank gangrene or autoamputation of the fingers or toes

Gastrointestinal (-90%)

GI tract becomes a rigid tube leading to decreased motility Distal esophageal hypomotility .... dysphagia Loss of lower esophageal sphincter function .... GERD, ulcerations, strictures Small bowel hypomotility .... bacterial overgrowth, diarrhea, bloating, cramps, malabsorption, weight loss Large bowel hypomotility .... wide mouth diverticuli are pathognomonic radiographic finding on barium study

Renal

Mild proteinuria, creatinine elevation and/or hypertension are common "Scleroderma renal crisis" ( 1 0-1 5%) may lead to malignant arterial hypertension, oliguria and microangiopathic hemolytic anemia

Pulmonary

Interstitial fibrosis, pulmonary HTN, pleurisy, and pleural effusions

Cardiac

Left ventricular dysfunction, pericarditis, pericardial effusion, arrhythmias

Musculoskeletal

Polyarthralgias .... polyarthritis affecting both small and large joints Subcutaneous calcifications (calcinosis) "Resorption of distal tufts" (radiological finding) Proximal weakness 2° to disuse, atrophy, low grade myopathy

Endocrine

Hypothyroidism common

Scleroderma is the most common cause of secondary Raynaud's phenomenon.

Treatment • treatment is tailored to specific organ system involved • dermatologic good skin hygiene low dose prednisone, methotrexate (limited evidence) • vascular (Raynaud's) patient education on cold avoidance vasodilators (CCBs, local nitroglycerine cream, systemic PGE2 inhibitors) • gastrointestinal gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): PPIs are first line, then H2-receptor agonists small bowel bacterial overgrowth: broad spectrum antibiotics (tetracycline, metronidazole) • renal disease ACE inhibitors • cardiac pericarditis: systemic steroids pulmonary hypertention: bosentan (TracleerTM), epoprostenol (Flolan™), sildenafil (Viagra™) • musculoskeletal myositis: systemic steroids • •

• •

• •









Rheumatology RH13

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

Toronto Notes 2010

Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathy • autoimmune diseases characterized by proximal limb and neck weakness, may be associated with muscle pain

• autoantibodies: ANA, anti-Jo-1 (DM), anti-Mi-2, other myositis-specific antibodies • classification •

• • • •

adult polymyositis (PM) / dermatomyositis (DM) juvenile DM (usually with vasculitis) PM/DM associated with malignancy PM/DM associated with connective tissue disease inclusion body myositis (IBM)

POLYMYOSITIS ( PM)/DERMATOMYOSITIS (DM) Definition • idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: a number of conditions in which muscle becomes damaged by a non-suppurative lymphocytic inflammatory process • PM: inflammation of muscles, DM: inflammation of muscles and skin Diagnosis • definite PM / DM if fulfill 4 criteria • probable if fulfill 3 criteria • possible if fulfill 2 criteria Table 9. Diagnostic Criteria for PM/OM Criteria

Description

1 . Progressive symmetric proximal muscle weakness

Typical involvement of shoulders and hips

2. Elevated muscle enzymes

Increased CK, aldolase, LOH, AST, ALT

3. EMG changes

Short polyphasic motor units, high frequency repetitive discharge, insertional irritability

4. Muscle biopsy

Segmental fibre necrosis, basophilic regeneration, perivascular inflammation and atrophy

5.Typical rash of dermatomyositis

Required for diagnosis of OM

Etiology and Pathophysiology • PM is CDS cell-mediated muscle necrosis, found in adults • DM is B-cell and CD4 immune complex-mediated perifasicular vasculitis Signs and Symptoms • progressive symmetrical proximal muscle weakness (shoulder and hip) developing over weeks to months • early symptom: difficulty lifting head off pillow • dermatological DM has characteristic dermatological features (F>M, children and adults) • Cottron's papules - pink-violaceous, flat-topped papules overlying the dorsal surface of the interphalangeal joints • Cottron's sign - erythematous, smooth or scaly patches over the dorsal IPs, MCPs, elbows, knees, or medial malleoli • heliotrope (purple) rash over the eyelids; usually with edema • "shawl sign" - erythematous rash over neck, upper chest, and shoulders • cardiac dysrhythmias, congestive heart failure, conduction defect, ventricular hypertrophy, pericarditis • gastrointestinal oropharyngeal and lower esophageal dysphagia, reflux • pulmonary • weakness of respiratory muscles, interstitial lung disease, aspiration pneumonia •





Treatment • physical therapy and occupational therapy • medical high dose corticosteroid (1-2 mg/kg/ day) and slow taper immunosuppressive agents (azathioprine, methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine) intravenous immunoglobulin for DM • malignancy surveillance detailed history and physical (breast, pelvic and rectal exam) CXR, abdominal and pelvic ultrasound, stool occult blood, Pap test, mammogram ± CT scan (thoracic, abdominal, pelvic) •









"' , ��-------, Signs of OM

Gottron's papules and Gottron's sign are pathognomonic of OM (occur in 70% of patients).

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders

RH14 Rheumatology

,,

' , 9}-------,

Malignancies Associated with PM/DM • • •

Breast Colon Ovarian

Toronto Notes 2010

Prognosis • PM/DM Associated with Malignancy increased risk of malignancy: age >50, DM>PM, normal CK, refractory disease 2.4-6.5 fold increased risk of underlying malignancy usually in internal organs • Inclusion Body Myositis age >50, M>F, slowly progressive, vacuoles in cells on biopsy suspect when patient unresponsive to treatment distal as well as proximal muscle weakness muscle biopsy positive for inclusion bodies • •





• •

Sjogren's Syndrome

--------�

Definition • autoimmune condition characterized by dry eyes (keratoconjunctivitis sicca) and dry mouth (xerostomia), caused by lymphocytic infiltration of salivary and lacrimal glands • primary and secondary form (associated with RA, SLE, DM, and HIV) • incidence estimated at 4 / 100,000 people • 90% of cases are among females • mean age of diagnosis is 40-60 yrs

"' , 9�------, Classic Triad (identifies 93% of Sjogren's patients) • • •

Dry eyes Dry mouth (xerostomia) dysphagia Arthritis (small joint, asymmetrical, nonerosive) -->

Diagnosis • symptoms of dry eyes • signs of dry eyes - Schirmer test (to assess tear flow) or slit lamp exam with Rose Bengal stain • autoantibodies: anti-Ro, anti-La, ANA, RF • symptoms of dry mouth • signs of dry mouth - Sialography • salivary gland biopsy: gold standard Note: Need 4 of the above criteria, one of which must be either autoantibodies or salivary gland biopsy (sensitivity 95% - European Community Criteria) Etiology and Pathophysiology • may evolve into systemic disorder and may lead to diminished exocrine gland activity in respiratory tract and skin Signs and Symptoms • systemic manifestations arthralgias, arthritis, subclinical diffuse interstitial lung disease, renal disease, palpable purpura, systemic vasculitis • "sicca complex" : dry eyes (keratoconjunctivitis sicca), dry mouth (xerostomia) •

Complications • staphylococcus blepharitis: most common complication • autoimmune thyroid dysfunction in 45% of patients • vascular involvement leads to peripheral neuropathy (most common systemic complication) • glomerulonephritis • lymphoma • xerotrachea leading to chronic dry cough Table 1 0. Signs and Symptoms of Sicca

"' , 9�------' Patients with Sjogren's syndrome are at higher risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Location

Manifestation

Dcular

Burning/dry/painful eye relieved by tears Foreign body sensation (worse in evening) Blepharitis

Oral

Dry mouth - difficulty swallowing food without drinking Rapidly progressive caries (secondary to decreased saliva volume and its antibacterial factors) Erythema of hard palate and oral mucosa Oral candidiasis, angular cheilitis (inflammation and fissuring at the commissures of the mouth)

Treatment • good dental hygiene • artificial tears or surgical punctal occlusion for xerophthalmia • adequate hydration for xerostomia • topical nystatin or c1otrimazole x 4-6 weeks for oral candidiasis • hydroxychloroquine, corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents for severe systemic involvement • agents that stimulate salivary flow (e.g. pilocarpine)

Toronto Notes 2010

Rheumatology RH15

Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases: Connective Tissue Disorders/Vasculitides

M ixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD)! Overlap Syndrome • syndrome with features of 2 different CTD (e.g. SLE, PSS, PM) with presence o f anti-RNP Ab (see Table 12)

• common symptoms: Raynaud's phenomenon, swollen fingers • prognosis •

• •

50-60% will evolve into SLE 40% will evolve into scleroderma only 10% will remain as MCTD for the rest of their lives

Vasculitides Seropositive Rheumatic Diseases : Vascu litis • inflammation and subsequent necrosis o f blood vessels leading t o tissue ischemia or infarction

• any organ system can be involved • keys to diagnosis

clinical suspicion: suspect in cases of unexplained multiple organ ischemia or systemic illness with no evidence of malignancy or infection labs non-specific: anemia, increased WBC and ESR, abnormal urinalysis biopsy if tissue accessible angiography if tissue inaccessible • treatment generally involves corticosteroids and / or immunosuppressives •





.... ' , �}-------, c·ANCA circulating anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody p-ANCA perinuclear anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody =

=



Table 1 1 , Classification of Vasculitis and Characteristic Features Classification

Characteristic Features

SMALL VESSEL Non-ANCA-associated •



Immune complex mediated lmost common mechanism) Also known as hypersensitivity/leukocytoclastic vasculitis Predominantly cutaneous vasculitis Henoch·Schonlein purpura lsee Pediatrics. P95) Vascular deposition of IgA causing systemic vasculitis lskin, G1, renal), seen most frequently in childhood, usually se�,limiting condition Essential cryoglobulinemic vasculitis ANCA·associated

Wegener's granulomatosis lc-ANCA > p-ANCA) Churg-Strauss syndrome 150% ANCA positive)

Microscopic polyangiitis (70% ANCA positive, usually p-ANCA)

Granulomatous inflammation of vessels of respiratory tract and kidneys, most common in middle age, initially have URTI symptoms Granulomatous inflammation of vessels with hypereosinophilia and eosinophilic tissue infiltration, sometimes associated with p-ANCA or c-ANCA Other manifestations include coronary arteritis, myocarditis and neuropathy Pauci-immune necrotizing vasculitis, affecting kidneys lnecrotizing glomerulonephritis), lungs lcapillaritis and alveolar hemorrhage), skin

MEDIUM·SIZED VESSEL

Polyarteritis nodosa Kawasaki's lsee Pediatrics, P95)

Any age laverage 40-50's), unknown etiology in most cases Segmental non-granulomatous necrotizing inflammation T-Iymphocyte response and granuloma formation

LARGE VESSEL

Giant cell arteritis lGCA) /Temporal Arteritis Takayasu's arteritis

Over 50 years of age, F> M, inflammation predominantly of the aorta and arteries originating from it "Pulseless disease", increased ESR, fever, night sweats, chronic inflammation, most often the aorta and its branches, usually young adults of Asian descent, F> M

OTHER VASCULITIDES

Buerger's disease

Beh�et's disease

Vasculitis mimicry

Also known as thromboangiitis obliterans, inflammation secondary to pathological clotting, affects small and medium-sized vessels of distal extremities, most important etiologic factor is cigarette smoking, most common in Asian males, may lead to distal claudication and gangrene Pathology: leukocytoclastic vasculitis, multisystem disorder presenting with ocular involvement, recurrent oral and genital ulceration, venous thrombosis, skin and joint involvement Cholesterol emboli, atrial myxoma

.... ' , �}-------, Churg·Strauss Triad • •



Allergic rhinitis and asthma Eosinophilic infiltrative disease resembling pneumonia Systemic vasculitis

RH16

Rheumatology

Vasculitides

Toronto Notes 2010

Predominantly Cutaneous Vascu l itis SMALL VESSEL NON-ANCA ASSOCIATED VASCULITIS • subdivided into drug-induced vasculitis serum sickness reaction vasculitis associated with other underlying primary diseases •

• •

Etiology and Pathophysiology • cutaneous vasculitis following drug exposure (allopurinol, gold, sulfonamides, penicillin, phenytoin) viral or bacterial infection idiopathic causes • small vessels involved (post-capillary vessels most frequently) • usually causes a leukocytoclastic vasculitis debris from neutrophils around vessels • sometimes due to cryoglobulins which precipitate in cold temperatures • • •

=

Signs and Symptoms • palpable purpura ± vesicles and ulceration, urticaria, macules, papules, bullae, subcutaneous nodules Investigations • vascular involvement (both arteriole and venule) established by skin biopsy Treatment • stop possible offending drug • usually self-limiting • corticosteroids ± immunosuppressive agents

Wegener's G ra n u lomatosis SMALL VESSEL ANCA-ASSOCIATED VASCULITIS Definition • granulomatous inflammation of vessels that may affect the upper airways (rhinitis, sinusitis), lungs (pulmonary nodules, infiltrates), and kidneys (glomerulonephritis, renal failure) • highly associated with c-ANCA • incidence 5 per 100,000; more common in Northern latitudes

Classic Features •



Necrotizing granulomatous vasculitis of lower and upper respiratory tract Focal segmental glomerulonephritis

Diagnosis • diagnosis with 2 of 4 criteria (American College of Rheumatology, 1990) 1. nasal or oral inflammation, ulcers, epistaxis 2. abnormal findings on CXR, including nodules, cavitations 3. urinary sediment (protein, RBC casts) 4. biopsy of involved tissue: lungs show granulomas, and kidneys show necrotizing segmental glomerulonephritis Etiology and Pathophysiology • transformation from inflammatory prodrome (serous otitis media and sinusitis) to full-blown vasculitic syndrome Signs and Symptoms • systemic malaise, fever, weakness, weight loss • ENT sinusitis or rhinitis, nasal crusting and bloody nasal discharge, nasoseptal perforation, saddle nose deformity inflammatory / vasculitis involving extra-ocular muscles, retrobulbar space occupying lesions or direct extension of masses from the upper respiratory tract resulting in clinical finding of proptosis hearing loss due to involvement of CN VIII • pulmonary cough, hemoptysis • other joint, skin, eye complaints, vasculitic neuropathy •











Investigations • routine investigations bloodwork: anemia (normal MCV), increased WBC, increased Cr, increased ESR urinalysis: proteinuna, hematuria CXR: pneumonitis, lung nodules, infiltrations, cavitary lesions • other tests include specific: ANCA (c-ANCA > p-ANCA) •







Toronto Notes 2010

Rheumatology RH17

Vasculitides

biopsy: renal (segmental necrotizing glomerulonephritis), lung (tracheobronchial erosion) • possible decline in c-ANCA and ESR used to monitor response to treatment in some patients •

Treatment • prednisone 1 mg/ kg for 3-6 months ± cyclophosphamide 2 mg/ kg / day PO for 3-6 months followed by high dose methotrexate (20-25 mg PO / SC weekly) or azathioprine (2 mg /kg PO OD) • consider biologic agents (infliximab, rituximab, IVIg) and plasmapheresis in systemic disease resistant to corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide

Polyarteritis Nodosa (PAN) MEDIUM VESSEL VASCULITIS Definition • pauci-immune necrotizing vasculitis of medium to small vessles, without associated glomerulonephritis or pulmonary capillaritis (as seen in microscopic polyangiitis) • incidence 0.7 per 100,000; affects inviduals between 40-60 yrs; M:F 2:1 =

Etiology and Pathophysiology • focal panmural necrotizing inflammatory lesions in small and medium-sized arteries • thrombosis, aneurysm or dilatation at lesion site may occur • healed lesions show proliferation of fibrous tissue and endothelial cells that may lead to luminal occlusion Diagnosis • diagnosis with >3 of 10 criteria (American College of Rheumatology, 1990) weight loss >4 kg myalgias, weakness or leg tenderness livedo reticularis (mottled reticular pattern over skin) neuropathy testicular pain or tenderness diastolic BP >90 mmHg elevated Cr or BUN Hepatitis B positive arteriographic abnormality (commonly aneurysms) biopsy of artery showing presence of granulocytes or macronuclear leukocytes in the artery wall • •



.�------� There is an association between Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positivity and PAN.

• • •

• • •



.... ' , .�------� Consider PAN in a non-diabetic patient with mononeuritis multiplex.

Treatment • prednisone 1 mg/ kg / day and cyclophosphamide 2 mg / kg / day PO • ± anti-viral therapy to enhance clearance of HBV

G iant Cell Arteritis (GCA)lTemporal Arteritis LARGE VESSEL VASCULITIS Signs and Symptoms • temporal headaches ± scalp tenderness due to inflammation of involved portion of the temporal or occipital arteries • sudden, painless loss of vision and / or diplopia due to narrowing of the ophthalmic or posterior ciliary arteries • tongue and jaw claudication (pain in muscles of mastication on chewing) • polymyalgia rheumatica (proximal myalgia, constitutional symptoms, elevated ESR) occurs in 30% of patients • aortic arch syndrome (involvement of subclavian and brachial branches of aorta result in pulseless disease), aortic aneurysm ± rupture Investigations • diagnosis made by clinical suspicion, increased ESR, increased CRp, temporal artery biopsy within 14 days of starting steroids, angiography

Medical Emergency

Untreated, GCA can lead to permanent blindness in 20-25% of patients!

.�------�

GCA Criteria

Age > 50 New headache Temporal artery tenderness or decreased pulse • ESR >50 Abnormal artery biopsy Presence of 3 or more criteria yields sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 91 %. •

• •



Treatment • if suspect GCA, immediately start high dose prednisone 1 mg / kg in divided doses tapering prednisone as symptoms resolve; highly effective in treatment and in prevention of blindness and other vascular complications • ASA 325 mg tid

RH18 Rheumatology

Investigations

.... ' ,

Toronto Notes 2010

Investigations

��------�

Differential Diagnosis of Elevated ESR

Rheumatoid arthritis, PMR, GCA, hypoalbuminemia, anemia, multiple myeloma, bacterial infections, malignancy. ESR (and CRPI is insensitive for PM/OM, AS, PSS, SLE, viral infections.

Bloodwork, Urinalysis, Synovial Fluid Analysis • general: CBC, BUN, creatinine • acute phase reactants: complement (C3 and C4), fibrinogen, CRp, ferritin, albumin • ESR increases with the increase of acute phase reactants, and chronically, with increase in gamma globulins • C3, C4 often decrease in active SLE • urinalysis to detect disease complications (proteinuria, active sediment) • serology: autoantibodies (see Table 12) • synovial fluid analysis (see Table 17) • radiology (plain film, CT, MRI, ultrasound, bone densitometry, angiography, bone scan) Table 1 2. Autoantibodies and Their Prevalence in Rheumatic Diseases Autoantibody

Disease

Normal

Comments

RF

RA 80% Sjogren's 50% SLE 20%

< 5%

Autoantibodies (lgM > IgG > IgA) directed against Fc domain of IgG 1 0-20% over age 65 Present in most seropositive diseases Levels correlate with disease severity in RA Non-specific; may be present in IE, tuberculosis, hep C infections, silicosis, sarcoidosis

Anti-CCP

RA 80%

ANA

SLE 98% MCTD 95% Sjogren's 70-90% CREST 80%

90%

p-ANCA

Wegener's 1 0% other vasculitis

By definition present in MCTD; present in many other CTD 0% 0%

Specific for CREST variant of PSS

0% Specific and sensitive 0%

Nonspecific and poor sensitivity (found in ulcerative colitis, polyarteritis nodosa, microscopic polyangiitis, Churg-Strauss, rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis)

Anti-Mi-2

Dermatomyositis 1 5-20%

Specific but not sensitive

Antibodies against RBCs, WBCs, or platelets

SLE

Pelform direct Coomb's test Test hemoglobin, reticulocyte, leukocyte and platelet count. antiplatelet Abs

Toronto Notes 2010

Rheumatology RH19

Seronegative Rheumatic Diseases

Seronegative Rheumatic Disease Spondyloarthropath ies Table 1 3. A Comparison of the Spondyloarthropathies (inflammatory joint disease of the vertebral column) Feature

AS

PsA

ReA

IBD

M:F Age of onset Peripheral arthritis Distribution Sacroiliitis Dactylitis Enthesitis Skin lesions

5:1 20's 25% Axial, LE 1 00% Uncommon Common Rare

Uveitis Urethritis Aortic Regurgitation HLA-B27

30% Rare Occasional 90%

1 :1 35-45 96% Any 40% Occasional Common 1 00% Psoriasis Occasional Occasional Rare 40%

8:1 20's 90% LE 80% Common Common Common Keratoderma 20% Common Occasional 80%

1:1 any Common LE 20% Uncommon Less Common Occasional Pyoderma, Erythema Nodosum Rare Rare Occasional 30%

LE = Lower extremities

Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) Definition • chronic inflammatory arthritis involving the sacroiliac joints and vertebrae (see Figure 12) • prototype of the spondyloarthropathies Etiology and Pathophysiology • enthesitis (inflammation of tendon or ligament at site of attachment to bone) • inflammation � osteopenia � erosion � ossification Epidemiology • prevalence 0.2% of general population • M:F 5:1; females have milder disease • 95% of patients have HLA-B27 (9% HLA-B27 positive in general population) =

Table 1 4 . Types of Back Pain Parameter

Mechanical

Inflammatory

Past History Family History Onset Age (years) Sleep Disturbance Morning Stiffness Involvement of Other Systems Exercise Rest Radiation of Pain Sensory Symptoms Motor Symptoms

±

++ + Insidious 1 hour

Acute 1 5-90 ± 5 cm at T4), cervical (global decrease, often extension first) postural changes: decreased lumbar lordosis + increased thoracic kyphosis + increased cervical flexion increased occiput to wall distance • peripheral asymmetrical large joint arthritis, most often involving lower limb • extra-articular manifestations ophthalmic: acute anterior uveitis (25-30% patients) cardiac: aortitis, aortic regurgitation, pericarditis, conduction disturbances, heart failure (rare) •

• • • •

SI Spondylitis Hip Shoulder

Figure 1 2. Common Sites of Involvement of AS

"

Extra-articular Manifestations of Ankylosing Spondylitis 6 As Atlanto-axial subluxation Anterior uveitis Apical lung fibrosis Aortic incompetence Amyloidosis (kidneys) Autoimmune bowel disease (UC)





=



• •

�}-------�

Consider AS in the differential for causes of aortic regurgitation.

RH20 Rheumatology

Seronegative Rheumatic Diseases

• • •

Toronto Notes 2010

renal: amyloidosis and IgA nephropathy respiratory: apical fibrosis (rare) neurologic: cauda equina syndrome (rare)

Investigations • x-ray of 51 joint: "pseudowidening" of joint due to erosion with joint sclerosis � bony fusion (late), symmetric sacroiliitis • x-ray of spine: "squaring of edges" from erosion and sclerosis on corners of vertebral bodies leading to ossification of outer fibres of annulus fibrosis (bridging syndesmophytes) � "bamboo spine" radiographically Treatment • conservative/non-pharmacologic heat prevent fusion from poor posture and disability through: exercise (e.g. swimming), postural and deep breathing exercises, outpatient PT, smoking cessation • medical N5AIDs DMARDs for peripheral arthritis (sulfasalazine, methotrexate) biologics for axial and peripheral involvement manage extra-articular manifestations • surgical hip replacement, vertebral osteotomy for marked deformity • •

• •







Prognosis • spontaneous remissions and relapses are common and can occur at any age • function may be excellent despite spinal deformity • favourable prognosis if female and age of onset >40 years • early onset with hip disease may lead to severe disability; may require arthroplasty

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (l BD) "' , 9�-------' Both ankylosing spondylitis and IBO­ arthritis feature symmetric sacroiliitis_

• see Gastroenterology, G20 • manifestations of ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease include peripheral arthritis

(large joint, asymmetrical), spondylitis, and hypertrophic osteoarthropathy arthralgia, myalgia, osteoporosis and aseptic necrosis of bone 2° to steroid treatment of bowel inflammation • N5AIDs should be used cautiously as they may exacerbate bowel disease •

Table 1 5_ Comparing Features of Spondylitis vs. Peripheral Arthritis in IBD Parameter

Spondylitis

Peripheral Arthritis

HLA-B27 association Gender Onset before IBO Parallels IBO course Type of IBO

Yes M>F Yes No UG = Grahn's

No M=F No Yes Grahn's

Psoriatic Arthritis (PsA) ,,

' , 9�------�

Check "hidden" areas for psoriatic lesions (ears, hair line, umbilicus, gluteal cleft, nails).

Etiology and Pathophysiology • unclear but many genetic, immunologic and some environmental factors involved (e.g. psoriatic plaque flora, particularly Group A Streptococcus, and trauma) Epidemiology • psoriasis affects 1 % of population • arthropathy in 10% of patients with psoriasis • 15-20% of patients will develop joint disease before skin lesions appear Signs and Symptoms • dermatolgic well-demarcated erythematous plaques with silvery scale nail involvement: pitting, transverse or longitudinal ridging, discolouration, subungual hyperkeratosis, onycholysis and oil drops • musculoskeletal 5 general patterns • asymmetric oligoarthritis (most common - 70%) • arthritis of DIP joints with nail changes • destructive (mutilans) arthritis (5%) • symmetric polyarthritis (similar to RA) • sacroiliitis and spondylitis (usually older, male patients) • •



Toronto Notes 2010

Rheumatology RH21

Seronegative Rheumatic Diseases

• ophthalmic

conjunctivitis, iritis (uveitis) • cardiac and respiratory (late findings) aortic insufficiency apical lung fibrosis • neurologic cauda equina syndrome • radiologic floating syndesmophytes pencil and cup appearance at IP joints osteolysis, periostitis •







• •



Treatment • treat skin lesions (e.g. steroid cream, salicylic and / or retinoic acid, tar, UV light) • NSAIDs or intra-articular steroids • DMARDs, biologic therapies to minimize erosive disease (use early if peripheral joint involvement) • spinal disease � biologic therapies

Reactive Arthritis (ReA) Definition Two meanings 1. reactive arthritis: a sterile arthritis following an infection (e.g. rheumatic fever, post viral arthritis etc.) 2. Reactive Arthritis (ReA): one of the seronegative spondyloarthropathies in which patients have a peripheral arthritis (of greater than 1 month duration) accompanied by one or more extra-articular manifestations, that appears shortly after certain infections of the GI or GU tracts •

Etiology • onset following an infectious episode either involving the GI or GU tract GI: Shigella, Salmonella, Campylobaeter, Yersinia species GU: Chlamydia (isolated in 1 6-44% of ReA cases), Mycoplasma species • acute clinical course 1-4 weeks post-infection lasts weeks to years with 1 / 3 chronic often recurring spinal involvement persists •

Risks and Benefits of Tumour Necrosis Factor­ alpha Inhib�ors in the Management of Psoriatic Arthritis: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials J Rheumatol. 2008;35:883·90 Purpose: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of tumour necrosis factor-alpha ITNf·alpha) inhibitors in the management of psoriatic arthritis IPsA). Study Selection: Randomized controlled trials IRCT) of adalimumab, etanercept, and infliximab used in patients with PsA. Results: Six RCT met the inclusion criteria, including 982 patients. All 3 TNf-alpha inhibitors were significantly more effective than placebo on the basis of Psoriatic Arthritis Response Criteria IPsARC) and American College of Rheumatology response criteria ACR20, ACR50, and ACR70 ratings. There were no signfficant differences between TNF-alpha inhibitors and placebo in the proportions of patients who withdrew for any reason IRR 0.48, 95% CI 0.20-1 .1 8), or withdrawal due to adverse events IRR 2.14, 95% CI 0.73·6.27), serious adverse events IRR 0.98, 95% CI 0.55-1 .77), or upper respiratory tract infections IRR 0.91, 95% CI 0.65-1.28). Pooled rates for injection srte reactions were significantly higher for adalimumab and etanercept than for placebo IRR 2.48, 95% CI 1.1 6-5.29), but there was no significant difference in the proportion of patients experiencing infusion reactions with infliximab IRR 1 .03, 95% CI 0.482.20) compared to placebo. Indirect analysis did not demonstrate any significant differences between the TNf·alpha inhibitors. Conclusions: TNf-alpha inhibitors are effective treatments for PsA with no important added risks associated with their short-tenm use. There is still a need for longtenm risk-benefit assessment of using these drugs for the management of PsA.



• •

• •

Epidemiology • in HLA-B27 patients, axial > peripheral involvement • M>F Signs and Symptoms • musculoskeletal peripheral arthritis, asymmetric pattern, spondylitis (thick and skipped syndesmophytes), Achilles tendinitis, plantar fascitis, dactylitis ("sausage digits") • ophthalmic iritis (anterior uveitis), conjunctivitis • dermatologic keratoderma blenorrhagicum (hyperkeratotic skin lesions on palms and soles) and balanitis circinata (small, shallow, painless ulcers of glans penis and urethral meatus) are diagnostic • gastrointestinal oral ulcers, diarrhea • urethritis and cervicitis sterile cultures; presence not related to site of initiating infection •









Investigations • diagnosis is clinical plus laboratory • lab findings: normocytic, normochromic anemia and leukocytosis • cultures are sterile • HLA-B27 positive Treatment • antibiotics for non-articular infections • NSAIDs, physical therapy, exercise • local therapy joint protection intra-articular steroid injection topical steroid for ocular involvement • systemic therapy corticosteroids, sulfasalazine, methotrexate (for peripheral joint involvement only) TNF inhibitors for spinal inflammation • • •

• •

.....

' , �}-------,

"Can1 see, can1 pee, can1 climb a tree":

Triad of conjunctivitis, urethritis and arthritis is 99% specific (but 5 1 % sensitive) for ReA.

..... ' , ��------, Look for genetic predisposition (HLA-B27) and infection.

RH22 Rheumatology

Toronto Notes 2010

Crystal-Induced Arthropathies

Crystal- Induced Arthropathies Table 1 6. Gout vs. Pseudogout Parameter

Gout

Pseudogout

Gender

M=F Older

RadiologV

M>F Middle-aged males Post-menopausal females Acute Negative birefringence (yellow when parallel), needle-shaped First MTP, foot "Holes in bones"

Treatment

Indomethacin, colchicine, allopurinol

Age Onset of disease Crystal type Distribution

Acute�nsidious Positive birefringence (blue when parallel), rhomboid-shaped Knee, wrist. polyarticular Chondrocalcinosis OA (knee, wrist, 2nd and 3rd MCP) NSAIDs

Gout • • •

1 st MTP= Podagra Ankle Knee

Figure 1 3. Common Sites of Involvement in Gout (asymmetric joint involvement) ....

' , .}-------,

An acute gout attack may mimic cellulitis. However, joint mobility is preserved in cellulitis.

Definition • derangement in purine metabolism resulting in hyperuricemia; monosodium urate crystal deposits in tissues (tophi) and synovium (microtophi) Etiology and Pathogenesis • sources of uric acid: diet and endogenous • synthesis hypoxanthine -7 xanthine -7 uric acid both steps catalyzed by xanthine oxidase • •

Hyperuricemia • primary or genetic mostly due to idiopathic renal underexcretion (90%) also idiopathic overproduction or abnormal enzyme production/ function • secondary dietary excess underexcretion (>90%) renal failure, drugs, systemic conditions overproduction « 10%) increased nucleic acid turnover states (e.g. malignancy, post-chemotherapy) • majority of people with hyperuricemia do not have gout, and normal or low uric acid levels do not rule out gout • common precipitants: alcohol, dietary excess, dehydration (e_g. thiazide and loop diuretics), trauma, illness, surgery • other associated conditions: hypertension, obesity, diabetes, starvation •





....

' , .}-------,

Sudden changes in uric acid concentration are more important than absolute values. Therefore, changes in pH, temperature or initiation of antihyperuricemics may precipitate an acute gouty attack.

,"'

Precipitants of Gout Drugs are FACT

Furosemide Aspirin/Alcohol Cytotoxic drugs Thiazide diuretics Foods are SALTS Shellfish Anchovies Liver and Kidney Turkey Sardines





-

-

Epidemiology • most common in males >45 years old • extremely rare in premenopausal female Signs and Symptoms • recurrent episodes of acute arthritis • acute gouty arthritis painful, usually involving lower extremities (see Figure 13) joint mobility may be limited attack will subside spontaneously within several days to weeks; may recur • tophi urate deposits on cartilage, tendons, bursae, soft tissues, and synovial membranes common sites: first MTP, ear helix, olecranon bursae, tendon insertions (common in Achilles tendon) • kidney gouty nephropathy uric acid calculi •

• •





• •

Investigations • joint aspirate: >90% of joint aspirates show crystals of monosodium urate (see Table 17) (negatively birefringent) • differential diagnosis includes pseudogout, trauma, sepsis, OA

Toronto Notes 2010

Crystal-Induced Arthropathies

Rheumatology RH23

Treatment • acute gout NSAIDs: high dose, then taper as symptoms improve corticosteroids: intra-articular, oral or intra-muscular (if renal, cardiovascular or GI disease and / or if NSAIDs contraindicated or failed) colchicine within first 24 hours but effectiveness limited by narrow therapeutic range allopurinol can worsen an acute attack (therefore do not start during acute flare) • chronic gout conservative • avoid foods with high purine content (e.g. visceral meats, sardines, shellfish, beans, peas), avoid drugs with hyperuricemic effects (e.g. pyrazinamide, ethambutol, thiazide, alcohol) medical • antihyperuricemic drugs: decrease uric acid production (allopurinol and febuxostat inhibit xanthine oxidase) • uricosuric drugs (probenecid, sulfinpyrazone): use if failure on or intolerant to allopurinol; do not use in renal failure prophylaxis prior to starting antihyperuricemic drugs (colchicine / low-dose NSAID) in renal disease secondary to hyperuricemia, use low-dose allopurinol and monitor creatinine • •









• •

Pse udogout (Chondrocalci nosis) Etiology and Pathophysiology • acute inflammatory arthritis due to phagocytosis of IgG-coated calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD) crystals by neutrophils and subsequent release of inflammatory mediators within joint space Epidemiology • more frequently polyarticular, slower in onset in comparison to gout, lasts up to 3 weeks but is self-limited • risk factors: old age, advanced OA, neuropathic joints • other associated conditions: hyperparathyroidism, hypothyroidism, hypomagnesemia, hypophosphatasia (low ALP), diabetes, hemochromatosis Signs and Symptoms • affects knees, wrist, MCPs, hips, shoulders, elbows, ankles, big toe (see Figure 14) • may present as chronic arthritis with acute exacerbations • 5% will mimic rheumatoid arthritis (symmetrical polyarticular pattern with morning stiffness and constitutional symptoms) • may be triggered by dehydration, acute illness, surgery, trauma • 50% of the patients will develop degenerative joint changes Investigations • must aspirate joint to rule out septic arthritis, gout • CPPD crystals: present in 60% of patients and often only a few crystals • x-rays show chondrocalcinosis: radiodensities in fibrocartilaginous structures (e.g. knee menisci) or linear radiodensities in hyaline articular cartilage • chondrocalcinosis seen in 75% of pseudogout • differential diagnosis includes gout, trauma, sepsis, RA Treatment • joint aspiration, rest, and protection • NSAIDs - also used for maintenance therapy • prophylactic colchicine PO (controversial) • intra-articular or oral steroids to relieve inflammation

Synovia l Fluid Analysis • synovial fluid i s a n ultrafiltrate o f plasma plus hyaluronate; i t lubricates joint surfaces and nourishes articular cartilage

Three Most Important Tests of Synovial Fluid (3 C's) 1. Cell count and differential 2. Culture and Gram stain (bacteria, mycobacteria, fungi) 3. Crystal examination (microscopy with polarized light) gout (monosodium urate) � needle-shaped, negatively birefringent (yellow) pseudogout (calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate) � rhomboid-shaped, positively birefringent (blue) • Chemistry - protein, LDH, glucose less helpful • •



Knee



Polyarticular wrist Hand (MCP) Foot (1 st MTP) Hip

• • •

Figure 1 4. Common Sites of Involvement in CPPD

..'

Differential Diagnosis of Acute Monoarthritis

"If I Make The Diagnosis, No More Harm" Infectious Inflammatory Metabolic (gouVpseudogout) Trauma Degenerative (OA) Neoplasm Miscellaneous (foreign body, osteonecrosis) Hemarthrosis

RH24 Rheumatology

Crystal-Induced Arthropathies/Pediatric Rheumatology/Non-Articular Rheumatism

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 7. Synovial Fluid Analysis Parameter

Normal

Non-Inflammatory

Inflammatory

Infectious

Hemorrhagic

Colour

Clear

Clear

Opaque

Opaque

Sanguinous

Viscosity

High (due to hyaluronate)

High

Low

Low

Variable

WBC/mm3

50,000

Variable

% PMN

50%

Variable

Trauma Osteoarthritis Neuropathy Hypertrophic arthropathy

Seropositives Seronegatives Crystal arthropathies

Septic arthritis

Trauma Hemophilia CPPD

Pediatric Rheumatology Ped iatric Arthritis •

see Pediatrics, P92

Non-Articular Rheumatism .... ' ,

.�------,

PMR Criteria 1 . Age > 50

2. Bilateral aching/morning stiffness >1 month 3. ESR >40 mm/hr 4. Prompt response to low-dose corticosteroids Prednisone Plus Methotrexate for Polymyalgia Rheumatica: A Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Trial Ann Intern Med. 2004; 141 :493-500 Study: Mutticenter randomized, double-blind, placebo·controlled trial. Patients: Patients with newy diagnosed polymyalgia rheumatica. Intervention: Prednisone dosage 125 m!l'dl was tapered to 0 m!l'd within 24 weeks and was adjusted IT flare-ups occurred. Oral methotrexate 110 mgl or placebo, with folinic acid supplementation 11.5 mgl, was given weekly for 4B weeks. Primary Outcome: The proportion of patients no longer taking prednisone, the number of flare-ups, and the cumulative prednisone dose after 76 weeks. Resuks: Twenty-eight of 32 patients in the methotrexate group and 1 6 of 30 patients in the placebo group were no longer taking prednisone at 76 weeks IP � 0.0031. The risk difference was 34 percentage points 195% CI. I I to 53 percentage pointsl. Similar results were obtained after adjustment for C-reactive protein level and duration of symptoms in a multivariate model. Fifteen of 32 patients in the methotrexate group and 22 of 30 patients in the placebo group had at least I flare-up by the end of follow-up IP � 0.041. The median prednisone dose was 2.1 g in the methotrexate group and 2.97 g in the placebo group IP � 0.031. The rate and severity of adverse events were similar. Limitations: Follow-up was short, and a high dose of folinic acid and a relatively high starting dosage of prednisone were used. Ten of 72 patients 114%1 discontinued treatment or were lost to follow-up. Conclusions: Prednisone plus methotrexate is associated with shorter prednisone treatment and steroid sparing. It may be useful in patients at high risk for steroid-related toxicity.

Definition • disorders that primarily affect soft tissues or periarticular structures • includes bursitis, tendinitis, tenosynovitis, fibromyalgia and polymyalgia rheumatica

Polymya lgia Rheumatica (PMR) Definition • characterized by profound pain and stiffness of the proximal extremities (girdle area) • closely related to giant cell arteritis (15% of patients with PMR develop GCA) • no muscle weakness Diagnosis • age >50 years • more than two affected muscle groups • at least one month duration • increased ESR • rapid and lasting response to corticosteroids • must rule out infection, RA, SLE, PAN, polymyositis, malignancy, and giant cell arteritis Epidemiology • incidence 50 per 100,000 per year in those over age 50 • age of onset typically >50, F:M 2:1 =

Signs and Symptoms • constitutional symptoms prominent (fever, weight loss, malaise) • morning stiffness of symmetrical proximal muscles (neck, shoulder and hip girdles, thighs) • physical examination reveals tender muscles but no weakness or atrophy Investigations • bloodwork often shows anemia, elevated platelets, ESR and CRP; normal CK Treatment • goal of therapy: symptom relief • start with steroid dose of 1 5-20 mg PO daily • taper slowly over 2-year period monitoring ESR and symptoms closely • treat relapses aggressively (50% relapse rate)

Toronto Notes 2010

Non-Articular Rheumatism

Fibromya lg ia Definition • chronic, widespread pain with characteristic tender points Diagnosis • history of widespread pain for at least 3 months in four quadrants of body • pain in 11 of 18 tender points with approximate force of 4 kg by digital palpation • must rule out numerous other causes (e.g. polymyositis, polymyalgia rheumatica, thyroid disorders, sleep apnea), although presence of second clinical disorder does not exclude the diagnosis of fibromyalgia Epidemiology • F:M = 3:1 • primarily ages 25-45, some adolescents • prevalence of 2-5% in general population, higher in rheumatology patients • overlaps with chronic fatigue syndrome and myofascial pain syndrome • strong association with psychiatric illness Investigations • laboratory investigations typically normal unless underlying illness present • workup includes: TSH, ESR, laboratory sleep assessment Signs and Symptoms • widespread aching, stiffness and reproducible tender points (see Figure 15) • fatigue • sleep disturbance: non-restorative sleep, difficulty falling asleep, and frequent wakening • symptoms aggravated by physical activity, poor sleep, emotional stress • patient feels that joints are diffusely swollen although joint examination is normal • neurologic symptoms of hyperalgesia, paresthesias • associated with irritable bowel or bladder syndrome, migraines, tension headaches, obesity, depression, and anxiety Treatment • conservative education - disease is benign, non-deforming and does not progress exercise program - walking, aquatic exercises support back and neck - neck support while sleeping, abdominal muscle strengthening exercises stress reduction - psychiatric treatment when necessary biofeedback, meditation, acupuncture, physiotherapy may be helpful • medical low dose tricyclic antidepressant (e.g. amitriptyline) • for sleep restoration • select those with lower anticholinergic side effects analgesics or NSAIDs may be beneficial for pain that interferes with sleep pregabalin (LyricaTM) has shown some benefit •

• •

• •







Paired tender points io:--/---- occiput -

.,..."" .,.,

trapezius supraspinatus

-

Occiput: at suboccipital muscle insertion Low cervical: C5·C7 Trapezius: midpoint of upper border Supraspinatus: above scapular spine near medial border Second rib: 2nd costochondral junction Lateral epicondyle: 2cm below this po i nt

/_-+-+- lateral epicondyle gluteal greater trochanter

Figure 1 5. Characteristic Tender Points in Fibromyalgia

Gluteal: upper outer quadrants G reater trochanter: posterior to trochanteric prominence Knee: at medial fat pad

Rheumatology RH25

A 14-week, Randomized, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Monotherapy Trial of Pregabalin in Patients With Fibromyalgia J Pain. 2008 Jun 2 Sbldy: Multicentre, randomized, double·blinded, placebo·controlled trial. Patients: Patients In; 7501 meeting American College of Rheumatology criteria for fibromyalgia and who had a pain score of at least 40 mm on the 1 OO-mm pain visual analog scale IVAS). Intervention: Patients were randomly assigned to placebo or pregabalin 1300 m(lfd, 450 m(lfd, or 600 m(lfd) given twice daily in equally divided doses for 1 2 weeks. Primary Outcome: Change in the mean pain score derived from the subject's dai� pain diary as measured at the patient's baseline to the end point of the study. Results: Patients in 2 pregabalin treatment groups 1450 and 600 m(lfd pregabalin) showed a statistically significant improvement in the end point mean pain score compared with placebo-treated subjects Imean difference, -0.50; P ; .0147 [450 m(lfdj and ·0.45, P ; .0287 [600 m(lfdll. The ;30% responder rate was 30% 156/184) in the placebo arm and 42% (76/1 83) in the 300 m(lfd, 50% 194/1 90) in the 450 m(lfd, and 48% 188/1 88) in the 600 m(lfd pregabalin arms IP ; .0172, P ; .0002, p ; .0006, respectively), whereas the ;50% responder rate was 15% 128/1 84) for placebo, 24% 144/183) for 300 m(lfd, 27% 152/190) for 450 m(lfd, and 30% 157/188) for 600 m(lfd IP ; .0372, p ; .0038, p ; .0010, respectively). The number needed to treat INNT) for the ;30% response rate was 9.01 for 300 m(lfd, 5.25 for 450 m(lfd, and 5.73 for 600 m(lfd. The NNT for the ;50% responder rate was 1 1 .33 for 300 m(lfd, 8.23 for 450 m(lfd, and 6.62 for 600 m(lfd. Discontinuations due to adverse events were 1 2%, 1 6%, 22%, and 26% in placebo and pregabalin 300, 450, and 600 m(lfd groups, respective�. The 450 and 600 m(lfd groups were significantly different from placebo IP ; .0001). Conclusions: Pregabalin at 300 m(lfd, 450 m(lfd, and 600 m(lfd showed statistical� signrricant response rates as compared to placebo although discontinuation rates for the 450 m(lfd and 600 m(lfd regimens were significantly higher as compared to placebo.

RH26 Rheumatology

Common Medications

Toronto Notes 2010

Common Medications Table 1 8. Common Medications for Osteoarthritis Class

NSAIOs

COX-2 Inhibitors

Generic Drug Name

Trade Name

Dosing

Indications

acetaminophen

Tylenol'·

500 mg tid

1 st line

ECASA ibuprofen diciofenac diciofenac/misoprostol naproxen meloxicam

325·975 mg qid 200·600 mg tid 25·50 mg tid 50·75/200 mg tid 1 25·500 mg bid 7.5-15 mg 00

2nd line

Advil. ,. Motrin ,. Voltaren ,. Arthrotec'M Naprosyn ,. , Aleve '" Mobicox'·

GI bleed Renal impairment Allergy to ASA, NSAIOs Pregnancy (T3)

Nausea, tinnitus, vertigo, rash, dyspepsia, GI bleed, PUO, hepatitis, renal failure, HTN, nephrotic syndrome

celecoxib

Celebrex'·

200 mg 00

High risk for GI bleed: age >65 hx of GI bleed, PUO

Renal impairment Sulfa allergy (celecoxib) Cardiovascular disease

Delayed ulcer healing RenaVhepatic impairment Rash

Contraindications

Adverse Effects

Hepatotoxicity Overdose > 1 0 g Potentiates warfarin

Other treatments

Comments

Combination analgesics (acetaminophen + codeine)

Enhanced short term effect compared to acetaminophen alone More adverse effects: sedation, constipation, nausea, GI upset

Intra-articular corticosteroid injection

Short-term (weeks-months) decrease in pain and improvement in function Do not inject > 3-4 times/year in the same joint

Intra-articular hyaluronan q6months

Modest decrease in pain Used for mild-moderate OA of the knees Precaution with chicken/egg allergy

Topical NSAIOs

1 .5% wt/wt topical diclofenac (Pennsaid®) May use for patients who fail acetaminophen treatment and who wish to avoid systemic therapy

Capsaicin cream

Mild decrease in pain

Glucosamine sulfate/chondroitin

Limited clinical studies No regulation by Health Canada

Table 19. DMARDs Used in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis Genetic Drug Name Trade Name

Dosing

Contraindications

Adverse Effects

COMMONLY USED

hydroxychloroquine $

Plaquenil'·

400 mg 00 initially 200-400 mg 00 maintenance

Retinal disease, G6PO deficiency

GI symptoms, macular damage, neuromyopathy, skin rash

sulfasalazine $

Salazopyrim ,. Azuijidine ,. (US)

1 000 mg bid-tid

Sulfa/ASA allergy, kidney disease, G6PO deficiency

GI symptoms, headache, leukopenia, rash

methotrexate $

R heumatrex ,. Folex/Mexate ,.

qweekly 7.5-25 mg PO/IM/SC

Urticaria, GI symptoms, tubular necrosis, Bone marrow suppression, liver disease, significant lung disease, myelosuppression, cirrhosis, pneumonitis, oral ulcers immunodeficiency, pregnancy, EtOH abuse

leflunomide $$

Arava'·

1 0-20 mg PO 00

Liver disease

Alopecia, GI symptoms, pulmonary infiltrates, liver dysfunction

Kidney/liver disease, infection, hypertension

Bleeding, hypertension, decreased renal function, hair growth, tremors

lBO, kidney/liver disease

Diarrhea, rash, stomatitis

lBO, kidney/liver disease

Rash, mouth soreness/ulcers, proteinuria, marrow suppression

NOT COMMONLY USED

cyclosporine $$

Neoral'·

gold (oral) $ gold (injectable) $

Solganal'· Myocrysine ,.

azathioprine $

Imuran'·

Kidney/liver disease

Pancytopenia, biliary stasis, rash, hair loss, vomiting, diarrhea

cyclophosphamide $

Cytoxan ,.

Kidney/liver disease

Cardiotoxicity, GI symptoms, hemorrhagic cystitis, nephrotoxicity, bone marrow suppression, sterility

Penicillin allergy hematologiclkidney disease

Rash, loss of taste/appetite, GI symptoms, nephritic syndrome

penicillamine $

weekly or monthly injections

Common Medications/References

Toronto Notes 2010

Table 1 9. DMARDs Used in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis (continuedl Genetic Drug Name Trade Name

Dosing

MECHANISM OF ACTION

25 mg biweekly or 50 mg weekly SC injections

Fusion protein of TNF receptor and Fc portion of IgG Decreases number of active joints by 50% from baseline after 6 months

NEWER DMARDs (Biologicsl

etanercept $$$

Enbrel'·

infliximab $$$

Remicade'·

3-5 mg/kg IV q 8 weeks

anakinra $$$

Kineret'·

1 00 mg SC 00

adalimumab $$$

Humira'·

40 mg SC q 2 weeks

abatacept $$$

orencia ,.

IV infusion

Costimulation modulator of T-cell activation

rituximab $$$

Rituxan ,.

2 IV infusions, 2 weeks apart

Causes B-cell depletion, binds to CD20

Chimeric mouse/human monoclonal Ab against TNF·alpha Rapidly reduces number of swollen joints Interleukin-' receptor antagonist Reduce joint activity and x·ray progression Monoclonal anti·TNF-alpha antibody

References Crystal Induced Arthropathy Cibere J. 4. Acute monoarthritis. CMAJ 2000;16211 1 ):1 577-83. Degenerative Arthritis IDA) ACR. Guidelines for the Medical Management of Osteoarthritis of the Hip - 1 1/95. ACR. Guidelines for the Medical Management of Osteoarthritis of the Knee - 1 1/95. Brady OH, Masri BA, Garbuz OS, Duncan CR 10. Joint replacement of the hip and knee · when to refer and what to expect. CMAJ 2000; 163110): 1285·91. Wade, J.R 1 5. Osteoporosis. CMAJ 2001;16511 ):45·50. General Bookman AM. Clinical Evaluation of Arthritis. University of Toronto Foundations of Medical Practice Lecture. 2006. Brater DC, Harris C, Redfern JS, Gertz BJ. Renal effects of COX·2·selective inhibitors. Amer J Nephrology 2001 ;2111):1·15. CMAJ Clinical Basics Rheumatology Series. Clark BM 9. Physical & occupational therapy in the management of arthritis. CMAJ 2000;16318):999·1005. Ensworth S. 1. Is it arthritis? CMAJ 2000;162111:1011·6. Huang SHK. 7. Basics of therapy. CMAJ 2000;1 6314):41 7·23 Klippel JH, Weyand CM, and Wortmann RL. Primer on Rheumatic Diseases, 1 1 th ed. Arthritis Foundation, 1997. Klinkhoff A. 5. Diagnosis and management of inflammatory polyarthritis. CMAJ 2000;1 62113):1 833·38. Lacaille D. 8. Advanced therapy. CMAJ 2000;1 6316):721·8. Musculoskeletal Injury; IOPOT). Queen's Printer of Ontario, June 2000. www.opot.org Ontario Musculoskeletal Therapeutics Review Panel. Ontario Treatment Guidelines for Osteoarthritis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Acute Price GE. 6. Localized therapy. CMAJ 2000;1 6312):1 76·83. Puttick MPE. 1 1 . Evaluation of the patient with pain all over. CMAJ 2001 ;1 6412):223·27. Reid G, Esdaile JM. 3. Getting the most out of radiology. CMAJ 2000;1 6219):131 8·25. Shojania K. 2. What laboratory tests are needed? CMAJ 2000;1 6218):1 1 57·63. Taunton JE, Wilkinson M. 14. Diagnosis and management of anterior knee pain. CMAJ 2001 ;1641 1 1 ):1 595·601 . Tsang I . 1 2 . Pain i n the neck. CMAJ 2001;1 6418):1 1 82-7. Wing PC. 13. Minimizing disability in patients with low·back pain. CMAJ 2001 ;164119):1 459·68. Seropositive Rheumatic Disease ACR Subcommittee on Rheumatoid Arthritis Guidelines, 2002. Guidelines for the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis: 2002 Update. Arthritis & Rheumatism 4612):328·346. ACR. Guidelines for Referral and Management of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Adults - 9/99. Bathon JM, Martin RW, Fleischmann RM, et al. A comparison of etanercept and methotrexate in patients with early meumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000;343:1 586·93. Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, et al. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with meumatoid arthritis. The VIGOR Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000;343:1520·28. Kremer, JM. Rational use of new and existing disease·modifying agents in meumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med 2001 :134: 695·706. Smetana, GW and Shmerling RH. Does this patient have temporal arteritis? JAMA 2002; 287:92·101 .

Rheumatology RH27

RH2S Rheumatology

u\foteg

Toronto Notes 2010

u

Urology Daniel Glick, Navneet Singh and Robert Sowerby, chapter editors Dave Paskar and Roshan Razik, associate editors Chris Stamler, EBM editor Dr. Walid Farhat and Dr. Sender Herschorn, staff editors

Basic Anatomy Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Scrotal Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Abdominal Wall Scrotal Anatomy Genitourinary Tract Anatomy Penis Anatomy

Torsion Hematocele Hydrocele Spermatocele/Epididymal Cyst Hernia Varicocele

Common Presenting Problems .

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.3

Hematuria Scrotal Complaints Urinary Retention Dysuria

Penile Complaints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Voiding Dysfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Voiding Failure to Store : Urinary Incontinence Failure to Void: Urinary Retention Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Urethral Stricture Neurogenic Bladder Post Obstructive Diuresis (POD)

Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases

Peyronie's Disease Priapism Phimosis Paraphimosis Erectile Dysfunction Premature Ejaculation

Trauma . . . . . . Renal Trauma Bladder Trauma Urethral Injuries . . . . .10

Urinary Tract Infections (UTI) Recurrent/Chronic Cystitis Interstitial Cystitis (Painful Bladder Syndrome) Acute Pyelonephritis Prostatitis/Prostatodyn ia Epididymitis and Orchitis Urethritis Urethral Syndrome

.

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.

. . 33 .

Infertility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Female Factors Male Factors

Pediatric Urology

. . . . . . . . .

.

. . .

.

. . . . . . . . 36

Congenital Abnormalities Nephroblastoma (Wilm's Tumour) Cryptorchidism/Ectopic Testes Ambiguous Genitalia Circumcision Enuresis

Stone Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 Calcium Stones Struvite Stones Uric Acid Stones Cystine Stones

U rological Neoplasms . . . .

Selected U rological Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 40

.

. . .

.

. . . . . . . . . .18

Approach to Renal Mass Benign Renal Neoplasms Malignant Renal Neoplasms Carcinoma of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter Bladder Carcinoma Prostatic Carcinoma (CaP) Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) Testicular Tumours Penile Tumours

Toronto Notes 2010

Bladder Catheterization Cystoscopy Radical Prostatectomy Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP) Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESW L)

Common Medications

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.

.

.

. . 43 .

Antibiotics Erectile Dysfunction Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) Prostatic Carcinoma Continence Agents

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Urology U1

U2 Urology

Toronto Notes 2010

Basic Anatomy Review

Basic Anatomy Review

VaS-I--40 yrs old Hx of storage voiding symptoms Hx of recurrent UTI's

I

,

I

>2 R B C/HPF

I

I

Urinalysis and urine C&S

+

1 . Rule out and treat benign causes (i.e. UTI) 2. If accompanied by dysmorphic RBC, or l' Cr, evaluate for primary renal disease

I

I

If neither 1 or 2, urologic evaluation required

,

Transitional Cell Carcinoma (TCC) Risk Stratification

I�

Complete evaluation 1 . Urine cytology 2. Upper tract imaging 3. Cystoscopy

Toronto Notes 2010

71

I





3. Cystoscopy

�"

Treat TCC

1

-

"'::oIro...

..

I I LOW RISK

1 . Urine cytology 2. Upper tract imaging

+ ------

1

-I



Follow up

Urinalysis, cytology, and BP at 6, 1 2, 24, 48 months

Figure 5. Workup of Asymptomatic Microscopic Hematuria Based on AUA Guidelines

Scrotal Complaints • see Scrotal Mass, U27

U rinary Retention

--------�

• see Failure to Void, U6

Dysuria Differential Diagnosis Table 3. Differential Diagnosis of Dysuria Infectious

Cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, epididymitis, orchitis, cervicitis, vulvovaginitis, perineal inflammation/infection, TB, vestibulitis

Neoplasm

Renal cell, bladder, prostate, penis, vagina/vulva, BPH

Calculi

Bladder stone, ureteral stone, kidney stone

Inflammatory

Seronegative arthropathies lreactive arthritis: arthritis, uveitis, urethritisl, drug side effects, autoimmune disorders, chronic pelvic pain syndrome ICPPSI, interstitial cystitis

Hormonal

Endometriosis, hypoestrogenism

Trauma

Catheter insertion, post-coital cystitis lhoneymoon cystitisl

Psychogenic

Somatization disorder, MOD, stress/anxiety disorder

Other

Contact sensitivity, foreign body

Approach • focused history and physical to determine cause (fever, discharge, eVA tenderness, conjunctivitis, back/joint pain) • urine dip, e&S, R&M • any discharge (urethral, vaginal, cervical) should be sent for gonococcus/ chlamydia testing; wet mount if vaginal discharge • if suspect infection, may start empiric antibiotic treatment • ± imaging of urinary tract (tumour, stones)

Toronto Notes 2010

Urology US

Voiding Dysfunction

Voiding Dysfunction • see Gynecology, GY34 for relevant female topics

Voiding • two phases o f lower urinary tract function

1. Storage phase - bladder filling and urine storage • accommodation and compliance • no involuntary contraction 2. Voiding phase - bladder emptying • coordinated detrusor contraction • synchronous relaxation of outlet sphincters • no anatomic obstruction • voiding dysfunction can therefore be classified as failure to store - due to bladder or outlet failure to void - due to bladder or outlet • 3 types of symptoms: storage (formerly known as irritative), voiding (formerly known as obstructive), post-void •



• •

Fai l u re to Store : Urinary I ncontinence Definition • involuntary leakage of urine Etiology • urgency incontinence detrusor overactivity • CNS lesion, inflammation/infection (cystitis, stone, tumour), bladder neck obstruction (tumour, stone), BPH decreased compliance of bladder wall • CNS lesion, fibrosis • sphincter/urethra problem • stress urinary incontinence (SUI) urethral hypermobility • weakened pelvic floor allows bladder neck and urethra to descend with increased intra-abdominal pressure • urethra is pulled open by greater motion of posterior wall of outlet relative to anterior wall • associated with childbirth, pelvic surgery, aging, levator muscle weakness intrinsic sphincter deficiency (ISD) • pelvic surgery, neurologic problem, aging and hypoestrogen state intrinsic sphincter deficiency and urethral hypermobility can co-exist •



,"'

Failure to Store Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS) (irritative)

Frequency Urgency Nocturia Dysuria Think Frequent Urgent Nighttime Discomfort • • • •







Epidemiology • variable prevalence in women: 25-45% • F:M 2:1 • more frequent in the elderly, affecting 5-15% of those living in the community and 50% of nursing home residents =

Types of Urinary Incontinence • stress incontinence: involuntary leaking with sudden increases in intra-abdominal pressure due to urethra/sphincter problem diagnose by stress test (Valsalva or cough with full bladder) degrees: mild - sneezing, coughing; moderate - leaks when walking; severe - leaks when standing up • urge incontinence: involuntary leaking preceded by strong, sudden urge to void due to bladder problem diagnosis by history • urodynamics: uninhibited contractions (detrusor overactivity), small bladder capacity if irritable bladder • mixed incontinence: urinary leakage associated with urgency and also with increased intrabdominal pressure due to a combination of bladder and sphincter problems • diagnosis by stress test and urodynamics • overflow incontinence: involuntary leakage when intravesical pressure exceeds urethral pressure due to obstruction (e.g. BPH, stricture), hypotonic bladder (e.g. autonomic neuropathy from diabetes, multiple sclerosis, anticholinergic meds) diagnosis by urodynamics: large bladder capacity • •













1 .5 cm)

I

Surgery

Small mass « 1 .5 cm)

I

Possible surveillance

Figure 7. Workup of a Renal Mass (*MRI occasionally performed if contrast contraindicated)

Benign Renal Neoplasms RENAL CYSTS • simple cysts very common - up to 50% at age 50 usually incidental finding on abdominal imaging • classification of cysts (i.e. simple and complex) Bosniak classification is used to stratify for risk of malignancy based on cyst features, see Table 6 • polycystic kidney disease autosomal recessive - massive kidneys with early renal failure in children • associated with hepatic disease •







Urology U19

Urological Neoplasms

Toronto Notes 2009

autosomal dominant - progressive bilateral disease leading to hypertension and renal failure • associated with hepatic cysts and cerebral aneurysms • medullary sponge kidney dilatations of the collecting ducts usually benign course, but predispose to calcium phosphate stones • von Hippel-Lindau disease renal cysts, cerebellar and retinal hemangioblastomas, pancreatic and epididymal cysts 30-40% incidence of renal cell carcinoma •

• •

• •

Table 6. Bosniak Classification of Renal Cysts Description

Features

Risk of Malignancy

Simple cyst

Round, no septations, no calcifications, no solid component

Near none

2

Minimally complex cyst

Thin septation, calcifications, hyperdense on CT

Minimal

3

Complex cyst

Thicker septations, thicker and more irregular walls, measurable enhancement

Moderate, surgical intervention usually necessary

4

Clearly malignant

Class 3 plus enhancing soft-tissue components

Near certain

Class

ANGIOMYOLIPOMA ( RENAL HAMARTOMA) • benign tumour • characterized by 3 major histologic components: blood vessels, smooth muscle and fat cells • usually asymptomatic, rarely spontaneous ruptures (e.g. in pregnancy) • found in ap proximately 45-80% of patients with tuberous sclerosis (Bourneville's disease) which is characterized by epilepsy and mental retardation sebaceous adenomas hamartomas of brain and kidney • diagnosis by CT � fat (negative attenuation on CT) observed in kidneys is pathognomonic; echogenic on V/S • •



RENAL ONCOCYTOMA • neoplasm of intercalated cells of collecting duct • 80% are asymptomatic, found incidentally • 20% hematuria, palpable mass or flank/ abdominal pain • difficult to distinguish from renal adenocarcinoma on imaging RENAL ADENOMA • cortical tumours historically thought to be benign since found incidentally at autopsy or nephrectomy • 10-20% of population • classification is controversial as pathologic diagnosis difficult and many believe this tumour has malignant potential

Malignant Renal Neoplasms RENAL ADENOCARCINOMA [Renal Cell Carcinoma ( RCC)] Etiology • cause is unknown • originates from proximal convoluted tubule epithelial cell • risk factors: smoking (results in 2x increased relative risk), cadmium exposure, employment in leather industry • familial incidence seen with von Hippel-Lindau syndrome Epidemiology • eighth most common malignancy (accounts for 3% of all newly diagnosed cancers) • 85% of primary malignant tumours in kidney • male:female 3:1 • peak incidence at 50-60 years of age =

Pathology • histological subtypes: clear, granular, spindle cell, papillary, chromophobe Clinica l Features • usually asymptomatic - frequently diagnosed incidentally by V /S or CT • poor prognostic indicators: weight loss, weakness, anemia, bone pain • local effects: classic "too late triad" found in 10-15% gross hematuria 50% flank pain iliac > presacral / para-aortic • hematogenous dissemination occurs early •

Investigations • DRE • PSA elevated in the majority of patients with CaP • transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) -7 size and local staging • TRUS-guided needle biopsy • bone scan may be omitted in untreated CaP with PSA 95%), basal cell, melanoma, Paget's disease of the penis (extremely rare) • definitive diagnosis requires full thickness biopsy of lesion •

• •



Table 1 3. TNM Staging T

N

M

Tx: primary tumour cannot be assessed

N l : metastasis in a single superficial,

M: presence ( + ) or absence (0) of distant metastasis (lung, liver, bone, brain)

inguinal lymph node

TO: no evidence of primary tumour

N2: metastasis in mUltiple or bilateral

Tis: CIS

superficial lymph nodes

Ta: non·invasive carcinoma

N3: metastasis in deep inguinal or

T1 : tumour invades subepithelial connective

pelvic lymph node(s) unilateral

tissue (Buck's and Dartos fascia)

T2: tumour invades corpus spongiosum or cavernosum (through tunica albuginea)

T3: tumour invades urethra or prostate T4: tumour invades other adjacent structures

• lymphatic spread (superficial/ deep inguinal nodes

--7

iliac nodes» > hematogenous

Treatment • wide surgical excision with tumour-free margins (dependent on extent and area of penile involvement) ± lymphadenectomy

Scrotal Mass • see Common Presenting Problems, U3 Table 1 4. Differentiating between Scrotal Masses Condition

Pain

Palpation

Additional Findings

Torsion

+

Diffuse tenderness

Absent cremaster reflex, negative Prehn's sign, EMERGENCY!

Epididymitis

+

Epididymal tendemess

Present cremaster reflex, positive Prehn's sign

Orchitis

+

Diffuse tenderness

Present cremaster reflex, positive Prehn's sign

Hematocele

+

Diffuse tenderness

No transillumination

Hydrocele

Testis not separable from hydrocele, cord palpable

Transilluminates

Spermatocele

Testis separable from spermatocele, cord palpable

Transilluminates

Varicocele

Bag of worms

No transillumination

Indirect inguinal - (+ if strangulated)

Testis seperable from hernia, cord not palpable, cough impulse may transmit, may be reducible

No transillumination

Tumour Idiopathic

- (+ if hemorrhagic)

Hard lump/nodule

Urology U27

Scrotal Mass

U28 Urology

Toronto Notes 2010

Torsion '" ' , 9�------� Acute scrotal swellinwpain in young boys is torsion until proven otherwise.

TESTICULAR TORSION (SPERMATIC CORD TORSION)

• UROLOGICAL EMERGENCY Etiology • testis rotates (usually medially, 180°-720°) causing strangulation of the blood supply ultimately leads to necrosis of entire gonad if untreated within 5-6 hours • any age, but most common in adolescence due to pubertal increase in testicular volume Incidence • - 1 / 4000 males