Torah and Sophia : the life and thought of Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera 9780878204106, 0878204105

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Torah and Sophia: The life and thought of Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera

Raphael Jospe

Torah and Sophia: The Life and Thought of Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera by

Raphael Jospe

Hebrew Union College Press Cincinnati, 1988

© Copyright 1988 by the Hebrew Union College Press Hebrew Union College - Jewish Institute of Religion

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data J o spc, Raphael. Torah and sophia

(Monographs of the Hebrew Union College; no. 11) English and Hebrew. Title on added Lp.: Torah ve-sofiyah "An I. Edwa rd Kiev Library Foundation book": -- Half t.p. Includes texts and t ra n s la ti on s of Falaquera's Sefer ha-nefesh, Shelemut ha-ma'asim, and Bible commentary. Bibliography: p. 485.

3.

F alaquera Shem Tov ben Joseph, ca. 1 225-ca. 1295 . Philosophy, Jewish. Phi losophy Med i eval.

4.

Psychology--EarJy works to 1850.

5.

Ethics, J ewis h-- Ear ly works to 1800.

I. 2.

,

,

I.

Falaquera, She m Toy ben J os eph ca. 1 225-ca. 1295. Sefer ha-nefesh. ,

Hebrew. 1986 11. Falaquera, Shem Toy ben Joseph, ca. 1225-ca. 1295. Shelemut ha­ ma'asim. English & Hebrew. 1986. Ill. Fa laquera Shem Toy ben J os e ph ca. 1225-ca. 1295. Bible commentary. English &

,

,

English & Hebrew. 1986.

IV. Title. V.

Ti t le : Torah ye-sofiyah.

VI. Series. B759. F334J67

1987

ISBN 0-87820-410-5

181'.06

86-29484

For my mother. rny leacher Afel\' years ago, on the occasion of his sevemiefh birthday, I had {he privilege to present to my father and teacher, Rabbi Alfred

(Go and Study: Essays and Studies in Honor of Alfred Jospe). It is with equal pleasure that

./ospe, a Feslschrift in his honor

I dedicate this book to my mother and teacher. Professor Eva ./ospe.

1. Edward Kiev Library Foundation III Illl'mury cll!)r. I. E dward

Kiev. alike:

dl\lingul,I1"li

:1'

R'lhhl. (1l"jJi,'i:L

,lnet I I h rari an clf thc H e b rew

:"ell Y"rk. hi, family and FUlIndation beari ng

hi s

Union Clllle�,'�.Je\\ i,h I lh ll l ut e 01 ReilglUn in fricnds e,>whJi,hed in Septemher J97(, Cl iihral\

name. to

,>uppurt and enCUl!r;l�l' the KnlJwJedge.

understanding ,lI1d appreciatiun ()rh,,,,�,. manu'LTlph anli utherefl'uJl, l>l ,e holar , in

.JlIdalGl and

Hehr:lll'a, In cl)Operaliun

w it h

the 1'1I hJiL:llllJll'

CClll1mittce of the Hebre\\ I nll)[1 C()lIe�e�.Jewi,>h In,t1wte 01 Rl'Jigll>!!. lill' Foundation oiler,

the

Foundation YOIUI1ll',

p r e , e nl ,tud\

a"

an

I.

Ldward

Kic\

I 1/)1!l

with

dalet rat h e r than resh,

and h i s notes list t h e

term as "l1oche. 110q uede . " While this read i n g is certai n ly a d i stinct p o s s ibility,

resh. Cf. A. Darmesteter, "Les G l oses des Etudes iui ves , 53 [ 1 907], p. 1 70), our reading (I'(i'v"!;) ,ilN'1V"" ,1'(1"V""),

o t h e r c i t a t i o n s just ify our re ad i n g with

Franyaises de Raschi dans la B i ble" ( R evue which lists three variants supporting

(X,"V',,, ,X"P"!;) ,ill'("P"" ,x"V""), and also I'(l11'(!;). D.S. B l o n d h e i m, Les Closes Franr;aises dans les Commentaires Talmlldiques de Raschi ( P aris, 1929), #490, p. 68: " Flochiedre " (a

fou r w hich sup p o rt Berliner 1 8.

Cr.

A.

Darmesteter

and

carder), a n o un-form w i t h the variants being

X"'P"!:) 19.

( plukidra),

lV"'V'';>!:) ( p l ukd u rs), ,"V'';>!:) ( p l ukiir),

( p lukiirda).

IhiJ., #49 1 , p . 69: "Floc h ie r" (to co mb or card w ool), a n infinitive verbal form, with the variants being ( p l u c h i i r),

20.

X,,"P"O

'''V''ll

1"P"!:)

( plukiir),

"P"ll

( plukir),

Abo cf. Raphael Levy,

(plukiid),

'''V''ll

Tresor de la LanKue des illi!s Fran{,ais all Moyen Age

(Un i v . of Texas, A u s tin, 1964), p. 1 1 4 , "flocheyde , etc . " 21.

'''P''ll

(pulki i r).

Zunz, Thes is, C h . 9.

4

.Raphoc/ .Ios!,c

Jews. Therefore, Zunz maintains, since the M oors did not persecute Jews t o the same e xtent as the Christians did, Falaquera's references manifest a Christian environment. But Zunz d oes not seem to take into account the fact that the unquestionably better treatment of the Jews by the Moors did not prevent such Jews as J udah H a-Levi from considering themselves t o be "in the chains of Arabia. " 22 Wherever Falaquera may actually have l ived ( and nowhere in his writings does he ind icate a p lace of compositio n)23 he clearly lived in a time of trouble and m isfortune. B aer24 has shown that the establishment o f large estates by nobles close to the crown resulted in the loss of rights and property by the Jews of Tudela, who were now su bj ect t o physical attack, and whom the feudal lords were too weak to protect from marauders. It was a time of drought25 and increasing religious intolerance, i n which the Lateran Council ( 12 1 5) compelled Jews t o wear distinctive clothing and which led subsequently to the b urning of the Talmud i n Paris and to the Barcelona disputation . Falaquera m ade repeated refe rences t o s u c h difficulties and troubles in his works. It is an hour of h ardship and oppression; the h and o f the nations is strong against us . . . There are no j ust people in the land . . . Brigands h ave increased . 2 6 The Jews in particular suffer: " H ow can the miserable Jew be h appy?" 27 Referring to the ideal life of intellectual perfection advocated by Maimonides, Falaquera said: 2� Its existence is difficult and virtually impossible for a person of the E xile in these times, for it i s d ifficult for him t o fulfil! the conditions that ( M aimonides) mentioned . . . Al! this is difficu lt for one who is enslaved, who i s in d istress and oppression, whose life is the life of sorrow. The turmoil and instability of the day took their toll on the level of Jewish 22.

23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

H a-Levi, "My H eart i s i n the East," in Schirmann, Ha·Shirah Ha-'Ivrit Di-Se/arad U-ve- Provence, 1:2, p . 489. Cr. Nina Salomon, Selected Poems of Jehuda Halevi (Jewish Publication S ociety, Philadelphia, 1928), p. 2, and D. Goldstein, The Jewish Poets of :;"'pain ( Penguin Books,1 971), p. 1 28 . Steinschneider, Die Hebriiischen Vbersetzungen des Mittelalters und die Juden als Dolmetseher. 1 893 (hereafter: H Uj, p . 2 #5. Baer, Toledot etc . , p p . 1 22, 1 38 . Schirmann, Ha-Shirah Ha-'Ivrit etc. , II:1, p . 329. Mevaqqesh. p. 1 2.

Poem, " H a-yismal) ha-yehudi ha-'um l al," i n Mevaqqesh, p . 19. Moreh Ha- Moreh p p . 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 . C f . Reshit IJokhmah, p. 21: . . . and i f G od should give me length of d ays and grant us respite from the fury of troubles . . . " ,

"

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tol' Ibn Falaquera

5

cultural creativity. This was a t i m e , accord ing to G raetz,29 that was p artic u l arly poor in profo u nd intellect s . Eve n t he two m ain rep resentatives o f the p h i l o s op hy of t he time, Falaquera and I s aac A l b al ag , were, in the words of G raetz, n o more t han mediocre and s u bject t o the errors of the ir time, and metap hysics was for Falaquera m o re a m atter of erud ition and memory than of independent thought. V e netianer,3o whi l e he was s o m e w hat ki nder than G raetz in his choice o f words, bas ical l y shared his view, and c a l l e d t h e t h irteenth century the least fertile o f medieval He brew l i terature, in w hich n o p rogress was made in development from the ideas o f M aimo n ides and I b n Rushd . Des p ite the fact t h at Venetianer saw fit to publish Fal aquera's Sefer Ha-Ma'alot, he asserted t h at the w orks p r o d u ced in the thirteenth century are only of bibliograp hical interest and merely rep r o duce earli er ideas. V enetianer maintained that p h i l o s o p h y o n l y t o o k on new l i terary forms p oetry, allegory, and prose but d i d n o t develop any new ideas. And yet, V enetianer recognized t h at the t hirteen t h century p r o d uced unprecedented scholasticism and gave p ractical e x p ression to M ai m o n i d e s ' n otio n t h at p h i l o s o p hy i s nece s s ary for human h a p piness. It was a time in which S p anish Jewry gave e x p res s i o n t o their l ove o f science and p h i l o s o p h y i n p oetry, h u m o r , and stories. I t was a century which s aw the c o m p o s i t i o n in Sp a i n of the Zohar and other great w orks o f Kabb alah . Granted t hat Kabb al a h i s n o t p h i l o s o p hy , many of t he writings and d octrines of the mystics manifest a thorough familiarity with philosophy. M alter h as maint ained that the p o p u larizati o n and d isseminati o n of p h i l o s op hy go hand i n hand w ith a red ucti o n of its creative o riginality; breadth was acq uired at the expense of d e pth. -

An age in which intellectual interest is keen, i s usually characterized o n the o ne hand b y a n abun d ance of w o r k s o n a g reat variety of themes, and o n the other h an d , by much mediocrity o n the p art o f their authors . . . The result is literary overproduction .31 The century of Falaquera, and Falaquera himself, were thus not marked b y originality. But Falaquera accuratel y and realistically saw h i m self as serving a d ifferent functi o n fro m i n n ovat i o n , and he e x plicitly d isavowed any originality, i n at least some of his w orks , e s pecially the m o re e ncyclopedic w or ks , such as De'ot Ha-Pilosofim and Reshit Ifokhmah: "For among these o p i n ions, there is n o t h in g that I say o n my own, b ut I am o n l y trans mitting (or : tran s l ating) their 29.

30. 3 1.

Geschichte. V I I , p. 250. For a more important appreciation of Albalag, cf. G . V ajda, lsaac A lbalag ( 1 960), a n d h i s article on Albalag i n Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11:520-52 1 . Preface to Buch der Grade. M alter, "Palquera, " p. 1 54.

6

Raphae/ Jospc

views. " 32 "Most of my words i n this (book) on the sciences are the words of the chief philosophers and experts. I h ave not innovated anything o n my own, but only collected them fro m the books that are distributed there. "33 Falaquera similarly d isclaimed originality i n his Introduction to Se/er Ha-Ne[esh, which he said was compiled fro m the books of the latter philosophers, and in which his own words are brief. Such d isclaimers of originality are not, h owever, always to be taken literally. To d isclaim originality was to claim the authority and weight of tradition and precedent for one's position, and served t o def1ect criticism. M ai m o nides , who unlike Falaquera has not generally been accused of mediocrity and lack of originality, himself said : Know t h at these words which I s ay i n these chapters . . . are not matters which I invented o n m y own, nor interpretations which I innovated, but rather I gleaned them fro m the s ayings of the sages . . . and fro m the words of the philosophers . 34 Falaquera explains his reason for quoting t he opinions of earlier p h i losophers, in a paraphrase of Aristotle:35 He said : We must be informed of the opinions of the ancients 32.

In I ntroduction t o Part 1I of [)e'ol Ha-Pilosofim, ms. Parm a f. 234a. m s. Leyde n f. 3 3 b : "O;,'mY'1 P'llY� 'l� �,� '�lY� 'm� 10'�tv 1:11 OWl mY1;' 1'�:I 1'� 'J". He p refaces the De'ol in general wit h a simil ar d isclaimer ( m s . P a r m a f . Sa, ms. Leiden f. 1 07a): ":11 0 ;' :l1n:ll�tv ;'0 'J �'N .'OlYO ,mN 10'Ntv 1:11 ":I'n;, ;,t 'J:I 1'�1" 1n:ll;' np'1 O'tv'!l�;' l'1nN ;";' 'J .1tv1 P CJnil 'lV'1'!l:l O'lV'1!lOil 1tJO'� ".,tJO'� (nY1') '1:11' m�l;'1 O;"tv11'!l:ltv

33.

34.

3 5.

" I n this work t here is nothing t h at I say o n my own. Whatever I write is the words of Aristotle or the commentaries according to the commentary of I bn R u s h d , because he was the last o f the c o m mentators, and cited the c hoicest parts o f their commentaries which agree with the words of A ristotle . " A l s o cf . De'at, m s. Parma f . 6 a , ms. Leyden f . 1 08a. Reshil Ifakhmah, Introduct i o n , p. 9: 'tvN1 '1:11 Oil mOJn:l ,:1 '1:11 :I,,,,' C'1T'!l0Oiltv C'1!lOilO C'nl:lptv N'� '��YO 'IN C'ntv1n �, 'J O . ;" "...Otv Shemonah Peraqim, I ntroduction (ed . Gorfinkle, p. 6). See M al ter's d iscussi o n o f t h i s s i m il arity between Falaquera a n d Maimonides i n "Palquera," p . 1 63 , n . 21, and p. 1 68 n . 3 1 . M alter lists other d isclaimers of originality in Mevaqqesh, p . 3a; Ma'alot, p. 1 1 : and {eri Ha-YaKon (Fiirth ed . ) , p. 1 1 . De'at Ha-Pilosofim, V I , A , I, m s . Parma f. 1 49a, m s . Leyden f. 273b. The reference i s t o Aristotle, De Anima. I, I, 403b : "For our study of the soul it i s necessary . . . t o

c a l l i n t o council the views of t hose of o u r p redecessors who have dec lared any opinion o n this subject, in orde r that we may p rofit by whatever i s sound in their suggestions and avoid their errors . " Cf. A l- K i n d i , "On First Philosophy," p . 1 03 ( E nglish translation by A. Ivry, A I-Kindi's Metaphysics, p . 58) .

Torah and Sophia: Shun Tov [bn Falaquera

7

c o ncerning the soul, to be aided by the m . W hichever of them we find to be c o rrect, we shall retai n; and whichever is n o t c o rrect, we shall aband on. B u t Falaquera's reputation for l ack of o riginality may be some what exaggerated , and somet imes the criticism o f Falaq uera's lack o f o riginality t urns o u t to be s o me w h at complimentary, in t erms of h is imp o rtance to t h e h istory o f p hilosophy. Graetz36 regarded Falaquera a s essential " o n l y " as a living e ncyclo pedia of the academic disciplines of his t i me, and a very faithfu l one at that, g iving accurate information o n any p oint. For s o me, Falaque ra's lack of originality thu s became a p o s itive virtueY Plessner38 s uggested that Fal aquera i s the refo re all the m o re val uable as a witness to s o u rce s otherwise l o s t i n Jewish p h i l os o p hy. Falaquera was u n u s u al for his time in that he o ften quoted his s o u rces (fo r instance, i n Moreh Ha-Moreh and De'ot ha-Pilosofim), thus d e m o nstrating not o n l y intellectual honesty b u t also a critical u n derstanding of the imp ortance of the history of ideas. (Mai monides, it wil l be recalled, had been severely criticized for failing t o cite his s ource s , especially in the Mishneh Torah}.39 Because he was a c areful and thorough scholar, Falaquera could suggest t hat the o p p o ne n ts o f Maim o n i d e s could not p os s i b l y do him j u stice as long as t hey were ignorant o f the Arabic language in which the Guide o/the Perplexed was o riginally writte n . Because he hi mself i nsisted o n going back t o M aimo n i de s ' Arabic s ources, Falaquera's own c o m mentary o n t h e Guide (Moreh Ha-Moreh) was, in Hus i k 's words, "superior to the better known commentaries of S he m t o b , E phod i , and A b arbanel. " 40 Stitskin41 echoes M al te r 's w o rd s 42 in praising Falaquera as "the most l earned Jewish author o f his t ime." Falaquera's aim was t o p o p u l arize phil o s o p hy among the Jews, and he l argely succeed ed i n att aining his goal. "His s u cces s in p o p u l arizing Greek and

36. 37.

38. 39.

40. 41. 42.

Geschichte. VII , p . 25 1 . P rof. S h l o m o Pines similarly suggests that it is M oses ibn Ezra's multiplicity of sources, deriving from I b n Ezra's lack of originality, that gives his b o o k 'A rugat ha-Bosem its i m p o rtance ("Sefer ' A rugat H a-Bosem: H a-Qe!a'im M i-Tokh Sefer Meqor l;Iayyi m , " Tarbi�. 27, No. 2-3 [ 1 958], p . 2 1 8). "The Importance of Falaquera etc . , " p p . 1 6 1 - 1 62. Cf. I. Twersky, "The Begin n ings of Mishneh Torah Critic i s m , " in A. Altmann, B ib lical and Other Studies (Cambridge, 1 963), p p . 1 61-182, and idem. Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Yale University Press, 1 980), p p . 1 02 ff. , 5 1 8 ff. I. H us i k , History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy. p. 228 . L. S t i t s k i n , " A Thirteenth Century P h i l o s o p her" etc. , Tradition. 7, No. 1 ( Winter 1 964-65), p. 8 1 . M alter, "Palquera," p. 1 70.

8

R aphael Jospe

Arabic thought among the Jews merits for him a high place in the temple of medieval Jewish learning. "43 "His studies in philosophy, far from making him feel an intellectual superiority and a scorn for the masses, intensified his zealous desire to educate his readers and inculcate virtue in them. In his metaphysical works, his popularizing tendency is most unique for its time. "44 Indeed, as Malter points OU(,45 the mere fact that so many of Falaquera's voluminous works were preserved, many of them in numerous manuscripts, is ample proof of his great popularity, especially when one considers that so many other works of the thirteenth century have been lost.46 Falaquera seems to have been appreciated most in modern times by Solomon Munk, who identified the

Fons Vitae

with Ibn Gabirol's

Meqor

Ifayyim on the basis of Falaquera's translation into Hebrew of selections of the Arabic original. Munk praised Falaquera's "extensive and profound Jearning,"47 and wrote that Ibn Falaquera knew - something rather remarkable for those times - to appreciate from a historical point of view the work of

our philosopher (i.e., Ibn Gabirol) who, according to him, brought to a close an antiquated system, going back to the philosophers of highest antiquity. 4H FaJaquera's importance may thus lie in his preservation of historical material. His originality lies not only in his style, terminology and skill as a translator, but also in his treatment of that material,49 as well as in his critical-

43 .

M alter, ihid., p . 169.

44. 45 . 46.

Barkan, Thesis, p. 19. M alter, ihid.. p p . 1 78 - 1 79. A m o n g Falaquera's w o r k s , h owever, is not to be included t he c o m me n tary Migdal ' Oz to the Mishneh Torah. as D . J . S i lver maintains ( Maimonidean Criticism and Maimonidean Controversy, p. 103 n . 3 ) . The author of this was Shem Tov ben Abraham ibn Gaon (1283-13 30) . Philosophr and the Philosophical A uth ors of the Jews, p. 42; cf. Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arahe (Paris, 1 857), p . 494. Melanges, p . 274. (Translation b y this author). Prof. A l fred Ivry, discussing M oses of Narbonne, s i m ilarly writes: "In the light of h i s copious h abit o f borrowing, we may legitimately ask i n what sense this i s

47. 48. 49.

N arboni's o w n w o rk. Th e a nswer to this question must be s o ught i n Narboni's selection and t reatment o f sources" ("M oses of Narbonne's 'Treatise of the P erfection of the S oul', " JQR 57, No. 4 [ 1 967], pp. 273-274). Ivry suggests that this treastment i n c ludes transposition of passages and even sentences of Ibn Rushd, a tendency we also fin d i n F alaquera. Ivry notes (p. 275): " M ost of these internal c h anges do n o t c hange the general argument of his s o u rces, and they must simply h ave seemed t o Narboni a m o r e l o gical presentation o f the argument." Cf. Barkan, Thesis, pp. 1 4- 1 5 : " Each of Falaquera's works is not a haphalard repetition of scholarly d icta, but an organized developmen t o f a given theme . "

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tor

1"11 Fa/aquera

9

historical perceptiveness. Thus, D avid Kaufmann50 wrote that Falaquera is worthy of serving as a most reliable authority, whose reliability and great k nowledge h ave been confirmed by many examples . . . N ot only was he an h o nest scholar who e ngaged t i relessly in his work of dissemi nating philosophic k n owledge, but he 'also was a scholar possessing a clear critical sense for distinguishing sources, for differentiating various opinions and perspectives, and b y the criteria of the height of the thirteenth century, he had an excellent sense for the history of philosophy. Lawrence Berman also calls him an "excellent historian of philosophy. " 5 1 Parad o xically, despite the voluminous character of his works, and his popularity as evidenced by the p reservation of so m any of his works, we know very l ittle about Falaquera's personal l ife . Perhaps the modesty which led h i m to d isclaim origin ality a l s o caused him to refrain from inserting his own personality and biography into his works, with the exception of the aforementioned refere nce to his age. 5 2 References to Falaquera by l ater authors similarly d o not provide any b iographical information. Despite the consider­ ations discussed above concerning his place of origin, we have no proof t h at Falaquera had any fixed abode . I ndeed , M alter suggested , o n the basis of a passage referring t o the need for a p o o r man to wander about i n search of foo d , that Falaquera himself may h ave been such a wanderer.51 Wherever h e m a y have l ived , Falaquera was in B arcelona in 1 29 1 where he received a copy of the excommunication of Solomon PetiP4 We d o not know how Falaquera supported h imself. It i s certainly possible t h at his extensive poetry may h ave provided him with s o me support i n his younger years, but we have no evidence to substantiate this possibility, nor do we h ave most of his poetry, to which he makes reference later on (see below). The repeated references to poverty i n such works as Sefer Ha-Mevaqqesh (The 50.

51. 52. 53. 54 .

Kaufmann. Mel]qarim Ba-Sifrut Ha- 'Ivrit She/ Yemei Ha-Beinayim ( Hebrew translation fro m the German by I s rael E l da d; M osad Ha-Rav K oo k , Jerusalem, 1 965), p . 7 8 ; t h e original m ay b e foun d i n SlUdien Ueber Salomon ibn Gabirol ( B u dapest, 1 89 9 ) . p p . 1 - 2. Cr. Fre derick C o p leston , A History of Philosophy, I : Greece and R(!me, Preface. p. vii (Newman Press, Westminster, 1 955): "Originality i s certainly desirable when it means the discovery of a truth not hitherto revealed , but t o p u rsue originality for t h e sake of originality i s not the p roper task of the historian. " L . Berman, " M aimonides. The Disciple of Alfarabi," Israel Oriental Studies, 4 ( 1 974), p. 267 n . 43. Mevaqqesh, p . 9 . M aller, " Palquera, " p. 1 5 7. Mikhtav 'al Devar Ha- Moreh, i n Sefer Minl:zat Qena 'ot. pp. 1 8 2- 1 85 .

10

Rap"ac! Jospe

Seeker) give crede nce to the view that he had personal expe rience of that condition. His works clearly manifest a k nowledge of science and medicine, but again we l ac k any direct evidence to support the view ( of Steinschneider and others) that Falaquera was a physician. I n fact, although he h ad a thorough k n owledge of the science, his views of the p rofession were scarcely complimentary. (Zunz also s uggested that Falaquera was a physician 5 5) We similarly h ave n o evidence to ind icate that Falaquera ever married or had a family. With only a h andful of exceptions, Falaquera's references to women were v i rtually u niformly negative and even n asty, and he seems to have h ad little love for children. Accordingly, M alter and others conclude that he probably never married 5A Steinschneider initially indicated that a reference to "Abba M ari R abbi Shem Tov ben Falaquera" at the beginning of both sections of Batei Hanhagat Guf Ha- Bari' and Batei Hanhagat Ha-Nefesh should be interpreted as "Abba M o r i , " i. e . , "my father and teacher, " and therefore he co ncluded t hat Falaquera h ad a son who copied his father's manuscript, and thus presumably Falaquera was m arriedY Subsequently, Steinschneider himself rejected this view, and concluded t h at Falaquera remained s ingle. 58 I srael \:Iad ash regarded "Abba M ari" as simply an h o n orific term59 which i n n o w a y justifies Levi ne's conclusion (like Steinschneider's i n itial view) that Falaquera had a s o nhO The fact that Levine discovered a poemAI which is not negative t o ward women, as is usually the case with F alaquera, is not sufficient reas o n t o overlook t h e many negative remarks that Falaquera makes Zun7. Thesis, Ch. 1 0 . Sce the d iscussion of this q uestion by Stitskin, "Thirteenth Century Philosopher," p. S I and by J:l adash, " I ntroduction to Batei Hanhagat etc. , " Ha-Ro(e' Ha-'lvri, 2 ( 1 93 7 ) , p p . 1 53 - 1 54 . K lugman, Thesis, p. 9 s ubscribes to this view, and further suggests t h at Falaquera "probably stud ied Latin and possibly some Gree k . " I am not aware of any textual evidence for such a view. 56. Malter, "Palquera," p. 1 5 5 . 5 7 . Steinsch neider, Bodleian Catalogue, 1125 3 8 . Barkan, Thesis, p. 9 accep t s this view and writes: "Assuming the authenticity of this line (i.e. "Abba M ari'') , w e can suggest that the Joseph ben S hemtob ibn Falaquera listed in the communal record s o f Tudela i n l 289 may b e a possible s o n of S he m T o b b e n .Joseph ibn Falaquera . " 5 8 . f)eutsche Litteraturzeitung, 1 894, p p . 1 63 7 - 1 63 8 . 5 9 . " I ntroducti o n to Batei Hanhagat etc. , " p p . 1 55 - 1 56 . 60. Lcvine, Seeker. xviii-xi x . Levine's Thesis, of w h i c h t h e recent hook is a revisio n , follows M al ter's view. I t is strange that he should h ave revised his view, consid ering t h at Stcinschneider abandoned t h at position and that J:l ad as h discussed t h e quest i o n . \1 . Zobel's article o n "Falaquera" i n Encyclopaedia ludaica (German edition. and with minor changes i n the new English edition), als o fo l l owed S teinschncider's original. rather than revised, view. Also cf. Leon Stitskin, Eigfll lewish Philosophers, p. 1 35 and p . 1 87 n . 4. 6 1 . Levinc, Seeker, p . 86. This poem is not found i n a n y o f t he printed editions, but does appear in some manuscripts of Ml'I'oqqesh. Cf. Levine, Seeker, p . 1 1 3 n . 1 03 . 55.

loruh

alld

Sophw_' .\hcm

'I'a\' lhn I

ulaqwTu

II

throughout many of his works. Levine's statement t h at the expression "Abba Mari" "makes it quite certain t h at he did have a son, and presumably a wife"6= simply fails to take into account the arguments advanced by Steinschncider,

Malter and J:ladash, and nies in the face of Falaq uera's consistent misogyny. Falaquera's misogyny d oes not necessarily prove, of course, t h at he was a bachelor. B u t a positive reference to w o men is even less proof of his ever having married. M o reover, if, as is suggested in Chapter Two, the "Seeker" may represent F al a q u e ra himself (since the Seeker's c ur ri cu lu m wo uld have made him app r oximat e l y Fa l aquera s age at the time of the composition of ,)'(:/£" Ha- Mevaqqesh), and i f the "Seeker" is patterned after Kal k o l in 'IJ�Ke,et Ha­ Musar. we may be able to infer from the fact that Kal k o l never married ( because he did not want t o waste h i s time or strength o n w o men, or to become entrapped by them),!,1 that Falaquera himself never m arried for such reas ons. '

If.

F A LAQU E R A A N D P O ETRY

As a young man, Falaquera clearly devoted a great deal of t ime to poetry. Venetianer64 concludes from Falaquera's statement in Mevaqqesh that he would not engage in any more poetry, that as a youth Falaquera h ad engaged almost exclusively in p o e t ry, fro m which he now desisted, and that he only began the serious study of philosophy at the age of thirty. M. D avid65 correctly rej ects this view. By the time Falaquera wrote Mevaqqesh (between the ages of 3 5 and 40), he had already composed two important works (Reshit lfokhmah and Se/er Ha-Ma'alot), both of which presuppose a deep understand ing of phil o s o ph y. M o reover, Falaquera did not, as of t he time that he wrote Mevaqqesh, stop writing p oetry, but merely stopped engaging in it as a career, or stopped writing love s o ngs. Mevaqqesh itself contains much verse, and even his l ast known work (Mikhtav 'af Devar Ha-Moreh) contains verse. Falaquera t o o k great pride in his early poetry. In MevaqqeshM he claims to h ave climbed t o the pinnacle of the palm-tree of poetry, and t o h ave composed m o re t h an twenty thousand verses, of w hich over ten thousand were written d o wn, while many others, though worthy of being written d o wn, were lost. He says that many of his p oems were rich in words of Torah. David son.67 making 62. 63 .

64.

65. 66. 67.

Levine, Seeker. p. xix. '/ggeret Ha-Mw·ar. p. 33. I ntroduction to Ma·alot. The statement in Mevaqqesh, p. 63 ( Levine, p. 91) is: "These are my fin a l poems. From this day forth I have n o p o rtIOn i n poetry and no s hare i n songs. " I ntroduction t o Reshit /fokhmah. Mevaqqesh, p. 12. I . D avid son, 'O:;ar Ha-Shirah Ve-!za- Piyyut nhesaurus or Medieval HehreH"

Rap hae/ .Iosp e

12

use of only a number of Falaquera's extant b o o k s , identifies in those books alone some seventy-seven poems. G raetz, 6� w h o cannot seem t o say much that i s p o s itive about Falaquera, says that those rhymes which h ave become known are poor proof of p oetic ability. This j udgement is u n d u l y harsh. S o me of Falaquera's p oems d e scribing the m iserable conditions o f the Jews are quite moving. Falaquera had a s h arp wit, and some o f h i s poems ( as well as s o m e o f h i s p r ose) contain humor, j okes, and p u n s J ,9 F o r instance, the rich man c o u nsels the Seeker to accumulate wealth, for a p o o r man h as no respect : ?O " '1" ' n lV � 1'��n �, 'T�

m'!JlV::1 o,� 'l::1 1'::1 il'il" '7mn 1'1"IlV� 'it' " '31 " 31 Then h i s wife w o n 't obey him, And he w i l l be so l o w l y a m o n g men That h i s cat will u r i n ate on h i m .

T h e science of l angu age grammar, rhetoric, and p oetry are only considered ,

i m p o rtant by fo olish people. And so, i nstead of getting t o the truth that language should convey, they never advance beyond its forms: ? )

itJ�" , :l1V itl'i' 'it' '::lO . itl'i' ';" it�::ln " . C'�'lVit Oll 1'� P" P'::l " 7.)' 7:;' it':;" pN . ill'::l 'il' '31'!J;"1 O" 'i'�il 17.) The foo l would acquire intelligence and be counted A m o n g the p erfect. Would that wisdom is what he would acq uire ! I nstead. he spends all his d ays in grammar - h o w From the roots he can construct the verb. Falaquera's views o n the medical profe s s i o n were similarly negative, and found expression i n verse. The physician must deceive pe o ple t o impress them with the i m p o rtance of the medical profession to earn a fee . But for their foolishness, men would rely o n nature t o cure them i n sickness:72 Poe lr ) ( K tav 1 970) , I V , p . 476. A l s o cL the selections i n H . Brody and M . Wiener, y

,

MlvlJar Ha-Shirah Ha- 'Ivrlt ( Leipzig, 1 922), and in D . Goldstein, The Jewish Poets ()( Spaln ( Penguin Books, 1 97 1 ) . 6lL

Geschlchle, V I I , p . 252.

69.

M. Waxman, Historv of Jewish Literature,

70.

Memqqesh, p . 17 ( Levine, Seeker, p . 1 6) .

71.

Mevaqqesh, p . 5 1 ( Levine, Seeker, p. 7 3 ) . Me vaqqesh, p. 37 ( Levine, Seeker, p. 49). The s ame p o e m i s found at the end of

72.

IT. p. 59.

Chapter 1 0 of Sefer Sha'ashu 'lm (Book of Delight) by Joseph ben Meir Zabara ( l ate twe lfth century, S p ain).

I n the

English

( C o l umbia, 1 932) it may be fo u n d on p. 1 42.

translation b y M oses H ad as

7 oral!

and .)'ophia: Shem For Ibn Fa/(J (/uera

13

N!:m ;" ;' 7'0:?7 F�T '7JN . CJ17J7J np, C ' N 'J� n' 7Jn m� ':?N'm 711 p,n' " 11)'JN;' pr"�' 0;' ':?

. om:n

Time said t o the fo o l : Be a d o c t o r , Y o u can k i l l p e o p le and take t h e i r money.

You'l l have an advantage over the angels of death, For they kill a man, but for free . Falaquera ad vises listening more than speaking : 73 /,\unl1 /,\7 7:::J 7 i1'i111 llii :J ' . 0'7D:J lY�11) ;" i1', 11 n /'\ i1D:::J 7/,\ IN':::J P 711 '11)/'\ ;, �m . C'lTN 'nlV ,7 N'�' n n N Let your speech, if you desire not to sin, B e one, and let your listening be double. And behold, that therefore God created you With one mouth but two ears.

H e also aims his humor at wome n : 74 . i1 mu� 111)DJ 'i111 7N i1lVN::l . i1 m11)' l' Oil(' / 0" 0" 0'�71n " IV'l(' ;'7Y' 'r.l1 " , '�1 / " IVY' 'r.l, Ill" " 'r.l, ;'7j1J ,�, ,::l:>J 'r.l, / 17;' 'r.l, 1?r.l '/:)' ;'71:1 , �, �P'IV 'm / l" ::l� '/:)' T" 'l' , �, ;,?m ,�, ?POJ ,�, / '1iIVl ,�, '1i�l ,�, ;'7� '?Y �O'l " l" / 1? 0'1"l::ln:> i�O� '1"lr.l

Behold the events of time, betraying M o rt al man, and wonder. The thing that i s hidden from you W i l l I reveal. I cannot explai n its details, for 77.

78. 79. 80. 81.

Ma'alot, p. 75. This is a paraphrase of I b n R u s h d , Fa�l al-Maqal (ed. H o urani, p . 6); "The Decisive Treatise," i n Lerner and M ahdi, Medieval Political Philosophy: A Sourcebook. p. 1 68. Falaquera also refers the reader to '/ggerel Ha- Vikkual;. Mikhtav 'al Devar Ha- Moreh. Mevaqqesh. p . 52. ?eri Ha- Yagon. Ch. 2 , Cremona ed . , p . l Oa; Ottensosser ed . , p . 44. Elsewhere i n ?eri Ha- Yagon. C h . 3 (OUensosser ed . , p . 6 8 ) , among m a n y p hrases intermixing biblical and rabbinic verses with his own rhymed verse, Falaquera has a p h rase reminiscent of the fourth benediction i n the daily 'Amidah: '?l\;J 1llnIV '�1 .

'?:llV;J1

;])':J mon

'/ orah alld Sophia: Shelll 10\ Jb/1 liila,/ucra

15

My t i me will end before counting. Ti m e will empty of distress for you, And goodness will end for you. Its persons p ass on day by d ay, M an wears out like clothing. Who will become poor, and who will become rich,82 W h o w i l l go d o w n , a n d who will go u p ; W h o i s a k i ng, a n d w h o is a wanderer, Who is honored, and who is despised; Who is supreme, and who is poor, Who i s tranqu i l , a n d who i s exiled; Who i s torn, and who is b urned , W h o is stoned , and who is h anged ; (These) few people h ave 1 inscribed for you. 83 There are more i n addition t o these.

Despite h i s obvious l ove - and t alent - for poetry, Falaquera resolved, at the time he wrote Mevaqqesh, to turn away from the l ove of h i s youth and t o dedicate h imself t o a more serious concern with philosophy a n d science. Falaquera decided to "divorce" poetry; the first part of Mevaqqesh (which contains s o many p oems) would be his parting "writ of d ivorce . " "From t h i s d ay forth, I h ave no p o r t i o n i n poetry. " 8 4 He h ad already i n dicated t h i s i n t e n t i o n to aban d o n p oetry at the begi n n i ng of the b o o k ,85 s a y i n g that the red sins of youth became like white wool. The d ays o f youth h ave flown off like d reams, and he was goi ng to give u p l ove songs, p raises of aristocrats, and the songs of riders and wanderers who wander i n the desert of desire, and instead t o study the truth, weaken h i s youthfu l appetite, have h i s i n tellect govern his soul, and serve God in joy. On Wednesday ( i . e . , middle age , which was now app r o aching) one s h o u ld prepare for the S ab b at h ( i . e . , the world to come). D ivorcing the love of h i s y o u t h , he now wished t o marry the "daughter of wisdom . " 8 6 Falaquera's attitude towards poetry thus seems t o h ave been somewhat ambivalent i n his later l ife . On the one hand, we n ow fin d negative referen ce s t o poetry. The felicitous person should engage already in h i s y o u t h i n t h e 82.

Cf. I S a m u e l 2 : 7 .

83.

These few people - t h e types mentio ned above - a r e inscribed ( i n t h e B o o k o f Life ) .

84.

Mevaqqesh, p. 6 3 ; I.evine, p. 9 1 .

�5.

Mevaqqesh. p . 9; Levine, p . 2 . A l s o cl'. the I n trod uctory Poem, Mevaqqesh, pp. 6 - 7

The same poem is found at the begi n ni n g o f De'ut Ha­ Pilusojim, m s . P a r m a f. 1 b, m s . Lei d e n f. 1 04ab, w h e r e Falaquera a l s o ren o u nces

( Levine, pp. 94 - 9 5 ) .

86.

poetry and denounces i t as d ross o n the intellect's gold, and as deceiving. Mevaqqe.lh. p. 1 0.

16

Raphacl ./1!ll'e

mathematical sciences and not w aste his time with "the vanities of the poets and their lies. "Xl Falaquera even wrote a poem against p oets:8X m n /\ m1m:1 0'/\' '/\w/\ ;") T :1 ) ;") 1 Pi;") ;")T;") m,/\ ')1l1, ? l'/\ll{�r" ,;")T I{';") nr,, /\ 0 /\ Will{ in n

I asked Adam, in a d ream that I had , [s t h is empty and despicable one Of your p rogeny? He answered , If that is true, I 'l l divorce Eve. H e q u otes Plato to the effect that poetry d oes not lead to wisd om but away from i t . 89 But, as h as already been mentioned, Falaquera did continue to write p oetry, although presumably n o more of the love s o ngs of h i s youth, whi X'lV i1iT i1'�;"l i1'i1n �Y�:>1 , :J1i:J O ;"l l1lV'i1 " '0 .:J1i:J 1 29 . Mareh Ha- March. "Be'ur l\i ifla', " p . 1 72 . Falaquera's i n terpretation is correct o n the basis of the M as o retic text. in which the nun is accented with a dagesh, thus meaning "him" (in which case "yodi'ennu " is equivalent to "yodi'ehu, " as opposed to the unaccented "yodi'enu, " which would mean "to i nstruct us"). M aimo nidcs ' interp retation (" . . . u s " ) is thus inconsistent with the M asoretic text. Pr of. N ahum Sarna has kindly informed me that Falaquera's s uggestion that M ai m onides may h ave h ad a d ifferent, unaccented text is not borne out by the Aleppo Codex, which M aimonide, used. i n which yodi'ennu is accented .

22

Raphaf'l Jospe

counsellor that he might instruct him (yodi'ennu}. " It seems t hat the Rabbi interpreted the verse thus: who can comprehend God's intention and i nform us (yodi'enu) of H is will. I t seems fro m his words that i n the Rabbi's text the letter nun w as weak ( i . e . , without a dagesh ) , whereas in o u r texts i t i s accented (with a dagesh ) . So our i nterpretation i s : who is so great that he can give counsel t o God (vodi'ennu). " Despite his explicit aim of writing i n H ebrew, Falaquera ad m itted that the need for accurate terminol ogy occas i o nally forced him t o invent new terms or to b o rrow foreign terminology, j ust as the rabbis i n the Talmud employed G reek and Aramaic terms for lack of appropriate H eb re w vocabulary. Even such a rich language as Arabic, he pointed out, needed to employ 10anword s . l Jo Examples of Arabic terms used where n o suitable H e b rew terms were available can be found in several of Falaquera's works. Quite a few Arabic terms are e m p l oyed i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim. In Sefer Ha- Nefesh we find several such cases . For example, i n Chapter 5 , he refers to a "plant which flourishes on the s urface of the water and i s called {ul;lub (water moss) and water plant. " 1 3 1 I n Chapter 1 6, Falaquera states that animals d o n o t have the faculty of reco l lect i o n , which is a function of the intellect. I nstead , animals remember i n virtue of a faculty "which h as n o name " b u t w h i c h i n A r a b i c i s called wahm ( 0 ;" ). the estimative faculty. 1 3 2 And in Chapter 1 8 , he d iscusses hearing as perception i n a space in the ear known in Arabic as samak (lNI)O). fro m the motions of the air touching the ear. l 33 (The Arabic term denotes something high o r thick, such as a r o of or canopy.) S o metimes Falaquera uses an A rabic term even when one might think that a common H ebrew term might suffice. For instance, in Liqqu[im Mi-Sefer Meqor Ijayyim (Selections fro m Fans Vitae), Falaquera uses the Arabic jins (genus) instead of the H e b rew term sug. 1 34 H e also uses the Arabic dahar for eternity, 1 35 instead of a H e b rew term. I n d iscussing the fact t hat Maimonides uses simpler terms at the beginning of the Guide t h an i n later sections, where he 1 30 . De'ut Ha- Pilosoflm, I ntroduction, m s . Parma f. 6b, ms. Leyden f. 1 08a. 1 3 1 . Hebrew text, p . 1 0 . Cf. note 1 1 to Chapter 5 for a d iscussion of {uIJluh. J 3 2 . H ebrew text, p. 3 1 . The designation of wahm as estimative faculty, as opposed to instinct, is at the suggestion of Prof. Shlomo Pines. This i s based o n the Latin "estimatio," b ased o n the Greek terms (j\)V£(J\� , ep6vllm�, ltp6vo w . See H . Wolfson, "The I n ternal Senses, " Harvard Theological Review, 28 ( 1 93 5 ), p . 1 32 , a n d A . M . G o i c h o n , Vocahulaires Compares D 'A rislOle e t D 'fhn Sina ( P aris, 1 939) p . 40. The Arabic term's common usage indicates delusive i m agination, conj ecture, illusion, foreboding. 1 3 3 . H ebrew text, p . 35. Steinschneider d iscusses this term i n H U, p. 989 n . 5 . 1 34. Liqqu{im 5 : 29. 1 3 5 . Liqqu{ im 3 : 7 .

Toruh and Sophia. ShclIl

Tal' lhn Falaquera

23

g o e s i n t o greater detail, Falaquera uses t h e Arabic ;,,!i 1Nl&� fo r t h e H ebrew :-r n'li D (beginning, preface). 1 36 At other times, of course, he seems actu ally to h ave lacked an appropriate H e b rew term. H e refe r s to t h e riac, an antidote t o s n ake bites, k nown in A rabic as il jl N ' i tJ . 1 1 7 H e ment i o n s , i n the context of things t h at change i mperceptibly over thousands of years, two p recious stones i1 and " " . 1 3 8 He refers t o a "white fluid called tll ' ::J, " 1 39 which clearly i s an Arabic corrupt i o n of the Greek phlegma. And he quotes Galen, that by proper regimen one can open the obstruction of the liver and release the hardening of the spleen known i n A rabic as il::JN ' �. 1 40 Falaquera uses the term ,nl:) t o indicate a b l ack spot o n the m o o n , a b l e m i s h w h i c h d oes not have light . 1 4 1 And he suggests t h a t l aughter increases as the muscles ( '� Y) relax. 1 4 2 These clearly are cases of technical terms. At other times, he mentions Arabic terms because of their specifi c c o n notations i n Islam o r because they help him t o amplify a concept. Thus, he quotes lbn R u s h d regarding the o p i n i o n s of the dahariya ( il'iil1), a materialist and atheistic d octrine in Islam. 1 43 When d iscussing G o d 's will, Falaquera i n forms the read e r t h a t the Arabic term 'irada (il1NiN) is found i n ancient scientific and philosophical b o o ks . 1 44 In the context of a d iscussion of creation, he s ays that the term YN1::JN specifi cally means creat i o n ex nihilo. 1 45 H e also informs the reader t h at mechanics (m" ::Jnliil Iil:)::ln) is known in Arabic as al-jahr w 'al-muqahalah

1 36 . Moreh Ha- Moreh l : I ntroduction, p. 1 0 . 1 37 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 2 : 6 , p. 8 7 . It should actually be spelled i1i'N'1n. In its A ramaic for m N i'''1'1'I it is found in the Talmud ( Shabbat 1 09b, Nedarim 4 I b) . Cr. S. M uenter, M aimonides' Treatise on Poisons and Their A ntidotes, Part T , Ch. 4 ( Philadelphia, 1 966). Also cf. I. M. R abbinowicl, Traile des Poisons ( P aris, 1 935), pp. 3 1 - 3 2 , and 1 . Preuss, Biblisch-talmudische Medizin ( Berlin, 1 9 1 1 ), p . 509, "Theriak. " 1 3 8 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 2: 1 4, p . 9 9 . Durr means pearls: the root la 'Ia ' means to shine or glitter, fro m which i s derived lu 'lu : also meaning pearls. Cf. J:I asdai ibn Shaprut's Letler to the King oJ lhe Khazars (in ludah H a-Levi, SeJer Ha- Kuzari. ed. ?:ifro ni [Schocken, Tel Aviv. 1 967], p . 342): . ::J;'T' N :ln m �O::l7 NY1/) 'lY1N::J lV'1" . " C'7NY�lV' )1lV7::J 1IJlV P '::l )1N77 NY1m 1 39 . Batei Hanhagal Guf ha- Bari ', Ch. 15 p . 5 1 . See the d iscussion by J:I ad ash, op. eil p . 1 62 . 1 40. 'Iggeret Ha-Ifalom, p . 4 7 7 . The A rabic term means "hardening. " 1 4 1 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 2 : 1 9 , p . 1 03 . The term means something which is erased , eradicated , wiped off, rubbed out. 1 42 . ?eri Ha- Yagon 6 : 7 - 1 0 ( Barkan, Thesis, pp. 1 57 - 1 58). 1 43 . Moreh Ha-Moreh 2: 1 3 , p . 98. 1 44. Moreh Ha-Moreh 2: 1 2, p . 93. 1 45 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 3: 1 5 , p . 1 24 . The printed text mistakenly has 'ibra' here instead of 'ihda'. Also cf. Moreh Ha- Mon'h, p. 7 . . .

•

..

24

Rapha,'/ }osp"

(;"I':JN Pr.l'N' i:Jl'N). 1 46 Contemplation ( He b rew il :i Y ) is called r a \ : ( ' N i ) in

Arabic. 1 47 As a carefu l translator, who tended to be q uite literal, falaq uera used terms t h at closely conveyed the meaning of the o riginal Arabic, I n reference to p redestination o r determinism, he translated al-qaejo ' W 'al-qadar (iiP?N' N�P'N ) as i'YW' ilin ("decree and fate"), preserving the connotation of decreei ng or decidi ng of the Arabic '�P and Hebrew iTl, and the connotation of measuring of the Arabic i'P and Hebrew i'Y W . 14 8 Falaquera attempted to bring out subtle n uances i n language, especially as they affected philosophical doctrine, H e noted t h at t h e expression 'iYW n', i n Arabic, translated a s l'iN' In' ' 7.) , would not be used by s o meone if he thought he actually knew the truth (an o bservat i o n he attributes to Ibn 8 ajj a) . 1 49 H e asserts that Aristotle u s e d t h i s expressi o n only regarding the q uestion o f the eternity of motion (thus supporting M aimonides' claim that A ristotle d i d n o t actually c l a i m to h ave demonstrated eternity) . Falaquera n o t e s t h a t A I-Farabi , comparing the matter of which the stars and s pheres consist, d i d not use the term Pi£) ( He b rew ,,:J ;' ) but rather n :J N (sic) ( Hebrew �" n ) , which means not "distinction" but "something else. " 1 5 o Greek terms also fou n d their way into Falaquera's vocabulary, v i a the Arabic usage. H e employs such terms as O'�'llNr.l (magnet) 1 5 1 and '''i'P (coral) . 1 52 In Moreh Ha-Moreh 1 53 Falaquera quotes Aristotle's Metaphysics: "'7.)';' i7.)N7.):J i::lT 'UOiN'" ( A ristotle mentioned in P art " Lamed ") . Although the H e brew lamed generally would mean thirty (its numerical value), here it can

1 46. Reshit lfokhmah, p. 47. 147. Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 5 1 , p . 1 3 5 . T h e term 'e:;ah ordinarily means "counsel" o r "advice . " I t i s u s e d several times i n Shelem ut Ha- MlI 'asim (Ch. 4, p . 7 line 1 2; C h . 6 . p . 1 2 l i n e s 2 7 , 40, 45, 46; p . 1 3 l i n e s 56, 5 8 ) . The translation as "conte m p l a t i o n " i s based o n Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 5 1 , p . 1 3 5 : "The felicitous philosopher employ s contemplat i o n , wisdom, a n d intellect . . . T h e employment of t h o ught tor intellectual t h ings is called contemplat i o n ('e:;ahJ, w h i c h i n A rabic means o p i n i o n (ra \), w h ich i s intellectual c oncept i o n . " T h i s is borne out by an ex a m i n a t i o n of the A r a b i c text (ed. A . Badawi, K uwait, 1 979, p . 3 5 3 ) , which has here ai-ra y. The H ebrew vers i o n o f l b n R u s h d 's M iddle Comment ary (ed . L. Berman) has here n'l" l':1 1x as well. I S9 H e explains t h at s o p histry i s called �" m '�N� (a falsified proposition), and is not the n ame of a person, but is d erived fro m X'DO (wisd o m i1I�:m) and T�ON (falsificati o n , forgery �" 1) . 1 6() At other times, Falaquera's attempts at etymology were less successfu l . For example, he maintained that t h e H ebrew 'Y::Jlj Y�lV (from t h e Arabic :l7�ON I;> l'\ 'Y'::J� l;> X. which he identifies as Greek), d oes not refe r to Y�lV (hearing) . l b l As h as already been mentioned, Falaquera occas i o nally refers to the problem of certain terms or names n o t being found i n H ebrew. S o metimes he therefore cut short a d iscussion of things which were not commonly available o r for which he lacked H e b re w term s . F o r instance, i n a d iscussion of animals, he s ays " I omitted w h at h e said about animals, because we d o not know their names and they are not prevalent among US , " 1 6 2 And in a d iscussi o n of 1 54. For example, see I s aae I s rael i 's first description of philosophy fro m its name, in Book of Definitions ( i n Isaae Israeli, edited by A . Altmann and S . M . Stern, p . 24) . 1 55 . Mevaqqesh. p . 1 02 . 1 56. Ma'alo t. p . 48. Cf. De'ot Ha- Piloso{im, ms. Parma f. 4a, ms. I.eyden f. 1 06b: . . . i1 � :)M i1 Ji :J i1 /{ i1l"llllV �101?'!l Ji ? � ':l . . " Cf. AI- Farabi , A ttainment oJ Happiness #53 (in A lfarabi 's Philosophy of Plato and A ristotle, trans. Muhsin M ahdi, p. 43). 1 57 . Reshit lfokhmah, p p . 3 7 - 3 8 . This is the section Efros identified as a translation of AI-Farabi's 11;.)'a al-' Ulum. 1 5 8 . Mevaqqesh. p . 89. 1 59 . Ma'alo l, p . 76. 1 60. Reshit lfokhmah. p. 3 5 . His etymology is good . Tja"C'lv comes fro m CIOW, t o take the appearance of s o mething, t o make oneself like something. CL AI-Farabi , Philosophy of Plato #53 (ed. M ah d i p. 57). 1 6 1 . Reshir Ijokhmah. p . 5 1 . K lat7.kin ( 'O;;ar Ha- MunalJim Ha- Pilosofiyrim. 4. p . 1 33) and Efros ( Philosophical Terms in the Moreh Nebukim, p. 1 1 7) derive 'lIJO lIr.)lV fro m cI>UatKU UKpOaat'l't to denote q u ality, I X] and sometimes uses " 0' i nstead of '11),n for matter. Elsewhere l 83 he uses :mv" instead of O'�Pl't fo r clime, and i n several works u s e s t h e term o'� � n instead of m n � for humors. To d esignate minerals, he uses C I:)" and n o t the term :J::lnl:), which Ibn Tibbon p referred. l x4 He sometimes designates the senses as mlVl' ;' rather than C' lV , n. 1 85 Falaquera uses the term C::lY for substance as well as essence. 1 �6 Whereas M aimonidesl � 7 h ad referred to i ntellectual p e rfection as the final g o a l and ultimate perfecti o n of man by the term ghayah akhirah, which I bn Tibbon translates as m''1nl't n'�:m, Falaquera l 88 uses the term (n)" ::lp n'�:m, which M alter describes as "one of the many coinages of new philosophic terms peculiar t o Palquera. " I 89

The fact that Falaquera s o metimes fluctu ated between his own p reference

and more common u s ages of terms did not reduce his desire for p recise expression an d an accurate u n ders t and i ng of proper terminology. Steinschneider thought that many Jewish writers had understood the reference to the Ka/am by the H ebrew term O',:J,;' nl)::>n as meaning d ialectics. 1 90 Falaquera l 9 1 again demonstrates his concern for p recision and knowledge of I s l am and Arabic: l't ';" O',:J, ;' 11 7.):'" Y'" 7::> ,::1,7.) l't'im C'i::1'7.);' mpl1Y;' T'1)7::>111:) 7l't '::> ,ml't'::ll)il m'pn ,::ll) mil 7 Y c'p�'nil ',::1, ��::17 m'x, x':Jn ;'I)::>n tn:mv ;, X'il' ,il'P!:! C�::lN N'1PJ ;om il'1'pn i'N::1 ;'�::1P::J m;, ',::1, 31'" 1/)' n'l't'::ll:)il ,::ll) cnn/:)l't X'::1I:)' m;, ''1::1, 1p1n1/) 'I:) 1/)" m;, '�!:!1/)/:) 31" '1/) X,il1 . . . 0''1::1' �31:J '�O'1X X'1'PlV 'M::ll) 'JX, . c�::>111) C�::ll't l'tiPJ ;,n . n1::lJ;' I1l:)::>n 7Y::1 .

A I- Mutakallimun

i s translated as "the speakers. " One is called a

1 79. For example, Liqqu!im 4 : 2 5 : miU;'7.) nm1mzm m'!lW;' mi'::l;' " ;" W :J"nn' P O K' .nm' 7 31;'1 1 80. Liqqu{im 3 : 1 2: O'��l''' n::lp� ml'!lw", li:J"n�" K';'I O'�::ll''' 7::> 7l' n!lp�" m'WKi" . on::lp� 7l'

181. 1 82 . 1 83 . 1 84. 1 85 . U j6. 1 87 . 1 88 . 1 89. 1 90. 191.

Liqqulim 3 : 10: p::li11� n7'w�11 pWKi11 l'!lW11 n n n om'11 'l!l�. Liqqu{im 2 : 1 7. See M alter, 'lggeret Ha- Ijalom, p. 476 n. 66. Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften, p . 278. Ma'alot, p . 42, 'lggeret Ha-Musar, p. 44. A.l. Heschel, "Der Begriff des Seins i n der Philosophie Gabirols," p. 7 1 n . 34. Guide 3 : 54. Ma'a/ot, p. 5 1 . M alter, " P alquera," p. 1 62 n. 1 6. Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 3 1 0 n. 5 . Moreh Ha-Moreh, p. 1 52 .

lo rah and Sophia: Shem To\'

Ihll l a /aquera

')9

"speaker" who knows the science of Kalam, which is a science which brings p r oofs t o refute the words of those who o p p ose religion in respect of i nvestigating existence. One w h o knows religious matters by trad i t i o n without i nvestigation i s called " faqi h " 1 9 2 among them ( i . e . , t h e M u s l i m s ) , and he is the j udge who k nows rel igi o u s law. B u t one who investigates religious m atters and b rings pro ofs of their truth in respect of existence. i s called by them a Mutakallim . I have fou nd t h at Aristotle refers to one who masters words . . . who has mastered the science of d i alectics.

IV. FALAQU E R A A S A C R IT I C Despite h i s being an ad mirer and defender of Maimonides, Falaquera maintained his o w n intellectual independence and criticized M ai m onides and others. For example, Falaquera sometimes maintained t h at M aimonides d id not ful l y u nderstand Aristotle's views . 1 9 3 W h e n h e d i s agreed , he stated "but I say" (v- 'an i 'omer, o r ve- 'o mer 'a ni). Thus, he d i s agreed with A ristotle, and used the same e x p ressio n . 1 94 [ n Guide 1 : 5 7 , M ai m o n ides agreed with Ibn Sina t h at existence is superadded to essence. Falaquera, agreeing with l b n R u s h d , criticizes this view . 1 95 Falaquera strongly criticizes M ai m o n ides and I b n R ushd for b asing their pro ofs of the existe nce of God o n the hypothetical premise of eternity, which is a false p remise . 1 96 H e therefore rejects t h e proof o f G o d fro m motion. Fal aquera asserts t h at Ibn R u shd i s wrong i n t h i n k i ng t h at motion can b e p o s s i h l e itself while being necessary in respect of its agent . 1 97 M ai m o n ides mistakenly att ributed Aristotle's discussion of Plato 's theory of creation to the Physics; the discussion is i n De Caelo. Falaquera states . 1 9X In Guide 2: 1 3 , M a i m o nides used the expressi o n that God created "from nothing" (me-he'eder; m in 'adam); Falaquera, who explicitly affirms in this passage a Platonic view of creation as the true view o f the Torah, suggests that Maimonides s h o u ld rather

1 92 . The term i s faqih, a n d n o t faqir ( a s i n t h e p r i n ted text). See t h e article " F a k i h " i n Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 9 8 . 1 93 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 7 3 , p . 6 4 ; 2 : 1 3 , p . 9 5 , 98; 2 : 1 5 , p . 1 00 . Cr. Yenetianer, Ma'a/o t, p. xi n. 2 . 1 94. Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 3 1 , p. 1 6. 1 95 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 5 7 . p . 2 8 . S e e Altmann, " Essence a n d Existence in M ai m o n id e s " ( Studies, p . 1 20 ) . A l t m a n n n o t e s t h at I b n R u s h d 's criticism of I b n S i n a i s wrong, because l b n S i n a d i d n o t maintain t h i s view.

1 96 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 7 1 , p. 43; 2 : 1 p. 7 7 . 1 97 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 7 3 , p . 64. 1 98 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 2 : 1 3 , p. 9 5 .

30

Raphae/ Jospe

h ave said that God created "after non-being , " "after nothing" (ahar ha-he'cdcr, af}ar ha- 'ayin; ba'da 'l- 'adarn), as he did in Guide 3 : 20. 1 99 Falaquera also p oints out that Maimonides contradicts himselPoo In Guide 2 : 1 9 , M aimonides maintains that the stars and spheres consist of a different matter , but in Guide 2 : 2 6 he says they consist of the same matter. On a similar question, he criticizes lbn Rushd for maintain i ng that the star is at rest, for then the nature of the star would b e the opposite of the nature of its sphere. 20 1 Falaquera sharply criticizes M ai m o nides for his statement that Aristotle w as correct o n all sublunar matters, i n Guide 2 : 24. H o w can M aimonides maintain such a view, in light of Aristotle's view that prime matter i s n ot generated? 202 Falaquera provides various other i nstances of Aristotle being wrong. 203 Falaquera also labels Maimonides' views in Guide 2:26 as strange and as tend ing towards the view of eternity. 204

1 99. Mareh Ha- Mareh 2: 1 3 , p . 97 bottom. See the discussion of creation below, Ch. Three, Section I X , p . 1 59. Wolfson ( Philasoph r of the Ka/am, p . 372) obviates the problem by equating "after" with "from, " based o n Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and Crescas, but he d oes not deal with Falaquera's objections. 200. Mareh Ha-Mareh 2: 1 5, p . 1 02 . 20 1 . Mareh Ha-Moreh 2: 1 5, p p . 1 03- 1 04. 202. Mareh Ha- Mareh 2:22, p. 1 06. In De'ot Ha-Pilasafim, ms. Parma f. 5b- 6a, ms. Leyde n f. 1 07 b , Falaquera similar l y criticizes Maimonides and rbn R u shd for asserting that Aristotle was correct on all m atters of physics, and that doubts only exist in metaphysics : p::llm " Y::l " � N lV T1�::l U'7!:IT1 O'1J::lnT1 17N '::l '1J1N 'lN1 .11'1711 mY'1J mp!:ICT1 n1�Y'� 1'n1Y' '::l .lV'!:I/:)T1 " lC::l7N '1JNlV T11J "But I say that these sages exaggerated for (Aristotle's) sake. W hat Alexander (of Aphrodisias) the commentator said is correct, that (Aristotle's ) opinions a r e less dubious than the opinions of others . " 203. Mareh Ha- Mareh 2:22, p p . 1 08 - 1 09 . 204. Mareh Ha- Mareh 2:26, p. 1 1 4 . •

C H APT E R TWO

T H E W O R K S OF FALAQUERA

Falaquera was a p r o lific writer who occasionally referred i n s o me of h i s works t o his other works, thus enabling u s to know of m o re works which he authored than are extant today . i n Sefcr Ha- Me vaqqesh. 1 Falaquera refers to seven earlier works which he had composed , i n addition to his extensive poetry: :::J " N'i1 illl N lV�li1 nlilli1' m N'i:::J il r1lill01 1 ' " n m:l ' i1 ( 1 ) : 'l1i:::J n l"1iN:::J � i1 iO'1;)i1 l1ilN' ( 2 ) . 0 " ' i' lV O'i 1;)N�:J C'i:::J N ' 11 ' 31'111 111N!li i1:J 'l"1i:lT 1 'i:lTi1 11 ' l1;)' (4) . C " :::J N n1;)lV�i1 1 U'i1 'i�' (3) . C " lI!li1 ilV" .'l" N 'N1:::J ' 111N ' l1 il " " l O,':::J 0" 1131' ':l ll' , lI 'i:::J lI lIl 0'1111i1 l1'lIlNi' (6) . i1 1;):l n 01 i1i1l1i1 T ':J ilVN i1�:l0i1i1 i'N':J:J n1:l" i1 l1il'N' (5) 'J:::J l1 ' lI�' m ' lI'l101 i1�:ln l1' , :ll1 O il:::J 'l"1i:lT .l11 ' 1I1;)il i�O' ( 7 ) ill):ln 'l11:::J lIl n l) " " i1 ' N' .'m" ':::J '1111, " ill'lIlil i111 .l11 " 'lil O'N .'111i n:::J ::l .

I composed: ( I ) Rules for the sick and the regimen of health and t h e regimen of the soul. I t is healing for the heart a n d a benefit for the limbs, in metrical verse. (2) And the Treatise on Ethics. which expl ains proper actions. (3) Balm for Sorrow, which gladdens the bereaved. (4) Scrull of Remembrance, in which I d iscuss times past, for at this time hordes of troubles c ome-upon us daily. (5) And the Treatise of the Disputation. explaining the harmony between the Torah and philosophy. (6) And the BeginninK of Wisdom. (7) And the Book of Degrees. in both of which I discuss the ultimate purpose of wisdom and (its) benefits and the great qualities of men. This my k n o wledge was sufficient to attain in my childhood, and these are the children of my t houghts in my youth . FaJaquera's other works, with the exception of his Mikhtav 'al Devar Ha­ Moreh. cannot be date d . But, on the basis of cross-references, we can place at least some of them i n rough chronological order. 2 But when we attempt, .on the I.

2.

Mevaqqesh. p . 1 2 ( Levine, Seeker , p p . 7 - 8). Numbers are added . I t is strange that none o f the works and articles on FaJaq uera has attempted t o list his works in any coherent order, with the exception of L aJ os ( Ludwig) Venetianer,

31

32

Rapl/ Ilc/ J051'1'

b asis of these cross-references, to determine such a n order, we e n c o unter d i fficulties with F alaquera h i mself. For instance, although Falaquera listed as

his first work Batei Hanhagal Gu/ Ha- Bari ' - Balei HanhaR;at Ha- Nefe�'h, in his introduction to this work (p. 5 7 ) he refers back to 'lggeret Ha- Musar, which therefore may h ave been composed first, and not second as listed here. Falaquera also omits fro m this list two other works t h at may have been comp osed before the Mevaqqesh, namely De 'o t Ha- Pilasa/im and Se/er Ha­ Ne(esh . We know this because he lists here Se/er Ha- Ma'alat, which mentions Se/er Ha-Ne(esh, 3 w h i c h in turn mentions De'o t Ha- Pilosafim . 4 S i nce these two books were composed before Se/er Ha- Ma 'alat, which appears on ou r list here, they should p resumably also h ave been mentioned . Falaquera's Shelem ut Ha- Ma'asim also refers, i n its first p aragraph, to Se/er Ha-Ne/esh, and in virtue of its subject matter would seem to h a v e been composed as a sort of sequel to Sefer Ha- Nefesh. But there is no evidence to indicate whether it, too, was completed before Se/er Ha- Ma'alat. In the listing that follows, therefore, we shall p reserve the integrity of Falaquera's own o rder i n Se/er Ha- Mevaqqesh, even thoug h t w o of t h e m ( N o s . 9, 1 0) should presumably appear befo re Se(er Ha- Ma'alol. 8) Se/er Ha- Mevaqqesh 9) De'ot Ha- Pilosa/im 1 0) Se/er Ha- Ne/esh 1 1 ) She/emut Ha- Ma'asim I n the case of Falaquera's l ater books, it is not possible to determine the exact d ates o r o rder of composition. B ut we d o know that t h ree of these works were probably completed befo re his Mareh Ha- Moreh, which refers to 'Iggeret Ha­ /falo m . s Se/er Ha- [)erash, l' and Perush on the Bihle . 7 We therefo re add to o u r list: i n his i ntroduction ( p p . 9 ff. ) to A Fokozatok Konyve ( S zeged , 1 890), but Venetianer's p i o neering and valuable information is b y now i ncomplete and i n need of revi s i o n . On the basis o f m s . M unich 402 , i n which 'Iggercl Ha- Vikkual;. Reshil Ijokhmah and Se{er Ha- Ma'alol fol l o w sequentially, Venetianer suggests (p. 1 5 ) that Falaquera w rote them together as one continuous volume. Falaquera certainly regarde d them as relate d , perhaps as a s o rt o f trilogy. Cf. the cross-references in these works, e.g., his stated intention of composing Sefer Ha-Ma'alol ( Reshit Ijokhmah, p. 92) and the earlier statement regard ing Reshit Jjokhmah. Se/l'r Ha­ Ma'a/ol and De'ot Ha-PihJSilim at the end of 'Iggerel Ha- Vikkual;. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Ma 'alot, p p . 3 5 , 3 6 , 8 2 . Se/er Ha- Ne/esh. I n t . , p . I . Moreh Ha-Mo reh. 3 : 1 9, p. 1 3 1 . Moreh Ha-Moreh, 2:26, p. 1 1 4 . Moreh Ha- Moreh, p . 6 , refe rs t o h i s c o m mentary o n t h e Torah a n d o t h e r scripture; p . 1 45 refers to his commentary o n P ro verbs . But i n Ma'alot, p . 3 9 . and Reshit Jjokhmah, p. 1 0 , h e refers t o points that h e "will e x p l ai n " i n t h e c o m mentary,

j (I'-t/It (Jlld \(lphia: Shcm Fm) Ihn / o/£l (j Uera

1 2)

'!ggerel Ha- Ha/o m

1 3 ) SeJer

Ha- /)crash

Perush on the Bible 1 5 ) .'vtorell Ha- Moreh Wc do not h ave a n y way to date Falaquera\ t r a ns l at i o n of select i o n s of I b n G ahi ro l 's J£e q (} r lfa)Tim. w h i c h he called Uqq u ( im . H is p reface to the Uqqu{im refers t o a pseudo-Emped ociean text. the ,",'e(er Ha- 'A ?amim Ha­ /fam ishah (Book ol the Five Suhstances). of which Falaquera also translated selections (Liqqu[im). S ince he did not refe r t o his own translation when ment i o n i ng the work, we m ay theorize that the transl at i o n of the Five ,"'·ubsliJnces came after the translation of lbn Gabirol's Fans Vitae. and was motivated by Falaquera's i nterest i n the work as a s o u rce for I b n CiabiroL We thus add t o o u r list: 1 4)

1 6 ) Liqqu[im Mi- SeJer Meqor lfayyim 1 7) Liqqu[im .'vIi- SeJer Ha- 'A?amim Ha- /famishah

We may then conclude t he list with Falaquera's last known work ( 1 290): 18) .'vfikhtav 'af [)evar Ha- Ma rch W e t h u s have t h e comp lete list of Falalj uera's known works, o rd e red chrono logically, to the extent t h at the av ailable evidence permits u s to establish their order of composition. H aving established, to the extent warranted by the evidence, the probable order of composition of Falaquera's works, a few words are i n order o n the content. and editions o r manuscripts, of these works. 1 ) Salei Hanhagat Cu( Ha- Sari ' - Ba tei HanhaKat Ha- Nelesh ( Verses on the Regimen of the H e althy Body - Verses on the Regimen of the S o u l) .H M unk" refers to the work as " Kgeret Balei HanhaKat Ha- CuJ Ve-ha- Nelesh (Treatise of Verses o n the Regimen of the Body and the S o u l ) . Falaquera's reference to the work i n SeJer Ha- Alevaqqesh, beginning with " Hi/khat lfalin. " has led to co nfu s i o n o v e r the t i t l e of the work . D u kes 1 0 s u ggested that t h i s ph rase ind icated a separate book of versificati o n of the Talmudic t raetate ljulin. hut most accept the view t h at "flo lin " is the equivalent of /;(}lim (the sick ), and t hat this p h rase i s not part o f the title of the book, but rather refers t o i t s co nte nt. As mentioned above, the words " Abba M ari" before Falaquera:s

H.

9. 10.

w hich may t h e ref ore h ave heen wri t t e n later. Fd ited with I ntroduction hv S. M unter ( Ma�lhar()t Le-Si(rut, M osad H a- R a\ K o o k , T e l A v i v , 1 95 0 ) . A n edition w i t h notes by Davidson was p u b l i shed by I . f:i ad a s h ( C h o d o s ) i n Ha- Ro/i" Ha-·{vri. 1 0, N o . 2 ( 1 9 3 7 ) , p p . 1 50 - 1 70 : I L :\ 0 . I ( 1 93 8 ) , p p . 1 1 3 - 1 25 ; 1 2 , :\ 0 . I ( 1 939) , p p . 5 2 - 64 . An English s ummary accompanies the texts. R e fe re nces are t o M u n ter's edi t i o n . M u n k , Jleianges de Philosophic Juive et A rabe, p. 494. Quoted b y M alter, " Palquera," p . 1 7 1 n . 36.

34

Raphae/ .Iospe

name 1 1 also led to confusion as to whether Falaquera h ad a son who edited this book. This work i s actually a composite of two works, Bate; Hanhagat Guf-Ha­ Bar; ' and Batei Hanhagat Ha- Ne[esh. although on the basis of Falaquera's reference i n Sefer Ha-Mevaqqesh they are generally regarded as two parts of one larger work. The second part has its own p reface, in which Falaquera refers to the first p art virtually as a separate work. 1 2 In this p reface, Falaquera noted that t h e content of this b o o k is a p arap h r ase in verse of themes already found in his earlier 'Iggeret Ha- Musar. J3 S . Bernstein 1 4 noted that the second part has not only many similar themes, but also many similarities i n l anguage to ludah H a-Levi's poem '' 'I m N afs hek ha Yeqarah Be-'einekha," and concludes that Falaquera's work is, in effect, a commentary o n H a-Lev i 's poem. The work is cited several t i mes by B u xt o rf i n h i s Bihliotheca Rahhinica. l s 2 ) 'Iggeret Ha- Musar (Treatise o n Ethics) . 1 6 A s h as already been noted,

a l t h o ug h t h i s w o r k is l isted in Se/er Ha- Mevaqqesh as Falaquera's second wor k the fact that it is mentio ne d in Batei Hanhagat Ha-Nefesh i ndicates that .

'1ggeret Ha- Musar was Falaquera's firs t wor k , and that Balei Hanhagat Ha­ Nefesh is a poe tic version of the e arlier work. Like Falaquera's l ater and l arger work, the Me vaqq es h for which 'Iggeret Ha- Musar is an early model, it takes the fo r m o f a m aqama. 1 7 a n d rec o u n t s t h e adventu res and discus s i o n s o f a y o u t h w h o w a n d e r s about i n search o f w i s d o m ; it i s replete w i t h Jew i s h and ,

Arab ethical maxims, s ome of which were repeated i n th e Mevaqqesh. I X The book is also mentio ned in Reshit Ifokhmah, p. 58. 3) ?-eri Ha- Yagon ( Balm for Sorrow) . 1 9 Virtually all the references to this

work in Latin characters spell the first word as ?ori or !jori, reflecting the H e b re w vowel lJata/ qama:;. which would o n ly be c orrect fo r the absolute for m 1 1. 1 2. 13.

14. 1 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8.

19.

Balei etc . , p . 3 . Balei etc. , p . 57. Batei etc . , p . 57. Bernstein, "The I nfluence of Yehudah H a-Levi o n the Ethical Poems o f Falaquera" ( Hebrew) , BiHaron, 2 , N o . 1 1 - 1 2 ( 1 94 1 ), pp. 3 - 4 . cr. ZUn7, Thesis, Ch. 1 1 . E d ited by A . M. H aberman (Jerusalem, 1 936). The Preface was also edited by Steinschneider. /sraelilisrhe Letterbode ( 1 878- 1 879), pp. 79 ff. On maqama. combining rhymed prose and p oetry, cf. R . A . Nicholson. Literary Hist(}f l' ol lhe A rahs, p. 3 2 7 ff. The youth is K a l k o l , w h o meets Heiman H a-'EzraJ:! i . Cf. I K i ngs 5: I I and 1 Chronicles 2 : 6 . H aberman discusses Falaquera 's sources, e . g . , Gabirol. l:I u n ayn b. I s J:! a q . al-l:I arizi. Plessner ("Importance of Falaquera," pp. 1 76- 1 80) discusses several of the sources. The b o o k i s n o w available i n a critical edition wit h annotated English translation and a valuable survey of the consolation genre of literature, in R o be rta K lugman Harkan 's thesis " S he m Tob ben Joseph ibn Falaquera's 'Sori Y agon' o r 'Balm for

lo!ah

(md Sophw:

.,hon

.

J5

To v 1/", FO/"l/lIero

o f t h e noun, and not t he. co nstruct state of the noun i n t h i s t i t l e , which i s vocalized with the sheva ' na'. The grammatical considerations are borne out by Ottenso ,ser's vocalizat i o n , in the Hebrew p o e m faci ng the Preface of his ed i t i o n of this w o r k , a n d in t h e text o n p . 1 1 . When ,?eri Ha- Yagon was first pub lished by Rabbi S a u l hen S i m o n ( C re m o na, 1 55 7 ) , he ind icated t hat h e h ad lost the original manuscript and had reprod uced the text fr om memory and added his own comments which constitute two-thirds of the text ,211 The book takes the form of a maqama, i n rhymed prose inters persed \\ith poetry. Falaquera wrote2 1 t h at he had c o m p osed the book to give p leasure to a person suffering fro m sorrow and t o ease his hurden, which is the reason for t h e title " B a l m f o r S orrow, " and he n o ted that the book i s "stre ngt hened " by quotes fro m t h e s ayings o f t h e r ab bis and t h e p h i l ()'iophers. The bo o k "most articulately expresses his belief t h at true faith, philosophic reas o n and mental well-being, together . . . must govern and guide an individual. It is only when man i s s o strengthened by his knowledge of reality and by self-d iscipline t h at he can find consolation from all his troubles. " 22 A . S . H alkin2) maintains t h at ?,eri Ha- Yagon was i nflue nced by Galen's "On Dispelling Worry, " and agrees with Walzer t h at large portions of the book s h o w the i nfluence of Al-Kindi's " Letter o n the A rt of Assuaging Grief. " Roberta Klugman Barkan's study has d ocumented these and other s o u rces, including M aimonides' Fi Tadbir al- ...'>'ilJlJa (Regimen Sanilalisj, i:Iunayn ibn I �l:laq 's 'A dab al- Falasifa (Husarei lIa- Pilosofim), I b n Gabirol's MivlJar Peninim, and even Ben Sira. 4) Megillat Ha-Zikaron (Scroll of Remembrance) , "in which I discuss times past, for at this time hordes of troubles come upon us d aily. " 24 S o me manuscripts also refer to this work as /fesed 'El ( G o d 's K indnes s ) . 25

Assuaging Grief, ' Its Literary Sources and Trad i t i ons" (Columb i a U nivers i ty, 1 97 1 ) . There are fou r earl i er ed i t i ons of the book: ( a) Cremona, 1 55 7 (with notes by R abb i Saul ben Simon); (b) Prague, 1 6 1 2 1 622; (c) H anau, 1 7 1 6; ( d ) F lir th 1 854. with Hebrew notes and J udeo-German translation hy D avid Ottensosser. The ref­ erences are generally to the Barkan o r Flirth ed itions, with some references t o the Cremona edit i on. 20 . Cremona ed . , p . 2b. Also cf. M alter, " P alquera," p . 1 73 n . 42, and M u n k , Melanges, p . 4 9 4 a n d Philosophy and Philosophical A uthors oJ t h e Jews, p . 4 3 . T h i s has l e d some to regard S a u ! h . Simon a s the actual author, e . g . , M u n t er, P reface t o M aimonides' Hanhagat Ha- Beri 'w, p. 1 4 Cf. Barkan, Thesis, pp. !\ !\ - g9. 2 1 . Ch. 1 , p . 1 1 . 22. Cr. B arkan, Thes i s , p . 5. 23. H al k i n , "Ibn Aknin's H ygiene of the Soul," PA A JR, 14 ( 1 944), p . 65 and n . 1 95 . 2 4 . Mevaqqesh, p. 1 2. 25. Levine, Thesis ( Hebrew p . 1 73 , Engl i s h p . 20) . ,

.

36

Raf'/1l"

cl;>:l� �,o,l;>'!:l CW ;'1" � l"lll;'1 ;'IT l;>l"

1" � ;'1 ClI ,onw 'mm .r""l;>JW ;'11 n1" ':l';'1 ml;>lI� ;'1li'W ,� /'\';'1' ,mwl;>:::l 1" /'\ ;'1 Cl' /'\, ' T C'�:lM , , � /'\ n1" ':l';'1 ;'1li'W '!:l l;>l' �/'\ n1" JW;'1 m'l'�;'1 ''

.,'on Th i s notion i s referred t o by them by the term "philosopher, " but i n our language t h i s n o t i o n is referred to by t h e term "lJasid, " wh o i s a person who has acq u i red the ethical and rational virtues. But since an ignorant person lacks the rational virtues , even t h o ugh he has acqu i red the ethical ones, the rabbis of b lessed memory said: A n ignorant person cannot be p i o u s (lJasid}. 3 3 In res p o nse to t hat ha.l'id, who charges t h at p h i l os o phers mix i n w i t h t h e Torah the false words of the heretics, sectarians and Greek philosophers, the lJakham does not claim t h at philosophy is i nfallible, but he rather takes the moderate p o s i t i o n t h at one only takes fro m p h ilosophy what is true and agrees with relig i o n : o ne s h o u l d eat t h e p o megranate and d iscard the peel . l4 One should learn the truth from anyone, even fro m those who deny God, as one would take honey fro m bees. Even the Torah c o ntains a portion of wisd o m fro m a no n-Jew (Jeth r o 's advice t o M o s e s , i n E x o d u s 18). M o reover, the lJakham asserts ( as S a'adia h ad ) 35 t h at what one k n o ws t h rough reas o n is stro nger than w h at one knows t h r o ugh tradition alone. 36 6) Rcshif Jfokhmah ( Beginning of Wisdom) . )) A Latin translation of the 31. 32.

I n Preface to 'lggercf Ha· VikkuaIJ. S irat, Hagut Pi/osu/if, p . 304. The l/uote i s fro m Parma-De Rossi f. 4 a, Leyd e n ms. f. 1 06b.

33. 34.

35. .l A .

37.

Avot 2 : 6 . This i m age is l/uoted several times by Falaquera i n the context of accepting only w h at is true i n p h i l osophy, and is taken fro m BT I:l agigah 1 5 b : Rabbi M e 'ir found a p omegranate; he ate its content and d i scarded its p ee l . 1�'mul1of Ve- De'of, Introduction, # 6 . See 'Iggeref Ha- VikkuaIJ, p p . 1 - 1 3 . H lO::J 0'i�1::J7J 0 71'tJi>l' 'W�J N" .,mi1n::J O'iN'::J7J O:J' '1:)1 , N :J;'l 07111il nlVp:J:J nn!l1J N 1 il miT 07111il npn1iT ':J n�N:J .17:J'il:J N:J'1 Musarei Ha- Pilosojim 2:8 : 7 : iln'I:)' 1lV!ll n1'nil7 il�1'1Il '/,)1 ,11:)N1. Seji'r Ha- TapualJ (trans. Abraham b a r I;I isdai, i n Guren Nakhon (5567= 1 807), p . 2 b 1 . 7:

7:J 17 T:J'1 . , . ;n:1 07111:J 1m1Nn '7::J 111l!ll n'lJ:1l1l 'pliT 1:JiT �1017'!lil O:Jnil 1N1n X7:1 , �1liT 11J iTlJlIllil n1'1!l N1illll 1'11/:)7 nlJlIli1 N 1 il .111l!ll1 1!l1l 1:JN7 1n1N n1N':Jl:)iT n1Nlilil 1'111 n1 I:)W7 l' lIl' 7:JN ,n17j;>li11 n1'1T:Jil n1NmiT 7:J n'lJillll 1 n 1\ o"n:J 17 1111'1' iTlJ ':J .11\11::J7 :J1pn 111l!ll 320. Ma'a/ot, p. 64. 3 2 1 . A . A l t m a n n and S. M. S t e r n , lsaac Israe/i: A Neop /atonic Philosopher of the Early Tenth ('en lun' ( L o n d o n . 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 26. S e e t h e n otes, p p . 2 6 - 3 0 , fo r t h i s view in P l o t i n u s , Porphyry and AI- K i n d i .

3 2 2 . I n Collected DialoKues of P l a t o , cd. H a m i l t o n a n d C a i r n s (New Y o r k , 1 96 1 ).

Torah and Sophia: Shem 1'0\ Ibn Fa/aquera

141

p h i l o s o pher frees his s o u l fro m association with the body, so far as is possible. ( Ph aed o 65a) S u rely the soul can best reflect when i t i s free of all distractions, such as hearing or sight or p ai n o r pleasure of any kind that i s , when i t igno res the b o d y and b e c o m e s as far as possibl e independent, avo id ing all p hysical contacts and associ ations, as much as it can, in its search fo r reality . . . In despising the body and avoiding i t , and endeavoring to become independent - the p h i l o s o p her's soul i s ahead of all the rest. ( P haed o 65c) If n o p u re k n o wledge i s possible i n the c o m p any of t h e body, then either it is totally i m possible to acquire knowledge, o r i t is only possible after death. ( Ph aedo 66e) I f a t i t s release t h e s o u l is p u r e a n d carries w i t h i t n o contamination of the b o d y , because i t h as never willingly associated with i t i n l i fe . . . if it has pursued philosophy i n the right way . . . this is what practicing d e at h means. ( Ph aedo 80e) Although, as we h ave seen, Falaquera certainly accepted the Aristotelian d octrine of the golden mean (Nicomachean Eth ics 1 I : 6) i n h i s Shelemut Ha­ Ma'asim, Chapter I , and other works,32 3 M alterJ24 and LevineJ25 overstate Falaquera's o p position to asceticism . I n fact, Falaquera's attitude toward asceticism i s far m o re favorable than are the attitudes, for example, of S a'adia,3 2b H a-Levi3 27 and M ai monides.m F o r instance, d iscussi ng the mean of the appetitive soul, Falaquera says: 329 l" :i ;'l '!l::> K'N C"J!lU;'l C'lmmm.) W1Ul C 1 K ;'l n1';'l ;'l1 Nn7.);'l nW:i7.)K' . ;'l!lY ':J1Y:J K'pJ;' K';"

The mean of the appetitive ( s ou l ) i s t h at a man should aband o n b o d i l y pleasures, except for what i s necessary: this is called 'iffah i n Arabic. JJ() 3 2 3 . lfa'a/ol, pp. 5, 76; Resh it /jokhmah, p p . 1 0, 1 3 - 1 5; '/ggeret Ha- Musar, p p . 36, 4 1 -43; .'Ilevaqqesh, p . 43 (Seeker, p. 60) ; She/emut Ha- Ma'asim, Ch. 4. p. 8 .

324. M alter, "Paiquera," p. 1 60. 325. Levine, Thesis, p . xii. 326. Cr. Emuno! Ve-De'ot X . 3 2 7 . Cr. Kuzari 2 : 50, 3 : 1 , 3 : 3 - 5 , 3 : 1 5 - 1 7 . 328. Cr. Shemonah Peraqim, Ch. 4; Mishneh Turah, H ilkhot De'ot 3 : I . 329. '!io,eret Ha- /ja /om, p . 484. 330. Ihe term means abstinence. continence, chastity. virtue, purity, modesty. M alter ( 'Iggerel Ha- /fa/om, p . 484 n . 88) discusses the H e b rew equivalents 'anavah, h istappequt, and zehirut, which he translates as temperance . CL /fayy b in Yaq:;an

# 1 02- 1 03 , where Asal and l:I ayy take only m i n imal sustenance, in order t o concentrate o n intellectual perfection .

1 42

Raphael Juspe

I n other words, for Falaquera, the mean (which he does affirm) is n o t so much a balance between an excess and lack of p leasure as the b are minimum of pleas u re necessary t o maintai n bodily existence. This attitude is borne out by many statements, t hroughout Falaquera's works. Thus Heiman advises Kal k o P 3 1 that he should not entirel y shun pleasures. To shun pleasure for the sake of wisdo m and the w o rld to come is good, but to shun i t t o accumulate riches ( l i ke a miser) i s n o t g o o d . Elsewhere,m Falaquera d r aws the analogy of the human body to a boat, and the soul t o its captai n , w i t h t h e final port of destination being the world to come. The welfare of the body (shelom ha-guf) is i m p o rtant only for the welfare of the soul, and consists of e ach faculty performing its functi o n s i n the mean, as guided by the commandments (mi;;vo t). which p revent a n e xcess o f the appetites. But one who refrains entirely from such appetites as sexual intercourse is called holy (qadosh). since intercourse is a quality of pigs.m ( M ore o n this belo w . ) Falaquera accordingly glorifies asceticism a n d martyrd om. For the s a k e of one's spiritual form, one should not worry about one's physical form. 334 The world belongs to one who abandons it and seeks the world t o come. Like food in the stomach, the sweeter the appetite is in l ife, the more putrid it is in death. One should not be dependent o n others. 335 If one does not need another, one is like him; if one need s him, one is his prisoner. One who chooses to be like a prophet or �asid will be satisfied with bare necessities, for in physical p l e asures, man is exceeded by animal s. J36 The greatest glory is to walk i n G o d 's ways, by despising p h ysical pleasures. m The philosopher's closing words of advice t o the Seeker33R are that the things of this world should be unimportant and despised in his eye s , in compari s o n t o his ultimate purpose of apprehendi ng God and attaining conj unction (devequt). In this respect, the body is one's enemy; 339 3 3 1 . 'Iggeret Ha-Musar, p . 28. 3 3 2 . '!ggeret Ha- l!alom, p p . 4 7 1 -473. 3 3 3 . Cf. the I ntroductory poem to Se/er Ha-Mevaqqesh ( p . 6; Levine, Seeker, p . 95) and De'ot Ha-Pilosojzm. ms. Parma f. I a, m s . Leyden f. I 04a: 71lV�;' �'�lV N,;n . . . . 1W�n7 ;'T 7:>:J ;'1lV N';'1 / m�;':J iNlV7 in:J ;'�11 N7;' / 1i'Tn:l 334. Ma'alot. p. 5 1 . The passage is a quote fro m Ibn B ajj a, Tadbir al-Mutawal)/)id, C h . 5 ( Berman t rans. , in Lerner and M ahdi, p. 1 30), H ebrew e d . , H erzog, p . 1 4: lVlll;' '7111:J 1�OiN CillO C'lVlN:> ,n'ln'i;' ,m1l T1li mlV:.I':> n'OlV1i1 1ni'l 1:JN'lV ,� plY;' ;,n .Cmll' C ;" :J'1NlV 07lN n�Nn;, ilVN:> Cnl'1m C�lY 1llilV , ;'�TO;' ':Ji1 '711l1 o"n;, 7Y m�;, m'n:J1 . o " n ;, T� :J'� im' O;':J m�i1 ilVN C'l'lY;' nli'� Nm �ill:J . ilV' 'lV1lN 7Yll 335. 336. 337. 338. 339.

Cf. Mevaqqesh. p. 2 5 . Cf. Musarei Ha- Pi/osofim 1 : 5 a n d 2 :2 1 . She/emut Ha-Ma'asim, Ch. 7 , p p . 1 4- 1 7 . 'lggeret Ha-l!alom, p p . 4 82-483 . Mevaqqesh, p. 1 04. Batei Hanhagat Ha- Ne/esh. p . 60.

Torah

IInd

Sophia: Sht'm To\'

Ihn

Fa/(1pe

I X . ON C R EATION A N D P R O O F S O F GOD Falaquera s h arply d i s agreed with M ai m o n i d e s ' method of p r o v i n g t h e existence of G o d ( i n t h e Guide of the Perp lexed 2 : 1 ) . M ai m o nides began (in

Guide 2 : Introduction)

by

listing

twenty-five

principles

of

p h ys ic s

and

metaphysics which he claimed had been conclusively demonstrated by Aristotle. To these twenty-five he then added a twenty-sixth principle, that motion (and thus the world) is eternal, which he accepted hypothetically, i n o r d e r t o prove t o t h e perplexed p h i l o s o pher i n h i s own terms ( i . e . , the Aristotelian view of an eternal u n iverse) the existence, incorp oreality a n d u n i t y of God.

First of all, Falaquera notes420 that M aimonides' proofs d o not req uire all of the twenty-six principles, some of which Aristotle did n o t m e n t i o n . But more i m p o rtant, if the p remise ( o f eternity, p r i nciple #26) i s fals e , h o w can i t lead to the truth? 4 2 1 Although I b n Rushd422 agreed w i t h M a i m o n i d e s ' method of p r o v i ng God o n the basis o f

the eternity

o f m o t i o n , F a l a q u e r a rej ects i t : 423

, p!:l ' C � N'i11lJ ,:J,:J i1Tj 7" ) .,:J1 ' N :JI1� TN '::l '�'7 1lJ� �::l �lN '�1N' i1'i111 TN li1'I1�N 7l'N 11!:l'�i1 li1�'Pi1 O N 'j ,'I1�N 'l'N O N p1lJ 7::l1 .7"T mm� ;"n C7Yl l't71lJ P!)C T'l't1 " " m'n�l't Ti1� ;'17111i1 •

I s ay t h at one must questi o n how s o mething great like this can be e x p l a i n e d o n the basis of s o m e t h i n g d u b i o u s , l e t a l o n e if that thing

not true, for if the premises of a proof are not true, how can its conclusion be true? . . There is no doubt that our teacher ( M ai m o nides) was aware of this.

is

The fact t hat l b n R u s h d agreed with M ai m o n i d e s ' met h o d , and s ai d t h at l b n S i n a h ad b e e n t h e first to e m p l o y s u c h a n approach ,424 d i d n o t deter Falaquera

fro m regarding t h at app r o ach as incompatible with religion as well as logically deficient, even t h o ugh he did not regard h i mself as their equal in philosophy: 4 2 5 i1l,jJ '111 ' N'i1 C'N��li1� i1 n ' i' 7i1 1" i1 'j 'I1Y1 '�'i' '!) 7 '7 i1 N,m,

420. Moreh Ha-Moreh 2 : 1 , p p . 74� 7 5 . 42 1 . Mureh Ha- Moreh 1 :7 1 , p. 43. 422. CL Tahafut al- Tahafut, Fourth Discussi o n , especially p . 284 (Van den Bergh ed . , p. 1 68): "It is the e x istence o f i nfin ite effects which demands t h e necessity of an external cause fro m which t h e i nfi nite c auses acquire their existe nce . . . . The existe nce of infinite temporal existents renders the e xistence of a s i ngle eternal first principle necessary, and there is no God but He. " And cf. the Te n t h Discussion, p p .

4 1 4�423 ( V a n d e n Bergh ed . , p p . 250� 255). 423. Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 :7 1 , p. 43. 424. CL Tahaful al- TahafUl, Te n t h Discussion, p p . 4 1 9�420 ( V a n d e n Bergh ed . , p . 253). 425. Moreh Ha-Moreh 2: 1 , p p . 76�77.

Torah and Sophia: Shem To v

157

IIm Fa{aquera

1" il ilT ' :i ,'mlJ O?'l7ilW , 7J,?, ill7,mil m n:,n? il::J 1'�:lJ N?W 'J!l7J " N' il 7J , il J ' 7J N il " n c' N?W 'n7J N ,nN 1"

N :l 7J J ON' . il J' 7J N il 'lJ:::l .,::J ,n::JJW

I n m y ignorance, i t seems t o me t h at the method b ased o n existents i s more c orrect, because we d o n o t req u i re for i t t h e eternity of m o t i o n or to say that t h e world is eternal, for t h i s method c ontradicts re ligi o n . B u t i f we fin d a d ifferent, true meth o d , which does not contrad ict religi o n , w e s h o u l d choose i t . M ai m o nides was aware of this problem ( as Falaquera s t ated above) . Therefore, his third proof of G o d is not b ased o n m o t i o n b u t on existence. This third proof is therefore indubitable, according t o Falaq uera. But one can o bject (and Falaquera d oes o bject) t o the other p r oofs which are b ased o n motion. The best way t o prove t h e existence of G o d , according t o Falaquera, i s b y G o d 's creative acti o n s i n the w o r l d , w h i c h are the created existing things : 42 6 '!l?' . O'N'::JJ::J Oil 'WN ,'Wl77J ,:l7J N ' il 'n' N" ::Jil mN':l7J ?l7 il'N'il

? l7 m'N':l7J l7" 'il' 1J7J7J :!' V', , m N O' N il l'W' OnlWi11 O il :! nm,:!nil onl7'" T'7Jili11 .n'n7JN i1J' 7J N ,:! 1'7JN7J' n'n7JN ill7'" ,l7,,' N'il 1" il ill . O:!?:! N? O il'!l:! Om' 7JN' il'im:!

The proof for the existence of t h e Creator is fro m the perspective of H i s act i o n s which are the created t h i ngs . B y studying and apprehending them, a person a p p rehends H i m and approaches H i m . One who k n o ws H i s existence i n this method k nows H i m with a true k n o w ledge and believes i n H i m with a true b e lief. As for t h e m a s s e s , their knowledge is accidental, and their belief i s i n their mouth a n d n o t i n t h e i r heart.427 A l t h o ug h

Falaquera thus d i s agreed strongly with t h e method o logy o f

M aimonides in the Guide of the Perplexed 2: I , he strongly agreed with M ai m o n i d e s ' statement i n 2 : 1 5 t h a t Aristotle did not c l a i m t o have p r oved c o n c l us ively the eternity of the world, and t h at t h e q u e s t i o n of creati o n o r e t e r n i t y c a n n o t i n fact b e p roved one w ay o r the o t h e r : "Everyth i ng t h at h e said i n this chapter i s true, and m u s t b e b e lieved b y any p h i l o s o p h e r (�lOkham) w h o bel ieves i n t h e Torah. " 428 B u t , Falaquera continues, o ne must not s i m p l y rely on Aristotle and his followers, even though their p r oofs of eternity are l ogical and s o u n d . Aristotle h i mself said, at the e n d of the Physics, "would t h at I k n e w " if t h e first m o t i o n was c reated or eternal, and , Falaquera notes, as I b n

426. Ma'alo t, p. 34. 427. They say they believe it, but they fai l t o comprehend i t in t h e i r heart. Cr. Guide I : 50, where M aimonides asserts that one who maintains essential attributes says that God is one but in fact believes i n p l u rality. 428. Moreh Ha- Moreh 2: I S , p. 99.

R aphaei Jospe

158

B ajj a s h o wed , that that e x p ression is o n l y used when one d oes not h ave actual k n o w ledge o f the truth.429 Falaquera insisted that M aimonides h imself believed in creat i o n , and maintains i n h i s Letter Concerniny; the Guide (Mikh tav 'at Devar Ha- Moreh) that M ai monides defends the d octrine of creat i o n i n the Guide. and that this was one o f h i s p u r p o ses i n writing the book. B u t he goes further. As we h ave seen in the discussion of Falaquera's p ri n c i p le s of Judaism, n o t only is creat i o n a fundamental principle ('iqqar) of ludaism according to Falaquera, but, he says, it is one of M aimonides' thirteen principles: 430 :ll'1 :l1ZJ O'ii':lI )"'/) i m � !\ 1 ;' 1 1Jm1/) !\ ii':lI1ZJ COi1 !:)/)' :lI,,' ;'T:J �1ZJ/);'

i/)N'1 �'nrl' 1\7 rI!lm ,:J NJ:1J' N� ON' , o�um 1ZJ" n:J T'/)NJlZJ /)"i;'l . C"rI/)N C'i:J' Cl'N1ZJ

An example of t h i s i s well-known and fam o u s , t h at a principle o f o u r fai t h w h i c h is o n e o f t h e t h i rteen principles which R a b b i M oses wrote is t h at w e s h o u l d believe i n t h e creat i o n of t h e w o r l d . E v e n if a proof cannot b e found for i t , o n e s h o ul d n o t say t h at t hese are n o t t rue matters. A s w as suggested above,43 1 Falaquera's testimony p re s u m ably strengthens the case o f the authenticity of the marginal note, i n M aimonides ' o w n hand according t o Y o s e f QafiJ:! , t h at M aimonides added t o the fourth of his t h i rteen p rinciples: K n o w that a great fou n d at i o n of the T o r a h o f Moses i s that the world i s c re ated . G o d formed a n d created it after absolut e privation (ba'da 'l-'adam). I t would seem, h o weve r , t hat Falaquera himself affirmed, and interpreted M ai m o nides as teaching, the P l atonic view of creat i o n , and not creat i o n ex n ihilo.

I n Moreh Ha-Moreh,432 i n t h e context o f a d iscussion of the possible and i m p ossible, Falaquera refers t o creation ex n ihilo: .mm;, " 1I:J MlI' m .1'N7;) 1ZJ' M!\:;:';, !\,;" ,lIN':J!\ ':Jill:J NiPJ i111

This is called 'ibda' i n Arabic, and means generating s o mething fro m nothing; this i s the religious view p o i n t . I t s h o u ld be e m p h as ized that he e q u ates cre a t i o n ex nihi/o h e re not with the viewpoint of the Torah, b u t with t h e viewpoint of "the religious" (ba'alei ha429. Moreh /fa- Moreh 2 : 1 5, p. l OO. 430. Moreh /fa- Moreh, "Be'u r N ifla'," Ch. 32, p. 1 68. 43 1 . Sec ahove. r 1 04. 4J2. Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 1 5 , p. 1 24 .

Torah and So"itia: Sitem TOI

fhll

Fa/ai/Ill'/"(]

1 59

da ta l}, w h o are d e s c r i bed in the s a m e d i s c u s s i o n as affi r m i ng t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h i ng s p h i l o s o p h e r s regard as i m p os s i b l e , s u c h as t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s q u a r e , t h e

w h i c h is eyual to o n e o f its sides. we have s e e n , two of Falaquera's lists o f principles o f ludaism refe r to c rea t i o n . I n o n e case , 4 1 ] t h e t h i rd p r i nci p l e is creation ex nih ilo (ve-him;;i ' k o l ha-nivra 'ifll me- 'ayin), but t h i s seemingly u n a m b ig u o u s and u n e q u i v oc a l d i ag o n al o f As

s t a t e m e n t i s p u t i n t h e m o u t h o f a n u n l earned b e l i e v e r

(ma 'a m in ba-tvrah) w h o

by the t h i r d o p in i o n i s " H is causing the existence o f o t h e r b e i ngs fro m p rivat i o n " (ve-ham?a 'ato /i-she 'a r ha-nim?a ';m me-ha-he­ 'eder), p h r a s i n g which is somewhat more v ague and ambiguous, in its reference t o n o n-be i ng o r p r i v at i o n (he'eder), rather t h a n t o "nothing" ('ay in). F a l a q u e r a 's u s age o f me-ha-he'eder i n t h i s p a s s age , h o w e v e r broad l y w e i s u n able t o s u p p o rt h i s v i e w s , a n d w h o s e views are n o t ultimately accepted

t he S e e k e r . I n t h e o t h e r c a s e , 4 3 4

atte m p t t o i n t e r p re t i t , is s o m e w h a t s t r a n ge i n l i g h t o f F a l a q u e r a 's o bj e c t io n t o

\1 a i m o n i de s ' use

of the terms

i n the

G u ide of the Perplexed 2: 1 3 : 435

K?K , " Yilil� K��Jil K '��;'1 'n' K,':l;'1V ,�'? 1" � ,J? T'K ':J '? ;'1 K'J:-r1

P 'Y' . 'Jm' � � 'D' " V D �

;"IT ':J , " � " il i'Yilil inK 'K'��il C � ':J

�'�'il l'Xil inx �'x ,ni" i" ' � ill'� T'K� V' X'�'il 'n' � ' il ':J c" m � il lV�l ''' T ')" 101 .mX'� � il X � � l i:J1il il ' il X ' V , n x ' �'?::l ,V'il '�l\ 'V'?V;'1 i'?n il � ' :J P'D:J '::l '? il�')il1 . ,:J,:J T"Y �?' Cil',nl\ ,"" "';'1;'1 ' n � i:::l ' ?:J? ?"" !lil" It

seems

to

me t h at we h ave no need to say t h at the Creator caused privation (me-ha-he'eder), but

t h e e x i s t e nce o f e x i s t i ng t h i ngs fro m

r a t h e r t h at H e m ad e t h e m e x i s t aft e r a b s o l u t e p r i v a t i o n (a!;ar ha-hc'eder ha-gamur), for t h i s is p o s s ib l e acc o rd i ng t o o u r faith . T h e refo re t h o s e w h o s ay t h at

He

g e n e r ated

being fro m nothing

(me- 'ayin) are not precise, but rather he produced being after n o t h i n g (a�/ar ha- 'ayin), namely after something did not exist. Our teacher fo llowed them and d i d not consider the matter (carefully) . I t s e e m s t o me t h at i n C h a p t e r 20 of the t h i rd part ( o f the Guide of

4 3 3 . l\4evaqqesh, p. 6 5 . In /vJevaqqesh. p. 30, the craftsman (f;arash) also refers to ex n ihilo. In contrast with human craftsmen whose creativity i s conditional on

material, p lacc, t i me and motion, "God does not need anything because He produces fro m nothing" ('e ino m i;;!arekh /e-davar k i h u mo:;i ' yesh me- 'ayin). Besides thc fact t h at the discussion here is n on-theoretical (the craftsman is res p o n d i ng to the Seeker's question), i t seems the p o i n t here is less t he nature of creati o n t h a n emphasis on God's freed o m from external constraints and conditions on H is creativity. 434. 'lggeret Ha- fla /om, p. 489. 435. Cr. Morl'h Ha- Moreh 2 : 1 3 , p p . 9 7 - 9 1l . M aimonides ( M u n k e d . , p. 1 99 line 8) has min 'adam, which I b n Tibbon also renders me-ha-he'eder.

1 (10

Ra{,hlll'i 1()spe

the Perp lexed), he said, "Who causes (po'et) everything after privation (alJar ha-he'eder). 436

We s hould also n ote that M ai m o nides employs the m o re p recise term that Falaquera p refers (ha'da 'l- 'adam) in Guide 2: 1 3 ,437 and also in the additional note, q uoted above, to the fourth of the thirteen p rinciples. It seems t o me t h at Falaquera's terminological p refe rence (despite h i s own terminological inconsistency) reflects a P l atonic view of creation, a view which Falaquera evidently regarded as more compatible with the p hrase "afte r p rivation " than "fr o m p rivatio n , " s i n c e e v e n i n n o r m al disc ourse we would p resu mably say that something a person makes exists after not existing, while we generally would deny that humans have the ability t o create fro m nothing. Falaquera's tendency toward a P l at onic view of creation, which he equates with t h at of the Torah, fin d s expression in Moreh Ha- Mo reh 2: 1 3 . Falaquera first s uggests (p. 95) that M aimonides was mistaken i n attributing to Plato the view that the world is generated and will be corrupted, O ' rJ W il W P U 7 0 1( m" ' j 0',00] 1(7' O " il, " Fo r Plat o 's o p i n i o n is t h at the sky is generated but is not corrupted . " H e then s ays (p. 96) : ill11 l( 7�P '7'1( , ;'W" P ;' , m , m IW'7 ;,t.m T'U' O l't 1"1Y' ':> '7 ill't'l:1' l't'il ':> /':!ll't m 7Y :1'l't,;" ,'00;' m 1"17n1"1:::J 'm:>T1V '1.):> ,7l't'1V' '1.):>n1.) T':lil7 '1V O l't ':l " , 0 ;' 7l't " O il " :lIilrJ �1V1V:l m;'1"1il O" :lIil 'j ,rJl( '7':l';' 1:l , n l(' ,e 1(7:l' 7�" �rJ 7:lil il';' il7n1"1� ':l , O'P'OO:1 uWOrJ 7:l1 ;']'l't 1"1 l't T PU'OI( 1"1:l1, ':l :lI,," " O il 7 1( " Tn, '7l'trJ '7l't O" �'il '1.)l't P 7:l1' ? '�:lI1V ;'1.)� l't7' " 1"1:l17 ' n:!ll '1"11 ' :1 C:lIU :11.) '::l , ;" 'j'n:1 1" T'U70l't 1"1:l1'1V 'lOrJ ':l '7 :1l't'l;" . ':lI�U ,l't1"1 '1"11 l't '1(1"1 l't7 ':> ' U O , l't , m , m 1"1 :l1 , ':l C" 1.), l't :1 " 1.)1(' , ' n ::' l I('il 1 :l ,nl't' ,1V" nrJ C7':lI:11V .;'U:lI C'l't'�m ',oOrJ C':l, mrJ'prJ:l ,:lTl " 1"1:l1' " 1.)1"1 ,m'il 'j , 1"1 n l't m:ll " "

•

•

•

It seems to me that Plato 's opinion tends toward the opinion of ollr sacred Torah; perhaps he received his view fro m the sages of I s rae l , as we mentioned at the beginning of t h is b o o k . P r o o f of this fo r me i s t h at he said that the world came into being when it ch anged to being orderly after there h ad not been order. One can understand the literal meaning of the verses (of G e nesis as mean i ng) that at fi rst everything was chaotic and without o rder, 436. GlIide 3 : 20 ( M u n k ed . , p. 348 l i nes 26-37): C'Y7N 'Y:l N:1N'O I(IJ ?::l ;;7:l1NO?N ':1 'X.

I b n T i b b o n h a s : 1'1I :1 :1 1nN :1n7'T 1lZlN ?, n7Y, O X':1 ' X . 4 3 7 . M u n k ed . , p . 1 96 l i n e 6: p?tm?N ' yn IJ 'N C'lI'N 'Y:l. Falaquera's version: ,nN �'m/'):1 1m):1 '111:1:1; Ibn T i b h o n 's ve r s i o n : " IJl :1 1'lI:1:1 1 n K . W o lfso n , The Philoso"hy or t h e Kalam ( C a m h ridge, M a s s . , 1 976, p. 372), obviates t h e problem b y c y u a t i n g "after" with "fro m " o n t he b a s i s of A ristotle ( Metaphysics V , 24, 1 02 3 a b ) , T h o m as A q u i n as ( Summa The% gica 1 , 4 5 , 1 ) , and C rescas ( Or A donai

I l l , 1 , 5 , p . 69a), b u t d oes n o t deal w i t h Falaquera's o bjecti o n s .

iorah "lid S"phi,,: ShulI TrH Ebn fiIiaqll 'Ji::lJi:)1l) il � �1il1 1bO'� ::IJi:> 1il1�:> 1 � ilm ::I1ip )'JY illil' ,li1::11bil ml;>��i11 1;>:>1])il ::Iill\1 Ji'ill;>l\ il::lill\ 'li' i11 7 � il ::Jill\1]) ,� : W' l 1Ji1lil 11'l\il ill'1l\ : O" ll\�'!l o:>nil ' � l\

,

•

•

t::1 n'l1])il'

'

l'1 ' il,7Nil ' il'::J:>

il)':>1])il 0 ;,7 ilN'li O l\ 0'::1' o'nl Oil� m n'7 71:>'il illiN1]) i�'l\ o"n . C il::l Ji�lVlV A r i s t o t l e r e c o r d e d a n o t i o n s i m i l ar o r i d e n t i ca l t o t h i s , a nd t h i s i s

Chapter 5 1 : Whoever loves God with a love, a n d loves the i n t e lle c t and good qualities, God h o nors and has p rovidence over . , . The s age Pythagoras said : Y o u

w h at I w r o t e above in d i v i ne him

a r e t h e L o rd w h o gives l i fe . I s a y t h a t y o u c a n d efe r fro m t h e m m a n y affl ic t i o n s , if y o u s h o w t h e m t h e p resence which y o u p l ac e d

among them, 4 7 0 the passage to which Falaquera refers, 4 7 1 he states that M aimonides' view t h at n o t h i n g can happen t o a person as long as he is protected by providence w h i le he i s t h i n k i n g of God i s s i m i l a r t o w h at A ris t o t l e wrote, that whoever In

s e rv e s j us t i c e a n d G o d , and l o v e s G o d i n h i s i n t e l lect and does g o o d d ee d s , i s

by G o d . F a l aq ue r a ad d s t h a t follows God i s not punished but only rewarded, and that p u n ishment only applies to the other faculties of the s o u l , s uch as the appetites, which sin. Falaquera fu rther adds that I b n Gabirol, at t h e c n d o f the Fans Vitae, 472 s a ys that a person who thinks of God is p r o te c t e d a n d

w a t c hed

over p r o v i d e n t i al l y

acc o r d i n g t o A l- F a r a b i , t h e i n t e l lect w h i c h

protected : t h e s e n s i b l e s , and become immersed in the and become dependent on the one who gives goodness, because when you d o this, He will watch over you and benefit y o u .

Leave

behind

i n t ell i g i b l e s ,

Although

Falaquera

thus

p l aces

A rist o t le

in

the

p os i t i o n

of affirming

470. The q u o t e of P y t h agoras i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h a p a s s age at t h e e n d o f She/emut Ha­ Ma'asim, C h . 1 0, p. 2 1 , w h i c h , i n t u r n , i s t h e s a m e as Musarei Ha- Pilosofim 2 : 7: 2 1 ( p . J4). 47 1 . l'vloreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 5 1 , p. 1 35 . 4 7 2 . Jleqor 1ja vyim, part V, e n d ; Liqqu{im 5 : 74. Falaquera e m p loys slightly d i fferent termi n o logy i n the l.iqqu{im, i n which he uses the t e r m .I heqa', and Moreh Ha­ ,trorl'lI, in w h i c h h e u s e s t h e t e r m 'ameq, w h i c h h ave b e e n t ra n s l ated h e re as "become i m m e rsed . "

To/uh und S"pllia: Shem

Tov 11)11

riila'l"era

1 67

providence alo n g with A l -Farabi and I b n Gabirol, it i s not c l e ar to w h i c h p as s age i n A ristotl e 's works he i s referring, n o r is i t clear w h at i s t he b asis for his statemen t on Aristotle i n the previous passage. Falaquera does, on t he other hand, e x p l icitly refer to " B o o k l. am b d a " (ma 'a mar ha- lamed), i . e " B o o k X I I of Aristotle's A1etaphysics, in which Aristotle maintains that G o d 's k n owledge or t hought is of H i mself. and not o f anyt hing l e s s perfect and t r a n s i e n t . 4 7 1 Here, a s well as e lsewhere,474 Falaq uera recognizes that Aristotle cannot be described as maintain i n g a theory of providence, certainly not p rovide nce of individuals. S i r David R o s s writes: 475 Aristotle h as n o theory either of divine creat i o n or of d ivine providence . . . When Aristotle considers the n at u re of G o d , he fee l s t h at the ascription t o Him of any p ractical interest i n the world would detract fro m H is perfecti o n . . . Alexander ascribed to Aristotle a b e lief i n providential activity, s o far as the maintenance of species is concerned. This i n terpretat i o n is b ased o n a passage ( D e G e n . et Corr. 3 3 6 b 3 1 ) i n which Aristotle s ays that for those beings which, b y reason of their d i stance from the first principle. are i ncapable of permanent e x i stence . . . G o d has provided w h at is next best b y arranging for the c o n t i n u ance of generat i o n . . . B u t i t is r e m a r k a b l e h o w little t r ace t here is of t h i s w a y of t h i n k i ng, i f we d iscount passages where Aristotle i s probably acc o m m od at i ng himself to c o m m o n o p i n i o n s ; he never uses the word 'providence' of God as S ocrates and Plato had d o n e . M ai m o nides clearly understood Aristotle as did A l e x ander, and p resents this view of Aristotle in Guide 3: 1 7 , i n h i s discussion of five views on providence. Falaquera q u otes both Ibn S i n a and Abraham ibn Ezra as maintaining an Aristotelian positi o n o n p rovidenceYh But whereas Ibn Sina maintai ned here t h at G o d k nows only the genera and not changing i n d ividuals, Ibn Ezra m o di fies t h at position s o mewhat. 477 Falaquera refers t o I b n Ezra's co mme ntary on G e n e s i s 1 8 : 2 1 , w h e re I b n E z r a w r i t e s : v I m 7 ' Y " 7 , :-t W ni') � :-t " p7n 1" 7 Y � 7 ' 7 ' 1" 7 y. " For the truth is that the All knows each particular in a general manner, and not i n a particular man ner. " (This i s t h e t e x t i n rabb i n ic e d i t i o n s o f the B i b l e . Falaquera quotes it slightly d i fferently, that G o d k n o w s e a c h particular, etc . ) 47R 473. Moreh Ha- Mo reh 3 : 1 6 , p . 474. Moreh Ha- Moreh, p. 1 47. 475 . Sir David Ross, Aris t o t le, 476. Moreh Ha- Moreh 3: 1 6, p.

1 25 .

ljuoted above. (:'iew York, 1 964), p p . 1 84- 1 86. 1 25 .

477. On t h e other hand , in Moreh Ha- Moreh 3: 1 9, p. 1 3 1 . Falaljuera quote, I b n S ina as maintaining that the necessary existent knows particulars i n their universal aspect. 478. In Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 5 1 , p . 1 34, Falaquera quotes Ibn Ezra o n Numbers 20: 11 , that when the particular knows the A l l , it beco mes conj o i ned (da veq) with it.

1 68

Raphae/ Jospe

The app arent co ntradictio n between the view that God thinks only H i mself and the view that God knows anything external to Him (whether that be s pecies o r i n d ividuals) is resolved, at least t o Falaquera's satisfacti o n , by Ibn Rushd, w h o m he q uotes o n the following p ages479 as saying that only the intelligent can understand that the first p rinciple thinks only itself (ha-rishon 10 ' yaskil 'e la ' 'a�m o), and t h at it is ignorant of created things, i . e . , t h at it does not k n o w them as we do. But the fi rst thereby knows itself as the cause of existing things. And thus God does not think them as we d o but in a unique manner, so that His knowledge cannot be described as either general o r particular. But this d octrine i s not fo r the u n intelligent o r ignorant, who s h o u ld rely o n the literal teachings of religion (pesha( ha-dat). This d octrine should not be written down fo r all to read , and should not be p art of religious education (limmud tori). M ai m o n ides also maintained that G o d 's knowledge is absolutely u n i q ue , so t h at the term "knowledge " i s applied e q u ivocally to God and humans ,48o and t h at the b asic difference between divine and h u m a n k n owledge is that human knowledge follows fro m created reality, whereas i n God 's case, the created reality follows fro m His knowing it.48 \ This i s also the view of I b n Ru sh d as quoted by Falaquera elsewhere.482 But whereas Falaquera previously483 quoted I b n S i n a as denying G o d 's k n owledge of p articulars, he quotes him here as affirming that the necessary e xistent knows p articul ars in their universal aspect ( as s imilarly s uggested by Ibn Rushd and M aimonides). 484 Accordingly, Falaquera questions how one can assert of the Peripatetics (kat ha-holekh im) that they deny G o d 's k n owledge of p articul ars, since they accept true d reams as indicative of fut u re p articulars, which Falaquera regards ,as evidence of particular providence: N�rJlil 7:J::J 'n' i117Nil n MllVil 'rJ'7:J , P'£lPt' N7' il::J P£lO '7�N 1'N 'l::JrJ O'::J, ,::J " iln'lV i'lrJ , 0'7nil 1'lll '7�N iln1N n rJ N , 0'U'£l:J' 0'77:J::J ,::J:J, . 0'U'£l::J ilnllVilil ':J P£lO ',::J il" rJ , 0'U'£lil O il'l'lll ,1I O 'N . o " n il mlN ilrJlV 'nN'p n'lN plllil ilT::J 'm::Jn I h ave no doubt n o r misgiving o n this, namely God 's p rovide nce over everything that exists, over genera and individuals. This is verified for me by the notion of a dream, i n which many people are 479. Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 1 6,

pp.

1 26- 1 27 .

Cf.

Tahafut al- Tahafut,

Thirteenth

Discu s s io n . Only some of t h e p as s age d irectly corresponds to t h i s source, e . g . ,

Moreh Ha- Moreh,

p.

(Van d e n Bergh e d . , p .

480. Guide 3 : 20

and

1 27 l i n e 3 , corre s p o n d s to Tahafut al- Tahafut, p . 463 28 1 ) . Cf. p p . 346-347 (Van d e n Bergh ed . , p. 208) .

Eight Chapters,

48 1 . Guide 3 : 2 1 . 482. Moreh Ha- Moren, 3 : 1 9 , p . 1 3 1 . 460 ( V a n d e n Bergh ed . , p . 279) . 483 . Moreh Ha-Moreh 3 : 1 6, p. 1 25 . 484. Moreh Ha-Moreh 3 : 1 9, p . 1 3 1 .

Ch.

8.

Cf.

Tahafut al- Tahafut,

line

9

Thirtee n t h D i s c u s s i o n , p .

Torah

"lid

SU{ihw.· :'ih,'1/1 To, 1/;11 l illiiljllCra

] t19

w a r n e d of t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r affa i r s : t h i s i n d i c a t e s , w i t h o u t d o u b t . t h at p r ov i d e n c e ( p e r t a i n s ) t o i n d i v i d u a l s . I h av e a l r e a d y c o m p o s e d o n t h i s s u bj e c t a t re at i s e w h i c h I c a l l e d " T h e T r e a t i s e o f t h e D re a m . " 4 8 5 I n o t h e r w o rd s . t h e p he n o me n o n ,,[ t r u e d re a m s i n d i c a t i ng fu t u re e v e n t s ( w h i c h

\1 a i m o n id e s regard e d a s a k i n t o p r o p h e c y ) , a p h e n o m e n o n acce p te d i n Greek as w e l l a s J e w i s h c u l t u re , p r oves t h at e v e n A r i s t o te l i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s acce p t e d t h e p r i n c i p le of G o d 's k n o w le d ge o f p a r t i c u l a r s and i n d ividual provide nce .

Falaquera thus agrees with Maimo nides' view that p rovide nce applies t o s p e c i e s a n d t o h u m an individuals. p r o p o r t i o nal t o t h e i r i n t e l le c t u a l attainment. 4�1> And in onc o f his l i s t s o f p ri n c i p l e s o f J U d a i s m . F a l a lj u e r a i n c l u d e s p ro v i d e n c e o vc r s pe c i e s a n d h u m an i n d i v i d u a l s a s his fo u r t h p r i nc i p l e , 4X 7 ( I n Se/l'r I/a­

Me vaqqesh . 4X K F a l a lj u e r a 's p r i n c i p le s of J u d a i s m d o n o t e x p l i c i t l y me n t i o n p ro v i d e n c e . b u t t h e fifth p r i n c i p l e , miracles, and the seventh principle, reward

and p u n i s h m e n t, p re s u m ab l y i m p l y such providence.) D e s p i t e t h i s clear ad h e r e n c e t o M ai m o ni d e s ' view o f providence. Falaq uera s t a t e s e l s e w h e re4'" t h at p r o v i d e nce a t t a c h e s to i n d iv i d u a l p e o p le ( i n v i rt u e o f t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t a i n m e n t ) b u t n o t t o g e n e r a , b e c au s e u n iv e r s a l s h ave n o e x t r a - m e n t a l e x i s t e n c e . M ai m o n i d e s h a d a l s o fo l l o w e d t h e A ri s t o t e l i a n n o t i o n t h at u ni v e r s a l s h ave o n l y i d e a l , n o t r e a l , e xi s t e n c e i n

Guide 3 : 1 8 , o n which this

p as s age is b a s e d , It is n o t clear w h y Falaquera m a i n t a i n s t h is view, in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o M a i m o n i d e s ' a n d h i s o w n v i e w s e x p re s s e d e l s e w h e re . E v e n if the species h ave n o r e a l e x i s t e n c e o t h e r t h an

in

i n d i v i d u al s , e l s e w h e r e

M ai m o ni d e s , as w e l l a s F a l a lj u e r a h i ms e l f, w a s a b l e t o c o m b i ne an i d e a l i s t p o s i t i o n w i t h gen e r a l p r o v i d e n c e , F a l aq u e r a clearly e s t a b l i s h e s his p o s i t i o n as a n o m i n alist: 490

O il IJ N � � J il ':::I N , 1ll !l l' f, n m N ' � � O il ' T'N O''';'il " N ';' 1 N ' :::J IJ il IJ ' . 1:::J ' :::J Oil'1ll ' N N ' il 1ll !J l' fm It is c l e a r t h a t t h e s e u ni v e r s a l s d o n o t h ave a n y e x i s t e n c e o u t s i d e t h e s o u l ; o n l y t h e i r individuals h av e e x tr a - m e n t a l e x i st e n c e . B u t t h o se w h o d e n y that u niversals have any e xistence are wrong, because u ni v e r s a l s are t h e p r i m a ry w a y in which intelligibles are d i s t i nguished fro m

4 g 5 . I n fac t . '!ggerct lIa- lfa/oll1 h a , n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h d re a m s , a l t h o u g h t h i , refe r e n c e ,

a, \\ c l l a s t h e t i t l e o f t h e b o o k . m i s l e d s o m e as t o t h e b o o k 's c o n t e n t . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s i n C h , 2 o n F a l a q u c r a 's w o r k " 4 8 6 , Guide � : 1 7 , 487,

'!ggeret Ha- Ha/o m ,

4 8 8 , Mevaqqesh. p, 6 5 ,

p. 4 8 9 .

4 8 9 , Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 1 8 , p. 1 3 0.

490, De'ot Ha- Pi/oso{im V I : 8 : 3 . ms. i'arma f. l 7 7 b ,

1 7 ()

s e n s i b le s . 49 1 I n order for i n t e l l igibles, w h i c h necessarily deal with u niversals, to be true, they m ust h ave s o m e s o rt of p o t e n t i a l e x i stence o u t s i d e the s o u l , w h i c h then b e c o m e s act u al ized i n the i n d i v i d u a l . I t w a s t h i s p r o b l e m t h at caused P l at o to ascribe real e xistence t o the forms .492 We arc thus l eft with Falayuera m a i n t a i n i ng t hat p r o v i d e nce extend s to human i nd i v i d u a l s and to other s p e c i e s , and t h at G o d 's k n owledge of Himself includes k nowledge of p articulars fro m their u n iversal aspect and fro m H i s k n ow l edge o f H imself as t h e i r cause. We are also left w i t h the u n resolved p r o b l e m as t o h o w G o d 's p ro v i d ence can e xtend t o species a s u nivers a l s , if u niversals have only ideal and n o t real existence, u nless we accep t the n o t i o n t h at they h ave s o m e sort of e x istence (whether i t i s described as mental o r as potential) to w h i c h providence could apply. B u t we m u s t note t h at for Falay uera, t h e fact t h at G o d k n o w s particul ars and exercises providence t o w ard h u m a n s , and even the p h e n o m e n o n o f true d reams w h i c h fo retel l fut u re eve n t s , do not i m p i nge o n free w il l . M a n has both n at u re and free will, and one must u n derstand both p r i n c i p le s . 493 Free w i l l

(ra?on u-velJ irah) p roves t h at m a n 's perfectio n is not bod i ly or sensible,494 s i nce b o d i l y and s e n s i b l e perfe c t i o n are not v o l u ntary o r d e p e n d e n t o n o u r w i l l . W i l l is c o nsequent o n the practical i n t e l lect. Therefo re , a n i m al s d o not have w i 1 l 495 T h o s e act i o n s w h i c h lead t o fe l i city, acc o r d i n g t o Al-Farabi, are n o t c o m pelled (be-hekhralJ) b u t v o lu n t ar y (b i-velJ irah) 496 M an i s res p o n s i b le for his act i o n s , g o o d a n d bad ; he h as the a b i l it y to choose.497 There are s o me b i b l ic a l v e r s e s , as w e l l as s t ate m e n t s of the rab b i s , t h a t w o u l d i nd icate t h at man has free w i l l , and others t h at w o uld seem t o i n di c ate the o p p o si t e . 49R We must acco rd ingly d i s t i ngui s h three types o f events ,499 First, there are t h i ngs t h at are p os s i b l e ; these d o o r d o n o t exist. For example, i t i s p o s s i b le t h at the r a i n w i l l fal l at a particul ar t i m e . Second , there a r e t h ings t h at are necessary, w h i c h m u s t a l w ays e x i s t , and w h i c h c a n n o t be d iffe re n t . For e x a m p l e , m a n i s an animal. T h i rd , t here is a middle o r i n termed i ate (memu?a') type, w h i c h exists i n actuality after being possible, and which p o s s i b ly w i l l cease to exist. This i s the mean between the p o s s i b le and the i m possible. 49 1 . .l4oreh Ha- Moreh 2 : 2 2 , p . 1 1 I . 492. De'ot Ha- Pilosofirn V I : B : 3 , m s . P a r m a f . 1 86a. 493 . Re.\ h il }{okhmah, pp. 7 9 - XO.

494. Re.l hil !I(}khmah, p . 7'15. 495. Reshit flokhfllah, p. 9 1 . 496. Ma'a/ol. p . 7 6 . 4 9 7 . She/efll ut Ha- .\4a·alim. Ch. 2 . p . 4 . Cf. Aristotle, Nicofllacheall Fthics 1 1 . 6 . I I 06h: I l l : I . 1 1 09b; I l \ : 3 , 1 1 1 2 h - 1 1 l 3 a ; 1ll : 5 , 1 1 1 3 b. 49X. Moreh Ha- Morl'h 3 : 1 7. p p . 1 28 - 1 29 . 4 9 9 . Ct. H a- Le v i , Kuzari 5 : 20. w h e re t h e re are fo u r types of eve n t s : d iv i n e . natural, acc i d e n t a l , v o l untary. A l s o cf. M ai m o n i d c s , Shefllollah Peraqim. Ch. 8 , and Guide 3: 1 7.

Torah and SOl'hia: Shem Tov Ihn hi/ai/uera

171

Trad i t i o n a n d reas o n alike are d i vided o n t h i s q u e st i o n of free w i l l . Religion seems to i nt e n d t h e middle p o s i t i o n - God g a v e u s t h e p o w e r t o c h o ose betwccn o p posites, but t h i s c h oice can o n l y be made i n h a r m o n y (haskamah) w i t h eternal c a u s e s and which a r e s u b j ect t o G o d 's decree (gl'zl'rah; the term is a l s o used for p redes t i n a t i o n o r dete r m i n i s m ) , s i nce G od k nows t h e causes a n d the e x iste nce of every t h i ng in the n a t ur a l o rder. ( H a-Levi 50o h ad s i m i l arly argued t hat v o l u n t ary acti o n s , b ased on free w i l l . are s u bject t o and l i m ited by i n t e r me d i ate causes , which u l t i m ately derive fro m G o d 's will. B u t these acti o n s a r e free for m a n t o c h o o s e o n e w a y o r t he o t h e r , w i t h i n t h e l i m i t at io n s o f p o s s i b i l i t y established b y i n termed iate causes.)

Xl. T H E P R O B L E M O F E V I L Falaquera was n o t o n e t o say t h at t h i s i s t h e best o f all possible w o r ld s . I ndeed , he was convinced t h at h i s age , i n p articular, was m arked by e v i l a n d i nj ustice , 50 I The wicked prosper, while the righteous d o n o t h ave e n o ug h t o meet t h e i r basic need s . A s fo r God, 1':J1;) ' i1 C lV ' i1 ' , i1 7 N 7 ;) 71'

.

.

.

C" " ,,:J :JlV' m7i1n :JlVP',

"He w h o d wells a m o ng p raises dwells alone and i s silent . . . Despite a l l t h i s , blessed b e the n a m e of the L o rd . " Falaquera notes t h a t the rabbis h ad d i ffe r i ng o p i n i o n s : m t h e proble m o f e v i l , b u t t hey agree t h at God d i d i n fact e s t a b l i s h j ustice i n t h e w o r l d . The wicked prosper because they are rewarded i n this world for the little good that they have d o ne, but u l t i m at e l y t hey w i l l suffer (a view s i m il a r to that of S a' ad i a Ga'on). 502 N obody knows what will be i n t h e world t o come, s o God tests p e o p l e 's o bedience t o the Torah in this world in order t o i ncrease their reward in the next or as e x p i at i o n (kapparah) for s o me s i n , t h at they t h e n e nj oy u n interrupted reward i n the next. 50.l G o d tests t h e righteous p e r s o n fo r h i s o w n g o o d . G o d k n o w s t h at he can p a s s t h e t e s t , but G o d thereby provides other people with an example, and actualizes the potential of such a righteous p e rs o n , a s for example, Abraham. 504 Falaquera quotes M ai m o nides ' Letter to t he S u l t a n (Hanhagat Beri 'ut Ha­ Se(eshj 5°s that one should not w o r ry about affairs o f this world . G o o d and c v i l 'il6 in t h i s world are not necessarily true good and evil, and they may seem t o

5 0 0 . KlIzari 5 : 20 . 50 I

.

� e r i }f a - ,'agon, Ch.

J, r r . 7 () - 7 5 .

502.

C r . S a'ad ia, 'Em llno[ VC- ne'O[ 5 : 2 - 3 .

503.

C r. �eri }fa- YaRon 1 6 : 1 3 ( Ba r k a n ed . , r . 2 4 5 ) a n d 2 0 : 1 4 ( B a r k a n ed . , 2 7 5 ) . C r. H a-Levi, Kuzan 2 : 44, J : 1 1 .

504. �er i Ha- }'aRon.

p p . 76- 77. p p . 1 2- 1 8. ( Ba r k a n ed . , p p .

5 0 5 . �eri H a - Yag(}f/, Ch. 1 , 5 0 6 . Zai I/a- }'agon 1 6 : 1 0

2 4 5 - 246).

1 72

Raphill'l Jospc

be the o p p osite of what they are . For example, one who loses his money may be saved fro m death b y not making a d angerous j ourney. Thus, what appears evil (the fi nancial loss) may ultimately be benefici al. Therefore the rabbis taught us ( Berakhot 60b ) that a pers o n should bless G o d for evil, j ust as he does for good. To wo rry is useless; one should rather trust i n G o d . Falaquera h imself terms worry a "disease of the s o u l" 507 which can so metimes even cause death. Good and bad are i ntermixed i n this w o rld , and it is therefore i m p o rtant to be able to bear misfortune and to be gratefu l for good things. One should worry about oneself, that i s to say, one's true self, t h e intellect. 50 8 External possessions d o not perfect a person; indeed they t e n d t o increase one's w o rries. T h e absence of material possessions is therefore n o t evil , b ut worrying about them is. Difficulties arise, therefore, when people seek l u x u ries and not merely what they need . Like M aimonides,so9 Falaquera maintained that the more necessary s o methi ng is, the m o re prevalent and free it is in the world , such as air, water, and food . s l D W h at the individual pers o n c o ntrols i s not material things that ot hers can take away, but rather spiritual acquisitions, which we should worry about if we lose t h e m . M aterial things, and even life itself, are o n l y l oaned to us b y G o d . who c a n take t h e m away . 5 ! ! Death itself is n o t evi l , for without death we could not exist. But the fear of death is evi l . 5 1 2 The refore, the p h i l o s opher told a k i n g who wis hed that t h i ngs w o u ld continue forever, t h at if this were the case, he could never have become king (upon the death of his father) . 5 1 3 At each stage of deve l o p ment, one is afraid of progressing to the next stage, and yet one does not wish to return to o n e 's origi n . But i n the next realm , t h at of intellect, there are no sensual p ro b lems or worries . 5 1 4 M an cannot understand all the causes of suffering. But he should not t h i n k that suffering i s by chance; rather, he s h o u l d believe t h a t God knows all secrets and i s a j ust and true God . 5 1 5 Thus, for Falaquera, the question of theodicy, like the question of God's providence over individuals, is ultimately resolved not p h i l o s ophically but fro m the stand p o i nt of personal religious belief. Like H a­ Lev i . 5 1 6 Falaquera thus maintains that the believe r's reason will s u p p o rt the notion of God's j ustice even when he is inclined to doubt it, when he realizes 507.

1eri Ha- YaWJn,

SOil. 509.

!-eri Ha- Yaxon. Gu ide

Ch. I , p p . 1 9- 2 3 . C h . 2, p p . 3 3 -36, and

'Ixxeret Ha- Musilr. p p .

1 0- 1 1 .

3 : 1 2.

5 1 0 . ,?l'ri Ha- Yagon. Ch. 2, p p . 3 3 - 36, and 'Iggeret Ha- Musar. p p . 1 0- 1 1 .

Ch. 2, p p . 48-5 1 . ( C re m o n a edition) Ch. 3 . p p . 1 3 - 1 4 (missing in t h e Ottensosser edition). er Barkan, Thesis 1 2: 1 6, p p . 2 1 5 -2 1 6 and 1 7 : 7 - 1 2 , p p . 253- 254. and the sources cited i n the notes. 5 1 3 . ,?eri Ha- Yagon. C h . 2, pp. 48-5 1 . 5 1 4. 1eri lla- Yaxon 1 7: 1 7 ff. (Rarkan ed . , p p . 2 5 5 - 277). 5 1 5 . !-eri Ha- Yaxon. p p . 79-�0. 5 1 6. H a-Levi, Kuzari 3 : 1 1 , 3 :4\ 5 : e n d . 51 1. S 1 2.

(.cri Ha- YaXo n,

1eri Ha- Yax(!n

1 73

larah and :iophia: ShclIl Tav Ihn Fu /aquera

t h at t h e p r oblem transcends h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and that one convi nced o f G o d 's j ustice a n a w i s d o m w i l l n o t p ay u n d u e atte n t i o n t o app arent i nj ustice on earth, since he recognizes that he i s t o o ignorant t o c o m p rehend G o d 's ways . I n m a i n t a i n i n g t h at material misfo r t u n e s are n o t of t r u e significance (any more t h a n m aterial wealth is), as well as i n h i s maintaining t h at u l t i m ately m a n a n d t h e e arth are i nsignificant i n c o m p a r i s o n t o cosmic reality , 5 1 7 Falaquera fol l o w s M a i m o n i d e s . 5 1 X Falaquera also agrees w i t h M ai m o n i d e s t hat e v i l is a fu ncti o n of p r i v at i o n i nherent i n t h e l i m i t e d n a t u r e o f matter . 5 J 9 The n o t i o n t h at m a n c a n n o t c o m p r e h e n d how G o d governs t h e world and e x e r c i s e s p r o vi d e nce over i t , w h i c h we saw i n Falaquera and H a-Levi , i s fo r M a i m o nides t h e p ri n c i p a l l e s s o n of the b o o k of J o b . 5 20 U l t i mately, Falaquera's answer ( o r no n-answer) t o the p r o b l e m of theod icy i s a s o l d as t h e book of J o b itself: Who i s this w h o d arkens counsel with words without knowledge? . . . Where were you when I fo unded the earth

XII.

.

. . ? (Job 3 8 : 2,4)

THE D I V I N E ATTRIBUTES

A l t h o u g h t h e p r o b l e m o f evil, acc o r d i n g t o Falaquera, teaches us that we cannot u l t i mately c o mp rehend G o d 's j ustice and govern ance o f the world, t h i s i s n o t t o say that we c a n n o t k n o w a n y t h i n g o f G o d . T h e study of metaphysics s h o u l d lead u s to knowledge o f g e n e r a l n o t i o n s of existence, s u c h as unity a n d p lurality,

agreement a n d ch ange , c a u s e a n d effect,

as w e l l as the

(shorashim) and p r i n c i p l e s (hatl}alo l) of the t h e o retical

science s ,

roots and

u l t i m ately, t hrough t h e study of i n c o r p o real e x i s t e n t s , t o a k n ow l e d ge of a fi r s t and p erfect i n c o r p o re al e x i s t e n t c o m p letely d iffe r e n t fro m all the others, the nece s s ary e x istent

(mel}uyyav ha-me�i 'ul). whose e x i s t e nce is necessitated by its

o w n essence and who necessitates the existence of eve ryt h i n g else . 5 2 1 We can attribute t o the nece s s ar y e x i s t e n t u n i t y , e x i s tence, eternity, o m niscience and o m n i p otence, all of which refe r t o o n e n o t i o n

(toreh kol 'el}ad mehem 'a! 'inyan

'elJ.ad), a n d which d o n o t i m p l y any plu rality i n G o d 's esse nce when properly

5 1 7 . 'f.eri Ha- Yagon, Ch. 3, p p . 1 3 - 1 4 ( i n Cre m o n a edition; m i s s i ng in Otte nsosser edition). Cf. 1 8 : 9 ff. , Barkan ed . , p p . 26 1 - 262 and notes. 5 1 8 . Guide 3 : 1 2 . 5 1 9 . Cf. De'ot Ha- Pilosofim, m s . Parma f. 1 4a, m s . Leyden f. 1 1 3 b:

'::> , tl " :J1;'17:) 1 n l{ 1117:)11;'1' 1'0!)0;'1 l{1;'1 '::> '111;'1;'1 tl'111;'1 ml1' n1:J0 '::> ;'1Tl.l 1l{:J11'1 111'1 ,'1I1!):J 1'011 tl'N�mm 0" :J1" '10 ':JP'O 1Zl,n' '111;'1" ?:JpO l{1"1Zl 'l!)O ,l.lln" :J11", l{1;r1Zl mN'�0;'11 . ;r"1 ;r;r:J 1I,;r I1:JO l{1;r1 '111,,;r 'l!)O N1;' 0" ::117 ;r, p'1Zl::> '10;' .101n;' '�IJ O;r? l'1Zl;r " 1I;r;, Nm1Zl 1I,;r1 ,;r'mm '�IJ O'l{�l.ll? l'1Zl;' Cf. Guide 3 : 1 0 . 520. Guide 3 : 23 . 52 1 . Mevaqqesh, p . 1 03 .

1 74

Raphae/ Jospe

understood. Ultimately they mean t h at there is no evil or deficiency in God 's actions,m as we shall see. S i nce God is p erfect i n existence, our own concept of God should also be p erfect, but t h at is n o t the case because of the inherent weakness of the human i ntellect which is connected (qashur) to matter. 523 The way to acquire knowledge of God is to study His creations, which are the ladder (sullam) by which one ascends to God . One should study the fou r causes of things, for by knowing the causes, one approaches the first cause, God as the creator, and thus o n e 's l ove and worship o f God (which are a functio n of knowledge of God) i ncrease, 524 as M aimonides maintained . m Moses' request to know God that he might find favor ( E xodus 3 3 : 1 3) means that man knows God only i n respect of H i s ways, and only one who thus k nows God finds favor, as Falaquera notes had been explained by M aimonide s . j26 The most i m p o rtant thing i n one's belief (iqqar ha- 'e munah) should therefore be knowledge; all man 's actions should aim at k nowledge of the truth. This is how the rabbis in the Talmud ( Berakhot 6 3 a) understand Proverbs 3 : 6 , "Know H i m in all your ways. "527 True and certain i t is t hat man's felicity is the knowledge of his Creat o r and conj unction (devequt) with Him, and this i s only possible by k nowing created things and conceiving of His unity, and that He is the cause of all created things . The science which explains this is metaphysics. m S imilarly, the knowledge of God which constitutes ultimate human perfection can only encompass God's actions: It i s well k n o w n and agreed, according to both the Torah and the philosophers, that man's ultimate felicity is the apprehension of God and k n owing Him according t o the ability of t he human i ntellect. The true p hilo s o p hers also agree that this apprehension comes to man only by knowing (God 's) actions and by conceiving them intellectually, for that which is separate fro m matter can only be humanly apprehended according to its actions. 529 522. Ibid. 523. Ma'alot. p p . 2 3 - 24, quoted i n the name of Al-Farabi. Cf. Ma'alot. p . 35, where Falaquera defines true belief as belief that what exists in onc's thought i s as i t is outside one's thought and could not exist differently. 5 24. Ma % t. pp. 3 3 - 3 5 . 525. Guide 3 : 5 1 . 526. Ma'a/ot. p . 3 3 . Cf. Guide 1 : 54. 527. Ma'a/of, p. 33. 528. Mevaqqesh, p. 1 02, also cited above, p. 1 29 . 5 2 9 . De'ot Ha-Pi/osofim. ms. Parma f. 3 a, ms. Leydcn f. 1 05 b . Hebrew t e x t cited above. p . 1 29.

l()fah and Sop h ia: SIII'I/I

Tal

lbn la/" '!I"'!'''

1 75

T h u s a l l m a n 's act i o ns s h o u l d h ave t h e aim of k n o w ledge of God, and t h e k n o w ledge of God that m a n attains is k n o wledge of H i s acti o n s , which resemble h u man acti o n s i n benefi t t i ng people. 530 Falaquera recognizes t h at t h is intellectual approac h t o G o d is not appropriate fo r everyone. True k n o w ledge app l i e s e q u i v o c a l l y t o p h i l o s o p hers and the masses, fo r t he m asses do not conceive i ntellectually b u t w i t h t h e i r imagin at i o n : 5 3 1 The k n o w l edge of the masses is by the faculty of imagi n at io n . I t has already been e x p lained i n Sefer Ha-Nefesh t h at t h e i m ag i n at i o n o n l y apprehends somet h i ng corporeal, and t h at the c o ncepti o n of s o mething separate fro m matter i s very d ifficult for p h i l o s o p hers, let alone for t h e masses.532 Because of this problem, Falaquera q uotes lbn Rushd 's statement that the masses should n o t be taught t h at G od h as a m u l t i p l icity of attributes, which would contradict rel ig i o n ; they should only b e taught to accep t and acknowledge those attributes t h at religion posits 533 M ai m o n ides argued ( Gu ide 1 : 3 5 ) that everyon e , even c h i l d re n , s h o u l d b e taught to negate c o rp o reality a n d affections fro m God, and t h at G o d i s absolutely u n i q u e . T h ose who cannot c o m p rehend t h i s o n a philosophical level s h o u ld accep t it on authority. B u t the negative attributes, as well as such other "mysteries of the To rah " as the meaning of attributes ascribed to God, creat i o n , God 's governance, providence, will and knowledge, as well as p ro phecy and the n a mes of God, are n o t s u bjects fit fo r public i n s t ructi o n . 534 Falaquera d i s agrees with M ai m o n ides, and tends m o re t oward t h e view of I b n R u s h d , cited above, t h at the masses should affirm those attributes posited by rel igion ( p resumably t h ose l isted i n Sefer Ha- Mel'aqqesh. p. 1 03 , q u o ted above ) , and s h o u l d n o t be taught t o negate w h at is taught i n the prophetic b o o k s , e . g . , regarding affect i o n s : 535 T h i s s h o u l d n o t be revealed t o t h e masses, fo r they h av e no ability t o conce iv e of this; t h e i r k nowledge w i l l n o t be i ncreased by this, but 530. '!ggeret Ha- Musar, p. 2 5 . 53 1 . Cf. AI-Farab i , Siyiisiit al- Madaniyyah (Political Regime), p p . 5 5 - 5 7 , trans. Fauzi

M . Najj ar, i n Lerner and Mahd i , Medieval Political Philosophy. pp. 40-4 1 . 5 3 2 . Ma'alot. p . 3 5 . The reference i s to Se!'e r Ha- Ne!,esh, C h . 1 3 ( Hebrew text, p. 2 2 ) 5 3 3 . Moreh Ha-Moreh 1 : 60 . p p . 3 3 - 34. This chapter is actually 1 : 60 , but the pri nted version erroneously has it a s 1 : 59 . C f . TahafUl al- '/idw/ut. Sixth DiscLssio n , p p . 3 5 6 - 3 5 7 (Van den Bergh ed . , p . 2 1 5 ) and his views in Fa.yl al- Maqal cited above. 534. Cr. Berman's analysis of the differences between the approaches of M aimonidcs and I b n R ushd i n " l b n Bajj ah a n d M ai mon i des," p p . 1 07 ff. 5 3 5 . Moreh Ha- Aforeh 1 : 3 5 , p. 20.

Raphacl loope

1 76

rather c o rrupted, for they o n l y apprehend whatever i s sensed or i magined . O n l y s o me o ne who has attained the r a n k o f speculat i o n c a n c o n ceive o f t h e negat i o n o f G o d 's affections. Falaquera agrees with M a i m o n i d e s ' d istinction (in Guide 3 : 28) between true o p i n i o n s ( w h i c h i n t h e p revious chapter are defi n e d as constituting the welfare of the soul), and necessary b e liefs (which in the p revious chapter a r e the basis of the g o v e r n a n c e o f s ociety, which c o n s titutes the welfare of the b o d y ) , namely those beliefs "necessary for the e l i m i n a t i o n o f violence " (em unah hekhrel;it he-silluq he-l;amas}. 536 But unlike M ai m o nides, Falaquera regards various att ributes, s uch as d i v i ne affections, as necessary: M any o f the affect i o n s are necessary for the s p read of religion (�he/a ' ha- emunah). w h i c h c a n n o t e x i s t w i t h o u t t h e m ; if t h e y are e l i m i n ated , r e l ig i o n will be e l i m i n a t e d fro m the m as s e s . The refore these t h i ngs

s h o u l d b e p o s ited fo r t h e m literally. Only o n e worthy

o f being i nformed should be i nformed t h at they are not meant literally. M a i m o n i d e s ' view that every o n e , even c h i l d re n , should be taught to negate c o r p o reality and a ffecti o n s fro m G o d

only studied Talm u d , and thought t h at this book contradicts many t h ings

c a u s e d t h e c o rru p t i o n o f s o me o f t h e r a b b i s w h o h ad

taught in the Torah, o n acc o u n t of which c onflicts increased among t h e m . This ( c o rr up t i o n and resulting c o nfl ict) will occur a l l the m o re t o the masses of t h e n at i o n . . . This subject should n o t be m ad e p u b l ic a m o n g t h e m a s s e s . S uc h s p e cu l a t i o n is a p p r o p r i at e o n l y fo r i nd iv i d u a l s . . . T h e re fo r e , it s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e re i s n o n e e d t o go i n t o d e p t h regarding attributes, b u t w h at i s mentioned

i n t h e prophetic b o o k s s h o u l d s uffice, t h a t God is o n e and t h e r e is n o n e like H i m , and t hat n o ne of t h e created beings resembles o r can c o m p are t o H i m . . . This should s u ffice for both the masses and t h e w i s e . . . for the study o f a t t r i b u t e s i s very d a n ge r o u s (I;aqiral ha-le 'arim sakkanah gedo lah). m A l t h ough t h e masses, as we h ave seen, s h o u ld n o t be t aught the negative attrib utes o f G o d , the negative way i s p referable for those capable of c o m p re h e n d i n g the t rut h , as Maimonides maintained i n the Guide vf (he Perplexed I : 5 X . A c c o rd i n g t o F a l a q u e r a , this i s also the view of Aristotle ,S1K and t h i s is w h at is meant b y the rabbinic statement that G o d i s k n o w n ( l iterally:

5 3 6 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 3 5 , p . 20 .

5 3 7 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 3 5 , p. 20.

5 3 8 . J1()rch Ha- ,'v[oreh 1 : 5 8 , p . 2 9 .

Torah and Sophia: Shem To\' Jbn Falaquera

1 77

c a l l e d ) acco rd i ng to H i s actio n s (left ma'asai 'ani niqra '). 539 For all G o d 's

attributes are to be understood negatively except for attributes of act i o n, which do not i m p l y a ny t h i n g of the essence o f t he one performing the actions. One may define G o d 's acti o n s without d e fi n i n g God . In fact, God c a n n o t be defi n e d . Falaquera s u p p o rt s this M a i m o n i d e a n n o t i o n b y quoti ng the v i e w s of others who arrive at the same c o n c l u s i o n for various reas o ns . 540 According t o A ri s t o t l e , o n l y t h i ngs gen erated i n n at u re h ave a defi n i t i o n . Acco rd i n g t o I b n

G ab i r o l , a metaphy s ical p r o o f (mofet 'elohi) cannot co ntain species and p art ic u lars , of which a defi nition would have t o consist . 54l Ibn Rushd m a i n t a in e d t h at defi n i t i o n s o n l y a p p l y to compounds, and that s i m p l e things like fo r m a n d matter acco r d i n g l y d o not have any defi n i t i o n . (See b e l o w . ) S o me t h i n g w h ich h as n ot h i ng p r i o r t o i t ( s u c h as G o d ) can o n l y b e defi n e d i n t e r m s o f w h at fol l o w s i t ( i n G o d 's case, H is act i o n s ) , which d oe s n o t indicat e

anythi ng o f i ts essence . B y saying t h at God is t he m o v e r o f the world o r the form o f a l l , we thus d o not s ay anything about G o d 's essence , b ut o n l y about H is effect o r act i o n s . A l -Farabi maintained t h at t h e p a r t s o f a defi n i t i o n a r e p r i o r t o that which is defi n e d , a n d i n d icate i t s esse nce . But t h i s c a n n o t be the c as e with G o d , n o t only because t h e very notion o f p arts w o u l d be i n c o m p at i b l e w i t h G o d 's u n i t y and i n c o r p o re a l i t y , but also because the re would the n be s o me t hi n g prior t o God,

causing G o d 's existence. G o d , as the necessary existent, c a n n o t b e caused. 542 Acco r d i ng t o I b n S i n a,543 the necessary existent i s u n c a u s e d , while o n l y s omething p o s s i b l e has a cause. Therefore the term "existence" is applied equivocally t o G o d . ( Falaquera

adds that o n ly o n e who has studied P orphyry well will understand thi s . ) 544 E l s ew here, 545 Falaquera d oes not say that the term "existence" is a p p lied equivocally t o God, but rather i n a prior sense (bi-qedimah) t o the necessary existent and in a p o sterior sense (be- 'il}ur) t o everyt h i ng else that exists, because existence i s essential t o G o d and acci d e n t al t o a l l else; existence i s not generic to b o t h . T h e necessary e x i s t e n t , t h e re fore, does n o t c o m e under the ten

539. E x o d u s R a b b a 3:6 and Midrash TanlJuma, E x o d u s , #20, p. 68b. 540. Moreh Ha-Moreh 1 : 5 2 , p . 25. 54 1 . F o r t h i s r e as o n , I saac I s rae l i d e n ie d t h a t p h i l o s o p h y , which i s u nique

and h as n o

s p e c i e s , c a n be d e fi n e d ; i t c a n o n l y be descri bed .

542.

See Falaquera's d iscus s i o n of the t e r m " n ec e s s ary e x i s t e n t " in

Moreh Ha- Moreh

1 : 5 8 , pp. 29 - 3 0 . A l s o see A. Altmann's articl e , "Essence and E xistence i n M ai m o n i d e s , " i n Studies in Religious Philosophy and Mysticism, pp. 1 08 - 1 27 , a n d F . R a h m a n , " Es s e nce and E x istence i n Avicen n a , " i n Medieval and Renaissance Studies ( 1 958) p p . 1 - 1 6 . 543. Moreh Ha- Moreh, 2 : I n t . , p. 70.

544. Moreh Ha- Moreh, B e 'u r Nifla', C h . 3 5 , p. 1 70 . 5 4 5 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 52, p. 26.

Raph(J('/ Jo.lpe

1 78

Aristotelian categories of being, and defi n i t i o n and rel at i o n according l y do not ap p l y t o i t . B u t although Falaquera uses the term " accidental" i n c o n nection w i t h n o n­ necessary existence, that u s age is l i m ited, and as we s h a l l s e e , Falaquera opposes Ibn S i n a and M ai m onides for taking this notion too far . 54 6 A lexander Altmann writes: 547 I t has to be noted that M aimo nides describes e x istence as an acci d e n t n o t t o esse nce . . . but to " t h at w h i c h e x i s t s , " i . e . , t h e concrete t h i ng s . T h i s w e i n terpre t t o mean t h at t h e e xistence of a co ncrete thing c o m posed of matter and form is due to the fact that, as a result of a causal process, a certain fo rm has been induced into a certain matter. The term " acc i d e n t " merely e x p resses t h e fact t h at t h e t h i ng "happens" to exist . . . I t merely defines existe nce as bcing due t o fac t o rs outside the essence , and for t h i s reas o n uses the term "accident . " As Dr. Rahman has suggested , Avicenna empl oyed the same term i n a s i m i l ar sense, and it is n o t unlikely t h at t h i s is the way in which M aimo nides understo o d Avicenna . . . There is another aspect to the accidentality w h ic h M ai m onides attributes t o e x istence . To exist means to be actu a l . But everyth i n g t h a t p a sses fro m a state o f potentiality to t h at o f actuality is caused to d o s o b y s o me e x t ernal age nt . . . I t follows t h a t e x istence i s d u e t o s o me external agent, a n d t h e refore accidental t o t h e t h i n g itsel f. Falaq uera certai nly agrees with the notion that existence i s " accidental " in the sense of being cau sed by something external to the essence of t h at which exists, except i n t h e c a s e of the necessary e xistent, which is thus understood t o b e u n i q u e p recisely i n t h at i t s o w n essence necessitates its existence and i s t h u s uncaused. B u t Falaquera rejects t h e notion t hat existence is an accident superadded t o the esse nce of t h at which e x i s t s , as M ai m onides m aintained ,548 b a s e d o n I b n S i n a . Falaquera asserts t h at I b n S i n a i s w r o n g i n saying t h at u n i t y and existence are added t o the essence of t hi n g s , s i nce the name of that t h i n g w o u l d t h e n i n c l u d e an accident fro m a n o t h e r category. 549 I n o t h e r words, i t s name, ind icating its essence, would then also include something external t o its essence, which i s absurd . Falaq uera rather accepts I b n Rushd 's critique o f I b n S i n a's view. By saying that something exists, we have not added any notion t o its 5 4 6 . A . A l t ll1 a n n . " E s se nce a n d E x iste nce i n M a i m o n i d e s , " p . 1 20: Falaquera "does not e x p re s s l y c r i t ic i7c M a i m o n i d e s . b u t a d d u c e s b y way o f c o m m e n t Avcrroes' c r i t i q u e o f Avice n n a . a n d obvio usly w i s h e s t o a p p l y

547. [bid p p . 1 1 4- 1 1 5 . ..

548. Guide 1 : 5 7 . 549. Mareh Ha- March 1 : 5 7 , p. 2 8 .

it

t o M a i m o n id es . "

Torah alld Sop h ia: Shem To\'

Ihn l a /aqwra

1 79

essence, as we w o u l d , for e x ample, if we said t h at t h e t h i n g i s white. Falaq uera i s q u o t i ng here fro m I b n R u s h d 's Tahafw al- Taha/ill. t he e i g h t h d iscus s i o n . I b n R us h d say s : 5 5 0 B u t the p h i l o s o p hers d o not ass u me an e xistent absolutely w i t h o u t a n q u i d d i t y : they o n l y assume t h at it h as n o t a q u id d i t y l i k e the q u i d d ity of the other existents . . . A nd as t o h i s ( i . e . , G h alal i 's ) rem ar k t h at t h e meaning of "necess ary existent" is "causele s s , " t h i s i s n o t t r u e , b u t o u r e x p res s i o n t h at it is a necessary e x is t e nt h as a p os i t i ve m e a n i n g , c onsequent on a nat u r e w h i c h has a b s o l utely no cause, n o e x t e r i o r agent, and no agen t which i s part of i t . . . Acc o r d i n g t o the p h il o s o phers, necessity i s n o t an attr i bute added to the essence, and it i s p redicated of the essence in the same way as we s ay of i t t h at i t i s i n e v i t a b le and eternal. A n d l ikewise, i f we u nderstan d b y "existence" a mental attr i bute, i t i s not an add i t i o n t o t h e essence, b u t if w e understand i t as being an acc i d e n t , i n the way A vice n n a regard s it in the c o m p os i te existent, then it beco mes d ifficult t o e x p l a i n how the u n c o m p o u nded can be the q u id d ity itself . . . The e x i s te nce in the u n c o m p ou nded i s the q u i d d i t y itse lf. G o d , as t h e necess ary e x istent, can t h u s n o t be defi ned . Onc can p red i c ate n o t h i n g of God except e x i ste nce, w h i c h i n H is case, being necessary, i s i d e ntical with His essence. Any other attrib utes m u s t be understood negatively, wi t h the e x ce p t i o n o f att r i b u tes o f act i o n , w h i c h i ndicate no t h i ng of God 's essence, and which are thus the only way to c o me to a k now ledge of G o d .

5 5 0 . Tahalul al- TahafUl. pp. 3 3 9 -400 (Van d e n Bergh ed . , pp. 240 - 24 1 ) .

C H APT E R FO U R:

FALA Q U E RA'S

P S Y C H O LO G Y

I . T H E S O U R C E S O F SEFER HA- NEFESH As we shall see i n the next secti o n , Falaq uera regarded psychology as prior to all other sciences. K n o wledge of oneself (or, playing on the d ouble meaning of the Hebrew nefesh and Arabic nafs, knowledge of one's soul) is prior to the k n o wledge of God. and is the most impo rtant area of k n owledge after knowledge of God. I n ge neral, Falaquera w a s n o t a systematic thinker. Even such a central motif in his l ife 's work as the harmony of faith and reas o n , which fo und repeated express i o n i n several of his works, includ ing books like 'Iggeret Ha­ Vikkua� devoted e ntirely to that theme. did not merit systematic presentation. The s ame can be said of his works dealing with ethics, of which She/emU! Ha-Ma'asim is at best o n ly partially systematic - and that only characterizes the first p art of the b o o k , which is basically merely an abridged translation of selections fro m Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics. Only psychology merited systematic treatment by Falaquera, and this only i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh. A separate. comprehensive study of Fal aque ra's psychol ogy is thus funy in accord with Falaquera's own curricular and philosophic p riorities. The singular importance of Seler Ha- Nefesh as Falaquera's only systematic work, as well as the u nreliability of the printed editions, j ustify a critical edition of the text. Falaquera's extensive d iscussions of psychol ogy i n his as yet unpublis hed De'ot Ha- Piloso(im, his remarks on psychology i n other works, and his great indebtedness to various G reek and Arab sources, all require the comprehensive and systematic analysis that this chapter attempts to provide. Although n o t all of Falaquera's G reek and Arab sources, especially in De'ot Ha- Pilosofim. have yet been established definitively, this chapter, b ased on the notes to the English translation of Sefer Ha-Nefesh. d oes trace at least his maj or s o u rces, since Falaquera's own positions can often be understood only i n terms of their similarities to or d ifferences from the sources fro m which he borrows so frequently and freely. '

I.

Steinsch neider discussed some of the sources of Seler Ha-Nefesh in Hebrdisc/zen Uberset::ungen. p. 989 n. S .

181

1 82

Raph"c!

.fo '{)('

W h at fo llows is a scheme of t h e struct u re or Sefer IJa- Ne/'e sh, i n d icat i n g the maj o r s o u rces of each c h apter.

SEFER HA - ,VEFf;SH

5,'ource

I ntrod ucti o n

( A ri s t o t l e , r b n R u s h d 's Middle Cotllmentary o n De A nima, I s\1aq b. I;l u na i n 's Talkh i�, I b n S i na's Treatise (In Ps r ch 0 logy )

Ch. I

The Existence of the Soul ( A ristotle, r b n Rushd 's Middle Cotllmen tary o n De A n im a, r b n S i na's Kitab a l-Najat, Gale n 's On the Natural Faculties)

Ch. 2

T h e Spirit Bearing the Faculties of t h e S ou l

(GaJen's On the Na tl/ral Faculties ) Ch. 3

Th e Definition of the S ou l ( Aristotle, rbn R u s h d 's Middle Commentary o n De A nima, I s Q.aq b . I:J u n a i n 's Talkh i,y, Tbn S i n a 's Treatise on Ps rchology )

Ch. 4

The Need fo r the Faculties of the Soul ( A ristotle, I s i), aq b . f;lunain's Talkhi.y, rbn Rushd 's Middle Commen tary o n De A n im a a n d Fpitome of Parva Naturalia, I b n S i n a's Treatise on Psycho logv )

Ch. 5

Kitah al- Najat and

Nutrition

( A ristotle, r b n Rushd's Middle Commen tary on De A nim a, r b n S i n a 's Treatise on Psychology, I si),aq b . I:J u n a i n 's Talkhi" , G alcn 's On the Natural Faculties )

Ch. 6

The G e neral Faculty of S e n s a t i o n ( Ar i s t o t le I b n Rushd 's Middle Commentary o n De ,

A n ima, Isi).aq b. I;Iunain's Talkhi� ) Ch. 7

S ig h t

( I b n R u s h d 's Epitotlle of Parva Natllralia and ;Hiddle Com mentary o n Dc A n ima, r b n S i n a's Kitah al­ Najal, I s i).aq b . I:J u n a i n 's Talkh i�, Aristotle) Ch. X

H e a ring ( A ristotle, I b n R u s h d 's ,"'fiddle Comtll c lltarr o n [)e A llima, I s l,1 aq b , I:J u n a i n 's Talkh i�, I b n S i n a 's Trealise on Psych o logy )

Turah and Sophfa: Shem Tov inn Falaql/era

Ch. 9

Smell

( A ri s t o t l e . I b n R u s h d 's Middle COll/ mentarv on Df' A n ima and Lj) itome o f l'arva ,y 1.11 uralia )

( A ri s t o t l e . I b n R ll s h d 's Middle Com m f'll tary o n De A ll im a and i:j) il O m e of Parva Va l llralia, l s l;l aq b .

I:I u n a i n 's Talk hi.� ) Ch.

11

Touch ( A ristotle, l b n R u s h d 's Middle Com m emar r on De A n ima and l:pitome o f Parva IVa /urafia, I s /:l a q b.

I:I u n a i n 's Talkhi� )

Ch. 1 2

C o m m o n S e ns e

( I bn R u s h d 's Epitome o f Pan'a Natllrafia, Epitome of De A n ima, and Middle Commen tary on De A n im a ,

I s \1aq h . I:I u n ai n 's Ta lkhi.y. I b n S i na's Treatise Otl PsycholoKY )

Ch. 13

I magi n a t i o n

( T b n R u s h d 's Middle Co mmentarY on De A n ima and Ep itome

o f De A n ima,

I b n S i n a 's

Trea t ise

on

PsycholoKY )

Ch. 1 4

T h e R a t i o n a l Fac u l t y ( A ri s t o t l e , I h n R u s h d 's Jfiddle Commentary o n De A n ima, I s /:l a q b. I:I u n a i n 's Talkh i.'f. l b n S i na 's Kitab al- Naja t and Trea t ise on Psych o logy )

Ch. 1 5

T h e T h e o n: t i ca l Faculty

( P art o f t h i s c h apter is a p a r a p hrase o f I b n S i na's Kitah iJ!- Najat 1 1 : 6 [A vicen n a j. Psycho logy. C h . 1 0] . O t h e r p arts based on: Aristotle, ls/:laq b . I;l u n ai n 's Talkhi.y. I b n R u s h d 's ."-fiddle Com m entan

on De

A n il1l a )

Ch. 1 6

M e m o r y , Reco l l ectio n , R e t e n t i o n ( a n d Estimat i o n ) ( T h i s c h ap t e r i s a paraph rase o f I b n R u s h d 's Ep itome

o f Pan'a Nat uralia. B o o k I L C h . 1 ) Ch.

17

A p p e t i t e C alled "Desire" ,

( I b n R u s h d 's Middle Co mmen tary on De A n im a and Fp itome o f D e A n ima, I s J:!aq b . I:I u n a i n 's Talkhi.).

A ri s t o t le)

I R4

Ch.

Raphaei Jospe

18

O n All the Faculties in Gene ral

Kttab al­ Najat I l : 6 [A vicenna :� Psychology, Ch. 1 -6). Also some references fro m lbn S ina's Kitab al-Shifa ' and Ibn Rushd's Epitome of De A nima )

(This chapter i s a paraphrase of I b n S i na's

Ch.

!9

The O p i n i o n s of the A ncients o n the S o u l (Aristotle, I b n Rushd's

Middle Commentary o n De Anima, Ibn Sina's Kitab al-Shi(a ')

Ch.

The Action of the Active I ntellect on the Soul (The first half of this chapter i s a p araphrase of I b n S i n a 's Kttab al- Najat I I : 6 [A vicenna s Psychology, C h . 1 6] . Also references fro m I bn S i na's Treatise on Psychology, I b n R u s hd 's Middle Commentary o n De A n ima )

20

The

division of chapters and topics in Sefer Ha- Nefesh clearly resembles the De'ot Ha-Pilosofim. I n this e a r l i e r work, there are

d iv i s i o n i n Falaquera's

twe nty-one chapters, but the second of these chapters contains p refatory remarks, which in the case of Sefer Ha-Nefesh are excluded fro m t h e number of chapters; thus we also have here twenty chapters:

DE' O T HA- PIL OS O FIM, B o o k I , Sect i o n V I ( O n the Facu lties of Animals) I.

On the five senses, common sense, imagination A.

Opinions of the A ncients

B. C. D. E.

Prefatory Remarks Definition of the S o u l Nutritio n

F.

S ight

G.

Hearing

H. I.

S mell Taste Touch

J.

K. L. 2.

S e nsation

C o m m o n Sense I maginat i o n

The rational soul andfaculty af appetite A. The Existence of the Rational Faculty B. The Essence of the Practical Faculty C. The Esse nce of the Theoretical Faculty D. A p petite

Torah and Sop h ia: Shem Tov Ibn Fa/aquera

3.

1 85

Sense and sense-object O n A l l t h e Senses A. B.

O n Means Which the Senses Require

C.

O n t he Nature of Sense-Objects

D.

How the S o u l Perceives S e n se-Objects

E.

M em o r y a n d Recollect i o n

These are the c hapters which deal with psychology and thus relate to Sefer

Ha- Nefesh. B u t De'ot Ha- Pilosofim, having a broader scope, is not l imited t o psychology, a n d contains three m o re relevant chap ters : F. G. H.

S lee p i n g a n d Waking D r e a m s a n d Divine Perce p t i o ns

C ause o f Longevity and Short Life

I n this respect, De'ot Ha- Pilosofim reflects the subj ect m atter of Aristotle 's De A n ima and Parva Naturalia:

DE A NIMA I.

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. n.

3. 4.

First definition of the soul Second definition of the soul Faculties of the soul Nutrition

I.

2.

5.

Sense p erce p t i o n

6.

Sense-o bjects

7.

S ight Heari ng S mell Taste Touch General c haracteristics of the senses

8.

9. 10. 1 1. 1 2.

I ll .

The dignity and usefulness of psychology Opinions of the early thinkers on the soul Refutation o f view which assigns movement to the soul The s o u l is not h arm o ny o r self-moving number The soul is not elements; u n i t y of the s o u l

I.

N u mber of external senses

2.

C o m m o n sense

3. 4.

I m agination

5.

Pa s siv e m i nd A c tiv e mind

6.

Double o p e rati o n of m i nd

7.

P ract ical faculty

186

R aphae/ Jospe

8. 9. 1 0- 1 1 . 1 2- 1 3 .

I ntellect com pared to sense a n d imaginat i o n T h e motive faculty The cause of motion o f living things Mutual rel ations of faculties of s o ul

PA R VA NA TURA LIA De De De De De

Sensu et S e n s ibil i M e m o r i a et Reminiscentia S o mn o et V igilia S o mniis Div in at i o ne per S o m n u m

De De De De

Longitud i ne et B revitate V itae I uventute et S enectute Vita et M orte R espiratione

Clearly, then, the order of s ubj ects i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim, and t o a lesser extent also Sefer Ha-Nefesh, which i s m o re l i mited i n scope, fol l o w s (often c losely) the order o f subj ects i n Aristotle, as p reserved i n the S h o rt (Ep itome) and M id d l e Commentaries o f I b n R ushd o n De Anima, and his E pi tome o f Parva Natura/ia, of which Falaquera quoted whole secti o n s i n both Sefer Ha-Nefesh and De'ot Ha- Pilosofim. I bn Rushd 's Epitome of Parva Naturalia (Arabic: Kitab al- lfiss wal-MalJsusY clearly was the p attern for the style as well as much of the material of De'ot Ha- Pilosofim 1 : 6 , as evid e nced by the fact that the Epitome covers o n l y the first s i x of the nine t reat ises of Parva Naturalia, a p h e n o m e n o n repeated in De'ot Ha- Pilosofim, as well as by the fact t h at both De'ot Ha- Pilosofim and Sefer Ha- Nefesh quote the Epitome extensivel y . 3 Accord i ng t o H arry B lumberg,4 I b n Rushd 's Epitome i s n o t so much a commentary as a s ummary of Aristotle's conclusions, rearranged systematically, i n which I bn Rushd eliminated what he regarded as unn eces s ary points, added other p oints and e x p l an ations, and included the views o f l ater p h i l o s o p hers. 2.

3. 4.

O n l y t h e Short Commentary (Epitome) i s extant, n o t his Middle a n d Long Commentaries. A critical edition of the Hebrew translation (Se/er Ha- lfush Veha­ Mul}ash) by M oses i b n Tibbon was edited by H arry B l umberg ( M edieval Academy of A merica, Cambridge, M ass . , 1 954) with an English translat i o n ( Medieval Academy of A merica, Cambridge, Mass., 1 96 1 ). M ichael Scot translated the Epitome fro m Arabic into Lat i n , and Gersonides wrote a supercommentary t o it. A nother s upercommentary, ascribed t o Vital, may h ave been written by N arboni. Cf. B l umberg, Epitome ( Hebrew ed . ) , p p . xi-xv. See notes to Se/er Ha- Ne/esh. BJumberg, Epitome ( English ed.), p . xiv.

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Ibn Fafaquera

1 87

Ihis i s often the method taken by Falaquera i n his treatment of e arlier works i n s u c h b o o k s a s S'efer Ha- Vefesh. D e ' o t Ha- Pi lo so fim. and Moreh Ha-Moreh . Even w h e n ,imrly trans lating, as i n the c ase of his Uqqu!im of I bn Gabirol's Ml'qor Ijayyim. Falaq uera felt free to rearrange the material, eliminating some po ints and add i ng others, BlumbergS says of t he ne'Of lIa- f'i /o s()/im : Falaquera's H e b rew style is clearer and more grammatically correct than that of M oses ibn Tibbo n , and his raraphrase of Averroes' Parva Na turalia helped to illuminate a number of o bscure passages in the Ibn Tibbon text. Falaquera also quotes extensively i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim from I b n Rushd's Middle CommentarJ' o n Aristotle's De A n ima (Tafkhi�' Kitab al-Nafs /i­ 'A ris{uj. 6 Three versions of the Talkhi� ( M iddle Commentary) were kindly provided me b y Professor Alfred I v ry in typescript form: I) The Arabic text, originally i n Judeo-Arabic, b ased on Paris ms. hebreu # 1 009 , 2) The H ebrew translation b y M oses ibn Tibbon, from a manuscript at the Jewish Theological Seminary, 3 ) The Hebre w t ranslat i o n b y S hem T o v b e n I saac, fro m Paris ms. hebreu #940 . The two translations d iffer from each other i n their terminology and style; Falaquera agrees with Shem Toy ben I saac's terminology more frequently than with that of M oses ibn Tibbon. for instance, l i ke Falaljuera, Shem Tov ben I s aac (p. 67 I. 1 2; p. 76 I . 1 0; p . 8 6 I . 4; p . 1 29 I . 1 9) translated faun ( co lo r ) as gavan, where as I b n Tibbon rendered it as mar 'e h ( p . 66 1 . 1 9; p . 7 6 I. 2 ; p., 8 6 1 . 7 ; p . 1 3 1 1 . 7 ) . Shem Tov also reso rted to ad d i n g his own e x p l anatory comments; thus ( p . 59 I . 1 8) : TY7::l 1'/)'0 tlJ1 :J p m 7::l, ni1 'W. The I b n Tibbon text i s missing a section corrcsponding to a pass age i n De A nima 4 1 Ob-4 1 1 b. I n the Ibn Tibbon text (p. 3 9):

5.

6,

Blumberg, Epitome ( F nglish cd , ) . p , x v n , 1 4. Cf. Epitome ( Hebrew ed ,), pp. 1 0- 1 1 . where B l umberg also compares some of the terminology o f Falaquera and I b n Tibbon, I n De'o[ Ha- Pilosoj/m V I : A : 9 , ms. Parma f . 1 6 4 a , m s . Leyden f . 284a ( c ited i n Se/er lIa· Nefi':;h, C h , 1 0 n . I ) , Falaquera criticized M oses ibn Tibbon's translation. I n Jforeh Ha- Moreh. pp, 1 48 - 1 58 , he criticized S amuel ibn Tibbon's tran,lation of the Guide. as he also does in Mikhlav 'af Devar Ha-Moreh. w here he i s more critical of AI-I;I arizi's translation, C L B l umberg, Epitome ( English cd , ), p p , x i - x i i , that Aristotle's D e A n ima was translated into Arabic by J:l unain b , I s�a4 and then fro m Arabic t o Hebrew by Zcra�iah b, I saac ( 1 2th century).

1 88

R ap hae/ Josp e

1� N'il 1VEllil iln'il1 P ill il'il '1VN:J' ilT 1 !J il :J ':J1il1V :J1Vn'1V

line 19

•

l i ne 20

•

•

•

•

.

The corres p o n d i ng text i n the S hem Tov ben I s aac text (with the first and last few words missing i n I b n Tibbon i n p arentheses) is: p age 3 8 l i ne 6 ( from De A nimo 4 1 Ob): ( :J"nn' m" O'il) 1� 1V!Jlil iln'il1 n:J:J ill 1V ,nN' •

•

•

page 4 1 line 1 2 (from De Anima 4 1 1 b) : ill 1Elil:J l'lllil1V :J1Vn'1V (" N' , m ' ' :I N •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

)

Falaquera also frequently quotes similar material fro m I b n Rushd 's Epitome ( S hort Comment ary) of De A nima. 7 I n Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Falaquera often quotes I b n Sin a. Whole sections of Sefer Ha-Nefesh ( part of Chapter 1 5 , all of Chapter 1 8, and the first h al f of Chapter 20) are merely paraphrases of p arts of I b n S i na's Kitab al-Najat, B o o k n , C h apter 6 , which F . R ah m an published i n E nglish a s A vicenna 's Psychology. 8 M any other p assages i n Sefer Ha-Nefesh are similarly b orrowed fro m I b n S i n a's Treatise on Psychology. 9 In some cases, Falaquera took I b n S i na's basic argument, but gave different examples. Throughout Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Falaquera also b orrowed fro m I s i). aq b. f:l u n a i n 's commentary (also called Talkhi� Kitab al-Nafs ) l O and s ometimes d i rectly quoted p assages of as much as a paragraph o r two i n length . M ore o ften, h o wever, Falaquera made a p o i n t s i m i l ar to one made b y I s i).aq b . f:l u n a i n without d i rectly quoting or p araphrasing, a n d these are often p o i nts made by others (e.g., Ibn R u s hd and Ibn S i n a) as well as b y I si).aq . I s i). aq b. f:l un ai n 's term i n ology s o metimes differs from I b n Rushd 's . For example:

7. 8.

9. 1 0.

Isi).aq b . f:lunain

Ibn Rushd

H e brew

English

tamam

kamal

m�'1V

entelechy, perfection

'amm

m ushtarakah

�m1V�

common

E dited b y A . AI-Ahwani (Cairo, 1 950) . A H e b rew translation exists i n manuscript ( V atican 39.5, folios 1 0 1 - 1 26). F. Rahman, A v icenna s Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book n, Chapter VI, with H istorico-Philosophical Notes and Textual I mp rovements on the Cairo Edition (Oxford Univ. Press, 1 952). Edited by S . Landauer, with German translat i o n , i n ZDMG ( Leipzig, 1 87 5 ) , pp. 3 3 5 -4 1 8 . Talkhi� Kitab al-Nafs. ascribed to I sl;laq b. l;I unain, edited by A. Ahwani ( C airo, 1 950). A copy of the text was kindly p rovided me by P rof. Alfred Ivry.

Torah and Sophia: Shem To\' Ihn Fa/aquera

1 89

Occasi onal similarities may also be found in I b n Bajj a's 'Ilm a/- Nall' ( Science of the S oul) , I I Granted , then, that Falaquera borrowed , q uoted , and paraphrased extens ively from these s o urces , what originality m ay we attribute t o h i m and to

Se(er Ha-Ne/esh?

The question itself would not h ave interested Falaquera. As he did in some of his other works, such as De'ot Ha- Pi/osofim, he beg an Se/er Ha-Ne/esh with the words: 1 2 I decided t o c o m p o se a small b o o k o n psycho l ogy, and I composed i t fro m the books of the latter p h i l o s o p hers w h o speak i n the manner of science and researc h . M y words will be brief, and will include most of what they said concerning psychology and what they agreed is scientifically true. Nevertheless, despite this explicit d i sclaimer of originality, the book d oes make an original c o ntribution. 13 First o f all, Falaquera rearranged m aterial t o s u i t h i s

own systematic approach to the subject. 1 4 Second, Falaquera takes independent positions o n some important points. I S Third, and probably most important from Falaquera's own perspective, the book served his explicit i n terest in bringing scie nce and p h i l o s o p h y t o t h e Jewish people, and raising their level of c u l t u re and educat i o n b y providing them with good H e b re w translations and versio n s o f scientific w o r k s . l e

11.

T H E I M PORTANCE O F P S Y C H O LOGY

F o r Falaquera, psychology is prior t o all the other sciences; i t s propositions are

1 1.

Ihn Baijah 's 'Ilm al-Na/s, English translation and notes by M . S . H asan M a'sumi

( K arachi, 1 96 1 ). 1 2. 13.

1 4.

1 5. 1 6.

Sefer Ha-Ne{esh, I nt . , p. I .

See I v ry 's discussion of a similar problem with N arboni, whose originality, accord i ng to [vry, lies in his selection and treatment of s o u rces. (" M oses o f Narbonne's 'Treatise of the Perfection of the Soul', " JQR, 5 7 , N o . 4 [April. 1 967]. pp. 2 7 3 - 274). Cf. [vry, ibid. , p . 2 7 5 : " M ost of t hese internal changes d o not alter the general argument of his sources, and they must simply h ave seemed to Narboni a more logical p resentation of the argument . " See the d iscussion of this, i n relation to I b n S i n a a n d [bn R u s h d i n particular. at the end of this chapter on Falaquera's psychology. Sce Falallue ra's exp l ici t statement t o this effect in his introd uction to [Vu1 Ha­ Pi/usojim (ms. I'arma f. Sa, ms. Leyden f. 1 07a, cited above, C h . I, n o t e 32), on which Se{er Ha- Nefesh is based .

1 90

R aphael Josp e

true and its subj ect is excell ent . Knowledge of one's soul is prior to knowledge of G o d , and i s the highest k nowledge after knowledge of GOd . 1 7 Falaquera's high regard for the impo rtance of p s ychology is evidenced not only by the fact t h at he composed his o nl y systematic work, Sefer Ha-Nefesh, exclusively on psychology, and that psychology pervades many of his other works, b u t also b y h i s repeated reference i n these works to the Delphic M axim, "Know yourself. " 1 8 Thus, in Sefer Ha-Nefesh: 1 9

pW �:J 'WEll n37" ':l �:JO �mll/) ,� �:J' , ' N " :l Y" 'WEll Y" W ,� " �N' �:JO N'in 'l1�n:l c :J n N'ilW C'N:l T�N' 1'N' 'N" ::1 I1Y" ':l �:JO N'ilW il'in . C il'mWEll cn':JWin '11' in'Nil ,n:Jw C'Y'l1il ':J " �N' 'WEll::l ':J " �N P 'Y' 1N" ::1 y,m C'N P 111)Ell Y' : C'W" El il ':J'il::l ::1'11::,) , n N mY" '::I11) il?' Y�il N'ilW' '11' in'Nil I1Y" " 11�" i' 11)Ellil I1Y'" :11' in�Nil •

•

•

•

•

They said that whoever knows his soul knows his Creator, and whoever i s ignorant of knowing his soul i s all the m o re ignorant of knowing his Creat o r . How can one believe t hat a person is wise concerning s o mething else when he is ignorant concerning himself?20 They said t h at those who err h ave forgotten God, and He has caused them to fo rget their souls. And s o i t was written in the

17.

18.

Cf. Sefer Ha-Nefesh, I ntroduction, p p . 1 - 2 , and De'ot Ha- Pilosoftm, V I : A : I , ms . P arma f . 1 48b- I 49a, ms. Leyden f . 273a. Also cf. A ristotle, D e A n ima I , I , 402a, ; 1 - 4. Falaquera is following Ibn R u s hd s statement t o this effect i n his Middle Commentary o n De A n ima, Arabi c (f. 1 03c), p. I , l l . 1 - 5 ; Shem Tov (f. l l I r) p . I , n . 1 - 1 3 ; Ibn Tibbon (f. 64r) p . I , n . 1 - 1 6. Also cf. I s � aq b . l;I u n ai n , Talk hifj, p p . 1 32- 1 3 3 . F o r a comprehensive discussion o f the Delphic M axim, see A . Altmann, "The Delphic Maxim in M edieval I slam and ludais m , " in Studies in Religious Philosophy and Mysticism, p p . 1 -40. In the lfadith, the maxim is attributed to M u�ammad . To Prof. A l t m a n n 's definitive study, I would simply add that the theme of self-knowledge may also be found i n Abraham bar l;Iisd ay's translat i o n of Sefer Ha- TapuaIJ ( i n Goren Nak hon, 1 807): . il 7.)lY ill'::I7.)il1 ilN" ::1 n N n1::17.)il N'il lD�lil nNn p. I b: . '1D1' " " ill" 1 il N ' 1 ::1 n N l'::In TN lD � l il m'1N7.) l'::Iil::l1 p. 3b: O n p . . 2b, we find the idea o f studying the heavens ( m acrocosm) as well as the soul and body (microcosm) t o know God: Y" 1 1::1' l'Y::I 1 N'1::1 nN " ::1' TN.

Also cf. L . G o o d man, Ibn Tufayl 's IJayy Ibn Yaqfan ( Los A ngeles , 1 98 3 ) , p p . 1 7- 1 8 .

19. 20.

Sefer Ha- Nefesh, I nt . , p p . 2 - 3 . Or: " h i s s o u l . " T h e Arabic nafs a n d H e b rew nefesh both convey t h e d o uble meaning of self and soul, which is p layed o n here. This p aragraph is a q uotation fro m I b n Sina, Treatise on Psychology (ed. Landauer), p. 340.

191

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Ibn FalaqucrG'

Te m p le of the Ascetics: Know y o u r s o ul , 2 1 m a n , ,md y o u w i ll know y o u r Creat o r . . . Therefore they s ai d that the k n o wl e d ge of the soul is prior to the k n o w le d ge of G o d , a n d t h at it is t h e most excellent k nowledge after the k n owledge of God . S i m i l arly, in De 'ot Ha- Pilawjim : 22

;-n '::J . p' n il J 1T::! 'r1::J 1 1i: il .i1:JTI{V 1 1:I:J , 1i: 1) il'1))1) V !:l l il r1 I) ::J n v ' l !:l /) 1

1 1{ V /) ir11' ;'ll" ' ;' 1T::! ,'11V'V 0'1{;' 1'i11 .m" 1 1{ ; 11�1/) 1"lll;' 1"lll Y'1' 1{ 1 ;' V 1 :::l 1 /) 1'1:' 1i:'V ' /)1 .1 1{11::11 1V!)J ll" ;'/)ll ':l liW" ';' ; " ;':::l :::l 1 li:l I'I: ll/)J1 .m;1T l" Jll ll'1' 1'I:1;'V 1:::l 1/)1'1:' I'I:;T.V " l'I:i 'T.V!)l .li1l1' ll,m 0'1{ P 1T.V!)l ll' : O'l'/)'P;'/) , n l{ S ince p sycho l o gy is very excellent, as I s h a l l ment i o n , I h av e d welt at length o n this part, because the s u bject req u i res lengt h i ness . A person should s t rive for t h i s k n o w ledge m o re than fo r other k n o wledge, because b y it h e w i l l k n o w his s o u l and h i s C reator. And when o n e cannot believe t h at s o me o n e knows t h e subject of h i s s o u l ,23 it is a p p r o p ri ate t h at one not believe that h e knows the s u bject of anyt h i ng else. 2 4 And we fin d written i n one o f the ancient temples: 2 5 " K no w y o u r s o u l , m a n , and y o u w i l l k n o w y o u r Creat o r . " (Note t h at h e re the reference is t o " o n e o f t h e ancient t e m p l es , " where as Se/er Ha- Ne/esh refers to t h e "Te m p l e o f t h e A scetics . " A l s o note t h at t h e A rabic term rabhaka is translated by Falaquera as both bora 'akha and yo?erkha . ) 26

F alaquera q u o t e s the D e l p h ic M ax i m in several other w o r k s as w e l l . We fin d in Se/er Ha- Mevaqqesh, p.

1 02: 1ill" ll,m 1T.V!)J lill'; ;'liT.V;'

( " S trive to

k n o w y o u r s o u l . and y o u will k n o w y o u r Creat o r " ) . 27 I n '/ggeret Ha- Vikk uaIJ, p.

13,

Falaq uera h as the rabbis saying: 1i1l1' ll,m 0 ' 1{

P IT.V!)J ll'

( " K now y o u r

soul, man, a n d you w i l l know y o ur Creat o r " ) . I n Se/er Ha- Ma'alat, p. 46, Falaquera quotes A ristotle. as given in 1 b n R u s h d 's Middle Commentary o n De A n ima, 2� t o t h e effect that psychol ogy is

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Or: "yourself. " De'ot Ha-Pilosofim V l : A : I , ms. Parma f. 1 48 h . ms. Leyden f. 273a. Or: "that which pertains to hi mself. " Or: "that which pertains to anothe r . " Or: "the Temple of one of the ancients . " See Altmann. "The Delphic M axim etc . , " p . 4. S i m i l arly, when the Seeker is about t o depart after studying three years with the philosopher, the philosopher ( Mevaqqesh, p p . 1 03 - 1 04, end) says: V!llil M:Jrl:1 1'1/)' :11 il'il" . " /),, 1:1 " 1:1I11l1 1'1/)" mp/) )) :1 p mv lWI( 1/;l1(" . . . ' :J V 1 /;l il ' ' :J lV il ' lV rnl:l il 1 V'rlm

28.

Cf. Se/er Ha- Ne/esh, Introduction. p. 2; A ristotle, f)e A mma L I . 402a, 1 - 4; I h n Rushd, Middle Commentary, Arabic, p . 1 . Shem Tov, p . I , I b n Tibbon, p , I .

1 92

Rap hae/ Jospe

prior to the natural and mathem atical sciences, for one cannot know the others until one knows psychology. One who is indifferent to knowing himself is all the more indifferent to knowing God . And then:

.1'1l " y,m C'N 1:l l1Vtll Y' : O" tlI;>PON I;>:l';':l :l1n:l Nllm, We fi nd written in the Temple of Aesculapius: Know your soul, man, and you will know your Creator. (Alexander Altmann29 notes that Ibn S i n a30 m aintained that this maxim was fou n d on the altar [milJrabJ of the Temple of Aesculapius, which Ibn Sina [or his source] confused with the temple of the Pythian Apollo at Delphi. But Falaquera avoids mentioning Ibn Sina's reference to this quotation as taken fro m the Qur'an, Sura 59: 19: "And b e not like those who fo rgot God; and He made them forget their own souls. ) Also i n Se/er Ha-Ma'alot, 3 1 Falaquera says i n the name of Arist otle that, if one does not understand oneself, how can others understand o ne? And the "sage "32 insists that one must first know oneself. 33 "

In 'Iggeret Ha-lfalom, p . 48 3 , Falaquera p osits psychol ogy as a prerequisite for ethics. A person must first study his soul, s o t h at he knows it, i n o rder to know which qualities of his soul to eliminate o r to strengthen. ( M aimonides, in Shemonah Peraqim, Ch. 1 , maintained that j ust as the physician of the body must know i t i n o rder to be able to heal it, s o the physician of the soul must first know it i n order to be able t o h e a l it, i . e . , to improve it ethically.) M o reover, Falaquera continues, psychology is a great science, because pe ople , out of their self-love, see their souls as m o re worthy than they really are , and therefore they need the proper perspective for ethics that only psychology can provid e . 34 I n a variant of this theme, Falaquera similarly sees psychology, i n the sense of recognizing one's own limitations, as necessary for ethics : 35

29.

"The Delphic Maxim etc . , " p . 2.

30.

CL Ibn Sina, Treatise on Psychology (ed. Landauer) , p. 340.

31.

Ma'alot, p . 5 3 . C L HilIel's statement i n Avot 1 : 1 4 : "If I a m not for myse lf, w h o w i l l be? "

Ma'a/ot, p. 79.

32. 33.

Cf. I s \:l a q b . J:I u n ain, Ta/khi�, p . 1 3 3 . I . 1 6: "The p r o o f is t h a t whoever k nows

34.

O n self-love, cL She/emut Ha-Ma'asim, Ch. 5, p . 1 0. '1J�31 ::l:'1X'1V o,xl;> ,'x"

35.

':'1IJ::l:'1 pl;>nl;> 'lVX O"lV!ll:'1 O'::l'X:llJm C"l!l'l:'1 C'l'l31l'1:'1' C',,::l:l:1 'l!l1J xl;> :'1l'1IJN :1 1;>31 I;>x o'om'lJ:'1 C,I;>Y!l:'1 1;>31!l(') l'1IJX:J 'IJ�Y ::l :'1X'lV 'IJ, .,1;> :1�'n C :1lV O'l'l31nl;> j1:l', .l'1IJX::l ,1;> X1;"TlV :l'�:'1' l:'1:llV :11;>" l:'11 m::l'�:'1 n::l1�::l ,1J::lY ,n', :'1I;>YIJ:1 Similarly, the optician advises the Seeker i n Mevaqqesh. p. 8 1 : 'XlV 'll:l ,mN 1" 311 ,ml;>YIJ' 11J::l1l " Y'lV:l 1;>:))'1 0 :'1 , :'1Xlnn1 1lV!ll:i :'1Y�l'1 xl;> 1YIJI;> .::llVnl :'1nx 'i1m O!lXIJ ':I 1I,n TX' . C'N�7Jl:1 'Iggeret Ha-Musar, p . 22.

himself (or: his soul) knows everything else . "

1 93

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera

T'N 'lV£)l� 1V":m� 'l'NIV ,�, , ? N i1 � 1V":Jrl' N? '�1l11� 1V":Jrl� 'l'NIV ,� '?llN i1?11� ,? •

Whoever is not ashamed o f h i mself will not be ashamed before G o d . A n d w hoever is not ashamed of his s o u l has no virtue before Him. Several p assages i n Moreh Ha- Moreh also deal with the imp o rtance and p ri o rity of psychology. Falaquera maintained that psychology entails s o me of the most d ifficult questions i n p h ilosophy. The refore, the Arab philosophers d iffer with the ancients concerning i t . 36 Psychology is indispensable for metaphysics (and , as we shall see, it is classified along with metaphysics); only one who u nderstands the faculties of the soul can understand angels, the separate i n tellects , intermediaries, etc. ( H e refers t o this idea as being expressed in Ibn Gabirol 's poem, Keter MqJkhut). 37 One w h o d oes not d iscuss the s o u l cannot discuss God; only a p e r s o n who h a s studied De Anima c a n u nderstand this.38 A n d according t o Ibn B ajj a, Falaquera says, a person attain s fel icity, i . e . , proximity to G o d , b y knowing himself.39 Falaquera's Liqqu{im ( 5 : 5) of Ibn Gabirol 's Meqor /fayyim (Fans Vitae 5 :4) also refers to the priority of psychology, for anyone who wants to study the principles of existence must first study the essence of the intellect, for the knowledge of this leads t o the knowledge of everything else . Falaquera reiterated the i m p o rtance of the d iscussion of the theoretical intellect for knowledge of metaphysics and the attainment of felicity in De'ot Ha-Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , m s. Parma f. 1 86b, ms. Leyde n f. 299a: T"ll1i1 i1llU '1£)� C'�l1£) C'l"ll1i1 rllljm �ml M il . 1"111i1 i1l:J 'rl::l' N i1 'IN' N'i1 '::l ,,11, .i1:J 'i' ? n . C'IV' £) � i1 'l'1.l'i'lU' " i'1.ll1? m::l" N? l'Ull� il1 N rl 1.l C'Nil1 .m':J::l1i1 ml1" 'i1 �' cmN rll1,? C'i" tVnil C'l"ll1il� , ::lTltV ,1.l::l n'n1.lNil ,nn?llil N'illV 'J£)1.l ':11 :'1 i1l nn�N ?11 " �11? :'I ? 11� ? .

I h ave dwelt at length on this subject. I rep e ated s o me of the s u bjects several times, because this subj ect requires ( being dealt with) at l ength on account of its p rofundity, and because the ancient commentators were d ivided on it. M o reover, i t i s one of the s u bj ects which one desires t o k now, and is one of the h o n o rable (types of) knowledge. A person wants t o know the truth of this matter because i t i s his t rue felicity, as was mentioned above. 36. 37. 38. 39.

Moreh Ha-Moreh 1 : 7 2 , p. 48. Moreh Ha-Moreh 2: 6, p . 89. Moreh Ha- Moreh 2:22, p . 1 1 1 . CL Mevaqqesh. p . 9 7 , that only o ne who understands the essence of the soul can know the truth of i m m o rtality. Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 54 , p. 138. See A. Altmann's discussion of " I b n Bajj a o n Man's Ultimate Felicity, " in Studies in Religious Philosophy and Mysticism. pp. 7 3 - 1 0 7 .

1 94

Rap hae/ Jospe

Psychology is thus not only interrelated with ethics, but with metaphysics as well. Therefore, in his classification of the sciences (e.g. , i n Reshit lfokhmah ) , Falaquera d oes n o t clas sify psychology a s a separate science, b u t s ubsumes it u nder metaphysics. ( H o wever, in Sefer Ha- Me vaqqesh, p. 97, psychology is presented as the eighth and highest branch of p hysics . ) H arry W o l fs o n40 maintained that S p i n o z a was j ustified i n using t h e term "ethics " for metaphysics and psychology; Aristotle had rec ommended inclusion of psychology u nder ethics, since "happiness . . . (is) an activity of the soul . " Therefore, "clearly t h e student of politics must know somehow the facts about the soul . . . The student of p o l itics, then, must study the soul. " 4 1 W o lfs o n continues: Furthermore, i n medieval philosophy, psychology, or at least the treatment of the higher functio n s of the soul, was removed fro m p hysics a n d p l aced under metaphysics . Thus, t h e Ikhwan aH�afa, B aJ; y a i b n P akuda, Judah H a-Levi, A b r ah a m i b n Ezra, and Shemtob Falaquera, i n their enumeration o f the topics of met aphysics, include under i t the science of the s o u l and the intellect. Elsewhere,42 Wolfs o n wrote: I n s o me of these lists, ( I k hwan al-S afa, Judah H a-Levi, I b n Ezra, S hem-tob Falaquera) , certain p h ases of psychology, especially of the higher faculties of the soul, o r human psychology par excellence, are included in metap hysics . In Aristotle, psychology is part of physics, and so it is treated by A vice n n a and A lgazali . The reas o n for the i nclusion of the treatment of the higher faculties of the soul i n metap hysics, o r rather theology, is probably due t o the close relation of the subj ect to the problems of religio n . I t is interesting to note that t h e necessity o f self-knowledge for knowledge o f God finds expression i n Jewish mysticism a s w e l l a s philosophy. A s Gers h o m S c h o l e m has writte n : 43 " M ysticism postulates self-kn owledge, to use a Platonic term, as the surest way to God, who reveals H imself in the depths of the self. "

40. 41. 42. 43.

H . A. Wolfson, The Philosophy of Spinoza, I (Cleveland, 1 96 1 ), p . 3 7 . Nicomachean Ethics I , 2 , l 1 02 a (Ross translation). Idem, "Classification of the Sciences i n M e dieval Jewish Philosophy , " i n H UCA Jubilee V o l u me ( 1 925), p . 294. G . Scholem, Majo r Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York, 1 965), p . 1 8 .

1 95

Torah and Sophia: Shem To v Ibn Fa/aquera

I l l . T H E D E F I N I TI O N OF T H E S O U L

L i k e A r i s t o t l e ,44 Falaquera, i n t h e first c h apter of Sefer Ha- Nefesh. mai ntains t h at mot i o n and sensible percept i o n p rove the existence of the s o u l . The mot i o n of b o d ie s c a n n o t be red uced to n atu ral mo t i o n , since the re a r e b o dies whi c h move in m an y d irections othe r than their natural m o t i o n ( s u c h as t h e u p w ard m o t i o n o f fire). O n ly s o m e b o d ies are capable o f perceptio n . But if perception were a function o f the body, the n all b o d ies would have the capacity to perreive. The e xistence of the soul is therefore s o mething evident (mevo 'a r). B ut t he s o u l (nefesh) is n o t the s ame as the s p i ri t (ruaIJ). 45 I n t he second chapter o f Sefer Ha-Nefesh. "On the s p irit which bears the faculties o f the s o u l , " in which he fol l ows Galen's d iscussion of the s p irit , Falaquera defines the s p irit as c o m p osed of the p u rity of the hurnors w h e n t hey mix and become o ne m i xe d for m . The s p irit is fo rmed in the heart, a n d i ts repository is the left chamber of the heart, fro m w h i c h i t extends t o the other o rgans. The s p i r i t i s a l s o defined here as a fine v apor, t he p rinciple of which i s the breathed air. In his d istinction of sp irit fro m soul (the defi n ition of which follows), Falaquera seems t o follow I s aac I sraeli. I sr aeli, in his Se/er Ha- RuaiJ Ve-ha­ Nefesh ( B o o k on the S p irit and the Soul), said: 46 K n o w t h at t he s o u l i s a resplendent s i m p l e s ubstance; "simple " means: exempt fro m c o m p o siti o n and t he q ualities, viz . warmth, c o l dness, humidity and dryness, and not fal ling under the sense o f s i g h t . T h e s p irit , o n t h e o t h e r hand, is h um id , and is i n the c avity of the heart o n the left-hand s id e . The heart has two cavities, one o n

44.

Cr. A r i s t o t l e De A nima I, 2, 403 b , 2 5 ; I ll , 3, 4 2 7 a , 1 5 ; I l l , 9 , 4 3 2 a , 1 5 . A l s o c f. I b n ,

Sina, in Rahman,

Talkh i!f:

A vicenna s Psychology,

C h . 2 , p p . 2 5 - 26 , a n d I b n R u s h d ,

A r a b i c p . 9 1 . 9 , S h e m T o v p . 8 . I . 2 0 , I b n T i b b o n p . 9 1 . 1 2; A r a b i c p . 1 1 2 1 .

4, S h e m T o v p . 9 8 1 . 4, I b n T i b b o n p . 9 8 1 . I ; A r a b i c p . 1 3 7 1 . 6, S he m T o v p . 1 20 I . 1 3 , I b n Ti b b o n p . 1 2 1 1 . 1 3 . S e e 45.

Sefer Ha-Nefesh.

Ch. I , note I .

Falaquera's d iscussion o f t h e natural, vital a n d s p i r i t u a l ( psychic) s p i rits, i n Sefer

Ha- Nefesh.

C h . 2, is b ased on G ale n . See

B r o c k 's I nt r o d u c t i o n t o

Sefer Ha-Nefesh,

C h . 2, n o t e 5 , a n d A . J .

G ale n s O n t h e Natural Faculties ( L o e b e d i t i o n , N e w Y o r k , '

1 9 1 6 ) , p p . x x x iv - x x x v . Acc o r d i n g t o W a l t h e r R i e s e , " t h e t h ree Plat o n i c s o u l s o f m a n recu rred i n G a l e n 's d oc t r i n e a s t h ree types o f p n e u m a o r s p i r i t " ( I n t r od u c t i o n t o G a l e n 's

O n t h e Passions a n d Errors of t h e Soul,

t r a n s . P a u l H a r k i n s , O h i o S t ate

U n iv . Press, 1 96 3 , p. 1 5) . 46.

A . A l t m a n n a n d S . M. Stern, Isaac Israeli: A Neoplatonic Philosopher of the Early

Tenth Century ( L o n d o n ,

1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 1 08 - 1 09 . See t h e d is c u s s i o n t h e r e of the t e x t u a l

d i ffic u l t y , o f l o c a t i n g t h e v i t a l spirit = n atural w a r m t h i n o n l y o n e c h am b e r o f the

Tahafut al- Tahafut. p. De'o t Ha- Pilosofim. m s . P a r m a f. 60a,

h e a r t . On t h e n a t u r a l warmth as s u b st r at u m , cf. I b n Rushd, 5 70 ( V a n d e n B e r g h ed . , V o l . , 2 , p . 353), a n d m s . L e yd e n f. 1 46 a .

-

1 96

Raphae/ Jospe

the right side, in which is the vital spirit, called by the philosophers "natural warmth, " which is found i n animals and bird s . I s raeli defines the s pirit i n his Book of Deflnitions: 47

(#8)

O n the vital spirit. The ancients agree that the spirit is a subtle body which pervades, fro m the heart and t h rough the arteries, the whole body and gives it life , respirat i o n in the l u ng and pulse in the arteries. It ascends to the brain, and fro m there it

pervades, through the nerves, the whole body and gives it sense­ perception and movement. F o r I s rael i , the difference between the s pirit and the s o u l i s t h at the spirit i s a corporeal substance confined i n and surrounded by the body, which perishes with the body, whereas the soul i s an incorporeal substance surrounding and contai n i ng the body, which remains and survives after its separation fro m the body. Falaquera agrees with I sraeli o n this type of a distinction between s p i ri t and soul. He rej ects as absurd (batel), in his discussion in Chapter Nineteen of Sefer Ha-Nefesh, "On the opinions of the ancients o n the soul, " the views that the soul is an atom, o r fire, or water, or a vapor, o r the natural heat, or God . (The people who maintain this last view are characterized as heretics [koferimJ and p olytheists [mishtattefimJ ) In truth, he says, the soul i s a p rinciple (hatlJalah) and substance which functions through various faculties, each of which has its unique and specific funct i on. This vi ew , t hat t he soul is a principle an d substance, is supported elsewhere,4 8 i n Falaquera's discussion of the philosophy of Aristotle:

C"n7 7::Jp7:lil 'WOlil 'Y::J�il ClYil mil7:l il::J 'WN N'il WOlil .n'7:mil' il'Ui11 'Y'Oil 1" 'Y , ilW'W C':::l " 7Y il,nnilil N'il WOlil

•

•

•

.

.

•

The soul is that which has t he essence of a natural, s p i ritual substance . . . which receives life . . . The soul is a principle i n t h ree ways, as the efficient, formal and final (cause). The soul is thus a spiritual substance, independent of the body. Falaquera stated that P l ato p roved t h at the soul i s separate fro m the body, si nce i t forms the body; it is different fro m natural heat, which does n o t h ave the soul's faculty of co ncept u alizat io n . 49 Thus those who argue that the soul i s an accident are wrong, for accidents cannot subsist without substance, and the soul would not

47. 48. 49.

Altmann and Stern, lsaac Israeli, pp. 48-49. Reshit lfokhmah, p . 8 5 . Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 72, p p . 47-48.

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tor Ihn Falaquera

1 97

be able, if it were an accident, to exist without the body and to survive ipo It is p recisely the substantiality of the soul that leads Falaquera, i n the third chapter of Serer Ha- Nefesh. to d efine the soul as entelechy rather than as fo rm. In e m p h asizing, as we shall see. t h at entelechy refers t o substantive t h i ngs, Falaq uera attempted to resolve a problem resulting fro m Aristotle's definition of the soul as the entelechy of a natural body p otentially having life i n it.5 1 For when Falaquera defined the soul as the "primary entelechy o f a natural body endowed with organs, " he continued: 52 They said "entelechy" and not "form" because entelechy i ncludes only substantive t h i ngs, w hereas for m includes accidental things such as shapes. Therefo re the soul was described as an entelechy, t o make known t h at i t i s substantive and not accidentaL There are two kinds of entelechies: one is that the thing is the entelechy itself, such as the heat i n rel at i o n to fire; for heat is the entelechy of the fire b y which it is fire. The second is that the t h i ng i s the agent of the entelechy, l i ke the sailor who i s t h e entelechy of the b o at , i . e . , i n t h at he actualizes t h e entelechy . . . E very for m is an entelechy, but not every e ntelechy is a for m . For the sailor is the e ntelechy of the b o at , but he is not its for m . Whatever i s an entelechy separate fro m the subst ance is not truly a for m i n matter. The soul, insofar as i t is the form of the body, is inseparable fro m it. But insofar as it is an independent substance, it must be considered the entelechy, and not the form, of the body. The analogy of the soul as the entelechy of the body, t o the sailor as the entelechy of his b o at. the cause of its motion,53 has i m p lications for the question of the soul's independence of the body, since the sailor is clearly independent of the boat (and thus, i n Falaquera's terms, is its entelechy but not its fo rm), whereas the soul i s n o t necessarily independent of the body. Aristotle uses the i m age of the sailor in the boat to differentiate essential from accidental motion ( De A n ima I , 3 . 406a) . Falaquera, possibly with a view toward the belief i n t h e i m m o rtality of the soul, clearly states that the soul can be independent: Therefore, when we say that the soul is an entelechy, we i nclude all species of soul, i ncluding the definition of the soul which is separate from m atter.54 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

Moreh Ha- Moreh 3 : 1 5 , p . 1 24. Falaquera similarly stresses the substantiality o f the soul i n De'ot Ha- Pi/oso(im V I : A : 3 , m s . Parma f . 1 55a, ms. Leyde n f. 278a. Cf. De A nima II, 1 , 4 1 2-4 1 3 . Sefer Ha-.Yefesh. Ch. 3 , p . 5 . On t h e sources o f t h i s analogy t o the sailor as the entelechy o f his boat, s e e Sefer Ha- Nefesh. Ch. 3, n . 7. Se(er Ha- Ne(esh. Ch. 3, p. 6 .

1 9R

Rap/we! Jospe

But Falay uera explicitly restricts that independence fro m the body t o t h e intellect a l o n e , since a l l the other faculties of the soul utilize bodily o rgans, and thus are dependent on them, and perish with them . F. Rahman. in his i ntroduction t o A vicenna \' Psycho logy . 5 5 n o tes t h at for A ristotle. the s o u l i s not i n d ependent o f the body. Aristotle's defi n i t i o n of t h e s o u l i n D e A n ima is n o t o f a separate subst ance, b u t of the entelechy o f a natural, o rganized body, and i t has no activity independent of the b o d y . Rahman n o t e s that Aristotle also holds, with Plato, t h at the body i s the instrument of the soul ( De A n ima 1I, 4, 4 1 5 b ) , and does refer to the analogy of the p i l o t in h i s b o at ( 1 I , i , 4 1 3 a) . ( R ahman d o e s n o t mention that t h i s reference i s m o re in the fo rm of a question than an asserti o n as t o t h e validity of t h e analogy, i n Aristotle's term s . ) H e quotes A lexander of Aphrodisi as as accepting t he A ristotelian view of the soul as the form of the body, while rejecting the analogy of the pilot and his boat; the soul is not the pilot but the art of the pilot, and yet the soul i s a substance, s ince i t accepts contrary qualities, a characteristic of substance s . According t o R ahman, the substantiality of the soul is a d octrine derived fro m Plotinus, in opposition t o t h e Pythagorean harmony o r Aristotelian entelechy. For Falaquera, the soul as a whole i s the entelechy of a natural, o rganic body, but only the intellect i s a n i ndependent, i m mortal substance. This resolution of the d ifficulty of maintaining both views of the soul ( as entelechy and substance) i s fou n d i n I b n S i na's A l-Sh ila' I : I . 56 S i nce the soul i s sep arable from matter, it i s an entelechy and not form (as Falaquera also maintained). H owever, t o say t h at the soul i s an entelechy is n o t to describe the nature of the soul itself, but merely to describe its relationship to the b o d y , as a m a n i s t h e b ui l d e r of a building. Thus the s o u l i s an e ntelechy. But i t i s also a substance, because only a substance is capable of independent existence. That the s o u l is i n fact independent in its existence i s p roved for I b n Sina by the fact that it is conscious of itself as sep arate fro m t h e b o d y . The soul i s thus incorporeal and s ubstantive. But this applies only to the human soul (in virtue of its having the faculty of i ntellect) 57 In De'ot Ha- Pi/usofim V I : A : I , m s . Parma f. 1 50b- 1 5 1 a, m s . Leyden f. 275a, Falaquera fully discusses the nature of the motion of the soul, the analogy of the sailor (or p i lot) of the boat, and the i m p lications of all of this for t h e q uestion o f the i n dependence of t hat part of the soul, the intellect, which does not employ a bodily organ: 55.

56. 57.

Rahman, A vicetltla s PsycholuK;-, p p . 3 - 8 . CL D. Ross, A ristotle (New York, 1 964), p . 1 32 : "It will be seen that Aristotle is n o holder of a two-substance d octrine. Soul and body arc not two substances, but i nseparable elements i n a s ingle substance . . . Nor can soul exist disembod ied - though here Aristotle makes a reservation in favour of the highest element i n the human soul, the active reason . " See Rahman, A v icenna :v Psychology, p p . 8 - 9 . S e e Rahman, ibid. , p p . 9- 1 2.

10rah al1d Sophia: Shem Tov

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The absurdity of w h at some h ave said , t h at the soul moves itself, has already been made clear in w h at p receded, i . e . , in the first p art . Their stateme n t , t h a t it move s , requi res that we analyze i f it i s s o . A nd we say that whatever moves must either move essentially or partially o r accidentally, i . e . , i n respect of its moving even though it is not its nature to move. Whatever moves o n account of something else, moves l i k e a man in a boat, who moves not essentially but b y the motion of the boat. S o mething which moves accidentally i s like the whiteness which moves with the moving body i n w hich i t subsists . . . And if we should say t hat it ( i . e . , the soul) moves i n one of these ways o r i n all of them, i t is necessarily i n a body, for every t hing that moves is body . . . A nd all this is false . . . H e said , the reaso n there i s doubt co ncerning the s o u l which i s in motion i s t h e speculat i o n concerning what motions may be attributed t o it, for we find that we attribute many motions to it, as when we say that i t worries, rej oices, perceives, is angry, and recogniles, all of which are its motions. Therefore a person t h i n k s at fi rst that i t is i n motion, b u t this i s not necessarily so , because all of these are motions of parts of the b o d y along with the soul, and not of the soul itself. There is no difference between our saying "Iet's go" and our saying "let's worry" or "let's rej oice , " for

1 99

200

Rap hae/ .Iosp e

j us t as one cannot think t h at walking is a motion of the soul, so it is the case when we attribute the other motions to the soul . . . R ather, the o rgan i n respect of which these motions are related to the soul, is evident i n some of the activities of the soul, but i n others it i s hidden, a n d i n others i t is d u b i o u s , such as with recogniti o n , for i t i s difficult fo r us to say by which organ this function of the soul exists . . . Therefo re , what is correct is fo r us not t o attribute anger t o the soul, but t o the pers o n w h o is a combinat i o n of body and soul . . . Although we attribute this to h i m i n respect of the soul, i t is not i n respect of the m o t i o n being in the s o u l ; rather so metimes its principle i s in the s o u l , which i s then active, and sometimes its end i s in the soul, and then it is an affection of the soul. The s o u l , then, is not i n motion. The person as a whole (body and soul) i s in m o t i o n . T h u s f a r the s oul as a w h o l e i s inseparable fro m the b o d y . B u t t h i s is not the case with the intellect, which i s unique and s e p a r a ble i n v irtue o f i t s n o t e m p l o ying any bodily o rgan. The i ntellect alon e , therefore, s u rvives the body: 5R ;'1:1 'IJNJtIl ,::l1J ,1J,,:::l �1l;'11J li" :lJ tIl�J;'1 l'NtIl " ";'1 ;'1TIJ ;'1N'" .'IJN

:I , , :J i1TtIl � , � . ;" i" n:J T"lY;' p' ' � ' :J IJ ; o m . n 1 IJ ' tIl , " ;" n �'i1t1l i1';,'tIl YllJl 'l'�tIl 'l!:l1J , ' �' :J IJ 'l'X cn:!l i'lJ:J ':J� , ' X,:l1J X,i1 i1'i',n ',:::l 1J ',:::l tIllJtIllJ 'l'�tIl 'l�1J '�;'1 m 'Y �U, mlJ'w 'l'N ;'1 ' i' ,n lJ i',n

li1lJ7t1l n71J;'1t1l ,1J:l �1l;'1 li1lJ71/) tIl�lil O N " p n 7 l',::l p 7 Y '

•

•

•

�1l;'1

"'0 �';'1 'J,'l';'1 n:::l ;'1 , � 7:::l tll ;'1 t1l ;'1�'" . ' �':l1J m 1'N , p 'l'� ,� m'�o;'1 'n::l);'l 7':lJtIl ,1J:::l ,JlJIJ 7':I'tIl ' tIl � � ,,:1, il T ;'1'il" .tIl�Ji11J ;'11J 'n�

. CI" ,:JJ Cl'�tIl " 1;'1 ;'1TIJ ;,�" tIl�li1 'i',n ,�tIl ':I� . 'O�li11J

H e said, i t i s evident fro m t h i s defi n i t i o n t h at the soul i s n o t separate fro m t h e body, i . e . , i n respect of o u r saying that it i s its fo rm and entelechy. This is clear, and so is the notion of its p arts , b u t it is o n l y c l e a r concerning most of its p arts, but i t i s not clear concerning some of them, because i t i s not impossible that o n e of its p arts is not an e ntelechy of the body in this respect, because i t does n o t employ any of the body's o rgans . . . Therefore, i t i s necessary t o i nvestigate whether t h e s o u l is t h e entelechy of the body as the sailor is the e ntelechy of the boat, or whether this is not the case; this is not clear. It i s evident that the i ntellect, o r the theoretical faculty, i s a d i fferent genus than the soul. I t al one can be separate fro m (the body), j ust as s o mething eternal i s separate fro m s omet h i ng corrup t i b l e . But t h e other parts of the soul, as is evident from this definition, are not separate. While the soul as a whole may thus b e described as the e ntelechy of the body, 58.

/)I" ot Ha- Piloso{im V l : A : 3 , m s . Parma f. 1 5 5 b - 1 56a, ms. I.eyden f. 278a.

Toruh and Sophiu. Shf'm Tov

lbll lillaquera

20 1

ultimately only t he intellect is a separate substance. Although the problem of the defi nitio n of the soul as entelechy or substance i s , as Rahman showed, made exp licit only by the c o mmentators o n Aristotle, the problem and its solution are i m p l icit already i n Aristotle. Ihe mere fact that ;\ristotle d raws the analogy t o the s a i l o r or p i l o t i n h i s b o at ( t he s a i l o r o bv i o u s l y b e i n g independent of t he boat) i m p l ies recognition of the problem. But we a\so h ave ;\ristotle's statement in De A nima 1 1 , 2 , 4 1 3b , which seems t o set u p the solution t h at I b n S i n a and Falaquera had in mind: We h ave n o evidence as yet about mind o r the power to t h i n k : i t s e e m s t o be a w i d e l y different k i nd of souL diffe r i ng as t o wh at is eternal fro m what i s perishable: i t alone i s capable of e xistence in isolation fro m all other psychic powers. ;\ 1 1 other p arts of the soul . . . are, i n sp ite of certain statements to the contrary, incapable of separate existence, though, of course, d istinguishable by defi ntion . Thus, as Falaquera says,5Y The soul is not separate fro m the b o d y in respect o f our having said that it is the e n telechy of the body and i t s for m . R a t h e r , this i s c l e a r c oncerning most of its parts, except for the intellectual p art which d oes not employ any o rgan. And any faculty which does not use an organ is not a soul except i n an equivocal sense. It i s o n l y the intellect t h at i s m a n 's "final for m " (;;urato ha-qi;;vit). (,() M a n has death i n c o m m o n with the animals ( a n d , as we have seen, the lower faculties of the soul, which function by means of b o d i l y organs, perish a l o n g with t h e b o d y ) , but h e has reason ( o r s peech, a function of reason, w h i c h d oes n o t e m p l o y any b o d i l y organ) i n c o m mo n with t h e angels. 6 1

I V . F;\LAQ U E R A 'S S C H E M E OF T H E S O U L'S F A C U LTI E S Falaquera's d iscussion o f t h e s o u l a n d i t s faculties i n Se/er Ha- Nelesh is n o t always entirely consistent. T h i s i s l argely due to the fact t h at in different chapters of the book he reviews m aterial already discussed, and that in some chapters he presents a general overview, while in other chapters he deals w i t h specifics. To a certain extent, the i n c o nsistencies relate to the d i fferent sources which Falaquera i s quoting. For example, i n Chapter 1 8 , w h ich i s taken

59.

60. 61.

Sefer Ha- Nefesh. Ch. 3, p. 6. Ma'a/ol. p . 35. The text i s corrupt, and has zurato instead of ?lIralo. O n the use of the term "speech" ( H ebrew: medabher; A rabic: Iw!iqah ) for reason , see Sefer lIa- Nefesh. C h . 1 4. n . 1 .

202

Raphael Jospe

entirely fro m I b n S i na's Kitab al- Najat, B o o k 1 1 , Sect i o n 6 ( R ah m an , A vicenna 's Psychology, Chapters 1 - 6) , Falaquera identifies t h e i nforming faculty ( Lati n : in/ormans; H e b rew: me:;a)' .l'er; Arabic: muta.I'a 'i'.'wirah) with the i magi n at i o n ; b u t i n C h apters 1 2 a n d 1 3 ( b ased o n T b n Sina's Treatise on Psychology, I b n R ushd's Epitome of Par\'{[ Naturalia, Epitome of De A n ima, and Middle Commentary on De A n ima, and Aristotle's De A n ima ) , Falaquera identifies the i nforming faculty with the common sense . 62 S ometimes the inco nsistency reflects inconsistency within Falaquera's s ource. F o r example, Falaquera's scheme of the theoretical intellect in Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Chapter 20, the first half of which is taken d i rectly fro m I b n S ina's Kitab a/-Najat 1 I : 6 ( Chapter 1 6 i n A vicenna :v Psychologl). h as a threefo ld scheme of the human theoretical intellect ( I . potential o r hylic; 2 . actual; 3. emanated) plus the active intellect ; whereas h i s scheme in ,"" efer Ha- Nej'esh, Chapter 1 8 , which is a paraphrase of I b n S ina's Kitab al-Najat 1 1 : 6 (Chapters 5 - 6) in A vicenna 's Psych% g\' ) , has a fou rfo ld scheme of the human intellect ( l . hylic, material, or potential; 2 . acqu i red; 3 . actual; 4. emanated) plus the active i ntellect. I t is also not immediately clear exactly where the appetitive faculty, or desire (mit 'a v veh ve-n iqra ' mit"o rer) belongs i n Falaquera's scheme.D3 I n Se/er Ha- Nefesh, Chapter 1 7, this faculty follows ralaquera's 'discussi o n of the i nternal senses. But i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 4 , ms. P arma f. I lna, ms. Leyden f. 1 30a ff. , the discussion of appetite follows the d i scussi o n of ratio nal faculty, and is i n t h e same section o r chapter as t h e rational faculty.64 What fol l o w s is the scheme of the s o u l and its faculties i n Seler Ha - Nelesh Different views and specifics will be discl,Issed later.

.

The three basic parts of the soul, as d i scussed in Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Chapter 1 8 ( p araphrasing lbn S i n a's Kitab al-Najat 1 I : 6, i n A vicenna 's Psychology Chapters 1 - 6) are: ( 1 ) the vegetative soul, defined as the primary entelechy of a natural o rganic body, i n the aspect t h at i t is nourished and grows; (2) the animal soul, defined as the p rimary entelechy of a natural organic body i n the aspect t h at i t perceives particulars and moves by will; and (3) the human soul. defined as the primary entelechy of a n atural organic body i n the aspect t h at it p e rforms functions generated by rational will, and in the aspect that it perceives u niversals.

62.

63 .

64.

lbn Sina's Trealise on Psychology (ed . Landauer, p . 3 5 2) has "com m o n sense, i.e. the informing faculty . " According to B l u mherg ( Ep it ome. p . 78 n, 1 09, and p . 83 n, 1 38 ) , I h n Sina also applies the term f111 ua.)aw w irah to hoth the imagination a n d common sense. A ri s t ot l e De A nirna I l l , 9 , 432b, 3ff speaks of the d ifficulty of classifying the app e t i ti ve faculty. This d iscrepancy may reflect different sources employed bv Fal aquera. ,

Torah and 50phia: Shem To\' Ibn I{""quem

203

THE S C H E M E OF THE SOUL I . The veKetative soul ( D iscussed i n Seler Ha-Nefesh, Ch, 5 , b ased o n A r i s t o t l c 's

f)e A llima,

Gaien,

Ibn S i na 's Najat and Treatise 0 11 FITCh% gy, I b n R ushd 's Jfiddle Commclltarl' on De A n ima, IsJ:laq b . i:l un a i n 's Ta!khis. and in C h . I � . based o n I b n S i na's Najat and Shila ' and I b n R u s h d ' s tlN/olll c of De A n illl a . ) The vegetative s o ul is b orne by t h e n atural heat which i s i t s organ. The veget ative soul has t h ree faculties:

1 . Nutrition, which preserves the body, and i s l i k e its p r i n c i p l e . I t m o v e s ( i . e . , activat e s ) the natural heal. and i s t hus active. The n a t u r al h e a t i s m oved by t h e n u t ritive s o u l , a n d i n t u r n i t moves the fo o d . which is e n t i rely p assive.

2. Growth. which p erfects the body, like a means, and i s the entelechy of n u t r it i o n .

3 . Pro creation, which e n s u re s t h e s u rvival o f the species, i s like i t s e n d , and i s t h e entelechy o f growth. Neither growth n o r procreat i o n functions in o l d age. 11.

The animal soul

ID Se/l'r Ha- Nelesh, C h . 6, based on A ristotle 's De A n ima, I b n R u s h d 's Middle Commentan on De A n ima, l s b aq b . .l;I u n ai n 's Talkhi!j, and in C h . 1 8 , based on l b n S i na . )

(Discussed in general

The a n i m al s o u l i s c haracterized b y m o t i o n , w i l l , p e rcept i o n , a n d appetite. ( A s w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , it i s n o t clear e xactly where a p p e t i t e fit s i n t o Falaq uera 's scheme, b u t we l i s t it h e re s i nce his d iscussion of appetite i n Sefer Ha- Nc/£'sh, Ch. 1 7 , fol l o w s his d iscu s s i o n of the i nternal sense s . )

1 . Motion The a n i m al h as the capacity to move b y w i l l t o w h at is s u i t a b l e , and t o fle e fro m s o m e t h i n g harmfu l .

2 . Percep tion A n i m a l s h ave external and i n t e r n a l senses b y w h i c h they p e rceive . The five external senses perceive sensible for m s , and t h e i nternal s e n s e s perceive fo rms o r n o t i o n s . I n C h . 1 8 , Falaq u e r a defi n e s for m as t h at which t h e internal s o u l perceives t o g e t h e r with the external sense, after the sense perceives it. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e lamb perceives the for m , p r o perties, and c o l o r of the w o lf. A n o t i o n i s d efin e d as that which the soul perceives without the external sense fi rst having perceived it. For example, the l a m b perceives t h e n o t i o n of d anger i n the w olf.

( I ) The externa! senses i. Sight (Discussed i n . S efer H a-Nefe s h , Ch. 7 , based o n l b n R us h d 's

204

Raphar/ Jospe

Ep itome of Parva Naturalia and Middle Commentary o n De A nima, I s J:1 aq b. I:J u n a i n and I b n S i n a . ) The faculty of sight is located i n the changing concave nerve; its o rgan is the eye. ii. Hearing ( Discussed i n . Sefe r H a-Nefe s h , Ch. 8, based on Arist otle, I b n Rushd 's Middle Commen tary o n D e A n ima, I b n S i n a 's Treatise on Psychology, I sJ:1aq b. I:I u n ai n . ) T h e facu l t y o f hearing i s l ocated i n t h e n erve of t he ear cavity called samak (thickness). Its o rgan i s the ear. iii. Smell ( Discussed i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Ch. 9 , based o n Aristotle, Ibn R u s h d 's Middle Commentary on De A n ima and Epitome of Parva Naluralia.) The faculty of smell is l o c ated i n t h e protuberances o f the anterio r of the brain which resemble the tips of the breasts. Its o rgan is the nose. iv. Taste ( D iscussed in Sefer Ha-Nefesh. C h . 1 0 , b ased on Aristotle, Ibn Rushd 's Middle Commen tary o n De Anima and Epitome of Parva Naluralia and I sl:1aq b . I:J u n a i n . ) T h e faculty of t aste is located i n the flat nerves of the tongue ; its organ i s t he tongue. v . Touch ( D i scussed in Sejer Ha- Nefe.l'h. C h . 4. based on Aristotle, Is\:laq b. I:Iu n a i n . I b n R u s h d 's Middle Commentary o n D e Anima and Ep itome of Parva Naturalia, I b n S i n a's Najat and Treatise on

Psychology, and i n C h . 1 1 , b ased on Aristotle, Ibn Rushd's Middle Commen tary o n D e A n ima a n d Epitome of Parva Naturalia, Is\:laq b. �{u n ai n . ) Touch is t h e p r i m ary external sense necessary fo r t h e su rvival of the animal, whereas the other senses are only necessary for its well-being. This faculty is l ocated throughout the s k i n a n d flesh. Its o rgan is the fles h . 65

65.

I n SeJer lIa- Nelesh. Ch. 1 1 , and De'of Ha- PilosoJim V I : A : 1 0. ms. Parma f. 1 6 5 b ff, m s . Lcyden f. 2 8 5 a ff. . t h e que stion is raised whether the flesh is the organ of touch ( e r . Aristotle, De Parfihus A n imalium I T , I , 647a) or whether the fle s h is the med ium of touch (cf. Aristotle. De A n im a H , 1 1 , 423b) as air is the medi u m of the other senses, in which case the o rgan of touch is internal. Falaquera c o ncludes here

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Ibn Falaquera

205

( 2) The internal senses 66

i. The common sense ( Discussed i n Se/er Ha Ne/esh Ch. 1 2, b ased on Aristotle, I b n Rushd 's lvliddle Commentary on De A nima, Epitome of De A n ima, EpilOme of Parm Saturalia, I bn Sina 's Treatise on -

,

Psychology . ) I n Chapters 1 2 a n d 1 3 , common sense is associated with the i nforming faculty ( Hebrew: mqayyer; A rabic: muta�awwirah ) . I t receives and combines the forms of the five external senses, and is located behind the l ast membrane of the eye i n the first ventricle of the brain.

ii. Compositive animal imagination ( Discussed in Se/er Ha- Ne/esh, Ch. 1 3 , b ased on Aristotle, I b n R ushd 's Middle Commentary on De A n ima, Epitome of De A nima, I b n Sina's Treatise on Psychology. ) H arry Wolfson67 suggested calling this faculty dimmayon u­ me:;ayyer, o n the basis of Ch. 1 8 , which i s based on I b n Sina. But o n the basis of Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 :47, p. 24,68 it should simply be called medammeh ( Arabic: m u talJayyilah ) I t combines imagi nat i o n and estimation and retain s what the common sense receives from the five senses. Its location is the end of the anterior ventricle of the brai n . i i i . Comp osilive h uman imagination ( D iscussed in Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Ch. 1 3 , on De A n ima, Epitome of De A nima, and I b n Sina's Treatise on Psycho logy. ) Wolfson s uggested calling this faculty medammeh or melJashev

6f,.

67.

6g.

and in Moreh Ha- Moreh 2 : 2 2 . p p . 1 1 1 - 1 1 2, that fles h i s t h e o rgan, a n d that touch ooes not req U i re a med IUm because of the i m med i ate contact with the sensible o bject. See Blumberg, tpitome, p . 69 n . 3 1 ; Rahman, A vicenna 's Psychology, p . 76; Sefi'r Ha-Nefesh, Ch. 1 1 , n. 5 . O n the locations of the internal senses, Falaquera follows I b n R ushd. See Sefer Ha- Nefesh, C h . I f,. n. 1 0 . I b n E a a ( C o m mentary on Exodus 3 1 : 3 ) goes further, assigning aspects o f the rational faculty locations i n the b rain as well. H . A . Wolfson. " The I nternal Senses i n Latin, A rabic, and Hebrew Philosophical Texts, " reprinted in SIlIJies ill the Histon o( Philosophy and Religion (Cambridge, M as s . , 1 97 3 ) . pp. 2S0- 3 1 4. In Ch. I R the informing faculty is identified with i magination, but in C h . 1 2 a n d Ch. 1 3 i t is clearly identified w i t h common sense. "Ibn Sina wrote . The faculty of imagination i s called imagination (medammeh) i n analogy t o the animal soul. and it is called cognition (f;oshev) i n analogy t o the ratio nal faculty . "

206

Raphlll'l ]ospe

o n the basis of C h . 1 8 . But on the b asis of Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 :47, p . 24, it s h o uld be called f;oshev ( A rabic: mufakkirah ) . It comb ines i m agination and cognition and combines and separates forms i n t h e i magi n at i o n . Its l ocat i o n is c l o s e to the mid d le ventricle o f the brain.

iv. Estimation ( Discussed i n Sefer Ha- Ncfesh, C h . 1 6 , which is entirely taken from Ibn R u s h d 's Epitome of Parva Naturalia, Book H, Ch. I .) Falaquera calls it by the Arabic n ames wahm and ;;ann. 69 and s ays t h at it has n o Hebrew name. Rut i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh. Ch. 1 6 , p . 3 1 , and i n De'ot Ha-Pilosojlm V I : C : 5 , m s . Parma f. 1 96a, m s . Leyde n f . 306a, Falaquera refers to it as kOa(1 ha-makkir. kelomar ha-mavdil (the cognitive faculty which distinguishes), and i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : A : 1 2 , m s . Parma f. 1 70a, m s . Leyde n f . 2 8 8 a , as koa�l ha-mal;shavah ( t h e faculty of cognition). For

Falaquera,

estimat i o n

is

i n s t i nctive,

si nce

it

entails

perception of a notion which h ad never been realized befo re ( as a lamb recognizes t h at a wolf is d angerous, even if it h ad never seen a wolf befo re) . I t t h u s perceives n o n-sensible notions, a n d its location is the middle ventricle of the brain. v. Retention and Memor\" ( D iscussed i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh. Ch. 1 6 , based on lbn Rushd 's Epitome of Parva Naluralia.) This faculty, l ocated in the p osterior ventricle of the brain, retains what estimation perceives. In retentio n (koaf; shomer). the n o t i o n stays in the s o u l fro m the time of its perce p t i o n in the p ast to the p resent, s o that rete n t i o n i s continuous memory. M e m o ry (koal; zokher) i s k n owing something which was kn o w n , after k n o w ledge of i t h a d ceased . E v ery a n i m a l w h i c h possesses imaginati o n p ossesses memory, which is i nterrupted retention. Recollection (koaf; ha-hazkarah) is u nique to man, when he deliberately thinks of something he h ad forgotten. 3 . Appetite, called " desire " (m it 'av veh ve-niqra ' m it'orer) 70 This is the t h i r d c haracteristic o r faculty of the a n i m a l sou!. I n Se/er Ha- Ne/esh, C h . 1 7 (based on Aristotle, Ibn Rushd 's Middle Cummen tary on [)e A n ima. Epitome of De A n ima, and IsJ:laq b. I:-I unain), appetite is

69.

Ch. 1 6 n. 9 , on this. Others translated i t as w'a)'on. zanlaf1l. The H e brew vers i o n by Ibn Bibas of Ibn B ajj a's Risiilat a/- Wada' (,IKIwret Ha- Pelirah. pp. 3 1 -32) also refers to it by its Arabic name: '::l111::l r1K1pl;"1 :"!::llVnl-'::l See and

Seter lIa- Nefesh, zemim u t .

•

70.

The Arabic terms are

mcu' and shauq.

See

Sefer Ha- Nefesh,

Ch. 1 7 , n. I .

D:11r1

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Jbn Falaquera

207

l isted after the i nternal s e n s e s , and is thus l i s t e d h e r e . I n De'o t Ha­

Pilo s ofim VI : B :4, ms. Parma f. l 8 7 a ff. , m s . Leyden f. 299b ff. , appetite is listed at the end of the secti o n discussing the ratio nal faculty . Appetite causes t h e animal to move toward what is s uitable a n d to flee fro m what is h armfu l . If the appetite is for something p roper, it is called d e s i r e . If it is fo r reve nge , i t is called ange r . If the appetite is by means of the intellect, i t is called c h o ice and w i l l . Ap petite thus e xists with imagination or with reas o n . One cannot desire without the senses and imagin ation, which are prior to it in nature; i ntellect is also prior to appetite . 7 1 The substrat u m of appetite is the natural heat . Appetite extends over several faculties of the soul. Accord ing to Shelemut Ha- Ma'asim, C h . 9 , p . 1 9 , desire i s located i n t h e brain, heart, a n d live r . T h e imagined fo r m m o v e s the appetitive s o u l , w h i c h i n t u r n moves the natural heat, which causes the organs of motion t o move the body.

The human soul h u m an soul consists of p ractical and theoretical intellect, which are called "intellect" equivocally. Falaquera h as two schemes for theoretical intellect, both based o n I b n S i na to a l arge extent. 7 2 The intellect i s d iscussed i n Sefer Ha-Nefesh, C h apters 1 4 - 1 5 , b o t h of which are based l argely o n I b n S i na's Treatise of Psychology and Najat, and also o n I b n R u s h d 's Middle Co mm en t a ry on De A n ima and I s\1aq b . l;I u n ai n 's Talkhi�. There is more discussion in Chapter 1 8 (based on I b n S i na's Najat [A vicenna 's Psychology, C h s . 5 - 6] and Shifa ') . M uch of this material is also fou n d in De'ot Ha­ Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , m s . Parma f. 1 84ab, m s . Leyden f. 2 9 8 a (which also q u otes Ibn S in a) . There is further discussion i n Chapter 20 ( b ased o n Ibn S ina's Najat 1 1 : 6 [A vicenna s Psychology; C h . 1 6] and on I b n S i na's Treatise on Psychology and Shifa : as well as on I b n R u s h d 's Middle Commentary on De A n ima ) . This chapter is related t o Moreh Ha- Moreh, pp. 1 4 1 - 1 45 . Chapter 20 h as a threefold scheme, while Chapter 1 8 has a fou rfo ld scheme of h u man i ntellect , both b ased on I b n S ina. Ill.

The

I . Practical intellect Practical intellect is the faculty which acts and causes the motion of the body. I t i s d iscernment (belJ inah) i n analogy to the animal faculty of desire, and is the use of cognit i o n (malJsha vah) i n governing generated and corrupted things, and in p roducing artificial t h i ngs . The p ractical i ntellect contains co nvent i o n al opinions. It governs the other faculties of the s o u l , a n d p rovides a connection between t h e body a n d theoretical intellect .

71. 72.

De'ot Ha-Pilosofim V I : B :4, m s . Parma f. 1 87a, m s . Leyden f. 299b. See Se/er Ha- Ne/esh, Ch. 1 7 , n . 4. According to R ah m a n ( A vicenna s Psychology, p . 9 2 ) , Ibn S i n a t o o k the term "acquire d intellect" (musta/ad) fro m A I - Farab i . See Se/er Ha- Ne/esh, Ch. 20, n . 3.

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2. Theoretical intellect Theoretical i ntellect is the faculty which knows the primary intelligibles and abstract general fo rms without e m p loying any bodily o rgan . It is an immortal incorporeal substance.

Two Schemes of Theoretical Intellect ( A ) Accord i ng to Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Chapter 20 ( b ased o n Ibn S i na 's Kitab al- Najat 1 1 : 6 [A vicenna s Psychology, Ch. 1 6] , Treatise on Psychology, and Shifa : and I b n Rushd 's Middle Commentary on De A n ima) and according to Moreh Ha- Moreh, pp. 1 4 1 - 1 45 (based o n AI-Farabi 's Risalah fi 'I- 'A ql).73 i . Potential, hylic intellect This is p u re disposition to abstract forms from matter. It is called "hylic" because it receives the intelligibles as matter receives forms.

ii. A ctual intellect This is when the i n tellect actually abstracts the forms fro m matter, and when imaginables are made into intelligibles. It contains i ntelligibles either i n n ately, b y "divine arousal " (such as the first intelligibles) , o r i t acquires them through l ogical deduction. iii. Emanated intellect (sekhel ne 'e?al) This is also know n as acquired intellect ( H ebrew: sekhel niqnah; Arabic: 'aql m ustafad ) . This is the stage of intellect when p otential intelligibles (as opp osed to the i m aginables made intelligible by the actual intellect) are made actual intelligibles, when the actual inte llect engages in the conception of the fo rms and always contains the fo rms. The emanated­ acquired intellect is as form, the actual intellect as its substratum. iv. The active intellect (B) According t o Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Chapter 1 8 ( b ased o n Ibn S i n a's Kitab al- Najat I I : 6 [A vicenna s Psychology, Chs. 5-6], Shifa : I b n R u s h d 's Epitome of De A nima ) , and according to De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , ms. Parma f. l 84ab, m s . Leyd e n f. 298a (qu o ting I b n S in a) , and also found in Sefer Ha- Mevaqqesh, p . 96 and Sefer Ha- Ma'alot, p . 1 4.

73.

This scheme i s t h e s a m e a s that of AI-Farabi 's Risalah Ji 'I- 'aq/ (Letter Concerning the Intellect); E n g l i s h translatio n by Arthur H y man in A . H y man and J . Walsh, Philosophy in the Middle Ages (Ind ianapolis, 1 98 3 ) , pp. 2 1 5 - 22 1 . AI-Farabi also d raws the analogy t h at the acq u i red intellect is t o the actual intel l ect as the actual is to the pote n t i a l . and t h i s i s anal ogous to the relationship of for m to matter (p. 2 1 7) .

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Fa/oqua{J

Hylic, material or potential intellect

This is e q uival e n t to abs o l u t e p o t e n t i a l i t y . An example o f t h i s i s a c h i l d 's d is p o s i t i o n to learn the a r t of w r i t i ng. P o t e n t i a l intelle.:: t c o n t ai n s no actu a l

intelligibles. i i . Acquired intellect

This contains the innate p r i mary i n te l l i gi b les and conventi onal t ruths. I t functio n s w h e n the person e ngages in thinking. A c q u i red i ntellect i s e q u i v a l e n t t o p o ssible p o t e n t i a l i t y . s ometimes called acq u isition. An example of t h i s i s a p e rs o n learning t h e art of w r i t i ng , w h o k n o w s t h e p e n ,

i n k , a n d forms o f t h e letters. i i i . A ctual intellect T h i s functions w h e n a pers o n t h i n k s at w i l l , w i t h o u t the need t o acqu i re i n t e l l igibles , and i s equivalent t o p erfected p otentiality, a l s o called acqu i s it i o n . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s i s the p e r s o n w h o knows the art of writing even w h e n n o t e ngaged i n wri t i n g This faculty also intelligizes itself. .

iv. Emanated intellect This is also called "holy i n t e l l ect ,

"

and it is called em a n at ed because i t "

"

e m a n ated fro m a d i v i ne cause a n d is i n d e p e n d e n t a n d i m m o rtal. I t e x i s t s w h e n a p e rs o n , s u c h as a p r o p h e t . has c o n s t a n t , u n i nterrupted t h ought. and i s t h u s equivalent t o a b s o l u t e ac tua l i t y .

v. The active in tellect Falaquera's scheme of the soul reflects a tr i p a r t i te d iv is i o n , a division mentioned e x p l i c it l y i n the name of Aristotle i n Sefer Ha- Ma 'a/ot, p . 47. Parallel to the three p arts of the soul are t h ree classes o r types of men.74 The lowest class, c o rres p o n d i n g to the vegetative soul, is the bodily type (gufani), such as the masses of c o m m o n p e o p l e . They seek physical p l e asure . The second class, c o rres p o n d i ng to t h e animal s o u l or specifically to p as s i o n or a r o u s a l , i s

depicted either a s t h e spiritual type (rul;ani), seeking theoretical knowledge (yedi'ah 'iyyunit), o r as seeking conquest, power and honor. The t h i rd class, corresponding t o the rational soul, is depicted as divine ('e lohi) an d see k i n g wisd o m and k n o w ledge. T h e s e analogies are thus partly b ased o n t h e A rist o t e lia n tripartite scheme ( ve gata t i v e animal a n d human s o u l), and p a rt l y .

74.

Ma'alat, pp. 1 -4. 1 1 . 72: '!xxeret Ha-�{al()m, p . 4S4: Moreh Ha- Mareh 3 : 5 1 , p. 1 32. The passage cited i n Moreh Ha- Mareh in the n ame of Abu N a�r ( A 1-Farabi) s h o u ld actually be attributed to Abu Bakr ( l b n B ajj a), as L. Berman has shown. CL Chapter Two, note 67 (above). M alter ('lggeret Ha- lfalorn, p. 484 n. 87) traces this analogy to I saac Israeli, Al-Ghazal i , Ibn Ezra and I b n D a'ud.

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on a Platonic trip artite scheme (appetite, anger and reason)J5 The P l atonic aspect is made explicit in Sefer Ha- Ma 'alo t, p p . 45-46, where Falaquera accepts P l at o 's definition of j ustice as the harmony and health of the p arts of the soul, and where the rational faculty is depicted as analogous to the ruler of a j ust society, passion as analogous to the society's heroes, and the appetitive faculty as analogous to the artisans . 7 6 There are two other schemes of the soul and its faculties i n Falaquera's Sefer Ha- Ma 'alo t . 7 7 One of these, on p p . 3 6 - 3 7 , follows M aimonides' scheme in the Shemonah Peraqim 78 i n general, alt h o ugh n o t in all its specifics . This scheme is as follows: I.

The vegetative faculty 1 . Attracti o n (moshekh) 2 . Retention (mal}aziq) 3 . Digestion (me'aqel) 4. E xcretion (dol}eh) 5 . Nutrition (zan) 6 . I nfo rming (me?ayyer) 7 . Growth (megaddel)

11.

The sensitive faculty The five external s e ns e s

Ill.

The imagination

I V.

A ro usal (mit'orer)

V.

Reason

This fivefold scheme is in general agreement with M ai m o n ides' scheme. B u t F a l a q u e r a 's e l a b o r at i o n o f t h e v e g e t a t i v e fac u l t y p r e s e n t s p r o b l e m s . M aimonides elabo rated seven faculties of the vegetative s o u l as: ( 1 ) attraction; (2) retention; (3) d igestio n ; (4) excretion; (5) growth; (6) procreation; (7) differentiat i o n of humors (mavdil lelJo t). What is strange in Falaquera's enumeration i s , first, that he should list nutrition (#5) as a faculty of the vegetative soul along with the first four, s ince in M aimonides' scheme these fo ur, as well as growth and procreatio n , are considered to be faculties of nutritio n , which is itself equivalent to the vegetative soul. The first four, at least, should be p arts of nutrition and not 75.

76. 77. 78.

On A I - K i n d i 's allusion to the Platonic tripartite division of animal soul into rational, spirited and appetitive souls, see A . Ivry, A l- Kindi s Metaphysics (Albany, N . Y . , 1 974), p . 1 3 1 . Cr. Republic IV: 427-444. Ma'alot. pp. 3 6 - 3 7 , p . 1 8 . Shemonah Peraqim, Ch. 1 (ed. Gorfi n kle, p p . 8ft).

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21 1

separate fro m i t . Ihe second problem i n Falaq uera\ e n u meration is the sixth faculty, me?(J ITl'f ( informing). We have seen this term applied t o b oth common sense and i m aginat ion i n Sefer Ha-Nefesh. Certainly, as one of the internal senses, i t does not belong i n a list of vegetative faculties. S i nce the faculty of p rocreation is not otherwise l i sted among the vegetat ive faculties here, perhaps Falaquera m eant to use t h e t e r m 1I/l'::a ITer to mean procreation, i n which case we should i nterpret it t o mean " informing" literally, as "giving form" i n procreation, assuming that our text is accurate. The other scheme. in Sell'f Ha :'oYfa alo t p . I X , is in the name of AI-Farabi . It lists five faculties of t he human soul: Theoretical reas o n I. 1 1 . Practical reason 1 1 l . A rousal I V . I magination V . Sensation This scheme i s strange in its d ividing reason into two e ntirely separate faculties (theoretical and p ractical) and in its omission of the vegetative faculty. -

'

,

V. N U T R ITION, G R O W T H , AND R E PROD U CTION Falaquera's discussion of nutriti o n , growth, and reproduction III Sefer Ha­ Nefesh, Chapters 5 and 1 8 , adds little if anything t o what had been said by his sources, Aristotle (in De A nima ) a n d I b n Sina (in Kitab al- Najat I I : 6). Our scheme has already shown the defin itions of these three vegetative faculties and their relationship to each other. The need for these vegetative faculties, accord ing to A ristotle,79 results fro m the fact that nature itself cannot generate a body, consisting of elements i n proper proportions and mixture, since the body is compounded of o pposite elements. Falaquera follows Aristotle (and lbn Sina) i n maintaining t hat the nutritive faculty makes food, which i s a n opposite p rinciple ( i . e . , not s imilar to the body), into something similar, so that it can be assimilated into the body.gO When m o re food is thus made "like " than can be assimilated or dissolved by the body i n its present proportions, the body's organs grow. When further excess food i s returned t o the body, it becomes capable of reprod uction, thus ensuring the survival of the species. The individu al has n o permanent survivaL its ultimate survival lies i n i t s perpetuation through the species. The soul effects this change in fo od by means of the n atural heat. The 79. 80.

See the discussion o f A ristotle's views o n n utrition i n Ross, A ristotle, p p . 1 3 5� 1 36. Cr. Ross, A ristotle, p . 1 3 5 : " I t h a d been disputed whether nourishment i s effected 'by w h at is l i k e ' or ' by w h at is unlike'. Aristotle solves the question by pointing out t h at nutrition is assimilation . "

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Raphucl .losp e

nutritive fac ulty acts o n the natu ral heat (and is thus a kind of "unmoved mover " ) , which in turn changes the fo od , making it similar t o the body so that it can become assimilated to the body. The soul i s thus entirely active, the natural heat both active and passive, and food entirely passive ( i . e . , only acted u p o n ) in t h is process . S I

VI.

M O T I O N A � D E X T E R KAL

P E RC E PTION

Falaquera discusses the animal faculties of motion and external perception in general i n Se/i'T Ha-Nelesh. Chapters 4 and 6 (based o n Aristotle, l b n Rushd's L-piwme of Parva Naturalia and Middle Commentary o n De A n ima, I b n Sina's Naja! and Treatise on Psychology, and I sl).aq b. I:l unain 's Talkhi� ) , and i n Chapter 1 8 (based o n I b n S i na). These motive and perceptive faculties are necessary fo r the survival or well-being of the animal. The motive facu lty enables the animal to approach what i s suitable, and t o flee fro m s omething h armfu l . S i nce t h e animal c a n move, it needs t h e e xternal senses, t o distinguish that which is fit fro m t h at which is harmful, and to be able to obtain its necessary nourishment. Of the five external senses, Falaquera, along with Aristotle, regarded touch as being the most usefu l and necessary for the animal's survival. Taste i s described as a sort of touch, and therefo re i s also necessary. Accord ing to both Aristotle and I b n Rushd, a l l animals accordi ngly h ave both of these faculties, not only t o p rotect the animal fro m external harm, but also to enable the animal to d istinguish fit fro m harmful foods. The other faculties, to a lesser extent, also enable the animal to protect itself from external harm and to d istinguish foods; i n decreasing order of usefulness and import ance they are: sme l l , sight and hearing. Falaquera fo llows Aristotle in maintaining that the senses are affected so that they resemble the sensible o bject. U nlike the intelligibles, which come t o be i n the i ntellect, so that it d oes not require any external stimulus, the sensible obj ect remains external to the body (being corporeal itself). 82 The forms of the sensible obj ects reach the o rgan of sensation and make impressions o n the organ, s o t h at the faculty of sensat io n perceives them. The sense is thus m o ve d by an actual sensible object. But the p articular sensation exists i n potentiality, and req uires an act ual sensible obj ect t o effect its ch ange fro m potentiality to actuality. The senses are generally correct concerning their specific sensibles; errors are m o re likely to occur with regard to common sensibles. �J 81. 82.

83.

er. Galcn, O n t h e Natural Faculties I, 2 ( Loeb ed . , p. 1 3 ) : "Thus. when the food turns into blood, the motion of the food i s passive . " Therefore we can h ave an intelligible idea at will , b u t cannot h ave sensat i o n at will, only when the external sensible o bject i s present. See Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Ch. 6 , n . 9.

Tor:;tV' 1.) :1 , 0 ;' ::1 ':> :; tV :1 J"I1';' ':>"1 0'':>1::11:1 0 ' 1 ::1 1 ::1 J"I1 1.)'':>tV ;,. Cr. T{/Ikh i�. A r a h i c ( f. 1 4 8 d ) p. 1 3 5 1 . 4, Shem Tov (f. 1 5 2v) p . 1 1 8 1 . 1 7 , I b n Tibbon (f. 1 J 3v) p. 1 1 9 I . 1 8 .

1 99 . eT R a h m a n , A vi«,lIl1a 's Psychology, p . 1 1 7 . 200 . T h i s passage is n o t fo u n d i n stand ard rabbinic bibles. but it can be found i n I b n l' /I'a's S h o r t C o m m e n t a ry " to Exodus (ed . A . Weiscr, Jerusalem, 1 976) . "

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ha\ e al ready shown that Falaquera disagrees with lbn Sina on the question of the identity of the intellect and its intelligibles ( at least of its accidental i ntelligibles ) , with Falaq uera affirming that ident ity and rbn S i na rej ecting it. This is h o r n e o u t b y t h e fact t h at a l t h o u g h much of Se/er Ha- l\ie/esh, Chapter 1 5 , i s h a s e d o n I b n S i na , t h e p a s s age dealing with the identity of i ntellect and intelligible a t the cnd o f t h e c h a p t e r (p. 2'-) l. 4 1 , to the e nd of the c h apter o n p. 30) i s not b ased on any text i n l b n S i n a, b u t rather expresses Falaquera's views which are s imilar to l h n Rushd 's . '" 1 Falaquera does agree, however, with l bn Sina on the immateriality and u niq ueness of the i n t e l l e c t . and reprod uces ( i n Sefer Ha- Ne/esh, Ch. I S , I p . n , l . 1 2 to p . 29, I . 40 , and i n Dc'o [ Ha- Pi/osojim V l : B : 3 , m s . Parma f . 1 76ab, ms. Leyden f . 292b-293a) the arguments l b n S i n a formulated in Kitab al- Najat I l : 6 . c() 2 The arguments are l argel y the same in both Falaquera and Ibn Sina, but the same arguments are used to p rove somewhat different, although related , points. Falaquera brings these arguments to demo nstrate the u nique qualities of the i ntellect, i n relation to other spiritual faculties.203 I b n Sina brings the s ame o r similar arguments to prove that the intellect does not employ a physical organ. Both the uniqueness of intellect and its l ack of bodily organ are, of course , interrelated concepts, and both are aspects of the i m m ateriality of the i ntellect, a point with which Falaquera begins the d iscussion i n Ch. I S . The intellect, Falaquera states there, has no connection with matter, but rather is analogous to a sailor steering a boaP 04 The first argument fo r the uniqueness and immateriality of i ntellect is that a particular i ntellect can receive unlimited numbers of i ntelligibles, without any potential end; that which has the capacity to receive things without potential end canno t have its abode i n a body o r be a faculty of a body. 20 S The same Wc

20 1 . Scc Serer Ha- Nefesh, Ch. 1 5 , notes 6, 1 3 . This is the same as De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : H : 3 , ms. Parma f. 1 75b- 1 76a, ms. Leyden f. 282b, quoted above. 202. See A vicenna 's Psychology, Ch. 1 0, pp. 52-54. 203 . In Moreh Ha-Moreh 1 : 32, p p . 1 6- 1 7 , Fa1aquera presents some of the arguments of A.istotle. Ihn Sina, and Ibn Rushd for the uniqueness of the intellect and its d i ffe rence fro m the senses t h at also appear here . S imilar arguments are also p resented i n .\1oreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 7 3 , p. 60; Ma'alot, pp. 42�43; Mevaqqesh, p . 9 9 . Cf. H a-Levi . Kuzari 5: 1 2 . 204. This a nalogy appears in Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Ch. 3, and in De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V T : A : I , m s . Parma f. 1 50 h , ms. Leyden f. 275a ff. See the d iscussion of this at the beginning of this chapter, o n the definition of the soul, and Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Ch. 3 , n. 4. 205 . The argument is rem i n iscent of Sa'adia Ga'o n 's first proof of creation, i n '£munot Ve- De'ot I : I , t hat an i nfinite force cannot reside i n a finite body. (Therefore, the world being finite i n size, the fo rce sustaining the world must also be finite, thus having a heginning.) Conversely, M aimonides argued i n Guide 2: I i n h i s first proof o f God that s ince the first m over must he infinite (on the basis of t h e 26th premise, accepted hypothetically, that t i me and motion are eternal), it must be incorporeal and separate fro m the sphere.

244

Raphae/ Jospe

argument, that a p articular i ntellect can k now all the i ntelligi b les potentially, is also found i n the third question on p hysics i n Se/er Ha- Mevaqqesh, p. 99. A second argument for the uniqueness and immateriality of i ntellect is that those faculties which perceive by means of organs tire fro m the continuity of their functioning, since the o rgans tend to t i re from the conti nuity of motion. But the intellect i s strengthened by such continuity of functioning.")O I n addition, Falaquera and I b n S i n a argue, as Aristotle d id in De A nima 1 1 1 , 4, 429a fT. that strong stimuli weaken the senses and can even destroy them; after a strong stimulus, the sense cannot perceive a weaker stimulus. ( For example, after seeing a strong light or hearing a strong sound, one cannot afterwards see a weak light or hear a weak sound . ) But the intellect is strengthened by strong c o nception. The intellect is only weakened on account of its being aided by i m agination ( as was d iscussed above, i n the context of the intellect's forgetting what i t knew), imagination being dependent o n an organ which weakens, s o that it does not always serve the i n tellect p roperly. A nother argument that Falaquera and Ibn Sina p resent, based o n what Aristotle s ai d in De Anima I, 4, 408b, i s that the body 's fu nctions weaken after growth ceases, at approximately the age of 40. But the intellect i s usually strengthened i n old age. 207 The final argument for the immateriality and uniqueness of the intellect rests on the self-consciousness or self-perception of intellect. 2ils Only the intellect i s capable of perceiving itself; o n l y i n the case of intellect, as we h ave seen, is there an identity of the subj ect and o bject of knowledge - the intel lect is the intelligible. But the senses cannot perceive the mselves, and the sensi b le notion abstracted from its o bj ect in sensation is d i fferent from the sens i b le notion as it exists in the sensible obj ect, as we saw above. 2 09 I b n Sina's argument, as has already been stated, aimed at proving t h at the intellect does not employ any bodily organ: 2 I O We maintain that if the rational faculty were to know through a physical organ, so t h at its peculiar activity would be i ncomplete except by the use of t h at physical organ, it would necessarily follow that it would not know its own self, nor the organ, n o r t he 206. These arguments are also presented i n Moreh Ha- Moreh I : 3 2, p p . 1 6� 1 7 . Also cf. l b n Rushd, Tahafu t al- Tahafut. p. 568 (Eng. ed. Van den Bergh vol. 2 p. 3 5 1 ) on t h is point. 207 . Cf. Ma'alot. p p . 42�43. 208. Cl. Ma'alot. p p . 42�43. a n d Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 7 3 , p . 60. O n l y t h e intellect perceives genera abstracted fro m matter, and only intellect perceives that it k n ows (massig she-hu rodea') and conceives itself (yaskil 'a:;mo), 209. See Sefer Ha- Nefesh. Ch. 1 5 , p p . 29-30, and De'ot Ha-Pilosofim V I : B : 3 . m s . Parma f. 1 75 b- 1 76a, ms. Leyden f. 292b, quoted above, p. 240. 2 1 0. Rahman, A vicenna 's Psychology. Ch. 10, pp. 50�52.

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act of k n o wing. For there is no organ between the ratio nal faculty and itself, nor does one intervene between it and its o rgan, or between it and the fact that it knows. B u t it does know itself and its so-called organ, and the fact t h at it knows. I t follows that it k nows through itself, not through an organ . . . This is why sense perceives the external o bj ect and not itself nor its organ, nor its act of perceptio n . Similarly, representation d oes not represent itself, nor its act , nor its organ . But here i s where Falaquera goes beyond I b n S i n a . B o t h Falaquera and I b n S i n a , a s we have seen, maintain t h at intellect, a n d o n l y intellect, is self­ conscious. They b o t h agree t h at the intellect is identical with itself when it conceives itself. But I b n Sina denied t h at the identity of intellect and intelligible is anything more than self-consciousness; for him, the i n tellect i s not identical w it h other knowledge , such as k n owledge of accidental intelligibles, namely those intelligibles which are derived from sensibles. We h ave already seen that Falaquera differs with I b n Sina o n this point, and maintains that the intellect i s identical w i t h a l l intelligibles, including accidental intelligibles. For Falaquera, self-consciousness thus includes the accidental intelligibles. He explicitly states i n Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Chapter 1 4, page 24: Without the i ntellect's k nowing the sensible, (the pers o n could) not say, I am the o n e who sensed this, and I am the one who k n e w the color. In other words, for Falaquera, the self-consciousness of the intellect is o nly possible because the intellect knows sensible things. According to Aristotle, 2 I I . . . it is through sense that we are aware that we are seeing or hearing . . . We must somewhere assume a sense which is aware of itself. For Aristotle, t h e n , self-consciousness is thus a function of the external senses; he also, as we saw, maintained that mind thinks itself. 2 1 2 According to Ibn Sina, self-consciousness is exclusively a funct i o n of i n tellect, and I b n S ina understands the identity of intellect and intelligible only i n its most exclusive sense of self-co nceptio n . The i ntellect, for I b n S ina, is not conscious of, let

2 1 1 . Aristotle, De A n im a I I I , 2 , 425b. Rahman, i n his i n t roduction t o A vicenna s Psychology, traces the idea of self-consciousness i n Aristotle, Strato, A lexander, Plotinus, Simplicius, and Philoponus. Cr. S . Pines, "La Conception de l a Co nscience de S o i chez Avicenne et A b u 'l-Barakat al-Baghdad i , " A rchives d 'Histoire Doetrinale et Litteraire du Moyen Age ( 1 954), p p. 2 1 -98. 2 1 2 . Aristotle, De A n ima Ill, 5 , 430a.

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alone identical with, sensible reality. But for Falaquera, not only is intellect aware of sensible reality, and thus identical with accidental intelligibles, but it is also self-consciously aware of sensible reality. The accidental intelligibles, derived from sensibles, enable intellect t o be self-conscious.

XX. G R A D ES

OF T H E O R ET I C A L INTE LLECT

We have already seen that Falaquera, fol lowing Ibn Sina, has two d ifferent schemes of the grades of theoretical intellect. In Sefer Ha-Nefesh. Chapter 1 8 , b ased on lbn Sina's Kitab al-Najat Il:6 (A vicenna 's Psychology, Chapters 5-6), as well as i n De'o t Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , m s . Parma f. 1 84ab, ms. Leyden f. 298 a (quoting I b n Sina), and also in Serer Ha- Mevaqqesh, p . 9 6 , and Se/er Ha-Ma 'alo t. p . 1 4, Falaquera has a fivefold scheme of intellect (four human grades plus the active intellect). B ut in Sefer Ha-Nefesh. Ch apter 20, based on I b n Sina's Kitab al-Najat 1 1 : 6 (A vicenna :� Psychology, Chapter 1 6) , and similar to the scheme i n AI-Farabi's Rislah fi 'I- 'A ql, also found in Moreh Ha- Moreh. pp. 1 4 1 - 145, Falaquera has a fourfold scheme of intellect (three human grades plus the active intellect). We m ay possibly account for the e xistence of two different schemes of grades of theoretical intellect c ontextually. In Chapter 1 8 , the fivefold scheme, with its fou r grades of human i ntellect, corresponds to levels of potentiality, or stages through which the theoretical intellect p asses from p otentiality into actual possession of forms. There are fou r such stages, each correspond ing t o a grade of human theoretical intellect. B u t i n Chapter 20, the fou rfold scheme, with its thre e grades of h u m a n intel lect, is p resented i n the context of a discussion of the action of the active intellect on h uman intellect. That action of the active intellect is related to o nly three grades of human intellect. 2 1 3 The fourth grade of human intellect is not, as we shall see, attained through the acti o n of the active intellect, but rather through the self-conception of the third grade. Therefore, the fourth grade, not being related to action of the active intellect, is not part of the scheme of those grades o n which active intellect acts . When the human intellect acts on itself, it raises itself to a higher level of actuality, and thus is included as the fourth human stage in Chapter 1 8; but i t does not represent a separate action of the active intellect, and therefore is not discussed in Chap ter 20 .

2 1 3 . C f. A . Ivry, " Moses of Narbonne's 'Treatise of the Perfection of the S ou l ': A Methodo l ogical and Conceptual Analysis," JQR, 5 7 N o . 4 ( April, 1 967) , pp. 2 7 1 -297, states that according to I b n Rushd, the agent intellect is responsible for all p h ases of inte l lecti o n , and that there is no substantial division o f i ntelligible fo rms. The d i ffe re nt p h ases of intellection are aspects of one substance (p. 277).

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I n terms of d i rect i o n , the activity of the active intellect is di rected downward, and influences the human intellect on t hree levels. But in terms of increasing st ages of actualizat i o n , the d irecti o n is u p ward , tow ard increasing actual izat i o n , and an independent fourth stage must be added , as a result of self-actualization independent of the active intellect. The scheme i n Chapter 20 begins with the active intellect . S o mething cannot transform itself fro m a state of p otentiality to a state of actuality. When theoretical i ntellect undergoes such a transfo rmation fro m potentiality to actuality, there must be s o mething to cause this, which is itself intellect. This intellect i s called "active" i n relat i o n to the p otential i ntellect which i t actualizes. The active intellect is to the human p otential i ntellect as the sun is t o the eyes; j u s t as sunlight turns our eyes ( which are potential seers) into actual seers, and p otential visibles, like colors, into actual visibles, so the active intellect actualizes p otential intellect and p o tential intelligibles. Just as the light which causes vision is itself visible, s o the active i ntellect i s itself intelligible. (The analogy of mind or k n ow ledge to light i s fou n d in Aristotle's De A n ima I l l , 4 - 5 , 429-430a) . 2 1 4 When t h e active intellect emanates toward p o tential intelligibles, it generates what Falaquera calls emanated intellect (sekhel ne 'e?alj, o r what I b n S i n a called acquired intellect (sekhel niqnah; A r a b i c : mustafadj. E m anated o r acq u i red intellect i s a s t h e form, a n d actual intellect (which fol l ows) is its substratum. The p otential intelligibles are made actual intelligibles when the actual intellect continually contains the intelligible forms, thus bec o m i ng transformed into eman ated or acquired i ntellect . When the active intellect emanates toward imaginables which are potentially intelligible, it generates the actual intellect. Actual intellect exists when the intellect actually abstracts forms fro m matter, co nverting imaginables into i ntelligibles . Actual i ntellect contains such intelligibles either i nnately, by "divine arousal , " such as the primary intelligibles, o r it acquires them through logical deduct i o n . Actual intellect itself is i ntelligible, j ust as the sun, which is the cause of vision, is also visible. Below the actual intellect i s p otential o r hylic intellect, which is merely a disposition to abstract fo rms fro m matter . It is called "hylic" because it receives the intelligibles passively, as matter receives the fo rms. 2 l 5 2 1 4. Cf. F. C o p le s t o n 's d iscussion of Augustine's usage of t h i s analogy in A His/ory of Philosophy. V o l . 1 1 . Part I ( Ne w Y o r k , 1 96 2 ) , p . 77ff. A l s o cf. AI- Farabi, Risalah fi 'l- 'Aql ( H y m a n trans. p. 2 1 8) . 2 1 5 . I n De'o/ Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , ms. P a r m a f . 1 83 a , m s . Leyden f . 2 9 7 b , Falaq uera states that potential i n tellect is prior i n time to sensation, while actual i ntellect is p r i o r a b s o l utely to sensat i o n . This passage is a d i rect q uote fro m Ibn Rushd , Talk hi.y. A ra b i c ( f. 1 46d) p. 1 29 1 . 1 1 , S h e m Tov (f. 1 50v) p. 1 1 3 1 . 3 , I b n T i b b o n ( f.

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We thus h ave in this chapter a fourfold scheme of intellect, consisting of three human grades plus the active intellect. I n Falaquera's terms, these grades are: ( I ) p otential or hylic i ntellect; (2) actual intellect; (3) emanated intellect; and (4) the active intellect. I n I b n Sina's terms, they are: (1) potential or hylic i ntellect; ( 2 ) actual intellect; (3 ) acquired intellect; and (4) the active intellect. It is clear t h at in this scheme, Falaquera's "emanated " intellect is the equivalent of and identical to rbn Sina's "acquired " intellect, both in terms of the order of listing and i n the description of the effect of the active intellect's emanations. The identification of acquired with emanated intellect is by no means unique here. Klatzkin2 1 6 lists them i nterchangeably as p ositive, received, or acquired intellect. The Arabic term m ustafad, which rbn Sina took fro m AI­ Farabi,2 1 7 is derived from the root .J..,J (j.y. d), meaning to acquire, and is not t o be confused with ..,.AJ (j.y.c;l), meaning to overflow.m In the Guide of the Perplexed 1 : 72, M aimonides identified acquired with emanated intellect. M . Friedlander wrote: 2 1 9 £t is called sekhel niqnah (acquired intellect) i n so far as it is the result of man's efforts; sekhel ne 'qal (emanated intellect) because it is abstract and not connected with matter, or because it is an emanation from the universal active intellect. Friedlander also noted that AI-Harizi used the term sekhel qanuy (acquired intellect), whereas Falaquera used the term sekhel ne 'e?al (emanated intellect), while I b n Tibbon used the term sekhel niqnah ve-ne 'e ?al ( acqui red and emanated intellect). Further identification of the acquired intellect with the emanated intellect is found i n other works of Falaquera. For example, i n his discussion of Al­ Farabi's view of the prophet as philosopher-king, in Sefer Ha- Ma'alot, p . 1 3 , Falaquera says: ?:Hzm p:l 'Y:'l7.)N il'il"

•

'N!Jn07.)?N :liY i'lll ? :I' ,?:'lNlil ?:Jlll il Nip" .?Y'!Jil ?:Jlll il T':I' ?Y!Jlil

£t is called the e manated i ntellect, and in Arabic al-mustafad (acquired). I t is the mean between the p assive intellect and the active intellect. 1 30v) p . 1 1 4 I. 9 : 7:11V ;' ;,m �Imm:;) C;'N' TOT:;) 1ll'N:J c" p '1"11' n:J:J i1ll N 7:J1ll;" iON . ;':;)0:;)1 11)1:J

,n'

;'O',P;' 'lll'N 'l1ll ::l

n:J::l

'1llN ;:J1ll ;' 711 c" p 711ll:J i1llN

2 1 6. K latzkin, 'O;;ar Ha- MunalJim Ha Pilos ofiyy im I V , p. 1 04 . 2 1 7 . S e e Rah man, A vicenna s Psychology, pp. 90, 1 65 . 2 1 8 . H owever, in the passage i n Se/er Ha- Ma'alor, p . 13, q uoted below, i t would seem that /yd. and /y. rj. were confused. 2 1 9. M . Friedlander (trans.), Guide of the Perplexed (London, 1 885), Val. I, p. 307, n, 3. -

,

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Jbn Falaquera

249

That emanated intellect is the equivalent of acquired intellect i n AI-Farabi and I b n S in a, where acquired intellect has, of all degrees of human i ntellect, the greatest actuality, is also evident i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , m s . Parma f. l 80a, ms. Leyden f. 295 b : ;'7.) ' l 7.) 'Y!:)� i1Zl� 'J1Zl;' � , ;, '"�);' 'J1Zl� '�O'i� i7.)" ;'li1Zl ;'7.) 'J .,J" Y '"RJ �';'1Zl i7.)" J .7l�J �iPJ P 'Y' .'J� mp�';, m " Rl7.)'1Zl

For what Aristotle meant to s ay about the emanated intellect is that i t i s intellect i n actuality i n respect of its having this attachment i n us. Therefore, it is called emanated, namely that it is emanated to us. And i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , ms. Parma f. I S6a, ms. Leyden f. 29Sb: R1i1 '"l'tl:"l R' Plil R , m ," �' �'O:l C ' R ;' ':"1:1'11." 11.' 'Y!:l:J11.' ' :> 11.' :"1 m, .m,l't ':JP7 p11.'l't'rr '�'n:"l n:>:J11.' 7Y!:lm 7Y!:l:J11.' m:"l' m�711.' •

This intellect which is actual, which man attains at the end of his d ays, is called emanated, and it is perfection and actual potentiality and p otential actuality of p rime matter which receives it. These p assages refe r to the emanated i ntellect as actual; the emanated or acq uired intellect has actuality even greater than that of the actual intellect, as will be seen below, in the fivefold scheme of Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Chapter 1 8 . A fou rfold scheme of intellect (three human grades plus the active intellect), similar to that found i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Chapter 20, i s found i n Moreh Ha- Moreh, pp. 1 4 1 - 1 45 (based on AI-.farabi 's Risalah fi 'l- 'A ql ) . The first grade is p otential or hylic i!1tellect, which is a disposition to strip the forms of existing things fro m their matter . S i nce it is disposed to receive the forms, it is called "hylic. " The second grade is actual intellect, which actually strips the forms of t h ings from their matter; the forms thus abstracted are its intelligibles. The t h i rd grade is acquired or emanated i ntellect, which exists o nce the actual intellect has actually engaged i n conception of the forms and contains these forms always. It is acquired o r emanated externally, and i s incorporeal. The actual intellect is its substratum, so that the acquired intellect is as the for m of the actu al intellect. The acquired intellect is lower than the separate intellect s . T h e fourth grade, then, i s the active intellect, which is the lowest of the separate intellects of the spheres, which are not i n matter. It transforms potential human intellect into actual intellect. The active intellect i s to the acquired i ntellect as the sun is t o vision. The fou rfold scheme of intellect in Chapter 20 is thus a function of the downward acti o n of the active intellect o n potential human intellect. But the fivefol d scheme i n Chapter I S o f Se/er Ha-Nefesh is related to four stages through which the theoretical i ntellect passes upward, from potential to actual

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possession of forms.22o According to Falaquera22 1 and I bn Sina 222 these stages of p otentiality are analogous to the stages through which a person goes when learning the art of writing. The first stage is absolute potentiality or material potentiality, which is nothing but a d isposition, containing no intelligibles i n actuality. This is analogous to an infant totally l acking in any k nowledge, who merely has the d isposition to learn the art of writing. The second stage is possible p otentiality, which is sometimes called acquisition. At this stage, the person m ay possess the primary intelligibles,m or axioms o f l ater k nowledge . This i s analogous t o a c h i ld who has learned the rudiments of the art of writing, b y which he will later b e able to write; the person knows the pen, inkpot and simple letters. The t h i rd stage is the perfecti o n of p o t e n t i a l ity o r acquisitio n . A t t h i s s t age, the p e rs o n p os sesses i nte l l i g i bl e s , and c a n speculate at w i l l ; it marks the end of t he p rocess o f a c q ui s i t i on of i ntelligi b l e s . Because a l l the forms already exist in i t , the person can conceive of them at will. This is analogous to a pers o n who is perfected i n the art of writing even when he does not actually engage i n writing. S ince the person does not always e ngage in s peculati on, so t h at he does not always conceive o f the forms, this stage is not absolutely actual. But this stage does h ave a degree of act u a l i t y . b e c a u s e the perso n c a n act ually e ngage at will i n the c o n tem p lat i on o f the primary and second ary i n telligibles he h ad already acquired , without any further acquisition being necessary. These are the three stages of potentiality t hrough which the human intellect passes . The fourth and ultimate state i n human i ntellectual development is absolute actuality. At this stage, the person 's intellect actually e ngages in the contemplation of the i ntelligible forms already acquired , and further, i s self­ conscious , i . e . , co ntemplates itself. I n the fivefold scheme of intellect, with its four human grades p lus active intellect, the four human grades correspond to the fou r stages of potentiality. The first grade of theoretical i ntellect is the hylic, material o r potential intellect, which i s related to absolute p otential ity, and is found in all humans. The hylic i ntellect is nothing but a disposition to receive i ntelligibles, such as an infant has. It is called hylic to compare it to prime matter, which d oes n o t

220. This fivcfold scheme i, also found i n De'o t Ha- Pilo.l o(/m V I : B : 3 . m s . Parma f. 1 84ab. ms. l.eyden 1'. 297b (quoting lbn Sina), as well as i n Spfer Ha- A1evaqqesh. p . 96 and Serer Ha- Ma'aIOf, p. 1 4. 22 1 . Cf. Se(er Ha- Ne(esh. Ch. 1 8, p . 38. 222. C f. Kifah al- Najat I \ : 6 ( A vicenna :\' Psychologr. Ch. 5, p p . 3 3 - 3 5 , a n d notes, p p . 8 7 - 8 8 ) . T h e analogy to thc art of writing i s found in A ristotle, De A nima I l l , 4, 430a. 223. On the nature and innateness of the primary inteliigibles, see A ristotle, PusteriUf A nalytics I, 2, 7 1 b and n , 1 9, 99b- I OOb.

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possess any of the fo rms, but which is the substratum of all the forms. The second grade of theoretical intellect is acq u i red i ntellect, which i s related to p o s s i b le p otentiality. I t contains t h e p rimary i ntelligibles, by which the person can t h e n attain the second ary intelligibles. The p r i m ary i ntelligibles are i nnate truths i m p ressed o n i t w i t h o u t any process of acq u i s i t i o n . Acquire d intellect also contains c o nvent i o nal t r u t h s which i t learns b y tradi t i o n and n o t by speculat i o n . It acquires i ntelligibles at will, w h e n the perso n engages i n speculation. The t h i rd grade of t h e o retical intellect i s actual i n t e llect, which i s related t o p erfected p otentialityJ 2 4 Actu a l intellect e x ists when t h e p e r s o n actually possesses the acq uired forms in thought, when the pers o n s peculates at w i l l , w i t h o u t t h e effo rt t o acqu i re further i ntelligib le s . but the person does n o t always intelligize the acq u i red intelligibles. T he refore, the actual intellect i s actual i n relat i o n t o the p revious grade of acquired intellect, but it is potential i n relat i o n t o what comes after it. The fou r t h grade of theoretical i ntellect i s e manated intellect, which i s related t o a b s o l u t e actuality. I t exists when the intelligized forms o f what i s k n o w n are always present i n thought i n actuality. I t is called emanated intellect because " i t emanates fro m a divine cause called intellect, or angel or active ,

,

intellect. " 225 Emanated intellect i s not a bodily function, but an independent, i ncorporeal substance which i s i mm o rtal and does not perish with the body. 2 26 E manated i ntellect i s t h e ulti mate hum an perfection, rese m b ling the first principles of all e x i s tence. Because of this, and because i t i s i m m o rtal, i t is called the "hol y intellect" and " h e ad , " and i t i s served b y all the other grade s of theoretical intellect. (Both Falaquera and Ibn Sina s t ate that each of the grades of theoretical i n tellect serves the next grade . ) After it comes the active in tellect. 22 7 I t s h o u l d be noted t h at i n the transition fro m a fou rfold classificat i o n o f theoretical i ntellect ( t h ree h u m a n grades p l u s t h e active intellect) t o a fivefol d classi ficat i o n (fo u r h u m a n grades, p l u s the active intellect), not onl y h a s acq u i red-emanated intellect b e e n d ivided i n t o two s e parate grades, but the order of the classificati o n has been changed as well. The situation i s further complicated b y the fact that the t ermi n ol o gy used in the classificat i o n i s not always c o n s istent. F o r i n s t ance, the second stage of potentiality possible p otentiality, i s s ometimes called "acquisition" (qinyan), ,

224. Moreh Ha- Moreh 2 : 22 , p. 1 09 refers to I b n B ajj a 's view that actual intellect is to the body as art (melakhah) is to the chair. 225. SeJer Ha-NeJesh, Ch. 1 8 , p . 4 1 , and Mevaqqesh, p . 96. 226. Mevaqqesh, p . 9 6 . Cf. Ma'alot, p . 1 4, where this s ame p o i n t is made. In this passage, Falaquera also interprets the verb qanah (acquire) i n Proverbs 4 : 5 , "acquire wis d o m , " a s referin g t o t h e intellect acquiring knowledge. 227. O n the active intellect, see above.

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according to Falaquera; i n the case of l b n S i n a ( in R ahman's translation), the second stage i s s o metimes called hahitus. But the problem is that in both of these cases, the term involved generally refers to the third state, perfect potentiality. m Perhaps as a result of this flexibility of usage of the terms, Rahman's discussio n of Ibn Sina, in his introduction and notes t o A vieenna 's Psychology, i s n o t consistent with his translation of the text. I n C h apter 5 , Rahman 's translation gives us the following progression of grades of intellect: ( 1 ) intelleetus materialis ( Falaquera's material o r p otential intellect); (2) intelleetus in hahitu (Falaquera's acquired intellect); (3) intelleetus in actu ( Falaquera's actual intellect); (4) intel/eetus adeptus or aequisitus (mustafad; Falaquera's emanated i ntellect); (5) intel/igeneia agens. But i n R a hman's i ntroduct i o n (p. 20) and n otes (pp. 89-90), the grades on intellect are termed: ( I ) intelleetus materialis; (2) intelleetus in effectu; (3) intelleetus in habitu; (4) intelleetus adeptus; (5) intelligencia agens.

We are thus left with the following scheme: ( I ) A bsolute potentiality - corresponds to: Falaquera: potential, material intellect Ibn Sina (Ch. 5): intelleetus materialis Rahman (notes): intelleetus materialis (2)

Possihle potentiality - corresponds to: Falaquera: acquired intellect Ibn Sina (Ch. 5): intelleetus in habitu Rahman (notes): intelleetus in effeetu

(3)

Perfected potentiality - corresponds to: Falaquera: actual intellect Ibn Sina (Ch. 5): intelleetus in actu Rahman (notes): intellectus in habitu

(4) Absolute actuality - corresponds to: Falaquera: emanated i ntellect I b n Sina (Ch. 5): intellect us adeptus, aequisitus Rahman ( notes): intelleetus adeptus

(5)

Active intellect (intelligencia agens)

R ahman229 asserts that the s ources of this classificati o n are to be found in Alexander and Al-Farab i . But he a l s o n o tes that there is nothing i n t h e sources corresponding to the second stage. The third stage, according t o Rahman, is the inteUectus in hahitu of Alexander's De A nima 8 5 , 2 5 , and has its source in

228.

See Se/er Ha-Ne/esh,

Ch. 1 8 , p p . 3 8 - 3 9 ; A vieenna :5 Psychology, C h . 5 , p p . 3 3 - 3 5 .

229. Rahman, A vicenna s Psychology. p p . 20, 89.

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Aristotle's D e A n ima I I I , 4, 429b . R a h m an210 d iffers with GilsonB 1 o n whether Alexander's classi fication was tripartite or quadripartite. Rahman rej ects Gils o n's contention t h at it was trip artite o n the basis of Alexander's De A n ima 8 5 , 2 5 , where, according t o Rahman, we find a d istinction between in /ellee/us in hahitu (#3; Falaquera's act u al intellect) and intellectus adeptus (#4; Falaquera's emanated inte l lect). But since Rahman already maintai ned t h at the second stage (in tellectus in effeetu; Falaquera's acqu i red intellect) is not to b e found in Alexander (or in Al-Farabi), it is still not clear how Alexander's classification would have four grades; we still h ave only three grades remaining. The fourth grade cannot be the active i ntellect. s i nce the d iscussion here concerns human grades of intellect, and Rahman himself maintains, against Gilson. t h at intellectus aequisitus (mustalad) i n AI-Farab i , a n d therefore also in I b n Sina, is n o t a d u p l icate of the act ive i ntellect; this grade i s p roduced not by the actual intellect contemplating the active i ntellect but rather b y i t s self-contemplat io n . m As was suggested a t t h e beginning of t h i s section, t h e self-contemplatio n o f actual i ntellect resulting i n emanated intellect (to use Falaquera's terminology) may account for the d iscrepancies between the fourfold and fivefold schemes of grade s of human intellect. The fourfold scheme deals with the d ownward action of the active intellect o n three grades of human i ntellect; the fivefold scheme introduces an extra grade (emanated intellect) t hat i s produced not by the act i o n of the active intellect o n actual intellect, but b y the upward action of actual intellect o n itself. R ahman describes this process in lbn S i na and AI-Farabi (from whom I b n 51 i n a t o o k t h e t e r m mustafad - acquired - and whose d octrine of intellect I b n Sina follows i n general) a s fol lows ( Falaquera's terminology i s inserted here by this aut h o r for greater clarity) : 2 1 .1 W h e n intelleetus in habitu ( Falaquera: actual intellect) actually thinks, it p asses into absolute actuality (#4) , as d istinguished fro m t h e relative actuality of t h e p revious stage . . . . This intellect i s called by Avicenna in/el/ectus adep tus ( Falaquera: e manated i ntellect) . . . . According t o AI-Farabi, when the p otential intellect becomes actual, it becomes identical with the actual i ntelligibles: the actual intelligible and the actual intellect are one and the same. Therefore, when the actual intellect m akes the actual intelligibles o bj ects of a second intellect i o n , i t s a c t i s essentially an a c t o f s elf-consciousness: it becomes self-thinking thought - "form of

230. [bid. . p p . 89-90. 23 1 . E . Gilson, A rchives d 'Hisloire Doclrinale e t Lilteraire du Moyen Age ( 1 929- 1 930), p . 2 1 n . 2. 232. Rahman, A vicenna s Psychology, p p . 9 1 -92. 233 . Rahman, ibid. . pp. 89-93.

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fo rm", t o use an A r istotelian expression. At this stage, when the actual intellect apprehends its o w n contents which are pure intelligibles, abstract from matter, it becomes acq uired intellect ( F al aq uera: emanated i ntellect) . . . . The actual intellect becomes acquisitus ( Falaquera: emanated ) , n o t by apprehending the active i ntelligence, but by reflecting on its own contents . . . . Al-Farabi says t h at our i ntellect becomes acquired i ntellect ( Falaquera: emanated intellect) already before apprehending the active intelligence . . . . We conclude, therefo re. t hat the acquired intellect ( Falaquera: emanated i ntellect) i n AI-Farabi i s n o t a duplicate of the active i ntellige nce, and that it is a much lower i ntellect representing the final stage of the acquisition of actuality by our potential i ntellect. This happens when the actual i ntellect reflects upon itself and its c o n te n t s . . . . E a c h l o w e r t e r m serves as m a t t e r fo r t h e h i g h e r and gets t r an s fo rmed i n t o i t . 2J4

The n o t i o n t h at actual intellect is identical with its objects and can apprehend itself i s found i n Aristotle 's De Anima I l l , 4, 429b, where Aristotle says that o nce m i n d has become its p ossible objects, its condition i s still one of p otentiality, but mind can n o w think itself. The text i n Falaquera (Seler Ha- Nefesh, C h a p t e r 1 8 , p . 39) is as fo l l o w s : It can speculate o n (those forms) i n actuality whenever i t wills, and both i ntelligize them, and intelligi/e that i t intelligizes them. It i s called actual i ntellect, because it i s intellect intelligizing whenever i t wills, without any m o re effort o f aCtjuiring. This may be called actual i ntellect in relat i o n to what follows it. S o metimes i t is absolutely actual. T h a t i s when the intell igible fo r m s are present in it, and i t actually specul ates o n them. Falaquera thus clearly follows I b n S i na, w h ose text he is paraphrasing here. ( I t w o u l d s e e m t h at our text i s corrupt a t o n e p o i n t : Falaquera says t h at actual intellect could be called actual in relat i o n t o what comes after i t , where I b n S i n a s ays t hat it could be called p otential intellect i n rel at i o n t o what follows. Falatjuera would certainly agree t h at the next and fourth grade, which he terms emanated , and which Ibn Sina terms m ustafad acquired - has a h igher degree of actuality, in relat i o n t o w h i c h actual intellect could be called -

234. Rahman refe rs ( p . 9 1 ) to Al-Farabi's Arabic text of De Intellectu. ed. Dieterici, p. 45; ed. Bouyges p . 20. Accord ing to I v ry. " M oses of :'>iarbo n n e 's Treatise" ( n . 2 13 s upra), p . 277, I b n Rushd and Narboni also agree on the unity of subj ect and obj ect of i ntellection, but the subj ect of the intellect is l ocated not i n m a n (as in AI-Farabi and M a i m o n ides) but i n t h e agen t intellect, to which the h u m an actual intellect is conj o ined, since the human i n tellect is never independent.

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potential . ) I b n S i n a \ text ( A vicCIlIlIi :' Psychology, Chapter 5 , p . 3 5 ) i s as follows: I t is called in tellcc/lls i ll acfu because it is an intelligence which t h i n k s whenever it wills, with out need i n g a n y further p rocess of acq uisition. although it could he called pote ntial intell igence in relat i o n to what comt:s n t: x t . Lastl y , its relation t o t h o s e forms may be of the nature of absolute actuality, as when they are present to it and it actually contemplates them and t h i n k s them and also knows that it does so. At this point, it becomes the intelfectus acquisitus. We thus see how, in the hierarchy of grades of theoretical i n tellect , "each lower term se rves as matter fo r the higher. and gets transformed into it. " c l ' As Falaquera says i n Se{er Ha- .Ve/esh, C h . 1 8 , p . 40: 21(, Consider and examine how some of these faculties govern others, and some serve others. For you will find t h at the e manated intellect, which is the holy intellect, is t he chief (faculty). and everything else serves it, for it is the ultimate final purpose. After it is the actual intellect, which i s served b y the acquired intellect. The hylic intellect, i n asmuch as it has disposition, serves the acqu i red intellect. After t h i s , the p ractical intellect serves all of these, for the p ractical con necti o n exists fo r the sake of the p erfecti o n and p urificat i o n of the theoretical intellect. The practical i ntellect governs t h at connection . The rest o f t h e faculties serve each other until they reach the faculties t h at are i n the elements . These serve everything, and they are the last of the faculties .2J7 Potential or h y l ic i ntellect is called "m aterial" because, as we h ave see n , i t is merely a disposition i n all humans t o receive i ntelligibles as matter receives the fo rms.Clx As prime m atter i s the substratum for all forms w h i le not contain i ng any of them i n actuality, so material intellect is the substratum o r "matter" of t h e i ntelligibles, of which it contai ns none i n actuality. I ntellect acquires t he i ntel ligibles either th rough "divine arousal" without learning them and without 2 3 5 . Rahman, A viCI'IlIl(J :� Psycholof!..v. p . 9 2 . 216 . A l s o in De ' o f Hu- l'i1osn(im V I : H : 3 , ms. Parma f. J 84b, ms. Leydcn f. 297b, quoting I hn S i n a. CL A I'icellna :' I'.I Tc!wlogy, Ch. 6, p. 3 7 , and Sefer Ha- Nef;'sh. C h . I X . n . 45.

2 3 7 . For I h n R u s h d a n d ]\ a r b o n i . according t o I v r y ( " M oses o f N a r b o n ne 's Treatise, " p p . 2 8 7 - n X ) , i n t h e st ages of intellection each lower s t age i s annihilated before the next h i gher stage. 238. On Ibn Rushd's views o n potential i n tel lect, see A . I v ry. "Averroes o n Intellection a n d C o nj u nc t i o n , " ,lA OS, 86, No. 2 (April-June, 1 966), p . 77.

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the aid of the senses (for example, the primary intelligibles), or it acquires them through logical deduction.239 According to Rahman,24o I b n Sina identifies material intellect with i m ag i n at i o n . T h i s identificat i o n o f material i ntellect with imagination is p r obably not maintained b y Falaquera.24 1 We h ave already seen that Falaquera

disagrees with Ibn Sina's rejection of the identity of i ntellect and intelligible the case of accidental intell i gibles, and that although much of Chapter 15 Sefer Ha- Nefesh i s based o n I b n Si na, the passage dealing w it h the identi ty intellect and intelligible at the end of Falaquera's chapter (page 29, line 4 1 ,

in of of to

the e n d o f t he c h apter on page 30) i s not b ased on any t e x t i n l b n S i n a , but rat h e r reflects the views of rbn R u s h d . 24 2 A n d w e s a w t h at Falaquera, like Ibn

Rushd ,243 maintained that the i ntellect is aided by i m agination, s o that when imagination is impaired or sick, the intellect forgets what it k new, whereas I b n Sina denied intellectual memory. S ince imaginables m u s t be rendered intelligible, this would imply that a person must h ave the capacity or disposition to perform this function, and that capacity or disposition must be s o mething other than imagination itself, or else all i m aginables would become accidental intelligibles, at least potentially, in which case any animal endowed with i magination could als o i ntelli g i ze. I magination depends on sensation, and yet it is an entirely separate faculty fro m sensation. The fact that the intellect is aided by imaginat i o n d oe s n o t , therefore, by analogy, imply that the gap between imagination, which pe rce i v e s p articulars, and i ntellect, which perceives universals, is in any way eliminated . A person has the capacity o r disposition to abstract universals from imaginables; that abstracti o n cannot be a functio n of imagination itself. There i s thus nothing explicit or impl i c i t in Falaquera's writi ngs to j ustify conclud ing t h at he would h ave agreed with the ident i ficati on of material i ntellect with imagination. 239. Sefer Ha- Nefesh, C h . 1 4, p. 23 and notes 2 and 4. CL De'ot Ha-Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , ms. P a r m a f . 1 84a, m s . Leyden L 297b . T h i s v i e w w a s expressed by I b n S i n a . See Blumberg, Epitome, p . 80 n . 1 1 9 . 240 . A vicenna 's Psychology, p . 1 9. 24 1 . Falaquera would probably h ave agreed with lbn Rushd's view, which Ivry ("Moses of Narbonne's Treatise," p. 277) explains thus: "The hylic intellect is, then, the meeting ground of the agen t intellect and these actually imaginative but potentially i ntelligible forms. " According t o P rof. lvry (here and in "Averroes o n I ntellection and Conjunction," p . 77), l b n Rushd synthesized the view of Alexander of Aphrodisias that material intellect is p u rely a d isposition to receive forms, and Themistius' view that a disposition must have substance of which it is p redicated, so that l b n Rushd concludes that the substantiality, real n ature, and true subject o f the hylic intellect must be attributed to the agen t intellect. 242. See Sefer Ha-Ne(esh, Ch. 1 5 , notes 6 and 1 2. 243 . Cf. Se(er Ha- Nefesh, C h . 1 4 , a n d De'ot Ha-Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , ms. Parma f . 1 8 3a, ms. Leyden f. 297a, quoting I b n Rushd's Talkh j�, A rabic (f. l 46d) p. 1 29 I . 1 1 , S he m Tov (f. 1 50v) p . 1 1 3 I. 3, I b n Tibbon (f. 1 30v) p . 1 1 4 I. 9,

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But Falaquera, like I b n S i na , d oe s identify a s e c o n d s t age of pote ntial i ntellect with "holy intellect " o r the "holy spirit. " I n Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Chapter 1 4 , p. 2 3 , Falaquera says: The rational faculty of a few souls m ay be s o d i s p o s e d , when awake, for c o nj unction with the u niversal i ntellect, s o t h at , i n o rder t o k n o w things, it does n o t need any logical deduction o r speculation, and will n o t need t o make any effort; rather i n s pi r at i o n (hit'orerut) and p r o p hecy (nevu 'ah) will suffice for it. This is called the holy spirit (rual; ha-qodesh). Only the p r op hets, peace be o n t he m , are graced b y this rank . A n d i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Chapter 1 8 , p . 3 9 : K n o w t h at l e a r n i n g , whet her i t c o m e s fro m s o m e o n e o t h e r than the learner , o r whether it comes fro m the learner himself, i s ranked ( i n degrees). S o me learners are close to ( i m mediate) conceptualiza­ t i o n , because their disposit i o n , which receives the d i s p o s i t i o n that we mentioned, is strong. If t h i s person h as this withi n himself, it i s called a s t r o n g d i s po s i ti o n . I s a y t h at this disposition becomes s o s t r ong i n s o me p e o p le that they d o not n e e d anything great ( i n terms of effort) , n o r p ractice o r i nstruction, t o be conj oined with the active i ntellect. It i s even stronger than the second d is p osition (ha-hakhanah ha-shenit), as if (the pers o n) knew everything fro m w i t h i n himself (mi-nafsho). 244 T h i s d is p o s i t i o n i s t h e highest of all degree s . This state of the material i ntellect must be called holy intellect (sekhel qadosh). I t i s of the genus of acquired i n tellect but i t i s s o exalted t h at not all p e o p le share in it. And similarly, in Moreh Ha- Moreh 1 : 34, p . 1 9 : I b n S i n a wrote . . . : There can be a man of such a p u re n ature t h at he k n ows everythi ng, whose s o u l is assisted by the strength of its p urity and the strength o f its c o nj u nct i on with rational p rinciples, s o t hat h i s receptivity i s fro m the (active) i ntellect c oncerning everyth i ng . Some people do not require habitu a l learning fo r their c o nj un ct i o n with the active intellect. I nstead, it i s as i f they knew everything fro m within t hemselves . This notion s h o u l d b e called the holy intellect (sekhel qadosh). It i s most excellent, and not all p e o p l e share in i t . H e said: The rat i o n al facul t y of a few souls may be s o d i s p osed , when awake, for conj unct i o n with the u niversal intellect t h at they d o not need any effort. I n s p ir at i o n and p r o phecy

244. Or: w i t h i n h im s e l f.

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Raphael Jospe

suffice fo r i t . This is called the h o l y s p i ri t (ruah h a - lj o c/es h). O nly a p r o p he t is graced by this ran k .

These passages are clearly p araphrases of I b n Sina (Avicenna s Psychology, Chapter 6 , p p . 35-37): Some people w h o acq uire k n owledge come very near t o immedi ate perce p t i o n , s ince t h e i r p otential i ntellect . . . i s t h e most powerfu l . I f a p e r s o n can acq uire k n o wledge fro m w i t h i n h imself, t h i s strong

capacity is called "intuiti o n . " I t is so strong i n certain people that they do not need great effort . . . i n order to make contact with the active i ntelligence . . . . It seems as though he knows everything fro m w i t h i n h i mself . . . . In this must be called "Di v ine S pi r it . " . intellectus i n habitu, 245 b u t i s s o it . . . . Thus there m ight b e a man

state, the material intelligence . . . I t belongs t o t he ge n u s o f lofty t h at n o t all p e o p l e s hare whose soul h as s u c h an intense

purity and is so firmly l inked to the rational p rinciples that he blazes with i ntuition , i . e . , with the receptivity of inspiration coming fro m the active i ntelligence concerning everything . . . .

T h i s is a k i n d of p r o p hetic inspiration, indeed i t s highest fo rm and the o n e most fitted t o be called Divine Power; and it is the h ighest human faculty.

R ahman246 suggests that l b n Sina identified this kind of strong p otential i ntellect with what Aristotle had referred to as q u ick wit in Posterior A nalytic� I , 34, 89b. What we h ave here, i n Falaquera and I b n Sina, i s the notion that some people - t h e p r o p h e t s h ave a t y p e of p otential intellect which is so strong, and s o strongly d i s p osed to receive i ntelligibles, t h at it can, w i t h o u t e x t e r n a l instruction o r aid, immediately come into co ntact with the active

i ntellect. Their potential intellect is so strong that it verges o n actuality, and is therefore called "holy intellect . " T h i s "holy intellect , " also called t h e p rophetic "holy spirit, " is not t h e same as o r iginal p otential o r material intellect. I t i s a second disposition (hakhanah shenit), and is of the genus of acq u i red intellect. In other words, in the case of some people (e . g . , the p r o phets) , their acq u i red intellect ( i n terms of Se/er Ha-Ne/esh. C h . 20) or em a n a te d intellect (in terms of Se/er Ha- Nelesh. Ch. 1 8) i s so developed and is so c o nj o i ned with the active i n te l l ec t , t h at these persons can grasp the truth immediately and i n t uitively, w i t h o u t fu rther effo rt at i ntellection or speCUlat i o n . T h e acquired or emanated intellect (inte/lecllls in habitu) is t h u s transformed into a second and h igher type o f potential i ntellect. B y i t s c o nj u nction with t h e active intellect ( i n relat i o n t o w h i c h t h e h u m a n

245 . I n Falaquera's terms, the acquired intellect. 246. Rahman, A vicenn a s Psychology, p. 20. '

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intellect, however actual ize d , can only be described as potent ial ) , this acquired or emanated intellect re-emerges as a potentially i nfi nite intellect, able to intelligize prophetically and i m mediately, H a-Levi , in his account of lbn S i na\ psychology in Kuzari 5 : 1 2 , also ,t ates that the rational faculty of some people succeeds i n conj o ining (,itti,ya/) with the u niversal intellect. and in being e levated p rophetically above logical d ed uction and speculation and the nced t o engage in learning. This unique prophetic quality is holy and is called "holy spirit" (rua!; ha-qodesh). As Alfred lvry has s hown,c4- for I b n Rushd and N arboni, t h is conj unction, i n which the intellectus in hahitu is destroyed, ends the individuality of the h u m an intellect. The conj unction is i mpersonal. In this way. for Ibn Rushd and N arb o n i , personal identity is lost not only afte r death but even i n life . I n dividuality is l o s t ; only u niversal forms remain. B u t since t h i s conj unction is temporary, the loss of individuality is not absolute or permanent. S i nce, according t o Ivry, Ibn Rushd di d not consider the individual actual intellect to be a fully independent existent, h e regarded it as receiving n o t only its actuality but also its substantiality from the agent intellect, through conj u nction with it both i n life and after death. Accordingly, there is at least a temporary loss of individuality i n life as i n death : Logically, it can only be the imaginative faculty in man which, involved i n intellection both before and after conj u nction, is res p o nsible for the retention of his individual nature . . . . These imaginative forms t herefore both permit and p revent comp lete conj u nction, and both allow man to transcend himself and restrain him from losing himselp4x But in the case of Falaquera, s ince intellect is regarded as an i ndependent substance (which i n the l ast case transcends itself by self-intellection, since the fo urth grade of intellect, i.e" emanated intellect, results not fro m an action of the active intellect but fro m the action of the third grade of i ntellect, i.e" actual intellect, o n itself, in self-intellection), it only becomes conj o i ne d and loses its individuality after death. Falaquera's passage i n Sefer Ha- Nefesh, Ch. I S (quoted above), lacks the reference found in Tbn S ina's passage. to t he prophetic overfl o w to the imaginati o n . B u t Falaquera d oes maintain the view, expressed here b y I b n Sina, a n d also maintai ned by \1 aimo nides, which goes back to AI-Farabi , that i n the prophet as p h ilosopher-king, the active i ntellect overflows not only to the

247 . See "Averroes o n I n tellec t i o n a n d C o nj uncti o n , " p p . 7 6 - 8 5 , a n d " M oses of N arbo n n e 's Treat i s e . " p. 2Sg ff. 248 .

I ny, " M o ses of Narbonne's Treatise," p .

287.

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intellect b u t also to the i magination, thus enabling the p r o p het to govern his society. 249 We h ave a l ready seen t h at in Sefer Ha-Nefesh, Chapter 20, based on I b n S i na 's Kitab al-Najat I I : 6 (A vicenna s Psychology, Chapter 1 6) , Falaquera p osits the need fo r the active i ntellect to actualize the potential human intellect. The same argument is p resented i n Reshit lfokhmah , pp. 89-90 . (This section of Reshit lfokhmah I I I : 3 , the "Philosophy of Aristotle , " is a paraphrase of AI- Farab i 's Falsafat A ris{u{a/is). 250 H ere he says that the active intellect, never having any potentiality, but being entirely actu a l always, "its essence ('e?em) and act i v i t y (po 'al) are o ne . " I n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim V I : B : 3 , m s . Parma f. 1 8 5 a b , ms. Leyde n f. 298a, Falaquera maintains that t he active intellect is not merely the efficient cause o f the actualization of potential human i n te llect, as A I - F arabi mistakenly thought, but i s also the fin a l p erfecti o n and fo rm of potential i n t e llect, a view Falaquera attributes t o Alexander. I n a n earlier p as s age,m Falaquera also referred t o the active intellect as "our fin a l fo rm"

(ha-?urah ha- 'al}aronah lanu). I n Sefer Ha- Ma'alot, p . 26, Falaquera says: The philosopher said concerning the universal s o u l , t hat the i n tellect emanates its benefits to a l l the p articular souls i n one i n s t a n t , b u t the particular souls are o n l y able t o receive t h e m o ne by o n e , over a l o n g period of time . . . . This is because (the s o u l ) i s

i m p ressed i n a s e a o f m atter and t h e prison of nature . m T h e i nternal faculties function best w h e n t h e external faculties are quiet. 2 53 (The refore, M ai m onides maintained i n the Guide of the Perplexed 2:36, p r o phecy usually occurs d u r i n g s l e e p , w h e n t h e r e i s n o d i stract i o n b y t h e sense s . ) T h e t o i l s o f the b o d y , Falaquera states i n Sefer Ha-Nefesh, C h a p t e r 20, p revent the actual i ntellect's c o nj u nction (devequt) w i t h the active intellect. But when the intellect aband o n s all b od i l y c o ncerns, when it i s separated fro m the body i n death, nothing can interfere with its perpetual c o nj uncti o n with the active intellect, known as the general o r u n iversal (kelali) i ntellect, which i s also called "divine" ( ,elohi). H owever, the various vegetative and animal faculties of 249. Falaquera q uotes AI-Farabi t o this effect i n Ma'alot, p p . 1 3- 1 5 . There he says that the active intellect is the form of the emanated intellect which is the for m of the p assive i ntellect, and that the emanated intellect i s the mean between the active i ntellect and p assive i ntellect. Cf. A I - F arab i , Risalah fi 'I-'Aql. 250. See M . M ah d i , A lfarabi 's Philosophy of Plato and A ristotle (lthaca, N . Y. , 1 969) . 2 5 1 . De'ot Ha-Pilosofirn V I : B : 3 , m s . Parma f. 1 83 a, ms. Leyden f. 297a; this is a direct quote fro m Ibn R ushd 's Talkhi�, Arabic (f. 1 46d ) p . 1 29 I. 1 1 , S he m Tov (f. 1 50v) p. 1 1 3 I. 3 , Ibn Tibbon (f. 1 30v) p . 1 1 4 I . 9 . 2 5 2 . Falaquera u s e s h e r e the term tafut (emanates), cognate with the A r a b i c fit! (e manate), i nstead of the more common H e b rew shafa'. 2 5 3 . Sefer Ha- Ma'alot, pp. 4 1 -42.

Torah and Sophia: Shem Tov Ihn ill /ill/u era

26 1

the human soul fu ncti o n i n and through the body, and therefore die with the body, The human intellect, Falaquera says,254 strives t o reach perfecti o n b y resembling t h e active i ntellect, which is the efficient and final cause of man, Ultimately, man's i ntellect hecomes incorporeal (n ivdal me-/:lOmer). at which point there i s no l onger any i ntermediary ( 'em?a'i) hetween h i s intellect a n d the active i ntellect, so that h i s intellect hecomes that i ntellect. After death, when the intellect is n o longer limited by its bodily connecti o n , w h e n i t i s united w i t h the active i ntellect, it no longer knows "those intelligibles which are here " (ha­ muskalo t 'asher he-khan). i . e " the accidental intelligibles which are derived by abstraction from sensi hie and i maginahle forms. Therefore, "we d o not remember after death whatever we d i d while it (i.e., the intellect) was conj o i ned to the body . " After death, the immortal intellect is engaged exclusively i n self-contemplation.m Such i m mortality is clearly impersonal. As we h ave seen, the lower functions of the soul, i ncluding imagi n ation, which provide the element of individuality, d o not survive. But whereas i n the c ase of rbn Rushd and N arboni, impersonal and temporary conjunction with the active intellect can occur even during life (see ab ove) , for Falaquera it occurs only after death, Thus the souls, after their separation from the body in death, do not d ie, but rather are connected to this glorious substance, which is called the universal intellect. The theologians call it the d ivine real m . " "

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(N7 "'::l�') 1 5 '�l) N '" i',tl WW��iI m:l'N' ( � 7 "'��' ) 1 6 ' �1I N '" V'C , :J O N 'W J ' O':l'i:O o'wmil 7:l'

(6) n '" ' � 1I N '" i',tl WW'��iI m:l'N? ( 3 5 ) " ;:) ' � 1I N '" i" C O'N'WJ c'wmil ?:l? ilwnil n1' iI N ' iI'

( ::l 8 "'::l�') 18 '�l) ,, " , i',tl

( 1 6 ) ::I " ;:) '�1I "", i',tl

1:1 'Y'

O'W1 n i11 ?Y!J:J OY!J' n:l:J OY!J N1i1 :I " Y'

(N9 li�::l') 19 '�1I ,", V,tl wmil 1:O� N'iI ':l ( N 9 li��') 1 9 '�1I ''' , ViC N �1lil' m'Y� W�WiI ,mN':I m,yU

i1T 1:1 ?Y' . 0'w, nM ( 3 0 ) , ;:) '�l) ,", i',tl w,nil 1:O� Ol'W' N'iI ':1 ( 3 2 ) ," ;:) '�1I ," , i" !) m'Y� O'�:J W'W�iI m N ' :J ,:J ,myu

iI:J i1T

"

N �1lil' (::l9 "'::I�' ) 2 0 '�l) ,", i',tl

n'u'!J ilY'1' m" :O il il7N� iI'ilW iI�

(NI 0 "'::I�' * ) 21 '�l) , " , i',tl

O" 'lil Y" 1:1' ( N i l "'::l�') 23 ' � l) ,"U V,tl '7mil 'JC� il 1 0 !)l1 ( N 1 2 "'::l�' ) 25 '�1I 1 " U V'C i n 1 N � iI 'O!J' O N ' ( ::l 1 2 "'::l�') 2 6 '�l) 1 '" V,tl l) :J U iI N'iI 2 6 '�l) 1'" V'D

O il'7Y '�Nlil 'N1nil OW ( N 1 3 "'::l�') 2 7 '�l) n'" i',tl O" :JN' :J" P iI i11Nn�i11 ( N 1 3 "'::I�' * ) 2 7 '�l) n '" i',tl C"':O� " N' m!Jn:J O" P � '7N n'lI:JUiI m � ' � n :J (�1 3 "'��' * ) 2 8 ' � l) n'" v,tl " N iI nll,m N7N (::l14 "'::l�' * ) 2 9 ' �l) n '" i',tl Oil' n':J'Y:J N'Plil n:lil ( N 1 5 "'��' ) 3 0 '�l) n'" v,tl ,'mn:l ( N 1 6 "'::l�' ) 32 '�l) U " , i',tl iI�:OY? nYY'ln� W!Jlil O'WiI' 3 3 '�l) U '" V,tl

( 3 6 ) rl"::1 '�1I ' '' , i" D ':1 Y'" n1YU m" :O il ' ? N � iI'ilW iI � 1:1 O N ' 1" �' o , ? n :J m N ' J iI n", :O il c"w, n i1 1 O"?:lWiI O " :J'iI l)" ?:lWiI n'u,!) ilY'" o"w,n il Y'" N'ilW N?N

( 70) ,"::1 ' � l) ,", i" D O" 'YiIiI Y" 1:1' (34) U";:) '�l) ,"U i" D '?:liI 'l!)� iI'O!JJ' (25) N '" '�l) l"U i" !) ON' iI:Jw n � iI ,o!)n 'n'Y:O�N 'O!)' ON' 'n1N�iI 'O!)' ( 1 2) ::I", ' � 1I 1 '" i" D 'Y:J U iI m � ' � n il N ' it ( 1 5 ) ::I"' ' � 1I 1"' i" D Oil" lI '�Nlit i11Nnit O W ( 6 ) , ,,, '�1I n'" i" D O" :JN' :J" P it i11it�it' ( 1 0 ) ' " ' '�1I n '" i" D O'�lllit '?N' mcn:J O" P � '?N 'lI:JUit m�'�n:J (36) it", '�1I n '" i" !) " ' N it ny,m " ?N ( 6 2 ) 1'" ' �1I n '" i" !) 0 i1 1 ':J,Y:J N'Plil n:lit (84) n '" '�1I n '" i" !) ,'nnn (5) N"� '�1I U '" i" D it�lY? Y'l� W!Jlil O'Wi11 (36) " " � ' � 1I U", i" !)

268

Raphae/ Jospc

n,nN �U:1l1l 1l)Ellil1l)' ( N 1 7 ",��I,> 34 '�17 ' :1 i" !) ,YEl:J ':l1l) ''''N 1l)V"il:J ( N 1 7 "'��') 34 '�17 ':1 i" !) 1l)Ellil " "ll

, n N �U:J1l) 1l)Ellil1l)'

(5) ""� '�17 ':1 i" !) 'YEll ':l1l) ''''N 1l)V"il:J ( 1 7) '''� '�17 ' :1 i" !) m:J'�il 1l)Elli1 " "ll

There are also numerous other errors, especially i n the Warsaw, 1 924, edition, which are clearly typ ographical errors. The critical edition of Sefer Ha-Nefesh that appeared in m y P h . D . d issertation, " S hem Tov i b n Falaquera's Psychology: A Critical Edition and A n notated Translation of Sefer Ha-Nefesh " ( Brandeis U n iversity, 1 97 8 ) , provided, fo r the first t i m e , a reliable e d i t i o n of Falaquera's o n l y systematic w o r k . The text (and therefore also the translation in Appendix B and notes in Appendix C) h as been completely revised for this b o o k in two ways . First, another manuscript ( M s . P i n the app aratus, H arvard M s . H e b . 3 8 ; H e b re w U niversity Microfil m No. 34447), which w a s n o t p reviously available to me, has been added t o the a p p aratu s . In several p l aces this new manuscript provides the best and most reliable reading (see below) . Second, w hereas i n my d issertat i o n M s . , ( B o d leian 227 - O p p . 2 1 9 ; H e b rew U n iversity Microfi l m N o . 1 6363) served as the base text, with the other manuscripts serving as variants, the new text here i s composite, taking into closer account all the manuscripts, including p, as weJl as the evidence of the sources, i n comparison with parallel o r simil ar p assages i n De'ot Ha- Pilosofim. *

*

*

D E S C R I P T I O N OF T H E M A N U S C R I PTS

Manuscrip t ,: Bod leian 227 Opp. 2 1 9 ( H e b rew U n iversity M icrofi l m N o . 1 6363). F o l i o s 5 1 - 6 7 . According to Neubauer's Catalogue of t h e Hebrew Manuscrip ts i n the Bodleian Library ( p . 4 1 ) , the script i s of a German rabbinic character . The text, as h as been noted , is missing a secti o n of Chapter 1 9 and the first two l i nes of -

Chapter 20. The m i s s i ng sect i o n fol lows the w o rd 1l) Elln il:J o n l i ne I I of p age 4 1 o f this editi o n , corresp o n d i n g t o line 1 7 o f p age 1 6a o f the p rinted edition, and resumes with the w o rd ,"Y," on line 3 of p age 43 of this editio n , corresponding to line 3 of page 1 7a of the printed edition. I t is to be noted that the b reak occurs on fo lio 66b of the manuscript, l i ne 1 3 . Folios 66b and 67a are the last two fu l l p ages of the manuscript, which co ncludes i n the middle of folio 67b. These l ast two p ages are written with the l i nes p rogressively l o nger and s h o rter, fo r m i n g a d i a m o n d - l i k e patte rn of w r i t i ng o n the p age . Line 1 3 of fo l i o 66b, in w h i c h the h r e a k occ u rs , i s o ne o f the few fu l l l i nes o n fo lio 66b, which d ivide

Torah and Sophia: She m

'I'm Ihn

Fu/aquera

269

two d iamond p atterns above and below. The b reak occurs between the first and second words of the line. These words are otherwise continuous in their appearance, so that there can be no question of there being a missing folio o r mistake i n t h e microfilm. X Wien 1 43 ( S i g n ature 1 2 1 ; H e b rew U n iversity M icrofi l m No. 1 397). Folios 1 -6. According to A.Z. Schwartz's Die Hebriiischen Handschriften der Nationalbibliothek (p. 1 55), the text dates from 1 55 5 ; the script is It alian rab b i nic. The d ating is b ased on a scribal postscript at the end of the b o o k , stating that the manuscript was completed in the year (5)4 1 5 ( 1 55 5 C . E . ) . This text was the basis of the printed edition of Lemberg, 1 83 5 , upon which subsequent printed editions were based . There are, however, differences between the printed edition and this text. [ believe the printed edition was corrected by refe rence to one · or more manuscripts, and some of the d iscre pancies between the printed edition and this manuscript result fro m the printed edition being based, o n those occasions, on the Cambridge 1 2 1 4 manuscript l isted below. Nevertheless, the printed edition i s closer to Wien 1 43 than to any other s i ngle manuscript of which I am aware.

Man uscrip t

Manuscrip t 7: M ontefi ore 273 ( He b rew U niversity M icrofil m N o . 5237). Folios 1 -2 8 . According to Hirschfeld's Descriptive Catalogue of the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Mon tefiore Library ( p p . 8 7 - 8 8 ) , t h e script is o f a Spanish rabbinic character. I t i s to b e noted that this text has an additio nal work as Chapter 2 1 , following the end o f C h apter 20 on folio 2 3 . Despite its being l isted as Chapter 2 1 , it clearly is a separate work, in view of the fact that the customary conclusion of the book is included at the end of Chapter 20, and Falaquera's authorship is introduced again at the beginning of Chapter 2 1 , as it would be at the begin n i ng of an independent work. The work deals with "The Opinions of the Philosophers on H uman Perfection" (De'ot Ha- Pilosofim Ba- Shelemut Ha- 'Enoshi), and i s identical (with minor variations) to the first appendix (Chapter I) of Moreh Ha- Moreh ( P ressburg edition, 1 837, pp. 1 4 1 - 1 45 ) . M ontefiore 2 7 3 is one of t h e m o s t legible of all the manuscripts consulted , but frequently varies fro m the base text. �: Paris 706 ( Hebrew U niversity M icrofilm No. 1 1 594). Folios 1 29- 1 49 . This is t h e second work contained i n the manuscri pt, and follows Falaquera's March Ha- Moreh. According to J . Taschereau's Catalogues des Man uscrits Hebreux et Samaritains de la Bibliotheque Imperiale ( p . I I I ). the manuscript d ates from the 1 5th century.

Man uscrip t

270

Raphae/ Jospe

P aris 706 repeats a whole section fro m Chapters 5 and 6 in the middle of Chapter 1 5 . Following the words " :JlZli1IJ lZl�li1 on page 29, line 3 1 of this text (page I l a, line 1 5 of the p rinted edition), this manuscript inserts a section beginning with the words lZl ' � i1 � 1 ) fro m p age 1 0, line 26 of this edition (page 4a, line 1 1 of the p rinted edition), and concluding with the w o rds lZl1n' ,:J,J on line 22 of p age 12 in this edition (page 4b, line 25 of the p ri nted edition). The text then continues as it should i n Chapter 1 5 . This manuscript (as well as n Cambridge 1 2 1 4 below) is missing a section in Chapter 1 8. The section begins with the words C'lZln1IJ Cl'�lZl on p age 37, line 66 of this edition (page 1 4b , line 5 of the p rinted edition). The text resumes with the word " IJ" on line I I I of p age 39 ( page 1 5b , line 6 of the p rinted edition) . -

Man uscript 1: Paris 700 ( He b re w U niversity M icrofi l m N o . 1 1 5 7 8 ) . F o l i o s 1 60 - 1 66. This is the fou r t h work contained in the manuscript. The first w o r k (fo l i o s

1 -89) is M oshe Narboni's commentary to the Guide of the Perplexed. The second work (folios 90- 1 46) is Falaquera's Moreh Ha-Moreh. The third work (fol i os 1 47 - 1 60a) is Falaquera's Liqqu[im of I b n Gabirol's Fons Vitae. Sefer Ha- Nefesh, the fourth work in the manuscript, e xtends fro m folio 1 60b t o folio l 66 b . It is fo l l o wed b y the fifth work, Falaquera's She/em ut Ha Ma asim (also k n o w n as Shelemut Ha- Kuaf:z Ma'asi), e x t e n d i ng from fol i o l 66b at the bottom t o folio 1 7 1 a. Folios 1 7 1 b to the end contain works by I b n Sina and Yosef ibn Kaspi. The manuscript is missing a section i n Chapter 1 3 , fro m the word Y :II1 on line 1 6 of p age 22 of this edition, and resumes with Chapter 1 4, on page 22 of this edition . Taschereau d ates this manuscript as 1 5th century. -

'

Man uscr ip t r: Wien 1 44 ( S ignature: H e b rew 92. Hebrew U niversity M icrofilm N o . 1 368). Folios 1 - 1 3 . According to Schwartz's catalogue ( p . 1 5 5), the manuscript dates fro m the 1 6t h century, and the script is I t alian rabbinic. Several p ages of the text, fro m Chapter 2 to Chapter 5, are missing between fol i o s 1 and 2 . Folio I b ends with the words i1" ,i1i1 n:J ,::lv' in Chapter 2, p age 4, l i n e 1 5 of this edition (page 2a, line I of the p rinted edition) . Folio 2 a begins with the words i1ljiTi1 1IJT::l pi1 n:Ji1IJ in Chapter 5, p age 1 0, line 28 of this edition ( page 4a, line 14 of the p rinted edition). Schwartz's catalogue mistakenly lists the resumption of the text as occurring in Chapter 6 instead of Chapter 5. Ma n u sc r ip t n: Cambridge Add. 1 2 1 4 ( Hebrew U niversity M icrofi l m N o .

1 7077). This is the second work in the manuscript, and fo llows Falaquera's Moreh Ha-Moreh. The catalogue of microfilms at the Hebrew University approximates the d ate of the manuscript as I S - 1 6th century.

Torah alld Sophill.· ."hem To v Ibn Fa/aquera

27 1

This manuscript is frequently barely legible, and even illegible, p articularly in and around Chapter 3. Without comp arison t o other texts, it would not h ave bee n possible to read it at all. Every attempt w as made to include variant read ings fro m this manuscript whenever they could b e determined . However, lack of refe rences t o this text i n the critical a p paratus at any given p o i n t ( p articularly if n o other references t o it a r e found in that area) m ay s i m p l y mean t h at t h e text was i l legible at t h at point, and d oe s not necessarily imply agreement with the base text. It is interesting to note (details fo llow below) that, o n s o me occasions, the p r i nted ed itions follow � (Cam bridge 1 2 1 4) alone (of all t he manuscripts c o n s u lted ) , a n d � o m e t i mes fo l l o w s b o t h � and \I ( Paris 706), which seem t o b e related . Generally, however, as s t ated above, the p rinted editions fol l o w manuscript J ( W ien 1 43 ) .

Man uscrip t p: H arvard M s . H e b . 3 8 ( H e brew U niversity M i crofilm N o . 34447). Folios 9 7 a- 1 05a. The manuscript, dated by the catalogue of microfilms at the H e b rew U niversity as 1 5t h century, Ashkenazi script, is quite clear and legible, and is c l osest t o M s . , (Bodleian 227). The scribe generally d ropped final letters where the meaning is obvious, such as i n the plural '�'::J' for C�'::J'. S ince this feature does not affect the meaning, and would u n necessarily complicate the a p paratus, i t was not included i n the variants.

In add i t i o n to the eight manuscripts consulted , there are m icrofi l m copies of t h re e add it i o nal m anuscripts i n the I nstitute o f M icrofilms of H e b rew \1 anuscripts at the Jewish National and Hebre w University Library, which were not utili zed . Thc fi rst of these is M antua No. 12 ( H ebrew U n iversity M icrofi l m No. 792). Acc o rd i ng to M arco M o rtara's Catalogo Dei Manoscritti Ebraici Della Bihlio teca f)ella Com m unila lsraelilica De Man tova ( p . 1 6) , t h i s is the second work i n the manuscript, which i s of S p anish rabbinic character. I w as not able to obtain permission to util ize this m anuscript from the necessary authorities. rhe second of these is the Livorno Talmud Torah M anuscript No. 40 ( H e brew U n iversity M icrofi l m N o . 1 2488). According t o t h e catalogue of m icrofi l m s at t h e H e brew U niversity, t h i s manuscript is d ated 1 3 8 2. There is n o information c oncerning t h i s manuscript i n Carlo Bernheimer's Facsim iles de Manuscrits Hehriiiques de la Bihlio tht�que du Talmud Tora de Livorne. I was not able t o obtain p e r m i s s i o n to u t i lize this manuscript fro m the necessary authorities. The third of these is Parma No. 1 28 3 ( Hebrew U niversity Microfi l m N o . 1 3 542 ) . Accord ing to the Mss. Codices Hehraici Bihlioth. I. B. De Rossi. Parmae.

Rarhael Jo>pe

272

Vo!. I l l , p . 1 3 5 , the manuscript d ates fro m the 1 7t h century. The manuscript i s of various scripts (some i lleg i b l e) are put to ge t h er, and I was not able t o pie ce together m o re than occasional bits of text. From i nformation i n the catalogue quoted above, as well as fro m the Hebrew University catalogue of microfilms, it seems that Falaq uera's Sefer Ha- Nefesh is the third work i n this m a n u s cr i pt , and is fol l o wed by a c o m mentary by f'7.m i1" i1' p �O" . I n fact, e x posure No. i n p o o r condition, a n d is s o d i s o rganized t h at I was u n a b l e to utilize it. Pages

70 o f the microfi l m contains a table o f contents o r a l i s t of c h apter head ings of

Sefer Ha- Nefesh. It has a reference to a Chapter 2 1 being a commentary to S a'ad ia's Se/er 'Emunot Ve- De'ot o n the substance of the soul. One of the problems with this manuscript i s that the co m ment ary i s i nterspersed with the text itself. For example, exposure No. 9 9 of the microfilm has:

ON ':J Ni':li1 nll" ':I p , n N i1 'IV'N7 l'i'�1V . . . T'NIV lI" '�1V i1�1pi1 . O'N IVC] n",',' " , 7'" , ;" 'P7C P 7"T �O,' ,:1 :I'� OIV ' � N " ]" "Ni1 0'C'0'7'C;"I " !)M 'i1':lnN' IVC);,,! n�:J":I p � p ' !) O '::In 7 'n'N' " �'!) i1:1,;"I " 7 N '::In� N!)" i1 �O" 'IN' .w,!)'nm i1''Pn;''l , " l) tl" :J'�i1 ::Ii;"l ",:JTi1 N 7 1V " l) •

•

.

(See the catalogue of the De Rossi Library, above, p . 1 3 5 . ) Due to the condition of the manuscript, I was u nable to pursue the matter further or to utilize the manuscript for this edition of Sefer Ha- Nefesh. For p u r p o ses of reference , I was able to identify the following p arts of Se/er Ha-Ne(esh on the manuscript (Parma 1 28 3 ) : Exposure Exposure Exposure E x posure

70 99 1 09 1 17

Table of contents (Chapter headings) Falaquera's I ntrod uction to Se/er Ha-Ne/esh Chapter 1 Chapter 2

Exposure 1 25

Chapter 3

E x p o s u re 1 3 3

Chapter 4

E x p o s u re 1 34

Chapter 5

Exposure Exposure E xp osure Exp osure

Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9

1 37 1 40 141 1 45

E x p o sure 1 48

Chapter 1 0

E xposure Exposure Exposure Exposure Exposure

1 49

Chapter 1 1

1 55 1 60 161

Chapter 1 2 Chapter 1 3 Chapter 1 4

1 65

C h apter 1 5

Torah and Sop/l l a: Shem Tov lbn Fu/a (/u1'ra

Expos ure Exposure Exposure ExpoSllre Exposure

1 69 171 IXI 1�5 1 90

Exposure 200 Exposure 232

273

Chapter 1 6 Chapter 1 7 Chapter 1 8 Chapter 1 9 Apparently Falaquera's Liqqll!im of I bn G abirol's Fons Vitae Liqqu[im. Fifth Sect i o n , ::1 ' � m 1V "

, � � , o , � m n ::m1 ' P l � ' i1 ' . o"n 1"

O' �::1 O' :I1�l O" ::J1 ;WJ 1V ,:11 Tl"ll " , � � ' m m

Exposu re 233 Exposure 237 E xposure 292

�O::J Iii :l1 p - '::J1T� i1 �O,'

Apparently Falaquera's Shelemut Ha- Ma'asim End of manuscript

This manuscript, which also contains sections of Moreh Ha- Mareh, is d iscussed by E p h raim Kupfer in his article '''AI Tokhno U-Mel)abbero shel Ketav-Yad Parma 1 28 3 " (in Kiryat Se/er 40, 1 964- 65, pp. 1 1 8- 1 23 ) . Kupfer believes the manuscript is by the hand of Joseph ben Judah H a-R ofe h l;I ami� himself. l;I ami{., a seventeenth-century Venetian physician, phil osopher, kabbalist, and Shabbatean, was a student of Leone M odena. ( Cr. i:n c}'c/opaedia fudaica 7 : 1 239). This d ifficult manuscript certainly merits further study. The coincidence of variant readi n gs i n the several manuscripts seems to indicate the following rel ationships among the manuscripts: I ) 7 ( M o ntefiore 27 3) seems to be close t o \1s. , ( Bod leian 227), although it has a high proportion of u nique Yariants. 2) � ( Wien 1 32 ) , u p o n which the printed edition is ge nerally based , and r ( Wien 1 44) are probably the most clm,ely related manuscripts in their coincidence of variant read i ngs . 1 ( Paris 700) is also close to these in its variants. 3) � ( P aris 7(6) and n (Cambridge 1 2 1 4) are close i n their variant readings (to the extent that n was legible) . For example, they are both missing a section in Chapter 1 8 . The secti o n begins with the words O' 1V n1� Ol' � 1V o n page 37, line 66 of this edition ( p age 1 4b , line 5 of the printed edition). The text resumes with the word 1'�" o n line [ 1 1 of page 39 (page [ 5b . line 6 of the printed edition). 4) As mentioned above, the p rinted edition, based o n � (Wien [ 43 ) , sometimes fol lows n ( Cambridge 1 2 ( 4) . as the following examples (which are not meant to be exhaustive) clearly demonstrate: Page 1 9 , line 2 1 ( pri nted edition p age 7h. line 9) follows 1:1 : �'O" ' !j i1 '��i instead of our , /J /\ 1 . Page 1 9 , line 24 ( p rinted editIOn page 7h. l ine 1 4) follows 1:1: " ' !) O instead of our " '::J1. Page 2X, line 9 ( p rinted edition page l Ob , line 1 3) follows 1:1 and � : �Ui1 instead of our iU:1. ( Listed as \ ariant . ) Page 28, line 1 2 ( printed edition page l Ob, line [ 7) fo llows r? and :'1: m'i�J instead o f our n1" �:1.

274

Raphae/ .Ios!,,,

Page 29, l i ne 13 ( p r i nted e d i t i o n p age I 1 a, l i ne 1 2) fo l l ows n:

7:lP7 i n s t e ad of our PP7.

( Listed as v a r i a n t . )

Page 32, l i n e 1 3 ( p rinted e d i t i o n p age 1 2 b , line 1 4 ) fo l l o ws 1'): I') h a s J W � ' � ' l\ :-r ' � :l ;

p r i nted e d i t i o n has m � ' � ' l'\ ' � :l i n s t e ad of o u r

li'�'�'l'\:l. 5) 'vis. );I i s o ften close t o \1 s . " and t h u s , t o a s o mewhat lesser extent , also t o M s . 7. F o r e x a m p l e . t h e s e t h ree manuscripts a r e m i s s i n g t h e i d e n t i cal p a s s age o n p age 1 5 . l i n e

I

a nd on p age 1 6 , l i n e 6. H owever, o n p age 1 7 , l i n e

and P arc i d e n t ic a l i n t h e v a r i a n t fr o m t h e b ase t e x t , a n d t h at p as s age

4.

,

is simply

m i s s ing in 7; a n d o n p age 2 1 . line 1 0 , t h e p a s s age is m i s s i n g o n l y in , and 'J.

Only this manuscript p reserves I b n S i na 's readi n g qa!an ( C h . 1 8, p . 3 8 , l i n e 92), althoug h on the next line (p. 38, line 93) it s hares with t h e other vers i o n s the corrupt q inyan. The reliability of t h i s m anuscript is s i m i l arly evident i n Ch. 8, p . 3 8 . l i ne 9 2 , where it a l o ne p reserves t h e correct read i ng 'e?ev rather than 'c:;cm.

I n t h i s critical edition, the following signs are used in the apparatus:

[] < >

word o r words missing in the variant text word o r words added in t h e variant text

« » word o r w o rd s ad d e d i n t h e m a r g i n of the variant text

I n the English translat i o n , p arentheses ( ) ind icate words not i n the H e b rew text, but added for clarit y .

N,

I.!Ql4'Cl I.! " I.'

!) CC

I / QlC:,L., I't L U QlC.L..ltU

I.

/ I.! L N

I.! .N

�'

1,)'

I' a / I.i L N ,L..ttL! < I.! l N .L.,ltU I.! L N

ZI' 1 1'

ttC,C,W

01'

4Q1 N L

£I

'

6"

r::: c:LtI..:

I.!CCC,O I.!CLCC.Q .:' " I I.! C LCC., Cl'

ttC"C,1.! " I. / N Cl LI" C < N Cl U .. O al N � " .: / C:4C C:41 Cl'

N CI � L

lNClLL

WUC:CI,C

Cl /

U l u 4 I. / C.

8'

.LlI't4,

L'

CCU ClC: U .:' , /

/t l\ ClL .,Cl , /

9' �.

COGi.

" J' U / I.! U C Cl I.! U C Cl I.!

P"

f'

Z'

I -S' I'

.U,

i'

.: ' " J ' U'

O G � i' ,:

N 4 1.i N 4 L U / I.iI'tC,C.C LNtt u G

l N l'; " G , i'

l.L.:d.! i'

L.L.: ,L

4ur::: 1.

C U C Cl U I.! Cl O G L > ( C C lo G O ) / C U C Cl U r::: U C Cl U Cl /

[ ) Cl'

I.! N U I.LtW

I.!l'; C,,(,O " I.

WNu�d

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