To the West of Spanish Cantabria: The Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia 9781407308609, 9781407338422

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Foreword
I. THE STATE OF THE ART QUATERNARY STUDIES ON NW IBERIA
CHAPTER 1: PALAEOLITHIC RESEARCH IN GALICIA
CHAPTER 2: THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL EVOLUTION OF GALICIA: A GEOMORPHOLOGICAL APPROACH
CHAPTER 3: UPPER PLEISTOCENE CAVE BEARS FROM GALICIA (NW OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA): A PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH
CHAPTER 4: SMALL VERTEBRATES OF GALICIA (NW SPAIN) DURING THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE
CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENT AND ANIMAL RESOURCES IN THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE AND EARLY HOLOCENE OF NORTHWEST IBERIA
CHAPTER 6: THE FIRST SETTLEMENT OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA IN THE EUROPEAN CONTEXT
II. FILLING IN THE GAP: NEW DISCOVERIES IN THE EASTERN AREA OF NW IBERIA
CHAPTER 7: A RESEARCH PROGRAM ON THE PALAEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF INLAND GALICIA (NW SPAIN)
CHAPTER 8: GEOMORPHOLOGY AND RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY OF THE HUMAN OCCUPATIONS DURING THE PLEISTOCENE AT THE BASIN OF MONFORTE DE LEMOS (LUGO, GALICIA)
CHAPTER 9: THE PALAEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT OF THE MONFORTE BASIN (LUGO, GALICIA)
CHAPTER 10: CAVES AND PEOPLE. ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH AT THE EASTERN MARGINS OF NW IBERIA
CHAPTER 11: THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE SITE OF COVA EIRÓS (TRIACASTELA, LUGO, GALICIA)
CHAPTER 12: ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN THE BECERREÁSITES (EASTERN LUGO): VALDAVARA CAVE AND VALDAVARA 3

Citation preview

BAR S2283 2011 DE LOMBERA HERMIDA & FÁBREGAS VALCARCE (Eds) TO THE WEST OF SPANISH CANTABRIA

B A R

To the West of Spanish Cantabria The Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Edited by

A. de Lombera Hermida R. Fábregas Valcarce

BAR International Series 2283 2011

To the West of Spanish Cantabria The Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Edited by

A. de Lombera Hermida R. Fábregas Valcarce

BAR International Series 2283 2011

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 2283 To the West of Spanish Cantabria © The editors and contributors severally and the Publisher 2011 The authors' moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407308609 paperback ISBN 9781407338422 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407308609 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2011. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

Table of Contents Foreword iii

I. The State of the Art. Quaternary Studies on NW Iberia Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Research in Galicia César Llana-Rodríguez

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Chapter 2: The Upper Pleistocene Palaeoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia: a Geomorphological Approach Augusto Pérez-Alberti

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Chapter 3: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia (NW of the Iberian Peninsula): a Palaeoenvironmental Approach Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade, Marta Pérez-Rama, Ana GarcíaVázquez, Gloria González-Fortes, Daniel Fernández-Mosquera

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Chapter 4: Small Vertebrates of Galicia (NW Spain) during the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene Jose Miguel Rey-Salgado

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Chapter 5: Environment and Animal Resources in the Upper Pleistocene and Early Holocene of Northwest Iberia Carlos Fernández-Rodríguez

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Chapter 6: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula in the European Context Xosé Pedro Rodríguez-Álvarez

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II. Filling in the Gap. New Discoveries in the Eastern Area of NW Iberia. Chapter 7: A Research Program on the Palaeolithic Settlement of Inland Galicia (NW Spain) Ramón Fábregas-Valcarce

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Chapter 8: Geomorphology and Relative Chronology of the Human Occupations during the Pleistocene at the Basin of Monforte de Lemos (Lugo, Galicia) Alicia Ameijenda-Iglesias

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Chapter 9: The Palaeolithic Settlement of the Monforte Basin (Lugo, Galicia) Arturo de Lombera-Hermida, Xose Pedro Rodríguez-Álvarez, Ramón Fábregas-Valcarce, Talía Lazuén-Fernández Chapter 10: Caves and People. Archaeological Research at the Eastern Margins of NW Iberia Arturo de Lombera-Hermida

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Chapter 11: The Upper Pleistocene Site of Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Lugo, Galicia) Xose Pedro Rodríguez-Álvarez, Arturo de Lombera-Hermida, Ramón Fábregas-Valcarce, Talía Lazuén-Fernández Chapter 12: Archaeological Excavations in the Becerreá Sites (Eastern Lugo): Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3 Manuel Vaquero-Rodríguez, Susana Alonso-Fernández, Alicia Ameijenda-Iglesias

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Foreword The archaeological research in Galicia has focused on those evidences that either for their cultural significance, visibility in the landscape, or identitary signification have a major appeal to the academic world and society. The existence of particular historical manifestations, such as the Petroglyphs or the Castro Culture, have eclipsed the attention paid to other prehistoric periods that can greatly contribute to the history of Galicia. The individual or institutional initiative (mainly museums) has kept the interest on the study of the first human settlement in NW Iberia. Fruit of their effort, the crystallization of an interdisciplinary team took place at the end of the 1980s, contributing to the standardization of the Palaeolithic research in Galicia, siding it with the neighbouring areas and beginning to overcome the epithets of ‘atypical’ or ‘archaic’ that for years have inexorably accompanied the regional Palaeolithic. In this respect, the excavation carried out in Cova da Valiña is considered a true milestone. But, again, it did not have following in the Galician archaeology. Nevertheless, the Quaternary studies did not suffer this stagnation and thanks to the systematic approaches made since the decade of the 1990s on geomorphological, palaeontological, and palaeoenvironmental issues a good knowledge of the landscape evolution of the last 100.000 years was achieved. Though at the nineties the situation was qualified as ‘encouraging’ (Fábregas 1996) it took other 13 years, and not many more articles, to read again a foreword on this topic (Villar 2009). Nevertheless, thanks to the new research projects, with better equipments and long-term planning, this situation is likely to change as they have provided new data on the early settlement of the NW, thus putting our region into the map of the Iberian Paleolithic. In this sense, the application of new analysis and methods, as well as the increase in radiometric datings (C14, OSL), can be seen as a remarkable feature. But this so acclaimed interdisciplinarity in Quaternary studies has not been fully developed. Though the methodological quality of the works has highly improved with scientific publications of international character (especially those related to geological and palaeoenvironmental issues) this trend, due to the isolated character of the excavations, has not been followed with the same intensity by the archaeological research. Only in the last years, following the dynamics initiated 20 years ago, the situation has changed significantly, due to the collaboration of foreign teams and researchers that have allowed to fill the methodological gaps affecting the University. These first impressions have been heading the forewords of those works dealing with the NW Iberian Palaeolithic for several decades, and despite the outstanding interest on Palaeolithic research in Spain, few repercussion had on the Galician Universities. This book tries to reflect this situation. By no means is intended to be a monograph on the Galician Palaeolithic given that the interesting works developed in the open-air sites around Ourense and O Baixo Miño have not been considered here. Its aim is to show the great potentiality of the Quaternary research of the NW Iberian in an area poorly known by the scholars but which may provide essential information to the understanding of the Palaeolithic: the eastern mountains of Galicia and the hinterland Tertiary depressions. Their geographical situation, as a crossroads among the Meseta and the Atlantic and Cantabrian regions; their geological features, karstic systems and evidences of glacial landscape; as well as the quality of their archaeo-palaeontological records, turn them into an exceptional area for the study of the Quaternary. This volume is a synthesis of the results obtained by the researchers in the oriental region of Galicia from the paleontological, zooarchaeological, geomorphological and archaeological point of view. We must bear in mind the marked Cantabrian character of this area, not only from a geographical but from the cultural point of view, aspect already observed during the previous decades that, little by little, seems to be consolidated as the archaeological finds are increasing.

iii

The work is structured in two principal blocks. The first deals with the palaeoenvironmental, geographical and historiographic framework of the research on the first human occupations. Thus, the comprehension of the palaeoenvironmental conditions based on the geomorphologic, palaeontological or isotopic studies, offers us the environmental characterization of the human settlement. The climatic fluctuations reverberate directly on the environment, determining the human and animal subsistence strategies. This shifting dynamics can be understood through the study of the sedimentary deposits, macro and micro-mammals remains, and the continuities/discontinuities of human populations. Once outlined the general framework of the Middle-Upper Pleistocene evolution in this region of NW Iberia the second block of this book is focused on the new archaeological project carried out in the oriental part of Galicia. The new data obtained are contributing to the knowledge of the Palaeolithic settlement during the last 100.000 years, corroborating in many cases the dynamics previously observed, and filling some gaps, especially those regarding radiometric datings. Finally, we are very grateful to all the authors for their contribution to this work and speed of delivery, not always usual nowadays. We are particularly proud of having the papers from those that have first raised, consolidated and transmitted the Quaternary flag in Galicia. In the same way we must thank to the Concello de Triacastela for their support and implication in the production of this book and for partially funding the excavations at Cova Eirós. Arturo de Lombera Hermida Ramón Fábregas Valcarce

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I. The State of the Art Quaternary Studies on NW Iberia

Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Research in Galicia César Llana Rodríguez Museo Etnolóxico. E-32400 Ribadavia. Ourense Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Palaeolithic research in Galicia, despite the pioneering works of the 19th century, only obtained its first conclusive results in the second half of the 20th century. This was due to the attention paid to more recent periods of prehistory, the limited extension of karst areas, the need for interdisciplinary teams, etc. The 21st century began with the consolidation of an interdisciplinary team, led by Professor Fábregas, at the University of Santiago de Compostela. This team published their results which helped filling the gap about the Pleistocene settlements in the north-western part of the Iberian Peninsula. Keywords: Palaeolithic, Galicia (Spain), research history, historiography. Resumen: La investigación paleolítica en Galicia, tras los trabajos pioneros del siglo XIX, sólo ha alcanzado sus primeros resultados concluyentes en la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Ello se debe a varias razones incluyendo una mayor atención a los momentos más recientes de la Prehistoria, la escasa extensión de las áreas cársticas, la necesidad de contar con equipos interdisciplinares, etc. El siglo XXI comienza con la consolidación de un equipo interdisciplinario, liderado por el Profesor Fábregas, en la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Los resultados publicados permiten completar el conocimiento sobre el asentamiento Pleistoceno en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica. Palabras clave: Paleolítico, Galicia (España), historia investigaciones, historiografía.

Introduction

noting that in the works carried out in Galicia, Malthus and Lyell are rarely cited in the 19th century, or that Darwin and Haeckel do not have a space at the University of Santiago de Compostela’s Library for the entire century nor Lyell until 1917, with the exception of the Spanish version of his 1847 Elements of Geology (Barreiro et al, 1971; Vilariño, 1980).

In the 19th century we found the birth of disciplines such as anthropology and prehistory or the transformation of Geology by Lyell. In the field of prehistoric archaeology, Thomsen did not see archaeological objects as isolated units, Nilsson started taking into consideration the stages of economic development, evidences by Engil, Gibraltar, Neander, La Naulette, etc. opened the way for the acceptance of the antiquity of Man. At the turn of the 20th century biblical times were seen as periods yet to be determined, thus overcoming the scheme suggested by Ussher in 1650. New paradigms, methods and ideas that facilitated the acceptance of the existence of an evolution of both the man and his tools, replaced the traditional framework by a new concept of human history.

The Galician University, despite having among its staff mathematicians such as Rodríguez González, geographers such as Fontán, geologists like Del Prado, histologists as González de Linares, botanists such as Planellas, etc., as well as firm defenders of Darwin and his work, officially rejected this theory (Barreiro et al, 1971; Mayobre, 1985) assuming that the evolution of species was a challenge to the old beliefs (Clark, 1980). Among the arguments used in Galicia against evolution we found its incompatibility with biblical interpretations, even though this is a theological question and therefore debatable (Barreiro et al, 1971). This opposition was carried out without offering any scientific argument and, with the exception of M. Piñeiro Herba, with no indications of knowing Darwin’s work (Barreiro et al, 1971; Mayobre, 1985).

However, such developments, despite their depth in scientific circles, took time to become accepted both in the intellectual circles and the society as a whole. In Galicia, for example, the beginnings of research in Palaeolithic happened simultaneously with the heated controversy regarding evolution, and scientific thought in general, reflecting the pattern taking place in 19th century Spain.

On the other hand, Geology was also subject to surveillance, because of its potential danger to the traditional chronological framework. Thus, Prado (1835) regrets how Geology was regarded in Spain as a contradiction to religion. In the opening speeches for the academic year, there were plenty of references to this subject emphasising

The Context of Early Palaeolithic Research in Galicia The atmosphere prevailing in the intellectual circles of 19th century Galicia rejected new trends in scientific thought, especially in the issue of evolution. Therefore, it is worth

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

its anti-evolution positions and the unimportance of a new time-frame in order to accommodate Darwin’s theories (Barreiro et al, 1971); all this took place from de la Torre in 1857 (Mayobre, 1985), to Macho in 1876. In short, the chronological issue was a factor of disagreement for those who tried to investigate in Palaeolithic, because as pointed by G. Clark (1980) in Ussher’s chronology there was no room there for the Palaeolithic man.

the traditional framework; Villaamil covered his back by maintaining a traditional speech. Analysing his work (Llana, 1994), we see that he accepted the chronological uncertainty and therefore correctly employed the terms and concepts from the prehistory of his time. Thus, he provided the first Galician stratigraphies and even showed interest in dating. At the same time, specified that ignorance about the Palaeolithic in Galicia was only due to the lack of research and because of the absence of flint, man had to stock up on local rocks. Villaamil started Palaeolithic research in Galicia based on Geology (stratigraphy concept), Palaeontology (the concept of the associated fauna) and Archaeology (using the typological classifications).

The subject of the primitive settlers was not covered in nineteenth-century Galician history books, apart from the one by Vicetto and an allusion by Verea and Aguiar (Barreiro, 1988). There was a rigid time frame and also the emergence of a political argument. In fact, we witnessed at the time the replacement of the chronological problem for the sake of political functionality in favour of a Celtic theme. That is, they needed to demonstrate that Galicia was populated and socially articulated by a race, the Celts, historical mythologizing at the service of a political project, the Galician speech (Barreiro, 1988). Therefore, it was not a priority to know the prehistoric population as it collided with large sections of the population whose opinion was necessary for the consolidation of their political proposals.

Therefore, the first Palaeolithic research in Galicia took place at the same time than in the rest of the Iberian Peninsula, and by a person qualified enough for this line of research to have better luck. However, this was not the case. In the next five decades we see no advances in these studies; Villaamil’s work was hardly cited and not even understood. A situation from which the Celtic issue took advantage from. Indeed, the Celtic theme helped building a new political theory in the 20th century (Barreiro, 1988); a process which involved a good deal of the personalities who contributed, especially in the first half of the twentieth century, to the definitive consolidation of Archaeology in Galicia. Not only did hillforts and burial mounds stood out in the landscape, but research was focused on specific periods of prehistory; that attitude obeyed to a clear ideological reason.

Therefore, the intellectual context of the first approach to Galician Palaeolithic was characterized by a chronological uncertainty, an outright rejection of the evolutionary thesis and, of major importance for the future, by an ideological interference in the research at service of a political aim articulated on the basis of the Celtic topic. The Beginnings of Palaeolithic Research in Galicia (1870-1873) Between 1870 and 1873 Villaamil y Castro published the first research on Palaeolithic in Galicia, coinciding in time with the critical moment of the discussions on evolution. In 1872 González de Linares joined the Galician University and in 1875 exploded in Santiago the so called II University Matter caused by his defence of the evolutionary doctrine (Mayobre, 1985). Also the work of Vicetto, conception of a minimally secularized history, was published in 1865, when Murguía unveiled his History of Galicia, historical mythologizing at the service of a political project (Barreiro, 1988).

A Hiatus of half a century (1873-1924)

In this not very favourable environment Villaamil (1873) explained some issues such as ‘la ciencia prehistórica se refiere a lo puramente arqueológico, desligada de toda influencia paleológica- antropológica-geológica’ or ‘despejar mi obra de cierto carácter, para muchas personas sospechoso ... de considerar todo aquello propio de la arqueología prehistórica, en su acepción más pura y en aquella parte que mejor quisieran ver llamada paleonto-antropología, ya que no arqueología- geológica ó geolo-arqueología’. The geological and archaeological methods were always accepted as long as they did not carry chronological consequences that would go beyond

Questions of a religious nature on the one hand, and political order on the other, led historians to place the first Galician settlers no further back than the builders of megaliths, thought to be Celtic (Murguía, 1888 and 1901) or, in any case, as a civilization ‘superior to that of the troglodyte’ (Maciñeira, 1893). Always avoiding conflicting views with the most conservative members of the Galician society.

Between the publication of Villaamil in 1873, and 1924, when the Jesuit priests Da Cruz and Luissier found ‘unos guijarros tallados por el hombre cuaternario antiguo’ (Domínguez, 1925), ‘varias piedras de cuarcita groseramente talladas que le parecieron [Padre Da Cruz] haber sido utilizadas por el hombre’ (Fontes, 1925), or according to López Cuevillas (1953) ‘unas cuarcitas con talla grosera’, there is not a single work regarding the Galician Palaeolithic.

Murguía is a good example: he knew about the Palaeolithic research in Europe and had in his private collection Palaeolithic materials (López, 1979) from Baldaio, A Coruña (García, 1988). He was also aware how prehistoric

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César Llana: Palaeolithic Research in Galicia

works were misunderstood in Galicia, ‘era aquí cosa tan nueva la prehistoria ... que hasta el nombre se usaba con bastante prevención y temor al ridículo’ writes to Maciñeira (1893). For him the researchers’ efforts must be focused on the radical traces to which Galicians owed their idiosyncrasy. A legitimate option which must not be crossed out ‘Murguía só persigue, nobres armas no rexo brazo, o erguemento da nosa personalidade’ (Bouza, 1933), even if it meant, (as an unintended effect) to abandon the path started by Villaamil.

was invited to give a series of seminars. Even the title of the series ‘Spanish Prehistory and Especially Galician’ was relevant, as it was the first time our university was interested in these types of studies. Obermaier’s seminars started on October 8; he was introduced by Gil Casares, Professor at the Galician University and Senator of the Kingdom. Extensive summaries of his lectures were published in various media, showing the interest which scientific thought in general, and prehistory in particular, was provoking. As consequence in 1923 the Seminar of Galician Studies was founded. Obermaier’s presence was not limited to giving his seminars in Santiago. Prior to those lectures, he spent five weeks travelling around Galicia examining collections, visiting sites, reading books, exchanging views with local scholars, etc. In short, he took the opportunity to explore the Galician research in prehistory.

We found a similar approach in Maciñeira, who clearly specified as the main aim of prehistoric studies the understanding of palaeolithic settlers; for such a task compromised scholars were needed (Maciñeira, 1893). This aim was achieved by the identification and study of the various races that had populated a territory (Maciñeira, 1893). This ignored, on the one hand, the origin of man and on the other, considered prehistory together with the concepts of race and invasion. All this on a linear sequence of more and more civilized races which had its climax with the arrival of the Celts (cfr. Maciñeira, 1893b).

As a result of all this ‘a synthesis about the prehistory in Galicia’ was published (Obermaier, 1923), in which, referring to the Palaeolithic, it is worth noting: a) the need to know the climate, faunal and botanical Quaternary conditions of Galicia, b) a reference to Villaamil’s work, but not making a definitive assessment on the nature of the evidences collected by him since he could not locate the collections c) a warning about the lack of proof to declare that Galicia did not have settlers during the Palaeolithic and also draws attention to the existence of other types of deposits besides those located in caves. Despite the excellent prospects, Obermaier’s seminar did not succeed in the following decades. In fact, the works in Palaeolithic were transferred to scholars trained in other disciplines.

Other trends from this period were exemplified in the cases of Barros (1875) and Saralegui (1888). The former was devoted to the Ussherian chronology and the latter had no difficulty in admitting the antiquity of man, citing the works of Lyell, Lartet, etc. but with no contributions to the Palaeolithic. As a result, the line of work started by Villaamil was abandoned. The archaeological method, based on Geology, Palaeontology and Archaeology is not studied. The abstraction of concepts and its relevance to the Galician reality is forgotten, only contemplating the cultural remnants as ‘artistic treasures’, even as mere objects, ‘rude flint instruments’, which do not explain man’s past, except when they help ratifying a civilization placed in a very rigid linear scale. All this with the absence of resources supporting archaeology, as the only relevant civilization is the Celtic one.

No Flint, no Caves & no Contacts with the World? (1925-1930) The publication by Fontes (1925) of the materials found the previous year by the Jesuit priests Da Cruz and Luissier in A Guarda, Pontevedra is taken as the starting date for Palaeolithic research in Galicia. This publication opened a period as active as complex and confusing. To the difficult stratigraphic conditions of the materials studied, were added the poor knowledge of the geology of the area and the mistakes in the identification of the techno-typological proofs as well as the confusion suffered by the local scholars with the Asturian culture defined by Vega del Sella in 1923. As a result, the lithic assemblages of the southern part of Pontevedra were placed in the lower Palaeolithic and then in the Asturian culture, establishing a local development, in parallel sequence, which replaced regionally one known for the Palaeolithic in Western Europe.

However, in these early decades of the last century interesting events for the future occurred. One of them being the generational and methodological gap at the University of Santiago de Compostela, with the arrival of overseas trained professors (Barreiro, 1980). As a result the university will be viewed differently, being one of its main goals to do scientific work (Barreiro, 1980). It was the reactivation of the university life, which came at particular sensitive time for the cultivated layers of Galician society and, as a result of this, Galician culture was regarded as a differentiated rich culture going back centuries (Baliñas, 1980).

Indeed, Fontes (1925) presented a collection of stone pieces as belonging to the lower Palaeolithic (Acheulean), based solely on their typological characteristics. Obermaier (1925) agreed with this identification but with objections. Obermaier’s comment helped understanding the subsequent developments. Thus, this research distinguishes between the

The Faculty of Arts (History section), was created in the academic year of 1922-1923. For the opening of this new section, H. Obermaier, who held from that year the chair of the Early History of Man at the University of Madrid,

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

materials associated with a midden, which refers to the postPalaeolithic period, from those of the Quaternary terraces; not always an obvious explanation for those working in the area. Another member of the Society of Jesus, Jalhay, collected a set of materials in the area of Camposancos where the school of the Society was located. He had the opportunity to meet Vega del Sella and Obermaier, and show them these materials. Vega del Sella recognized one of the peaks as Asturian, but warned him of the more modern character of the accompanying fauna. Such piece made Jalhay (1925) suspect that some of the middens found in A Guarda area were Asturian. As the study of the midden’s fauna leaves no doubt about its non-Asturian character; Jalhay seemed inclined to believe its Asturian origin perhaps relying on the only piece that identified them as Asturian, and also suggesting that the middens may have been dissolved. It is also worth noting that in this area is also located the Palaeolithic site of Fontes which helped classifying the piece’s Asturian, a term introduced in Galicia for the first time.

phase. From this, it can be stated that the Galician-Minhoto sites would be prior to the Asturian. That is, researchers started to accept the idea that we were facing industrial groups that were not parallel to the cultural sequences that had been used elsewhere (López Cuevillas, 1953). Serpa was also the author of the newest proposal: ‘so despois de estudos monográficos, que permitan precisar o sincronismo e relações entre os depósitos fluviais e marinhos e as industrias pre-históricas, é que se poderá pensar em resolver o problema da incerta posição cronológica do paleolítico minhoto’ (Serpa, 1932). Therefore, the first steps in this direction were by Lautensach (1932), with his studies of the terraces of the rivers Miño and Lima and the fossil beaches in the estuaries of the Atlantic coast. Shortly after, Breuil and Zbyszewski correlated the known prehistoric series with the fluvial terraces and fossil beaches (Breuil & Zbyszewski, 1942). These two researchers’ work had great impact in Galicia, providing a same concordance between the geological and theoretical archaeological sequences that were being formulated. As a result, and after considering the Portuguese series and the Galician parts of the Cabré Collection, three groups were suggested: a) deposits of Acheulean tradition, including the Camposanquian of Fontes, identified with the Languedocian; b) ProtoAsturian deposits prior to the Asturian, and of Palaeolithic age and c) those middle and upper Asturian that would reach Asturias from Galicia. An approach where different periods coexisted, similar to the ones defined in Europe and belonging to the Lower Palaeolithic and substituting: the Mousterian Languedocian version, locally represented by the Camposanquian [more information on this term can be found in (Vidal, 1981 and 1983)], and the replacement of the Upper Palaeolithic, in block, by a local industry, the ProtoAsturian and regional variations of the Asturian.

Soon after, Jalhay (1928 and 1929), perhaps because of Obermaier’s aforementioned criteria, made a new interpretation by which the Fontes station returned to its original Palaeolithic adscription and the rest of the sites in the area were relocated in time, becoming older than the Asturian culture. Consequently, without the slightest archaeological basis (stratigraphic sequences and typological and technical characteristics, etc.), just following a purely theoretical local sequence, Jalhay suggested the PreAsturian character of the Galician and Portuguese stations (López Cuevillas, 1953). The idea of the existence in Galicia of technocomplex different to those already known in the Cantabrian region started to be accepted. In conclusion, we can apply to the Palaeolithic research developed in Galicia during this period the verdict that González Morales (1982) reached about the Asturian, emphasizing the lack of basis to prove the presence of Palaeolithic series at this time in the western parts of Pontevedra. However, in some cases it was possible to find in the records of the area some lithic evidence, typologically characteristic of the Lower and/or Middle Palaeolithic.

In this scheme the Upper Palaeolithic finds it hard to fit. Something that both authors question ‘que s’est¬il passé dans cette région, véritable Finisterre sans silex et peu désirable aux Paléolithiques supérieurs?’ (Breuil & Zbyszewski, 1942). The idea of a different northwest was reinforced.

The Early Attempts at an Interdisciplinary Research; the Early Sequences of Galician Palaeolithic (1931-1950)

Local researchers soon followed this path and in 1949, Álvarez and Bouza made the first attempts to serialize the Galician Palaeolithic. In this study materials are divided into 5 groups: ancient Acheulian, middle Acheulian, upper Acheulian, Camposanquian and Ancorian or ProtoAsturian. Summing up: ‘la existencia de industrias bien definidas del paleolítico inferior, la absoluta ausencia de vestigios del paleolítico superior ... nuestros conocimientos del paleolítico en esta región terminan en el Camposanquiense, como terminan en el bajo Miño portugués’ (Álvarez & Bouza, 1949).

During the first decade of this period no new contribution in Galicia can be found. However, the chrono-typological scheme hinted the previous year, took a new step forward. Indeed, Jalhay (1933), thanks to the proposals outlined by Serpa (1928) formulated a theoretical evolutionary sequence by which the Asturian would be the last stage in the north, of a line of Palaeolithic industries, located in Africa, and moving north through Portugal; these would be appearing in Galicia associated to Palaeolithic elements and reaching Asturias afterwards in a proper pre-Neolithic

As a result, the early attempts aimed at making an

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César Llana: Palaeolithic Research in Galicia

interdisciplinary approach to the Galician Palaeolithic, built a sequence devoid of the slightest foundation.

The archaeological excavation performed alongside a geological survey started in 1963 under the direction of K.W. Butzer (1967), in the stretch of coast between Vigo and A Guardia as well as on the terraces of the Miño and some of its tributaries (Aguirre, 1965). The complexity of the venture, given the poor knowledge of the regional Pleistocene, together with the intrinsic difficulties of the dig, some unfortunate radiocarbon dating, and the heavy burden of the sequence suggested for the NW, meant this interesting excavation brought about a new argument to the string of peculiarities and archaic features so cherished by those already working in the North of Portugal and South Galicia.

A Time to Reflect and Wait (1950-1962) It was during this period that the 3rd Galician National Congress on Archaeology takes place in Orense. That same year López Cuevillas published (1953) his reflections on the Palaeolithic in Galicia. Among the issues he tackled are: a) what was found in the south of Pontevedra should not make us forget that we know nothing about the rest of Galicia; he noted in particular the likely relationship between Lugo and Asturias, where groups from the Upper Palaeolithic in the Cantabrian could have had their origin, and b) to support the sequence made to date for the Galician Palaeolithic implies: ‘a probábel persistencia no noso chan dunha raza do paleolítico máis vella que a raza musteriense de Neanderthal que desenvolve autónomamente a sua cultura sen relacións aparentes con outras culturas, e supón que unha porción polo menos do noroeste peninsular vivíu longos séculos nun estado de isolamento’, it was far from proven.

Thus, the tools found, suggested a relationship with Africa and also with the local Camposanquian (Aguirre, 1964 and 1965) (Butzer, 1967). In short, once again the conservatism of the ‘cultural Atlantic family’ is shown (Aguirre, 1964), even suggesting, by taking into consideration the C14 dating, that the classic Lower Palaeolithic survived in Galicia to be synchronous with the Upper Palaeolithic. Also important is the use of quartzite as raw material. After two campaigns, Aguirre and his team abandoned the the project. Two excavations by Vidal Encinas would follow (1982, 1983 and 1982b) and in the nineties, one conducted by Cerqueiro and López-Felpeto (Cerqueiro, 1991). Even after the publication of the results, As Gándaras de Budiño continued to pose problems both on techno¬typological – Acheulean (Echaide, 1971), an Acheulean level and another one Mousterian (Vidal, 1982) – and chronological terms.

Unfortunately, López Cuevillas did not finish his critical reflection. Probably in part because of the prestige enjoyed by Breuil and Zbyszewski, supporting the existence of a different area north of the Duero, and partly by his own mentality. In fact, understood in the context of his time, it was very tempting for this researcher this cultural area extending to the Duero ‘volvendo agora a facer todalas reservas ... diremos que resaltan no estudo do Paleolítico das terras do noroeste peninsular algúns fenómenos significativos ..., como son a unidade de cultura entre o norte de Portugal e Galiza’, and who knows if even further ‘e por cabo notaremos asímesmo o inzamento do chamado Asturiense, dende a nosa terra á costa cantábrica, e a posibilidade de que as industrias con lascada diste tipo Asturiense, da Bretaña francesa e da Irlanda, teñan algo que ver xenéticamente co noso Ancorense, feitos que demostrados de xeito evidente, darian ás relacións entre os fisterres atlánticos unha insospeitada antiguidade’ weighed too much.

In fact, for the Upper Palaeolithic men of Breuil, Finisterre was not desirable as it did not contain flint. The difficulties in manufacturing -without flint- tools from the middle and upper Palaeolithic as mentioned by Álvarez Blázquez, Bouza Rey, etc. continued to be of extreme importance. During the following years the Palaeolithic surveys in Galicia, usually undertaken by distinguished amateur archaeologists, provided us with collections, such as that from the Arenteiro river (Ourense) studied by Vázquez (1973), Portavedra (Pontevedra) (Garrido, 1978 ) or Louselas (Lugo) studied by Rodríguez (1983), which documented Acheulean materials in three of the four Galician provinces. To these we must add the excavations in Ourense, by Rodríguez (1976) in A Piteira (Toén) and by Sierra, Fariña, Rivas and Rodríguez in Pazos (San Cibrao das Viñas) (Rodríguez, 1976 and 1979). These last two collections were adscribed, respectively, to a developed Acheulean or a Mousterian of Acheulian Tradition (MAT) (Vázquez, 1980, Rodríguez 1976). Excavations with staff from the University and the Archaeological Museum opened a news door in the study of the Palaeolithic during these years.

As a result, in the subsequent historiography we still find notes stressing the localism of the Galician Palaeolithic that find their justification in the raw materials used and the cultural conservatism of the Atlantic family (sic.) (cf. Villares Paz, 1985). Modern Research (1962-nowadays) In the early sixties E. Aguirre’s excavated (1964 and 1965) in As Gándaras de Budiño, Pontevedra; these digs brought about new approaches, methods and research techniques in the Palaeolithic in the Northwest. The project was characterized by its interdisciplinary nature and considered the correlation among the river terraces and coastal deposits (Aguirre & Collins, 1964).

The universities and museums’ interest in these issues resulted first in a series of studies on the already known deposits. Thus, the Ourense sites were analyzed by

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

different researchers (Vázquez, 1980; Rodríguez, 1976; Cano, 1991; Villar, 1997; Villar & Llana, 1998), including as well the stratigraphic review of A Piteira (Martínez & Moares, 1996). Works which, while essentially retaining the suggested connections began to detect polygenism (Cano 1991) and redeposition (Villar 1997) problems in that assemblage, finally defining in this collection two redepositioned contributions, one upper Acheulean and another Mousterian (de Lombera, 2005). In Pontevedra, in addition to Vidal’s dig in As Gándaras de Budiño, materials of Acheulean character are studied (Méndez, 2007) and placed in the Middle Pleistocene; Portavedra was excavated by Villar (2009). In turn, the site of Louselas (Lugo) was excavated by the Museum of Prehistory and Archaeology of Vilalba, under the direction of E. Ramil (2008), thereby completing the aforementioned study of Rodríguez.

e) the documented series are assigned to a final Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic. His work, a novelty in Galician prehistory (García, 1970), did not go unnoticed. Thus, from 1976, Ramil who was joined by an interdisciplinary team from the University of Santiago, which included Alonso and Vázquez – prehistorians-, Vidal – geologist-, Macías –edaphologist ¬and Jato -palynologist- (Vázquez, 1995), participated in three archaeological digs, two of which provided Magdalenian materials and the third one post-Palaeolithic (Alonso & Vázquez, 1976). The collaboration between Ramil and Vázquez (1983) culminated with the discovery of the first evidence of palaeolithic art in Galicia, at the site called Férvedes II located in Xermade (Lugo) during a survey by J. Ramil: a pendant-like lithic, akin to others appeared in Magdalenian contexts in the Bay of Biscay, was discovered (Villar, 1997). This finding was important for understanding Galician Palaeolithic, especially given the absence of skeletal material in these open-air sites.

The results in the analysis of the old collections, such as that by Lombera about A Piteira together with the lack of publishing about A Barreira, Pontevedra (Cano et al, 2000), force us to be cautious about admitting those Middle Palaeolithic connections, including Vidal’s proposal about As Gándaras de Budiño.

The final decades of the last century experienced a revival in the prehistoric research in Galicia_ the completion of surveys and excavations, as well as the review of collections, aimed to characterize the sequences, the temporal serialisation of the documented occupations and the study of the lithic raw material supplies. The surveys investigated natural deposits in order to understand, firstly the environmental context in which the sites are placed, including the depositional and post depositional conditions affecting them; and also, to build a regional sequence that could serve as a reference to understand the conditions at each period of time and their influence on human settlement and site formation processes.

Regarding the industries that in previous decades had been occupying the attention of those who worked on the coast of Pontevedra and North of Portugal, progress also occurred now. Vázquez and J. Ramil conducted a survey in a stretch of coast south of Pontevedra, concluding (Vázquez, 1980b): a) the Camposanquian industry is identical to the Ancorian one b) the Ancorian-Camposanquian is different from the Palaeolithic of the area (Lower / Middle) c) the Camposanquian - Ancorian is different from the Asturian of the Cantabrian. This paved the way that culminated, at least for now, with Cano’s works (1991) and with the reservations that involve the individualization of an Ancorian on the northern coast of Portugal (Meireles, 1992).

Therefore, the regional evolution of the climate, vegetation, surfaces and soil was addressed, while paying attention to the role of climate and anthropic activity; resulting in the construction of a regional chronological sequence (Martínez & Moares, 1995). Establishing the sequences on each site, allowed to determine their chronology, the environmental conditions in which the occupations took place, etc. At the same time, some attention was paid to issues such as those arising from the relationship between the site formation and the stability /instability processes in the area for a given chronological range, and the implications for the preservation (or not) of human occupation remains, etc. (Martínez & Llana, 1996).

In 1970 the Institute of Galician Studies ‘Padre Sarmiento’ organized an exhibition in honour of F. Maciñeira where Upper Palaeolithic materials from the Lugo sites were on show. These were the result of surveys which J. Ramil carried out in the region of Vilalba and meant the irrefutable documentation of the presence of hunter¬-gatherers of the late Upper Palaeolithic (Vázquez, 1995) in Galicia. Ramil’s work also meant returning to Obermaier (1923) or Maluquer’s paths (1958), applying the systematic exploration of rock-shelter that may contain archaeological levels; following at all times a rigorous methodology (Ramil, 1971) that included analysing relevant samples, the development of a record that showed sketches of the stratigraphies, three-dimensional position of the materials, etc. In general, his conclusions regarding the characteristics of the open air sites are in full force: a) his stratigraphies are constituted by polycyclic edaphic sequences, b) each site has a single archaeological level, c) the raw materials used are mostly selected from the group of quartz minerals: mainly rock crystal, and flint; d) the lack of bone evidence

It was also during these years that the excavation of A Valiña cave, Castroverde (Lugo), took place (Llana & Soto, 1991; Llana et al, 1996). Found by chance during limestone exploitations, part of the bone material located was placed in the Museo Provincial of Lugo, and then published by Vázquez Seijas (1965). Despite the find of three spears and the warnings about this site by Acuña (1970) and Arias (1971), no archaeological digging had taken place there yet. The authors found in this cave an occupation located in a later period than the cold event which followed Les

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César Llana: Palaeolithic Research in Galicia

Cottés, i.e. similar to Arcy / Denekamp (Llana et al, 1996), ascribed to the earlier Upper Palaeolithic. Maíllo (2008) however, disagreed stating that the lithic collection is not representative enough.

Aguirre, E. and Collins, D. 1964. Perspectivas del Paleolítico inferior en España. Noticiario Arqueológico Hispánico VI, 7-14. Alonso del Real and Ramos, C. 1969. Las raíces de Galicia. Grial 24, 163-172. Álvarez Blazquez, J.M. and Bouza Brey, F. 1949. Industrias paleolíticas de la comarca de Tui. Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos IV, 201-250. Arias Vilas, F. 1971. Catálogo prehistórico da Bisbarra de Castroverde (Lugo). Actas do Segundo Congreso Nacional de Arqueologia, 323-330. Coimbra, Ministerio de Educaçao Nacional. Baliñas Fernández, C.A. 1980. La Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. II. La Facultad de 1922 a 1975. In M. Díaz y Díaz (coord.), La Universidad de Santiago, 146-149. Salamanca, Universidad de Santiago. Barreiro Fernandez, J.R.; Rodríguez Díaz, M.R.; Ruibal Sobral, L. 1971. El evolucionismo en Galicia en el siglo XIX. Hipótesis interpretativas del atraso de la ciencia en España durante la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Compostellanum XVI, 539-574. Barreiro Fernández, X.R. 1988. La historia de la Historia. Aproximación a una historiografía gallega (siglos XVI¬XIX). In: X. Castro and J. de Juana (eds.), Historiografía Gallega, 15-80. Ourense, Diputación Provincial de Ourense. Barros Sivelo, R. 1875. Antigüedades de Galicia. A Coruña, Imp. de D. Domingo Puga. Bouza Brey, F. 1933. O ideario político de Murguía. El Pueblo Gallego. 13-III-1933. Vigo. In F. Fernández del Riego, Pensamiento Galeguista do Século XX., 175-180. Vigo, Galaxia. Breuil, H. and Zbyszewski, G. 1942. Contribution à l’étude des industries paléolithiques du Portugal et leurs rapports avec la géologie du Quaternaire. II. Les principaux gisements des plages quaternaires du littoral d’Estremadura et des terrases fluviales de la vallée du Tage. Lisboa, Comunicações dos Serviços Geológicos de Portugal. Butzer, K.W. 1967. Geomorphology and stratigraphy of the paleolithic site of Budiño (Prov. Pontevedra, Spain). Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 31, 82-103 Cano Pan, J.A. 1991. Las Industrias Líticas Talladas en la Costa de La Guardia a Baiona. A Coruña, Diputación Provincial da Coruña. Cano Pan, J.A.; Giles Pacheco, F.; Aguirre Enríquez, E.; Santiago Pérez, A.; Gracia Prieto, F.J.; Mata Lamonte, E.; Gutierrez López, J.M.; Prieto Reina, O. 2000. Middle Palaeolithic Technocomplexes and Lithic Industries in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsila. In C.B. Stringer; R.N.E. Barton, J.C. Finlayson (eds.), Neanderthals on the Edge, 49-57. Oxforf, Oxbow Books Limited. Cerqueiro Landin. D. 1996. As Gándaras de Budiño: Prehistoria e Historia. In R. Fábregas Valcarce (ed.), Os Primeiros Poboadores de Galicia: O Paleolítico, 47-73. Sada-A Coruña, Ed. do Castro. Clark, G. 1980. Arqueología y Sociedad. Madrid, Akal. Dominguez Fontela, J. 1925. La estación paleolítica de La Guardia. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de

Regarding the works of the 80s and 90s of the last century, along with examinations of old collections, it can be stated that for the Upper Palaeolithic in Galicia, data on the Chatelperronian, Magdalenian and Azilian were available (Villar, 1997). In the 21st century Galicia seems to finally join the other Iberian regions regarding works on Palaeolithic. In fact, in 2006 (Fábregas et al, 2007) an interesting interdisciplinary project started with researchers from different universities and under the leadership of Prof. Fábregas of the University of Santiago. The group has worked in two specific areas of the middle basin of the Miño as attractive as little known by the scholars: the large sedimentary basin of Monforte de Lemos and the adjacent limestone strip of East Lugo. The finds range from Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites (Fábregas et al, 2007), with similarities to those documented in the terraces of the Miño river few years earlier by Cano et al (2000), to the Upper Palaeolithic occupations, with special relevance to the Solutrean elements detected in Valverde and to the cave of Valdavara, Becerreá, Lugo, where a pendant was recovered from a Magdalenian occupation (Vaquero et al, 2009). In other areas, ongoing works are also bringing remarkable results. For example, in Pontevedra two interesting sites have been recently discovered, one in Portomaior, As Neves (Méndez et al, 2006), located in an advanced Middle Pleistocene and which represents an interesting archaeological sequence in three levels (Villar, 2009). The other, located in Arbo (Méndez, 2010), also has a lower Palaeolithic occupation and is under study by a team of the Miñoranos Studies Institute under the scientific coordination of Manuel Santonja of the CENIEH. The future prospects could not be more promising. One hundred and thirty years after the first references to the presence of hunter-gatherers of the Pleistocene in Galicia, an interdisciplinary and consolidated team is developing a research line which will definitely help us unveiling the secrets of the Palaeolithic period and end an awkward time ‘el Paleolítico [en Galicia] ahora empezamos a darnos cuenta de que lo hay y mucho y no malo’ (Alonso del Real, 1969). References Aguirre, E. 1964. Las Gándaras de Budiño, Porriño (Pontevedra). Madrid, Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Aguirre, E. 1965. Excavación preliminar en el Paleolítico de Las Gándaras de Budiño (Porriño, Pontevedra, España). El Museo de Pontevedra XIX, 29-40.

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Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense VIII, 241-244. Echaide, M.D. 1971. La industria lítica del yacimiento de Budiño (Pontevedra, España). Munibe XXIII, 125-154. Fábregas Valcarce, R; Lazuén Fernández, T.; Lombera Hermida, A. de; Peña Alonso, J.A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Terradillos Bernal, M. 2007. Novos achados paleolíticos no interior de Galicia. A Depresión de Monforte de lemos e as súas industrias líticas. Gallaecia 26, 7-33. Fábregas Valcarce, R; Alonso Fernández, S.; Ameijenda Iglesias, A.; Grandal d’Anglade, A.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; Lombera Hermida, A. de; Pérez Alberti, a.; Pérez Rama, M; Rodriguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Serna González, M.R.; Terradillos Bernal, M.; Vaquero Rodriguez, M. 2009. Novos resultados nas intervencións arqueolóxicas no sur lucense. Os xacementos paleolíticos de depresión de Monforte (Monforte de Lemos), Cova Eirós (Triacastela) e Valdavara (Becerreá). Gallaecia 28, 9-32. Fontes, J. 1925. La estación paleolítica de Camposancos. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense VII, 244-254. Fontes, J. 1925b. Estaçao paleolítica de Camposancos (Pontevedra-Espanha). Brotéria II série, I, 7-16 Garcia Martínez, M.C. 1970. Descripción de la Exposición. In 23ª Exposición. Prehistoria de Galicia. Homenaje a D. Federico Maciñeira Pardo de Lama en el Centenario de su Nacimiento, 14-17. Santiago, I.P.S. de E.G. C.S.I.C. García Martínez, M.C. 1988. Prehistoria. In Enciclopedia Temática de Galicia, 12-61. Barcelona, Ed. Nauta. Garrido Rodríguez, J. 1978. Nueva estación paleolítica, en Portavedra, Gondomar (Pontevedra). El Museo de Pontevedra XXXII, 49-58. González Morales, M.R. 1982. El Asturiense y Otras Culturas Locales. Madrid. Museo de Altamira. Ministerio de Cultura. Jalhay, E. 1925. El asturiense en Galicia. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense VII, 341-352. Jalhay, E. 1928. La estación asturiense de La Guardia (Galicia). Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense VIII, 169-186. Jalhay, E. 1929. Un nuevo conchero prehistórico descubierto en Galicia. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense VIII, 425-431. Jalhay, E. 1933. ¿Serán pre-asturienses las estaciones prehistóricas del litoral galaico-portugués próximo al Miño?. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense X, 5-12. Llana, C. 1994. José Villaamil y Castro. La investigación paleolistista en la Galicia del sigo XIX. Revista de Arqueología 163, 52-59. Llana, C. and Soto Barreiro, M.J. (dirs.) 1991. Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo). Un Xacemento do Paleolítico Superior Inicial en Galicia. Santiago, Xunta de Galicia.

Llana, C., Villar Quinteiro, R. and Martinez Cortizas, A. 1996. Secuencia paleoambiental y cultural de la cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): una ocupación chatelperroniense en Galicia. In A. Pérez Alberti, P. Martini, W. Chesworth and A. Martínez Cortizas (eds.), Dinámica y Evolución de Medios Cuaternarios, 97-112. Santiago, Xunta deGalicia. Lombera Hermida, A. de. 2005. Aplicación del sistema lógico analítico al estudio de un yacimiento gallego. La industria lítica de A Piteira (Toén, Ourense). Gallaecia 24, 7-33. López Cuevillas, F. 1953. El paleolítico del noroeste peninsular. Zephyrus IV, 5-28. López Gómez, F.S. 1979. A Prehistoria e a idade Antiga. In X.R. Barreiro et al., Historia de Galicia, 1-57. Pontedeume, A.N.P.G. Macho Velado, G. 1876. Importancia de la Historia Natural en la Farmacia y en la Vida Física y Moral del Hombre. Santiago, Manuel Mirás y Alvarez. Maciñeira Pardo de Lama, F. 1893. Prehistoria Gallega. Galicia Diplomática 20, 127-128. Maciñeira Pardo de Lama, F. 1893b. Prehistoria Gallega. Galicia Diplomática 21, 135-136. Maillo Fernández, J.M. 2008. El Chatelperroniense del Noroeste de la Península Ibérica. In E. Ramil (Ed.), 1 Congreso Internacional de Arqueoloxía de Vilalba. Vilalba, Museo de Prehistoria e Arqueoloxia de Vilalba. Martínez Cortizas, A. and Llana, C. 1996. Una aproximación interdisciplinar a la contextualización espacio-temporal de los yacimientos al aire libre en Galicia. Al-Madan II série (5), 23-36. Martínez Cortizas, A. and Moares Domínguez, C. 1995. Edafología y Arqueología. Estudio de Yacimientos Arqueológicos al Aire Libre en Galicia. Santiago, Xunta de Galicia. Mayobre Rodríguez, P. 1985. Debates Ideolóxicos na Compostela do XIX. Sada, Ed. do Castro. Meireles, J. 1992. As Industrias Líticas Pré-Históricas do Litoral Minhoto. Contexto Cronoestratigráfico e Paleoambiental. Braga, Universidade de Braga. Méndez Quintas, E. 2007. El yacimiento achelense de As Gándaras de Budiño. La industria en facies fluviales. Complutum 18, 27-45. Murguia, M. 1888. Galicia. In M. Murguía and B. Vicetto (dirs.), Historia de Galicia. Barcelona, Ed. Daniel Cortezo y Cía. Murguia, M. 1901. Historia de Galicia. Bilbao, Real Academia Gallega. Obermaier, H. 1923. Impresiones de un viaje prehistórico por Galicia. Primera parte. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Orense VII, 1-21. Obermaier, H. 1925. El Hombre Fósil. Madrid, J.A.E.I.P¬-C.I.P.P. Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales. Prado y Vallo, C. del 1835. Vindicación de la Geología por el Ingeniero de Minas Casiano del Prado. Madrid, Imprenta Aguado. Ramil Soneira, J. 1971. Mesolítico Gallego. Unpublished. Real Academia Gallega.

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Cuaternario de Galicia. Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 20, 181-194. Vidal Encinas, J.M. 1981. Notas en torno al “Camposanquiense”. Brigantium 2, 249-252. Vidal Encinas, J.M. 1982. Las Gándaras de Budiño: balance preliminar de dos campañas de excavaciones (1980¬1981). El Museo de Pontevedra XXXVI, 91-113. Vidal Encinas, J.M. 1982b. As Gándaras de Budiño. Arqueología 81, 108. Madrid, Ministerio de Cultura. Vidal Encinas, J.M. 1983. El yacimiento Achelense de Las Gándaras de Budiño. La colección Pelayo Fernández. Estudio tipológico de bifaces, cantos trabajados y hendedores. Actas II Seminario de Arqueología del Noroeste Peninsular, 19-38. Madrid, Ministerio de Cultura. Vilariño Pintos, D. 1980. La Biblioteca Universitaria y sus riquezas. In M. Díaz y Díaz (coord.), La Universidad de Santiago, 217-223. Salamanca, Universidad de Santiago. Villaamil y Castro, J. 1870. Antigüedades prehistóricas de Galicia. Carta primera. El Arte en España VIII, 49-53. Villaamil y Castro, J. 1873. Antigüedades Prehistóricas y Célticas de Galicia. Lugo, Imprenta de Soto Freire. Villar Quinteiro, R. 1997. El Paleolítico superior y Epoipaleolítico en Galicia. Zephyrus L, 71-106. Villar Quinteiro, R. 1997. Paleolítico inferior y medio en Orense. In R. de Balbín Behrmann and P. Bueno Ramírez (eds.), II Congreso de Arqueología Peninsular. I. Paleolítico y Epipaleolítico, 15-26. Zamora, Fundación Rei Afonso Henriques. Villar Quinteiro, R. (ed.) 2009. Chan do Cereixo (Donas, Gondomar): Una Actualización del Paleolítico Inferior en Galicia. A Coruña, Fundación Barrié de la Maza. Villar Quinteiro, R. and Llana, C. 2001. Prémières données sur le passage du Paléolithique Moyen au supérieur en Galice (N.O. de la Péninsole Ibérique). In J. Zilhao, T. Aubry and F. Carvalho (eds.), Les Premiers Hommes Modernes de la Péninsule Ibérique, 123-143. Lisboa, IPA. Villares Paz, R. 1985. Historia de Galicia. Madrid, Alianza Editorial.

Ramil Soneira, J. and Vázquez Varela, J.M. 1983. Primer hallazgo de arte mueble paleolítico en Galicia. Ars Praehistorica II, 191-193. Rodríguez Asensio, J.A. 1983. La Presencia Humana más Antigua en Asturias (El Paleolítico Inferior y Medio). Oviedo, Principado de Asturias. Rodríguez Gracia, V. 1976. Notas sobre el yacimiento paleolítico de A Piteira. Toén (Orense). Boletín Auriense VI, 25-42. Rodríguez Gracia, V. 1979. Extracto de la carta arqueológica del Paleolítico de la provincia de Orense. XV Congreso Nacional de Arqueología, 95-110. Zaragoza, Seminario de Arqueología. Saralegui y Medina, L. de 1888. Estudios sobre Galicia. La Coruña, Ed. Andrés Martínez. Serpa Pinto, R. de 1928. O Asturiense en Portugal. Trabalhos da Sociedade Portuguêsa de Antropologia y Etnologia IV. 5-44. Serpa Pinto, R. de 1932. Notas para una plana de estudos geológicos entre Minho e Lima. Anuario do Distrito de Viana do Castelo. II Vaquero Rodríguez, M.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Alonso Fernández, C.; Ameijenda Iglesias, A.; Blain, H.A.; Fábregas Valcarce, R; Gómez Merino, G.; Lombera Hermida, A. de; López Garcia, J.M.; Lorenzo Merino, C.; Lozano Ruiz, M.; Rodriguez Rellán, C.; Rosell i Ardevol, J.; Serna González, M.R. 2009. Nuevas fechas radiométricas para la Prehistoria del noroeste de la Península Ibérica: la cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá. Lugo). Trabajos de Prehistoria 66, 99-113. Vázquez Seijas, M. 1965. La cueva de La Valiña. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Lugo VIII, 25-30. Vázquez Varela, J.M. 1973. Contribución al estudio del Paleolítico gallego: I. La comarca del río Arenteiro. Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos XXVIII, 13-22. Vázquez Varela, J.M. 1980. Las Raíces de Galicia. Santiago, Ed. Sálvora. Vázquez Varela, J.M. 1980b. Nuevos datos y perspectivas sobre el Camposanquiense de Galicia. El Museo de Pontevedra, XXXIV, 67-78. Vázquez Varela, J.M. 1995. La historia humana en el

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Chapter 2: The Upper Pleistocene Palaeoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia: a Geomorphological Approach Augusto Pérez Alberti Dpto. Xeografía. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. CP: 15782, Santiago de Compostela Email: [email protected] Resumen: En el presente trabajo se analiza el papel de la Geomorfología en la reconstrucción paleoambiental de Galicia. Se considera que el análisis combinado de formas del relieve y formaciones superficiales permite comprobar, por un lado, la importancia de los cambios climáticos a lo largo del tiempo y, por otro, conocer su impronta morfogenética sobre los diferentes medios. Se ejemplarizan los procesos fríos que se sucedieron en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica durante el Pleistoceno reciente. La combinación del análisis morfológico con el sedimentológico ayuda a conocer el rol de los procesos crionivales que dominaron, por lo menos, entre los 50.000 y los 11.000 BP. Las diferentes secuencias deposicionales existentes, tanto en interior como en la costa, muestran no sólo la magnitud de los propios procesos sino también las características de la atmósfera a nivel general, de manera especial, la cantidad de humedad en el aire. Ello ha desembocado en la delimitación, por lo menos, de tres estadios fríos separados por otros interestadiales. Un primero, que se iniciaría con anterioridad a los 40.000BP, alcanzaría su máximo en torno a los 30.000 BP en relación con el evento Heinrich 3. Se materializaría en la existencia de manifestaciones glaciares y periglaciares que se pueden denominar como húmedas, con una intensa nivosidad, lo que singulariza al Noroeste respecto a otros lugares de la fachada atlántica europea. Los glaciares habrían alcanzado su máxima expansión espacial ocupando buena parte de las motañas de Galicia situadas por encima de los 1000 m. Un segundo estadio de frío acusado, aunque más seco, se situaría en torno a los 26.000 BP en el marco del evento H2. En las montañas del interior estaría relacionada con un momento de retroceso de las masas de hielo mientras que en la costa estaría indicada por la abundancia de acumulaciones de arenas, gravas, cantos y bloques y por la presencia de movimientos solifluidales asociados a la dinámica de la capa activa del suelo. Posteriormente, entre los 18.000 y los 16000BP se situaría un tercero estadio frío, en relación al evento Heinrich 1. Las condiciones ambientales estarían marcadas por una mayor sequedad. Tanto en el interior como en la costa dominarían los procesos periglaciares asociados a la existencia de suelos helados. Las lenguas glaciares irían retrocediendo hacia sus cabeceras y desapareciendo de las montañas de menor altitud. Palabras clave: Noroeste de la Península Ibérica, Galicia, glaciar, periglaciar, reconstrucción paleoambiental, paleoambiente. Abstract: This chapter deals with the role of Geomorphology in the palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of Galicia. The combined analysis of landforms and surface formations shows the importance of the climatic changes during the Pleistocene, and, on the other hand, their morphogenetic traces in different environments. This work is focused in the cold periods that occur in NW Iberia during the Upper Pleistocene. The combination between morphological and sedimentological analysis helps to know the role of the cryo-nival processes that predominated between the 50.000 BP and 11.000 BP. The available sedimentary sequences, both in the hinterland or the coast, show not only the magnitude of the processes themselves but too atmospheric features, such as the amount of moisture in the air. This has led to the identification of at least three stadials separated by other interstadials. The first, starting before 40.000 BP, reaches its peak around 30.000 BP, linked to the Heinrich 3 event. It is shown by the presence of glacial and periglacial evidences that can be defined as humid with a high degree of snowy precipitations, distinguishing the NW Iberia from other Atlantic regions. Glaciers reached their maximum extension in the mountains located above 1000 m.a.s.l. A second stadial period, although dryer, would be located around 26.000 BP, linked to the Heinrich 2 event. In the mountains is related to the retreat of the ice sheets, while in the coast is shown by the existence of sandy, gravels, pebbles and blocky accumulations and by the presence of solifluction movements linked to the soil dynamics. Finally, between 18.000 and 16.000 BP, a third stadial is identified (Heinrich 1 event). The environmental conditions are defined by a higher dryness. Both in the hinterland and in the coast, the predominant periglacial phenomena are linked to the presence of frozen soils. The glaciers retreat to the head of the glacial valleys disappearing from lower altitudes. Keywords: NW Iberia, Galicia, glacial, periglacial, environmental reconstruction, palaeoenvironmental.

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figura 1. Lugares citados en el texto: 1. Serra do Xistral; 2. Serra de Ancares; 3. Serra do Courel; 4. Serra do Rañadoiro.; 5. Macizo de Manzaneda; 6. Macizo de Trevinca. 7. Sanxián, Oia; 8. Caamaño, Fonforrón; 9. Moreira, Arnela Figure 1: Places mentioned in the text. 1. Serra do Xistral; 2. Serra de Ancares; 3. Serra do Courel; 4. Serra do Rañadoiro.; 5. Macizo de Manzaneda; 6. Macizo de Trevinca. 7. Sanxián, Oia; 8. Caamaño, Fonforrón; 9. Moreira, Arnela

Introducción

la aproximación geomorfológica-sedimentológica permite un acercamiento de gran validez a la hora de generar un marco ambiental para un área concreta, en este caso Galicia, situada en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica (Figura 1).

Las investigaciones que se centran en la reconstrucción paleoambiental plantean numerosos problemas. Uno de ellos es el hecho de tener que interpretar a partir de formas y, muy especialmente, de depósitos que se acumularon hace miles de años. Si pueden existir controversias en torno a la interpretación de depósitos que se están generando en la actualidad, mucho mayores suelen darse cuando el objeto de las investigaciones ponen su acento en los depósitos antiguos. Sin embargo, partiendo de que siempre son discutibles las interpretaciones sobre el pasado y muy especialmente su encuadre temporal, en este caso derivadas de las propias incertidumbres de los métodos de datación,

Es sabido que la Geomorfología tiene como objetivo primario la descripción de las formas del terreno y su evolución. Su análisis se centra de una manera clara en dos elementos básicos: las formas del relieve y los depósitos o, si se quiere, las formaciones superficiales. El análisis morfológico en la reconstrucción El relieve -el aspecto visible de la litosfera- el conjunto

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Augusto Pérez Alberti: The Upper Pleistocene Paleoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia

Figura 2: Campo de bloques. Serra de Ancares (Lugo). Figure 2: Slope Blocks. Serra dos Ancares (Lugo)

además, la ladera presenta una cobertera completa, desde la parte superior a la parte inferior, únicamente se pudo haber acumulado en unas condiciones climáticas frías con numerosos ciclos por debajo y encima de 0º que provocan la fracturación de los materiales tanto en relación a procesos de termoclastia como de crioclastia.

de formas que sobresalen en cualquier lugar, se plasma en la combinación de planos con diferente inclinación. No hace falta decir que una llanura es un plano horizontal ni que una ladera es un plano que presenta una inclinación determinada. Sin embargo sí que tiene importancia resaltar que la forma no es la única variable a tener en cuenta y que es fundamental tener presente la pendiente que ofrece cualquier forma/plano. Importancia por cuanto, en función de aquella, asociada a la gravedad, funciona -o funcionóde una manera concreta cualquier tipo de proceso. Es importante por cuanto la geometría de la forma está aportando datos en la reconstrucción.

La forma, pues, condiciona el proceso y, al mismo tiempo, es el resultado de su sucesión a lo largo del tiempo. En la naturaleza la combinación de formas es una constante y pueden diferenciarlas tanto por su magnitud como por su aspecto o por su origen aunque hay que tener presente que en su mayoría son poligénicas, resultado de la interacción de diferentes procesos a lo largo del tiempo. Así, por su tamaño, se puede hablar de megaformas, mesoformas o microformas; por su aspecto, de erosión o de acumulación; por su origen de glaciares, periglaciares, fluviales, marinas, eólicas... Se tiene pues que cualquier forma tiene una triple lectura en función de su tamaño, de su aspecto y de su génesis. Supongamos una megaforma concreta: un valle glaciar. Puede presentar una forma en U cerrada, en cuna o en V. En su interior pueden aparecer mesoformas, como circos, umbrales rocosos, hombreras, lagos de sobreexcavación; microformas, como rocas pulidas, aborregadas,

Así, en un ambiente frío, si la pendiente supera los 25º, el grado de diaclasado de la roca en la parte superior de un farallón favorece la caída de derrubios por gravedad. No son necesarias condiciones de temperatura extremas para que se genere un talud de derrubios al pie de la pared. Incluso, en ciertos tipos de rocas, no son siquiera necesarias condiciones frías para que la acumulación se produzca. Por contra, si encontramos una ladera con una pendiente menor de 10º-15º, cubierta de bloques, (slope blocks) es evidente que no pudo evolucionar únicamente por procesos vinculados a la simple gravedad (Figura 2). Si,

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figura 3. Valle glaciar de Ancares (Serra de Ancares, León). Figure 3: Glacial valley of Ancares (Serra de Ancares, León).

existentes, demuestran con claridad la acción del hielo en el pasado; es el caso del tramo gallego del valle de Suárbol-Moreira, en la Serra de Ancares, en donde aparecen materiales subglaciares, de acreción y de fusión en varios lugares así como restos de una morrena fronto-lateral que permiten conocer el paso del hielo (Valcárcel Díaz, 1998). Otro tanto sucede en los valles de Balouta, Ortigal, A Vara o Brego. En la Serra do Courel son muy frecuentes los valles en uve. Por contra, son escasos en el sector norte del Macizo de Manzaneda, mientras que se pueden observar en el sur, dentro de los Montes do Invernadeiro, en los valles del río Conso o en la Ribeira Grande y Ribeira Pequena, así como en la Serra de San Mamede. El número de valles de origen glaciar es abundante en las montañas galaicas y su entorno es grande, por lo que las posibilidades de hacer una reconstrucción paleoambiental de los momentos fríos también lo es.

estriadas, cazoletas… o formas de acumulación, como morrenas laterales, fronto-laterales, centrales… (Figura 3). Tenemos, pues, que las formas de origen glaciar son de vital importancia a la hora de comprobar la impronta de los procesos de origen frío en un territorio. En el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica se puede encontrar una amplia gama de ellas. Así por ejemplo, si bien es cierto que los valles son elementos claves en los paisajes modelados por el hielo, no lo es menos que no siempre ofrecen un origen claro. La presencia de valles con formas en artesa o cuna no es sinónimo de glaciarismo. Sin embargo, cuando a la forma del valle se le asocian otros elementos morfológicos, como hombreras, umbrales, áreas de sobre-excavación glaciar, rocas pulidas o estriadas etc., se pueden catalogar sin ningún tipo de dudas. Ahora bien, en ocasiones, un perfil transversal en uve tampoco es sinónimo de la no existencia glaciarismo dado que en diferentes lugares se ven rupturas bruscas en perfil, tanto transversal como longitudinalmente al valle y hay evidencias sedimentológicas de que han estado afectados por la dinámica glaciar.

Asociados a muchos valles glaciares aparecen circos de tamaño variable oscilando entre los 300-500m de ancho en la Serra do Rañadoiro a los 1500 en algunos valles septentrionales del macizo de Trevinca. Buenos ejemplos se encuentran en la Serra dos Ancares, Courel, Serra do Oribio y Manzaneda (Pérez Alberti, A. 1991; Valcárcel Día, M. 1998). Por lo general los mejores ejemplos están orientados

Son relativamente numerosos los valles en los que, pese a no presentar una forma típica, el estudio de las facies sedimentarias, visibles en las formaciones superficiales

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Augusto Pérez Alberti: The Upper Pleistocene Paleoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia

hacia el norte. En su interior es frecuente encontrar importantes acumulaciones de depósitos periglaciares, de tipo talud de derrubios, morrenas de nevero o glaciares rocosos, formados con posterioridad a la desaparición de los hielos –otro dato de suma importancia. El contacto de los circos con los valles se realiza por medio de umbrales. Unos son el fruto de cambios litológicos; otros de la debilidad tectónica, cuando no del incremento de la competencia del hielo debido a la coalescencia de lenguas. Frecuentemente llevan asociadas formas menores de erosión como rocas aborregadas, pulimentos y estrías.

Cuando en el campo se estudia con atención un afloramiento, cualquier investigador, con un mínimo de formación en las técnicas de observación y análisis, puede observar una amplia riqueza de matices. El análisis de los materiales de origen glaciar muestra una gran variedad de facies así como una acusada diversidad granulométrica. Se pueden encontrar depósitos matriz-soportados que pasan vertical u horizontalmente a clasto-soportados lo que indican como en los frentes glaciares se producían movimientos en masa con predominio de cantos (debris flow) o de finos (mud flow), como aguas de fusión que dieron lugar a depósitos más lavados (melt water). El control litológico se manifiesta, sin embargo, de manera clara. Así, en los tills de las áreas graníticas dominan cantos y bloques que, en algunos casos, pueden alcanzar 3-4 metros en su eje mayor y, por el contrario, los cantos de menor tamaño son los dominantes en los tills de las áreas esquisto-pizarrosas.

En algunos de los sistemas glaciares el flujo de las lenguas de hielo por los valles principales erosionó con intensidad las paredes laterales del lecho por el que circulaban, originando en ellas un hombreras glaciares, que pueden ser utilizadas como indicadoras de su presencia en el pasado. En ocasiones están acompañadas de formas de acumulación y depósitos sedimentarios glaciares, como morrenas laterales, tills de acreción y fusión, o glaciolacustres, originados como consecuencia de la obturación de valles subsidiarios por parte de la lengua principal. De la vitalidad de los glaciares también nos dan fe las áreas de sobreexcavación glaciar que se ven en muchas cabeceras y a lo largo de los valles, frecuentemente asociadas a zonas de intersección de fracturas, a la presencia de rocas menos resistentes y a la estratificación en contra del flujo de las lenguas.

En los depósitos fluvioglaciares, fruto de la fusión de las masas de hielo, presentes en los valles de los ríos Eume (Serra do Xistral); Suárbol, Piornedo, Ancares, Burbia, Porcarizas o A Fornela en los Ancares (Valcárcel Díaz, M., 1998); As Lamas-Prada y Cenza en Manzaneda (Pérez Alberti, A. 1991); o A Ponte, Seoane y Bibei en el macizo de Trevinca (Pérez Alberti, et al, 2002), las estructuras sedimentarias permiten diferenciar secuencias deposicionales identificadas en función del grado de energía del agua de fusión. Y, aunque de escasa extensión, los depósitos glaciolacustres son de un enorme valor para poder conocer las fluctuaciones del frente glaciar. Así por ejemplo en los depósitos acumulados en el valle del río Bibei, en Pías (Zamora), con una potencia vista que no supera los 4 m, es posible diferenciar facies bien definidas (Pérez Alberti, A. y Covelo Abeleiras, P., 1996) (Figura 4). Por una parte aparecen, ritmitas limo-arenosas que se acumularon en condiciones de turbidez y que, en su mayoría, presentan una laminación horizontal, con capas alternantes claras y oscuras que varían entre los 2mm y 1cm de espesor. Localmente se pueden ver ondas (“ripples”) y ondas remontantes (“climbing ripples”) que indican con claridad cambios en la velocidad y espesor de la capa da agua así como, fundamentalmente, en la cantidad de material en suspensión que transportaba cuando penetraba en el área lacustre.

Y fruto de la acción abrasiva de los hielos son las áreas pulidas que se encuentran en diversos lugares del noroeste de la Península Ibérica. Localmente se aprecia un arrasamiento generalizado. En algún caso, la disposición de los estratos favoreció por igual la erosión y el modelado. En otros, parecen ser razones de dinámica local de las masas de hielo las responsables, dado que se localizan en antiguas difluencias glaciares. La gama de formas, pues, es lo suficientemente amplia para que no quepa duda del papel de las lenguas de hielo durante amplias etapas de la historia geomorfológica del Noroeste peninsular El análisis de las formaciones superficiales Y si las formas son elementos de primer orden en la reconstrucción, otro tanto o más lo son las formaciones superficiales analizadas a nivel de afloramiento. Mientras que las formas dan fe de la existencia de un proceso así como de su importancia a nivel territorial y de las grandes etapas evolutivas, el análisis sedimentario permite profundizar en la génesis de los diferentes medios geodinámicos.

Y si los depósitos de origen glaciar permiten conocer el medio sedimentario otro tanto sucede con las formas de acumulación que aparecen en la mayor parte de los valles que son de gran ayuda para entender cómo funcionaron los sistemas glaciares, hasta donde llegaron los hielos o cual fue la capacidad de transporte de las lenguas. El hecho, por ejemplo, de que apenas se encuentren morrenas frontolaterales correspondientes a la máxima expansión de los glaciares ya está aportando un dato de interés: la importancia del roquedo en las caracterización de los elementos constitutivos de las morrenas y, consecuentemente, en su conservación. Únicamente en algún valle es posible verlas; siempre asociadas a la presencia de rocas graníticas. Al respecto destacan formas típicas que se emplazan –las más

En cada afloramiento se pueden diferenciar con relativa frecuencia distintas facies sedimentarias. Cada una de ellas se puede definir como aquella porción del depósito que posee unas características granulométricas y estructuras sedimentarias concretas que lo hacen diferenciarse de las que tienen al lado, sea en sentido vertical u horizontal. Las facies, al relacionarse entre sí, generan una secuencia o sucesión sedimentaria y, en función de su estructuración en corte, una arquitectura (Walker, R.G., 1992).

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figura 4. Depósitos glaciolacustres (Pias, Zamora, Macizo de Trevinca). Figure 4: Glacio-lacustrine deposits (Pias, Zamora, Macizo de Trevinca).

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Augusto Pérez Alberti: The Upper Pleistocene Paleoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia

bajas- en torno a los 900 m de altitud como los complejos morrénicos fronto-laterales de Piornedo, en los Ancares ; los del valle de As Lamas-Prada, en Manzaneda; las de Lago de Sanabria, en Trevinca. Otras morrenas presentan un aspecto lineal delimitando el contorno lateral de las antiguas líneas glaciares. Dentro de este tipo, destacan las laterales del margen derecho del valle del Bibei en el sector de Cepedelo (Figura 5 y 6).

longitud con lo que las formaciones superficiales cubren su parte basal; en unos terceros, tras acantilados relativamente bajos, se extienden diferentes sierras litorales, desde la que surgen valles, con diferente grado de encajamiento, o laderas empinadas, que se convierten en canalizadores de diferentes flujos de derrubios. La diferenciación morfológica trajo consigo importantes modificaciones en la caracterización de las distintas formaciones sedimentarias. Lo anterior muestra que, a medida que aumenta la altitud y la proximidad de las laderas a la línea de costa, el ambiente climático claramente crionival en los sectores de menor altitud, pasa a estar marcado por lo nival o, incluso, por lo glaciar. Esto explica cómo, en un ambiente general frío, las condiciones topográficas locales introdujeran factores diferenciadores.

Pero no sólo los depósitos de origen glaciar son básicos para la interpretación paleo-ambiental; los de origen periglaciar juegan un papel sin duda de mayor importancia dado que no sólo indican la presencia de procesos hielo/ deshielo sino que, por la tipología de sus facies y estructuras sedimentarias, aportan datos del máximo interés. También se ha identificado una amplia gama de formas de acumulación de origen periglaciar (Pérez Alberti, A. 1979, 1983, 1991; Pérez Alberti, A. et al. 1993; Pérez Alberti, A. & Valcárcel Díaz, M., 2000) semejantes a otras muchas descritas en la literatura científica en diferentes lugares afectados por el frío en etapas anteriores o que son activos en la actualidad. Los depósitos se pueden identificar, en algunos casos, por sus características a nivel de afloramiento, como sucede con los derrubios estratificados, o por dibujar una forma concreta, como sucede con los glaciares rocosos o las morrenas de nevero. En estos casos son unos magníficos indicadores paleoambientales dado que reflejan unas condiciones de deposición precisas. En otros, los depósitos o las formas de acumulación que se asocian a ellos tienen un valor morfosedimentario más que paleoclimático, pudiendo tener su origen en condiciones ambientales poco precisas, aunque si se presentan fosilizando o siendo fosilizados por otros depósitos pueden indicar variaciones en las condiciones paleo-ambientales.

La aportación de los depósitos glaciares y periglaciares en la reconstrucción paleoambiental Los estudios paleoclimáticos llevados a cabo en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica (Tricart, J. & Pérez Alberti, A., 1989; Pérez Alberti, A., 1991; Valcárcel Díaz, M. & Pérez Alberti, A. 1996; Valcárcel Díaz, M., 1998) permiten conocer bastante bien cual ha sido su evolución paleoambiental. El análisis de las formas y depósitos en la Serra de Ancares (Valcárcel Díaz, M., 1998) ha permitido, por ejemplo, conocer la existencia de tres fases geocriológicas mayores: una de máximo avance, otra fase intermedia y por último, una tercera en la que los glaciares se cobijaron en las partes más elevadas de la sierra, por encima de los 1500 m de altitud. Una evolución parecida se puede observar en otros macizos, caso de Manzaneda (Pérez Alberti, A., 1991). Al mismo tiempo, al analizar las formas, depósitos y, lo que es importante, las estructuras, de origen periglaciar, se observa un claro escalonamiento, en este caso en Ancares, la sierra más profundamente estudiada (Pérez Alberti, A. 1983, 1986, 1991; Valcárcel Díaz, M. 1998) con claras evidencias de haberse generado suelos helados. Se puede ver una dinámica crio-nival, relacionada con el desarrollo de condiciones ambientales propicias para la génesis de procesos de hielo/deshielo con ritmos diversos. Así, una taxonomía geocriológica establece en su nivel superior tres grandes pisos o cinturones: un piso de permafrost, caracterizado por la existencia de hielo permanente; un piso de congelación, en el que los fenómenos de congelación se producen sólo en un período del año, con la formación, en todo caso de suelos helados, gelisoles, y por último un piso con presencia de alternancias de hielo/ deshielo en ciclos cortos (Gorvunov, A.P., 1978). Las consecuencias del dominio de uno u otro piso en un área determinada serán diferentes en cada caso. Por ejemplo, la del permafrost originará formas características tales como glaciares rocosos o ciertos campos de bloques. Por contra, la de un hielo estacional profundo dará lugar a otro tipo de formas, como es el caso de las crioturbaciones. Por otra parte, la superposición en un mismo sector de facies morfosedimentarias distintas habla con claridad de una sucesión en el tiempo de condiciones paleoambientales diferentes.

Tanto en el interior como en la costa del territorio analizado, se encuentran depósitos de origen periglaciar de muy diferente tipo. Sin embargo, los depósitos del litoral contienen en su interior diferentes paleosuelos que son de vital importancia a la hora de reconstruir. Porque, no cabe duda, que si se relacionan formas y depósitos significativos con suelos o paleosuelos es posible no sólo reconstruir el medio sedimentario, sino enmarcar los procesos en el tiempo. En prácticamente en todo el litoral que se alarga desde el río Eo al Miño aparecen acumulaciones sedimentarias. Se puede afirmar que el frente costero está en un alto porcentaje fosilizado por depósitos de origen continental. Como ya se ha escrito anteriormente (Pérez Alberti, A. et al., 1998) los depósitos mejor conservados se encuentran en las zonas protegidas y están en la actualidad sometidos a fuertes procesos erosivos lo que dificulta conocer con exactitud cuál ha sido su extensión inicial. Sus rasgos morfosedimentarios muestran el papel de los factores locales en la deposición. En algunos lugares rellenan antiguas ensenadas, bordeadas por acantilados bajos; en otros, los acantilados adquieren un mayor desarrollo lo que trajo consigo la presencia de pendientes más abruptas y laderas de mayor

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figura 5. Arcos morrénicos del Glaciar del Bibei (Cepedelo, Ourense, Macizo de Trevinca). Vista general. Figure 5: Morraine arcs of the Bibei Glaciar (Cepedelo, Ourense, Macizo de Trevinca). General view.

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Augusto Pérez Alberti: The Upper Pleistocene Paleoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia

Díaz, M. & Pérez Alberti; A. 1996; Valcárcel Díaz, M. 1998) .

Es evidente que, al igual que otros pisos controlados en último término por las condiciones macroclimáticas generales, estos ascendieron o descendieron en altitud en la medida que las condiciones paleoclimáticas variaron. Así, un descenso de la temperatura media debe ir acompañado de un descenso relativo del límite inferior de estos pisos. Sin embargo, al igual que ocurre con el fenómeno glaciar, la temperatura no es el único factor climático que controla la dinámica periglaciar. La humedad es otro elemento fundamental a tener en cuenta.

Y si, a partir del análisis de las formas y depósitos periglaciares es posible conocer las características paleoclimáticas reinantes, otro tanto se puede lograr si se pone en relación el fenómeno periglaciar con el glaciar. Se sabe que la formación de glaciares responde a un equilibrio dinámico frío/humedad. Según esto se pueden diferenciar dos modelos extremos de glaciarismo. Uno, condicionado por el gran aporte de humedad en forma de nieve dentro de un contexto frío, pero que no requeriría temperaturas medias anuales extremadamente bajas lo que propiciaría la génesis de un glaciarismo de tipo oceánico controlado principalmente por la abundancia de precipitaciones en forma sólida. Otro, contrapuesto, estaría apoyado en la existencia de un frío extremo, y originaría un glaciarismo continentalizado frío/seco. Estos dos modelos y todas sus variedades de transición, se dan en la actualidad en nuestro planeta. Los estudios sobre la evolución geomorfológica llevados a cabo en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica, demuestran a lo largo del Pleistoceno superior se dieron condiciones que variaron entre los dos modelos citados.

En las áreas de montaña aparecen formas características de este tipo de fenómenos, tales como glaciares rocosos fósiles, campos de bloques o suelos crioturbados. Son todos indicios de la presencia de suelos helados de uno u otro tipo, y tienen un gran valor a la hora de realizar una reconstrucción paleoambiental, dado que estas formas aparecen solamente cuando se dan unas condiciones de temperatura y precipitación precisas. Por ello pueden ser utilizadas como indicadores paleoambientales (Kerschner, H. 1978; Humlum. O. 1982; Haeberli, W. 1983). Si se centra el análisis en el caso de los glaciares rocosos se comprueba que actualmente todos los que se hallan activos en el planeta se encuentran en aquellos lugares donde las temperaturas medias anuales del aire (TMAA) son, por lo menos, inferiores a los -2°C (Haeberli, W. 1983; Humlum, O. 1982). Esta isoterma marca también el límite inferior del llamado permafrost discontinuo, plasmado en suelos helados permanentemente únicamente en exposiciones norte o noreste, por lo que los glaciares rocosos están indicando el límite inferior del permafrost. Nada impide pensar que si ello ocurre en la actualidad debió funcionar de manera semejante en el pasado y dado que este tipo de formas fósiles aparecen en la Serra dos Ancares o en diferentes lugares próximos de la Cordillera Cantábrica, no es difícil suponer que, cuando se originaron, existía un cinturón de suelos helados en estos sectores del noroeste peninsular. Otro tanto sucede con ciertos campos de bloques de origen periglaciar, extensiones horizontales de macroclastos que requieren para su formación la presencia de permafrost continuo, o sea, temperaturas inferiores a los -6°C de TMAA. Los campos de bloques aparecen en las superficies aplanadas que dominan las cumbres de la mayor parte de las sierras gallegas, tales como Ancares, Queixa y Trevinca, por lo que también son una buena herramienta a la hora de establecer reconstrucciones paleoclimáticas.

La aportación de los depósitos costeros Los datos aportados por las formas y depósitos encontrados en el interior se ven complementados por aquellos que cubren diferentes sectores del litoral nor-occidental (Figura 7). El análisis comparativo de distintos depósitos estudiados (Pérez Alberti, A. et al., 2009) ofrece varios datos. En primer lugar, que desde hace unos 40.000 años por lo menos, las condiciones frías no sólo dominaban en las montañas; también en las costas de Galicia, en el contexto del descenso eustático global del nivel del mar. Esto se sabe por el hecho de que los depósitos sedimentarios que se acumularon en el litoral, tanto inorgánicos como orgánicos, están en algunos lugares por debajo del nivel de las mareas actuales. En segundo lugar, las diferentes facies indican unas condiciones en las que dominaría la nieve y el hielo. Este hecho explicaría, por un lado, la erosión de la capa de alteración y de los suelos preexistentes y, por otra, en momentos de fusión rápida, la puesta en marcha de flujos de cantos (debris flow) y, en ciertos lugares, de abanicos aluviales (alluvial fan). La existencia de hielo se plasma tanto en lóbulos solifluidales como en bloques aradores que se producirían durante la fase de descongelación, así como en derrubios estratificados.

Además de estas formas originales, existen otros elementos que se pueden emplear, tales como la presencia de signos de crioturbaciones claras, como las descritas en el valle del río Moia, afluente del Río Navia, (Pérez Alberti, A. & Valcárcel Díaz, M., 1996) , que denotan la presencia de suelos helados a cotas relativamente bajas, como son los 500-600 m, o la presencia de horizontes endurecidos (fragipán) en los suelos, que en todo caso refuerzan el desarrollo de suelos helados estacionalmente en profundidad, cuando no un auténtico permafrost (Pérez Alberti, A. 1991; Valcárcel

Un hecho destacable es la existencia en la base de algunos depósitos, de niveles de playas de cantos bien redondeados, lo que lleva a pensar que la evolución general de los depósitos se enmarca en el período que se extiende desde el Eemiense hasta el Holoceno. Las dataciones radiocarbónicas de los depósitos del sur de Galicia, en Sanxián (Cano, et al., 1997) y Oia (Costa Casais et al., 2002); de Caamaño (Costa Casais, 1995); Arnela (Pérez Alberti et al., 1999) o de Moreira (Macías García et al., 2006) permiten establecer, por lo menos tres grandes etapas de formación de suelo. La

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figura 6. Arcos morrénicos del Glaciar del Bibei (Cepedelo, Ourense, Macizo de Trevinca). Detalle Figure 6: Morraine arcs of the Bibei Glaciar (Cepedelo, Ourense, Macizo de Trevinca). Detail.

primera estaría en torno a los 38.000-32.000 BP (Arnela 37.550 ± 690 BP, Sanxián IV: 38.830 ± 2.200 BP, Oia Sur: 32.980 ± 530 BP; Caamaño 36.050 +1.430 -1.210 BP y 32.340 +2.400 -1.800 BP) Esta fase también estaría representada en depósitos del interior de Galicia, como atestiguan las dataciones por OSL de los niveles coluviales del yacimiento de As Lamas, en la depresión de Monforte de Lemos (39866±3554 BP y 38947±3150 BP) (Fábregas et al., 2010); otra entre el 30.000 y el 28.000 BP (Sanxián I: 28.000 ± 230 BP; Caamaño: 30.120 +670 -620 BP) y la tercera entre el 20.000 y el 18.000 (Caamaño: 20.160 ± 270 BP, Moreira: 18.980 ± 110 BP).

Bond, el propio Heinrich y otros investigadores pulieron la teoría individualizando seis episodios denominados a partir de aquel momento con el citado nombre (Bond, G. et al., 1992), pulsaciones frías después de períodos relativamente más cálidos o interestadiales. El análisis sedimentológico detallado de algunos depósitos en la costa gallega, caso de Caamaño o de Oia reforzado por las dataciones enumeradas anteriormente, muestra las evidencias claras de tres de ellos , el H3, H2 y H1 (Costa Casais et al. 2007-08), y más difusas del H4. Comenzando por el más antiguo, que se habría producido hace unos 40.000 años, se observa un hecho destacable: todos los depósitos orgánicos encontrados proporcionan datos en torno a los 38.000 BP, lo que supone que con anterioridad a las condiciones erosivas propiciaron la movilidad de las laderas y una acumulación que, posiblemente, se encuentre debajo de los depósitos de playa actuales o habrían sido erosionados, aunque se conservan restos en algunos lugares, caso de la base de Arnela. Este hecho lleva a pensar en la existencia en la costa de Galicia de unas condiciones frías, con alta nivosidad, que

Todo lo anterior suscita la cuestión de cuales han sido las causas de la coexistencia de facies indicativas de etapas de edafogénesis, de formación de suelo, junto a otras indicativas de una reactivación morfogenética. La respuesta hay que ponerla en relación con los denominados como Episodios Heinrich, descritos hace veinte años por H. Heinrich (1988) quien ponía el acento en la importancia de las descargas de hielo en el Atlántico y su incidencia en el enfriamiento brusco del clima de la Tierra. En 1992, G.

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Augusto Pérez Alberti: The Upper Pleistocene Paleoenvironmental Evolution of Galicia

Figura 7. Depósito de Arnela (Muxía, A Coruña). Figure 7: Arnela deposit (Muxía, A Coruña).

favorecerían la dinámica morfogenética derivada del H4. Este hecho se vería reforzado por presencia de derrubios estratificados en la Serra do Courel, datados en más de 40.000 años (Pérez Alberti et al, 2009), o los dos niveles coluviales de As Lamas (Monforte de Lemos) (Fábregas et al., 2010).

comprensión de las variadas problemáticas. El análisis sedimentológico, a nivel de afloramiento, introduce un valor añadido al proporcionar no solo información en lo referente al medio sedimentario sino que, cuando aparecen perturbaciones sin o post-deposicionales, caso de crioturbaciones, introduce una información de enorme valor paleoambiental.

Un segundo hecho a destacar es la inexistencia de restos orgánicos datados en torno a los 31.000 BP y, por contra, la presencia en numerosos lugares de acumulaciones sedimentarias compuestas por arenas, cantos, gravas e incluso bloques, enmarcados en torno a esa fecha, lo que lleva a relacionar su deposición con el H3.

Las investigaciones llevadas a cabo hasta el momento permiten diferenciar, por lo menos, tres estadios fríos (Figura 8). Un primero situaría su máximo en torno a los 31.000 BP y se plasma en la costa en la existencia de acumulaciones sedimentarias compuestas por arenas, cantos, gravas e incluso bloques mientras que en el interior se correspondería con la fase fría y húmeda descrita por Valcárcel Díaz, M. (1998). Se trataría de una fase fría relacionada con el evento Heinrich (H3). La existencia de nuevas dataciones en la base de derrubios estratificados de la Serra do Courel (Pérez Alberti, A. et al., 2009) que superan los 40.000 BP lleva a pensar en que las condiciones frías habrían comenzado antes y que ciertos depósitos que aparecen en la costa podrían relacionarse con el H4.

Las dataciones entre los 30.000 y los 28.000 años BP, así como aquellas situadas entre los 20.000 y los 18.000 años BP enmarcan el episodio H2, situado en torno a los 26.000 BP. En la costa de Galicia estaría indicado por la abundancia de acumulaciones de arenas, gravas, cantos y bloques y por la presencia de bloques aradores que, como se ha comentado con anterioridad, es un hecho indicativo de movimientos solifluidales vinculados a ambientes fríos.

Las dataciones entre los 30.000 y los 28.000 años BP, así como aquellas situadas entre los 20.000 y los 18.000 años BP enmarcan el episodio H2, situado en torno a los 26.000 BP.

Por encima de los depósitos datados en torno a los 18.000 BP, son muy abundantes las acumulaciones de material heterométrico que en algunos casos, como los niveles superiores de Arnela o especialmente de Moreira (Muxia), Fonforrón (Porto do Son) y Sanxian (Oia) indican una intensa dinámica morfogenética, materializada por medio debris flows, asociados al episodio H1 (Figura 7).

Por encima de los depósitos datados en torno a los 18.000 BP, son muy abundantes las acumulaciones de material heterométrico indicando una intensa dinámica morfogenética, asociados al episodio H1.

Conclusiones

Referencias Bibliográficas

La reconstrucción paleoambiental requiere un análisis integrado. La Geomorfología aporta una herramienta de enorme utilidad. Para ello es necesario seguir una serie de pasos. En primer lugar, llevar a cabo una detallada cartografía geomorfológica. La localización precisa de las diferentes formas y depósitos facilitará una mejor

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Figura 8: Secuencia deposicional ideal elaborada a partir de los depósitos estudiados en las costas de Galicia (Pérez Alberti, A. et al. 2009, modificado). Figure 8: Ideal depositional sequence established from known Galician coastal deposits (Pérez Alberti, A. et al. 2009, modified)

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Landforms 28, vol. 7, 757-775. Londres. Blanco Chao, R.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Trenhaile, A.; Costa Casais, M.; Valcárcel Díaz, M. 2007. Shore platform abrasión in a para-periglacial environment, Galicia, northwestern Spain. Geomorphology 83, 136-151. Bond, G.; Heinrich, H.; Broecker, W.; Labeyrie, L.; McManus, J.; Andrews, J.; Huon, S.; Jantschik, R.; Clasen, S.; Simet, Ch.; Tedesco, K.; Klas, M.; Bonani, G. Ivy, S. 1992. Evidence for massive discherges of icebergs into the North Atlantic ocean during the last glacial period. Nature 360, 245-249. Cano, J.; Fumanal, M-P.; Ferrer, C.; Usera, J.; Blázquez, A.M. Olmo, J. 1997. Evolución de la costa meridional de Galicia durante el Cuaternario superior. Cuaternario Ibérico, 33-46. Costa Casais, M. 1995. Formas e procesos costeiros nun sector da costa occidental galega (Fisterra-Corrubedo). Memoria de licenciatura. Universidade de Santiago. No publicada. Costa Casais, M. 2001. Análise sedimentaria e reconstrucción da costa Atlántica de Galicia. Tese de doutoramento, Universidade de Santiago. No publicada. Costa Casais, M.; Martínez Cortizas, A. and Pérez Alberti, A. 1994. Caracterización de un depósito costero de la Ría de Muros-Noia (A Coruña, Galicia). in J. Arnáez Vadillo, J. M. García Ruiz and A. Gómez Villar (eds.): Geomorfología en España: III Reunión de Geomorfología. Sociedad Española de Geomorfología. Universidade da Rioxa. Logroño. Costa Casais, M.; Martínez Cortizas, A. y Pérez Alberti, A. 1994. Caracterización de un depósito costero de la Ría de Muros-Noia (La Coruña, Galicia). in En J. Arnáez Vadillo, J. M. García Ruiz and A. Gómez Villar (eds.): Geomorfología en España. Tomo II. S.E.G. Logroño. Costa Casais, M.; Martínez Cortizas, A. and Pérez Alberti, A. 1996. Tipo de depósitos costeiros antigos entre o Cabo de Fisterra e o Cabo de Corrubedo. in A. Pérez Alberti, P. Martini, W. Chesworth, A. Martínez Cortizas (eds.): Dinámica y evolución de medios cuaternarios. Xunta de Galicia. Santiago. Costa Casais, M.; Pérez Alberti, A. and Blanco Chao, R. 2002. Depósitos coluviales de origen nival en la costa sur de Pontevedra (Galicia): facies y procesos deposicionales. In: Serrano, E. García de Celis, A.; Guerra, J. C.; Morales, C.; Ortega, M. T. (eds.): Estudios recientes (2000-2002) en geomorfología. Patrimonio, Montaña y dinámica territorial, 539-546. Departamento de Xeografía da Universidade de Valladolid. SEG. Valladolid. Costa Casais, M.; Blanco Chao, R.; Martínez Cortizas, A. and Pérez Alberti, A.; 2007-2008. Los Episodios Heinrich en la costa de Galicia (NW de la Península Ibérica). Un análisis a través de los sedimentos continentales. Territoris., 7, 39-53. Universidad de las Islas Baleares. Palma de Mallorca. Costas Otero, S. 2008. Origen y evolución del conjunto playa-duna-lagoon de Cíes (Parque Nacional MarítimoTerrestre de las Islas Atlánticas de Galicia). Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales. Ministerio de Medio

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Díaz, M. 1993. Las formas y depósitos glaciares en las Sierras Septentrionales y Orientales de Galicia, in Pérez Alberti, A., Guitián Rivera, L. and Ramil Rego, P.: La evolución del paisaje en las montañas del entorno de los caminos jacobeos, 61-90, Xunta de Galicia. Pérez Alberti, A., Martínez Cortizas, A.y Moares Domínguez, C. 1994. Los procesos periglaciares en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica, in Gómez Ortiz, A., Simón Torres, M. & Salvador Franch, F. (eds.): Periglaciarismo en la Península Ibérica, Canarias y Baleares, 33-54. Universidad de Granada. Granada. Pérez Alberti, A. and Covelo Abeleiras, P. 1996. Reconstrucción paleoambiental de la dinámica glaciar a partir de los depósitos acumulados en el sector de Pías (Valle del río Bibei, Zamora-Ourense), in: Pérez Alberti, A., Martini, I.P., Chesworth, W., Martínez Cortizas, A. (eds): Dinámica y evolución de medios cuaternarios, 115-129. Xunta de Galicia. Santiago. Pérez Alberti, A.; Blanco Chao, A. and Costa Casais, M. 1997. La importancia de los balances de acumulación/ erosión y fosilización/exhumación en la evolución geomorfológica de la costa de Galicia. In Dinámica de Litoral-Interior. Actas del XV Congreso de Geógrafos Españoles. Vol. 1., 205-219. Pérez Alberti, A., Blanco Chao, R. and Costa Casais, M. 1998. Depósitos sedimentarios antiguos en la costa atlántica gallega: tipología, localización y área fuente. Un análisis comparativo, in A. Gómez Ortiz y F. Salvador Franch (eds.) Investigaciones Recientes de la Geomorfología Española. Pérez Alberti, A., Blanco Chao, R., Costa Casais, M. and Vázquez Paz, M. 1998. Formas litorales heredadas en costas rocosas de Galicia, in A. Gómez Ortiz y F. Salvador Franch (eds.) Investigaciones Recientes de la Geomorfología Española. Pérez Alberti, A., Costa Casais, M., Blanco Chao, R. 1998. L’importance des processus d’origine froide sur la côte atlantique de la Galice (Nord-ouest de la Peninsule Iberique). Environnements periglaciaires. Vol.5 Association Francaise du periglaciaire. Pérez Alberti, A. and Valcárcel Díaz, M. 1998. Caracterización y distribución espacial del glaciarismo en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica, in A. Gomez Ortiz and A. Pérez Alberti (eda.): Las Huellas Glaciares de las Montañas Españolas, 17-54. Servicio de Publicacions da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Pérez Alberti, A., Costa Casais, M. and Martínez Cortizas, A. 1999. Nuevas aportaciones al conocimiento del Cuaternario reciente en la costa atlántica de Galicia. In Geoarqueología i Quaternary litoral. Memorial María Pilar Fuman, 381-390. Universitat de Valencia. Valencia. Pérez Alberti, A. and Valcárcel Díaz, M. 2000. Depósitos de ladera de estructura estratificada en la Galicia

oriental (Noroeste Ibérico), in: Peña, J.L., Sánchez, M. y Lozano, M.V.: Los procesos y formas periglaciares en la Montaña Mediterránea. 25-44. Instituto de Estudios Turolense. Teruel. Pérez Alberti, A., Valcárcel Díaz, M. and Martini, I.P. 2002. La deglaciación en la vertiente suroccidental del Macizo de Peña Trevinca (Montañas de Trevinca, NW Ibérico). In: Estudios recientes (2000-2002) en Geomorfología, Patrimonio, Montaña, Dinámica Territorial. SEG/ Universidad de Valladolid. Valladolid. Pérez Alberti, A., López Bedoya, J. and Cunha, P.P. 2009. Sedimentological analysis of cold-climate stratified slope deposits of Galicia, NW Iberia, in Pascucci, V. and Andreucci, S. IAS 2009 Meeting. Book of Abstracts, 636. Alghero (Italy). Pérez Alberti, A., Blanco Chao, R., Otero, M., Macías García, I. and López Bedoya, J. 2009. Cambios ambientais detectados na costa de Galicia durante o Plistoceno e Holoceno e dinámica actual. In: Evidencias e Impactos do Cambio Climático en Galicia. Xunta de Galicia, 425-454. Santiago de Compostela. Trenhaile, A. S.; Pérez Alberti, A., Costa Casais, M., Martínez Cortizas, A. and Blanco Chao, R. 1999. Rock coast inheritance: an example from Galicia, Northern Spain. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 24. Tricart, J. and Pérez Alberti, A. 1989. Problemas de paleoclimatología: importancia e impacto del frío durante el Cuaternario. Actas do Simposio internacional “Otero Pedrayo e a Xeografía de Galicia”, 74-91. Consello da Cultura Galega. Santiago de Compostela. Valcárcel Díaz, M. (1998): Evolución geomorfológica y dinámica de las vertientes en el NE de Galicia. Importancia de los procesos de origen frío en un sector de las montañas lucenses. Tesis doctoral. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. No publicada. Valcárcel Díaz, M. and Pérez Alberti, A. 1998. Caracterización y cartografía de las formaciones superficiales de origen periglaciar en el valle de Moia (Cuenca del río Navia, Noroeste Ibérico), in Pérez Alberti, A., Martini I.P., Chesworth, W., Martínez Cortizas, A. (eds): Dinámica y evolución de medios cuaternarios, 191-202. Xunta de Galicia. Santiago de Compostela. Valcárcel Díaz, M; Blanco Chao, R; Martínez Cortizas, A. and Pérez Alberti, A 1998. Estimación de las paleotemperaturas en Galicia durante el último ciclo glaciar a partir de datos geomorfologicos y climáticos, in A. Gómez Ortiz and F. Salvador Franch (eds.): Investigaciones recientes de la Geomorfología española. 767-770. Barcelona. Walker, R.G. 1992. Facies, facies models and modern stratigraphie concets, in Walker, R.G. and James, N.P. (eds.): Facies models: response to sea-level change, 1-14. Geological Association of Canada. Toronto.

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Chapter 3: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia (NW of the Iberian Peninsula): a Palaeoenvironmental Approach Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade, Marta Pérez-Rama, Ana García-Vázquez, Gloria González-Fortes, Daniel Fernández-Mosquera Instituto Universitario de Xeoloxía “Isidro Parga Pondal” Universidade da Coruña Email: [email protected] Abstract: This paper addresses a metric, isotopic and genetic study of cave bears (Ursus spelaeus) from four deposits of Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula) in relation to other European sites, in order to find possible differences that may have arisen due to its westernmost position in the area of distribution of this species. No special differences are observed in the dentition, while stable isotopes show some features that characterize chronologically, rather than geographically, diverse populations. However, the genetic study points to an unexpected gene flow among populations of NW of the peninsula and Central Europe, probably caused by Pleistocene climate changes. Keywords: Upper Pleistocene, Cave Bear, Galicia, stable isotopes, ancient DNA, paleoenvironment, palaeobiogeography Resumen: En este trabajo se presenta un estudio métrico, isotópico y genético del oso de las cavernas (Ursus spelaeus) de cuatro depósitos de Galicia (NW de la Península Ibérica) en relación con otros yacimientos europeos con el fin de hallar las posibles diferencias que pudieran aparecer debido a su situación más occidental con respecto a la distribución de esta especie. No se observan diferencias significativas en la dentición, mientras que los isótopos estables muestran ciertos aspectos que caracterizan cronológicamente, más que geográficamente, a varias poblaciones. No obstante, el estudio genético indica la existencia de un sorprendente flujo genético entre las poblaciones del NW de la Península Ibérica y Europa Central, debido, probablemente, a los cambios climáticos del Pleistoceno. Palabras clave: Pleistoceno superior, Oso de las cavernas, Galicia, Isótopos estables, ADN antiguo, Paleoambiente, Paleobiogeografía.

Introduction

distributed from Spain to the Urals and between 40 and 50° of latitude, although in the Urals are more northerly sites (Pacher and Stuart, 2008).

The North of the Iberian Peninsula is an area bounded by a southern belt of high mountain ramges that functioned as a barrier to faunal migration during Pleistocene cold phases. The development of glaciers drove the passage of the faunas westward, hindering expansion to the Plateau. The sea level drop linked to the ice age contributed to the formation of a broad corridor through which the fauna could migrate from the mainland to the interior of the Peninsula. Galicia, located at the end of this corridor, is an area of interest to study the expansion of the faunas (Grandal-d’Anglade et al. 1997).

Separated from the evolutionary line of brown bear between 1.6 and 1.2 million years ago (Knapp et al., 2009), it developed morphological adaptations to a preferably herbivorous diet type, clearly visible in its teeth and inferred masticatory muscles (Kurt, 1976, Rabeder, 1999, Grandald’Anglade and López-González, 2005). The last cave bears roamed Central Europe some 24,000 years ago BP (Pacher and Stuart, 2008) while in regions just south of its range (Galicia) this species survived for several thousand years (Grandal- d›Anglade et al., 2006).

However, due to the predominantly acidic nature of the lithology, the preservation of bone remains is restricted to the eastern area, where limestone formations occur in mountainous areas that in turn experienced episodes of glaciation (Fernández-Mosquera et al., 2000; Vidal Romaní et al., 2001). The sedimentary sequences in these karstic systems preserved large deposits in which the most abundant species is the Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus ROSENMÜLLER).

In this paper we present morphometric, isotopic and genetic studies on Galician cave bear remains, carried out to obtain information on the Late Pleistocene palaeoenvironment in this area and palaeobiogeographic data for this species. In this study we used for comparison purposes data from other European sites, shown in Figure 1. Galician Cave Bear sites

The cave bear is a species whose presence is continuous in the European Upper Pleistocene. The deposits are widely

Galicia is located in the westernmost part of the geographical distribution of cave bears. The four sites

25

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

0°

20° 0

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° 15

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°

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SPAIN (SPN) 1- Eirós 2- Liñares 3- A Ceza 4- Rebolal 5- Troskaeta 6- Arrikrutz 7- Ekain 8- Cueva Mayor 9- Reguerillo 10- El Toll FRANCE (FRA) 11- Chauvet 12- Grotte d'Ours 13- Arcy sur Cure

AUSTRIA (AUT) 25- Hundsheim 26- Nixloch 27- Lieglloch 28- Gammsulzen 29- Herdengelhöhle 30- Repolust 31- Ramesch

UNITED KINGDOM (UK) 14- Bacton 15- Westbury GERMANY (GER) 16- Einhornhöhle 17- Hermannshöhle 18- Rübeland 19- Mosbach 20- Zoolithenhöhle 21- Geissenklösterle 22- Höhle Fels 23- Schneiberhöhle ITALY (ITA) 24- Cunturines

SLOVENIA (SLV) 32- Divje babe 33- Potocka zijalka SLOVAKIA (SLK) 34- Medvedia jaskyna

ROMANIA (ROM) 35- Pecstera cu Oase UCRANIA (UKR) 36- Odessa GREECE (GRE) 37- Loutraki ARMENIA (ARM) 38- Hovk 1 RUSSIA (RUS) 39- Medvedhiya 40- Bolshoi glukhoi 41- Serpievskaya

Middle Pleistocene sites in italics

Figure 1. Location of several European cave bear sites considered in this paper.

studied so far share some traits: they all are cave deposits, with a large number of skeletal remains, and there is no evidence of human action in the formation of deposits or on the fossil remains. Chronologically, these sites span the late Pleistocene, and in some cases they record the later presence of this species before its extinction.

assemblage of cave bears. First excavation works started in 1989. To date, some 4000 bear remains, from at least 43 different individuals have been found at this site. The Eirós site is in the Ouribio Sierra, in the East of the province of Lugo, which makes up, along with the sierras of Lóuzara, Piornal and the Albela mountains, the extreme Northwest of the Courel Sierra (Figure 2).

Eirós Cave (Cancelo, Triacastela, Lugo)

On the north face of Mount Penedo (885m) is found the entrance to the Eirós cave. Its height above sea level is

The Eirós Cave (Galicia, Spain) has an important

26

Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade et al.: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia

>1400 1400-1200

00 -2

1200-1000

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Folgoso do Courel

Lo

rr

iv

er

Formigueiros 1642m

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iv lr

er

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Si

REBOLAL

Quiroga

lr iv er

*

Figure 2. Map of situation of the four main cave bear sites in Galicia, NW of the Iberian Peninsula.

780m. In this area the slope is 60º. The topography of the cave is notably elongated, following the same NNW direction as the limestone bands of the area. The total longitude of the cave is about 100m (figure 3). Both at the entrance and at the end of the cave the profile is elliptic, corresponding to the form of an ancient river passage, where the water moved under great pressure. The galleries develop on various superimposed levels. The level studied is almost filled with clayish sediments inserted with crusts or stalagmite floors, which at the end of the cave almost reach the roof of the gallery.

finely laminated clay levels and stalagmite crust of varying thickness. In both areas the fertile levels lay on a stalagmitic crust dated at 97,000 BP in Galería and at 117,000 BP in Pasillo. However, both fertility levels are very different: In Galería, it corresponds to a place of occupation in which the bones are just displaced, and sometimes found in anatomical connection. All parts of the skeleton, except the smaller ones, are represented in anatomical proportions. Over this level there are finely laminated silts intercalated with stalagmitic crusts, indicating several episodes of flooding in the cave after the occupation of the cave bears. AMS 14C dating of cave bears range between 24,090±440 BP and 31,680±900 BP (Grandal, 1993; Grandal and Vidal, 1997; Pérez et al., in press). By contrast, in Pasillo fertile level is dethritic. The materials were transported and the bone sample is a mix of ages and species. In this area there are remains of deer (Cervus elaphus) and horse (Equus

The excavation has taken place in two sedimentologically different areas: Pasillo and Galería. The stratigraphy of both areas has been extensively discussed in other papers (Grandal, 1993a; Grandal et al., 1995). In short, the profile of the excavated area shows an alternation of

27

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Cova Eirós (GES Ártabros, 1979) plant

N

Entrance

0

10

20m

Pasillo

Galería

section

excavated area

Figure 3. Topography of the Eirós Cave (Cancelo, Triacastela, Lugo)

caballus), plus some human remains dated 3,151±31 years BP (Vidal Romaní et al., 2010), and fragments of pottery. As for the bears in this area were only found smaller bones or fragments of large bones, clearly transported from the Galería.

hole running downwards, progressively narrow and filled in with limestone and slate blocks, clays and bones, intercalated with thin stalagmitic floors (López González, 1996; López González et al., 1997). The bones and the blocks moved down, together with the clay, along this hole by gravity and sporadic slides. A marked difference is observed on the position of the bones: the large ones, like cave bear or male deer skulls with antlers, are at the beginning of the hole, almost closing the entrance, whilst the smaller are in lower positions, reflecting the strong selection of sizes along the slope.

Liñares Cave (Veiga de Forcas, Pedrafita, Lugo) Liñares is a small cave in the Vegadeo Limestones of Lower-Middle Cambrian age (Figure 2). It is situated at 1115m above sea level. It presents a rectilinear development with NE orientation. The cave profile descends, reaching at the end a depth of 15m below the surface. The topography of this cave is marked by the stratification of the rocks, dipping towards W (Figure 4).

The study of manganese coatings that cover partially the bones according a given pattern, together with the presence of scavenging and rodent marks, allowed us to recognize several episodes of reworking in the infilling (LópezGonzález et al., 2006).

Our team carried out several excavation campaigns in this cave between 1994 and 1996. So far, about 1400 bones were recovered, 33.9% of them belonging to cave bears and 57.0% to deer (Cervus elaphus). There are also bison (Bison priscus), horse (Equus caballus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar bones (Sus scrofa) although in a smaller proportion (altogether a 1,7%). None of these shows anthropic action and only a 14% show activity of medium sized scavengers. The datings 14C AMS carried out on several samples from cave bear, red deer and bison yielded ages from 35,220 BP to >40,000 BP.

A Ceza Cave (Noceda, Folgoso do Courel, Lugo) This large cave is developed in the Cándana Limestones, of Lower Cambrian age. These limestones present also intercalations of slates that condition strongly the cave morphology (Ballesteros, 2009). The cave entrance is at 1004 m over sea level, in the SW of the Rañadoiro Sierra (Figure 2). It has a main rectilinear gallery, more than 300m long, through which a large river flows (Figure 5). Most of the bone remains were found in a narrow parallel

The study area corresponds to a deposit placed in a lateral

28

Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade et al.: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia

Entrances section aa' (hole)

Talus slope

excavated area

a'

lake

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10 m

Hole a

0

Cova de Liñares (GES Ártabros, 1979)

?

Figure 4. Topography of Liñares Cave (Veiga de Forcas, Pedrafita, Lugo)

O Rebolal Cave (Cobas, Rubiá, Ourense)

gallery, two to five meters over the main one (“A Ceza 1”). The stratigraphy is very simple: Only one level can be differentiated, about 10 to 45cm depth. It is a dethritic level with limestone blocks and slate slabstones of different size, a coarse matrix made up of gravels and clays, and bones. The infilling does not reflect conditions of functional karst with water circulation, and seems to correspond to a dry episode. Some of the bones were found on the surface. Most of these (the larger ones) were fragmented and crashed by the fall of blocks and probably by trampling (the action of the living bears walking trough the galleries).

O Rebolal cave is situated southeast of the Courel Sierra (Figure 2) and develops in the La Aquitana limestones, of Middle-Upper Ordovician age. The cave has a complicated topography (Figure 6) that reflects several episodes in the formation and destruction of its galleries and infillings. In this cave there is a deposit of dethritic origin containing bones, pebbles from the river terraces outdoor and stalagmite crust fragments, without a defined stratigraphy, that was excavated in 2008. Despite attempts to locate a fertile level in situ, it seems that successive floods of the cavity have eroded the original deposit.

In this cave we have conducted several surveys since 1996 that continue at present. Up until now, about 650 bones were identified, all of them from Ursus spelaeus. The 14C AMS dating of one Ursus spelaeus bone gave an absolute age of 35,230 ± 1430 y BP. Deeper into the cave (“A Ceza 2”) it was found another small set of cave bear remains dating to >40,000 BP.

Radiometric dating of the remains indicate a prolonged occupation of the cave by the bears, while not the only species present at the site, since only 43% of the 350 recovered remains belong to cave bears. Other species are red deer or middle-sized herbivores. Four radiocarbon

29

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

? Lake

A Ceza 2

A Ceza 1 prospected areas N

0

50 m

Cova da Ceza (Montañeros Celtas, 2009) Entrance Figure 5. Topography of A Ceza Cave (Noceda, Folgoso do Courel, Lugo)

datings (AMS 14C) were made, yielding ages between 13.5 and 30.5 Ky BP for the cave bears. Thus, this cave contains the most recent remains of this species, indicating a survival of cave bears in the southern part of the distribution of this species when it had disappeared from the central regions of Europe.

to this cave being considered as a typical bear den is the presence of bear scratches in the cave. However according to their dimensions the young bears made these scratches. In another area of the cave, not related to the bears, there is an archaeological deposit with Chalcolithic pottery. A human bone was also found in the depth of the cave, dated 4,699±41 BP (Vidal Romaní et al., 2010).

The bone sample, although scarce, includes senile, adult and juvenile specimens. This indicates that the cave was not an occasional refuge for bears, but a fully cave bear den, used at least by females with cubs. Another clue that lead

Unfortunately, the skeletal remains of this site are in poor condition, so the metric study produced very little results.

30

Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade et al.: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia

Pala do Rebolal (GES Ártabros, 1979) 0

Entrance

N

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excavated area

?

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10 m

Entrances

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Figure 6. Topography of O Rebolal Cave (Cobas, Rubiá, Ourense)

Unidentifiable bone fragments accounts for 53% of the bone sample. In addition, most of the remains did not contain collagen in a good state of preservation, so that they could not be used for isotopic studies. Nor we have succeeded up to now at extracting DNA from the cave bear remains of this interesting site.

and both diet and metabolism act according to their environmental variations (Hedges et al. 2004). In the case of bears, apart from their mainly herbivorous alimentation, their special metabolism during hibernation (whose duration depends on the climate) may influence on the isotopic signature decisively.

Stable isotope studies on cave bears

Hibernation is a period with a variable duration during which the bear takes neither water nor food, also neither urinates nor defecates. However, its metabolism does not slow down (Hissa 1997). The energy is obtained from the accumulated fats. As the fats are impoverished in the heavy isotope (DeNiro and Epstein 1978, Tieszen and Bouton 1989), the resulting values will be more negative than the ones of other non-hibernating herbivores (Bocherens et al. 1997). During hibernation the bear’s muscular mass is not lost but renewed (Lohuis et al. 2007). The bone tissue does not suffer losses but is actively remodelled (Donahue et al. 2006; Lennox et al. 2008; McGee et al. 2008) and the products of the catabolism, like urea, are not excreted but recycled (Nelson et al. 1975; Floyd et al. 1990; Barboza et al. 1997). Thus, the reuse of reabsorbed urea produces an increment in the isotope signature of the nitrogen that is more marked in animals that hibernated during long periods. (Fernández-Mosquera et al. 2001; Grandal-d’Anglade and Fernández-Mosquera 2008),

The cave bear is an extinct species isotopically well characterized. Stable isotopes of bone collagen (C and N) reflect the food consumed by an animal over a long period of its life and therefore allow us to reconstruct the diet of the extinct animals. The isotopic signatures within the same species may vary depending on environmental conditions. In addition, environmental conditions influence the metabolism of the animal, resulting in turn in isotopic signature differences between different populations. The carbon isotopic values of bone collagen are determined first by the type of material that forms the diet; in most cases, cave bear isotopic values point to a diet mainly based on C3 plants (herbaceous and bushy of temperate climate). The isotopic signature of nitrogen is related to the animal’s position in the food chain. In the cave bear delta15N of most of the sites show the typical low value of a herbivore (Grandal-d’Anglade et al., 2011). In some cases the value is so low that it is possible to suggest that the basic food were plants fixing nitrogen directly from air, such as legumes (Vila et al., 2001).

A comparison of isotopic values of cave bears from several sites, the Galician ones included, is shown in Figure 7. The diagram shows how the sites studied have characteristic isotopic signatures, that however overlap regardless of geographical origin. As for nitrogen, the values have a wide range, but in no case exceed those typical of the herbivores.

The isotopic values of the bone collagen show the diet of an animal but also depend on their metabolic processes,

31

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

more negative than in coeval herbivores. It is possible that the use of fat during hibernation has caused an isotopic signature of such magnitude that does not allow clearly observe trends caused by environmental changes.

7 6

As for nitrogen isotopes, the position in the food chain is the main determinant of delta15N values, although not the sole factor. Cold climate inhibits the recycling of nitrogen in soils, causing a decrease in the isotope values from the base of the food chain. Herbivores such as deer, bison or horse that lived during cold periods show lower delta15N values in their bone collagen (Richards et al. 2003; Drucker et al., 2003) than those from temperate periods. Cave bears, on the contrary, show a trend towards more positive values. According to our hypothesis (Fernandez Mosquera et al 2001), in cold weather with long periods of hibernation, the use of recycled nitrogen for months produce an increase in delta15N bone collagen, the more noticeable the longer are the winters.

delta 15N

5 4 3 2 1 0

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A Ceza 2

Metric and morphological study

Liñares

Chauvet

Rebolal

Divje Babe

In the lineage of the cave bear one of the main features that undergo a radical change is the size and shape of the cheek teeth. The gradual adaptation to an herbivorous diet involves an increase in the occlusal surface of molars and also in the number of cusps, which in turn dramatically reduces shear character.

A Ceza 1 Figure 7. Bivariate diagram of the isotopic signatures (δ13C and δ15N) of cave bears of several sites: the four Galician caves (Pérez-Rama et al., in press b), Chauvet in France (Bocherens et al., 2006) and Divje Babe in Slovenia (Nelson et al., 1998)

Studies on the evolution of the cave bear lineage (Torres Pérez-Hidalgo, 1988a; Argant, 1995, Grandal and López 2004) focused on the morphology of the lower carnassial as a good criteria to distinguish between the species of this lineage or to establish the evolutionary level reached by a given cave bear population. This is due to the very constant morphology of this piece, and to the delay in the loss of the carnivorous characteristics in comparison with the rest of cheek teeth.

The isotopic data (delta13C and delta15N) obtained in the considered populations show an herbivorous alimentation for the cave bear and are also influenced by the physiology of hibernation. Both diet and physiology depend very directly on the environmental conditions in which the bears lived, conditions that have varied considerably along the Pleistocene. If we consider the chronology of the sites studied and climatic variations that occurred in the last thousands of years (Figure 8) is possible to observe a marked tendency to increased values delta15N as the weather cools off at the end of MIS 3, whereas delta13C values are more conservative.

We conducted a metric study of the cave bear lower carnassial from several European populations to see if it is possible to quantify the evolution of this piece over time, starting with the oldest known population (Bacton, UK) for this species, along with diverse populations of Middle Pleistocene age through Europe and finally, a large number of populations of the Upper Pleistocene.

Plant species show different carbon isotopic signatures, but also differences in habitat or environment conditions determine different starting points in the trophic system. A dense forested habitat results in lower values of delta13 C in plants, herbivores and carnivores, the so-called “canopy effect” (Van der Merwe and Medina, 1991; Drucker et al., 2008). Increases on humidity or water availability cause also a decrease in the carbon isotope values. On the contrary, light intensity and temperature are positively correlated with delta13C values (Heaton, 1999). We cannot know if any of these factors significantly influenced the carbon isotopic signature in the cave bear, especially since over time the values recorded are very similar, and slightly

For this study we take eight measures and calculate six indexes only for the lower carnassial. The indexes attempt to estimate the degree of divergence of the cusps, and so the relative size of the occlusal surface and the general shape of the piece despite its size. As can be clearly seen in the cluster analysis obtained from the measures (Figure 9), there is a good separation of both age groups, confirming the metric differences existing between Middle and Upper Pleistocene populations and the tendency to a general increment in size despite of the geographic area.

32

Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade et al.: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia

delta18O

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6

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4

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3

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50000

55000

Figure 8. Carbon and Nitrogen isotopic values of cave bears from the sites here included, and ungulates from different sites in Europe (from Richards and Hedges, 2003) compared to the climate curve for the last 60 to 10 Ky obtained from deuterium/ hidrogen isotopes in the NGRIP ice core (from NORTH GREENLAND ICE CORE PROJECT, 2004). Chronology is based on direct radiocarbon datings or stratigraphic information. Dates were calibrated (Weniger et al. 2009) for comparative purposes.

Thus, metric differences exist between older bears and those of Late Pleistocene chronologies. These differences are caused by the gradual adaptation to an herbivorous diet in the lineage of the cave bear.

However, the comparative study of the dimensions of the carnassial between populations of the Upper Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula, Central and eastern Europe (Grandal and López 2006) showed only minor differences in size or shape between groups, with high variability within each group.

Another process observed in the dentition of the cave bear, besides the increase of the occlusal surface is the division of the main peaks in several cusplets increasingly numerous and smaller. In the lower carnassial we determined a series of morphotypes according to the number of secondary cusplets, and then we count the rates of occurrence of each of the morphotypes in each population (Grandal and Lopez 2004). The dendrogram obtained from this data (Figure 10) shows an Iberian group characterized by the splitting pattern of the cusps, unlike the pattern observed in central European populations. This could indicate that, after an early spread of the species throughout Europe, there were no large movements of individuals to put back in touch with more distant populations.

Thus, it is difficult to ascertain from the metric or morphological study whether some northern cave bear habitats were lost during cold periods of MIS 3, so bears were forced to leave their lands and migrate to southerly regions less affected by the cooling climate. Ancient DNA studies The large number of deposits of cave bears in European karst cavities and the amount of skeletal remains preserved made them the subject of ancient DNA studies from the beginning of the use of these techniques (Hanni et al., 1994,

33

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

0.00

1.00

Middle Pleistocene

Bacton UK Einhornhöhle GER Repolust AUT Mosbach GER Cueva Mayor ESP Hundsheim AUT Westbury UK

Upper Pleistocene

+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

Cunturines ITA Troskaeta SPN El Toll SPN Reguerillo SPN Rübeland GER Nixloch AUT Loutraki GRE Arrikrutz SPN Odessa UKR Liñares SPN A Ceza SPN Zoolithenhöhle GER Ekain SPN Lieglloch AUT Eirós SPN

Figure 9. Dendrogram obtained from the metric data of the lower carnassial of cave bears from several European localities.

Vila Taboada 1998, Vila Taboada et al., 1999, Loreille et al., 2001).

Morphometric studies performed in Central European sites describe different trends among haplogroups ‘Ingressus’ and ‘Spelaeus’, at least according to size and proportions of teeth and metapodials (Rabeder et al., 2008). However, in these studies, the haplogroup ‘spelaeus’ is represented mainly by populations of ancient chronology and / or high alpine populations, whose morphology or size may be conditioned by the special ecological characteristics of their habitat.

Studies of short sequences of mitochondrial DNA of this species initially suggested the existence of several different haplogroups (Orlando et al., 2004). After the development of more refined techniques, the nearly complete mitochondrial genome was sequenced (96% of total) and thus determined the existence of three haplogroups, ‘spelaeus’, ‘ingressus’ and ‘kudarensis’ (Stiller et al., 2010) as seen in Figure 10.

Cave bears on the Iberian Peninsula, as those of France and part of Germany, all belong to haplogroup ‘spelaeus’, regardless of their chronology. However, within this haplogroup are also differences that may allow reconstructing the population dynamics of cave bear: migration, expansion, or isolation of populations.

The three haplotypes have a clear geographical and chronological distribution. The group called “spelaeus” is distributed by the westernmost part of Europe, while the group “ingressus” is in the east. The contact between the two occurs in some caves in Central Europe, where, according to the chronology, it seems that “ingressus” replaced “spelaeus” some 28,000 BP (Hofreiter et al., 2007).

The tree (Figure 11) shows that populations of cave bear of Galicia are not as closely related to each other, as would be expected in the case of an early isolation between populations of NW of the Iberian Peninsula and Central European ones. On the contrary, from the data obtained it can be deduced that there must have been some gene flow between the Iberian Peninsula, France and Central Europe (Grandal et al 2009; Grandal et al. 2010). According to the direct dating of the bones studied, this flow could have occurred in both directions at different times during the MIS 3.

It was also found that there was reproductive isolation between two contemporary populations of both haplogroups and very close geographically (Hofreiter et al., 2004). The third haplotype, “kudarensis” is restricted to areas of the Caucasus. For dental morphology was already considered a subspecies (Baryshnikov, 1998). However, the differences in mt-DNA do not necessarily define phenotypic differences observed in bone and dental morphology, but different maternal lineages.

34

Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade et al.: Upper Pleistocene Cave Bears from Galicia

0.00

50.00

Cueva Mayor SPN Troskaeta SPN El Toll SPN Reguerillo SPN Liñares SPN Ekain SPN Arrikrutz SPN Eirós SPN A Ceza SPN Einhornhöhle GER Hundsheim GER Nixloch AUT Odessa UKR Zoolithenhöhle GER Rübeland GER Loutraki GRE Lieglloch AUT Cunturines ITA Westbury UK Bacton UK Mosbach GER Repolust AUT

British Islands

Central-East Europe

Iberian Peninsula

+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

Haplotype 'Spelaeus'

Figure 10. Dendrogram obtained from the morphological data of the lower carnassial of cave bears from several European localities.

Figure 11. Tree of phylogenetic relationship among several cave bear samples from sites all over Europe (Stiller et al. 2010).

274 - 814 ky BP

Haplotype 'Ingressus'

173 -414 ky BP

Haplotype 'Kudarensis'

35

SP 1325 Zoolithenhöhle GER SP2083 A Ceza SPN SP2085 A Ceza SPN SP1659 Arcy sur Cure FRA EU327344 Chauvet FRA SP2091 Eirós SPN SP1497 Hermannshöhle GER SP2081 Cova Liñares SPN SP 1330 Zoolithenhöhle GER SP 1334 Zoolithenhöhle GER SP2129 Grotte d'Ours FRA SP370 Herdengelhöhle AUT SP2133 Schneiberhöhle GER SP 1324 Zoolithenhöhle GER SP1844 Divje babe SLV SP1626 Pecstera cu Oase ROM SP1629 Pecstera cu Oase ROM SP2125 Medvedia jaskyna SLK SP2062 Bolshoi Glukhoi grotto RUS SP2065 Medvezhiya RUS SP2064 Serpievskaya RUS SP1845 Divje babe SLV SP2027 Geissenklösterle GER SP2106 Geissenklösterle GER SP232 Nixloch AUT SP234 Potocka zijalka SLV SP335 Gamssulzen AUT SP233 Potocka zijalka SLV SP1850 Divje babe SLV NCo11112 Gamssulzen AUT SP341 Gamssulzen AUT SP2073 Hovk ARM SP2074 Hovk ARM

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Acknowledgments

ungulates. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 195, 375-388. Fernández-Mosquera, D. 1998. Biogeoquímica isotópica (δ13C, δ15N) del Ursus spelaeus del yacimiento de Cova Eirós (Lugo). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe, 23, 237-249. Fernández Mosquera, D.; Marti K.; Vidal Romaní, J.R.; Weigel D. 2000. Late Pleistocene deglaciation chronology in the NW of the Iberian Peninsula using cosmic-ray produced 21Ne in quartz. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physical Research Section B: Beam interactions with Materials and Atoms 172 (14), 832-837. Fernández-Mosquera, D., Vila-Taboada, M. and Grandald’Anglade, A. 2001. Stable isotopes data (δ13C, δ15N) from the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus): A new approach to its palaeoenvironment and dormancy. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences 268, 1159-1164. Floyd, T., Nelson, R.A. and Wynne, G.F. 1990. Calcium and bone metabolic homeostasis in active and denning black bears (Ursus americanus). Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 255, 301-309. Grandal d’Anglade, A. 1993a. Estudio morfológico de los molariformes de Oso de las Cavernas de varias poblaciones europeas. Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 18, 241-256, O Castro. Grandal d’Anglade, A. 1993b. Sexual dimorphism and interpopulational variability in the lower carnassial of the cave bear, Ursus spelaeus Ros.-Hein. Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 18, 231-239. Grandal d’Anglade, A. 1993c. El Oso de las Cavernas en Galicia: el yacimiento de Cova Eirós. Nova Terra 8. O Castro. 246 pp. Grandal-d’Anglade, A. 2010. Bite force of the extinct Pleistocene Cave Bear Ursus spelaeus ROSENMÜLLER from Europe. Comptes Rendus Palevol 9, 31-37. Grandal -d’Anglade, A. and López González, F. 1998. A population study on the Cave Bears (Ursus spelaeus ROSENMÜLLER-HEINROTH) from Galician caves, NW of Iberian Peninsula.- Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 23, 215-224. Grandal -d’Anglade, A. and López González , F. 2001. A palaeobiological approach to the cave bears from Eirós and Liñares (Galicia, Spain). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 26, 415-422. Grandal-d’Anglade, A. and Fernández-Mosquera, D. 2008. Hibernation can also cause high δ15N values in cave bears: A response to Richards et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105, E14. Grandal d’Anglade, A. and López González, F. 2004. A study of the evolution of the Pleistocene Cave Bear by a morphometric analysis of the lower carnassial. Oryctos 5, 78-89. Grandal d’Anglade, A. and López González, F. 2005a. On factors that influence the morphology of the Cave Bear dentition and a study of the geographical variation in the lower carnassial. Mitteilungen der Kommission für Quartärforschung der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 14, 41–52.

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2004. Evidence for Reproductive Isolation between Cave Bear Populations. Current Biology 14, 40–43. Hofreiter, M., Serre, D., Poinar, H.N., Kuch, M. and Pääbo, S. 2001. Ancient DNA. Nature Reviews Genetics 2, 353359. Knapp, M., Rohland, N., Weinstock, J., Baryshnikov, G., Sher, A., Nagel, D., Rabeder, G., Pinhasi, R. Schmidt, H. and Hofreiter, M. 2009. First DNA sequences from Asian cave bear fossils reveal deep divergences and complex phylogeographic patterns. Molecular Ecology 18, 1225–1238. Kurtén, B. 1976. The cave bear story. Columbia University Press, New York. 163 pp. Lohuis T.D., Harlow H.J. and Beck T.D.I. 2007. Hibernating black bears (Ursus americanus) experience skeletal muscle protein balance during winter anorexia. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B, 147, 20–28. López González , F. 2003. Palaeontology and Taphonomy of pleistocene macromammals of Galicia (NW of the Iberian peninsula). Nova Terra 22, 323 pp. O Castro. López González, F., Grandal d’Anglade, A. and Vidal Romaní, J.R. 1997. Análisis tafonómico de la muestra ósea de Liñares sur (Lugo, Galicia). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 22, 67-80. López-González, F., Grandal-d’Anglade, A., Vidal-Romaní, J.R. 2006. Deciphering bone depositional sequences in caves through the study of manganese coatings. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 707-717. Loreille, O., Orlando, L., Pathou-Mathis, M., Philippe, M., Taberlet, P. and Hanni, C. 2001. Ancient DNA analysis reveals divergence of the cave bear, Ursus spelaeus, and brown bear, Ursus arctos, lineages. Current Biology 11, 200–203 Nelson, R.A., Jones, J.D. and Wahner, H.W. 1975. Nitrogen metabolism in bears: urea metabolism in summer starvation and in winter sleep and role of urinary bladder in water and nitrogen conservation. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 50 (3), 141-146. North Greenland Ice Core Project Members. 2004. Highresolution record of Northern Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial period. Nature 431, 147-151. Orlando, L, Bonjean, D., Bocherens, H, Thenot, A., Argant, A., Otte, M. and Hanni, C. 2002. Ancient DNA and the population genetics of cave bears (Ursus spelaeus) through space and time. Molecular Biology and Evolution 19, 1920-33 Pacher M. and Stuart, A. 2008. Extinction chronology and palaeobiology of the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus). Boreas 38 (2), 189-206. Pérez-Rama, M., Fernández-Mosquera, D. and Grandald’Anglade, A. (in press a). Recognizing growth patterns and maternal strategies in extinct species using stable isotopes: The case of the cave bear Ursus spelaeus ROSENMÜLLER. Quaternary International. Pérez-Rama, M., Fernández-Mosquera, D. and Grandald’Anglade, A. (in press b). Effects of hibernation on the stable isotope signatures of adult and neonate cave bears. Quaternaire. 37

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Rabeder, G. 1999. Die Evolution des Höhlenbärengebisses. Mitteilungen der Kommission für Quartärforschung der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 11, 1-101. Rabeder, G., Debeljak, I., Hofreiter, M. and Withalm, G. 2008. Morphological responses of cave bears (Ursus spelaeus group) to high-alpine habitats. Die Höhle 59 (1-4), 59-72. Richards, M.P. and Hedges, E.M. 2003.Variations in bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values of fauna from Northwest Europe over the last 40 000 years. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 193, 261-267. Stiller, M.; Knapp, M.; Stenzel, U.; Hofreiter, M. and Meyer, M. 2009. Direct multiplex sequencing (DMPS) – a novel method for targeted high-throughput sequencing of ancient and highly degraded DNA. Genome Research 19 (10), 1843-1848. Stiller, M., Baryschnikov, G., Bocherens, H., Grandald’Anglade, A., Hilpert, B., Münzel, S., Pinhasi, R., Rabeder, G., Rosendahl, W., Trinkaus, E., Hofreiter, M. and Knapp, M. 2010. Withering Away—25,000 years of genetic decline preceded cave bear extinction. Molecular Biology and Evolution 27(5), 975–978. Tieszen, L.L. and Boutton, T.W. 1989. Stable carbon isotopes in terrestrial ecosystem research. In P.W. Rundel, J.R. Ehleringer, and K.A. Nagy, (eds). Stable isotopes in ecological research, 167–195.SpringerVerlag, Berlin. Torres Pérez-Hidalgo, T. 1988. Evolución de la carnicera inferior en los géneros Ursavus y Ursus (Carnivora, Mammalia). Paleontologia y Evolució 22, 41-50. Van der Merwe, N.J. and Medina, E. 1991. The canopy effect, carbon isotope ratios and foodwebs in Amazonia.

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Chapter 4: Small Vertebrates of Galicia (NW Spain) during the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene José Miguel Rey-Salgado Departamento de Zoología y Antropología Física. Facultad de Biología. Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. 15872 Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Email: [email protected] Abstract: This paper summarizes published data describing our current knowledge of micromammals and other small vertebrates in Quaternary Galicia (NW Spain). The inventories analysed refer to excavations at A Valiña, Pala da Vella and Valdavara 1. Changes in the composition of this fauna since the beginning of the last glacial maximum are sketched, and certain systematic/taxonomic difficulties or inconsistencies are indicated. Keywords: micromammals, small vertebrates, Upper Pleistocene, Holocene, A Valiña, Pala da Vella, Valdavara 1, Galicia. Resumen: El presente trabajo expone el estado actual de conocimiento de las faunas de los pequeños mamíferos (roedores, insectívoros, quirópteros y lagomorfos) del Cuaternario de Galicia utilizando la información publicada hasta el momento. Las listas faunísticas analizadas se refieren al Pleistoceno Superior y a distintas etapas del Holoceno, procedentes del registro obtenido en los yacimientos de A Valiña, Pala da Vella y Valdavara 1. Se discuten los problemas inherentes a la identificación sistemática y taxonómica de las especies y a la evolución que ha sufrido la composición de la microfauna desde el final del Pleistoceno hasta la actualidad. Palabras clave: Micromamíferos, Microvertebrados, Pleistoceno Superior, Holoceno, A Valiña, Pala da Vella, Valdavara 1, Galicia.

Introduction

Upper Pleistocene and Holocene levels). Upper Pleistocene material from a fourth site, Cueva Eirós, is currently being examined by the present author.

It is only quite recently that information on the micromammals and other small vertebrates of Quaternary Galicia has begun to be acquired. The first published report, which lists preliminary findings concerning material from the site of A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo), dates back to less than 20 years (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1993). This late development of palaeomicromammalian studies in Galicia reflects the paucity of the Galician fossil record, which is attributable to a combination of pedological and climatic factors: in the predominant acid soils of Galicia, of igneous or metamorphic origin, the tiny, fragile bones of micromammals suffer rapid decalcification and the destruction of their organic matter, and the disintegrated remains are soon washed away by the abundant rainfall of this Atlantic region. Only in a few small calcareous enclaves in the Galaico-Duriensian mountains of the provinces of Lugo and Ourense there are caves offering the possibility of finding significant deposits of relatively wellpreserved micromammalian remains. Such accumulations are assumed to derive principally from the prey of predatory cave users: nocturnal raptors or, in the case of larger rodents and lagomorphs, carnivores and man.

The Upper Pleistocene The first Galician palaeomicromammal association to have been described was found in a cave located at A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo), in the foothills of the mountain ranges that dominate eastern Galicia (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1993; Peña and Rey 1995). The stratigraphy of this site was first described, on the basis of the excavations of 1987 and 1988, by Llana Rodríguez and Soto Barreiro (1991) and Llana Rodríguez et al. (1996). Later work has shown it to comprise three levels, the upper of which is a stratigraphically unorganized layer of allochthonous materials. A bone of unknown stratigraphic origin has been dated to 34800 +1900/-1500 BP, and material from levels 1 and 2 to 31600  ±  250  BP and 31730  +2880/-2110  BP, respectively (Ramil Rego and Fernández Rodríguez 1995). These 14C datings, identification of micromammal remains, and analysis of macrofauna and stone tools (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1993) together place these deposits at the beginning of the last glacial maximum of the Würm, in the late Upper Pleistocene.

So far, associations of micromammals from three Galician cave sites have been described: A Valiña (Upper Pleistocene), and Pala da Vella and Valdavara 1 (both with

All three levels at A Valiña contain abundant remains of small fauna, level 1 especially. Reports of rodents in

39

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

levels 1 and 2 mention Glis glis, Arvicola sapidus, Arvicola terrestris, Microtus arvalis, Pliomys lenki, Apodemus sylvaticus, Marmota marmota and Castor fiber (Fernández Rodríguez 1989, 1991, 1993; Grandal 1991; Grandal and Vidal 1991), to which Histryx cristata must also be added (personal communication of C.  Fernández Rodríguez). Other small mammals identified in these levels are the insectivores Talpa occidentalis, Galemys pyrenaicus, Erinaceus europaeus, Sorex minutus, Sorex sp, Neomys fodiens, Neomys anomalus and Crocidura suaveolens; the lagomorphs Lepus europaeus and (abundantly) Oryctolagus cuniculus (Fernández Rodríguez 1991; Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1993); two bats, one of them Myotis bechsteinii; and the carnivore Mustela nivalis. Small nonmammalian vertebrates found in level 1 and/or 2 comprise a bird, a reptile, several amphibians and a fish, none of which have been identified at genus level.

list of identified small mammals comprises the rodents Eliomys quercinus, Glis glis, Arvicola sp, Microtus nivalis, Microtus lusitanicus, Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus sp; the insectivores Talpa occidentalis, Erinaceus europaeus, Sorex minutus, Sorex sp and Crocidura suaveolens; several bats, one of them Eptesicus serotinus; the lagomorphs Lepus sp and Oryctolagus cuniculus; and the carnivore Mustela nivalis. At Valdavara 1, level 2 has been radiodated to 53404980 BP and has afforded the following micromammals: Eliomys quercinus, Glis glis, Myodes glareolus, Arvicola sapidus, Microtus arvalis, Microtus agrestis, Microtus nivalis, Microtus cabrerae, Microtus lusitanicus, Apodemus sylvaticus and Micromys minutus, Talpa sp, Erinaceus europaeus, Sorex sp and Crocidura russula (Vaquero Rodríguez et al. 2009). A large number of reptiles and amphibians have also been identified.

The Pala da Vella site is located near the river Sil in Biobra, Ourense, on the eastern end of the Serra da Enciña da Lastra. The excavation of 1991 exposed three levels, the top two (levels 1 and 2) being separated from the third by large limestone blocks. Although level 3 has not been radiodated, its micromammal population is compatible with its belonging to the Upper Pleistocene (Fernández Rodríguez et al. 1996), comprising the rodents Eliomys quercinus, Arvicola terrestris, Microtus arvalis, Microtus oeconomus, Microtus nivalis, Microtus lusitanicus and Apodemus sylvaticus, an insectivore of the genus Sorex, and a bat of unascertained genus.

Discussion As noted above, levels 1 and 2 at A Valiña, level 3 at Pala da Vella and level 4 at Valdavara 1 are attributable to the final phase of the last glaciation (Würm  III and IV), between 12000 and 35000 years BP (Aguirre 1989). Their small mammal associations are similar to those of other Cantabrian deposits of this period (Altuna 1972). Many of the species found (Eliomys quercinus, Microtus lusitanicus, Pliomys lenki, Apodemus sylvaticus, Marmota marmota, Castor fiber, Oryctolagus cuniculus, Galemys pyrenaicus, Erinaceus europaeus, Crocidura suaveolens, Sorex sp) were already in existence during the Middle Pleistocene.

The Valdavara 1 site is located near the river Narón in the vicinity of Becerreá (Lugo). The excavation of 2007 exposed two sets of stratigraphic levels. The top level (Level 1) is a shallow layer of stratigraphically unorganized material, and together with levels 2 and 3 belongs to the Holocene. The bottom level (Level 4) has afforded bones with 14C datings of 17080-16880 Cal.  BP and 17890-17730 Cal. BP that place it in the late Upper Pleistocene (Vaquero Rodríguez et al. 2009). Identification of micromammal remains from level 4 is still in progress; the species classified so far are Eliomys quercinus, Glis glis, Arvicola sapidus, Arvicola terrestris, Microtus arvalis, Microtus agrestis, Microtus oeconomus, Microtus nivalis, Microtus lusitanicus, Apodemus sylvaticus, Talpa sp, Sorex minutus, Sorex sp., and the bat Myotis nattereri (Vaquero Rodríguez et al. 2009). Several reptiles and amphibians have also been found.

Although Microtus arvalis and Microtus agrestis have been listed above as separate species, it is not clear that their separation was complete during this period; many authors continue to write of Microtus arvalis-agrestis. However, dental remains found in level 1 at A Valiña already show unmistakably “agrestoid” morphology, such as the anteroconid complex of M1 and the presence of triangle T5 on M2. Though apparently common during the Upper Pleistocene, Microtus arvalis is absent from the modern Galician fauna, probably having disappeared during the transition to the Holocene. A number of the species recorded appear to have evolved or immigrated during the Upper Pleistocene, not having been found in older deposits (Sesé and Sevilla 1996). They include Glis glis, Microtus nivalis, Microtus oeconomus, Arvicola terrestris, Hystrix cristata, Talpa occidentalis, Sorex minutus, Neomys fodiens and Neomys anomalus, and possibly also Myodes glareolus, Micromys minutus and Lepus europaeus. Most survive today, but Microtus oeconomus is characteristic of this period in the northern Iberian Peninsula, where it disappeared at the end of the Würm (it is now found mainly in Fennoscandia, with relic populations in The Netherlands and Germany) (MitchellJones et al. 1999; Tast 1982).

The Holocene Of the three sites mentioned above, only Pala da Vella and Valdavara 1 have Holocene deposits. At Pala da Vella, radiodatings of 3280 ± 125 BP for level 1, and of 4500  ±  35 and 4790  ±  120 BP for level 2, place these levels in the Bronze Age and the late Neolithic, respectively (Ramil Rego and Fernández Rodríguez 1995). They share the same characteristic fauna. The complete

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Jose Miguel Rey: Small Vertebrates of Galicia

References

Another loss was Pliomys lenki, which became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene. In the rest of Europe this species had already disappeared at the end of the Riss glaciation, but in the Iberian Peninsula survived as a relic until the end of the Würm (Bartolomei et al. 1975; Castro Bernárdez 1986; Chaline 1970). Its extinction seems likely to have been due not only to climatic factors as such, but also to competition from biologically similar arvicolids (CuencaBescós et al. 2010).

Aguirre, E. 1989. Vertebrados del Pleistoceno continental. Mapa del Cuaternario de España, I.T.G.E.,:47-69. Altuna, J. 1972. Fauna de Mamíferos de los yacimientos prehistóricos de Guipúzcoa. Con catálogo de los Mamíferos Cuaternarios del Cantábrico y del Pirineo Occidental. Munibe 24,1-464. Bartolomei, G.; J. Chaline, O. Fejfar, D. Janossy, M. Jeannet, W. Koenigswald and K. Kowalski., 1975. Pliomys lenki (Heller, 1930) (Rodentia, Mammalia) en Europe. Acta zoologica Cracoviensa 20,393-467. Castro Bernárdez, D. 1986. Estudio de la microfauna pleistocena superior. Yacimientos de Altamira, El Juyo y Cueto de la Mina. Unpublished Thesis of Licenciatura. Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. 169 pp. Chaline, J. 1970. Pliomys lenki, forme relique dans la microfaune du Würm ancien de la grotte de Lezetxiki (Guipúzcoa, Espagne). Munibe 22,43-49. Cuenca-Bescós, G., L. G. Straus, J. C. García-Pimienta, M. R. González Morales and J. M. López-García. 2010. Late Quaternary small mammal turnover in the Cantabrian Region: The extinction of Pliomys lenki (Rodentia, Mammalia). Quaternary International 212:129-136. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1989. Identificación y análisis de la fauna del yacimiento Paleolítico de la Cueva de A Valiña (Lugo). Memoria de Licenciatura. Facultade de Xeografía e Historia. Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1991. Os Macromamíferos do Nivel I: Análise deposicional, biometría e interpretación medioambiental das especies representadas, in Llana Rodríguez, C. and M. J. Soto Barreiro (dir.), Un xacemento do Paleolítico Superior inicial en Galicia (Campañas de 1987 e 1988), 103-126. Arqueoloxía/ Investigación 5. Dirección Xeral do Patrimonio Histórico e Documental. Consellería de Cultura e Xuventude, Xunta de Galicia. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1993. Los Macromamíferos del Pleistoceno y Holoceno Inicial en el Noroeste Penínsular, in Pérez Alberti, A.; L. Guitian Rivera and P. Ramil Rego (eds.), La evolución del paisaje en las montañas del entorno de los Caminos Jacobeos, 183-19. Consellería de Relacións Institucionais, Xunta de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela. Fernández Rodríguez, C., P. Ramil Rego, A. Martínez Cortizas, J. M. Rey and P. Peña 1993. La cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): Aproximación estratigráfica, paleobotánica y paleontológica al Paleolítico superior inicial de Galicia, In Fumanal, M. P. and J. Bernabéu (eds.), Estudios sobre Cuaternario. Medios sedimentarios. Cambios ambientales. Hábitat humano, 159-165. Universidad de Valencia y AEQUA, Valencia. Fernández Rodríguez, C., R. Villar Quinteiro, P. Varela, J.M. Rey and M. Elorza. 1996. Primeros datos cronológicos y paleontológicos del yacimiento de Pala da Vella (BiobraOurense), In P. Ramil Rego, C. Fernández Rodríguez and M. Rodríguez Guitián (coord.), Biogeografía Pleistocena - Holocena de la Península Ibérica, 249-260. Xunta de

Among the insectivores, the greatest difficulties for identification concern the Sorex araneus complex, the taxonomy of which is currently based on mitochondrial DNA analyses (Fumagalli et al. 1999). Morphological criteria are notoriously unreliable for this group - especially when applied to the fragmentary material afforded by excavations. The two species most likely to be the “Sorex sp” of the published Galician Palaeoquaternary associations are Sorex granarius and Sorex coronatus. In the unstructured upper level at A Valiña, Crocidura russula has been identified. If the identification is correct, it seems unlikely that this specimen can belong to the Upper Pleistocene, because Crocidura russula is a thermophilic species that cannot withstand extreme cold - at the northern limit of its European range it is a house shrew. The remains identified as Crocidura russula therefore seem likely to be either Crocidura suaveolens or of Holocene origin. For the same reason, mentions of Crocidura russula in other Cantabrian Pleistocene deposits (Altuna 1972; Pemán 1985, 1990) must likewise be questioned. The particular interest of the Palaeo-Holocene associations lies in the light they throw on the current composition and distribution of the micromammal fauna of Galicia. This period saw immigration from the Mediterranean by Microtus cabrerae and Mus sp, as well as Crocidura russula (if the specimen found at A Valiña is indeed misidentified or of Holocene origin). The identification of Microtus cabrerae at Valdavara 1 is its first appearance among the Cantabrian Holocene microfauna. Finally, it must be pointed out that the Lepus specimens identified as Lepus europaeus should be re-examined in the light of current knowledge of Lepus castroviejoi and, in particular, Lepus granatensis, which was already present in Spain in the Middle Pleistocene (Sesé and Sevilla 1996). Acknowledgments I thank Drs.  C.  Llana Rodríguez and M.J.  Soto Barreiro for allowing me to study the microfauna of A Valiña; Dr. C. Fernández Rodríguez for asking me to analyse the micromammals of Pala da Vella, as well as for valuable suggestions, references and information on radiodatings; and M.P. Peña Villamide and M.P. Varela Camiña for their help in preparing and studying the material from A Valiña and Pala da Vella, respectively.

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Micromamíferos del yacimiento de Erralla. Munibe (Antropología - Arkeología) 37, 49-57 Pemán, E. 1990. Los micromamíferos de la Cueva de Amalda y su significado. Comentarios sobre Pliomys lenki (Heller, 1930) (Rodentia, Mammalia), In Altuna, J., A. Baldeón & K. Mariezkurrena (eds.), La Cueva de Amalda (Zestoa, Pais Vasco). Ocupaciones Paleolíticas y Postpaleolíticas, 225-238. Eusko Ikaskuntza. Peña, P. and J. M. Rey. 1995. Microtus oeconomus y Pliomys lenki en el Pleistoceno Superior de Galicia. In 3ª Reuniâo do Quaternario ibérico, 475-483. Universidade de Coimbra, GTPEQ, AEQUA, INQUA. Coimbra. Ramil Rego, P. and C. Fernández Rodríguez. 1995. Recopilación de las dataciones absolutas obtenidas en depósitos cuaternarios de Galicia. Férvedes 2, 133 -141. Sesé, C. and P. Sevilla. 1996. Los micromamíferos del Cuaternario penínsular español: cronoestratigrafía e implicaciones bioestratigráficas. Revista Española de Paleontología Nº Extraordinario, 278-287. Tast, J. 1982. Microtus oeconomus (Pallas, 1776) Nordische Wühlmaus, Sumpfmaus, In Niethammer, J. and F. Krapp (eds.), Handbuch der Säugetiere Europas, Bd. 2/1. Rodentia II (Cricetidae, Arvicolidae, Zapodidae, Spalacidae, Hystricidae, Capromyidae). Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, Wiesbaden. Vaquero Rodríguez, M., S. Alonso Fernández, C. Alonso Fernández, A. Ameijenda Iglesias, H. Alexandre Blain, R. Fábregas Valcarce, G. Gómez Merino, A. de Lombera Hermida, J.M. López-García, C. Rodríguez Rellán, J. Rosell i Ardévol and M. R. Serna González. 2009. Nuevas fechas radiométricas para la Prehistoria del noroeste de la Península Ibérica: la cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo). Trabajos de Prehistoria 66, 99-113.

Galicia, Santiago. Fumagalli, L., P. Taberlet, D.T. Stewart, L. Gielly, J. Hausser and P. Vogel. 1999. Molecular phylogeny and evolution of Sorex shrews (Soricidae: Insectivora) inferred from Mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 11,222-235. Grandal, A. 1991. Los yacimientos paleontológicos en cuevas: un registro paleontológico. Furada 5, 44-47. Grandal, A. and J. R. Vidal. 1991. Macromamíferos del Pleistoceno Superior de Galicia (NW de la Península Ibérica). Cuadernos do Laboratorio Xeológico de Laxe 16, 7-22. Llana Rodríguez, C. and M. J. Soto Barreiro. 1991. Estratigrafía da Cova da Valiña. Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo), in Llana Rodríguez, C. and M. J. Soto Barreiro (dir.), Un xacemento do Paleolítico Superior inicial en Galicia (Campañas de 1987 e 1988). Arqueoloxía/Investigación 5. Dirección Xeral do Patrimonio Histórico e Documental. Consellería de Cultura e Xuventude, Xunta de Galicia. Llana Rodríguez, C., R. Villar Quinteiro and A. Martínez Cortizas. 1996. Secuencia paleoambiental y cultural de la cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): una ocupación chatelperroniense en Galicia, In A. Pérez Alberti, P. Martini, W. Chesworth and A. Martínez Cortizas (coord.), Dinámica y evolución de medios cuaternarios, 97-112. Consellería de Cultura, Xunta de Galicia, Santiago de Compostela. Mitchell-Jones, A.J., G. Amori, W. Bogdanowicz, B. Kryštufek, P.J.H. Reijnders, F. Spitzenberger, M. Stubbe, J.B.M. Thissen, V. Vohralík and J. Zima. 1999. The Atlas of European Mammals. Poyser, London. Pemán, E. 1985. Aspectos climáticos y ecológicos de los

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Chapter 5: Environment and Animal Resources in the Upper Pleistocene and Early Holocene of Northwest Iberia Carlos Fernández Rodríguez Área de Prehistoria. Universidad de León. CP: 24071, León. Email: [email protected] Abstract: Most soil types in modern Galicia (northwest Iberia) are not suitable for preserving organic material. However, in limestone areas in the eastern part of the region, some of the caves preserve faunal remains derived from human activity and also natural palaeontological deposits. This paper presents the information currently available for this geographical area, explaining the problems that still exist in this field of prehistoric research and the need to continue the archaeological work in this kind of environment. Keywords: Zooarchaeology, Archaeological sites, Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Hunting, Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula Resumen: La mayoría de los suelos que encontramos en Galicia (Noroeste Ibérico) no son apropiados para la conservación del material orgánico. Sin embargo, en las áreas calizas de la región oriental, en algunas cuevas se encuentran restos faunísticos derivados de la actividad humana así como de depósitos paleontológicos. Este trabajo presenta la información disponible en la actualidad para esta área geográfica, explicando los problemas todavía existentes en este campo de la investigación prehistórica y la necesidad de continuar con los trabajos arqueológicos en este tipo de entornos. Palabras clave: Zooarqueología, yacimientos arqueológicos, Paleolítico, Mesolítico, Caza, Noroeste de la Península Ibérica.

Introduction: Fossil Animal Remains in Northwest

Quaternary fauna at that time was based almost exclusively on isolated finds and/or remains collected out of any context (Vidal Romaní 1979), which means they are of little value.

Northwest Iberia is generally characterised by the conservation difficulties for bone remains, due to the rock types which produce an acidic pH (Grandal et al. 1997) and well-drained soils, causing the destruction of bone matter in a relatively short period of time. Some authors (Martínez Cortizas et al. 1993) have suggested that this period is equivalent, sensu latu, to about 3000 years. In our own experience, the destruction of this kind of organic matter can be much quicker, and few bone remains are over 2000 years old.

With this situation in mind, and with no intention of being totally exhaustive, we are going to present the current state of zooarchaeological knowledge in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Finds of Non-Archaeological Fauna As we have pointed out above, finds of fossil fauna, in contexts unrelated with human activity were, for a long time, rare and impossible to assign to any definite period, as they did not come from well-dated deposits. Some of these finds, however, are of considerable interest as they have remained until recently the only evidence of certain species in the region, and in some cases they are still the only known examples (Figure 1).

This limitation implies that only in very specific areas can be found faunal samples older than the aforementioned time, and among these areas, limestone outcrops are the most important. However, cave systems are affected by other factors that might impact directly on the potential faunal samples they may contain (Grandal et al. 1997). These factors are related to glaciation, which affected these sites to a varying extent, depending on their geographical location (altitude, proximity of Pleistocene glaciers, and so on).

The first such case took place in the late 19th century, when six equid upper molars from the site of Los Baños (Carballo, A Coruña), in a very poor state of conservation, were deposited in the Natural Science Museum in Madrid. Alberdi (1982) classified them as belonging to Equus hydruntinus, based on a biometrical study.

In this context, little Zooarchaeological research has been carried out in the northwest until very recent times. The same is true of the field of Palaeontology, and Vidal Romaní’s comment, made in the late 1970s, is sufficiently explicit, when he pointed out that information about

Another classic find took place in 1961 in a quarry in Buxán (Lugo). This comprised two mammoth (Elaphus

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figure 1: Location of the palaeontological sites: 1. Los Baños; 2. Buxán; 3. Braña Rubia; 4. Purruñal, Valdeabraira; 5. Praducelos; 6. Taro da Lastra, A Ceza; 7. Cancelo, Cova Eirós; 8. Pala da Zorra, Pala da Vella; 9. A Furada dos Cas; 10. Cova do Furco; 11. La Veiguiña; 12. Lorga de Dine.

primigenius) molars, a lower right and lower left, and other remains that could belong to the same animal: an incomplete vertebra, part of the vertebral body of another, an epiphysis fragment of a long bone, and several unidentified fragments (Torre Enciso 1962). To date, no more remains of this species, an indicator of cold climate phases, have been found in the northwest.

and dated within a wide period in the Upper Pleistocene. New studies made of the same deposit (Törnqvist et al. 1989) have shown that this does not seem to be older than 2500 BP, which would imply that these equid remains are much more recent than was originally thought. Equally, many of the finds made in caves also suffer the same problems seen in the previous cases: the absence of a clearly-defined context, or the recovery of a very small sample, representing a single specimen. These are often the remains of bears. In Purruñal Cave, or Cova da Raposa (Pedrafita do Cebreiro, Lugo), a nearly complete skeleton of a large non-senile male adult Ursus arctos was assigned a probable Holocene chronology (Torres 1983). In Valdeabraira Cave, in the same municipality, the skull of a non-senile adult female cave bear was found (Torres 1983).

Henri Nonn (1966) made the first description of remains from the deposit at Braña Rubia (Coristanco, A Coruña): Equus teeth that were examined by Emiliano Aguirre and were thought to belong to an ancient species. The analysis of the clay and pollen in the deposit did not help to date them (Nonn 1966) and neither could they be associated with the quartz biface found in the same area, although on the surface. Vidal Romaní (1979) proposed an Eemian date for these teeth. Later, Alberdi (1982) undertook a new study: these were two upper teeth with different characteristics and therefore could only be ascribed generically to Equus sp.

The remains recovered in Praducelos Cave (Suegos, Lugo) were also found outside any stratigraphic context. These

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Carlos Fernández Rodríguez: Environment and Animal Resources

included remains of wild boar (Sus scrofa) (Golpe Posse and Vidal Romaní 1985), Equus caballus aff. gallicus, and a large bovid (Alberdi 1985). More recent studies have identified the later as bison (Bison priscus) (López González 2003).

that this species survived in the northwest after it had disappeared from other parts of Europe. However, the deposit raises many doubts, due both to its location and to the depositional characteristics, as the authors themselves point out in their study.

Since the 1990s, the amount of information about palaeontological remains unrelated to anthropic activity has increased, as a result of research carried out within the framework of archaeological and palaeontological projects, and collaboration between researchers linked to Laxe Geological Laboratory and several speleological groups in Galicia, or due to the revision of old finds.

Finally, we can mention the fauna recovered in Level 3 at the site of Pala da Vella (Biobra, Ourense), a level where no evidence has been found of human activity (Fernández 2000; Fernández et al. 1996). Of the larger mammals, 22 of the 92 remains could be identified, belonging to the following species: Equus ferus (4 remains), Cervus elaphus (1), Capra pyrenaica (1), Lepus granatensis (1) and Oryctolagus cuniculus (15). The small-mammal assemblage was more significant, with the absence of typical Holocene immigrants, corresponding to xerothermal or Mediterranean conditions, and anthropogenic species, such as specimens from the Mus genus and species of Crocidura. In contrast, the assemblage included two characteristic Arvicolidae species in the Upper Pleistocene in northern Spain: Microtus arvalis and Microtus oeconomus. Few remains of birds were found in this layer, and mostly belong to rockdwelling species (Hirundo/Ptyonoprogne) and are therefore not very representative. The presence of the alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus) is of greater interest, and this bird is absent from the modern sedentary avifauna in Galicia.

At Valdeabraira Cave, as well as the cave bear skull mentioned above, red deer and Megaceros remains have been cited (Grandal and Vidal 1991), although mention of the second has been omitted in later publications (Grandal et al. 1997). The palaeontological assemblage at Linares Sur (Piedrafita, Lugo) formed part of the fill of a passage descending almost vertically, excavated during several seasons in 1994 and 1997. The presence of cave bear (439 remains), red deer (739), roe deer (9), horse (8), wild boar (4) and bison (2) has been documented. A full series of radiocarbon determinations have been obtained for this natural accumulation: eleven from red deer remains, of which seven were older than the limit for the method of 38,000 years BP, while another three were very near that limit: 37,865 ± 2070 BP (Ua-4808); 37,320 ± 1910 BP (Ua-4811) and 37,690 ± 1955 BP (Ua-4817). The last date, on antler, was quite different from the rest: 17,720 ± 185 BP (Ua-4594). Two determinations for Ursus remains were also obtained, one of which was older than the limit mentioned above and the other was of 35,220 ± 1440 BP (Ua-4593). Finally, attempts to date roe deer and bison remains were unsuccessful owing to the low collagen content in the samples (López González 2003).

Other sites that have been mentioned in connection with the supposed presence of ancient fauna are more dubious or can even be ruled out, such as the cases of A Furada dos Cas (Mondoñedo, Lugo) (Fernández 2000) or Cova do Furco (Becerreá, Lugo) (Fernández and Ramil 1995), as the remains that have been identified belong to domestic species. Similar information is available for areas in the immediate surroundings of modern Galicia. One site that can be mentioned is La Veiguiña Cave (Toral de los Vados, León), which no longer exists, where remains of large bovid, horse, cervid and rhinoceros were collected in the mid-twentieth century (Fernández 2000). At Lorga de Dine (Vinhais, Bragança) the same species were found, as well as hyena, panther, cave lion and brown bear (Cardoso 1993). The human activity documented in this cave is much more recent than the age suggested by the faunal record, and is connected with Chalcolithic and Bronze Age burials (Bettencourt 2009).

Remains of cave bear and red deer have also been recovered at the caves of Taro da Lastra and A Ceza (Folgoso do Courel, Lugo) (Grandal and López 1998). At the latter site, bear remains were dated to 35,230 ± 1430 BP. Evidence of Ursus spelaeus has also been found at Cancelo Cave (Triacastela, Lugo) (Grandal and Vidal 1991) and above all, at Cova Eirós (Grandal 1993), where several seasons were devoted to recovering the remains. They have enabled a series of studies on the ethology of this species, and a radiocarbon determination for a bear bone produced a result of 24,090 ± 440 BP (Ua-4298).

The Archaeological Record in the Upper Palaeolithic Only three archaeological sites are known in the northwest with occupations that can be dated in this period and for which information about fauna is available (Figure 2).

The same species has been recorded at Pala da Zorra (Rubiá, Ourense) (Fernández 1993), a cave -now known as O Rebolal- where further remains have been found more recently (Grandal et al. 2006). Several determinations have been obtained: 30,455 ± 795 (Ua-24940), 27,970 ± 600 (Ua-24941), 22,915 ± 445 (Ua-24939) and 13,785 ± 110 (Ua-24252). The latter date has given rise to the suggestion

Cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo) Until recently, this was the only Pleistocene archaeological site that had been published in the northwest and which had yielded remains of fauna. A great deal of literature has

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figure 2: Location of the Upper Pleistocene and Early Holocene archaeological sites: 1. A Valiña; 2. Cova Eirós; 3. Valdavara; 4. Reiro.

been published on it, referring to different aspects of the excavations carried out in 1987, 1988 and 1992 and the reports made (e.g. Llana and Soto 1991; Llana et al. 1996), and also to the study of the osseous remains (Fernández 1991, 2000, 2006, 2010, among others). We shall therefore avoid repeating the exhaustive data about the fauna that has been studied and instead make an overall assessment of the results obtained to date. The fauna collected within a stratigraphic context, therefore excluding that found during the working of the quarry in the mid-twentieth century (Vázquez Seijas 1965) or the pieces gathered from disturbed sediments (Fernández 2000), comes from two quite different areas: the actual entrance to the gallery that still exists, and a “stratigraphic profile” preserved on the opposite side to the gallery that has been blasted (Southern End).

activity, with a radiocarbon determination of 31,600 ± 250 BP (GrA-3014) (Archaeological Level 1; Level IV in the stratigraphic sequence). Its attribution to any particular cultural period is difficult, as has been shown by a recent assessment of the lithic assemblage (Maíllo 2008), which concludes by stressing the scarce significance of the artefacts. However, the radiocarbon date suggests it corresponds to the Early Upper Palaeolithic, unless we propose that the Mousterian lasted longer than the chronological limits established for the rest of northern Iberia. In any case, the three spear points, found in the cave in the 1960s (Vázquez Seijas 1965), of which no equivalents have been recovered during the archaeological excavations, can hardly be attributed to this period (Fernández 2001), thus posing some interesting questions about possible human occupations in the cave. These are difficult to answer with the available data.

The former of these is the area of the main archaeological excavation. The hypothesis we have put forward in different studies is that it is an ephemeral record in terms of human

The underlying layer (Level V in the stratigraphic sequence) has yielded a very similar range of species as the previous level (Figure 3). There are also few differences from the

46

Carlos Fernández Rodríguez: Environment and Animal Resources

LEVEL - IV Stephanorhinus sp. Equus ferus Bos / Bison Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Sus scrofa Ursus sp. Canis lupus Vulpes vulpes Crocuta crocuta Meles meles Martes sp. Mustela putorius Marmota marmota Castor fiber Hystrix sp. Lepus granatensis Oryctolagus cuniculus Identified Non identified TOTAL

LEVEL - V

NR

%

MNI

W

%

NR

%

MNI

W

%

2 19 7 47 33 6 26 4 49 28 3 8 2 3 1 1 39 1019 1297 6908

0.1 1.5 0.5 3.6 2.5 0.5 2.0 0.3 3.8 2.2 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 3.0 78.6 15.8 84.2

1 1 1 3 4 2 2 2 8 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 41

74 666 460 1127 78 68 286 11 99 719 7 5 1 6 3 2 32 216 3860 3757

1.9 17.3 11.9 29.2 2.0 1.8 7.4 0.3 2.6 18.6 0.2 0.1

14 10 12 4 2 30 2 19 17 2 2

3.9 2.8 3.3 1.1 0.5 8.3 0.5 5.3 4.7 0.5 0.5

2 2 3 1 1 3 1 4 3 1 1

1431 3386 158 11 11 1120 4 12 373 2 1

21.8 51.5 2.4 0.2 0.2 17.0

1

0.3

1

3

248 363 2839

68.3 11.3 88.7

10

61 6573 3361

8205

7617

0.1 0.1 0.8 5.6 50.7 49.3

3202

0.2 5.7

0.9 66.2 33.8

9934

Figure 3: Faunal remains from A Valiña Cave. Levels IV and V of the Northern excavation area (NR: Number of remains; MNI: Minimal Number of Individuals; W: Weight, in grams).

oeconomus and Microtus nivalis (Fernández et al. 1993; Peña and Rey 1995), are usually regarded as indicators of a harsher, colder and wetter climate, and Marmota marmota is associated with colder conditions than Hystrix (Sesé 1994). In conclusion, we should take into account that Hystrix and Marmota appear in minimal amounts, and the Microtus oeconomus and Microtus nivalis remains make up less than 2.0% of the total microfauna. It is therefore possible that their scarcity reflects the existence of borderline conditions as regards their optimal environmental needs (Fernández et al. 1993).

chronological point of view, as it has been dated to 31,730 +2880/-2110 BP (GrN-20833). In this case, however, no evidence of anthropic activity was found. In both levels, a wide range of species was reported, with ungulates, rodents, lagomorphs and carnivores. However, it seems that the human contribution to this accumulation has been small. The taphonomic study of the remains has succeeded in showing a great deal of activity by carnivores (Fernández 2010), above all hyenas, whose presence is also revealed by the numerous coprolites (Fernández et al. 1995). Other species may also have taken part in the formation of the assemblage, such as porcupine (Hystrix) and fox (whose marks have been seen on some lagomorph remains). Some birds of prey may also have contributed, and their feeding habits might explain, at least in part, the large amount of small mammal remains in the deposit.

Species typical of open grassy (prairie) environments and suffruticose formations are seen to dominate (Equus ferus, Stephanorhinus sp., Oryctolagus cuniculus, Talpa europaea, Pitymys lusitanicus, etc.) although clear indicators of woodland areas (e.g. Glis glis, Sorex minutus and Sus scrofa) have also been recorded, together with a small group associated with wetlands (Castor fiber, Galemys pyrenaicus, Arvicola sapidus) (Fernández et al. 1993; Ramil Rego and Fernández 1996).

The faunal assemblages, of both large and small mammals, point towards wet temperate conditions at the time the deposit was formed, as well as some quite different biotopes, with open prairie-type vegetation as well as mixed forest and wetland (Fernández et al. 1993; Fernández 2000). In this respect, as regards the larger mammals, the association of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) is significant, together with the large rodents, European beaver (Castor fiber) and porcupine (Hystrix sp.). All these species are traditionally linked with environmental conditions that are considered temperate, or at least, not cold. However, some small mammals, such as Microtus

The pollen record in Level IV of the sequence (Ramil Rego 1993) is characterised by the predominance of arboreal taxa over herbaceous species and shrubs. Pinus tp. sylvestris is the dominant taxon, accompanied by smaller proportions of Abies, Juniperus and a wide range of deciduous trees: Quercus, Corylus, Betula, Alnus, Castanea and Ulmus. Among the non-arboreal species, the Poaceae dominate, with a presence of Daphne, Ericaceae and fern spores.

47

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

LEVEL - IV Equus ferus Bos / Bison Cervus elaphus Capreolus capreolus Ursus arctos / spelaeus Canis lupus Vulpes vulpes Meles meles Martes sp. Lepus granatensis Oryctolagus cuniculus Identified Non identified TOTAL

LEVEL – V

NR

%

MNI

W

%

6 1 9 4 2 1 13 8 3 13 213 273 785

2.2 0.4 3.3 1.4 0.7 0.4 4.8 2.9 1.1 4.8 78.0 25.8 74.2

1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 8

104 32 471 32 5 1 13 6 1 5 65 735 284

14.1 4.4 64.1 4.4 0.7 0.1 1.8 0.8 0.1 0.7 8.8 72.1 27.9

1058

1019

NR

%

12

18.5

53 65 7

81.5 90.3 9.7

72

Figure 4: Faunal remains from A Valiña Cave. Levels IV and V of the Southern End (NR: Number of remains; MNI: Minimal Number of Individuals; W: Weight, in grams).

The predominance of Pinus and the existence of Abies and Juniperus suggest harsher conditions than at the present. However, the great diversity among the deciduous species and mesophilic taxa (Castanea, Ulmus, Daphne) indicate quite temperate environmental conditions (Fernández 2000; Fernández et al. 1993; Ramil Rego and Fernández 1996).

been obtained do not support this supposed synchronicity: 16,420 ± 70 (GrN-20836) and 21,870 +780/-710 (GrN20835) (Ramil Rego and Fernández 1995). The bone assemblage in this Level IV seems to be dominated by lagomorphs and carnivores. Ungulates are represented by several cervid remains (red deer and roe deer), equid, and just one large bovid bone. Any environmental interpretation, using these data, would be unreliable. In addition, no pollen analysis or study of the microfauna is available.

We should naturally consider the possibility that northwest Iberia could have acted as a refugium for species during colder phases of the last glaciation. However, the results of palaeo-environmental studies carried out in this area show a moment of general climatic improvement during the Würm Interstadial (Isotope Stage 3), chronologically located between 58 and 28 ky BP. This period is characterised by climatic fluctuations, alternating relatively warm phases with colder ones, reflected in stages when deciduous forests expanded and times of more open vegetation (GómezOrellana et al. 2007; Ramil Rego et al. 2009). It is therefore not unlikely that the fauna sample at A Valiña is associated with a warmer period within the environmental variations during this interstadial.

Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Lugo) This site was known mainly for its deposit of cave bear remains (Ursus spelaeus) (Grandal 1993). The first archaeological trial excavation in the cave entrance, in 1993, recovered a significant number of lithic artefacts and bones, which were attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic and Early Upper Palaeolithic, although the only publication is not very clarifying (Nogueira 1997). New work has been carried out in the cave since 2008 (Fábregas et al. 2009, 2010), and therefore only interim results are available.

From the other part of the cave that has been studied, as described above, the Southern End, come bone assemblages from two levels (Figure 4). A small number of bones were collected in Level IV but these seem to be the consequence of badger activity, which may have even occurred after the level itself was deposited. This was altered further by limestone quarrying in the last century.

Levels 2 and 3 were formed by occupations during the Pleistocene. The oldest (Level 3) has been attributed to the Middle Palaeolithic. A preliminary study of the fauna has shown the presence of different ungulate species, above all red deer (Cervus elaphus), although roe deer, chamois, rhinoceros and possibly a large bovid, are also represented. Carnivores have been identified, predominating ursid remains, both brown bear (Ursus arctus) and above all Ursus spelaeus; the cave was a shelter for this species. Some canid bones have been documented (both wolf and fox), and two possible coprolites.

The largest bone assemblage was found in the lower Level V. This has been correlated with Level IV of the sequence in the other gallery (Llana Rodríguez et al. 1996), which is problematic from our point of view. On one hand there are differences in the palaeontological record, particularly the inexistence of hyena remains in the sample at the Southern End. On the other, the radiocarbon determinations that have

The small number of bones that have been identified to date

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Carlos Fernández Rodríguez: Environment and Animal Resources

and the absence of greater chronological precision prevent any conclusive interpretation of the faunal assemblage, although the species that have been documented would not be unusual in northern Iberia in the Middle Palaeolithic. If we consider the absence of any taxa that are clear indicators of a cold climate, and that roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) suggests mild environmental conditions, we could propose a date for the formation of the level before the Initial Würm Stadial (Isotope Stage 4), i.e. before 79 ky BP, when the climate began to deteriorate in the northwest (Ramil et al. 2009). However, we must insist on the need for a larger sample and a more detailed study to be able to reach a more precise conclusion.

(Level 4) and this has been attributed to the lower-middle Magdalenian, with two radiocarbon determinations of 13,770 ± 70 BP (Beta-235728) and 14,630 ± 70 BP (Beta-235726). Together with a series of Dentalium novemcostatum fragments, a small number of mammal remains have been recovered, and of these only wolf and chamois were identified (Fábregas et al. 2010). The same study cites the presence of woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) at Valdavara, without giving further details about the area or level of its provenance. Early Holocene Fauna Epipalaeolithic or Mesolithic faunal assemblages are practically non-existent in the northwest, even though the climatic improvement that occurred in the Holocene would have encouraged the movement of fauna and human groups towards mountain areas, which must have been unfeasible during much of the glacial period. In this respect, the results that have been obtained recently in the north-eastern part of the province of León, at over 1200m in altitude on the southern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains, are particularly interesting. Three sites have been studied, the caves of La Uña, El Espertín (Neira et al. 2006) and La Braña-Arintero (Vidal and Prada 2010); however they lie outside the area of study of the present paper.

Level 2 at Cova Eirós has been attributed to the Early Upper Palaeolithic, and two radiocarbon determinations have been obtained with results of around 30,000 BP (Fábregas et al. 2009), supporting this adscription. The faunal sample is even smaller than that in Level 3, and therefore any possible assessment is still quite difficult. However, the ungulates red deer, roe deer and chamois, as well as bear and possibly wolf bones, have been identified and these species were also cited for the lower level. Equally, they were documented in Archaeological Level 1 at A Valiña, which is chronologically close to this level in Cova Eirós. The presence of chamois at this site and its absence at A Valiña is easily explained by the characteristics of the biotopes in the surroundings of the two caves.

Despite a significant number of sites with similar chronologies located in well-surveyed parts of the northwest, such as the Serra do Xistral in Lugo (Ramil and Ramil 1996), the poor conservation of osseous remains makes it impossible to offer any kind of data about the faunal composition. The only exception is the coastal settlement of Paradero de Reiro (Arteixo, A Coruña) (Figure 2), where archaeological work in the 1970s succeeded in recovering lithic material corresponding to a Mesolithic occupation dated by radiocarbon to 6590 ± 70 BP (CSIC508) (Ramil Soneira 1973). The small number of faunal remains is insufficient for an overall assessment, but allows us to document the presence of red deer (4 remains), roe deer (1) and wild boar (6) (Fernández 2000), as well as fish vertebrae.

Greater problems are caused by the identification, in this same Level 2, of several remains of pig and ovicaprids (Fábregas et al. 2009), which are totally out of place in a deposit attributed to the Pleistocene. Their presence has been explained by the existence of several medieval storage pits that cut through the stratigraphic sequence in several parts of the cave and might have caused a disturbance. However, the problem has still not been solved definitively, and the possibility of error in the identification of these remains can still not be ruled out. Two new levels (B and 1) have been located in a new area that was excavated in the 2009 season (Fábregas et al. 2010), with evidence of more recent occupations than those described above, and which have generically been attributed to later phases of the Upper Palaeolithic. Virtually no faunal remains were found in Level B, whereas Level 1 has yielded several ungulates: above all chamois and, with doubts, red deer, ibex and rhinoceros; and also some carnivore remains: brown bear, cave bear, fox and perhaps lynx.

Conclusions Despite the progress of the research into Upper Pleistocene and early Holocene fauna, the information for northwest Iberia is still very limited in comparison, for example, with the available data for Cantabrian Spain. In accordance with the results described here, and from a general viewpoint, we can highlight that, as regards the species that have been identified, the northwest exhibits no peculiarities differentiating it from neighbouring regions. However, the limited number of ancient human occupations in caves is perhaps a reflection of generally unsuitable locations, in terms of altitude and accessibility, and morphology (predominance of small entrances). In contrast, the number of bear shelters is quite high, with

Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo) This is another interesting site currently being excavated. The archaeological work carried out in recent years has taken place in two nearby caves, which were used mainly for burials in the late Neolithic/Chalcolithic (Valdavara 1) and the middle Bronze Age (Valdavara 2). However, in the former cave, another occupation level has been documented

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

jacobeos, 183-191. Santiago, Xunta de Galicia. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 2000. Los macromamíferos en los yacimientos arqueológicos del Noroeste peninsular: un estudio económico. Tesis Doctorales de la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (año 2000): Humanidades. Edición en cd-rom, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 2001. Industria ósea prehistórica del Noroeste de la Península Ibérica, Lancia 4, 71-84. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 2006. De humanos y carnívoros: la fauna de macromamíferos de la cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo). In J. M. Maíllo and E. Baquedano (eds.), Miscelánea en homenaje a Victoria Cabrera. Vol I, 290-303. Zona Arqueológica 7, Alcalá de Henares, Museo Arqueológico Regional. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 2010. El registro de hienas y otros carnívoros en la Cueva de A Valiña (Lugo, España). Zona Arqueológica 13 [Actas 1ª Reunión Científica sobre cubiles de hiena (y otros grandes carnívoros) en los yacimientos arqueológicos de la Península Ibérica – Alcalá de Henares, 2009], 310-319. Fernández Rodríguez, C. and Ramil Rego, P. 1995. Catálogo y revisión crítica de las colecciones faunísticas del Museo Provincial de Lugo. Boletín do Museo Provincial de Lugo VII (1), 189-218. Fernández Rodríguez, C.; Ramil, P.; Martínez, A.; Rey, J. M. and Peña, P. 1993. La Cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): aproximación estratigráfica, paleobotánica y paleontológica al Paleolítico superior inicial de Galicia. In M. P. Fumanal and J. Bernabeu (eds.), Estudios sobre Cuaternario. Medios sedimentarios. Cambios ambientales. Hábitat humano, 159-165. Universidad de Valencia and AEQUA. Fernández Rodríguez, C.; Ramil Rego, P. and Martínez Cortizas, A. 1995. Characterization and depositional evolution of hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) coprolites from La Valiña Cave (NW Spain). Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 597-607. Fernández Rodríguez, C.; Villar Quinteiro, R.; Varela, P.; Rey, J. M. and Elorza, M. 1996. Primeros datos cronológicos y paleontológicos del yacimiento de Pala da Vella (Biobra-Ourense). In P. Ramil Rego, C. Fernández Rodríguez and M. Rodríguez Guitián (coords.). Biogeografía Pleistocena - Holocena de la Península Ibérica, 249-260. Santiago, Xunta de Galicia. Golpe Posse, M. J. and Vidal Romaní, J.R. 1985. Macromamíferos (Suidos) de la Cueva de Praducelos (Suegos, Lugo). Cuadernos del Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 10, 229. Gómez-Orellana, L.; Ramil Rego, P. and Muñoz Sobrino, C. 2007. The Würm in NW Iberia, a pollen record from Area Longa (Galicia). Quaternary Research 67, 438452. Grandal D’Anglade, A. 1993. El oso de las cavernas en Galicia: el yacimiento de Cova Eirós. Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe, Serie Nova Terra 8, Edicións do Castro, A Coruña. Grandal D’Anglade, A. and López-González, F. 1998. A population study on the cave bears (Ursus spelaeus

a significant presence of Ursus spelaeus in the Würm Interstadial (OIS-3). With this limited information available, it is not possible to propose any hypothesis about human activity in connection with existing faunal resources; particularly if we recall that in the case of the deposit at A Valiña, which has yielded the largest samples, the accumulation of bones has been the result of the activity of different (not exclusively) anthropic agents. We hope that the results of the excavations in progress at the sites of Eirós and Valdavara will provide new data to help define this aspect. To conclude, our knowledge of the oldest archaeological fauna in the northwest is still based on a preliminary stage of research, and a great deal of work remains to be done. The problems for the conservation of bone organic matter are a severe obstacle, together with the unsuitability of many of the natural caves in this geographical area for human occupation. Bibliographic references Alberdi, M. T. 1982. Nota sobre equidae de Galicia. Cuadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 3, 241243. Bettencourt, A. M. S. 2009. Práticas funerárias da Idade do Bronze de Trás-os-Montes e da Galiza oriental. Revista Aqvae Flaviae 41 (Actas do Congresso Transfronteiriço de Arqueologia - Montealegre, 2008), 11-23. Cardoso, J. L. 1993. Contribuçiao para o conhecimento dos grandes mamíferos do Plistocénico superior de Portugal. Câmara Municipal de Oeiras. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso, S.; Ameijenda, A.; Grandal, A.; Lazuén, T.; de Lombera, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M.; Rodríguez, X. P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Serna, M. R.; Terradillos, M. and Vaquero, M. 2009. Novos resultados das intervencións arqueológicas no sur lucense. Os xacementos paleolíticos da Depresión de Monforte (Monforte de Lemos), Cova Eirós (Triacastela) e Valdavara (Becerreá). Gallaecia 28, 9-32. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso, S.; Ameijenda, A.; Grandal, A.; Lazuén, T.; de Lombera, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M.; Rodríguez, X. P.; Serna, M. R. and Vaquero, M. 2010. Completando o mapa. Novas datacións absolutas para o Paleolítico e Mesolítico do interior galego, Gallaecia 29, 5-28. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1991. Os macromamíferos do Nivel 1: Análise deposicional, biometría e interpretación medioambiental das especies representadas, in C. Llana and M. J. Soto (dir.), Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo). Un xacemento do Paleolítico Superior inicial en Galicia (Campañas de 1987 e 1988), 103-126. Serie Arqueoloxía / Investigación 5, A Coruña, Xunta de Galicia. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1993. Los macromamíferos del Pleistoceno y Holoceno inicial en el noroeste peninsular, in A. Pérez, L. Guitián and P. Ramil (eds.), La evolución del paisaje en las montañas del entorno de los caminos

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Carlos Fernández Rodríguez: Environment and Animal Resources

Nonn, H. 1966. Les règions cotières de la Galice (Espagne). Etude géomorphologique. París, Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de L’Université de Strasbourg. Ramil Rego, E. and Ramil Soneira, J. 1996. El fin de los tiempos glaciares en Galicia: Magdaleniense y Epipaleolítico, in R. Fábregas (ed.). Os primeiros poboadores de Galicia: o Paleolítico, 117-146. Cadernos do Seminario de Sargadelos 73, Sada, Edicións do Castro. Ramil Rego, P. and Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1995. Recopilación de las dataciones absolutas obtenidas en depósitos cuaternarios de Galicia. Férvedes 2, 133-141. Ramil Rego, P. and Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1996. Marco cronológico y paleoambiental de la ocupación paleolítica en el NW Ibérico, in R. Fábregas (ed.). Os primeiros poboadores de Galicia: o Paleolítico, 165-191. Cadernos do Seminario de Sargadelos 73, Sada, Edicións do Castro. Ramil Rego, P.; Gómez-Orellana, L.; Muñoz-Sobrino, C.; García-Gil, S.; Iglesias, J.; Pérez Martínez, M.; Martínez Carreño, N.; de Nóvoa Fernández, B. 2009. Cambio climático y dinámica del paisaje en Galicia. Recursos Rurais 5, 21-47. Ramil Soneira, J. 1973. Paradero de Reiro. Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos XXVIII, 23-31. Torre Enciso, E. 1962. Hallazgo de dos molares de mamut (Elephas primigenius) en una cantera de Buján, Provincia de Lugo. Notas y Comunicaciones del Instituto Geológico y Minero de España 65, 111-117. Torres, T. de 1983. Fauna cavernícola cuaternaria gallega. Datos sobre úrsidos de la provincia de Lugo (Galicia, España). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 6, 89-97. Törnqvist, T. E.; Janssen, C. R. and Pérez Alberti, A. 1989. Degradación antropogénica de la vegetación en el noroeste de Galicia durante los últimos 2500 años. Cuadernos de Estudios Gallegos 103, 175-198. Vaquero Rodríguez, M.; Alonso, S.; Alonso, C.; Ameijenda, A.; Blain, H. A.; Fábregas, R.; Gómez, G.; de Lombera, A.; López-García, J. M.; Lorenzo, C.; Lozano, M.; Rodríguez, C.; Rosell, J. and Serna, M. R. 2009. Nuevas fechas radiométricas para la Prehistoria del noroeste de la Península Ibérica: la cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo). Trabajos de Prehistoria 66 (1), 99-113. Vázquez Seijas, M. 1965. La cueva de La Valiña. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos Históricos y Artísticos de Lugo VIII (63-66), 25-30. Vidal Encinas, J. M. and Prada Marcos, M. E. (coords.) 2010. Los hombres mesolíticos de la cueva de La BrañaArintero (Valdelugueros, León). Estudios y Catálogos 18, Junta de Castilla y León. Vidal Romaní, J. R. 1979. El período Cuaternario en Galicia. Gallaecia 3-4, 19-35.

Rosenmüller-Heinroth) from Galician caves, NW of Iberian Peninsula. Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 23, 215-224. Grandal D’Anglade, A.; López-González, F. and Vidal Romaní, J. R. 1997. Condicionantes en la distribución de macromamíferos en Galicia (NW Península Ibérica) durante el Cuaternario superior. Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 22, 43-66. Grandal D’Anglade, A. and Vidal Romaní, J. R. 1991. Macromamíferos del Pleistoceno Superior de Galicia (NW de la Península Ibérica). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 16, 7-22. Grandal D’Anglade, A.; Vidal Romaní, J. R.; VaqueiroGonzález, M. and Méndez, E. 2006. O Rebolal: a new cave in Galicia (NW Spain) with recent cave bear remains: Preliminary report. Scientific Annals-School of Geology 98 (special volume), 173-177. López González, F. 2003. Paleontology and taphonomy of Pleistocene macromammals of Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula). Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe, Serie Nova Terra 22, Edicións do Castro, A Coruña. Llana Rodríguez, C. and Soto Barreiro, M. J. 1991. Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo). Un xacemento do Paleolítico Superior inicial en Galicia (Campañas de 1987 e 1988). Serie Arqueoloxía / Investigación 5, A Coruña, Xunta de Galicia. Llana Rodríguez, C.; Villar Quinteiro, R. and Martínez Cortizas, A. 1996. Secuencia paleoambiental y cultural de la cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): una ocupación chatelperroniense en Galicia. In A. Pérez Alberti, P. Martini, W. Chesworth and A. Martínez Cortizas (coords.). Dinámica y evolución de medios cuaternarios, 97-112. Santiago, Xunta de Galicia. Maíllo Fernández, J. M. 2008. El Chatelperroniense en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica, in E. Ramil (ed.). Iº Congreso Internacional de Arqueoloxía de Vilalba (Vilalba, 2008), 127-136. Férvedes 5, Lugo, Museo de Prehistoria e Arqueoloxía de Vilalba. Martínez Cortizas, A.; Ramil Rego, P. and Llana Rodríguez, C. 1993. Edafología y palinología: aplicación al estudio de yacimientos al aire libre en Galicia. Trabalhos de Antropologia e Etnologia XXXIII (Actas Iº Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular, Porto, 1993, vol. I), 449-469. Neira Campos, A.; Fuertes, N.; Fernández, C. and Bernaldo de Quirós, F. 2006. Paleolítico superior y Epipaleolítico en la provincia de León, in G. Delibes and F. Díez (eds.). El Paleolítico superior en la Meseta Norte española, 113-148. Studia Archaeologica 34, Universidad de Valladolid. Nogueira Ríos, S. 1997. Unha primeira aproximación ó estudio dos materiais líticos de Cova Eirós (Triacastela - Lugo). In Historia Nova IV. Contribución dos Xoves Historiadores de Galicia, 9-29. Noia, Asociación Galega de Historiadores.

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Chapter 6: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula in the European Context Xosé Pedro Rodríguez IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, C/Escorxador s/n, Tarragona 43003, Spain Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, Spain Email: [email protected] Abstract: During the last years researchers have debated about when the settlement of Europe took place. The sites of the Iberian Peninsula have provided information that allows us to affirm that humans arrived to Europe more than one million years ago. In Gran Dolina site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) we have found fauna, lithic artifacts and human remains (Homo antecessor) dating about 800,000 years ago. In Fuente Nueva 3 and Barranco León 5 (Granada) faunal remains and lithic artifacts with a chronology of 1,3 million years have been recovered. In addition there are isolated findings in river terraces of the Northwest, Center and South of the Iberian Peninsula that are less conclusive. In the rest of Europe, human occupation during the Lower Pleistocene has also been documented in Italy, France and England. Almost all lithics recovered in these lower Pleistocene sites belong to the technical Mode 1. Mode 2 technology appears clearly around 600,000 years ago, related to Homo heidelbergensis. The discussion is raised about the rupture or continuity at technological and biological level between the end of the Lower Pleistocene and the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. Keywords: Lower Pleistocene, Middle Pleistocene, Atapuerca, lithic technology, Mode 1, Mode 2 Resumen: Durante los últimos años los investigadores han debatido sobre cuándo tuvo lugar el primer poblamiento de Europa. Los yacimientos de la Península Ibérica han aportado información que nos permite situar la llegada de los humanos a Europa en hace más de un millón de años. En el yacimiento de Gran Dolina (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos) se han recuperado restos de fauna, artefactos líticos y fósiles humanos (Homo antecessor) datados en torno a 800.000 años de antigüedad. En Fuente Nueva 3 y Barranco León 5 (Granada) se han recuperado restos faunísticos y artefactos líticos con una cronología de 1,3 Millones de años. Junto a estas evidencias se encuentran hallazgos aislados, y algo menos concluyentes, en las terrazas fluviales de los principales cauces del Noroeste, Centro y Sur de la Península Ibérica. En el resto de Europa, se han documentado también ocupaciones humanas del Pleistoceno inferior en Italia, Francia e Inglaterra. La mayoría de sus conjuntos líticos pertenecen al Modo 1 tecnológico. El Modo 2 tecnológico aparece claramente hace 600.000 años relacionado con poblaciones de Homo heidelbergensis. El debate se centra sobre la ruptura o continuidad tanto a nivel tecnológico como biológico entre los momentos finales del Pleistoceno inferior y los inicios del Pleistoceno medio. Palabras clave: Pleistoceno inferior, Pleistoceno medio, Atapuerca, Tecnología lítica, Modo 1, Modo 2.

Introduction

in Europe around 500.000 years ago ago (Gamble 1994, Roebroeks and van Kolfschoten 1994). Nevertheless, at that time some sites that could challenge this paradigm were already known. In this sense some researchers defended that the initial settlement of Europe occurred at the end of the lower Pleistocene (Bonifay and Vandermeersch 1991, Lumley et al. 1988, Peretto and Ferrari 1995). However, the available evidence was not solid enough for the defenders of the recent settlement of Europe.

In this paper we review the evidence of human presence in Europe since the end of the Lower Pleistocene until the early Middle Pleistocene (around 500,000 years ago).The topic of the first settlement of Europe has been object of debate during the last years. Several publications discuss this issue from various points of view: when, why and how it was produced (Aguirre and Carbonell 2001, Anton and Swisher III 2004, Arribas and Palmqvist 1999, Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 2001, Carbonell et al. 2008b, Carbonell et al. 1996, Carbonell et al. 1999c, Carbonell and Rodríguez 2006, Carbonell et al. 2010b, Dennell 2003, Dennell and Roebroeks 1996, Dennell and Roebroeks 2005, Roebroeks 2006, Roebroeks and van Kolfschoten 1995, Roebroeks and van Kolfschoten 1998, Rolland 2001).

In 1994 the discovery of Monte Poggiolo offered new arguments to those who thought that humans arrived for the first time in Europe at the end of the Lower Pleistocene (Peretto et al. 1998, Peretto and Ferrari 1995). Furthermore in Pont de Lavaud (France) lithic industry has been recovered, in the base of the 90-100 meters terrace of the river Creuze (Despriée and Gageonnet, 2003). On the other hand, some discoveries in Central and Eastern Europe are not very clear (Kärlich A, Beroun, Sandalja I, Korolevo

In the decade of the 1980 and beginnings of nineties the dominant paradigm upheld that the first humans arrived

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

VIII-VII), and they do not contribute to determining a settlement prior to the Middle Pleistocene.

the Jaramillo at ~ 1 Ma rather than above the Jaramillo at 1.3 Ma as proposed by Arzarello et al. (2007) based on uncalibrated mammal chronologies from the literature. Hence, the lithic artifacts from Pirro Nord may be as young as the upper age limit of the Pirro FU at Leffe at ~ 1 Ma (Muttoni et al. 2010).

In this context, the Iberian Peninsula plays a fundamental role in the discussion about when and how the first colonization of Europe took place. While some researchers defended at the beginning of the decade of 1990 that the settlement was initiated during the Middle Pleistocene following the dominant paradigm of the “short chronology” (Raposo and Santonja, 1995), the discoveries in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos) and in Guadix-Baza Basin (Granada) gave proof of human occupation during the Lower Pleistocene (Carbonell et al. 1995, Oms et al. 2000b). At present these sites keep on providing information that allows us affirming, without any doubt, that Europe already had been occupied by humans more than 1 million years ago. In fact, the discoveries in the south of Europe have forced the supporters of the recent settlement of this continent to redefine their theories (Dennell 1998, 2003).

The cave site of Le Vallonet (France) contains lithic industry associated to a numerous and generally well-preserved fauna. The lithic raw material is almost exclusively limestone. There are pebbles with only one removal, choppers, chopping tools, side scrapers and cores among the 59 identified objects (Lumley et al. 1988). Concretely there are 13 pebbles with a unique convex removal, 8 with a concave removal, 4 choppers, 6 chopping tools and 2 side scrapers. Half of the 26 identified flakes have the dorsal face completely cortical. The cave deposits have been dated to 0.98–0.91 Ma based on their Epivillafranchian mammal association. Moreover, the cave deposits are enclosed between an upper and a lower stalagmitic floor; the base of the upper stalagmitic floor yielded an ESR age of 0.91 ± 0.06 Ma, whereas the top of the lower stalagmitic floor yielded an ESR age of 1.37 ± 0.12 Ma (Yokoyama et al. 1988).

The issue about which way the first humans arrived in Europe has been less debated, although it is also of great interest. Several alternatives have been discussed: through the strait of Gibraltar, through Sicily, and across the Near East.

Pont of Lavaud is an open air site located at the base of the 90-100 meters terrace of the river Creuze (EguzonChantôme, central France). The lithic record was knapped mainly using the bipolar technique on quartz pebbles. The technological and typological traits allow us to ascribe these materials to Mode 1 (Despriée et al. 2006, 2010). The presence of tools configured directly on pebble, with unifacial (choppers) and bifacial (chopping tools) retouch stands out. Also polyhedrons, as well as retouched flakes have been recovered. From the typological point of view, there are denticulates, becs, notches, side scrapers and end scrapers. Only a fragment of flat bone was located in direct association with the lithic industry, attributed to a horse mandible. Also a horse tooth was found close to the excavation, at an equivalent layer. The dating by means of Paramagnetic Electronic Resonance, have provided a chronology between 0.905 and 1.187 Ma ago (Falguères 2003). The mean age of the corresponding alluvial formation, derived from 10 ESR dates, is around 1.1 Ma (Voinchet et al. 2010).

The oldest European sites In France and Italy there are some sites that can be dated at the Lower Pleistocene. In Ca’Belvedere di Monte Poggiolo (Italy) lithic industry is contained in sands and gravel deposits that belong to the last phases of a complex coastal regressive series. The bottom of this series is composed of clayey Plio-Pleistocene sediments. The lithic industry was knapped utilizing small flint pebbles (usually less than 10 cm). These pebbles were knapped with a not very complex bipolar technique, predominating the longitudinal and orthogonal strategies, clearly conditioned by the size and the morphology of the raw material (Vergès, 2003). There are many cortical products and not faceted butts, but few retouched flakes, represented by some side scrapers and most of all by denticulates. Numerous reffitings have been accomplished, proving that the knapping activities took place in situ. The lithic record of Monte Poggiolo has been classified as Mode 1 (Peretto et al. 1998). Based on the ESR dates we can place the tool-bearing sandy gravels of Ca’ Belvedere at around 1 Ma ago (Figures 1 and 2).

The site of Lunery-Rosiers is located in alluvial deposits at +34 m above the present channel of the Cher River Valley (France). In Unit 3 various levels with lithic industry were located. The tools were knapped using flint, silicified limestone and millstone of local origin. A few reduction strategies were employed to flake blocks: unidirectional flaking parallel to the length of the piece or across the edge; crossed unidirectional (and occasionally convergent) flaking; and bidirectional (opposed platform) flaking. Retouched flakes are very rare (Despriée et al. 2010). The ESR age of the sandy deposits covering the basic cobble level is 1.1 ± 0.18 Ma (Despriée et al. 2007, Voinchet et al. 2010).

The Pirro Nord karst fissure fills (Apulia, southern Italy) yielded three cores and six flakes made of flint. These tools were attributed to a Mode 1 industry and were found in association with large and small mammal remains pertaining to the Pirro Faunal Unit (FU) (Arzarello et al. 2007). The Pirro FU is placed between 1.3 and 1.7 Ma in all Italian mammal biochronologies. However, none of the localities that collectively define the Pirro FU has direct radiometric age or paleomagnetic analyses. According to Muttoni et al ( 2010), and based on the data from Leffe, the Pirro FU–Colle Curti FU transition could be placed within

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Xosé Pedro Rodríguez: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula

Figue 1: Location of the archaeological sites mentioned in the text.

Site (location) Pirro Nord (It) Barranco León (Es) Fuente Nueva (Es) Sima de Elefante TE9 (Es) Pont de Lavaud (Fr) Lunery-Rosiers (Fr) Le Vallonnet (Fr) Gran Dolina TD3-5 (Es) Monte Poggiolo (It) Happisburgh (Eng) Vallparadis (Es) Gran Dolina TD6 (Es) Estrecho de Quípar (Es) Boella (Es)

Dating

Lithic industry

1,7-1,3 1,3 1,2 1.2 1,1 1,1 1,07-0,99 ca. 1 ca. 1 0,99-0,78 0,9 ca. 0,9 0,9 >0,78

Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 Mode 1 (evolved) Mode 1 (evolved) Mode 1 (evolved) Mode 2 (incipient) Mode 2 (incipient)

Hominin fossils

H. antecessor

H. antecessor

Figure 2: Oldest European sites

Between 2005 and 2010, about 80 flint tools were recovered from Site 3 at Happisburgh (Norfolk, England) (Parfitt et al. 2010). This open air site was revealed by coastal erosion. Among the finds are cores, flakes and flake tools, with no evidence of handaxes and cleavers. Many of the artefacts are fresh and unabraded, suggesting they were discarded at or near the site and that they have undergone very limited fluvial transport. Plant and animal remains indicate that humans occupied a forest-fringed estuary of the ancient River Thames (Parfitt et al. 2010). Reconstruction of environmental conditions points to a climate that was similar to that of today. Paleomagnetic and paleobotanic data indicate hominin presence before the Brunhes-

Matuyama boundary during either MIS 21 (~ 0.84 Ma) or MIS 25 (~ 0.95 Ma) (Parfitt et al. 2010). This site represents the northernmost evidence of human expansion in Europe during the Lower Pleistocene. Lower Pleistocene sites in the Iberian Peninsula Sima del Elefante Several archaeological and palaeontological sites have been discovered in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain), with a chronology ranging from the Lower Pleistocene to historic epoch. Until now there are two caves with Lower

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

al. 2008a, Rosas et al. 2006) (Figure 3). Carcasses of these animals are not complete inside the cave, being the long bones the elements more represented. Some show clear evidence of hominin processing, such as percussion marks on long bones and on a bovid mandible pointing to breakage made to gain access to the marrow. A mandible and a vertebra of bovid, a humerus of cervid, as well as some indeterminate macromammal long bones show also clear defleshing cut marks (Ollé et al. 2010). There is also a large sample of micromammals (Figure 4).

Pleistocene archaeological record: Gran Dolina and Sima del Elefante. The stratigraphic thickness of Sima del Elefante is of 18 meters. The stratigraphic section has been divided into 22 lithostratigraphic units, grouped in three sedimentary phases: The lower phase spans from the base to the unit TE14; the middle phase includes units TE15 to TE19; and finally the upper phase includes units TE20 and TE21. Palaeomagnetic studies place the Matuyama-Brunhes boundary at the bottom of unit TE17, below which five units contain archaeological record: TE14, TE13, TE12, TE11 and TE9 (Carbonell et al. 2008a, Parés et al. 2006, Rosas et al. 2006). Between these, to date, unit TE9 is the only one excavated and studied enough to offer an archaeological interpretation. TE9 is a faulted and deformed stratigraphic unit. In the vertical position under the entrance, the lithology is made up of blocks filled by sandy clay. Towards the distal parts, some lamination characteristic of palustral environments with small ponds appears. This spatial segmentation of lithologies and the wedge geometry showed in TE9 are typical of cave galleries with sedimentation coming from a talus cone formed from a vertical entrance. According the well preserved paleokarst morphologies, this vertical opening was likely to be a fissure rather than a large cave entrance (Ollé et al. 2010). Level TE9 has been dated approximately at 1.2-1.1 Ma by palaeomagnetism, cosmogenic nuclides and biostratigraphy (Carbonell et al. 2008a).

The presence of carnivores is reduced, and their action on the ungulate remains is scarce (Figure 3). Medium and small sized taxa are the most represented, usually showing a high anatomical integrity. The list of carnivores includes: Pannonictis cf. nestii, cf. Baranogale antiqua, Mustela cf. palerminea/praenivalis, Canis mosbachensis, Lynx cf. issiodorensis, Canis cf. mosbachensis/arnensis, Vulpes cf. alopecoides, Panthera cf. gombaszoegensis, Ursus dolinensis (Carbonell et al. 2008a, Rosas et al. 2006).The features of anthropic activities documented on the TE9 bone assemblage (breakage patterns and type of processing) show that human groups made an early access to the animals. In 2007 a fragment of human mandible and an isolated lower left P4 were discovered in level TE9c (Carbonell et al. 2008a). The first consists of a symphyseal region with both parts of the right and left corpus, with some teeth preserved in place. The mandible neither shows a mental trigone nor lateral tubercles and mental fossae. On the internal surface of the symphysis, the alveolar planum exhibits a minimum inclination, and the superior transverse torus is absent. The corpus is slightly built and similar to some TD6 mandibles, but below the major part of the African Early and Middle Pleistocene Homo specimens. The teeth are highly worn and even some of them have lost the crown, but the LP4 present an oval outline with a distolingual talonid. In addition, during the 2008 field work season we have recovered a new human remain in the same level TE9c, a proximal phalanx of the fifth finger. Although the evidence from TE9c is scarce and the symphysis is not represented in the current TD6 hominin hypodigm, we assigned ATE9-1 mandible provisionally to Homo antecessor (Carbonell et al. 2008a).

An area around 25 m2 of this unit is currently under excavation. To date, the archaeological assemblage recovered is composed by 4,255 faunal remains (of which c. 1,800 correspond to macromammals), 35 stone tools and 2 human fossils (Ollé et al. 2010). Lithic artefacts were made on Neogene and Cretaceous chert, both of local origin. The Neogene variety occurs in form of big blocks around the slopes of the hill, while Cretaceous chert appears in small nodules into the cavities and the limestone pavement at the surface of the Sierra de Atapuerca.. Outcrops of both varieties are available within a range of one or two kilometres from the site (Ollé et al. 2010). The lithic assemblage is formed by some simple flakes of small to medium size, and also some knapping debris. Indeed, two of the flakes seem to belong to the same core. Simple flakes were obtained by direct hardhammer percussion through simple and short reduction sequences (Ollé et al. 2010). Besides these items, there are several pieces too badly preserved for analysis. This bad preservation mainly concerns the Neogene chert, particularly altered by chemical weathering. Finally, some doubtful limestone artefacts complete the lithic record.

Gran Dolina Gran Dolina is a cave with 18 meters of stratigraphic thickness in which 11 lithostratigraphic units have been identified (from bottom to the top). Units TD4, TD5, TD6, TD7, TD9 and TD10 contain lithic artefacts and faunal remains. Besides, the Unit TD6 also has provided human fossils. The lithostratigraphic units of TD1 and TD2 are internal deposits, while units TD3/4 to TD11 are external deposits that contain few elements of the interior of the karst, derived from the erosion or weathering of the host limestone. However, units TD7, TD9 and TD11 present episodes with a limited influence of the exterior. In some units, as for example TD10, the fall of blocks from the top

Macromamals are represented mainly by adult individuals of large and medium sized ungulates: Eucladoceros giulii/ Megaloceros sp., Dama nestii cf. vallonetensis, Sus sp., Equus sp (Stenonian type), cf. Bison sp, Cervidae indet, Bovidae indet, and Rhinocerotidae indet (Carbonell et

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Xosé Pedro Rodríguez: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula

TAXONOMY

TE9

Mammuthus sp. Rhinocerontidae indet. Stephanorhinus etruscus Macaca Bison voigstedtensis Bovidae indet. Equus stenonis Equus cf. altidens Equidae indet. Eucladoceros giulii Cervidae indet. Cervus elaphus aff. acoronatus Cervus elaphus sp. Dama nestii vallonetensis Sus scrofa Mustela paleminea Homotherium Meles meles Ursus dolinensis Pannonictis cf. nestii Panthera gombaszoegensis Felis sp. Crocuta crocuta Canis sp. (arnensis/mosbachensis) Canis mosbachensis Vulpes praeglacialis Vulpes cf. V. alopecoides cf. Baranogale antiqua Lynx sp. Lynx cf. issiodorensis Homo antecessor

TD4

TD5

TD6

sp.

sp.

cf.

sp.

cf. sp. cf.

Figure 3. Macromammal taxa identified in Sima del Elefante TE9, and Units TD4, TD5 and TD6 of Gran Dolina (Cuenca-Bescós and García, 2007; García and Arsuaga, 2001; García and Arsuaga, 2001; Made, 1999; Made, 2001; Rodríguez et al., 2011)

Atapuerca Faunal Units FU Atapuerca sites & levels Amphibia Salamandra salamandra Alytes obstetricans Pelobates cultripes Pelodytes punctatus Bufo bufo Bufo calamita Hyla arborea Rana temporaria Rana cf. dalmatina Squamata Coronella austriaca Rhinechis scalaris Vipera cf. aspis Triturus sp. Rana (temporaria) sp. Pelophylax (ridibunda) sp.

FU 1

FU 2

TE 8-14

TD 3-TD 4

X cf. X X X X X

FU 3

FU 4

TD 5

TD 6-3

TD 6-1- TD6-2

X

X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X

X X X X X X X X

X X

X X

57

X X

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Atapuerca Faunal Units FU Atapuerca sites & levels Lacertidae indet. Anguis fragilis Natrix cf. natrix Natrix cf. maura Coronella cf. girondica Eulipotyphla Beremendia fissidens Asoriculus gibberodon Crocidura kornfeldi Galemys cf. kormosi Erinaceus praeglacialis Talpa cf. europaea Sorex spp. Crocidura spp. Erinaceus europaeus Dolinasorex gliphodon Sorex minutus Galemys sp. Chiropera Myotis sp. Rhinolophus sp. Miniopterus schreibersii Rodentia Allophaiomys lavocati Allophaiomys nutiensis Allophaiomys burgondiae Ungaromys Arvicolidae nov.gen.nov.sp. Castillomys rivas Sciurus Eliomys quercinus Castor fiver Apodemus sylvaticus Allophaiomys chalinei Stenocranius gregaloides Hystrix refossa Terricola arvalidens Microtus seseae Pliomys episcopalis Mimomys savini Iberomys huescarensis Marmota Allocricetus bursae Micromys minutus Lagomorpha Oryctolagus cf. giberti Lepus sp. Oryctolagus sp.

FU 1

FU 2

TE 8-14

TD 3-TD 4

X X

X X X X X X X X X sp.

X cf.

FU 4

TD 5

TD 6-3

TD 6-1- TD6-2

X X X

X X X

X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X

X X X

X

X X X

X

X

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

FU 3

X X

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

Figure 4. Stratigraphical distribution of small vertebrate species in Lower Pleistocene levels of Atapuerca sites. Faunal units FU1 to FU4 were defined in Cuenca Bescós & García (2007) and Cuenca Bescós et al. (2010).

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Xosé Pedro Rodríguez: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula

a disarticulation of the faunal remains in anatomical connection or to separate the epiphysis from the diaphysis during transport (Rosell et al. 1998).

and the walls of the cavity has an important role (PérezGonzález et al. 2001). External facies are principally byproducts of Mesozoic calcareous clasts and clays originated at the slopes (tilted about 15º) close to the entrance to Gran Dolina cave (Parés and Pérez-González, 1999).

Also there are lithic industry in the Unit TD5. A quartzite core comes from this level, picked up from the stratigraphic section. This artefact was knapped unifacially in almost all its perimeter (Rodríguez, 2004).

Palaeomagnetic analyses have allowed to detect a change of polarity in the top of TD7 Unit. Parés and Pérez González identify this change as the passage from the Matuyama epoch to the Brunhes epoch (Parés and Pérez-González 1995, Parés and Pérez-González 1999). In consequence, the units placed below TD7 have more than 0,78 Ma. In the level TD1 normal polarity has been localized, that can correspond to the Jaramillo event (between 0,99 and 1,07 Ma.). However, taking into account the existence of a hiatus between TD2 and TD3-4, that normal polarity also can correspond to the Coob Mountain event (1,201-1,211 million years ago) (Pérez-González et al. 2001).

Unit TD6 of Gran Dolina The deposit of TD6 is approximately 2 m thick and consists of a series of mudflows with angular clasts. These mudflows are composed of very clayey sands, together with abundant limestone clasts, speleothem fragments, and soft carbonate clasts. In the TD6-2 stratum human remains, fauna and lithic industry appeared in July 1994 (Carbonell et al. 1995, Carbonell et al. 1999a). The TD6-2 stratum is located in the upper set of the TD6 mudflows, and is buried under a layer of reddish-yellow silty sand with a brown (5YR 5/8) matrix (Canals et al. 2003).

Also datings made on ungulate teeth of the unit TD6 have been accomplished, utilizing U series and ESR. The combination of both methods offers an average age of 731±62 Ka (Falguères et al. 1999). Also Berger has published TL dates, which are consistent with biostratigraphic and paleomagnetic data and would indicate an age of 960±120 ka for the bottom of level TD7 (Berger et al. 2008).

Unit TD6 has been excavated in a discontinuous 20m2 surface: a test pit that affects a surface of 7 m2, and two adjacent projecting portions of the section. The global record of level TD6 is composed of 6,200 macromammal remains (Figure 3), 830 stone tools, and 153 human remains. Most of this record is concentrated in TD6-2 (Ollé et al. 2010). Also a great number of fossils of small vertebrates have been located in Unit TD6-2 (Figure 4) (Cuenca-Bescós et al. 2010, Rodríguez et al. 2011). This microfauna is typical of the end of the lower Pleistocene. It is necessary to add to the inventory of the fauna near 100 remains of avifauna, with 26 identified taxa (SánchezMarco 1999).

Units TD4 and TD5 of Gran Dolina Faunal remains and lithic artefacts were discovered in 1990 in the TD4 Unit of Gran Dolina site (Carbonell and Rodríguez, 1994). The five artefacts found in TD4 were knapped on quartzite pebbles, recovered less than 5 kilometers from the site. Between these objects a unifacial core with few removals stands out. The knapping method consisted in striking one of the natural planes of a thick quartzite pebble repeatedly (unipolar longitudinal knapping). Another unifacial core appeared close to this object, with only 3 extractions. Also a quartzite pebble with two fractures, and two flakes were located (Carbonell and Rodríguez 1994, Rodríguez 2004). Numerous faunal remains appeared next to this lithic industry, recovered in a surface of 7m2 (Figure 3) (Made 1999; Rodríguez 1997; Rosell 1998; Rosell et al. 1998).

The faunal and hominin assemblage of TD6-2 is characterised by a high taxonomical diversity, with ungulates, a proboscidea, and abundant Homo antecessor remains. There is a variety of ages and sizes in the fauna of TD6-2, although with preeminence of juvenile individuals. The number of Carnivores, either in terms of number of remains or of individuals, is small (García and Arsuaga, 1999). The taphonomic study indicates that faunal remains were not transported by natural agents from another place. There is no proof of preferential orientation of the remains. Neither there is a bias in the faunal assemblage pointing to some type of selection through geological processes. Neither we have identified differential preservation due to physical-chemical factors. In conclusion, there is a considerable homogeneity in the collection, with minimal postdepositional alterations, with the exception of diagenetic fractures. The skeletal sample suggests that the animals of small size, included Homo, were transported complete to the cave, indicating a primary access to the carcasses. In general all remains (included humans) show a high number of cut marks and anthropic fractures, which indicates an intense action on the carcasses that can be related to an intense exploitation of the nutrients. From

According to Rosell et al. (1998) the existence of large fissures at the top would turn the cave into a natural trap for the herbivores: The animals would fall in the interior and die. The discovery of carcasses and entire bones (10 % of the sample) as well as of some anatomical connections and semi-connections would support this hypothesis. The carnivores, mostly canids, would visit the cave through secondary conduits to feed on the corpses. The humans also would have arrived at the cave intervening on carcasses of fallen animals, as shown by the lithic industry and some bones with anthropic fractures. Then these remains would have been transported by a hydric current of scarce force, which would not be sufficiently important to produce

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

from Sangiran (Bermúdez de Castro et al. 2008). Facial morphology with fossa canine is similar to modern human populations, but primitive traits are retained in the frontal bone (Arsuaga et al. 1999). Other features present in Gran Dolina fossils, such as a high temporalis squama and the presence of a styloid process, are shared with Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Thus, TD6 hominins seem to represent a European lineage different from other known African and Asian lineages.

the zooarchaeological point of view, this stratum has been interpreted as a place of consumption (Díez et al. 1999). Butchering cutmarks are present on 10% of the bone remains, including specimens of H. antecessor. These cutmarks have been located in all anatomical segments, including the axial skeleton, and have been interpreted as the result of the whole butchering process: skinning, evisceration, disarticulation, defleshing and periosteum removal. Anthropic bone breakage is also very common in the assemblage, as it has been deduced from abundant impact points, conchoidal scars, bone flakes and peeling. Carnivore activity is also present in the TD6-2 assemblage, involving less than 5% of the remains. Just in two cases carnivore and anthropic marks coincide in the same bone portion, and in both the anthropic are under the carnivore marks. This means that carnivores acceded the carcasses after the hominins (Ollé et al. 2010).

The artefacts recovered in TD6-2 were knapped on Neogene flint, Cretaceous flint, quartzite, sandstone, quartz and limestone. In TD6-2 reduction processes and systematic configuration of lithic artefacts were accomplished. The different phases of these processes are documented. In this sense, the existence of refittings demonstrates the knapping in the site (Rodríguez, 2004). The production sequence of these Operative Themes is demonstrated for the discovery of cores, flakes, and of small flakes (debris). Also some flakes were retouched in order to configure tools. There is a preponderance of flakes in this lithic assemblage (Carbonell et al. 1999b). Also, it is pertinent to highlight the presence of cores on pebbles or blocks, and on flakes of large size. The presence of pebbles without removals is significant, probably utilized as hammerstones, either for producing lithic tools or to fracture bones. On the contrary, only one instrument configured on pebble was located.

The verification of the existence of cannibalism converts TD6 in an exceptional deposit (Fernández-Jalvo et al. 1996, 1999). Nearly half of the human remains show cut marks produced with lithic implements. Also anthropic fractures have been identified. The strategies of exploitation of fauna and humans are very similar, concentrated particularly on immature individuals. Since this cannibalism appears in at least two of the TD6 layers it seems to correspond to several events, which points to a regular subsistence practice among those populations (Carbonell et al. 2010a).

We have identified five strategies for the production of flakes. Multifacial spherical; multifacial / trifacial orthogonal knapping; bifacial centripetal knapping; unifacial centripetal knapping; and finally we have identified a bifacial strategy with bipolar opposed knapping on one of its faces, and linear or else orthogonal on the other face (Carbonell et al. 1999b, Rodríguez 2004). In general, the configuration of the TD6-2 artefacts evidences denticulate cutting edges and dihedrons (side scrapers). In TD6-2, handaxes and cleavers have not been localized.

Pollen studies of the Atapuerca sites by García Antón (García Antón, 1989) suggest that the upper part of TD6, including the TD6-2 stratum, corresponds to a Mediterranean forest composed of Quercus (oak, holm, galloak) and Cupresaceae (cypress), as well as Olea, Celtis, and Pistacea. The structure and composition of the mammals and avian paleocommunities of the upper part of TD6 is consistent with a Mediterranean climate similar to the present (Rodríguez, 1997). In general, in TD6 we can observe the passage from cold and dry conditions (at the bottom of this Unit) to a warmer and humid climate (at the top) (García Antón, 1998).

The first results of the microwear analysis of lithic instruments (with SEM) suggest the utilization of flakes and retouched flakes of various raw materials (flint, quartzite, limestone) (Carbonell et al. 1999b, Sala 1997).

The TD6 human fossil record comprises 153 hominin fossil remains, representing 10 individuals: 5 infantile, 3 adolescent and 2 young adults (Ollé et al. 2010). Paleoanthropological analysis show that human remains belong to a new species. Using ATD6-5 mandible and their associated dentition as a holotype, these remains were classified as Homo antecessor (Bermúdez de Castro et al. 1997). A neurocranium stands out among the remains that allow us to estimate a cranial capacity of more than 1000 cm3. These TD6 human remains exhibit a unique combination of a modern face with a primitive dentition. Homo antecessor shows a primitive morphological pattern in teeth comparable to that of the African early Homo specimens between 1.8 and 1.4 Ma (including Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis), the mandibles D211 and D2735 from Dmanisi, and most of the early Pleistocene mandibles

The absence of well configured and intensely elaborated large instruments (especially handaxes, cleavers and picks), the characteristics of the retouch, and the knapping methods (predominantly orthogonal), denote a technology more related with Mode 1 than with Mode 2. TD6-2 was probably a ‘‘referential site’’; that is, a space that was frequently used for several activities, some of which were carried out from the beginning to the end within the cave (Bermúdez de Castro et al. 1999). The sites of Guadix-Baza Basin The Guadix-Baza Basin (Granada, Spain) is a zone with rich palaeontological deposits and a sequence that includes from the Miocene to the Upper Pleistocene. The majority of

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Xosé Pedro Rodríguez: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula

these deposits are located in the Baza Formation, dominated mostly by lacustrine sediments.

Taxonomy

FN3

BL5

Ursus sp. Canis mosbachensis Vulpes sp. (cf. V. praeglaciaris) Pachycrocuta brevirostris Homoterium sp. Meles sp. Mammuthus meridionalis Stephanorhinus cf. hundsheimensis Equus altidens Equus sp. Hippopotamus antiquus Bison sp. Machairodontinae indet. Hemitragus cf. albus Ammotragus europaeus Megaceroides cf. obscurus Pseudodama sp. Hystrix sp. Testudo sp.

In 1983 the first lithic artefacts were discovered in Barranco León 5 (BL5), and at the beginning of the 90s artefacts also appeared in Fuente Nueva 3 (FN3) (Gibert et al. 1998b). The archaeological works at this area have been conditioned because of the dispute on the hominin character of some fossils found in Venta Micena palaeontological site (Gibert et al. 1998a, Moyà-Solà and Köhler 1997, Palmqvist 1997, Palmqvist et al. 2005). However, there is coincidence in the chronology of Barranco León 5 and Fuente Nueva 3 lithic artefacts, around 1.3 - 1.1 million years ago (Agustí et al. 2010, Agustí and Madurell 2003, Oms et al. 2000b). The stratigraphic sequence of Barranco León 5 would be below Fuente Nueva 3 (Oms et al. 2000a, Oms et al. 2000b). Concretely Agustí and Madurell infer a chronology of 1.26 million years for Barranco León (Agustí and Madurell, 2003: 144). The study of the herpetofauna shows colder and more humid climatic conditions than the present-day at the region, with immediate proximity of a great extension of water. Banks are sandy and the environment is composed by humid grasslands and rocky- and- scrub zones well exposed to the sun. The colder climatic conditions suggest that the formation of the deposit took place during a glacial period that in terms of the current dating can be the Günz glaciation (1.2 million years) (Blain, 2003: 170).

Figure 5: Macromammal taxa identified in Fuente Nueva 3 (FN3), and Barranco León 5 (BL5).

in the fauna, and the nearly absence of carnivores would exclude the activity of predators in this accumulation. Small flint pebbles are used as raw material, although also limestone was knapped. Just like in Barranco León 5, the small flakes dominate the assemblage, and the retouched flakes are unusual (Toro Moyano et al. 2011 ip, 2009). There is a remarkable presence of pebbles with use-marks (manuports), and with some isolated removals (Barsky et al. 2010). The most frequent reduction strategy consists in short series of extractions, with relatively frequent changes of the striking platform. Also the centripetal knapping method appears, as well as a method that produces elongated flakes. This kind of exploitation would be accomplished utilizing the bipolar technique that produces flakes with two bulbs and frequent longitudinal fractures (Toro Moyano et al. 2011 ip). Neither in Barranco León 5 nor in Fuente Nueva 3 handaxes and cleavers have been recovered, and in both sites pebble tools are scarce. The lithic industry of these sites has been adscribed to Mode 1 technology (Barsky et al. 2010, Toro-Moyano et al. 2009, 2011 ip).

The presence of a lake environment is the most influential factor in the type of insectivorous fossils of these sites. These data indicate that both sites were in a humid zone and with abundant precipitations in the course of the year (Furió, 2003: 155). According to the polinic data, during the Plio-Pleistocene, this region was characterized by similar vegetation to the present-day, but with more taxa with higher hydric requests (Jiménez, 2003: 179). According to Toro et al. (2011 ip) the Barranco León 5 lithic assemblage includes until 2004 1292 pieces, of which 69% are made on flint and 31% on limestone. In Fuente Nueva 3, 932 pieces have been reported, 37 % made on flint and 63% on limestone. Raw material procurement was local. The lithic assemblage of Barranco León 5 is dominated by flakes, but there are few retouched flakes, and very few cores. Some cores on flake give Kombewa products. The cores do not show a special preparation. Usually the natural surface of the core, or also the negative of a previous extraction are used as striking platform. The knapping strategies identified in BL5 are orthogonal, unipolar linear, and centripetal. There are scrapers, denticulates and notches among the retouched flakes. Abundant faunal remains were recovered in the same level, clearly indicating a Lower Pleistocene chronology (Martínez-Navarro et al. 2003) (Figure 5).

Other Lower Pleistocene evidences in the Iberian Peninsula Apart from the sites of Atapuerca and Guadix-Baza there are other locations that could provide data on the initial settlement of the Iberian Peninsula. A phalanx initially identified as human was discovered in Cueva Victoria (Murcia), coming from a breccia dated around 1 million years BP (Palmqvist et al. 1996). Nevertheless, a comparative analysis has determinined it to be a phalanx of Theropithecus oswaldi. A molar of this species has also been identified at this site (Martínez-Navarro et al. 2005).

In Fuente Nueva 3, as in BL5, the fauna is numerous and clearly of Lower Pleistocene age. The lack of marks of teeth

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

In addition, there are some findings of lithic artefacts in fluvial terraces that can date from the end of the Lower Pleistocene or the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. The chronological adscription of these deposits has been achieved in terms of the morphostratigraphic characteristics of the terraces. Unfortunately, the difficulty to get absolute dates, the lack of faunal remains, and the scarce number of lithic artefacts limits the available information.

600,000 years ago (Figure 6). However, from 500,000 years ago we have a greater number of sites with reliable datings. In Pakefield (Suffolk, England) recently exposed coastal sections of the Cromer Forest-bed Formation and associated deposits have provided 32 fint artifacts from an interglacial sequence yielding a diverse range of plant and animal fossils (Parfitt et al. 2005). The majority of artifacts are flakes, and no pebble tools have been found. Lithostratigraphy, palaeomagnetism, amino acid geochronology and biostratigraphy indicate that this assemblage dates to the early part of the Brunhes Chron (about 0,7 Ma ago). During the early Middle Pleistocene Britain was connected to the continental landmass between the area of the present day southern North Sea and below the Strait of Dover, with the opening of the Strait not occurring until the later Middle Pleistocene (Hosfield, 2011).

From 2005 to 2007 the open air site of Vallparadís (Terrassa, Barcelona) was excavated. The site is located in a sequence of intermittent fluvial and alluvial sediments on the banks of Vallparadís River (Martínez et al., 2010). Paleomagnetic analysis, electron spin resonance-uranium series (ESR-US), and the biostratigraphic chronological position of the macroand micromammal assemblages points to an age between 0,83 and 0,98 Ma. Layer 10 provided a large amount of archaeological material (faunal remains and lithic tools). The inventory of species of fauna includes Pseudodama vallonetensis, Sus cf. Scrofa, Equus altidens, Premegaceros verticornis, Bison sp., Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis, Hippopotamus antiquus, Elephas ataques, Lynx sp., Canis mosbachensis, Ursus deningeri, Panthera gombasgoezensis and Pachycrocuta brevirostris. Some faunal remains have cut marks that attest human intervention. Most of the lithic artifacts were knapped on quartz. Quartz and other raw materials used in Vallparadís (lydite, metamorphic rock, and flint) are of local origin. Most of objects are of small size, but there are also some large objects knapped on pebbles. The reduction sequences are short, and the use of bipolar technique is well documented. Among retouched objects stand out denticulates, notches and becs. According to Martínez et al. (2010) three refittings carried out in the field demonstrate that at least part of the lithic assemblage was accumulated as a result of in situ reduction processes.

In Isernia La Pineta (Molise, Italy) four occupation floors have been identified, with abundant lithic industry and fauna (domaining large-sized herbivores) (Peretto 1994, 1996). The geological, palaeontological and palinological studies indicate an environment characterized by grassrich open spaces, with rare trees and a nearby watercourse. The lithic industry is represented by pieces on flint and limestone. The flint tools have a very small size (20 to 30mm in length). The most characteristic configured tools have a sinuous denticulate edge. The systematic study of the stone industry of Isernia has led to the identification of refittings. For the exploitation of some cores the bipolar technique was used. The limestone lithic industry is of larger size. Among the limestone objects there are flakes, denticulate ‘choppers’ and little modified pebbles (Peretto 1994). Paleomagnetic analyses were conducted at this site, but results are inconclusive. Sanidine Ar–Ar dates of 0.610 ± 0.01 Ma and 0.606 ± 0.072 Ma have been obtained from a tuff level located immediately above the tool-bearing layers (Muttoni et al. 2010). These dates match another from the level dated by K–Ar to 0.73 ± 0.04 Ma (Coltorti et al. 2005).

In the ‘Barranc de la Boella’ (La Canonja, Tarragona) archaeological excavations are being carried out. These open air interventions have provided numerous faunal remains and stone tools which could correspond to the end of the Lower Pleistocene. These materials are still under study.

The lithic industry recovered in Soleilhac (France) consists of 446 objects, knapped mostly on quartz and basalt, although also flint and granite were used. According to Bracco (1991) the lithic industry can be divided in two groups: large-sized objects, principally made on pebble or small blocks of basalt and granite; and, on the other hand, the objects of small size, made on flakes of flint or quartz, with a well executed retouch (side scrapers, notches, denticulates). Bonifay (1991) thinks that there is evidence of an intentional space organization. Faunal remains could fit well among the Cromerian faunas, like those from Isernia la Pineta, suggesting an Early Middle Pleistocene age.

In the rock shelter of Estrecho del Quípar (Caravaca de la Cruz, Murcia) faunal remains and stone tools were discovered, and dated around 900,000 years ago (Scott and Gibert 2009). An Acheulean handaxe, made of limestone, stands out among the tools recovered. In this lithic complex small flakes are the most common artifact, mostly made from chert. Retouched flakes have also been documented (denticulates, side-scrapers, thick scrapers, and “protolimaces”). There is centripetal knapping, and some flakes come from prepared striking platforms (Scott and Gibert 2009).

Except for the data of Estrecho de Quípar (Murcia, Spain), only about 700,000 years ago evidences of Acheulean technology with hand axes (Mode 2) appear in Europe. At “La Noira” the alluvial formation of Brinay (+13/+21) (Middle Cher River Valley, France) has yielded Acheulean

Early Middle Pleistocene sites There are few European sites dating between 800,000 and

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Xosé Pedro Rodríguez: The First Settlement of the Iberian Peninsula

Site (location) Solana del Zamborino (Esp) Pakefield (Eng) Isernia la Pineta (It) Soleilhac (Fr) La Noira UIII (Fr) Notarchirico F (It) Mauer (Ger) Arago P (Fr) Sima de los Huesos (Esp)

Dating

Lithic industry

ca. 0,76 ca. 0,70 0,73-0,61 ca.0,70-0,60 0,68-0,63 0,64 ca. 0,60 0,57 0,53

Mode 2 (incipient) Mode 1 (evolved) Mode 1 (evolved) Mode 1 (evolved) Mode 2 (incipient) Mode 2 (incipient) ¿ Mode 2 (incipient) Mode 2 (incipient)

Hominin fossils

Homo heidelbergensis Homo heidelbergensis

Figure 6: European early Middle Pleistocene sites

artefacts. Unit III is a very coarse sandy and clayey deposit including numerous endogeneous pebbles and millstone slabs. This unit is dated to 680 ± 30 Ka at the bottom and 630 ± 23 Ka in the middle of the sequence (Voinchet et al. 2010). The lithic assemblage of Unit III (n=263) is composed by flakes, cores and large bifacial tools made on millstone slabs. Some handaxes and cores were determined as unfinished pieces, suggesting that the deposit was a knapping and a shaping place, although no flakes resulting from the shaping of handaxes have been recovered (Despriée et al. 2010).

(Piperno 1999). There is a dating of 640 ± 70 Ka for the unit 2.1 (archaeological level “F”, with Acheulean industry) (Lefèvre et al. 2010). In the Sima de los Huesos site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain) an Acheulean handaxe was found with human fossils belonging to Homo heidelbergensis (Carbonell and Mosquera 2006). This site has provided >80% of the Middle Pleistocene world-wide record for the genus Homo and is the most representative sample of this period (García and Arsuaga 2011). A speleothem that overlies the human fossil-bearing level is dated by U-series and provides a minimum age of 530 Ka (Bischoff et al. 2007).

Even older Acheulean artefacts have been claimed from Solana del Zamborino, located in the Guadix Basin (Granada, Spain). At this open air site handaxes have been dated at ca. 760 Ka, by palaeomagnetic analysis (Scott and Gibert 2009). The lithic assemblage includes handaxes, cleavers, trihedrals, and manuports. The original sources for blanks were local (within 10 km): pebbles and cobbles of quartzite, quartz, chert, mica schist, and silicified limestone (Scott and Gibert, 2009).

In Germany the site of Mauer provided in 1907 a human jaw classified as Homo heidelbergensis. Recently, some flint objects have been located in the same stratigraphic context. The chronology of these findings is about 0,6 Ma (Haidle and Pawlik 2010, Wagner et al. 2011). The first settlers of the Northern Iberian Peninsula

In the “P” levels of Arago Cave (Tautavel, France) more than 7000 pieces have been documented. Among these 32 handaxes have been identified (Barsky and de Lumley 2010). According to Barsky and de Lumley the ‘‘P’’ levels (Stratigraphical Unit I) represent a series of at least four successive occupation floors, where thin layers of artefacts were accumulated during what appear to have been relatively short-term stays by small groups of hunters (Barsky and de Lumley 2010). An age of around 0.57 Ma has been proposed for these levels through climatic correlation with radiometric dates of the basal stalagmitic floor (Barsky and de Lumley 2010).

Well-dated sites adscribed to the early Pleistocene have not been located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. The investigation of the older stages of human settlement has been scarce in this area. However, in recent years, an intensification of archaeological work in Lower Paleolithic sites is taking place. Thus, there is currently more information on the early phases of human occupation in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Galicia and North Portugal In the North-western of the Iberian Peninsula there are open-air sites at the terraces of the Miño river and in the littoral. Nevertheless, records are not always homogeneous and rarely come from stratigraphic context.

Another site with Mode 2 lithic industry in Europe is Notarchirico (Venosa, Italy), discovered in 1979. In this deposit there are alternation of levels with handaxes (levels B, C, D and F), and without handaxes (levels “alpha”, E and E1) (Belli et al. 1991; Lefèvre et al. 1994; Piperno 1999). In the Acheulean levels of Notarchirico limestone, flint and, to a lesser extent, quartzite are used as raw materials (Belli et al. 1991). Piperno has argued that the presence or absence of handaxes is related to the functionality of the occupation

Research carried out since the 1990’s in the south of Galicia allowed to identify the depositional processes at the final stretch of the river Miño, and identified 8 levels of terraces (Cano Pan et al. 1999, Giles et al. 2000). In some of the higher terraces lithic industry was located, according to

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Giles et al. (2000), might be traced back to the boundary between the Lower and the Middle Pleistocene.

the Miño. From a morphostratigraphic point of view the site may be linked to the +24 m terrace, which in turn is affected by subsidence processes, in addition to being partially dismantled and covered by recent sediments. The presence of lithic industry is constant throughout the stratigraphic sequence but we can only speak with certainty of a single episode of Acheulean occupation, associated with fluvial facies of the +24 m terrace (Méndez-Quintas 2007, 2008b). The lithic industry was worked on quartz, of local origin, and quartzite, introduced from the deposits of Miño river, about 5 km away. The lithic assemblage consists of a large number of knapping products, a result of implementing essentially centripetal operative methods. Among the configured tools retouched flakes (mainly scrapers and denticulates), handaxes, and cleavers stand out.

The lithic industry located in the upper terrace (T8, +80 meters) in Peteira (Tuy) is scarce and comes from the bottom of the stratigraphic section. It is also mentioned the finding of a pebble tool in stratigraphic context at the T7 (+65 / 72 m) in Tomiño-Campo de Fútbol (Pontevedra). In Chan de Vide (Setado, Pontevedra), artifacts with stratigraphic context in the T7 and T5 terraces were localized (+42 / 55 m) in the sites of Minas do Condado 5 (T7) and Minas do Condado 3 (T5). There is also lithic industry in the T6 at the bottom of the stratigraphic section, but not in stratigraphic context. The lithic industry of Minas do Condado 5, which may belong to the end of the Lower Pleistocene, consists of cores, pebble tools (unifacial and bifacial) and quartzite flakes. There are also surface finds in Montes de Oleiros (Salvaterra do Miño and As Neves) at the bottom of the T5 stratigraphic section, with cores, pebble tools and quartzite flakes. In general, these lithic industries consist of instruments configured on large pebbles and they have been assigned to Mode 1 (Giles et al. 2000).

In the area of the city of Ourense Lower Palaeolithic findings have been documented. The site of San Cibrao das Viñas is one of the most interesting in this area. This site has provided Acheulean materials, related to a level of fluvial origin (Villar Quinteiro 1998). In Arnoia river valley (near Allariz) there are several open-air sites that may correspond to the Lower Palaeolithic. Lithic materials are characterized by the use of local raw materials (quartz and to a lesser extent, quartzite) (López Cordeiro 2001).

Unfortunately, as in other parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the stratigraphic position of some artifacts is unclear. On the other hand, some researchers have questioned the anthropic origin of some lithic implements (Méndez-Quintas 2008a).

There are findings of Lower Paleolithic lithic industry not directly related to the terraces of the Miño river in other areas. In the south of Pontevedra province the site of Chan do Cereixo is one of the most prominent (Villar Quinteiro 2009). Near the city of Ourense the most interesting sites are San Cibrán de Las (Villar Quinteiro, 1999) and A Piteira (Lombera Hermida 2005, Villar Quinteiro 1997).

The evidences of human occupation are more numerous during the Middle Pleistocene. Tools related to these occupations are found in the lower strech of the Miño, especially in the +19-28 m terrace (Méndez-Quintas 2008a). On this terrace lithic industry with Acheulean features has been located: Portomaior (As Neves) is one of the most outstanding sites (Méndez-Quintas et al. 2006). Here a succession of alluvial muds, were deposited in erosional unconformity on a terrace of the Miño river, at +24-25 m. Techno-typological characteristics of lithic materials are typical of the Acheulean. The lithic industry was made from quartzite cobbles of local origin. Particularly remarkable is an impressive set of bifacial tools, especially the group of handaxes, some of large size. Quartzite Acheulean tools in stratigraphic context have been found at the site of “O Cabrón” (Arbo, Pontevedra). This open air site is located a few kilometers from Portomaior in the valley of the river Miño.

The archaeological survey of the Monforte de Lemos Basin (Lugo) has uncovered more than 80 open-air sites (Lombera Hermida et al. 2008, Rodríguez et al. 2008). Most of these findings correspond to the Acheulean. Unfortunately sites with lithic material in stratigraphic context are scarce, making it difficult to obtain absolute dates. Only technotypological characteristics of the tools and their location with respect to the Cabe river can guide us to propose a relative chronology. In this sense, one of the oldest deposits could be Chao Fabeiro, where 26 quartzite artifacts with Acheulean features were located. However, the most important Acheulean site in the area of Monforte de Lemos is As Lamas, where 240 artifacts in quartzite (96.7%) and quartz were recovered. Handaxes (some on flake), trihedral picks, and pebble tools (unifacial and bifacial) were found in As Lamas and in other similar locations of this area. Retouched flakes of small size also were discovered. From the typological point of view scrapers and denticulates are the most common tools. The predominant production strategies are of orthogonal and centripetal type, with a sporadic presence of discoidal cores.

In the +10-19 m terrace of the Miño river also appear Acheulean assemblages, with bifacial tools and standardized operative systems, more complex than those found in the higher terraces. Also in the Miño River Basin is located the site of Gándaras de Budiño. Excavated on several occasions (Aguirre 1964, Cerqueiro Landín 1996, Vidal Encinas 1982), a consensus was never reached about the interpretation of the stratigraphic sequence and the characteristics of human occupations (Méndez-Quintas et al. 2008). This site is located in the lower course of the Louro River, a tributary of

In the north of Portugal, Pleistocene marine deposits have been located in the coastal section between Caminha and Esposende. Many of these include Acheulean lithic

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The first settlement of Europe: When and How?

industries (Meireles, 1992), as for example Marinho. The Acheulean assemblages of the Miño littoral in Northern Portugal are made almost exclusively on quartzite pebbles. Flake tools are uncommon and not diversified, whereas handaxes/bifacial tools are generally very simple, and of minor importance compared to pebble tools (Cunha-Ribeiro et al., 1995).

According to the evidences that we have mentioned throughout this work, there is no doubt that the European continent was occupied by humans during the final phase of the Lower Pleistocene, at least 1.3 million years ago. The initial settlement is well documented in southern Europe, especially in the Iberian Peninsula. In fact, the majority of the sites assigned to the Lower Pleistocene are situated at below 46 ° N latitude (Carbonell and Rodríguez, 2006). The oldest sites in northern Europe are Happisburgh and Pakefield (England). These human occupations may have occurred during an interglacial period, which would have facilitated the survival of humans in this region. In northern Europe, some factors may have limited human presence before the 500 Ka boundary. For example, the existence of fewer hours of sunlight in winter can difficult the activities of humans, especially without the use of fire. The occupation of the northern latitudes would require a major adaptive change, since these humans find winter conditions to which these groups coming from southern latitudes were unaccustomed.

The Cantabrian coastline There are several open air sites at the Cantabrian coastline that probably date from the late Middle Pleistocene, among them Bañugues and Cabo Busto (Asturias) stand out. Both have provided Acheulean lithic material in stratigraphic context, although there are no absolute datings. In Bañugues Acheulean tools, including handaxes, were made on quartzite cobbles (Rodríguez-Asensio, 1978). In Cabo Busto the main raw material is local in the form of quartzite slabs, detached from the substrate. At this site artifacts of Paleozoic quartzite and sandstone were also knapped (Rodríguez-Asensio 1999, Rodríguez-Asensio 2001). Near Altamira cave (Santillana del Mar, Cantabria) lithic material in surface, classified as final Acheulean, was discovered (Montes and Morlote, 1994). In the lower levels of El Castillo (Puente Viesgo, Cantabria), lithic industry catalogued as Acheulean (Mode 2) has been found. The age of the level 23 is 89 +11/ - 10 Ka (Blackwell et al. 1992). Further up lie the levels 21 and 22, with lithic industry classified as Mousterian (Mode 3), and below the levels 24 and 26, with industry, not very numerous, adscribed to the Acheulean (Cabrera Valdés, 1984). Unfortunately, the lower levels were excavated at the beginning of XX century, and the available information that is scarce.

The oldest sites out of Africa have been located in Asia. The most ancient site out of Africa is Dmanisi (Georgia), with human fossils, lithic industry of Mode 1, and faunal remains (Gabunia et al. 2001; Gabunia and Vekua 1995; Garcia et al. 2010). The age of Dmanisi is of ca. 1.8 million years (Garcia et al. 2010). In the Near East the oldest site could be Erq-el-Ahmar with 1,7-1,9 Ma (Olduvai event), and Mode 1 lithic industry. The site of ‘ Ubeidiya has Mode 2 artefacts dated ca. 1,4-1,3 Ma. (Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 2001). According to these data it seems reasonable to argue that the access to Europe took place from western Asia, probably through Anatolia (Kuhn, 2010). However, a very notable chronological gap exists between the age of Dmanisi and the most ancient sites of Europe. Also there is a lack of archaeological data about the Lower Pleistocene in the Southeast of Europe and adjacent zones, like Anatolia. The most convincing site in this region is Dursunlu (Turkey), dated between 0,9 and 1,1 Ma (based on paleomagnetic and paleontological evidence), with Mode 1 lithic industry (Güleç et al. 2009; Kuhn 2010).

At the Basque Country some open air sites, have been adscribed to the Lower Paleolithic. Part of the record of Lezetxiki cave (Mondragón, Guipúzcoa) could date to the Middle Pleistocene. The lower levels of this site have provided different dates, reach 300 ka for the level VII, between the 230 and 200 ka for the level VI, and between 186 and 70 Ka for the level V (Altuna 1990, Baldeón 1993). Lezetxiki lithic industry has been classified as Middle Paleolithic, casting doubts on the reliability of the ages (older than expected). Nevertheless, taking into account the oldest Middle Paleolithic assemblages of Europe, the dates of Lezetxiki could fit its lithic industry, which has been compared with Orgnac 3 (France). According to Altuna (Altuna, 1990) the Mousterian levels of Lezetxiki would not be residencial, but places used for hunting and butchery.

The alternative explanation consists in a settlement of Europe directly from Africa, and not exclusively through the Near East and Eastern Europe. The most ancient archaeological evidence in northern Africa is Ain Hanech 1, dated to 1.8 million years ago, and with Mode 1 lithic industry (Sahnouni 1998; Sahnouni, 2006; Sahnouni et al. 2010). In Morocco the criticism to the ancient assemblages with pebble tools, adscribed to the Lower Pleistocene, has led some researchers to propose that the most ancient industries are of Mode 2 (Thomas Quarry and Oulad Hamida Quarry), and not exceed the end of the Lower Pleistocene or the initial Middle Pleistocene (Raynal et al. 2001). However, taking into account the evidences from Ain Hanech, it seems premature to discard all the sites

At the site of Irikaitz (Zestoa, Basque Country) Lower Palaeolithic lithic industry has been located. This is an openair site, with stratigraphic context, although taphonomic problems affect the oldest levels. At these there are lithic materials in primary position, since refits have been found. Raw materials used are primarily sandstone (about 70%), volcanic rocks, lutite, quartzite and quartz (Arrizabalaga and Iriarte, 2008).

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adscribed to Mode 1 (Pre-Acheulean) in Morocco. Thus, it is pertinent to propose the possibility of an access to the Iberian Peninsula through the strait of Gibraltar, or to Italy through Sicily. However, in Sicily, there is no evidence of human occupation during the Lower Pleistocene. The possibility of an early access to Europe through the Strait of Gibraltar has been widely discussed (Straus, 2001). To support this hypothesis we have the dating of the deposits of the Iberian Peninsula and the Lower Pleistocene occupation in northern Africa. However, although the distance between Africa and Europe is not very large across the Strait of Gibraltar, we must consider some limiting factors. The shorter distance between the two coastlines separated by the strait of Gibraltar is of 14 kilometers with the presentday sea level. If the decrease in sea level was 120 meters, the sea spam would be reduced to 10km and some islands would surface thus facilitating the passage. However, we must not take into account the width of the strait solely, but sea conditions, such as marine currents. From our point of view, it is difficult to accept that the first settlement of Europe during the Lower Pleistocene occurred primarily across the Gibraltar Strait. Nevertheless, it is probable that during the Middle Pleistocene this route to Europe had more importance (Alimen 1975, Santonja and Pérez-González 2010).

break between the end of the Lower Pleistocene and the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. However, recent findings of Mode 2 tools dating to around 0,9-0,7 Ma ago in the Iberian Peninsula (Estrecho de Quípar, Solana del Zamborino and Boella) may change this scenario. Still it is necessary to confirm these dating and consequently to confirm the presence of Mode 2 technology in Europe in the final phase of Lower Pleistocene. References Aguirre, E., 1964. Las Gándaras de Budiño, Porriño (Pontevedra). Ministerio de Educación Nacional, Madrid. Aguirre, E. and Carbonell, E., 2001. Early human expansions into Eurasia: The Atapuerca evidence Quaternary International 75, 11-18. Agustí, J., Blain, H.-A., Furió, M., De Marfá, R. and SantosCubedo, A., 2010. The early Pleistocene small vertebrate succession from the Orce region (Guadix-Baza Basin, SE Spain) and its bearing on the first human occupation of Europe. Quaternary International 223-224, 162-169. Agustí, J. and Madurell, J., 2003. Los arvicólidos (Muroidea, Rodentia, Mammalia) del Pleistoceno inferior de Barraco León y Fuente Nueva 3 (Orce, Granada). Datos preliminares. In: I. Toro, J. Agustí and B. Martínez-Navarro (Eds.), El Pleistoceno inferior de Barranco León y Fuente Nueva 3, Orce (Granada). Memoria científica campañas 1999-2002, pp. 137-145. Junta de Andalucía, Sevilla. Alimen, H., 1975. Les «isthmes» hispano-marocain et siculo-tunisien aux temps acheuleens. L’Anthropologie 79 (3), 399-436. Altuna, J., 1990. La caza de herbívoros durante el Paleolítico y Mesolítico del País Vasco. Munibe 42, 229-240. Anton, S.C. and Swisher III, C.C., 2004. Early Dispersals of Homo from Africa. Annual Review of Anthropology 33, 271-296. Arribas, A. and Palmqvist, P., 1999. On the Ecological Connection Between Sabre-tooths and Hominids: Faunal Dispersal Events in the Lower Pleistocene and a Review of the Evidence for the First Human Arrival in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 571-585. Arrizabalaga, Á. and Iriarte, M.J., 2008. Irikaitz (Zestoa, País Vasco). Tafonomía dun depósito pleistocénico ao aire libre. In: E. Méndez (Ed.) Estudos sobre o Paleolítico. Homenaxe a Xosé María Álvarez Bázquez, 2, pp. 139-162. Instituto de Estudos Miñoranos, Vigo. Arsuaga, J.L., Martinez, I., Lorenzo, C., Gracia, A., Munoz, A., Alonso, O. and Gallego, J., 1999. The human cranial remains from Gran Dolina Lower Pleistocene site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). Journal of Human Evolution 37 (3-4), 431-457. Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L. and Sardella, R., 2007. Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of Pirro Nord (Southern Italy). Naturwissenschaften V94 (2), 107-112.

Rupture or continuity between the end of the Lower Pleistocene and the early Middle Pleistocene? One of the most interesting questions that arise when we study the early stages of the peopling of Europe refers to the continuity of human occupation in the continent. What happened between 800,000 and 600,000 years ago in Europe?. Basically there are two answers to this question: 1) The first inhabitants of the continent, with a Mode 1 technology, and belonging to the species Homo antecessor, were replaced by new humans (Homo heidelbergensis), with a new technology (Mode 2); 2) The first settlers continued to inhabit the continent, and evolved at the biological level to a new species, and from the technological point of view also evolved into a new technical mode. Between these two opposite scenarios other possibilities can fit. The species Homo antecessor could continue living in Europe until his disappearance, retaining its Mode 1 technology or with a technological evolution towards a new technical mode. In parallel other new species could come into Europe with the technology of Mode 2. According to the current paleoanthropological data, the species responsible for the first settlement of Europe was Homo antecessor. This species inhabits Europe during the Lower Pleistocene, but not during the Middle Pleistocene. On the other hand, from about 600,000 years ago there is evidence in Europe of the presence of Homo heidelbergensis. With respect to technology, we know that the first tools located in Europe belong to Mode 1. Until recently, the earliest evidence of Mode 2 in Europe was dated around 600,000 years ago. These data fit well with a scenario of change: both a biological and technological

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Roebroeks, W., 2006. The human colonisation of Europe: where are we?. Journal of Quaternary Science 21 (5), 425-435. Roebroeks, W. and van Kolfschoten, T., 1994. The Earliest Occupation of Europe: A Short Chronology. Antiquity 68, 489-503. Roebroeks, W. and van Kolfschoten, T., 1995. The earliest occupation of Europe. University of Leiden, Leiden. Roebroeks, W. and van Kolfschoten, T., 1998. The earliest occupation of Europe: a view from the North. In: E. Aguirre (Ed.) Atapuerca y la evolución humana, pp. 153-168. Fundación Ramón Areces, Madrid. Rolland, N., 2001. The initial peopling of Eurasia and the early occupation of Europe in its Afro-Asian context: major issues and current perspectives. In: S. Milliken and J. Cook (Eds.), A Very Remote Period Indeed: Papers on the Palaeolithic presented to Derek Roe, pp. 78–94. Oxbow Books, Oxford. Rosas, A., Huguet, R., Pérez-González, A., Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J.M., Vallverdú, J., van der Made, J., Allué, E., García, N., Martínez-Pérez, R., Rodríguez, J., Sala, R., Saladie, P., Benito, A., Martínez-Maza, C., Bastir, M., Sánchez, A. and Parés, J.M., 2006. The “Sima del Elefante” cave site at Atapuerca (Spain). Estudios Geológicos 62 (1), 327-348. Rosell, J., 1998. Les premières occupations humaines à la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Espagne) les niveaux TDW4 et TDW-4B. In Économie Préhistorique: les comportements de subsitance au Paléolithique. XVIIIe Rencontres Internationales d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes, pp. 154-161. Éditions APDCA, Sophia Antipolis. Rosell, J., Cáceres, I. and Huguet, R., 1998. Systèmes d’occupation anthropique pendant le Pléistocene inférieur et moyen à la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Espagne). Quaternaire 9 (4), 355-360. Sahnouni, M., 1998. The Lower Palaeolithic of the Maghreb: Excavations and Analyses at Ain Hanech, Algeria. BAR International Series 689, Oxford. Sahnouni, M., 2006. Les plus vieilles traces d’occupation humaine en Afrique du Nord : Perspective de l’Ain Hanech, Algérie. Comptes Rendus Palevol 5 (1-2), 243254. Sahnouni, M., van der Made, J. and Everett, M., 2010. Early North Africa: Chronology, ecology, and hominin behavior: Insights from Ain Hanech and El-Kherba, northeastern Algeria. Quaternary International 223-224, 436-438. Sala, R., 1997. Formes d’ús i criteris d’efectivitat en conjunts de Mode 1 i Mode 2: Anàlisi de les deformacions per ús dels instruments lítics del Plistocè inferior (TD6) i mitjà (TG11) de la Sierra de Atapuerca. Unpublished PhD thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona. Sánchez-Marco, A., 1999. Implications of the avian fauna for paleoecology in the Early Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula. Journal of Human Evolution 37 (3-4), 375388. Santonja, M. and Pérez-González, A., 2010. MidPleistocene Acheulean industrial complex in the Iberian

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Peninsula. Quaternary International 223-224, 154-161. Scott, G.R. and Gibert, L., 2009. The oldest hand-axes in Europe Nature 461 (7260), 82-85. Straus, L.G., 2001. Africa and Iberia in the Pleistocene. Quaternary International 75, 91-102. Toro-Moyano, I., de Lumley, H., Fajardo, B., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., Celiberti, V., Grégoire, S., MartinezNavarro, B., Espigares, M.P. and Ros-Montoya, S., 2009. L’industrie lithique des gisements du Pléistocène inférieur de Barranco León et Fuente Nueva 3 à Orce, Grenade, Espagne. L’Anthropologie 113 (1), 111-124. Toro Moyano, I., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., Celiberti, V., Grégoire, S., Lebegue, F., Moncel, M.H. and de Lumley, H., 2011. The archaic stone-tool industry from Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3, (Orce, Spain): Evidence of the earliest hominin presence in southern Europe. Quaternary International In Press, Accepted Manuscript. Vergès, J.M., 2003. Caracterització dels models d’instrumental lític del Mode 1 a partir de les dades de l’anàlisi funcional dels conjunts litotècnics d’Aïn Hanech i el-Kherba (Algèria), Monte Poggiolo i Isernia la Pineta (Itàlia). Unpublished PhD thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona. Vidal Encinas, J.M., 1982. Las Gándaras de Budiño: balance preliminar de dos campañas de excavaciones (1980 - 1981). El Museo de Pontevedra XXXVI, 91-113.

Villar Quinteiro, R., 1997. El yacimiento paleolítico de A Piteira (Toén) Ourense. Boletín Auriense XXVI, 9-25. Villar Quinteiro, R., 1998. El yacimiento paleolítico de Pazos en San Ciprián de Viñas (Ourense). Boletín Auriense XXVII, 9-25. Villar Quinteiro, R., 1999. El yacimiento de A Chaira, San Cibrán de Lás (Ourense). Boletín Auriense XXIX, 9-22. Villar Quinteiro, R., 2009. Chan do Cereixo, (Donas, Gondomar): una actualización del Paleolítico Inferior en Galicia. Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza, A Coruña. Voinchet, P., Despriée, J., Tissoux, H., Falguères, C., Bahain, J.J., Gageonnet, R., Dépont, J. and Dolo, J.M., 2010. ESR chronology of alluvial deposits and first human settlements of the Middle Loire Basin (Region Centre, France). Quaternary Geochronology 5 (2-3), 381-384. Wagner, G.A., Maul, L.C., Löscher, M. and Schreiber, H.D., 2011. Mauer - the type site of Homo heidelbergensis: palaeoenvironment and age. Quaternary Science Reviews In Press, Corrected Proof. Yokoyama, Y., Bibron, R. and Falguères, C., 1988. Datation absolue des planchers stalagmitiques de la grotte du Vallonnet à Roquebrune-Cap-Martin (Alpes-maritimes), France, par la Résonance Electronique de Spin (ESR). L’Anthropologie 92, 429–436.

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II. Filling in the Gap New Discoveries in the Eastern Area of NW Iberia

Chapter 7:

A Research Program on the Palaeolithic Settlement of Inland Galicia (NW Spain) Ramón Fábregas Valcarce Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto. de Historia I, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade, 15782. Santiago de Compostela. Email: [email protected] Abstract: The research on the Galician Paleolithic has been badly affected by its lack of continuity and the ‘grapeshot’ character of the archaeological excavations. No doubt the late institutionalization of the archaeological research in Galicia did not help to the development of the Paleolithic studies, in spite of its early start (by the 1870s), but other factors have had an influence too, namely the scarcity of karstic formations that combined with the acidic soils and the prevalence of the erosive processes in most parts of this region lead to the virtual dissapearance of any organic remains. The inland areas of Galicia have been specially neglected and only the northern mountains have undergone a systematic survey in the last 40 years. In the first decade of the present century an ambitious project has undertaken a thorough exploration of the Quaternary terraces in the basin around Monforte, bringing to the light an outstanding number of surface sites (more than 80 at present) ranging from the Acheulean to the late Upper Paleolithic. In parallel with this survey excavations were undertaken in a few caves to the East of the Monforte basin where abundant faunal and lithic remains were recorded, dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic (Cova Eirós, Triacastela) or the Magdalenian and the Mesolithic (Cova de Valdavara, Becerreá), having recovered from both cavities some adornment objects as well. Keywords: Paleolithic research, Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic, Caves, Open-air sites, Archaeological surveys, NW IBeria. Resumen: La investigación del paleolítico en Galicia se ha visto lastrada por la falta de continuidad y el carácter puntual de las excavaciones arqueológicas. Sin duda la tardía institucionalización de la investigación arqueológica en Galicia no ayudó al desarrollo de los estudios paleolíticos, a pesar de sus tempranos comienzos (en la década de 1870). Otros factores han tenido también cierta influencia, principalmente la escasez de formaciones cársticas combinada con la acidez de los suelos y la incidencia de los procesos erosivos en gran parte de esta región, lo que conlleva a la desaparición virtual de los restos orgánicos. El interior de Galicia ha sido especialmente olvidado y sólo en las sierras septentrionales se han desarrollado intervenciones en los últimos cuarenta años. En la primera década del presente siglo se desarrolló un ambicioso proyecto centrado en el estudio de las terrazas cuaternarias de la cuenca de Monforte de Lemos, trayendo a la luz un significativo número de yacimientos en superficie (actualmente más de 80 puntos) datados entre el Achelense y el Paleolítico superior. A su vez, se realizaron las excavaciones arqueológicas en algunas cavidades situadas al este de la Depresión de Monforte que han proporcionado bastante material lítico y faunístico que se data entre el Paleolítico medio y Paleolítico superior (Cova Eirós, Triacastela) o el Magdaleniense y Mesolítico (Cova de Valdavara, Becerreá), obteniéndose de ambas cavidades también objetos de adorno. Palabras Clave: Investigación Paleolítico, Paleolítico medio, Paleolítico superior, cuevas, Yacimientos al aire libre, Prospecciones Arqueológicas, NW Península Ibérica.

Introduction

with the inception of projects dealing systematically with the Paleolithic remains preserved in certain areas, like the Lower Miño basin or, further to the North, the sierras that close the northern reaches of the mentioned basin.

For more than one hundred years now the Middle Miño Basin has been the target of research on the oldest evidences of human occupation. Yet a number of circumstances have historically prevented the achievement of a comprehensive view of the Paleolithic settlement of inland Galicia, such as that already obtained in the nearby Cantabrian rim. The unfavourable preservation conditions, such as the predominantly acidic soils, little extension of karstic formations and the intensity of the erosive processes did add to the shortcomings of a feebly developed academic research and a grapeshot approach to the study of the sites, a pattern that only in the past three decades started to change,

The area in which we have centered our research corresponds to the middle tract of the valley of the river Miño. This fluvial course, the largest of Galicia, together with its tributary, Sil, articulates most of the interior lands of our region, facilitating the communication both in the N-S and E-W axis, the Monforte basin being close to the confluence of both rivers acts therefore as a virtual crossroads.

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Another interesting feature of our study area is the existence of a series of Tertiary basins -Monforte’s among them- with Pleistocene deposits occurring on their slopes that beyond providing information about the geological history of those formations have yielded Paleolithic lithic industries. The Eastern border of the Miño valley is made up of rugged mountains that separate Galicia from the neighbouring

regions of Asturias and Castile, though hardly reaching the 2.000 m. of height, the higher sierras would be very inhospitable along the colder spells of the Pleistocene when glaciers reached their maximum extent. The Eastern sierras have an interesting trait though, for here the only karstic formations of Galicia are found,

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allowing a preservation of organic remains practically unknown elsewhere and giving interesting hints about the Upper Pleistocene fauna with such species as Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros mercki, Ursus spelaeus or Crocuta crocuta. Amazingly, archaeologists have paid little attention to the caves until very recently and only a few systematic excavations have been undertaken in such environments (e.g. Llana & Soto 1991). Also, well developed glacial and periglacial landforms are found in those mountainous edges, thus giving further data on the environmental conditions along the Upper Pleistocene (Pérez et al. 1993; Pérez & Valcárcel 1997; Vidal et al. 1999).

Only three sites belonging to the Upper Paleolithic have been identified in Monforte to this day, two of them (Áspera and Valverde) located in a strategic position that gives a good visual command of the surrounding lands and near a natural pass that communicates the Monforte basin with another, smaller, depression to the North. A third site (Costa Grande) seems to have played a rôle as quarry where part of the knapped quartzite from Valverde was obtained. Both Valverde and Áspera are found in the open and thus subjected to postdepositional alterations due to natural factors (such as slope dynamics) or because of anthropic activity (cultivation). They share a notable increase in the range of raw materials employed (quartzite, quartz, flint, rock crystal) and the importance that acquires the blade and microblade technology. Some test-pitting was undertaken in Valverde because of the freshness and diminutive size of the flakes recovered during survey, allowing the recovery of more than 1700 lithics that pointed to an in loco assemblage attesting to the presence of complete chaîne-opératoires leading to the production of side scrapers or denticulates or to bladelets and backed bladelets. Two mesial fragments of laurel-leaf points were recovered, too, suggesting an adscription to the advanced stages of the Upper Paleolithic.

Research on Galician Paleolithic has kept to certain restricted areas, namely the terrasses on the lower tract of the Miño river, the SW coast and the low sierras closing the upper Miño. Out from these regions only sporadic and preliminary explorations have been carried through in Central Galicia or in the limestone caves and a remarkable absence of records existed in the Monforte basin prior to 2006, when a systematic survey was started under the auspices of the project “Ocupaciones humanas durante el Pleistoceno en la cuenca media del Miño”. Our aim was twofold: carrying an extensive survey of surface sites through the Monforte basin and exploring the limestone caves of the Eastern mountains.

The caves from the Eastern mountain ranges A fundamental part of our research project was addressed to the survey and excavation of limestone caves located in the mountains to the East of Monforte. To that purpose a survey of the cavities in Serra do Courel was undertaken in 2007 and some test pitting carried through in one of those, Cova do Xato (1080 m. over sea level). Although the excavation failed to discover prehistoric artefacts, remains of Ursus spelaeus were found and clear evidence of heavy erosive processes, linked to periglacial conditions. Although no Paleolithic tools were found, 2 diaphysis from Ursus spelaeus did show man-made cut marks.

Paleolithic sites in the Monforte basin The Monforte basin has yielded an extraordinary number of findspots, presently more than 80, ranging from the odd flake or handaxe to scatters of hundreds of artifacts. For the most part, the sites are slightly or far removed from their original deposition place, thus negatively influencing on the preservation of the artefacts themselves and making difficult an absolute dating as we shall comment further on. Nevertheless, based on typological grounds, we may point out an Acheulian (i.e. Mode 2) assignment for the greater part of the lithic scatters, in which occur the usual core tools (handaxes, trihedral picks) plus numerous flakes (cleavers among the larger ones), generally manufactured on quartzite. Presently, we lack absolute dates for the Acheulian sites in spite of having undertaken small excavations in two of these.

Further to the North, the cave of Valdavara (Becerreá) has seen archaeological activity from 2007. Known from the sixties, when some local amateurs discovered human remains and objects indicative of a Paleolithic occupation at this small cave, in the last years has provided interesting data on the Galician Magdalenian complex, recovered from the actual cavity. These included Dentalium shells used as beads, bone points and lithics, the latter mainly on flint and showing a predominance of burins among the retouched implements, the whole assemblage being radiocarbon dated to the Lower/Middle Magdalenian. On the slope in front of the cave’s mouth a level was identified containing an industry made up of large flakes of quartz, akin to those already known in Cantabrian and Mediterranean Spain belonging to the early Mesolithic, an attribution confirmed by the C-14 dates obtained there.

Only a handful of lithic scatters are assignable to the Middle Paleolithic (Mode 3) in the Monforte basin. The assemblages show the techno-morphological traits typical of the period: a trend towards smaller flaked products (such as side-scrapers and denticulates) and a sharp reduction in the number of core tools. Also, the typical Levallois points and flakes have been reported. Again no in situ sites belonging to this period have been reported, although in two places (O Regueiral and As Lamas) the coluvial deposits within which the industries were placed could be OSL analysed, giving minimum dates of around 70.000 and 40.000 years bp., respectively, thus consistent with the technocultural attribution.

Uphill from Valdavara, on the same limestone formation the quarrying works blasted out a cave that was completely filled up with sediment, among which a huge number of faunal remains and a few quartzite flakes were found,

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leading to a dig that confirmed the importance of this much destroyed site, that has an unusual variety of fauna, ranging from different genera of carnivorae to bovidae and some Rhinocerotidae. The faunal assemblage, together with the lithic industry recovered, the latter not very numerous neither diagnostic, seems to suggest an ancient chronology (perhaps in the MIS 6-5) that will be checked out with a program of absolute dating now in progress.

sounding showed the existence of deep deposits. Studies on raw material procurement and microwear on lithic tools are already under way and in spite of not having found yet human corpses belonging to the Paleolithic, we intend to undertake the DNA analysis of those remains of Holocene dating, thus filling a gap of information on this field, due to the bad preservation of organic relics in most parts of Galicia. And, last but not least, the finding of open-air Paleolithic carvings just to the other side of the SpanishPortuguese border (Baptista & Reis 2009) encourages us to try to fill yet another void in the Galician Paleolithic record by devising surveys in landscapes with similar physical features as those in Portugal where Stone Age rock art has been recorded.

Still in the foothills of the Eastern mountain range, a little to the North of Valdavara lies the cave of Eirós (Triacastela) that is placed in the middle of a steep slope overlooking a rivulet at 720 m. over sea level. The 3 archaeological campaigns already done have yielded a large number of faunal and lithic remains and 6 archaeological levels spanning perhaps a little over 100 ky (between the MIS 5 and MIS 2). As a result, Cova Eirós becomes the only site in NW Iberia where we can observe directly the differences in technology and subsistence strategies between H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis. Of a particular interest are the levels 3 and 4, where a huge number of faunal remains (including the family Rhinocerotidae) and lithic tools have been recorded, the latter assignable to the Mode 3 (Mousterian) with the characteristic Levallois flaking method. A number of burnt animal bones and other with percussion and cut marks point out to the importance of human intervention in the constitution of the faunal assemblage from those layers. (Fábregas et al. 2008, 2009). The level 2 for its part has yielded a lithic assemblage made up of small tools mainly manufactured on quartz that in spite of the predominance of the simple flakes show traits indicative of an earlier Upper Paleolithic adscription (Aurignacian?), confirmed by the absolute dates (around 34 / 33.000 bp). The level 1 contemplates an increase of the use of raw materials other than quartz and the rise of the blade production and here a pendant made on a perforated fox canine was found.

References Baptista, A.M. & Reis, M. 2009. Prospecção da arte rupestre no Vale do Côa e Alto Douro portugués: ponto da situação em julho de 2006 . In R. de Balbín Berhmann (ed.) Arte Prehistórico al aire libre en el Sur de Europa, 145-192.Junta de Castilla y León. Valladolid. Fábregas Valcarce,R., Lazuén Fernández, T., Lombera Hermida, A. de, Peña Alonso, J.A., Pérez Alberti, A., Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P., Rodríguez Rellán, C. & M. Terradillos Bernal. 2007. Novos achados paleolíticos no interior de Galicia. A Depresión de Monforte de Lemos e as súas industrias líticas. Gallaecia 26, 7-30. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Terradillos Bernal, M.; Serna González. M. R. & Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2008. Aportacións ó estudio da Prehistoria da cunca media do Miño. Os asentamentos en cova é ó aire libre. Gallaecia 27, 63-88. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Ameijenda Iglesias, A.; Grandal d’Anglade, A.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Serna González, M.R.; Terradillos Bernal, M. & Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2009. Novos resultados das intervencións arqueolóxicas no sur lucense. Os xacementos paleolíticos da depresión de Monforte (Monforte de Lemos), Cova Eirós (Triacastela) e Valdavara (Becerreá). Gallaecia 28, 9-32. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Ameijenda Iglesias, A.; Grandal d’Anglade, A.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Serna González, M.R. & Vaquero Rodríguez M. 2010. Completando o mapa. Novas datacións absolutas para o paleolítico e mesolítico do interior galego Gallaecia 29, 5-28. Llana Rodríguez, C. & Soto Barreiro, M. J. Eds. 1991. Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): un xacemento do Paleolítico Superior Inicial en Galicia: (campañas de 1987 e 1988). Arqueoloxía Investigación. Santiago de Compostela, Conselleria de Cultura. Xunta de Galicia. de Lombera Hermida, A.; Vaquero Rodríguez, M.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P.; Lazuén

Concluding remarks The archaeological works carried through the last 4 years in East Galicia have yielded a huge amount of data about the Paleolithic settlement of that area, showing that this goes back well beyond the terminal Upper Paleolithic that characterized most explored sites in the province of Lugo. We now have for the first time a good set of C-14 and OSL dates for that area that throw light about several archaeological sequences spanning the whole Upper Paleolithic and the Middle Paleolithic. The fact of having recovered a large number of animal bones in 2 caves, some of them with evidence of human processing, gives us a first glimpse on the environment from the MIS 5 to the MIS 2 and the patterns of exploitation by the paleolithic societies. Also, it is worth mentioning the recovery of the first well dated objects of personal adornment in the Galician paleolithic. In the next years we look forward to continuing the excavations in sites like Cova Eirós, where georadar

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Fernández, T. & Fábregas Valcarce, R. 2008. A cunca media do Miño dentro das ocupacións paleolíticas do NW peninsular. In Méndez, E. (coord) Homenaxe a Xosé María Álvarez Blázquez (2) Estudos sobre o paleolítico, 321-346. Instituto de Estudos Miñoranos, Gondomar. Pérez Alberti, A. & Valcárcel Díaz, M. 1997. Caracterización y distribución espacial del glaciarismo pleistoceno en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica. In Las huellas glaciares de las montañas españolas, 17-62. Santiago de Compostela. Pérez Alberti, A., Guitián, L. & Ramil, P. Eds. 1993. La Evolución del Paisaje en las Montañas del Entorno de los Caminos Jacobeos. Santiago de Compostela, Xunta de Galicia. Rodríguez, X.P., R. Fábregas, T. Lazuén, A. de Lombera, A. Pérez-Alberti, J. A. Peña, C. Rodríguez M. Terradillos A. Ameijenda & E. Rodríguez. 2008. Nuevos yacimientos

paleolíticos en la depresión de Monforte de Lemos (Lugo, Galicia, España). Cuaternario & Geomorfología 22 (3-4), 71-92. Vaquero Rodríguez, M.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Alonso Fernández, C.; Ameijenda Iglesias, A.; Blain, H.; Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Gómez Merino, G.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; López-García, J. M.; Lorenzo Merino, C.; Lozano Ruiz, M.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Rosell i Ardèvol, J.& Serna González, M. 2009. Nuevas dataciones radiométricas para el Paleolítico Superior en Galicia: La cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo) Trabajos de Prehistoria 66, 1: 99-113. Vidal Romaní, J. R.; Fernández Mosquera, D.; Martí, K. & De Brum Ferreira, A. 1999. Nuevos datos para la cronología glaciar pleistocena en el NW de la Península Ibérica. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 24, 7-29.

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Chapter 8: Geomorphology and Relative Chronology of the Human Occupations during the Pleistocene at the Basin of Monforte de Lemos (Lugo, Galicia) Alicia Ameijenda-Iglesias Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto. Historia 1, Unversidade de Santiago de Compostela. Email: [email protected] Abstract: The abundance of archaeological material found in Monforte de Lemos and, specially, their long chronological span, lead us to assume a long occupation of this depression, ranging from the Lower Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic. The geomorphological analysis of this area provides us the basis of the morphology of the landscape on which we interpret the Paleolithic settlement. We have elaborated a morphological map of the Monforte basin where the erosional surfaces defined through aerial photography are represented. These surfaces have been classified in 7 levels (N1-N7), according to their altitude from Cabe River, the main fluvial course of this area. On the map, we have also represented the archaeological points. The preliminary landscape morphometrical analysis offers us the information to establish the formative processes that had affected each of these surfaces, defining at the same time their morphology. With these data we have defined the Cabe River terraces in geomorphological terms. The following geoarchaeological analyses provide a relative chronology of the archaeological points through the comparison of the technological analysis of the lithic assemblages with the landscape geomorphological features. Keywords: Geomorphology, Geoarchaeology, terraces, Middle Pleistocene, Upper Pleistocene, river Cabe, Monforte de Lemos. Resumen: La abundancia de material arqueológico encontrado en Monforte de Lemos y, especialmente, su amplio espectro cronológico, presuponen un asentamiento continuo en esta depresión desde el Paleolítico inferior hasta el Paleolítico superior. El análisis geomorfológico de esta área proporciona las bases de la morfología del paisaje sobre la que interpretamos el poblamiento paleolítico. Se ha elaborado un mapa morfológico de la depresión monfortina donde se representan los niveles de erosión definidos mediante fotografía aérea. Estas superficies han sido clasificadas en 7 niveles (N1-N7) según su altitud media con respecto al río Cabe, el principal curso del la región. Los puntos arqueológicos también son representados sobre el mapa. Los análisis morfométricos preliminares del paisaje nos ofrecen información para establecer los procesos de formación que afectaron a cada una de las superficies, definiendo, al mismo tiempo, su morfología. De este modo se ha definido una primera secuencia de las terrazas del río Cabe en términos geomorfológicos. Los análisis geoarqueológicos proporcionan una cronología relativa de los yacimientos arqueológicos mediante la comparación de los análisis tecnológicos de los conjuntos líticos con las características geomorfológicas del paisaje. Palabras clave: Geomorfología, Geoarqueología, terrazas, Pleistoceno medio, Pleistoceno superior, rio Cabe, Monforte de Lemos

Introduction

have been identified and studied (Cano Pan et al. 1997, 2000; Giles Pacheco et. al., 2000). Monforte de Lemos is located in the river Miño’s middle tract.

The investigation of the first human occupations of Galicia has consisted of punctual surveys focused on a certain site or on a certain period of the Paleolithic. Consequently, very partial knowledge of the first phases of the human occupation of Galicia has been obtained. This research has four main geographical areas: O Baixo Miño and the South-western coast, the surroundings of Ourense’s city, O Alto Miño (Serra do Xistral, Terra Chá) and the oriental part of Galicia (limestone area) (Rodríguez et al. 2008). The most studied areas are linked to the Miño´s river basin highlighting the site of As Gándaras de Budiño (Aguirre, 1964; Vidal Encinas 1982; Cerqueiro Landín, 1996) and the fluvial formations, where eight different terraces levels

Out of these traditional areas of investigation the available information about the Paleolithic, especially inside Galicia, is very scarce and corresponds to chance and sporadic findings. The only Palaeolithic reference on Monforte basin was the quartzite handaxe found in the middle XX century at Vilaescura (Sober). The systematic investigation of this area began in 2006 in the frame of the project “Ocupacións humás durante o Pleistoceno na cunca media do Miño” and has revealed the existence of a long human occupation

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during the Paleolithic in this sector (Rodríguez et al. 2008; de Lombera, et al., 2006, 2008; Fábregas et al. 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010).

Monforte is bounded by the main rivers of Galicia: Miño (W) and Sil (S). Both coursers are deeply cut due to antecedence phenomena that explain why they border the basin in spite of crossing it even when Monforte is located at lower altitudes. The river Cabe, the main fluvial course of the basin, is born in O Incio and flows into the river Sil. It enters Monforte de Lemos with a NNE-SSW direction, which changes to N-S once crossed Serra do Moncai and up to Monforte, where it recovers its previous direction. Another important river of the basin is the Cinsa.

The focus of this paper is the geomorphological and geoarchaeological analysis of the Monforte basin. In order to accomplish it we have determined and classified the Quaternary surfaces and established a relative chronological sequence of the river Cabe’s terraces. The geomorphological analysis helped us to understand better how the occupation of the depression took place by means of the comprehension of the evolution of the landscape.

Basin formation

Presentation of the study area: the depression of Monforte de Lemos

The Monforte basin has a tectonic origin, generated by subsidences and emersions of adjacent blocks called horst and graben (Hernández, 1949) or Teclas de piano (Perez, 1993) defined by the existing network of Hercynian orogeny faults and presenting a NE-SW and WNE-ESE direction. These subsidence or basins (graben) are shaped later by the Pliocene geodynamic external processes forming the current Tertiary depressions of Galicia.

Monforte de Lemos is one of the main sedimentary basins with tectonic origin in the hinterland of Galicia, presenting several Tertiary and Pleistocene deposits identified in its slopes (Santanach 1994). Located in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in Lugo province, to the east of the river Miño and to the north of its principal tributary, the river Sil, (Figure 1) and between two areas of major altitude: to the West the Chantada’s Surface, reaching 600m a.s.l.; and to the East O Courel Mountain Range, with summits that rise up to 1.600m high. The depression occupies almost the totality of Monforte Council and its limits with those of O Saviñao, Pantón, Sober, Pobra do Brollón and Bóveda. Attending to the Geological Map of Spain E. 1:50.000, this basin spreads over the maps 155 (Chantada), 156, (Monforte de Lemos), 188 (Nogueira de Ramuín) and 189 (Pobra de Trives), in the IV geological Zone of Matte (Galicia media-Tras os Montes) (Matte, 1968).

The basin was filled by Tertiary deposits, gray and green clays that spread in horizontal strata all over the area. The different sedimentary processes that have affected the basin are closely related to an alluvial fan depositional scheme, working as a closed sedimentary system characterized by a decrease in energy of the depositional sediment from the periphery to the interior of the basin (Olmo, 1985). After a neotectonic phase and a reorganization of the hydrographic courses, over the Tertiary substrate the Pleistocene sediments were deposited, formed principally by alluvial levels of pebbles, shown as thin layers from three to five meters deep. During the Quaternary the lower deposits were strongly eroded by the fluvial courses generating two types of surfaces that De Groot (1974) identified as glacis or fluvial terraces.

Actually, we can talk of two Tertiary sub-basins separated by a transversal Paleozoic sierra: ‘Serra do Moncai’ and ‘Serra de Cubas’, made up of materials geologically known as ‘Dominio de Ollo de Sapo’. They divide the basin in a northeastern sector, Bóveda-Brollón depression (known as ‘Somoza Maior de Lemos’), and the southwestern sector, Monforte de Lemos basin strictu sensu (Vergnollé, 1985), where our investigation is focused. Monforte de Lemos basin s.s. is limited on the North-East by the Dominio de Ollo de Sapo, following in a NW-SE direction the Paleozoic surface formed by the ranges of Monte Valverde, Monte Cornado, Serra de Moncai, Serra de Lamas, O Pedrouzo de Reigada, O Pedrouzo de Mourelos, Serra de Mascós and Monticelo. It is an important structure of the IIIrd folding phase that spreads approximately 300 km from the North of Galicia to Zamora province, where it disappears under the Tertiary deposits of the Meseta. This domain is characterized by the absence of Cambrian on the eastern end, laying the Ordovician directly on the porphyry series of the Ollo de Sapo, of Precambrian age. The southern limit is defined by the Paleozoic surfaces that appear in NE-SW direction at Sober. The western limit is defined by a unsymmetrical fault, from Tuiriz to Pantón, with an orientation NNE-SSW to NE-SW.

Objectives and methodology For the study of Monforte de Lemos basin we have set three main objectives that have been carried out following a geomorphological and analytical methodology: 1. The application of geomorphological mapping and photo interpretation to determine the erosional surfaces. 2. The morphometric analysis of the determined areas to establish the river terraces and other morphologies. 3. Obtaining a relative chronology of the archaeological sites based on the geomorphological analysis of the surfaces and their comparison with other geomorphological studies. Morphological analysis We have made the morphological mapping of landforms using stereo photogrammetry based on 1:18.000 scale aerial photos of the IGME (Instituto Geológico y Minero Español). For morphological field mapping we used the

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Figure 1: Map with the distribution of the Quaternary deposits and Paleolithic sites of the Monforte de Lemos Basin. 1, Tertiary sediments; 2, Quaternary alluvial formations; 3, Quaternary alluvio-colluviall formations; 4, Quaternary formations: dejection cones; 5, Quaternary formation: glacis-terraces; 6, Main rivers. Paleolithic sites: Mode 2 sites: CHF, Chao Fabeiro; LMS, As Lamas; GND, As Gándaras; BVD, Bóveda. Mode 3 sites: RGL, Regueiral; GLL, Gullade; GAN, As Gandariñas de Arriba. Mode 4 sites: VLV, Valverde; ASP, Áspera.

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National Topographic Maps of Spain on a 1:25.000 scale from the IGN (Instituto Geográfico Nacional) and CNIG (Centro Nacional de Información Geográfica). For the cartographic laboratory work we used digital topographic maps on a 1:5000 scale published by the Xunta de Galicia, which we have processed with AutoCAD 2007 and CorelDRAW 12 for the geomorphological mapping. We also work with the IGME geological maps at E. 1:50.000 that provide us a rough geochronology.

the height of these surfaces above the sea level and the height above the Cabe river, taking 290m a.s.l. as the base level, the river altitude at the central sector of the basin. For the study and presentation of this information we elaborated a preliminary geomorphological map (Figure 3) in which the 51 surfaces (whether fluvial or not) are represented and grouped in 7 erosion levels on the basis of their mean height above the river Cabe (290 m.), and the aerial photography: N1=0-5 m.; N2=5-12.5 m.; N3=12.5-20 m.; N4=20-40 m.; N5=40-60 m.; N6=60-80 m. y N7>80 m. (Ameijenda, 2008). Beside these 7 levels, in Monforte de Lemos basin there are the alluvial plain (0 m.) and the Paleozoic surfaces that border the basin. We have also plotted the principal archaeological points on the map, as well as the main courses of water, structural and terrace escarpment.

Morphometric analysis: the slope Morphometric analysis deals with the spatial parameters contemplated from geometric perspective, that is, types and sizes of landforms (Pedraza 1996), where slope is the reference unit. According to the slope gradient we have infered the most common morphologies of the surfaces previously identified in the depression and also the basic formation processes associated to them.

Secondly, orientation, inclination, area, and slope in percentage and in degrees are calculated for each of the 51 surfaces. The results of these previous analysis are represented in Figure 4. In this figure we can see the predominance of the surfaces with slope lower than 1 % (21 surfaces) over those who present a slope higher than 2 % (13 surfaces). A clear predominance of the surfaces by slopes between 0.5 º-2 º (almost flat) (27 surfaces) and 0 º-0.5 º (flat) (20 surfaces) is observed, whereas the representation of the surfaces with slope between 2 º-5 º (weakly sloping) is more restricted (4 surfaces). In relation to the average relative height above Cabe river, most of the surfaces are located between 40-60 m (Level 5) and between 20-40 m (Level 4). The less represented are those placed between 5-12.5 m (Level 2).

Geoarchaeological analysis The geoarchaeological analysis of the depression explains the relationship between the archaeological sites and the landscape in order to obtain a relative chronology by comparing the technological analysis of industries, using the Logical Analytical System (Carbonell et al., 1983), with the geomorphologic characteristics of the surface in which those sites appear (altitude in particular). Both for the geomorphological and geoarchaeological analysis is essential to know and understand as much as possible the field. For this reason we made in Monforte a series of geological surveys in which we reviewed the surfaces deducted by aerial photos and observed, where we could, their stratigraphy. We moved on through the depression looking for a section with a significant thickness on the margins of roads, gravel pits, the escarpments of the flattened surfaces, building sites, etc. One of the problems that we have observed during these surveys was the difficult access to many of the profiles due to the morphology and the vegetation of the landscape.

Once established the erosional levels and analyzed the surfaces morphometrically, we correlated the slope in degrees of each surface to a morphology type and formation processes following the lines set by E. Scholz (in Demek 1972) (Figure 4). The analysis of the slope of 51 surfaces concludes the existence of 3 types of basic morphologies in Monforte de Lemos’s: terraces, glacis and pediments (Ameijenda, 2008) leading to the identification of 20 terraces fluvial or not, 27 pediments and 4 glacis in the depression (Figure 2). The pediments appear in the margins of the depression with a preferential N-S orientation whereas the terraces are located following the course of the main river presenting the same NE-SW orientation (Figure 2).

We made a superficial lithostratigraphic analysis of those profiles that could indicate a fluvial origin, based on sediment guidelines established by De Groot (1974) for the depression of Monforte de Lemos. A strict sedimentological study has not been done in this work; however, we have considered appropriate to discuss such features of those Quaternary surfaces (terraces or glacis).

The fluvial terraces sequence in Monforte de Lemos: profile B-B

Data presentation

With the information obtained after the geomorphological analysis, and the data gathered in the geological surveys we could establish a preliminary sequence of 9 terraces in Monforte basin (Ameijenda, 2008). This sequence is represented in the profile B-B’ (Figure 2). The exaggeration degree is 8 (Figure 5) and the level 0 used for defining the terraces is 277,5 m. above sea level, differently from

Geomorphological analysis After the analysis of the aerial photography and the topographic and geological study we have located 51 erosion surfaces (Figure 2) among the Tertiary and Quaternary deposits (Ameijenda, 2008). We have calculated

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Figure 2: Main morphologies of the Monforte de Lemos Basin (terraces, pediments, glacis). Terrace sequences (T1-T9). Surface numeration (1-51).

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Figure 3: Geomorphological map of the Monforte de Lemos basin.

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Figure 4: Morphological analysis of the Monforte de Lemos surfaces based on the relative altitude above Cabe River. Lower left: erosional levels. Lower right: preliminary morphological interpretation of the surfaces (based on Scholz, E. Demek J., 1972)

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36) (Figure 3), at the depression’s southwest, has provided Middle Paleolithic industry (Mode 3). Even though this deposit is located over a pediment, actually this surface is a fragment of the terrace T1 (+10 m.) dismantled by erosive processes of major intensity. Close to this deposit there are other archaeological points with lower densities of material that have provided the same kind of industry (Fábregas et al. 2009).

the level 0 used for the erosion levels, (290 m. above sea level). This profile runs alone a segment of almost 6000 meters of the depression crossing 9 surfaces: surfaces 11 (T9+100 m.), 10 (T8+87.5 m.), 9 (T7+85 m.), 8 (P2+75 m.), 5 (P1+55 m.), 4 (T4+32.5 m.), 3 (T3+25 m.), 2 (T2+15 m.) and 1 (T1+10 m.). Except the surfaces 8 and 5 that have been previosly classified as pediments (P), the rest of the surfaces are terraces (T). We have superposed surfaces 6 (T5+50 m.) and 7 (T6+55 m.) on this profile in order to complete the sequence. The result is a sequence of 9 hung terraces that drop softly 100 meters to the river. The more pronounced escarpment is located between the T2 and the T1. Is important take care with these outcome because they are the result of preliminary analyses, pending further investigation.

Geological surveys In the north of the Depression where the alluvial deposits are more developed in extension and better preserved, the slopes descend from heights of 500-600m to 300m (measured from the bottom of the valley). These alluvial deposits are characterized by a high quantity of matrixsupported pebbles embedded in other levels of pebbles and gravels, supported in clays, sands and gravels that lay directly on the Tertiary clays and arkoses of Monforte basin. The lithology is very similar in the studied profiles (quartzite, quartzs and slate), though some differences in the percentages are observed. Besides the lithologic homogeneity also a high level of alteration and a high degree of rubefaction with presence of oxides concretion in the deposits of the northern zone are observed, suggesting their formation in the ancient Pleistocene.

Geoarchaeological analysis Once established the sequence of terraces in the depression, the next step is their contextualization. In this way the terraces are compared with the archaeological deposits located on them so that we could establish a relative chronology of the terraces on the basis of the characteristics of the industry. Only five of the sites that we had located in the depression are situated on a fluvial terrace: As Lamas, O Casar, As Gándaras, Martin and San Mamede (Figure 5). As Lamas is located in the north of Monforte city on a wide flat surface that constitutes the terrace T5 (+50 m) and to the west of the Cabe riverbed. In this place five lithic scatters have been recorded (n º 1-5) (Figure 3), providing a great quantity of archaeological material adscribed to the Acheulian technological complex or Mode 2. The archaeological site of Martin (n º 24) (Figure 3) is placed to the southwest of As Lamas on the T4 (+32.5 m.) where we have also recovered lithic industry adscribed to the Mode 2. As Gándaras (nº 13) (Figure 3) is located in a surface placed on the T3 (+ 25 m.) just below As Lamas. The industry recovered in this site belongs also to the Acheulian period. O Casar (nº 12) (Figure 3) is placed northward from As Gándaras, near the city, on the T2 (+15 m.) also with Acheulian industry. Finally San Mamede (nº

On the contrary, in the southern part, the Quaternary formations are less developed and badly preserved. In addition we find a lithologic heterogeneity, with a predominance of the angular and subangular fragments of quartz and slate over the quartzite pebbles. It is necessary to emphasize the absence of oxide concretions or extreme rubefaction in these southern deposits. Discussion In order to establish a relative chronology we shall compare our sequence of terraces with the 8 fluvial levels at the lower tract of the Miño River, in the section A Guardia-TuiCortegada, (Giles et. al., 2000). According to these authors, the discovery of lithic artifacts demonstrate a long human

Figure 5: Correlation between Cabe´s fluvial terraces and the archaeological sites in Monforte de Lemos.

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Figure 6: Correlation between Cabe´s fluvial terraces in Monforte de Lemos and Miño´s terraces in A Guardia-Tui-Cortegada.

occupation of the zone, ranging from the Lower Paleolithic (Mode 1) to the Middle Paleolithic (Mode 3). Comparing the Miño terraces with those of the Cabe river, we observe that, while in the fluvial levels of the first (Miño) there is a chronocultural continuity from the Initial Lower Paleolithic to the Neolithic (Figure 6), in the Cabe we have only proofs of Lower and Middle Paleolithic industries, with a clear predominance of the Acheulian. The latter seems to appear only in the middle terraces of the Miño (T3+19-28 and T4+32-42) (Cano et al., 1997, 2000; Giles, et. al., 2000), while in Monforte there are found on the terraces T2 (+15 m.), T3 (+25 m.) T4 (+32.5 m.) and T5 (+50 m.). When we make the correlation between the Miño terraces and the Cabe´s, we see that the mean relative height of Miño´s T7 is not represented in Monforte de Lemos, but the T7, together with T8 and T9 of the Miño are grouped in Cabe´s T8 (Figure 6). Nevertheless the mean relative height of the rest of the fluvial terraces determined in the Lower Miño and in Monforte coincides (Figure 6).

However, this fact could be explained by a series of erosive and neotectonic phenomena that affected Monforte de Lemos basin and produced subsidences and emersions of blocks that dragged the material from the high surfaces down up to the place in which we found it. Many authors consider the neotectonic as an active factor in the recent evolution of the Galician landscape (Pérez, 1993, 2002; García-Gil, e. al., 1999; Granja et al., 1999; De Groot, 1974; Martínez-Graña et al., 2000, etc.) producing emersions and subsidences of blocks that might have occurred up to the Quaternary. The geomorphological studies carried out by Perez Alberti (1993, 2002) in Maceda depression, De Groot (1974) in Monforte de Lemos depression and Gracia et al., (2004) in the Porriño-Tui depression, Louro river (where the site of Gándaras de Budiño is located) support this hypothesis. On Cabe´s T5 we have located the site of As Lamas with Acheulian industry (Mode 2), but this terrace is associated in the Lower Miño with the Initial Lower Paleolithic industry (Mode 1). This contradiction can be a consequence of several neotectonic or erosive factors but also of the geomorphologic differences existing between Monforte and Lower Miño basin, as well as to the evident differences between the two rivers: the river Miño is stronger and wider than Cabe, so that has a major erosive power. On the other hand, this incoherence between technological and geomorphological principles which we find in Cabe´s T5 and Miño´s T5 can also be due to a different interpretation of the lithic industry according to some authors (Méndez, 2008).

Using the chronological sequence proposed for the lower Miño as a reference for our own sequence of terraces, and following the geomorphological principles, we can obtain a proxy and relative chronology for the Cabe´s terraces in Monforte basin. Following the Miño chronology Cabe´s T1 would be Holocene, T2 should be Upper Pleistocene, Cabe´s middle terraces, T3 and the T4, should be Final Middle Pleistocene, and T5 must correspond to the Middle Pleistocene. This interpretation is coherent in Monforte for the case of the terraces T3 and T4 in which there are two sites with Acheulian industry, As Gándaras and Martin respectively. Nevertheless, there is a contradiction between the geomorphological and the technological data on the Cabe´s T1, T2 and T5: In the lower Miño the T1 lithic industry is Holocene, but in Monforte it is associated to Middle Paleolithic technology. Miño´s T2 has provided a Middle Paleolithic industry, whereas Cabe´s T2 is associated to the technocomplex Mode 2. For the T5, whereas in the Miño represents the Early Lower Paleolithic (Mode 1 technocomplex) in Monforte this terrace is Acheulian.

Also it is necessary to bear in mind that the erosional processes could have modified the original slope of Monforte surfaces with variable intensity, altering his initial morphology and conditioning our interpretation. This could have happened in some surfaces (grouped in different erosional levels) that seem to be the remains of one disturbed surface, as for example the two groups of pediments (surfaces 28-33, 17-18) located in the southern side of Cabe river (Figure 2). On the other hand, the small glacis-surfaces situated at the southwest of the depression, in San Mamede (surfaces 20 and 22), and the pediment-

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surface number 21 seem to be related to the T1 (surface number 1) because of their morphology and for belonging to the same erosional level (N1=0-5m). All these surfaces (20-22) might be the small relics of this one major original surface (T1) and would have therefore a fluvial origin (Ameijenda, 2008).

of both terrace sequences coincide, being these Acheulian. Nevertheless, there are certain inconsistencies in the lower terraces (T1 and T2) and in the T5. This contradiction can be explained on the basis of tectonic phenomena and the formation processes peculiar to each fluvial course. Acknowledgments

Continuing with this hypothesis, Chao Fabeiro (surface 12, archaeological points 6-9) (Figures 2 and 3) might be the sixth archaeological site placed on a terrace in the depression. This pediment-surface seems to had been a terrace exposed during a long time to the local erosive and tectonic dynamics. Considering its average relative height (97.5 m.) and the associated industry, Mode 2, less evolved in relation to other Acheulian assemblages in Monforte, (Rodríguez et al. 2008) it could be one of the oldest surfaces of the depression.

This work was carried out under the research project ‘Ocupaciones humanas durante el Pleistoceno de la Cuenca media del Miño’ (HUM/2007-63662) funded by the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Special thanks to A. Pérez Alberti, A. de Lombera Hermida, X. P. Rodriguez Álvarez and R. Fábregas Valcarce. Bibliography Aguirre, E. 1964. Las Gándaras de Budiño Porriño (Pontevedra). Madrid, Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Dirección General de Bellas Artes. Servicio Nacional de Excavaciones Arquelógicas. Ameijenda Iglesias, A. 2008. Geomorfología del Cuaternario y cronología relativa de las ocupaciones Humanas durante el Pleistoceno de la Depresión de Monforte de Lemos, cuenca media del río Miño, Galicia. DEA, Universitat Rovira i Virgili. Cano Pan, J. A., Aguirre, E.; Giles Pacheco, F.; Santiago Pérez, A.; Gutierrez López, J. M.; Mata Almonte, E.; Gracia Prieto, J.; Aguilera Rodríguez, L. and Prieto Reina, O. 1997. Evolución del Pleistoceno en la cuenca baja del Miño, sector la Guardia-Tuy. Secuencia de los primeros poblamientos humanos y registro arqueológico. In J. Rodríguez Vidal (ed.), Cuaternario Ibérico. 201212. Cano Pan, J. A.; Giles Pacheco, F.; Aguirre, E.; Santiago Pérez, A.; Gracia Prieto, J.; Mata Almonte, E.; Gutierrez López, J. M. and Prieto Reina, O. 2000. Middle Paleolithic Technocomplexes and Lithic Industries in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in C. B. Stringer, R. N., Barton and J. Finlayson (eds.), Neanderthals on the Edge. Oxford, Oxbow Books, 49-57. Carbonell, E., Guibauld M. and Mora R. 1983. Utilización de la Lógica Analítica para el estudio de Tecnocomplejos a cantos tallados. Cahier noir. Girona, C. R. P. E. S. 1, 1- 63. Cerqueiro Landín, D. 1996. As Gándaras de Budiño: Prehistoria e historia. In R. Fabregas Valcarce (ed.) Os primeiros poboadores de Galicia; O Paleolítico., Sada. 47-73. De Groot, R. 1974. Quantitative analyses of pediments and fluvial terraces applied to the basin of Monforte de Lemos, Galicia, NW Spain. Publicaties van het Fysischi Geografisch en Bodemkunding Laboratorium van de Universiteit Van Amsterdam. Demek, J. 1972. Manual of Detailed Geomorphological Mapping. Academia, Praga. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; J. A. Peña Alonso, J.A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C. and

In addition, the fact that the Paleocabe was flowing northwards of its present course (Ameijenda, 2008), bordering Chao Fabeiro surface reinforces this hypothesis, as the surfaces located in this zone (the paleovalley) would be the oldest and would have suffered with major intensity the erosive phenomena. The tract of the Cabe between its entry in the depression and its union with the river Cinsa would be located in past times towards the north of the basin, possibly above the high terraces determined in the sequence B-B’. Instead of descending towards the south after the first bend, the river would continue in direction NE-SW as shown by the presence of meanders in both fluvial elbows. On the other hand, the absence of terraces in the southern side of the river supports the fact that the Paleocabe would flow towards the north of the depression. The Cabe would begin to change its course towards SE and forming the fluvial terraces due to neotectonic processes. Conclusion With the stereoscopic exam of the aerial photos used for the geomorphological analysis we have determined 51 surfaces in the depression of Monforte. These have been grouped in 7 erosional levels (N1 0-5 m.; N2=5-12.5 m.; N3=12.5-20 m.; N4=20-40 m.; N5=40-60 m.; N6=60-80 m.; N7> 80 m.) depending on their mean relative height over the Cabe river (Level 0=290m). Secondly, attending to the slope gradient three basic Quaternary morphologies have been preliminarily established: terraces, pediments and glacis. We have determined 20 terraces, 4 glacis and 27 pediments. The morphometric analysis of the surfaces has allowed us to establish a preliminary sequence of 9 terraces along Monforte de Lemos basin. We obtained a relative chronology for the terraces based on the relation of this sequence with the archaeological industry of the sites found in them. This chronology has been later contrasted with the terraces sequence of the Miño lower valley. We have observed that for the middle terraces (T3 and T4) the relative chronologies

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Terradillos Bernal, M. 2007. Novos achados paleolíticos no interior de Galicia. A Depresión de Monforte de Lemos e as súas industrias líticas. Gallaecia 26, 7-33. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Serna González, M.R.; Terradillos Bernal, M. and Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2008. Aportacións ó estudo da Prehistoria da cunca media do Miño. Os asentamentos en cova e ó aire libre. Gallaecia 27, 63-88. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S; Ameijenda Iglesias, A., Grandal d´Anglade, A.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Rodríguez Rellán, C.; Serna González, M.R.; Terradillos Bernal, M.; and Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2009. Novos resultados das intervencións arqueolóxicas no sur lucense. Os xacementos paleolíticos da depresión de Monforte (Monforte de Lemos), Cova Eirós (Triacastela) e Valdavara (Becerreá). Gallaecia, 28, 9-32. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S; Ameijenda Iglesias, A., Grandal d´Anglade, A.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Serna González, M.R. and Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2010. Completando o mapa. Novas datacións absolutas para o Paleolítico e Mesolítico do interior galego. Gallaecia, 29, 5-28. García-Gil, S.; Vilas, F.; Múñoz, A.; Acosta, J. and Uchupi, E. 1999. Quaternary sedimentation in the Ría de Pontevedra (Galicia), Northwest Spain, Journal of Coastal Research, 15(4), 1083-1090. Giles Pacheco, F.; Cano Pan, J. S.; Santiago Pérez, A.; Gutierrez López, J. M.; Mata Almonte, E.; Gracia Prieto, J.; Aguilera Rodríguez, L. and Prieto Reina, O. 2000. Poblamiento Paleolítico en la cuenca media-baja del Miño. Sector La Guardia-Tui (Pontevedra)- Cortegada (Ourense). Secuencia Cronoestratigráfica. In Paleolítico de la Península Ibérica: Congreso de Arqueología Peninsular, 101-121. Gracia, F. J., F. Giles Pacheco, J. A. Cano Pan, A. Santiago Pérez, E. Mata Almonte and J. M. Gutiérrez López 2004. Evolución geomorfológica de la cuenca del río Louro en conexión con el valle del Miño y poblamiento paleolítico (Gándaras de Budiño-Tuy; Pontevedra). Homenaje al Profesor Emiliano Aguirre. Alcalá de Henares, Museo Arqueológico Regional, 219-229. Granja, H. M.; Ribeiro, I. C.; Soares de Carvalho, G. and Senos Matías, M. 1999. Some neotectonic indicators in Quaternary Formations of the Northwest coastal zone of Portugal. Physics and Chemist of the Earth (A), 24(4), 323-336. Hernández Pacheco, F. 1949. Geomorfología de la cuenca media del Sil. Mem. R. Ac. Ciencias E. F. y Naturales, 13, 112. de Lombera Hermida, A.; Rodriguez Álvarez, X. P.; Lazuén

Fernández, T.; Fábregas Valcarce, R. 2006. El Paleolítico Inferior y Medio en el interior de Galicia. La Depresión de Monforte de Lemos. CROA: Boletín de Asociación de Amigos do Museo do Castro de Viladonga, 16, 31-41. de Lombera, A.; Vaquero, M.; Alonso, S.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X.P.; Lazuén, T.; Fábregas, R. 2008. A cunca media no Miño dentro das ocupacións paleolíticas do NW peninsular. Homenaxe a X. M. Álvarez Blázquez, vol. II. Estudos sobre Paleolítico. In E. Méndez Quintas (ed.) Instituto de Estudos Miñoranos, 321-346. Martinez-Graña, A.; Goy, J. L. and Zazo, C. 2000. Actividad tectónica en el Noroeste Peninsular, en base a los registros de los depósitos costeros de los últimos 130.000 años (Rías Arousa-Pontevedra, Galicia). Geotemas, 1, 4, 263-266. Matte, P. 1968. La structure de la virgation hercynienne de Galice (Espagne). Trav. Lab. Univ. Grenoble, T. 44,153281. Méndez Quintas, E. 2008. As ocupacións Achelenses das terrazas medias da Conca Baixa do río Miño. Gallaecia 27, 7-33. Olmo Sanz, A. 1985. Estudio geológico-sedimentario de las cuencas terciario-cuaternarias de Monforte de Lemos, Maceda y Quiroga. Cuadernos Xeolóxicos de Laxe, 10, 83-93. Pedraza Gilsanz (ed.) 1996. Geomorfología. Principios, métodos y aplicaciones. Editorial Rueda. Pérez Alberti, A. 2002. Análisis geomorfológico y evolución paleoclimática de Galicia durante el Terciario y el Cuaternario. SEMATA. Ciencias Sociales e Humanidades 13, 11-66. Pérez Alberti, A. 1993. La interacción entre procesos geomorfológicos en la génesis del relieve del Sudeste de Galicia: el ejemplo del Macizo de Manzaneda y de la Depresión de Maceda, in Pérez Alberti; Guitián Rivera and Ramil Rego (eds.). La evolución del paisaje en las montañas del entorno de los caminos Jacobeos, 1-24. Publicación de la Xunta de Galicia, Rodríguez X. P.; Fábregas, R.; Lazuén, T.; De Lombera, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Peña, J. A.; Rodríguez Rellán, C., Terradillos M.; Ameijenda A. and Rodríguez E. (2008). Nuevos yacimientos paleolíticos en la depresión de Monforte de Lemos (Lugo, Galicia, España). Cuaternario y Geomorfología, 22 (3-4), 71-92. Santanach Prat, P. 1994. Las Cuencas Terciarias gallegas en la terminación occidental de los relieves pirenaicos. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 19, 57-71. Vergnollé, C., (1985). Geometrie du remplissage sedimentaire dês bassins de Sarria et Monforte de Lemos (Galice, Espagne) et evolutio geomorphologique regionale. Em Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez (M. C. V.), T. XXI, 331-346. Vidal Encinas, J. M. 1982. Las Gándaras de Budiño: Balance preliminar de dos campañas de excavaciones (1980-1981). El Museo de Pontevedra XXXVI, 91-114.

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Chapter 9: The Palaeolithic Settlement of the Monforte Basin (Lugo, Galicia) Arturo de Lombera-Hermida IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, C/Escorxador s/n, Tarragona 43003, Spain Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, Spain Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto. de Historia I, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade, nº 1, CP: 15782. Santiago de Compostela. Email: [email protected]

Xosé Pedro Rodríguez-Álvarez IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, C/Escorxador s/n, Tarragona 43003, Spain Email: [email protected] Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, Spain

Ramón Fábregas-Valcarce Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto. de Historia I, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade, nº 1, CP: 15782. Santiago de Compostela. Email: [email protected]

Talía Lazuén-Fernández Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas (IIIPC) Universidad de Cantabria Avda. de los Castros s/n. Santander 39005, Spain Email: [email protected] Abstract: The Monforte de Lemos Basin is a Tertiary depression filled up with Pleistocene sediments. A sequence of nine fluvial surfaces related to the Paleo-Cabe River has been established providing us a relative chronological framework. The archaeological surveys carried out during the last five years have yielded a huge number of Paleolithic findings ranging from Lower to Upper Paleolithic. The discovery of nearly a hundred archaeological points within the basin means that this is an excellent area to study the evolution of settlement patterns and technological progress of the Middle and Upper Pleistocene hunter and gatherer societies. Some of these sites, related to the upper fluvial terraces have Mode 2 Technologies (assemblages with large cutting-tools such As Lamas or Chao Fabeiro), others are defined by the presence of Levallois or discoidal flaking methods (Mode 3 Technology: O Regueiral, As Gandariñas) and finally the Upper Paleolithic assemblages are characterized by the blade technology (Mode 4: Valverde, Áspera). Keywords: Lithic industries, Archaeological surveys, Middle Pleistocene, Upper Pleistocene, Open-air sites, OSL. Resumen: La cuenca de Monforte de Lemos es una depresión terciaria rellena en sus márgenes de sedimentos pleistocenos. A través de estudios geoarqueológicos se ha establecido una secuencia de 9 superficies fluviales relacionadas con el cauce del Paleo-Cabe que proporcionan un buen marco cronológico relativo para el estudio de las ocupaciones paleolíticas. Las intervenciones arqueológicas llevadas a cabo durante los últimos 5 años han proporcionado un gran número de hallazgos paleolíticos que se remontan desde el Paleolítico inferior al Paleolítico superior. El descubrimiento de casi un centenar de puntos arqueológicos en la depresión la convierte en una excelente área para el estudio de la evolución de los patrones de asentamiento y progreso tecnológico de las comunidades de cazadores-recolectores del Pleistoceno medio y superior. Algunos de estos yacimientos, relacionados con los niveles fluviales superiores, presentan industrias adscritas al Modo 2 (conjuntos con grandes objetos configurados como As Lamas o Chao de Fabeiro), otras se definen por la presencia de métodos de talla predeterminados como el Levallois o discoidal (Modo 3: O Regueiral, As Gandariñas) y, finalmente, los conjuntos líticos del Paleolítico superior se caracterizan por la tecnología laminar (Modo 4: Valverde, Áspera). Palabras clave: Industrias líticas, Prospección arqueológica, Pleistoceno medio, Pleistoceno superior, yacimientos al aire libre, OSL.

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Introduction

quartzite fragments are more frequent, along with some slate fragments. These differences could be explained by the higher presence of alluvial fans and pediments in the southern basin and the higher influence of fluvial terraces, related to the paleochannel, on the northern part of the Basin, reinforcing the geoarqueological interpretations of those surfaces. These depositional preservation and geological characteristics make the Monforte Basin a unique place in NW Iberia by providing a long sequence of Pleistocene deposits.

The Lower Paleolithic research on NW Iberia has focused on the open-air sites linked to the Miño valley, defining two main areas: the outskirts of the city of Ourense and O Baixo Miño, at the mouth of the river Miño. In the latter, a sequence of 8 fluvial terraces with lithic scatters was identified, the higher ones adscribed to the Lower Pleistocene (Giles et al. 2000), although most of them can be dated in the Middle Pleistocene, related to the Acheulian sites. This is the only relative sequence available for the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic of NW Iberia. Besides, several sites have been excavated in the middle terraces of the Miño river, the Tertiary depression of Louro and granitic peneplains of Ourense. The only reference to Acheulian finds in the Galician hinterland were the handaxes found in Vilaescura and Os Peares (Cano, 1991).

Along with its geological characteristics, for its geographical location Monforte plays a strategic role since it is placed on the natural pathway that communicates the inland Galicia to the western Meseta. Besides, it is framed by the two main fluvial systems of NW Iberia (the Miño and Sil rivers) that condition the structural mobility through the territory. For the region we are dealing with, both fluvial courses run along deeply-cut valleys that follow ancient tectonic faults in granitic surfaces, impairing the access to western and northern areas.

Due to the casual find of lithic artefacts in the Monforte Basin, since 2006 archaeological surveys were carried out. Monforte the Lemos is a Tertiary Basin where more than 80 Palaeolithic locations were identified. This issue deals with the techno-morphological features of those lithic scatters and, based on the geomorphological data, establishes their relationship with the Quaternary surfaces identified on the Monforte Basin.

According to the least cost routes through the NW Iberia defined by GIS software, the Monforte Basin is placed strategically at the entrance of the routes coming from the western Meseta working as a nodule point from where the routes diverge towards other directions (Figure 1). At the eastern part of the Sil valley some isolated findings were discovered along the basins of Quiroga, A Rúa and Valdeorras (Cano, 2009; Fábregas et al., 2009; Fernández et al., 1996) directly communicating with the Bierzo basin and the western Meseta, where several Lower Paleolithic sites were identified (Castellanos, 1986; Neira and Bernaldo, 1996). Though the Sil valley is the natural pathway, as we get into the NW the topographical features of the Sil riverside (running in deep canyons) prevent the access to the western regions. Thus, an alternative route is defined by the Lor river mouth and the eastern rim of Monforte Basin, where the slopes are much more gradual. From Monforte we can access to the flat granitic surfaces of the Galician hinterland. A second route comes from the Douro valley (Portugal) going through the Verin and Maceda basins, surrounding the Manzaneda Ridge, and finally crossing the Sil river at the south of Monforte.

Regional context The Monforte basin, irrigated by the river Cabe, is a Tertiary basin surrounded by higher Paleozoic and Hercinian areas, reaching 600 m. of altitude to the West (Chantada Surface) and 1600 m at the summit of the Courel Ridge to the East. The average height of the Cabe Valley is 290m a.s.l. It is divided in two main sectors by the quartzite outcrops crossing in NE-SW direction of Serra do Moncai. The southern one, the “Depresión de Monforte de Lemos” with an extension of about 175 Km2 is the focus of our research where the Quaternary deposits are best preserved. The Monforte Basin has a tectonic origin following the preexisting Hercinian fault lines with a WNW-ESE direction. After a neotectonic episode and a subsequent fluvial reorganization, Pleistocene sediments linked to the paleo-channels and alluvial fans covered the margins of Tertiary silts and clays of lacustrine environment (Olmo 1985). These Quaternary deposits, disposed in a sequence of flat surfaces, are identified as fluvial terraces, glacis and pediments whose sedimentary depth can reach up to five meters (De Groot 1974, Ameijenda this volume).

Once we get into the Basin, it works as a crosspoint from where we can access to the main areas of NW Iberia. Monforte is placed at the threshold of the corridor formed by the hinterland Tertiary basins in a N-S axis, between the Eastern Mountains and the inland granitic peneplains, which finally leads to the Cantabrian Coastline. The presence of Upper Paleolithic sites either on the margin of these basins (Valverde, Betote, Cova da Valiña) or in caves placed at the nearby valleys (Cova Eirós, the rock-shelters of Valadouro) may reinforce the importance of this natural pathway between the Cantabrian coast and the inner part of Galicia, at least during the final Upper Pleistocene (Cano 2008; Fábregas et al., 2009; López 2003; Ramil and Ramil 1996).

Though their distribution is widespread along the basin, there is a differential preservation of Quaternary surfaces maybe related to the incidence of the Paleo-Cabe course. Along with the extension of the Pleistocene surfaces, there are some differences regarding to the lithology of the deposits. On the northern part, big and medium sized cobbles of quartzite and quartz are predominant, while in the southern margin subangular and angular quartz and

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Figure 1: Least cost natural paths on NW Iberia (GRASS v.6.3 based on DEM 90m)

Following the Cabe mouth that heads to the Miño Valley we can get into the Ourense region and its granitic peneplains where several Paleolithic sites were studied (López 2001; Vázquez 1973; Villar 1997). As for the other cases, the presence of isolated findings at Sober and Os Peares, located at the southwestern border of Monforte Basin, may point out to the persistence of this route (Cano 1991). The Miño valley, once its course widens, works as a route that directly communicates with the Atlantic coast, where we can assert an important human settlement during the Paleolithic (Cano et al., 1997; Meireles 1996).

in order to explain the first settlement of NW Iberia and its relation to the neighboring areas, such as the Northern Meseta, Portugal and the Cantabrian Coast. Sadly, the scarcity of absolute dates and research programs prevent us from establishing a good chronological framework. Along with the geographical location of the Monforte basin, paleoenvironmental proxies based on geomorphological data have shown that, due to their low elevation, the mean temperatures of the Monforte Basin and Sil valley during the glacial periods would be milder than those in the surrounding areas and comparable to those recorded at the coast (Valcárcel et al. 1998). Consequently, the Monforte Basin could be regarded as a refuge area during the glacial periods while the mountain and inland region, with drier and colder conditions, would be covered by glacial sheets and herbaceous steppes (Gómez et al. 2008; Pérez and Valcarcel 1997; Ramil et al. 2005-2006; Vidal et al. 1999). The confluence of these geological, geographical and topographical characteristics could explain the high intensity of hominid settlement identified at the Monforte Basin during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene.

Finally, we can define another route going through the plains of O Saviñao and passing through the northern margin of Serra do Faro which leads to the valley of the river Ulla. In contrast to the aforementioned areas, the absence of research programs in this sector prevents us from making a reliable assessment of the importance of this natural pathway. The unique reference next to this route is the Lower Paleolithic site of Pedras, located in a small basin in the granitic plain of O Saviñao, 2 km away from the river Miño (Fábregas et al. 2009).

Archaeological surveys

The presence of several Paleolithic sites and findings along these regions and routes strengthens the consistence and traditional significance of these pathways during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene and can be used as good references

The study area we have chosen is focused on the Monforte Basin, the largest sedimentary depression of the region

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more than 20 artifacts per site, some of them reaching hundreds of elements. Although their artifact densities cannot be compared to those identified at other Iberian areas (Castellanos 1986, Diez 2000, Santonja and Pérez 20002001, Rodríguez de Tembleque 2005), namely because of the handicaps discussed above, we must take into account the reduced area of the fields surveyed (usually less than 1 Ha) preventing us from checking larger areas and recovering more artifacts. The scarcity of lithic objects in some of the points, the fact that about 25% of them don’t come from systematic research, and the small size of plowed fields prevent us from getting a detailed understanding of the site functionality, but, indeed, some trends about technological aspects and settlement patterns can be outlined. Since the technological and geological characteristics of the main lithic assemblages are described in other publications (Fábregas et al., 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010; de Lombera et al., 2006, 2008; Rodríguez et al, 2008), in this paper we endeavor to study the technological and raw material procurement strategies on the Monforte basin.

(de Groot 1974; Olmo 1985; Santanach 1994). Based on previous geological data, aerial photography, topographic and morphometric analysis Tertiary, Pleistocene and Holocene surfaces were identified within Monforte’s basin (Ameijenda this volume). As we stated before, the spread of these deposits is quite variable on the different sectors of the basin, conditioning the spatial distribution and density of the archaeological sites. We must take into account some handicaps, such as the dense vegetation and climatic conditions of the region that decrease the extension of the surveying area and the visibility of the surface scatters. While the bottom valley is covered by different agricultural exploitations which have a long term use (mainly grassland), the margins of the Basin are partially covered by forest and therefore there is no chance of walking along newly plowed fields. Another factor is the low perceptivity of the artifacts as they are made on local raw materials and dispersed over the conglomerate surfaces that define these Quaternary deposits. Nevertheless, the spatial distribution and topographical characteristics of the archaeological sites allow us establishing the criteria that define the settlement patterns of these Paleolithic societies and its evolution during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene.

According to the geoarchaeological analysis a relative chronology of the Quaternary surfaces and related sites could be established. Based on the topography and morphometry of Pleistocene deposits (considering fluvial terraces, glacis and pediments), 7 erosional levels were identified on the different margins of the Basin (Ameijenda 2008). Their geomorphological position, along with the technological characteristics of the lithic assemblages, allow us to achieve a chronological framework for the human settlement of the Basin (Figure 2).

The Palaeolithic sites of Monforte basin Since the Palaeolithic research programs on NW Iberia were traditionally focused on the lower Miño Basin, on our study area the only reference to a Paleolithic artifact was a quartzite handaxe found by a schoolboy at Vilaescura in the mid-twenties. Lately, the numerous findings made by a local amateur (Jose Antonio Peña) pointed out to the real importance of the Paleolithic settlement on the Basin and led to the start of a research program (Fábregas et al., 2007; de Lombera et al., 2008; Rodriguez et al. 2008). Field works carried out since 2006 have allowed the localization of more than eighty surface lithic scaters, ranging from sites with squares of artifacts to others with just an isolated finding, and dating from the Lower to the Upper Paleolithic. Their technical features and roundness show a great homogeneity on each dispersal, probably pointing out to the synchronicity of the artifacts and their common origin and in loco position.

Most of the archaeological findspots are located on the middle levels (N4 and N5) while their presence on the other levels, except N1, is more scarce. Taking into account the technological characteristics of the lithic collections, Mode 2 sites are placed on the middle and upper levels (N3-N7), which are related to the Middle Pleistocene surfaces, while the Mode 3 sites are located on the Upper Pleistocene lower surfaces (N1). The presence of Mode 3 and even Mode 4 lithic assemblages on older levels need not to be controversial since the concurrence of Lower and Middle Paleolithic occupational landscapes shows the similarities of settlement patterns between these two periods, as we shall see later. On the other hand, the presence of Mode 2 lithic industries on Upper Pleistocene surfaces might be explained by the effects of postdepositional processes (Figure 3).

Along with the field surveys, some test-pits were done on those locations whose artefact densities might indicate the presence of archaeological sites in stratigraphical context. These works were carried out at the sites of As Lamas and Valverde at the Monforte Basin, and Pedras at the granitic peneplain of O Saviñao (Fábregas et al., 2009; 2010). Besides, other findings in stratigraphic context were made on the sites of O Regueiral, and Áspera (Monforte de Lemos) (Fábregas et al., 2007; Rodríguez et al., 2008). The study of these provides us with further data on the sedimentary, technological and chronological characteristics of the Quaternary surfaces where those findings were made.

Technological evolution The oldest evidences of the Basin, according to the morphotechnical features and sedimentary context, are all located at the parish of Chao de Fabeiro (N7), on the northern rim, where five lithic scatters were discovered. On this site, 26 quartzite artifacts (only one of them on quartz) were recovered. Among them handaxes are present along with Choppers and Chopping-tools made on quartzite cobbles. The configuration strategies are focused

The 51.25% of the archeological points identified on the Basin have less than 6 artifacts, and 20% have yielded

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Erosional Levels

Height

N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 Alluvial fan Paleozoic Tertiary Slope Indet

0-5m 5-12,5m 12,5-20m 20-40m 40-60m 60-80m >80m -

TOTAL

Mode 2 1 1 2 5 4 4 2

Mode 3

Mode 4

2

1 4

7 1

Indet 2

1

6 2 2

2 2 2

1 1

3

4 4 2 1 20

25

17

9

43

4 1

TOTAL 5 1 2 12 11 2 4 13 9 5 4 26 94

Figure 2: Erosional levels and technological adscription of the archaeological sites.

Figure 3: Monforte Basin archaeological sites and erosional levels. The dark symbols refer to higher density sites. 1: Chao Fabeiro; 2: Chao Vilar; 3: As Lamas; 4: O Regueiral; 5: Valverde; 6: Costa Grande; 7: San Mamede.

97

A Regueira A Vide/Casar As Gándaras As Gandariñas As Lamas As Lamas Cata 2 NII As Lamas Cata 2 NIII As Lamas Vertedoiro Áspera Bóveda Chao Fabeiro Chao Vilar I Chao Vilar II Chao Vilar III Costa Grande-I Costa Grande-III Costa Grande-IV Finca Danone ( AL) Gándara Chá Gullade Gullade I Gullade III O Bao-I O Regueiral O Regueiral II O Regueiral-III Outeiriño Pedras Pedrouzo de Mourelos San Mamede Sobrado Susao Valverde TOTAL

Sites

Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 4 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 2 Indet Mode 4 Mode 4 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 3 Mode 3 Mode 3 Mode 3 Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 2 Mode 4? Mode 3 Mode 3? Mode 3 Mode 4

Tech. Mode

nb

98

1 5

1

3 32

3 2 10 129 8

1

2 1

3

1

NBE

109

2 1

4 1

1

2 1

3

3 8 3

2 4

65

1 5 3

1GNBC 3 2 6 5 69 2 2 3 1 2 7 5 2 1 3 2 1 4 1 3 1 5 1 7 4 2 3 3 4 9 1 1 12 177

2GNBC

Configurated tools

1 3

1

1

F2GNB

Figure 4: Main archaeological sites and lithic categories.

1

1

1 2 2

3 3

1

2

1 2 6 1 1 1

2GNBE

4 1

1 1 2 1

45 1 3 1 2 2 3 6 8 5 3 1 1 2 2 2

1 14 2

1GNBE

Cores

10

1

1 1

7

NBC 8 3 2 8 35 19 14 1 2 5 4 8 6 10 101 61 19 3 24 4 6 8 8 9 15 5 4 13 6 18 11 16 37 493

PB

2 3 41

1 2 1 5

2 8 1

6 6 1 1

1

1

FPB

6 27

1

3

1

1

1

2 1

1

4 5 1

PB Frag.

Flaking products

2 15

1

1

4 1

1

2 3

Frag 14 25 14 15 230 29 30 11 6 13 24 24 18 20 122 79 23 14 32 12 9 14 12 32 23 7 14 27 11 37 12 21 75 1049

TOTAL

on the production of core-tools, reaching the 50%, one of the highest percentages in the whole area. Reduction sequences are not so complex, as the longitudinal and orthogonal methods are predominant over the centripetal ones. The presence of handaxes, Choppers and orthogonal

1

1

2

Hammers

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

and longitudinal reduction sequences points out to an adscription to the Mode 2 technocomplex (Figure 4 and 5).

Nevertheless, most of the Mode 2 sites are located on the middle surfaces (erosional levels N5-N4). Related to the N5

Arturo de Lombera Hermida et al.: The Palaeolithic Settlement of the Monforte Basin

Figure 5: Lithic materials of Chao Fabeiro.

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

surfaces, the dispersals of Chao Vilar (I-II and III), lying on a flat surface in the western sector, are the most important reaching 62 elements among the three lithic assemblages (Fábregas et al, 2009) (Figure 4 and 6). The N4 erosional level is where the majority of Mode 2 sites are located, some of them placed over the T5 (T+50m) of the Cabe river. At the site of As Lamas, on a surface of 24 Ha, five archaeological points were discovered, yielding more than 230 lithic objects, adding to those recovered by Jose Antonio Peña. In 2009, field works at the Test Pit II revealed the existence of at least two archaeological levels related to the colluviums that covered the fluvial sediments, dated by OSL in 39866±3554 BP (Level III) and 38947±3150 BP (Level II) (Fábregas et al. 2007, 2010). While the first level (N-II) was related to a Middle Paleolithic occupation, the second one (N-III) yielded stone artifacts whose technical features and surface alterations (oxides) were very similar to those recovered during survey (Figure 6). Their presence on a final Upper Pleistocene colluvium must be regarded as the product of an erosive episode that destroyed ancient sediments during Heinrich 4, due to harder environmental conditions in this period. The dating of the fluvial sediments will give us maximum ages for these findings. Finally, on the N3 surfaces, other Mode 2 lithic assemblages were identified, such as the site of As Gándaras.

natural shape and volume of the initial matrix, conditioning the disposal of the removals. Only on discoidal, Levallois and some centripetal cores, their volumetric management becomes more complex. Flakes usually present a high degree of cortex on the dorsal faces and facetted striking platforms are rare (only 3%). As we are dealing mostly with surface findings we cannot make a direct relation among cores and flakes, but their technical features point out to the technical homogeneity of these dispersals. The variability among these sites might be explained by their functionality and their origin from surface collection. For instance, those lithic assemblages recovered during systematic surveys have a higher presence of flakes (Figure 7). Mode 3 Paleolithic sites are mostly located at the Erosional Level 1 and 2, but also in Level 5. The most important are O Regueiral, O Regueiral-II, As Gandariñas, Susao, San Mamede, Mañente, Gullade I and III and the lithic assemblage recovered at the Level II identified at the Test Pit II from As Lamas (Fábregas et al., 2007; 2009; 2010). Their technological characteristics are different from those aforementioned, as large cutting-tools are almost absent, while light duty-tools play a more important role, and the reduction strategies are dominated by the centripetal and discoidal methods. The only archaeological records on stratigraphic context were identified at the sites of O Regueiral and As Lamas (Test Pit II). At the first, situated on an alluvial fan, 32 artifacts were recovered, some of them amidst a colluvium dated by OSL at 69446±5472 BP (MIS 4). Next to it, two more scatters were identified within a radius of 300 m (Regueiral-II and III) with an assemblage of 30 lithics that shares the same technical features with those of O Regueiral-I (Fábregas et al., 2009) (Figure 8). At the site of As Lamas (Test Pit II), the Level-II was dated on 38947±3150 BP BP (MIS 3). In this case, the archaeological level is linked to the Upper colluvium but the roundness and size of the stone implements suggest a primary context of deposition (Fábregas et al., 2010).

On these sites the presence of large cutting-tools, medium and large sized flaking products and the occurrence of orthogonal and centripetal reduction sequences increases with respect to Chao Fabeiro. Configuration strategies are focused on the production of large-cutting tools such as handaxes, cleavers and thriedrical pics which can reach the 70% of the tools, and whose mean dimensions are 121x85x41 mm. Most handaxes are made on pebbles (1GNBC: 55.7%) while the handaxes made on flakes (2GNBC) only amount to the 33% of the collection. In other cases, the type of the initial matrix cannot be determined. Only 36.3% of handaxes present trimming and regularizing of the edge and they usually show a high degree of cortex on their surfaces, especially on the basis and laterals of the implements. In just few cases soft-hammer percussion can be asserted. On light-duty tools the retouching sequences are restricted to a small portion of the flake´s edges creating lateral diedrical and denticulate morphologies dominating the sidescraper (17.9%) and denticulate (13.2%) morphotypes over the notches, becs and end-scrapers (Figure 6).

Regarding the reduction sequences, centripetal and discoidal cores (both with a percentage of 17.6%) are the most common at the assemblages, rather than orthogonal or longitudinal methods which present lower values (10%). Some cores and products on fine grained quartzite can be related to the Levallois method as they show hierarchization on the reduction of the surfaces and predetermination of the final products. Nevertheless, the Levallois presence in Monforte is quite restricted while discoidal products are more frequent, specially linked to the final reduction stages of small quartz cores. The lithic assemblages are dominated by flakes, on which the centripetal disposal of the scars on dorsal faces and the presence of dihedral and facetted striking platforms (average values of 24% and 9%, respectively) increases with respect to Mode 2 sites. The size of the lithic implements decrease, with mean values ranging from 33.2x34.4x13.8mm at the site of Susao to 57.2x54.1x13.8mm in O Regueiral. The configuration sequences are focused at the production of light-duty tools (2GNBC) (Figure 7), dominating the group of denticulates

Regarding the reduction sequences, the Unifacial/Bifacial Unidirectional and the centripetal are the most frequent, followed by the orthogonal method. The presence of the discoidal method on these sites is minimal (only 5% of the cores and few flaking products). The Levallois method has only been identified in one core at Chao Vilar-II. Taking into account the raw material used (quartzite cobbles) and its availability, cores are knapped using natural striking platforms and their reduction sequences are not very long (60-70% of cores are abandoned at initial or middle stages of reduction). Reduction sequences often profit from the

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Figure 6: Mode 2 lithic artefacts. 1: handaxe from Chao Vilar; 2: handaxe from Outeiriño; 3 and 5: handaxes from As Lamas; 4: cleaver from As Lamas; 6-9: retouched flakes from As Lamas.

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figure 7: Frequencies of the lithic categories in the main archaeological sites.

(denticulate, notches: 45.5%) over the sidescrapers (27.2%) and other tools such as endscrapers and points. Some large cutting-tools such as handaxes can be present but their number is quiet restricted (v.g. Gullade-I or O Regueiral-II).

and medium sized quartzite and quartz implements having good lateral edges. This kind of differential management of the material resources is also identified at the Upper Paleolithic locations in the Foz Côa valley (Aubry 1998) as well as in other Mode 4 sites of Northwest Iberia (de Lombera and Rellán,2010).

Finally, at the sites of Valverde, Costa Grande-III, Áspera and Pedrouzos de Mourelos, Mode 4 lithic assemblages were discovered. Unlike the Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites, these are placed on high locations and not on Quaternary surfaces. Their lithic assemblages are characterized by the presence of blade technology and a wider variety of raw materials, especially crystal quartz and flint. The most important site is Valverde, placed on a slope at 350m a.s.l. Archaeological works yielded more than one thousand lithic objects made on quartz, fine-grained quartzite, rock crystal (14.7%) and flint (6.7%) (Fábregas et al., 2008; Rodriguez et al., 2008). Their technical features: blade and microblade cores and products, as well as backed points and blades and fragments of leaf-shaped points, speak of an evolved stage of the Upper Paleolithic (Figure 9). Along with these specific Upper Paleolithic chaines operatoires made on good quality raw materials (rock crystal, fine-grained quartzite and flint) the bipolar and discoidal methods are focused on the production of small

Raw material procurement As we have seen, the Paleolithic sites of Monforte show the standard demarche of Middle and Upper Pleistocene hominid technology in a concrete geographical region. Parallel to it, raw material procurement strategies change according to the technological improvements and new needs. As we are dealing with a restricted area with a limited lithological offer, human communities alleviate this constriction by either a more careful choice of those raw materials more fitting to the technical requirements or widening their economic territory by the discovery of new lithic resources and/or by the reinforcement of the exchange networks (de Lombera et al., 2008; de Lombera and Rodríguez, 2010) (Figure 10). In Lower Paleolithic sites quartzite is the most frequently

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Arturo de Lombera Hermida et al.: The Palaeolithic Settlement of the Monforte Basin

Figure 8: Mode 3 lithic artefacts. 1-2: retouched flakes, As Gandariñas; 3-4: flake and discoidal core, Gándara Chá (Quiroga); 5-6: discoidal core and retouched flake, Gullade-III; 7-11: discoidal core, flakes and retouched flakes, O Regueiral.

used raw material followed by quartz. The presence of “neocortex” in almost all the lithics suggests the exploitation of secondary deposits of Quaternary age along the Basin (fluvial terraces, alluvial fans, conglomerates). Since the artifact scatters are lying directly on these surfaces, an immediate and opportunistic access to raw material can be asserted. Quartzite pebbles are of low/medium quality with a coarse/medium granulometry, scarce compactness and the presence of internal flaws but, because of their size, are commonly used on the manufacture of heavy-duty tools. Medium and big-sized quartz pebbles are also present in

these fluvial formations but they usually present numerous internal flaws and oxides that impair good knapping control during reduction sequences. Though at first sight it seems to be an opportunistic strategy there is a clear selection of the quality and volumetric characteristics of the pebbles available on conglomerates and riversides in accordance with their final objectives. Tabular and flat quartzite pebbles are selected for the manufacture of handaxes, since they present a good natural morphology for the bifacial reduction. On the other hand, quartz and fine-grained

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Figure 9: Mode 4 artefacts. Valverde site (1-10): 1-2: leaf-point fragments; 3: microblade core on crystal quartz; 4-5: backed elements; 6, 7, 9: blade and bladelet fragments; 8: quartz bipolar core; 10: flint flake; 11: Áspera. Blade core on quartzite.

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Arturo de Lombera Hermida et al.: The Palaeolithic Settlement of the Monforte Basin

Figure 10: Raw materials and archaeological sites.

quartzite are preferred for flaking production and retouched tools of smaller size.

Upper Paleolithic sites of Iberian Peninsula this fact leads to a sharp increase in the number of flint implements, its scarcity in NW Iberia implies an important change of raw material management. Human response to this handicap is made in different ways: Firstly by the introduction of new raw materials especially those cryptocrystalline and fine-grained, including flint or other siliceous rocks. This implies a more intensive exploitation of the local resources and territory, searching for supplementary materials such as rock crystal or argillite which were practically absent in the Middle and Lower Paleolithic sites. For the first time at Monforte Basin we can record the exploitation of primary resources at the quartzite outcrops of Costa Grande-III, where several flakes and cores were recovered. Recent studies applying XRD analysis have demonstrated that the fine-grained quartzite of Valverde came from the Costa Grande outcrops (Ordovicic Quartzite), suggesting the latter´s interpretation as a workshop for the procurement of raw material and its close relation to the Valverde campsite (Fábregas et al., 2009; de Lombera et al., 2008; Veiga 2010). Hence, the intensification of local resources seems enough to palliate the technical needs, but it is complemented by the presence of alloctonous flint too. Given the high mobility of the Upper Paleolithic societies of western Iberia (cf. Aubry and Mangado 2003), the existence of exchange networks reaching the Cantabrian Coast cannot be ruled out as, for instance, the Dentalium shells from Valdavara seem to suggest (Fábregas et al, 2009; Vaquero et al, 2009).

In Mode 3 sites the presence of fine-grained quartzite, more homogeneous, increases as a response to the more demanding reduction methods (Levallois and discoidal) and the higher standardization of light-duty tools. Quartz is also more employed on the production of small flakes and tools. Hence, unlike the Mode 2 sites, at Middle Paleolithic assemblages there seems to be a more intensive selection on the quality of the raw materials, promoting the finegrained texture and the internal homogeneity as we can see on quartz artifacts where the NN variety (no grain/no plane) is more common than in Mode 2 sites, but without changing the type of raw material resources (fluvial and alluvial deposits). But the selection of raw material is not enough to explain these differences between Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites. We must bear in mind the geographical situation of the Mode 3 artifact dispersals (Figure 3). They are mostly placed on the margins of the Basin, far from the Quaternary surfaces where quartzite pebbles are and linked to the southern alluvial fans in which quartz and fine grained quartzite are more frequent. The farther we get from the fluvial valley the more frequent quartz is on the lithic assemblages. But these geographical or lithological conditions cannot be considered the main factors in raw material procurement strategies since the presence of finegrained quartzite and quartz is also high on those sites located on the Quaternary surfaces, such as San Mamede or Mañente, or in the northern sector (O Regueiral I-II and III).

The Chronological context

Finally, in Mode 4 sites, the raw material procurement strategies change according to the new technological requirements. Blade technology demands a high degree of knapping control both during the initial configuration of the core and the reduction sequences. While in other

As we have seen, most of the Monforte open-air sites can be adscribed to the Mode 2 technocomplex, or Acheulian. Although the absolutes dates obtained in the Monforte sites are placed at the final Upper Pleistocene (O Regueiral, As

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Lamas), they are related to colluvial deposits containing Middle Paleolithic (O Regueiral, As Lamas Level II) and reworked Lower Paleolithic (As Lamas Level III) assemblages. The geoarchaeological work carried out at the Monforte Basin has allowed us to reconstruct a relative chronology framework according to the features of the Quaternary surfaces and the technological interpretations of the lithic assemblages recovered there.

Regarding the western Meseta, the closer references are those lithic scatters of the Leon province (Castellanos 1986) and isolated finds of Ponferrada (Neira and Quirós 1996). We must bear in mind the similarity of the surface finds of the Bernesga river and those identified in Monforte Basin. In the former, a sequence of 5 fluvial terraces were identified (T5+85-90; T4+70-75; T3+55-60; T2+40; T1+8-10), containing Mode 2 assemblages. According to the techno-tipological features, these are adscribed to the Middle Acheulian (Castellanos 1986). It is worth mentioning the larger occurrence of pebble tools over the handaxes on the higher terrace (T5), a feature similar to that identified in Monforte´s Chao Fabeiro sites. No absolute datings are available, and the dated Acheulian assemblages closer to Galicia are those identified at Galeria (Atapuerca, Burgos) (Carbonell et al. 1998; Ollé et al. 2005), previously dated at 317±60 BP by ESR (Falgueres et al. 2001) and now put back to ca. 450Ky old (ISRL, TL) (Berger et al. 2008). On the Meseta eastern rim, the ESR dates of the Lower Complex of Ambrona have yielded a minimum age of 366314 Ky (ca. 350Ky), framed in the MIS 9-11 (Falgueres et al. 2006).

In Galicia several Lower Paleolithic sites have been recorded, most of them linked to the middle and lower Miño Basin. The oldest evidences are those of the Lower Miño fluvial terraces related to the highest levels (T8+80m; T7+72-65m), dated by the researchers as Lower Pleistocene (Cano et al. 1997; Giles et al. 2000) where some lithic artifacts were recovered, though not in a clear stratigraphic context. Nevertheless, at the middle terraces (T4+32-42 m and especially, the T3+28-19m) several Lower Paleolithic (Acheulian) locations were identified, some of them in stratigraphic context such as Portomaior (Méndez et al. 2007, Méndez 2008). In nearby granitic peneplains and tertiary Depressions other Acheulian sites have been discovered since 1960 such as those from Chan do Cereixo (Middle Acheulian, Garrido, 1978; Villar 2009) or As Gandaras de Budiño (Late Acheulian, Aguirre 1964; Echaide 1971). Following the course of the Miño river, another region of especial interest is situated at the outskirts of Ourense with other Middle (A Chaira) and Late Acheulian sites (Pazos, cf. A Piteira) located on the granitic peneplains (de Lombera 2005; Rodriguez 1976; Villar 1997, 1998, 1999). Finally, just on the Cantabrian Coast, the site of Louselas, discovered in the 1980s, has yielded an interesting assemblage adscribed to the Middle Acheulian (Ramil and Ramil 2008; Rodríguez 1983).

The Lower Paleolithic of the Cantabrian region is quite problematic since few and ambiguous absolute datings are available. The oldest evidence from the western rim is the scarce lithic assemblage of the Level V of Cabo Busto (Rodríguez 1999, 2001). According to its geomorphological situation it has been adscribed to the MIS 9-11. Further to the East, the oldest absolute dates come from level VII of Lezetxitki (Gipuzkoa), though not without controversy since the lithic assemblages are adscribed to the Middle Palaeolithic (Baldeón 1993). This level is commonly adscribed to the final moments of the MIS 6 (Montes 2003; Rodriguez and Arrizabalaga 2004). Apart from these sites other open-air sites with late Acheulian assemblages have been recorded along the Cantabrian Coast such us Bañugues, the upper fluvial terraces of the river Nalón (T+90), Llagú, La Verde, Rostrío, Irikaitz and the surrounding area of Altamira Cave (Arrizabalaga et al. 2001, 2008; Rodriguez 2002; Montes, 2003). Lower Palaeolithic lithic assemblages have also been found in cave deposits, some of them dated, at least, in the MIS 5, such as Castillo 26 (Blackwell et al. 1992; Cabrera 1984) and El Pendo, although the latter is considered a disturbed deposit (Montes 2003). The same kind of artifacts are also found in the caves of Covalejos (lower levels), El Linar and the exterior talus of La Garma (Garma A), though no absolute datings are available (Montes 2003).

This site list shows to that the first human occupation of NW Iberia took place, to the latest, in the Middle Pleistocene (Figure 11). The lower Miño basin is directly communicated with the Portuguese coast, where other Middle Pleistocene assemblages were identified close to the Galician border (Marinho) though with some technical features, such as the predominance of unifacial reduction and pebble tools over handaxes and cleavers (Meireles, 1996). These are chronologically framed at the MIS 7 (Oosterbeek et al 2010), or even earlier, but no absolute datings are available as yet. The oldest evidence from Portugal comes from the cave of Galeria Pesada where human remains and Acheulian artifacts (handaxes and cleavers) were found in a Middle Pleistocene deposit dated in 241+30/-20 Ky (Marks et al. 2002). At the Lower Tagus valley some sites related to the basal T4 fluvial terrace, dated by IRSL to ≥280-136 Ky, where found with Lower Paleolithic industries such as Monte Famaco, Ribeira da Ponte da Pedra, or Vale do Forno (Martins et al. 2009). According to the absolute datings and technological features of the lithic assemblages the first human settlement of central Portugal should be no older than MIS 8-9 (Oosterbeek et al. 2010).

According to these authors, there seem to exist two different episodes of human colonization: a first represented by the evidence of Cabo Busto (Level V), and maybe La Garma A and Irikaitz, of Middle Pleistocene chronology (Rodriguez and Arrizabalaga 2004, 53). And a second moment, related to Late Acheulian industries, during the early stages of the MIS 5. Based on the presence of Middle Acheulian industries at Louselas (the westernmost site of the Cantabrian Coast) (Ramil and Ramil 2008; Rodríguez

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Arturo de Lombera Hermida et al.: The Palaeolithic Settlement of the Monforte Basin

Figure 11: Main Lower Palaeolithic sites and possible paths across NW Iberia. 1: León. Bernesga valley; 2: Monforte de Lemos; 3: Ourense (Pazos, A Chaira, A Piteira); 4: As Gándaras de Budiño; 5: Portomaior; 6: Lower Miño fluvial terraces; 7: Portuguese Atlantic coast (Caminha); 8: Louselas; 9: Cabo Busto; 10: Bañugues; 11: Paredes. Points, other archaeological sites.

1983) and the industries of the Level V of Cabo Busto (Asturias), Rodriguez Asensio proposed a West-East colonization of the Cantabrian Coast (Rodriguez 1983), thence forward reinforced by the discoveries made on the Miño fluvial sequence by Cano et al. (1997) (Rodriguez 2002).

the human dispersal would then spread to the east along the Cantabrian Coast. No matter if we consider westbound or eastbound dispersals within NW Iberia, according to the lower Paleolithic sites distribution, the Monforte de Lemos Depression plays an important role since it is a crossroad between the Atlantic and Cantabrian areas. It is necessary to obtain new absolute datings through radiometric methods (OSL, TL, ISRL…) in order to have a good chronological framework for NW Iberia that could help in the understanding of the first human settlement of Galicia and its relation to the adjacent regions, including perhaps a key role in the settlement of the Cantabrian Coast.

The scanty absolute datings from Lower Paleolithic sites of the Cantabrian Coast and Galicia makes difficult to go deeper into the first human settlement of this region. If we take into account the western Iberian context, the oldest Acheulian evidences are located in the Northern Meseta (Galería, Atapuerca) while in the Portuguese area few dates are available. In this sense, and taking into account the morpho-technical similarities between the western Meseta and Monforte sites and its geographical proximity (communicated by the Sil Valley), the Monforte Mode 2 industries could be explained by a western dispersal during the Middle Pleistocene (MIS 11-9?). A second path could be along the Atlantic Coast, communicated by the Miño river, where other Middle Pleistocene sites have been identified. Following Rodriguez Asensio´s proposals during MIS 7-6 (second episode), at least for the Acheulian assemblages,

Acknowledgments The archaeological surveys in Monforte de Lemos Basin were done with the founding of the Spanish ‘Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación’ (research projects HUM2007-63662 and HAR2010-21786/HIST), and from the ‘Concello de Monforte de Lemos’. ALH has been supported by a predoctoral grant from Cátedra Atapuerca Foundation.

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la cuenca media del Miño (Ourense).TAPA Traballos en Arqueoloxía da Paisaxe,Santiago de Comspostela, Laboratorio de Arqueoloxía e Formas Culturais, IIT, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. López Cordeiro, M. M. 2003. El yacimiento epipaleolítico de Chan da Cruz (Valadouro, Lugo): Síntesis de los primeros resultados. Complutum 14, 39-54. Marks, A. E., Brugal, J.-P., Monigal, K., Chabadi, V. P., Goldeberg, P., Hockett, B., Pemán, E., Elorza, M. and Mallol Duque, C. 2002. Le gisement Pleistocene moyen de Galeria Pesada (Extrémadure, Portugal). Premieres resultants. Paleo 14, 77-100. Martins, A., Cunha, P., Rosina, P., Oosterbeek, L., Cura, S., Grimaldi, S., Gomes, J., Buylaert, J. P., Murray, A. and Matos, J. 2009. Geoarchaeology of Plesitocene openair sites in the Vila Nova da Barquinha-Santa Cita area (Lower Tejo River basin, central Portugal). Proceedings of the Geologists´Association 121, 128-140. Meireles, J. 1996. As Industrias Líticas Pré-Históricas do Litoral Minhoto. Braga, Universidade do Minho. Méndez Quintas, E. 2008. As ocupacións achelenses das terrazas medias da cunca baixa do Miño. Gallaecia 27, 7-33. Méndez Quintas, E., Villar Quinteiro, R., Santonja Gómez, M., Pérez-González, A. and Ledo Bernández, M. 2006. Valoración preliminar del yacimeinto paleolítico de Portomaior, As Neves, Galicia. Zona Arqueológica 7. 3-10 Montes Barquín, R. 2003. El primer poblamiento de la región Cantábrica.Santader, Museo Nacional y Centro de Investigación de Altamira. Neira Campos, A. and Bernaldo de Quirós, F. 1996. El Paleolítico en la provincia de León. Historia de León a través de la arqueología, 15-28. Valladolid, Junta de Castilla y León. Ollé, A., Cáceres Cuello de Oro, I. and Vergés , J. M. 2005. Human occupations at Galeria Site (Sierre de Atapuerca, Brugos, Spain) after the technological and taphonomical data. In Molines, N., Moncel, M.-H. and Monnier, J. L. (eds.), Données récentes sur les modalités de peuplement et sur le cadre chronostratigraphique, géologique et paléoanthropologique des industries du Paléolithique inférieur et moyen en Europe, colloque international de Rennes, septembre 2003., 269-281. BAR Series Internationales Olmo Sanz, A. 1985. Estudio Geológico-sedimentario de las cuencas terciario-cuaternarias de Monforte de Lemos, Maceda y Quiroga. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 10, 83-93. Oosterbeek, L., Grimaldi, S., Rosina, P., Cura, S., Cunha, P. and Martins, A. 2010. The earliest Pleistocene archaeological sites in western Iberia: Present evidence and research prospects. Quaternary International 223224, 399-407. Pérez Alberti, A. and Valcárcel Díaz, M. 1997. Caracterización y distribución espacial del glaciarismo pleistoceno en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica. Las huellas glaciares de las montañas españolas., 17-62. Santiago de Compostela.

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Santonja Gómez, M. and Pérez-González, A. 2000-2001. El Paleolítico inferior en el interior de la Península Ibérica. Un punto de vista desde la Geoarqueología. Zephyrus 53-54, 15-26. Valcárcel Díaz, M., Blanco Chao, R., Martínez Cortizas, A. and Pérez Alberti, A. 1998. Estimación de las paleotemperaturas en Galicia durante el último ciclo glaciar a partir de datos geomorfológicos y climáticos. In Gómez Ortíz, A. and Salvador Franch, F. (eds.), Investigaciones recientes de la Geomorfología española, 767-770. Barcelona. Vaquero Rodríguez, M., Alonso Fernández, S., Fernández, C. A., Ameijenda Iglesias, A., Blain, H., Fábregas Valcarce, R., Gómez Merino, G., de Lombera Hermida, A., López-García, J. M., Lorenzo Merino, C., Lozano, M., Rodríguez Rellán, C., Rosell Ardèvol, J. and Serna González, M. R. 2009. Nuevas dataciones radiométricas para el Paleolítico Superior en Galicia: La cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo). Trabajos de Prehistoria 66, 99-113. Vázquez Varela, J. M. 1973. Contribución al Estudio del Paleolítico Gallego: La comarca del rio Arenteiro. Cuaderno de Estudios Gallegos XXVIII, 13-22. Veiga Moares, A. 2010. La Cuarcita del yacimiento de Valverde. Un estudio sobre las posibles áreas de captación de recursos líticos en la Depresión de Monforte de Lemos, Dpto. Historia I. Santiago de Compostela, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Unpublished Vidal Romaní, J. R., Fernández Mosquera, D., Marti, K. and de Brum Ferreira, A. 1999. Nuevos datos para la cronología glaciar pleistocena en el NW de la Península Ibérica. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 24, 7-29. Villar Quinteiro, R. (ed.) 2009. Chan do Cereixo (Donas, Gondomar) : una actualización del Paleolítico Inferior en Galicia A Coruña, Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza. Villar Quinteiro, R. 1997. El Paleolítico Inferior y Medio en Ourense. II Congreso de Arqueología Peninsular. Zamora, 1996. Vol I., 15-26. Villar Quinteiro, R. 1997. El yacimiento paleolítico de A Piteira (Toén) Ourense. Boletín Auriense XXVII, 9-25. Villar Quinteiro, R. 1998. El yacimiento paleolítico de Pazos en San Ciprián de Viñas (Ourense). Boletín Auriense XXVII, 9-25. Villar Quinteiro, R. 1999. El yacimiento de A Chaira, San Cibrán de Lás (Ourense). Boletín Auriense XXIX, 9-22.

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Chapter 10: Caves and People. Archaeological Research at the Eastern Margins of NW Iberia Arturo de Lombera Hermida Institut Catalá de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES). Área de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili. Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, Spain. Email: [email protected] Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto. de Historia I, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Abstract: Since the final decades of the XX century several archaeo-palaeontological surveys were made in the caves located at the Eastern Mountains of Galicia. In the beginning few systematic approaches were made but in the recent years several archaeological and palaeontological projects were carried out in the karstic systems of NW Iberia. These approaches helped to achieve a better knowledge of the prehistoric human settlement and palaeoenvironmental evolution. Keywords: Upper Pleistocene, Karstic systems, cave-site, Middle Palaeolithic, Upper Palaeolithic, Chalcolithic, Human burials, Resumen: Desde las décadas finales del siglo XX varias intervenciones arqueo-paleontológicas han sido llevadas a cabo en las cavidades de la Galicia Oriental. Al principio se trataba de intervenciones no sistemáticas o hallazgos aislados pero en los últimos años nuevos trabajos arqueológicos y paleontológicos se han realizado en los sistemas cársticos del NW peninsular. Estas aproximaciones han ayudado al estudio del poblamiento prehistórico y evolución paleoambiental del NW. Palabras clave: Pleistoceno superior, sistemas cársticos, hábitat cavernícola, Paleolítico medio, Paleolítico superior, Calcolítico, enterramientos.

Introduction

In this paper we focus on the history of the archaeopaleontological surveys and the data provided by these studies. Though scarce, some patterns can be achieved from the study of the cave deposits and human occupation.

The Palaeolithic research in Galicia has paid little attention to the eastern mountainous region. The main study areas are located in the hinterland and coastal part of NW Iberia, specially linked to the Miño Basin and adjacent Tertiary depressions (Louro, Ourense and Monforte de Lemos). A third core area is the northern part of the Lugo province where several Upper Palaeolithic rock-shelters have been discovered. Thus, the research has been made on the basis of surveying open-air sites. The main problem with this approach lies in the poor preservation of these deposits, frequently disturbed and, secondly, due to the acid nature of the soils, organic remains are not preserved impairing the recovering of bone assemblages. Consequently, few suitable sites are available for radiometric datings (OSL, etc.).

Limestone formations of NW Iberia One of the main characteristics of Northwest Iberia is its great variety of geological regions providing different types of habitats. In this diversity of spaces is where the wealth and potential of our territory lays, allowing certain flexibility to the animals and plants for their adaptation to the incidences of the climatic changes occurring during the Pleistocene. Thus, in the coldest moments of the LGM, while the inland and mountains of Northwest Iberia were covered by ice sheets and steppe, milder conditions prevailed at the coastal strip and nearby fluvial valleys and depressions, acting as refugee areas (Ramil et al. 2005; Gómez et al. 2008). Besides, the intense glacial dynamics during these periods contribute to the deficient preservation of the archaeo-paleontological records, truncating or dismantling the deposits (Llana et al. 1992). Consequently, the Palaeolithic research had to focus in those areas where the quaternary sedimentation is better preserved (fluvial sequences, tertiary depressions,

The caves located in the limestone formations provide a great quantity and quality of information regarding different disciplines such as Palaeontology, Geomorphology and Archaeology. The systematic approaches made in the last fifty years have helped to the reconstruction of the paleoenvironmental evolution, providing a good framework for the study of open-air sites and the shifts in Palaeolithic settlement.

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and, to a lesser degree, karstic cavities) in order to obtain long stratigraphic sequences and, if possible, primary archaeological records. Nevertheless, the aforementioned erosive processes have altered most of the archaeological sequences often preventing us from getting suitable archaeo-paleontological contexts and absolute datings.

1). Three main formations can be identified, two of them formed in sea platform environments and another, smaller and of coral-reef origin (Taboada and Silva, 1999): • Cándana Limestone: Carbonated deposits of the Middle Cándana series (Lower Cambrian). Limestones and marble formations appear as layers of variable depth, inserted among the Cándana slates. They present lateral changes in depth as well as in the number of carbonated levels among the sandstone and slate deposits. They are grey coloured with a certain lamination when the recrystallization is not very intense. • Vegadeo Limestone: Lower Cambrian. It is the more widespread in the NW Iberia with big banks that stand out in the land. It has less lateral variability than the Cándana´s, although differences in thickness can be observed, being the deepest sector in Becerreá, with 220 meters. It is worth mentioning that in the upper units of this formation, flint sources have been described, tough their precise location is unknown (Marcos et al. 1980; Rodríguez et al. 2010). • Aquitaine Limestone: Ordovician. Calcareous formation of possible coral-reef origin inserted within the Luarca slates and presenting a variable depth that can reach 200 meters. Formed by recrystallized limestones with calcite as main element and other accessory minerals (quartzs, sericitas). Its distribution is much restricted with respect to the previous formations and more disperse, maybe due to its reef origin. • Other limestone formations:  other formations of less developement are identified (Silurian and Devonian limestones), but due to their reduced extension large karstic systems suitable for human occupations are not linked to them.

In this context, the oriental part of Galicia appears as one of the areas of biggest interest to understand the Paleolithic settlement of Northwest Iberia. On one hand, by its condition of border area with the Cantabrian Coast, western Meseta and north of Portugal, communicated by fluvial valleys (Sil, Navia, Limia), mountain passes (Pedrafita), depressions (Verín, O Barco, Ponferrada) and the coastal strip (Ribadeo) (de Lombera et al. 2008). On the other hand, the most important fluvial courses, the Miño and the Sil, along with their tributaries, structure a communication network among the different territories, which communicates the hinterland depressions and main fluvial valleys with the karstic formations of the mountains, allowing a residential and logistic mobility in this territory. But the main interest of the oriental part of Galicia, from a wider point of view, lies in the conjugation of the geological features that offer complementary data to the geoarchaeological research: the Tertiary depressions; the karstics cavities; the rock shelters; and the fluvial terraces. Habitats in which several archeological sites have been documented and that have provided data about the hominid technological evolution, settlement pattern, strategies of subsistence and paleoenvironmental reconstruction. As for paleoenvironmental reconstruction, the eastern karstic systems configure the main referent of the quaternary fauna, since most of the paleontological sites are found in these formations (Fernández, 1993; Grandal et al., 1997). Meanwhile, the important development of the glacial and periglacial deposits identified in this area show the evolution of the climatic conditions in the interior of Galicia during the final Pleistocene and early Holocene (Pérez et al. 1993; Pérez and Valcárcel, 1997; Vidal et al., 1999).

According to their geographical dispersal on NW Iberia five main areas can be identified where the largest karstic systems and main archaeo-palaeontological sites are located: Mondoñedo (Lugo) standing out the Cave of the Rei Cintolo (Villar 2007); Louzara valley (Samos, Lugo), with Cova Eirós (Fábregas et al. 2009; Grandal 1993); Furco-Becerreá, where the caves of Valdavara, Furco and Cova da Venta are located (Fábregas et al. 2008; Grandal et al. 1997; Vaquero et al. 2009); Pedrafita-O Courel (Lugo), with numerous cavities with paleontological remains (Grandal et al. 1997); and finally the Serra de Encina da Lastra (Rubiá, Ourense) especially the cave of Pala da Vella (Fernández et al. 1993; VázquezMonxardín 1988).

Although most of the Palaeolithic evidence in Galicia come from open-air sites, from the archaeological point of view the limestone formations are of special interest, since they have features usually not available at open-air sites: preservation of the organic evidences (especially macro and microfauna) and a better integrity of the archaeological record and deposits. This increases the information regarding paleoenvironmental reconstruction, chronology and, specially, economic and social data such as subsistence strategies, landscape exploitation and mobility, and, as seen at Valdavara and Eirós caves, symbolic or artistic evidences.

Archaeo-palaeontological approaches to Galician cave systems in the XX-XXI centuries

The limestone formations, unlike the Cantabrian region, do not have a widespread extension, occupying just the 0.5% of the territory, since in Galicia the igneous and metamorphic substrates are predominant. They are located exclusively in the eastern part of the provinces of Lugo and Ourense, as narrow stripes crossing from the NE of Ourense (Rubiá) up to the NE of the province of Lugo (Eo river mouth) (Figure

Although the first scientific research in cavities goes back to the end of 19th century, with the intervention of Villaamil y Castro in the cave of Furada dos Cas (Mondoñedo, Lugo), it will not be until the middle 20th century when the interest in the caves is taken up, following similar dynamics in the Cantabrian region. Despite their great potentiality for

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Figure 1: Limestone formations and main archaeo-palaeontological sites mentioned in the text. 1: Serra da Encina da Lastra, Pala da Vella (Rubiá, Ourense); 2. Serra do Courel, Cova de Xato (O Courel, Lugo); 3. Pedrafita, Liñares Sur (Pedrafita, Lugo); 4. Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Lugo); 5. Cova de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo); 6. Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo); 7. Cova do Rei Cintolo (Mondoñedo, Lugo).

the prehistoric research, only little interest was shown by Galician archaeologists on this type of sites. The first organized Galician speleological expedition took place in 1954 in the Cave of Rei Cintolo (Mondoñedo), the longest cave of Galicia (Masma 1988). Only in the 80s the work of the speleological groups (Club Montañeros Celtas de Vigo, G.E. Vagalumes, Pena Trevinca, G.E.S. Ártabros, Grupo Maúxo, etc.) gains momentum and topographical plans are made of numerous cavities and underlining the archaeo-paleontological importance of the karstic systems, especially in the Serra do Courel, Encina da Lastra (Rubiá, Ourense) and parts of Ancares. An evidence of the floruit of Speleology during those years are the specialized publications edited by the Federation and speleologist clubs where, with the collaboration

of archaeologists and palaeontologists, the biological, geological and archaeological features of the karstic formations are shown didactically (v.g. Furada, Boletín Informativo do G.E.S. Ártabros). The most remarkable aspect of these activities, along with the topographical study of the cavities, is their pioneer character. Through collaboration with researchers of the University of A Coruña they were behind the discovery of numerous paleontological sites leading to the initiation of studies on the Upper Pleistocene and Early Holocene fauna, particularly reflected in the journal Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe. The studies are focused in the area of  Pedrafita-Courel, where cavities with larger deposits are located, such as the caves

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To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

(Rubiá, Ourense), finding several objects on the surface of the Palas de Pumbeira,  Cubelas  and Pala C caves (Vázquez-Monxardín 1988). These works will be the precedent of those ones carried out at the early nineties by the USC and leading to the excavation of the cave of Pala da Vella (Fernández et al. 1993).

of Valdeabraira, Praducelos, Purruñal, etc. (Alberti 1985; Golpe and Vidal 1985; Montesinos 1983; de Torres 1983). As a result of this collaboration, since the end of the eighties the first systematic paleontological interventions were undertaken in the site of Cova Eirós (Triacastela) and  Liñares South (Pedrafita) (Grandal 1993;  López 2003), as well as numerous surveys in several caves (Cova da Ceza, Valdeabraira, etc.). In most cases these finds are monoespecific, most often remains of bears, although there are caves with a larger array of taxa (Valdeabraira, Praducelos). Most of the paleontological remains seem to correspond with the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene, predominating the remains of bears (Ursus spelaeus and Ursus arctos), cervids (Cervus elaphus), as well as horses, suids and bovids, being remarkable by their diversity the cavities of Cova Eirós, Liñares Sur, Valdeabraira, Praducelos. (Grandal et al. 1997; López and Grandal 1998). On the other hand, the only Proboscidian remains (Elephas primigenius) of the NW Iberia were found in a limestone quarry at Buxán (Sarria, Lugo) (Torre 1962).

In 1987 the first systematic archaeological excavation carried out in a cave (A Valiña, discovered in 1960) yielded a human occupation of the early Upper Palaeolithic as well as remains of hyena activity (Llana and Soto 1991; Fernández 1992/1993; Vázquez 1965/1966). This excavation is a milestone in the history of the Palaeolithic research in Galicia, undertaking the first interdisciplinary study based on the archaeological, zooarchaeological and pedological data (Llana et al. 1996). According to the radiocarbon datings and the character of the lithic assemblage the occupation was adscribed to the Chatelperronian, being the westernmost evidence of the early Upper Palaeolithic in the Cantabrian Coast (Llana and Soto 1991; Llana et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the recent review of the lithic assemblage stresses its Middle Palaeolithic character, based on the scarcity of lithic implements (around 90) and the ambiguity of the radiocarbon datings (Fábregas and de Lombera 2010; Maíllo 2008; Maroto et al. 2005; Zilhao, 2006).

Despite the scarcity and irregularity of the finds, mostly monoespecific, the data provided by archaeological and paleontological excavations and the new analytical approaches led to a significant progress in the reconstruction of the Galician Pleistocene fauna, allowing the first certain inferences about Paleoecology and Paleodemography, too (Fernández, 1993b, 2003; Fernández et al. 1995; Fernández - Mosquera 1998; Grandal 2010; Grandal et al. 1997; Grandal and López 1998, 2001; López and Grandal 1998; López et al. 2006).

At the same time, in 1989 and 1990, Soto Barreiro directed some surveys in different cavities in the vicinities of the Rei Cintolo cave (Mondoñedo, Lugo) (Soto 1995). The aim of these surveys was the surface revision and the accomplishment of small test pits in order to know the stratigraphy of the deposits and confirm the evidences of anthropic occupations. Although in some cases the results were negatives, in Cova Senar, and at the entrances of the Furadas caves (Marianeta I, II, II and IV) their stratigraphic sequences showed the existence of three levels, one of them an intact occupational layer with lithic industries similar to those found in A Valiña  (Soto 1995). There are not references about the chronology nor functionality of the occupations, but these can be taken as a example of the importance of the cave habitats during the Palaeolithic in NW Iberia.

In the meantime, several archaeological finds in caves were made during the 70s and 80s, opening a new field of study about prehistoric and historical societies, although till the final 80s the digs were very scarce and punctual. In 1976 archaeological surveys directed by the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC) were carried out in order to understand the antiquity and evolution of the historical settlement in the Serra do Courel (Luzón et al. 1980). Although most of the finds are from the Iron Age and Roman period, linked to the important gold mining in the area (vg. Mina da Toca, Mina de Toribio), a series of cavities with evidences of prehistoric settlement were also surveyed. Among them stand out Cova do Oso, Longo de Meo, Cova do Eixe and Cova de Tras da Lastra. The superficial review of most of the caves did not offer materials of Palaeolithic age, though some of them present important sedimentary infills at their entrances. Despite the importance of Pleistocene paleontological remains in the cavities of O Courel, as shown before, the oldest archaeological remains are the ceramics of the Cova do Oso, adscribed to a final stage of the Bronze Age or Early Iron Age (Luzón et al. 1980, 69).

Following the same work schedule, in the beginning of the 90s the surveys at the cavities of Serra da Lastra (Rubiá, Ourense) are taken up, working in numerous caves and digging small test pits (1x1 m). The most important site is Pala da Vella, which yielded several archaeological levels ranging from the Upper Pleistocene to the Bronze Age. Its only Pleistocene level seems to be a carnivores den (Fernández et al. 1993; Fernández and Villar 2003). Nevertheless, some Palaeolithic evidence appeared at Pala I de Arroyo de Pardellán: some lithic remains in the interior of one of the mouths of the cave, as well as on the surface nearby, preliminarily adscribed to the Middle Palaeolithic, although the superficial character of the finds and the little standardisation of the lithics do not allow further inferences.

Further to the south, Vázquez-Monxardín in 1984 carried out a limited survey of the Encina da Lastra cavities

In 1993 a small test pit is carried out at the entrance of

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Arturo de Lombera Hermida: Caves and People

al. 2009). The later corresponds to a burial deposit of three individuals. On the same slope two more loci exist, one of them yielding Bronze Age burials (Valdavara 2), and in the other (Valdavara 1/2) lithic and bone remains have been recovered. The latter was dated in 8920±50 BP and 8890±60 BP and adscribed to the Macrolithic Mesolithic complex. Despite the reduced extension of the Valdavara cavities and deposits, those have shown a great variety of functions, going from the domestic of Valdavara 1 and 1/2, to the funerary during different phases of the Recent Prehistory (Valdavara 2 and Valdavara 1 (levels 1-3). Finally, in a quarry 300m uphill from Valdavara 1, another site was identified (Valdavara-3). Though the extractive works destroyed part of the sediments, a vast number of faunal remains was recovered from the altered deposits and also in stratigraphic context. According to the macro and micromammal associations, a Final Middle PleistoceneUpper Pleistocene chronology has been proposed. The find of some quartz and quartzite artefacts in stratigraphic context can be considered as evidence of human activities at the cavity, maybe related to short occupations as the faunal remains do not show a high degree of anthropic modifications.

Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Lugo) by a team from the USC University (Cano and Nogueira 1993; Nogueira 1997), some years after the first paleontological excavations made at the bottom of the same cave searching for cave bears remains (Grandal 1993a). That excavation yielded several archaeological levels, the upper adscribed to the early Upper Palaeolithic (levels II and III) and the underlying levels with Middle Palaeolithic lithic assemblages (level IV and V). Thus, Cova Eirós becomes the first reference of a Middle Palaeolithic cave site, as well as the only place in Galicia where the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic transition can be studied. Unfortunately, this project had not continuity and only the preliminary data of the Upper Paleolithic lithic assemblage were published (Nogueira 1997). A decade after, in 2002, some test pits were done in the interior of the O Rei Cintolo Cave, within a project of archaeological heritage funded by the Council of Mondoñedo (Lugo) (Villar 2007). Some pits were dug in the same room where Soto Barreiro worked in 1993. At the entrance some ceramics and a hearth were found in the test pit, yielding new data about the medieval occupations of the cave. In a small test pit made in an interior gallery a bone assemblage was found (Camerín, S3) dated by radiocarbon in 7735±60 BP (Lyon-2731 (OxA)). Some of the bones presented clear cut-marks on their surfaces (Villar 2007), pointing out to the anthropic origin of this assemblage, but, according to their distribution and technical features, their interpretation as by-products of consumption activities was discarded (Villar 2007, 44). This circumstance, adding to the absence of artefacts, has led to the interpretation of this bone assemblage as an evidence of ritual or symbolic activities. These works did not have continuity, thus preventing the obtention of further knowledge about the depositional context of this interesting assemblage.

The archaeological works carried out in Cova do Xato (O Courel, Lugo) have yielded a human occupation at the entrance dated in the III-IV century AD, possibly linked to a short occupation. Only bear remains either of Ursus arctos or Ursus spelaeus were recorded from the Pleistocene deposits, suggesting an Upper Pleistocene chronology. It is worth mentioning the presence of a bone presenting fresh breakage and cut-marks on the surface, suggesting an anthropic activity, but neither artefacts nor other human evidences were found at the site, so that we must be cautious about the presence of humans on the cave at the Pleistocene (Fábregas et al. 2008).

The recent discoveries in eastern Galicia: Cova de Valdavara, Cova de Xato, and Cova Eirós

Severe erosive processes were identified in the infills of the cave and a 3.5m deep periglacial deposit was located at the entrance, showing the high influence of the glacial erosive dynamics during the LGM. We must bear in mind that Cova do Xato is located at 1080m asl and would be directly affected by the glacial phenomena identified in the Serra do Courel (Pérez et al. 1993). Thus, Cova do Xato can be considered as an example of the cold conditions and erosive processes affecting high altitude caves, and underlines the problems of the preservation of old deposits in those caves and their suitability for human occupations during cold periods.

Since 2007 a new archaeological project has been running in the eastern region of Galicia, focused on the study of open-air sites in the Monforte de Lemos Depression and the caves located towards to the East: Cova do Xato (O Courel, Lugo), Cova de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo) and Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Lugo) (Fábregas et al. 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010; de Lombera et al. 2008; Vaquero et al. 2008, 2009). In 2007 the archaeological surveys started in the site of Valdavara, located in the right bank of the Narón river, one of the tributaries of the Navia, about 120 m high over the valley. Located in a small karstic system (Vegadeo Formation) three loci are identified (Vaquero et al. 2009; this volume). Valdavara 1 is a cavity with an entry of hardly 1,2m wide and 1,6m high giving access to a small chamber of about 5 x 3m. Two main occupational moments were identified, one dated in the Lower-Middle Magdalenian (levels 4 to 6), and another belonging to the Chalcolithic (levels 1 to 3) (Vaquero et

Finally, in 2008 the archaeological works at the entrance of Cova Eirós confirmed the importance of this site, where six archaeological levels were identified (Level C, Level B, Level 1, Level 2, Level 3 and Level 4) ranging from the MIS5 to the final stages of the MIS 2 (Fábregas et al. 2009, 2010; Rodriguez et al. this volume). Consequently, Cova Eirós is the only place of NW Iberia where we can study the evolution of the Upper Pleistocene hunter/gatherer societies and the Middle/Upper Palaeolithic transition. Although the

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116

Bronze Age

Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic

Mesolithic/Epipaleolithic

Upper Palaeolithic Magdalenian

Nivel 3 Nivel IV Nivel V Nivel IV Nivel 2 Nivel 1 Nivel 6 Nivel 4 Nivel 4 Nivel C Nivel C Camerín (S3) Nivel 2 Nivel 2 Nivel 2 Pasillo Nivel 1 Nivel 3 Nivel 3

Level Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Domestic Indet/Burial? Indet/Burial? Domestic Domestic Ritual (?) Indet/Burial? Burial Burial Burial Burial? Domestic Burial Burial

Function OSL C-14 C-14 C-14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C14-AMS C-14 C14-AMS C-14 C-14 C14-AMS C14-AMS C-14 C14-AMS C14-AMS

Method 84807±4919 34800 ± 1900/1500 31730 ± 2800/2100 31600 ± 250 31690 ± 240 15120 ± 70 14630 ± 70 13770 ± 70 9212 ± 83 * 8847 ± 119 * 8920 ± 50 8890 ± 60 7735 ± 60 5449 ± 96 * 4790 ±120 4500 ± 35 4490 ± 40 3390 ± 26 * 3280 ±125 3250 ± 40 3270 ± 40

Years BP MAD-5612BIN GrN-17729 GrN-20833 GrA-3014 Beta - 254280 Beta-257849 Beta-235726 Beta-235728 Ua-38115 Ua-13398 Beta-257850 Beta-259199 Lyon-2731 (OxA) Ua-38124 GrN-19395 GrA-1021 Beta-235727 Ua-38121 GrN-19394 Beta-235729 Beta-235730

Lab Ref

Figure 2: Radiometric datings for the archaeological sites mentioned in the text. (* Cal BP).

Cova Eirós A Valiña A Valiña A Valiña Cova Eirós Cova Eirós Valdavara 1 Valdavara 1 Valdavara 1 Chan do Lindeiro Chan do Lindeiro Valdavara 1/2 Valdavara 1/2 Cintolo Rebolal Pala da Vella Pala da Vella Valdavara 1 Cova Eirós Pala da Vella Valdavara 2 Valdavara 2

Middle Palaeolithic Early Upper Palaeolithic ??

Early Upper Palaeolithic

Site

Chronocultural Ads.

Fábregas et al. 2008;2009 Llana et al. 1996 Llana et al. 1996 Llana et al . 1996 Fábregas et al.2010 Fábregas et al. 2008;2009 Vaquero et al. 2009 Vaquero et al. 2009 Fábregas et al l. 2010 Vidal et al. 2010 Vidal et al. 2010 Fábregas et al. 2010 Fábregas et al . 2010 Villar, 2007 Vidal et al. 2010 Fernández y Villar, 2003 Fernández y Villar, 2003 Vaquero et al. 2009 Vidal et al. 2010 Fernández y Villar, 2003 Vaquero et al. 2009 Vaquero et al. 2009

Reference

To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic Settlement of Galicia

Arturo de Lombera Hermida: Caves and People

2008; Grandal 1993, Grandal et al. 1997). Carnivore dens have been described in the cave of Valdavara 2 (Fábregas et al. 2010; Vaquero et al. 2009) and also at the level 3 of Pala da Vella (Fernández and Villar 2003). But the best known are the remains of Cova da Valiña, where several hyaena bones and coprolites were recorded pointing to a carnivore use of the cave just after the human occupation (dated 3531 ky ago) (Fernández 1992/1993). Caves with a greater specific variety (vg. Praducelos) and with no anthropic evidences could be regarded as carnivore dens, although we must be cautious about this issue, given the scarce development of taphonomic studies on these assemblages (Fernández 2005/2006).

diggings are still under way, the estratigraphic sequence has provided important data about the Upper Pleistocene human settlement in NW Iberia, filling the information gaps of open-air sites and rock shelters. On the other hand, is a key site to study the relation between NW and Cantabrian sites. Chronological outline and functionality Although the Palaeolithic research in NW Iberia has mainly focused on the open air sites linked to the fluvial terraces and Tertiary Depressions, the works carried out in the eastern limits of Galicia have provided huge information about the palaeoenvironmental and faunal evolution. The low number of cave sites cannot be considered as a evidence of the scarce use of cavities by humans, but as a consequence of the few systematic approaches made by the researchers, the scarce development of the limestone formations in the territory and their location within the influence of glacial and periglacial processes. Consequently, regional approaches regarding cave site settlement patterns and mobility, such as those made in the Cantabrian Region (vg. González and González 2004, Marín 2008) have not been attempted.

Caves have been occupied since, at least, the Upper Pleistocene till historic times. The oldest evidences are those from the levels 3 and 4 of Cova Eirós, adscribed to the Middle Paleolithic and dated in the MIS 5. Though the study of the assemblage is still under way, the high densities of lithic and bone remains seem to suggest the presence of fairly long occupations, linked to residential mobility. The presence of complete debris and flaking products, as well as the high fragmentation shown by the bones, that sometimes present breakage to gain access to marrow and cut-marks, point to the anthropic factor as the main agent of the archaeological assemblage (Fábregas et al. 2009, 2010). However, the presence of carnivores and bears is higher in those levels too, suggesting an alternate use of the cave by human and animal, as seen in other Cantabrian caves (Yravedra 2002). Also belonging to the Middle Paleolithic are the artifacts recovered in Pala do Arroyo do Pardellán I, though the scarcity of the lithic assemblage and other information do not allow us to do further considerations (Fernández et al. 1993a).

According to the depositional context and chronology of the cave occupations some remarks about their functionality can be achieved (de Lombera 2011). Firstly, the archaeological levels identified in several caves show a continuous use of these habitats by human societies since, at least, the final stages of the Middle Pleistocene till the historic ages (Figure 2). The function of those occupations is quite different and, as we shall see later, they seem to vary during the time. Some of the palaeontological finds made in deep galleries or caves are related to scarce and monospecific assemblages. The best example is the cave of Liñares Sur, where several remains of cervids (Cervus elaphus), predominant over other species, were recovered from the deposits in a deep gallery (López 2003). According to the manganese coatings that affected the bones several depositional events were identified, suggesting that the cave acted as a natural trap where animals fell down (López et al. 2006). Maybe, related to this kind of deposition, several faunistic finds in deep caves and galleries (most of them with only one species) can be considered as natural traps. The presence of lithic artefacts, such as Valdavara 3, could be interpreted as eventual attempts at carcasse procurement by the human communities, as testified in other Peninsular sites such as Galeria (Atapuerca, Burgos, Carbonell et al. 1998; Ollé et al. 2005) or Cova del Rinoceront (Barcelona) (Daura et al. 2005).

Belonging to the early Upper Paleolithic, dated around 3531 Ky BP, two archaeological levels have been identified: the level 2 of Cova Eirós, and, following excavators interpretation, the level IV of A Valiña (Llana and Soto 1991). In the latter, based on the artifact densities and taphonomic studies the human occupations are considered short lived, linked to a sporadic use of the cave. As seen before, the hyaena arrived shortly after the human left the cave. The level 2 of Cova Eirós is dated in 31690±240 BP (Beta-254280, C14-AMS) (Figure 2). The lithic assemblage is composed by quartz implements (93,3%) and, secondarily, quartzite tools (5,8%). The faunal assemblage is similar to the lower levels, being remarkable the presence of ovicaprids and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Though the archaeological works are still under way, it seems that the Level 2 correspond to the remains of a unique or successive short occupations (Fábregas et al. 2009).

Another kind of occupation identified is the carnivore or bear den. The remains recovered from the inner galleries of Cova Eirós, as well as other bear finds (Cova da Ceza, Cova do Cancelo, Cova de Xato, etc.) show the important use made by bears (U. spelaeus and U. arctos) of the caves, being those remains produced by animals deceased during their hibernation or inmature individuals (Fábregas et al.

Other Upper Paleolithic sites have been discovered during the last years. An OSL date, around 17Ky BP at the top of the Level 1 of Cova Eirós, places this level as the only evidence of human occupation during the LGM (Fábregas and Lombera 2010). Above this level, a second archaeological level was identified, maybe related to final

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incomplete information available we must be cautious about this interpretation. The closer parallels are the burials discovered in the cave of A Braña-Arintero (León) where the skeletons of two individuals, along with ornaments, were recovered and dated in 6980±50 (Beta-226472) and 7030±50 BP (Beta-226473) (Vidal et al. 2008; Vidal and Pradas 2010). In the western Cantabrian Coast (Asturias) the closer references are the burials of Cueva de los Canes (7025±80 BP) and Cueva Colomba (7090±60 BP) (Arias and Álvarez 2004).

Pleistocene-early Holocene chronology. The artefact densities and bone remains are lower than in the underlying levels, pointing to shorter occupations. It the archaeological sequence of Valdavara 1 several Magdalenian occupations were recorded, ranging from 16000 to 14800 Cal BC. Along with the lithic industry, mostly made on flint, faunal remains (as wolf and chamois) and bone industry have been recovered (Vaquero et al. 2009). These occupations are related to those identified in the rock-shelters of Terra Chá and Serra do Xistral (Lugo), such as Dos Niñas and Férvedes-II, both adscribed to the Lower-Middle Magdalenian (Ramil and Ramil, 1996). As said before, the lack of absolute datings from the rockshelters, and the limited development of the taphonomic, seasonality, and raw material characterization analysis do not allow us to establish a close relationship among the archaeological sites of Terra Chá-Xistral and those from Cova Eirós and Cova de Valdavara. It is important to point out that in the different Upper Paleolithic sites, besides their scarce lithic assemblages, only one archaeological level has been identified in each (Dos Niñas, Férvedes, etc.), or the gap between the levels is very long (such as Cova Eirós)(Fábregas et al. 2010; Llana et al. 1992). The only place where regular occupations can be observed is Valdavara 1. This fact suggests the high mobility of these societies, as shown by the presence of Dentalium shells in Valdavara 1 and implying coastal-interior mobility. So that, a relationship between the northern Upper Paleolithic sites of O Xistral and those from the eastern mountains and even the Cantabrian Coast cannot be ruled out, but further studies regarding raw materials mobility, seasonality (through faunal analysis) and absolute datings of these sites must be developed.

Regarding domestic occupations, in the site of Xestido-III (Xistral) a hearth was recovered yielding a radiocarbon date of 7310±160 (GrN-16389)(Ramil and Ramil 1996). Its vicinity to Rei Cintolo cave (15-20 Km) points to the complementary use of caves and open-air sites by Epipaleolithic societies, and, maybe, the Level B of Cova Eirós (with a predominance of rock crystal implements and local resources, as the Epipalaeolithic sites of O Xistral, Fábregas et al. 2010) and those archaeological levels identified in the Furada caves (Mondoñedo, Soto 1995) could be related to that period, but no reliable information is yet available. As we can see caves were used as domestic habitats since the final Middle Pleistocene, sometimes related to longterm occupations (levels 3 and 4 of Cova Eirós), sporadic activities as those documented on cave natural traps for the profiting of animal carcasses (Valdavara-3?), or short-term stays such as the archaeological levels of A Valiña, and the Upper Palaeolithic levels of Cova Eirós. Up to date no Palaeolithic burials were found. The only reference is the finding of some human remains in the Cave of Chan do Lindeiro (O Courel, Lugo) dated by radiocarbon in 8847±119 Cal BP (Ua-133398) and 9212±83 Cal BP (Ua38115), contemporaneous to the archaeological occupations of Valdavara 1/2, but no information about the depositional and archaeological context is available yet (Vidal et al. 2010).

During the Epipaleolithic continuity in settlement pattern can be observed. In the Serra do Xistral, the rockshelters are occupied but, helped by the environmental improvement, higher peneplains and valleys are exploited, such as Xestido-III or Chan da Cruz (López Cordeiro 2003; Ramil and Ramil 1996).

In the Recent Prehistory the funerary use of cavities is well documented during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. Although in some caves domestic activities have been recorded by the presence of faunal, lithics and pottery remains (Level 1 of Pala da Vella, Levels 1-3 of Valdavara 1), maybe related to agro-pastoral activities, several human remains were recovered too. Some of them are related to secondary burials (such as Valdavara 1 or Valdavara 2), but others could be linked to primary depositions though their archaeological context is not well defined (Cova Eirós, Rebolal) (Vidal et al. 2010). These burials are contemporaneous to the megalithic mounds built in the Galician hinterland, suggesting a complementary role played by the caves in the mountainous regions, as identified in other peninsular regions (Ontañón and Armendariz 2005).

At the site of Valdavara an archaeological level dated in 8890±60 BP and 8920±50 BP was discovered at the talus of the cave (Valdavara 1/2), yielding some quartz and quartzite artefacts. The identification of some flakes and quartz core refittings suggest a primary deposition of the artefacts (Fábregas et al. 2010). This is the only reference of a Macroltihic Mesolithic in NW Iberia, coeval with the Asturian complex identified in the Cantabrian Coast. The bone assemblage recovered in the ‘camerín’ gallery of Rei Cintolo (Mondoñedo) has yielded a radiocarbon date of 7735±60 BP (Lyon-2731 (OxA)). As stated before it has been defined as corresponding to a symbolic or ritual deposition (Villar 2007). Though the archaeological record is scanty, the symbolic or ritual use of caves has a long tradition (since Upper Pleistocene, vg. Arias 2009) mainly related to the inner galleries but given the

Finally, during historic times, the high presence of medieval pottery in these caves may suggest their function as

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sheepfold or hermit residence as those identified in Pala da Zorra (Rubiá, Ourense) and the upper levels of Cova de Xato (Courel, Lugo) (Fernández et al 1993a; Fábregas et al. 2008).

El Modo 2 en Galería. Análisis de la industria lítica y sus procesos técnicos, in Díez, C. (ed.) Ocupaciones humanas y paleoecológicas del yacimiento Galería, 299-352. Junta de Castila y León. Daura, J., Sanz, M., Vaquero, M. 2005. El Pleistoceno de la Cova del Rinoceront (Castelldefels, Barcelona), in Ferreira-Bicho, N. (ed.) O Paleolítico. Actas do IV Congresso de Arqueologia Peninsular (Setembre 2004, Faro), 217-227. Promontoria Monográfica 02. Fábregas Valcarce, R. and de Lombera Hermida, A. 2010. El Paleolítico superior en Galicia a la luz de las últimas investigaciones. In Mangado, X. (ed.) Paleolítico superior peninsular. Novedades del siglo XXI. Homenaje al Profesor Javier Fortea., 255-270. Barcelona, Monografies SERP. Universitat de Barcelona. Fábregas Valcarce, R., Lazuén Fernández, T., de Lombera Hermida, A., Peña Alonso, J. A., Pérez Alberti, A., Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P., Rodríguez Rellán, C. and Terradillos Bernal, M. 2007. Novos achados paleolíticos no interior de Galicia. A Depresión de Monforte de Lemos e as súas industrias líticas. Gallaecia 26, 7-33. Fábregas Valcarce, R., Alonso Fernández, S., Lazuén Fernández, T., de Lombera Hermida, A., Pérez Alberti, A., Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P., Rodríguez Rellán, C., Terradillos Bernal, M., Serna González, M. R.and Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2008. Aportacións ó estudo da Prehistoria da cunca media do Miño. Os asentamentos en cova e ó aire libre. Gallaecia 27, 63-88. Fábregas Valcarce, R., Alonso Fernández, S., Ameijenda, A., Grandal D´Anglade, A., Lazuén Fernández, T., de Lombera Hermida, A., Pérez Alberti, A., Pérez Rama, M., Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P., Rodríguez Rellán, C., Serna González, M. R., Terradillos Bernal, M.and Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2009. Novos resultados das intervencións arqueolóxicas no sur lucense. Os xacementos paleolíticos da Depresión de Monforte (Monforte de Lemos), Cova Eirós (Triacastela) e Valdavara (Becerreá). Gallaecia 28, 9-32. Fábregas Valcarce, R., Alonso Fernández, S., Ameijenda Iglesias, A., Grandal d´Anglade, A., Lazuén Fernández, T., de Lombera Hermida, A., Pérez Alberti, A., Pérez Rama, M., Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P., Serna González, M. R. and Vaquero Rodríguez, M. 2010. Completando o mapa. Novas datacións absolutas para o Paleolítico e Mesolítico do interior galego. Gallaecia 29, 5-28. Fernández Mosquera, D. 1998. Biogeoquímica isotópica (13C, 15 N) del Ursus spelaeus del yacimiento de Cova Eirós, Lugo. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 23, 237-249. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1992-1993. Valoración y análisis de la ocupación de carnívoros de la cueva de A Valiña (Lugo, Galicia). Tabona VIII, 481-491. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1993. Los Macromamíferos del Pleistoceno y Holoceno Inicial en el Noroeste Peninsular. In Pérez Alberti, A., Guitián Rivera, J. and Ramil Rego, E. (eds.), La evolución del paisaje en las Montañas del entorno de los Caminos Jacobeos, 183-191. Santiago de Compostela, Xunta de Galicia. Fernández Rodríguez, C. 2005/2006. La arqueozología

Conclusions The archaeo-palaeontological surveys carried out in the cavities since the final 1980s have contributed considerably to a better understanding of the palaeoenvironmental evolution and hominid occupations, especially with respect to the site functionality and subsistence strategies. Secondly, these works have increased the Pleistocene faunal spectrum in NW Iberia. In this sense stand out the findings of Liñares Sur, Cova da Valiña, Pala da Vella, Cova Eirós and the caves from Valdavara. On the other side, the especial character of the cave deposits helps to obtain a chronological outline for the human occupations and faunal migrations, especially from the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic transition and subsequent periods. These data can provide a good framework for the open-air sites whose sedimentary preservation has proved, very often, to be deficient. Although the archaeological surveys in caves are a recent feature, the data provided already have demonstrated the high importance of these habitats for the knowledge of the Palaeolithic societies of NW Iberia. Thanks to them, the relationship with the Cantabrian Coast is gradually confirmed, aiding to a better understanding of the human settlement dynamics. Acknowledgments The archaeological dig and research in Cova Eirós and Cova de Valdavara were done with the founding of the Spanish ‘Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación’ (research projects HUM2007-63662 and HAR2010-21786/HIST). ALH has been supported by a pre-doctoral grant from Cátedra Atapuerca Foundation. Bibliographic references Alberti, M. T. 1985. Macromamíferos (Équidos, Bóvidos) de la cueva de Praducelos (Suegos, Lugo). Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 10, 225-228. Arias, P. and Alvárez-Fernández, E. 2004. Iberian foragers and funerary ritual – a review of Paleolithic and Mesolithic evidence in the Peninsula. In González Morales, M. and Clark, G. A. (eds.), The Mesolithic of the Atlantic Façade: Proceedings of the Santander Symposium, 225-248. Tempe, Arizona, Arizona State University. Cano Pan, J.A. and Nogueira, S. 1993. Intervención arqueológica en Cova Eirós. Furada 1, 35-37. Carbonell, E., Giral, S., Márquez, B. and Martín, A. 1998.

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en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica: historia de las investigaciones. Munibe 57, 511-523. Fernández Rodríguez, C. and Villar Quinteiro, R. 2003. Prospección y excavación de cuevas en la cuenca del Sil (Rubiá, Ourense): La Pala da Vella. Brigantium 14, 13-22. Fernández Rodríguez, C., Villar Quinteiro, R. and Llana Rodríguez, C. 1993. Prospección arqueológica de cavidades en la Sierra de la Encina de la Lastra (Rubiá, Ourense): Primeros resultados. Actas del XXII Congreso Nacional de Arqueología, 43-48. Fernández Rodríguez, C., Ramil Rego, P. and Martínez Cortizas, A. 1995. Characterization and depositional evolution of hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) coprolites from A Valiña Cave (NW Spain). Journal of Archaeological Science 22, 597-607. Golpe Posse, M. J. and Vidal Romaní, J. R. 1985. Macromamíferos (suidos) de la cueva de Praducelos (Suegos, Lugo). Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 10, 229. Gómez Orellana, L., Ramil Rego, P.and Muñoz Sobrino, C. 2008. Bioestratigrafía para el Pleistoceno superior en el NW Ibérico: datos climáticos y paleoecológicos. Férvedes 5, 15-24. González Sainz, C. and González Urquijo, J. 2004. El Magdaleniense reciente en la región Cantábrica. In Fano, M. A. (ed.) Las Sociedades del Paleolítico en la Región Cantábrica, 275-308. Bilbao, Diputación Foral de Bizkaia. Grandal D´Anglade, A. 1993. El Oso de las cavernas en Galicia, el yacimiento de Cova Eirós. Sada, Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe. Edicións O Castro. Grandal D´Anglade, A. 2010. Bite force of the extint Pleistocene Cave Bear Ursus spelaeus ROSENMÜLLER from Europe. C. R. Palevol 9, 31-37. Grandal D´Anglade, A. and López González, F. 1998. A population study on the Cave Bears (Ursus Spelaeus Rosenmüller-Heinroth) from Galician caves, NW of Iberian Peninsula. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 23, 215-224. Grandal D´Anglade, A. and López González, F. 2001. A palaeobiological approach to the cave bears from Eirós and Liñares (Galicia, Spain). Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 26, 415-422. Grandal D´Anglade, A., López González, F.and Vidal Romaní, J. R. 1997. Condicionantes en la distribución de macromamíferos en Galicia (NW Península Ibérica) durante el Cuaternario superior. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 22, 43-66. Llana Rodríguez, C. and Soto Barreiro, M. J. (dir.) 1991. Cova da Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): un xacemento do Paleolítico Superior Inicial en Galicia: (campañas de 1987 e 1988). Santiago de Compostela, Conselleria de Cultura. Xunta de Galicia. Llana Rodríguez, C., Martínez Cortízas, M.and Ramil Rego, P. 1992. Algunas consideraciones acerca de la estratigrafía y del marco temporal para los yacimientos al aire libre del Paleolítico Final y Epipaleolítico en Galicia. Zephyrus 44-45, 155-166.

Llana Rodríguez, C., Villar Quinteiro, R. and Martínez Cortizas, A. 1996. Secuencia paleoambiental y cultural de la cueva de A Valiña (Castroverde, Lugo): Una ocupación Chatelperroniense en Galicia. In Pérez Alberti, A., Martini, P., Chesworth, W. and Martínez Cortizas, A. (eds.), Dinámica y Evolución de Medios Cuaternarios, 97-112. Santiago de Compostela, Xunta de Galicia. de Lombera Hermida, A., Vaquero Rodríguez, M., Alonso Fernández, S., Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P., Lazuén Fernández, T. and Fábregas Valcarce, R. 2008. A cunca media no Miño dentro das ocupacións paleolíticas do NW peninsular. In Méndez Quintas, E. (Coord.) Homenaxe a Xose María Álvarez Blázquez (2). Estudos sobre Paleolítico, 321-346. Gondomar, Instituto de Estudos Miñoranos. de Lombera Hermida, A. 2011. O retorno ás cavernas. As investigacións arqueolóxicas nas cavidades de Galicia. In Dopico, M. D. and Villanueva, M. (eds.), A Prehistoria en Lugo a raíz das descobertas recentes, 83-102. Lugo, Deputación provincial de Lugo. López Cordeiro, M. M. 2003. El yacimiento epipaleolítico de Chan da Cruz (Valadouro, Lugo): Síntesis de los primeros resultados. Complutum 14, 39-54. López González, F. 2003. Paleontology and Taphonomy of Pleistocene macromammals of Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula).Nova Terra. A Coruña, UDC. López González, F. and Grandal D´Anglade, A. 1998. Datos sobre Cervus elaphus (Cervidae, artiodactyla. mammalia) en cavidades cársticas de Galicia. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 23, 201-214. López González, F., Grandal D´Anglade, A. and Vidal Encinas, J. M. 2006. Deciphering bone depositional sequences in caves through the study of manganese coating. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 707-717. Luzón Nogué, J. M., Sánchez-Palencia Ramos, F. J., Acuña Castroviejo, F., Alonso del Real, C., Arias Vilas, F., Caamaño Gesto, M., Rodríguez Casal, A., Sierra Rodríguez, J. C. and Vázquez Varela, J. M. 1980. El Caurel. Excavaciones Arqueológicas de España, Madrid, Ministerio de Cultura. Maíllo Fernández, J. M. 2008. El Chatelperroniense en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica Férvedes 5, 127-136. Marín Arroyo, A. B. 2008. Patrones de movilidad y control del territorio en el Cantábrico oriental durante el Tardiglaciar Trabajos de Prehistoria 65, 29-45. Marcos, A. Pérez-Estaún, A., Pulgar, J. A., Bastida, F.; Ruiz, F. 1980. Mapa Geológico de España E 1:100.000. Hoja Nº 99 (09-07). Becerreá. Instituto Geológico Minero de España, Madrid. Maroto, J., Vaquero Rodríguez, M., Arrizabalaga, A., Baena, J., Carrión, E., Jordá Pardo, J. F., Martinón-Torres, M., Menéndez, M., Montes, R. and Rosell Ardèvol, J. 2005. Problemática cronológica del final del Paleolítico Medio en el Norte Peninsular. In. R. Montes and J. A. Lasheras (coord.) Neandertales cantábricos. Estado de la cuestión. Museo de Altamira MONOGRAFÍAS 20, 101-114. Masma, R. 1988. Díaz Jacomé, cronista do “Cintolo” en 1954. Furada, Revista dos Espeleólogos Gallegos 2, 120

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Xeolóxico de Laxe 24, 121-139. Torre Enciso, e. 1962. Hallazgo de dos molares de Mamut (Elephas primigenius), en una cantera de Buxán, Lugo. Notas y comunicaciones del I.G.M.E. 65, 111-118. de Torres Pérez Hidalgo, T. 1983. Fauna cavernícola cuaternaria gallega. Datos sobre úrsidos de la Provincia de Lugo (Galicia, España). Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 6, 89-97 Vaquero Rodríguez, M., Alonso Fernández, S., Fernández, C. A., Ameijenda Iglesias, A., Blain, H., Fábregas Valcarce, R., Gómez Merino, G., de Lombera Hermida, A., López-García, J. M., Lorenzo Merino, C., Lozano, M., Rodríguez Rellán, C., Rosell Ardèvol, J.and Serna González, M. R. 2009. Nuevas dataciones radiométricas para el Paleolítico Superior en Galicia: La cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo). Trabajos de Prehistoria 66, 99-113. Vázquez Seijas, M. 1965-66. La Cueva de la Valiña. Boletín de la Comisión Provincial de Monumentos de Lugo VIII, 25-30 Vázquez-Monxardín Fernández, A. 1988. Os materiais arqueolóxicos das covas da Serra da Encina da Lastra. Furada, Revista dos Espeleólogos Gallegos 2, 35-40. Vidal Encinas, J. M. and Prada Marcos, M. E. (coords.) 2010. Los hombres mesolíticos de la cueva de La BrañaArintero (Valdelugueros, León). Estudios y Catálogos 18, Junta de Castilla y León. Vidal Encinas, J. M., Fernández Rodríguez, C., Prada, M. E. and Fuertes, M. N. 2008. Los hombres Mesolíticos de la Braña-Arintero (Valdelugueros, León): un hallazgo funerario excepcional en la vertiente meridional de la Cordillera Cantábrica. Férvedes 5, 153-164. Vidal Romaní, J. R., Fernández Mosquera, D., Marti, K.and de Brum Ferreira, A. 1999. Nuevos datos para la cronología glaciar pleistocena en el NW de la Península Ibérica. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 24, 7-29. Vidal Romaní, J. R., Sanjurjo Sánchez, J., Grandal D´Anglade, A., Vaqueiro Rodríguez, M. and Fernández Mosquera, D. 2010. Geocaracterización de yacimientos arqueológicos en medio sedimentario: cronología absoluta y relativa. In López Díaz, A. J. and Ramil Rego, E. (eds.), Arqueoloxía: Ciencia e Restauración., 7-19. Monografías 4, Vilalba, Museo de Prehistoria e Arqueoloxía. Villar Quinteiro, R. 2007. La Cueva del Rei Cintolo (Lugo, Galicia): algunos datos cronoarqueológicos de la galería superior. Gallaecia 26, 31-53. Yravedra, J. 2002. Subsistencia en la transición del Paleolítico medio al Paleolítico superior de la Península Ibérica. Trabajos de Prehistoria 59-1, 9-29. Zilhao, J. 2006. Chronostratigraphy of the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic Transition in the Iberian Peninsula. Pyrenae 37, 7-84.

23-34. Montesinos López, J. R. 1983. Estado actual del conocimiento sobre faunas de mamíferos cuaternarios de Galicia. Cadernos Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe 6, 77-88. Nogueira Ríos, S. 1997. Unha primeria aproximación o estudio dos materiais líticos de Cova Eirós (TriacastelaLugo). Historia Nova IV, 9-29. Ollé , A., Cáceres Cuello de Oro, I. and Vergés , J. M. 2005. Human occupations at Galeria Site (Sierre de Atapuerca, Brugos, Spain) after the technological and taphonomical data. In Molines, N., Moncel, M.-H. and Monnier, J. L. (eds.), Données récentes sur les modalités de peuplement et sur le cadre chronostratigraphique, géologique et paléoanthropologique des industries du Paléolithique inférieur et moyen en Europe, colloque international de Rennes, septembre 2003, 269-281. BAR International Series Ontañón, R. and Armendáriz, A. 2005. Cuevas y megalitos: los contextos sepulcrales colectivos en la Prehistoria reciente cantábrica. Munibe 57, 275-286. Pérez Alberti, A., Guitián, L.and Ramil Rego, P. (eds.) 1993. La Evolución del Paisaje en las Montañas del Entorno de los Caminos Jacobeos. Santiago de Compostela, Xunta de Galicia. Pérez Alberti, A.and Valcárcel Díaz, M. 1997. Caracterización y distribución espacial del glaciarismo pleistoceno en el Noroeste de la Península Ibérica. Las huellas glaciares de las montañas españolas.,17-62. Santiago de Compostela. Ramil Rego, P. and Fernández Rodríguez, C. 1996. Marco cronológico y paleoambiental de la ocupación paleolítica en el NW Ibérico. In Fábregas Valcarce, R. (ed.) Os primeiros poboadores de Galicia: O Paleolítico, 165192. Sada, Edicións do Castro. Ramil Rego, P., Iriarte, M. J., Muñoz Sobrino, C.and Gómez Orellana, L. 2005/2006. Cambio climático y dinámica temporal del paisaje y de los hábitats en las ecorregiones del NW de la Península Ibérica durante el Pleistoceno superior. Munibe 57, 537-551. Rodríguez Rellán, C., de Lombera Hermida, A.and Fábregas Valcarce, R. 2010. El Sílex durante la Prehistoria reciente del NO de la Península Ibérica. In Gibaja, J. F., Terradas Batlle, X., Palomo, A.and X., Clop. (eds.), Les grans fulles de sílex. Europa al final de la Prehistòria. Actes, 69-74. Barcelona, Museu d´Arqueologia de Catalunya. Soto Barreiro, M. J. 1995. Escavación arqueolóxica con remoción de terras en afloramentos calizos do concello de Mondoñedo (Lugo). Arqueoloxía/Informes. Campaña 1989, 185-189. Santiago de Compostela, Xunta de Galicia. Consellería de Cultura. Taboada Castro, M. T.and Silva Hermo, B. 1999. Factores de formacións y propiedades de los suelos formados sobre calizas de Galicia. Cadernos Laboratorio

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Chapter 11: The Upper Pleistocene Site of Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Lugo, Galicia) Xose Pedro Rodríguez Álvarez IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Escorxador s/n, Tarragona 43003, Spain Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, Spain Email: [email protected]

Arturo de Lombera-Hermida IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Escorxador s/n, Tarragona 43003, Spain Area de Prehistoria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Catalunya 35, Tarragona 43002, Spain Email: [email protected] Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto de Historia I, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade, nº 1. Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain.

Ramón Fábregas-Valcarce Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto de Historia I, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade, nº 1. Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain. Email: [email protected]

Talía Lazuén-Fernández Instituto Internacional de Investigaciones Prehistóricas (IIIPC) Universidad de Cantabria Avda. de los Castros s/n. Santander 39005, Spain Email: [email protected] Abstract: The site of Cova Eiros, located in a mountainous area in the interior of Galicia, has provided Middle and Upper Paleolithic well-dated archaeological materials. Presently 6 archaeological levels have been identified. The Middle Paleolithic levels have provided the largest amount of lithic and faunal remains. In this sense, in Cova Eirós we have recorded the Westernmost occupations by Neanderthal groups currently known in the Cantabrian Rim. Therefore, Cova Eiros is a key site for understanding the passage from the Middle Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic in the NW Iberia. Keywords: Upper Pleistocene, Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic, raw materials, lithic technology, faunal remains Resumen: El yacimientos de Cova Eirós, situado en la región montañosa del interior de Galicia, ha proporcionado una interesante secuencia con materiales que abarcan el Paleolítico medio y Paleolítico superior. Hasta la fecha, han sido identificados seis niveles arqueológicos. Los niveles correspondientes al Paleolítico medio son los que presentan una mayor cantidad de materiales líticos y faunísticos. En este sentido, en Cova Eirós se registran las ocupaciones más occidentales de Neandertales de la región Cantábrica. Por todo ello, Cova Eirós es un yacimiento clave para entender la transición del Paleolítico medio al Paleolítico superior en el NW peninsular. Palabras clave: Pleistoceno superior, Paleolítico medio, Paleolítico superior, materias primas, tecnología lítica, fauna.

Introduction

Cambrian limestones (Figure 1). The entrance of the cave is 3.5-meter wide and has 2 m of height, with a length of 104m (Figure 2).

Cova Eirós is located in Triacastela (Lugo), at 780 meters a.s.l. This cavity opens to the exterior in the NNW slope of the Monte Penedo (Serra do Ouribio), in Early

The discovery of ursid fossils during the decade of 1980

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Figure 1: Location of Cova Eirós at the Iberian Peninsula.

led to the realization of various campaigns of excavation, that provided around 4.000 remains of Ursus spelaeus, that correspond to a minimal number of 43 individuals (Grandal, 1993). These palaeontological excavations were carried out at the bottom of the cave. A radiocarbon date (AMS) was obtained from a fossil of Ursus: 24,090 ± 440 years BP. Also, a stalagmitic crust placed below the paleontological level was dated to 117,252 ± 75,438 years BP (Grandal and Vidal Romaní, 1997).

well as the possible stratigraphic correlation with the levels of the pit A (Figure 2). Two storage pits were located in the West sector of the Pit A. Ceramic, faunal and lithic remains (of medieval and modern times), appeared in these silos. Part of the lithic and faunal material would have to come from the Pleistocene levels dismantled when digging those features. The presence of the storage pits and of the test pit of 1993, reduced considerably the extension of the Pleistocene preserved sediments, so that only a complete square meter and a zone of about 50 cm2 between the medieval storage pits were excavated.

In 1993 a test pit of 1 m2 was dug at the entrance of the cave, in the frame of the Archaeological Project “Val do Sarria-Val do Mao”, leading to the recovery of over 550 lithic artifacts, adscribed to the Upper and Middle Paleolithic (Nogueira, 1997). Another palaeontological intervention at the end of the cavity took place in 1994. In 2008 new archaeological excavations were initiated, in the context of the research project “Human Settlement during the Pleistocene in the middle Basin of the Miño River“(Fábregas et al, 2009). During the campaign of 2008 two test pits were dug. The first, measuring 2x2 meters (“Pit A”) was excavated at about 2m from the entrance of the cave, integrating the test pit of 1993. In the talus outside the cave a second pit (“Pit B”) of 1 x 1,5m was dug, with the following objectives: recording the extension of human occupations, the stratigraphic thickness of sediments, as

During the 2009 season two fundamental objectives were proposed: 1) excavating the zone placed between the two pits opened in 2008; 2) continuing the excavation of the level 3 in the area of the pit A. The excavation of the zone placed between the two test pits allowed correlating stratigraphic levels initially identified in each of them (Fábregas et al, 2010). During the excavation of 2010 we continued the dynamics of the previous year. In this way, we kept on excavating the squares of the intermediate zone, between the test pits A and B, and in addition we kept on digging in the levels 3 and 4 from Pit A. For the purpose of finding out the nature and depth of the cave infill we carried through a geophysical survey by means of Ground

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Level 1: Fine yellowish sands in the upper part, scarcely compacted with laminar sub-horizontal stratification. Its upper part is sterile from the archaeological point of view. In the lower part of the level, areas of orange colored sands with archaeological material appear. Both upper and lower limits are net. Archaeological level. Thickness: 10-23 cm. The top of this level was dated by OSL to about 17.000 years BP. The Level 1 disappears in the southern part of the line 22-21 between the Level B and the Level 2. Level 2: Clay loam level of orange color with bigger compactness than the upper level. Exhibits two differentiated facies: on the top (level 2a) sands are purer, without concretions, and its lower limit is marked by small limestone plates; at the bottom (2b) several sub-angular limestone clasts of small size appear (3-5 cm), and very carbonated, getting to the point forming a crust, more compact in the southern part. Lower undulating and net limit. Thickness: 34-45 cm. Archaeological level. There is one AMS radiocarbon dating available: 31690 ± 240 BP (Beta - 254280). Level 3: brown-colored clays and small limestone gravels, with a compactness and homogeneity greater than the overlying level. Thickness: 20-35 cm. Archaeological level. There is one OSL dating of 84.807 ± 4919 BP (MAD5612BIN). Level 4: With the same matrix than level 3, clay appears much more carbonated, and there are more sub-angular calcareous clasts of small size. The thickness of this level is not yet known, since the excavation is under way. Archaeological level. In the Pit B, under a level of fine sands, and sealed by limestone plaques (level B), an archaeological layer was identified. The thickness of this level is not yet known, since the excavation did not reach to its bottom because of numerous lithic and bone remains (level C). The excavations of 2009 and 2010 provided new archaeological materials adscribed to the level B, identified initially in the external test pit (Pit B). The level B is composed of a slimy whitish yellow-colored matrix considerably compacted, with angular limestone gravels (between 5 and 13 mm of maximum length). In the bottom of this level a stratum with dark sediments and high organic content has been identified, yielding lithic material. The upper limit of this level is gradual and it is defined by limestone blocks between 40 and 140mm in size. These blocks have a North- South orientation, and a slope towards the South, following the gradient of the talus at the cave entrance. Most of the archaeological material appears in the West part of the excavated area.

Figure 2: Plan of the cavities and location of the archaeological diggings at the entrance of the cave. Pit A corresponds to the square meters E-F 24-25, and Pit B to square meters E-20-21.

Penetration Radar (GPR) with the result of a sedimentary depth of 3.4m along the whole sector of the entrance. Stratigraphy and datings The stratigraphic sequence identified in the pit A is as follows (Figure 3):

The projections of the archaeological material in a N-S section show that level B is above the level 1. In addition, the same analysis poses the hypothesis that the level C of

Surface level: Organic soil very loose and bioturbated. Thickness: 15-10 cm

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Figure 3: Stratigraphic profile. Section W.

These data show a fragmented chaine operatoire, since the first phases of production are not much represented in the archaeological record. The retouched elements are scarce (0.3 %). Among these the flat retouch has been identified on a flint piece. Backed blades have been identified on rock crystal. These features allow us to adscribe the lithic industry of level 1 to an advanced stage of the Mode 4 (end of the Upper Palaeolithic) (Figure 5). Adscription which coincides with the dating of this level.

Pit B (located outside the entrance of the cave) could be the result of a mixture of materials from the levels 2 and 3 inside the cave (Rodríguez et al, 2009). The interventions carried out between 2008 and 2010 have provided 3964 archaeological remains. The lithics sum 2449 objects, while the faunal remains are 1357. Also charcoals were localized (n= 135). The faunal remains appear with a high degree of fragmentation, often preventing identification.

In this level 135 remains of fauna were found (122 bones and 13 teeth), currently under study. In this level also stands out the presence of a lynx’s (Lynx sp.) clavicle, the first evidence to be recorded in the north-western Iberian Peninsula. Also, it is worth mentioning the finding of a pendant made on a carnivore’s canine (Vulpes vulpes). This piece has a surface worked by means of scraping that confers a smooth and shiny appearance. In the root’s middle part, the tooth has a transverse and deep groove, so that facilitating the posterior perforation of the piece. The lower side is fractured. This pendant is the oldest evidence of adornment on tooth of the north-western Iberian Peninsula (Figure 6).

Levels 3 and 4 are the ones that have provided more archaeological material, whereas level B is with fewer remains. Level 1 The level 1 has provided 516 archaeological remains, fundamentally lithic tools (n=371). The lithic industry of level 1, mostly recovered during the excavation of 2009, is in general of small size (average size of 19x17x8 mm). Quartz has been the raw material more used, followed at a great distance by rock crystal (Figure 4).

Level 2

Quartz and quartzite were obtained in the rivers close to the cave. For the supply of rock crystal there are two possible sources: fluvial pebbles and quartz prisms for the production of bladelets or laminar flakes.

In the level 2, 745 archaeological remains were located. The lithic raw material more utilized is quartz (94.6 %), while quartzite only reaches a 4 %. The average size of the artifacts is very small, due to the great quantity of small flakes (47.7 %), and fragments (31.1 %). Concretely, the average size of all the recovered objects is of 20x14x7 mm. In this level the cores found are very few (1.1%). Laminar knapping has been identified, as well as the

Among the reduction strategies the laminar method stands out, generally applied on prismatic supports of rock crystal and flint. In this level few cores have been localized (1.9 %). But there is great predominance of knapping products (95,2 %). Furthermore the cortical products are not common.

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Figure 4: Lithic raw material percentages at the different archaeological levels.

Figure 5: Lithic artifacts from Level 1 (1-7), B (8, 9).

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multipolar orthogonal core reduction. According to these data, in this level the chaine operatoire is fragmented also, due to the absence of the first phases of reduction. The retouched artifacts are very scarce in this level, standing out the finding of a burin. Although, from the typological point of view, this level has given few diagnostic elements, the technological characteristics of this assemblage and the radiocarbon dates allow us to adscribe it to the Upper Paleolithic (Mode 4) (Figure 7). In this level 380 faunal remains were recovered, generally of small size and very fragmented. They include deer and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), in addition to other small mammals and birds. Among the carnivores several pieces of the upper dentition of an individual of the genus Canis of large size stand out. Also a phalanx and a metapodial of small size that might belong to a wolf (Canis lupus) were localized. In the level 2 we also found brown bear phalanges (Ursus arctos), differentiated from the cave bear remains (Ursus spelaeus) from the paleontological deposit inside the cave and from this same level (11 remains). The remains of Ursus spelaeus could have come from inside the cavity (although they do not show transporting signs, perhaps because they were taken by other animals). Several pieces of decidual dentition of Ursus spelaeus could have been in situ at the entrance of the cave. Level 3

Figure 6: Pendant made on a carnivore’s canine (Vulpes vulpes) from Level 1.

In this level 1129 archaeological remains have been recovered, among these 702 lithic artifacts. In the level 3

Figure 7: Lithic artifacts from Level 2 (1) and C (2-7).

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Figure 8: Lithic artifacts from Level 3. Levallois and discoidal flakes on quartzite and quartz (1-5). Configurated tools on quartz (6-10).

those identified in Monforte Basin (de Lombera et al, 2011, this volume).

of Cova Eirós quartz is the raw material more utilized (90 %). However, the secondary presence of quartzite (with a 8 %) is a remarkable feature.

The number of faunal remains located in this level is of 395.They have a high degree of fragmentation, making its taxonomic recognition difficult. Some fractures and attrition of the bones could be intentional, and many of them have cut marks on their surfaces, which point to the anthropic factor as the main agent of the accumulation (Figure 9). Three metapodial fragments of deer show evidence of anthropogenic activity, like notches, consequence of the fracturation to gain access to the marrow, as well as cut marks made with lithic tools.

In this level the strategies of exploitation identified include the Levallois method, the discoidal method, and multipolar orthogonal knapping. Also Kombewa flakes have been recorded. Few cores were found, such as in the levels 1 and 2. However, the number of retouched pieces is higher than in other levels, reaching a percentage of 9.9%. Among the retouched flakes sidescrapers and denticulates stand out, followed by end scrapers and becs. The chaines operatoires are fragmented, with a high presence of knapping products and a reduced percentage of hammerstones (1.8 %) and cores (0.9%). The dominant categories are flakes (49.5 %) and fragments (16.8 %). It is worth mentioning the high percentage of multi-faceted (24.4 %) and bi-faceted butts (16.3 %).

In the Level 3 the most abundant species is the deer (Cervus elaphus), although remains of chamois and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) have also been identified. The presence of a molar fragment of rhinoceros (Rhinocerotidae) suggests that some bone remains of a very large size could also belong to this family. Nevertheless, the degree of fragmentation of all of them does not allow being conclusive about the species.

The features of this lithic assemblage assign it to the Mode 3, with predominance of the predetermined strategies, mostly on fine-grained quartzites (Figure 8). The importance of the Levallois products stands out, contrasting with the scarcity of discoidal products, normally linked to the lithic assemblages based on the exploitation of quartz, such us

Among the carnivores of the level 3 the most frequent species is the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus), represented principally by dental pieces, phalanges, hyoid bones and decidual teeth (neonate individuals).These remains, as in

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the flakes there are 12% of bifaceted and multifaceted butts. The 89 % of the flakes does not have any relic of the cortex, while a 4.3% have their dorsal face completely cortical. As in other archaeological levels of Cova Eirós, not all the phases of the chaine operatoire are represented, standing out the scarce number of cores and of retouched flakes. In this level 309 remains of fauna have been recorded. Among these, there are 295 bones and 14 teeth, most of them fragmented. Within the identified remains a horse’s tooth stands out. The 4.2% of the fauna is burned (n=13). In this sense, it is worth mentioning the number of charcoals located in this level (n=80), higher than elsewhere. Level B In the level B, identified during the excavation of 2009, 131 archaeological remains were found. The greater part of the material is lithic industry (n= 128). One of the main characteristics of this lithic assemblage is the similar percentages of rock crystal and quartz. In the rest of levels quartz clearly dominates as raw material; however in the level B rock crystal surpasses quartz slightly. Two strategies of knapping have been identified: reduction sequences on river pebbles of quartz and quartzite, using longitudinal and orthogonal strategies; on the other hand production of bladelets in rock crystal. Also bipolar flaking on quartz has been documented, although in a marginal way. Among the configurated tools there are distinctive Upper Paleolithic morphotypes: backed blades, backed points, a burin, a truncation, and sidescrapers have been identified, usually manufactured on rock crystal. The stratigraphical position and the character of the lithic industry from this level place it on a final stage of the Upper Paleolithic, although this adscription is still pending confirmation. The faunal remains recovered in this level are very few (only two fragments of antler).

Figure 9: Bones with anthropic evidences. a) Cutmarks. b) Notches and fractures.

Level C

the Level 2, could come from the deposit inside the cave, although they do not present indications of rounding. In this level canid remains also appear and judging from their size they would belong to wolf (Canis lupus), and fox (Vulpes vulpes).

During the 2008 excavation, an archaeological level (level C) with lithic and bone materials was identified at test Pit B (Fábregas et al., 2009). In all, 488 items were inventoried. The main raw material is quartz (93.4 %), followed by quartzite (3.7 %).

Level 4

This lithic assemblage (n=349) shares with the level 2 a similar lithological variety, and certain technical and typological aspects. From the technical point of view, rock crystal flakes from the rejuvenation of percussion surfaces on prisms, and blade fragments have been identified. As to typology there are a burin in rock crystal and a borer. On the other hand, some elements can be considered characteristic of the level 3, like the presence of a specific type of finegrained quartzite, and Levallois and discoidal products. Therefore, the level C could be a disturbed level, formed by the removal of materials from levels 2 and 3.

During the excavations undertaken in 2010, a total of 955 archaeological remains have been recovered from the level 4. The study of these materials is currently under way. Most of the 566 lithic tools were made on quartz (90.1 %). The quartzite artifacts amount to a 9.7%. The preliminary data indicate that there is a predominance of knapping products. Flakes and fragmented flakes make up the 72.8%, while fragments are the 23.6%. Until now only a fragment of core has been found. In the same way, the retouched flakes are very scarce (1 %). We have also located hammerstones in this level (2.4 %), all of them made on quartzite. The average size of the objects is of 23 x 16 x 8mm. Among

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Regarding the fauna (n=136) we observed a mixture of species and of stages of fossilization. This fact could reinforce the hypothesis that this level is the result of the removal of the strata located in the Pit A. Among the identified materials, the cervids and a large-size herbivore stand out. Also a bovine remain have been identified. Among the carnivores only Ursus spelaeus occurs.

unipolar and orthogonal strategies are applied on quartz of medium quality. As to the fauna, a remarkable aspect of the sequence at Cova Eirós is the decrease of bear and carnivores in the upper levels. Thus, carnivores are more numerous in levels 2, 3 and 4, while in level 1 there are very few remains. This trend has been recorded at other sites of the Cantabrian region where the number of carnivores is higher in the occupations of the Middle and Early Upper Paleolithic, while towards the end of the Upper Paleolithic their presence drops (Yravedra, 2002). Furthermore, the high number of bear remains from levels 2 and 3 (especially deciduous teeth), could be explained by the alternate use of the cavity by humans and cave bears.

Conclusions Cova Eirós has provided until now archaeological material corresponding to 6 levels. The levels 3 and 4 are those containing higher densities of material. From the point of view of the lithic technology, quartz is the commonest raw material in all levels, with the exception of the level B. In the latter rock crystal and quartz have similar percentages. Quartz stands out mostly in levels 2 and C, with percentages over the 93%. Quartzite has been used all around, but mostly in levels 3 (8%) and 4 (9.7%). Rock crystal is the raw material more utilized in the level B and ranks the second in level 1. The rest of raw materials (among them flint) have low percentages. Quartz is of local origin, while the fine-grained quartzite (fluvial pebbles), rock crystal and flint are allochthonous and their sources have not yet been identified.

Summing up, the data obtained thus far through the excavation of Cova Eirós have raised the site to the rank of the most comprehensive deposit for the Upper Pleistocene in NW Iberia. Acknowledgments The archaeological dig and research in Cova Eirós were done with the founding of the Spanish “Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación” (research projects HUM2007-63662 and HAR2010-21786/HIST), and from the “Concello de Triacastela”. ALH has been supported by a pre-doctoral grant from Cátedra Atapuerca Foundation.

The character of the lithic technology and the absolute dates indicate that levels 1, 2 and B correspond to the Upper Paleolithic. The levels 1 and B could belong to an advanced stage of the Upper Paleolithic, because they have some differences with the level 2, which would belong to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. From the point of view of the raw materials, these differences consist on a greater utilization of flint and rock crystal, at the expense of quartz and quartzite. Relating to the techno-typology, the presence of bladelets and backed points in the levels 1 and B stands out, as well as the existence of portable art. These traits could set these levels in the later part of the Upper Paleolithic, similar or, perhaps, earlier than the cave of Valdavara (Becerrea, Lugo), and the deposits of the Xistral mountains (Lugo) (López, 2003; Ramil and Ramil, 1996; Vaquero et al, 2009). If these hypotheses are confirmed, the sedimentary hiatus between levels 1 and 2 would match the archaeological vacuum in the north-western of the Iberian Peninsula between circa 30,000 and 15,000 years ago. This period coincides with the advance of the glaciers in the Eastern mountains, and with the climatic deterioration in the interior of Galicia. On the other hand, if the radiocarbon gives earlier dates, level 1 could be the first evidence of human occupation during the Last Glacial Maximun.

References Fábregas, R., Alonso, S., Ameijenda, A., Grandal D’anglade, A., Lazuén, T., De Lombera, A., Pérez, A., Pérez, M., Rodríguez, X. P., Rodríguez, C., Serna, R., Terradillos, M., and Vaquero, M. 2009. Novos resultados das intervencións arqueolóxicas no sur lucense. Os xacementos paleolíticos da Depresión de Monforte de Lemos (Monforte de Lemos), Cova Eirós (Triacastela) e Valdavara (Becerreá), Gallaecia 28, 9-32. Fábregas Valcarce, R.; Alonso Fernández, S.; Ameijenda Iglesias, A; Grandal d´Anglade, A.; Lazuén Fernández, T.; de Lombera Hermida, A.; Pérez Alberti, A.; Pérez Rama, M.; Rodríguez Álvarez, X. P.; Serna González, M.R. and M. Vaquero Rodríguez. 2010. Completando o mapa. Novas datacións absolutas para o Paleolítico e Mesolítico do interior galego. Gallaecia 29, 5 -28. Grandal-D’Anglade, A. 1993. El Oso de las Cavernas en Galicia: el yacimiento de Cova Eirós. Serie Nova Terra, 8. A Coruña, O Castro, 285 págs. Grandal-D’Anglade, A. and Vidal Romaní, J. R. 1997. A population study on the Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus Ros.Hein.) from Cova Eirós (Triacastela, Galicia, Spain)”, Geobios 30-5, 723-731. de Lombera Hermida, A., Rodríguez, X. P., Fábregas Valcarce R. and Lazuén Fernández, T. 2011. The Paleolithic settlement of the Monforte Basin, in A. de Lombera Hermida and R. Fábregas Valcarce (Eds.), To the West of Spanish Cantabria: the Palaeolithic

The lithic technology of the levels 3 and 4 has some features that place these occupations in the Middle Paleolithic, with Levallois and discoid flaking (among other reduction strategies) and a raw material management similar to those Middle Palaeolithic sites discovered in NW Iberia (vg. A Piteira), where Levallois and discoidal method are applied on fine-grained quartzite and good quality quartz, while the

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Settlement of Galicia, 95-112. British Archaeological Reports (BAR), BAR Publishing, Oxford. López Cordeiro, M. M. 2003. El yacimiento epipaleolítico de Chan da Cruz (Valadouro, Lugo): Síntesis de los primeros resultados. Complutum 14, 39-54. Nogueira, S. 1997. Unha primeira aproximación ó estudio dos materiais líticos de Cova Eirós (Triacastela-Lugo). Historia Nova IV, 9-29. Ramil Rego, E. and J. Ramil Soneira 1996. El fin de los tiempos glaciares en Galicia. Magdaleniense y Epipalolítico, in: R. Fábregas Valcarce (ed), Os primeiros poboadores de Galicia: O Paleolítico, 117-147. Edicións do Castro, Sada. Rodríguez, X. P., De Lombera, A., Lazuén, T., Fábregas, R. and A. Grandal D’Anglade 2009. El yacimiento arqueológico del Pleistoceno superior de Cova Eirós

(Triacastela, Lugo, España), in Boski, T., Moura, D. and Gomes, A., (eds), IV Reunião do Quaternario Iberica. O futuro do ambiente da Península Ibérica: as lições do passado geológico recente. Faro, Portugal, 5-9 de Outubro de 2009. Livro de resumos, pp 210-214. Vaquero Rodríguez, M., S. Alonso Fernández, C. A. Fernández, A. Ameijenda Iglesias, H. Blain, R. Fábregas Valcarce, G. Gómez Merino, A. de Lombera Hermida, J. M. López-García, C. Lorenzo Merino, M. Lozano, C. Rodríguez Rellán, J. Rosell Ardèvol and M. R. Serna González. 2009. Nuevas dataciones radiométricas para el Paleolítico Superior en Galicia: La cueva de Valdavara (Becerreá, Lugo). Trabajos de Prehistoria 66(1), 99-113. Yravedra, J. 2002. Subsistencia en la transición del Paleolítico medio al Paleolítico superior de la Península Ibérica. Trabajos de Prehistoria 59-1, 9-29.

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Chapter 12: Archaeological Excavations in the Becerreá Sites (Eastern Lugo): Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3 Manuel Vaquero-Rodríguez IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Campus Catalunya, Avinguda de Catalunya, 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain. Email: [email protected]

Susana Alonso-Fernández IPHES, Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Campus Catalunya, Avinguda de Catalunya, 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain. Email: [email protected]

Alicia Ameijenda-Iglesias Grupo de Estudos para a Prehistoria do Noroeste (GEPN). Dpto de Historia I. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. 15782 Santiago de Compostela Email: [email protected] Abstract: The goal of this paper is to make known the first results of the excavations in the archaeological sites located in the Becerreá council (Eastern Lugo). The research project carried out since 2007 has included the excavation of two sites: Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3. Four field seasons have been so far carried out in Valdavara Cave, in which two archaeological locations were documented in the same karstic system (Valdavara 1 and Valdavara 2). On the one side, the test pits initiated in Valdavara 1 allowed identifying two stratigraphic units: an upper set corresponding to the Recent Prehistory and a lower set that yielded Late Upper Paleolithic assemblages. On the other side, an assemblage of human remains from the Bronze Age was found in Valdavara 2. Field works in Valdavara 3 started in 2009 and have yielded a rich paleontological assemblage associated with some scarce lithic artifacts. Although radiometric dating is not yet available, a Middle Pleistocene age cannot be discarded for this site. Keywords: Becerreá, Upper Paleolithic, Recent Prehistory, Valdavara Cave, Valdavara 3. Resumen: El objetivo de este artículo es dar a conocer los primeros resultados de las excavaciones en los yacimientos arqueológicos situados en la localidad de Becerreá (Este de la provincia de Lugo). El proyecto de investigación que se viene realizando desde 2007 ha incluido la excavación de dos yacimientos: la Cueva de Valdavara y Valdavara 3. Hasta el momento se han llevado a cabo cuatro campañas de excavación en la Cueva de Valdavara, durante las cuales se han documentado dos localizaciones arqueológicas en el marco del mismo sistema cárstico (Valdavara 1 y Valdavara 2). Por una parte, los sondeos iniciados en Valdavara 1 ha permitido identificar dos conjuntos estratigráficos: un conjunto superior correspondiente a la Prehistoria Reciente y un conjunto inferior que ha proporcionado restos del Paleolítico Superior final. Por otra parte, en Valdavara 2 se encontró una serie de restos humanos de la Edad del Bronce. Los trabajos arqueológicos en Valdavara 3 se iniciaron en 2009 y han permitido documentar un rico conjunto paleontológico asociado a unos pocos artefactos líticos. Aunque las dataciones radiométricas aún no están disponibles, no puede descartarse una cronología del Pleistoceno Medio para este conjunto. Palabras clave: Becerreá, Paleolítico Superior, Prehistoria Reciente, Cueva de Valdavara, Valdavara 3.

Introduction

Compostela and Rovira i Virgili universities (Fábregas et al., 2007 and 2008). Two different sites have been so far excavated in Becerreá: Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3.

The aim of this paper is to present the preliminary results from the archaeological excavations carried out in two sites located in the Becerreá village, at the Eastern part of the Lugo province (Galicia, Spain). Archaeological works started in 2007, in the framework of the research project Human occupations during the Pleistocene in the middle Miño basin, which is developed by the Santiago de

From a geological point of view, these sites are located in the Mondoñedo Mantle, which is one of the unities forming the Western Asturias-Leon Zone of the Iberian Massif. This zone is constituted by Lower Paleozoic formations with a dominance of slates and sandy rocks, although the presence 133

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Figure 1. Map showing the location of Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3.

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During the preliminary visits to the site, we observed that, at some meters below the cave, there was a small fissure that seemed to be a second entrance to the karstic system. Some bone and lithic remains in the surface in front of this fissure suggested that it could correspond to another archaeological location. In order to distinguish these different locations, we have called Valdavara 1 to the cave and Valdavara 2 to the fissure (Figure 2). As in Valdavara 1, works in Valdavara 2 began in 2007. In addition, we started in 2008 the excavations in the slope between Valdavara 1 and 2 (Valdavara 1-2). As we will see below, each of these locations (Valdavara 1, 2, and 1-2) has revealed a different archaeological sequence. The information on Valdavara 1 and 2 that we will present next is largely based on the results of the 2007 excavation, which have been exposed in more detail in a previous paper (Vaquero et al., 2009).

of limestone formations should be stressed. Both Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3 are opened in the Lower-Middle Cambrian limestone (also known as Vegadeo Limestone) outcropping along a wide stretch of NNW-SSE direction. This formation is singular due to its lithology, composed of dolomite and limestone. The fossiliferous content of the underlying and overlying layers suggests that the Vegadeo Limestone correspond to the Lower Cambrian, although the uppermost levels could reach the Middle Cambrian (Vera, 2004). This formation is intensely karstified and many caves have been reported in the surroundings of Becerreá. Some of these caves, like Furco Cave and La Venta Cave, already yielded some isolated archaeological and paleontological remains (Fernández Rodríguez, 1993; Grandal, 1991). However, this is the first research project aimed at establishing the archaeological relevance of the Becerreá caves. The excavations in Valdavara Cave started in 2007 and four field seasons have been so far carried out. Valdavara 3 was discovered in 2009 and we have only made one excavation campaign. Archaeological works at these sites are still in progress and the results that we will present next should be therefore considered as preliminary.

Valdavara 1 Two 2 x 1 m test pits have been so far excavated inside the cave. The first one was started in 2007 near to the entrance of the cave and reached the bottom of the sequence. The excavation of the second one, located in the rear of the main chamber, began en 2009 and is still in progress. The stratigraphic descriptions that we will present below are mainly based on the data obtained from the former (Figure 3). The first pit was made close to the hole of the 60s, since this provided a preliminary stratigraphical guide. This hole was partially filled with removed sediments that contained many archaeological remains similar to those from the 60s assemblage: potsherds, lithic artifacts of Paleolithic appearance, faunal remains, and more human bones. Two stratigraphic assemblages were clearly visible in the sections of the hole. The upper one was formed by dark silts, and the lower one by reddish silts. The data from the test pit corroborated these preliminary observations, allowing to document a 90 cm thick stratigraphical sequence formed by six units:

Valdavara Cave Valdavara Cave is located at the right margin of the Narón River, at 600 m a.s.l. and 120 m above the current river bed (Figure 1). The Narón River, also called in this area as Cruzul, is one of the tributaries of the Navia River, which flows into the Cantabrian Sea 85 km north of the site. The Navia valley is therefore a natural passage between the Cantabrian region and the Miño basin. Valdavara Cave is a small cavity facing northeast. A 1.2 m wide and 1.6 m high entrance gives access to a small chamber that is 5 m long and 3 m wide. At the rear of this chamber, two short galleries bifurcate.

• Level 1 (2-15 cm) is formed by brown-gray silts with rounded and sub-rounded gravels. It is a disturbed surface layer that contained some archaeological remains of post-Paleolithic age, including some subactual items. • Level 2 (7-20 cm) is composed by gravels in a dark brown silty-clayey matrix. It was locally bioturbated by sub-actual burrowing. Radiocarbon dating (4410 ± 40 BP) and archaeological remains indicate a Holocene age (Figure 4). • Level 3 (5-21 cm) is formed by a light brown siltyclayey sediment with sub-rounded gravels. Although radiometric dating is not available for this level, the archaeological assemblage is similar to that from level 2, suggesting also a Holocene chronology.

The information about the presence of archaeological remains in Valdavara Cave was provided by some Becerreá inhabitants. At the beginning of the 60s, a group of local amateurs made a small 120 cm deep pit near to the cave entrance. They recovered an archaeological assemblage formed by faunal remains, pottery fragments, and quartz and flint artifacts. There were also some human bones that suggested the use of the cave as a burial place. Although no stratigraphic sequence was recorded, this assemblage indicated that at least two different cultural periods could be represented in the deposit. On the one hand, ceramics suggested occupations during the Recent Prehistory. On the other hand, some flint artifacts -particularly some burins- indicated that the cave was also occupied in the Late Upper Paleolithic. However, we did not know whether these remains corresponded to different stratigraphic units or they came from a disturbed deposit. The main goal of first excavation season was therefore to document the stratigraphical sequence of the site.

These three units constitute the upper assemblage, which shows an abrupt and clear-cut boundary with the lower assemblage. This assemblage is also composed by three units:

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Figure 2. Photograph of Valdavara Cave showing the different loci distinguished during the excavation.

The Recent Prehistory levels

• Levels 4 and 5 (25-35 cm) show similar characteristics and are formed by orange clays with angular gravels. Both the radiocarbon dating (13,770 ± 70 and 14,630 ± 70 BP) and the archaeological remains indicate a Late Pleistocene age (Figure 4). • Level 6 (25-35 cm) is composed by rounded gravels in an orange clayey matrix. Archaeological remains are scarce and undiagnostic, but the radiocarbon date available for this layer (15,120 ± 70 BP) suggests that it also corresponds to the Late Pleistocene.

Most potsherds from levels 2 and 3 are undiagnostic, although it seems that globular forms are dominant. The characteristics of the lips and body sherds indicate that they correspond to middle-sized vessels with matt smoothed outer surfaces and black inner surfaces. Decoration is scarce and incised motifs are dominant. It is worth noting a vessel showing groups of horizontal parallel lines separated by smoothed bands. Although few remains are chronologically diagnostic, some elements, like the incised decoration with horizontal parallel bands and a spherical vessel with red burnished slip, have been documented in megalithic contexts of the Late Neolithic (Fábregas et al., 2005). However, other traits, like the flat bases that could correspond to ovoid vessels, seem to fit better in a Bronze Age context. An adscription to the Early Bronze Age seems the most likely. The presence of remains from different cultural periods in the upper stratigraphic assemblage can not be therefore discarded.

This clear stratigraphic boundary has been corroborated by the archaeological remains, since these assemblages yielded very different assemblages. Potsherds, quartz artifacts and human remains characterize the upper assemblage. On the contrary, pottery is absent in the lower assemblage, which shows a lithic assemblage mostly made on flint. The 14C AMS dates so far available for Valdavara Cave can be seen in figure 4. Dating from level 2 has been made on a human phalanx, while the three dates from level 4 correspond to macro-mammal bones. It should be stressed that the three dates from the lower assemblage are in stratigraphic order. These dates corroborate the great temporal gap between the two stratigraphical assemblages of Valdavara 1.

Lithic artifacts are scarce and most are typologically undiagnostic. Quartz is the dominant raw material (about 70% of lithics from levels 2 and 3), which indicates a clear difference with respect to the provisioning strategies of the Pleistocene layers. Quartz is a local raw material that can

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be easily found in the immediate surroundings of the cave. A broken polished axe was also found in the disturbed infill of a burrow.

they show a great diversity of species (31 different taxa), including micro-mammals, amphibians and reptiles. The presence of Clethrionomys glareolus (bank vole), Micromys minutus (harvest mouse), and Crocidura russula (greater white-toothed shrew) in level 2 agrees with other Holocene assemblages from Northern Iberian Peninsula (López García et al., 2008). In addition, remains of the goldenstriped salamander (Chioglossa lusitanica) have been identified for the first time in the fossil record (Blain et al., 2009). In general, micro-vertebrates suggest a humid and forested environment. Some Dentalium shells have been also found in these upper levels.

Concerning the faunal remains, small and very small animals are dominant in level 2, although a medium-sized animal has been also identified. Ovicaprid remains are dominant, but it has not been possible to discern whether they correspond to sheep or goats. We have also recovered some remains of small carnivores. Domestic taxa are absent from level 3, in which we have only identified two Cervidae remains and a metacarpus of Vulpes vulpes. Micro-vertebrate bones are particularly abundant and

The upper assemblage has yielded a collection of human remains that suggest the use of the cave for funerary purposes during the Late Neolithic – Calcolithic period. Only the remains found during the 2007 excavation season have been so far studied. This assemblage is exclusively formed by small anatomical parts (teeth and phalanxes): 1 incisive, 1 canine, 1 premolar germ, 1 premolar, 1 first deciduous premolar, 1 proximal phalanx, and 3 intermediate phalanxes. Three different individuals can be at least recognized, two children (6-7 and 9 years old respectively) and one adult individual. The Late Upper Paleolithic levels Most data concerning the Upper Paleolithic levels also correspond to the 2007 assemblage. The remains found in the rest of the excavation seasons have not been yet studied in depth. Flint is the dominant raw material in the lithic assemblage (more than 70%). Although the location of the flint sources is still unknown, it seems clear that flint is not a local material. Blade production is well attested in level 4 and burins are clearly the best represented tool class. In addition, we have documented a broad variability of burin types. Some bone tools have been also found. As in the upper levels, small animals are also dominant in level 4, although the number of remains identified at the taxonomical and anatomical levels is scarce: one wolf phalanx and one ulna of chamois. There is also a fragment corresponding to a medium-sized mammal. Most remains are darkened due to manganese oxides, which suggest a

Figure 3. Stratigraphic section of Valdavara 1 indicating the location of the Holocene and Pleistocene layers.

Loc. Val 1 Val 1 Val 1 Val 1 Val 1-2 Val 1-2 Val 2 Val 2

Level 2 4 4 6 C C 3 3

Material Human bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Bone Human bone Human bone

Lab.ref. Beta-235727 Beta-235728 Beta-235726 Beta-257849 Beta-257850 Beta-259199 Beta-235729 Beta-235730

Radiocarbon years 4410 ± 40 13,770 ± 70 14,630 ± 70 15,120 ± 70 8920 ± 50 8890 ± 60 3270 ± 40 3250 ± 40

Cal. years BP 5160-4840 17,080-16,880 17,890-17,730 18,700-17,820 10270-9830 10250-9770 3600-3400 3600-3360

Cal. years BC 3210-2890 15,130-14,930 15,940-15,780 16,750-15,870 8320-7880 8300-7820 1650-1450 1650-1410

Figure 4. Radiocarbon dates from Valdavara Cave. The 2σ calibration (p= 95%) has been made using the CalPal-2007-Hulu calibration curve (Weninger and Jöris, 2004).

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humid and flooded depositional environment. As in the upper assemblage, micro-vertebrate bones are abundant. The presence of Chionomys nivalis (snow vole), Microtus oeconomus (tundra vole), and Sorex minutus (pygmy shrew) defines a micro-mammal association typical from Northern Iberia during the second half of the Upper Pleistocene. These species indicate that climate was colder than in level 2, but, like in level 2, humid conditions were dominant. We also recovered in levels 4 and 5 seven Dentalium shells (Figure 5). However, the shells from these levels show a marked difference with those found in the Holocene layers. The specimens from levels 2 and 3 correspond to the species Dentalium vulgare, characterized by a smooth shell without ridges. On the contrary, all the remains found in levels 4 and 5 can be attributed to the species Dentalium novemcostatum, whose shell shows a series of well-marked longitudinal ridges. The presence of Dentalium remains in archaeological sites is normally associated with the use of the shells for personal adornment. The Dentalium shells of Valdavara, together with the stone pendant from Férvedes II (Ramil Soneira and Vázquez Varela, 1983) and the pierced fox tooth recently found in Eirós Cave (Fábregas et al., 2010), are the only Paleolithic adornment objects so far recovered in Galician sites.

Figure 5. Dentalium shells found in the Late Upper Paleolithic layers of Valdavara 1.

Cantabrian region, where the Asturian may be considered as an expression of this macrolithic phenomenon. However, macrolithic assemblages are relatively scarce in the interior and western regions of Iberia. We have found some refits proving that some quartz reduction sequence were carried out into the site. The distribution of those refits suggests that the spatial relations between the artifacts have not been highly disturbed, at least in the uppermost horizon of the layer. The faunal assemblage is small and only eight remains have been identified at the anatomical and taxonomical level. The species identified are roe deer, red deer and chamois (J. Rosell, per. com.).

Valdavara 1-2 The excavation of the exterior talus between Valdavara 1 and 2 started in 2008 and is still in progress. The stratigraphic sequence is different from that documented inside the cave and includes an Early Holocene level. Three main layers have been distinguished in this sequence:

The lithic assemblage is formed by 175 artifacts. Quartz is clearly the dominant raw material and represents more than 70% of the total assemblage. As we have seen previously, quartz is a strictly local material, since it is abundant in the Paleozoic formations surrounding the site, both in primary and secondary locations. 26% of the artifacts are made on flint, which is a non local material. This pattern is clearly different to that documented in the Magdalenian layers excavated inside the cave, in which flint is markedly dominant. However, quartz and flint show very different technical patterns in the Mesolithic, both from the technological and typological points of view, and in fact they may be considered as two different assemblages.

• Level B (15-90 cm) is a blackish silty layer with many small limestone blocks. It is intensely bioturbated by roots. The archaeological assemblage is characterized by the presence of prehistoric ceramics mixed with some sub-actual remains. • Level C (9-33 cm) is formed by reddish brown silts and clays. Limestone blocks are common and tend to be larger than in the previous level. This level yielded an archaeological assemblage that, according to dating and the characteristics of the lithics, can be attributed to the Macrolithic Mesolithic. • Level D (17-56 cm) is composed of orange siltyclayey sediment with large limestone boulders. The archaeological content will not be presented here because the excavation of this level is not finished yet.

The quartz assemblage is characterized by expedient reduction strategies directed to the production of flakes. Large cores showing short series of detachments are clearly dominant. Most of these cores exhibit unipolar reduction methods, systematically adapted to the morphology of the nodule. Natural cortical surfaces are usually used as striking platforms, although there are also some platforms prepared by large removals. The few quartz cores showing an advanced reduction stage are characterized by a more or less dischoidal morphology. Retouched artifacts are scarce and show atypical and irregular retouch, although they tend to exhibit denticulate forms. The flint assemblage shows different characteristics. The two cores identified in this assemblage show reduction methods directed to the

We have for level C two radiocarbon dates (Figure 4) that place this level around 10,000 cal BP (or 8000 cal BC). These two dates are practically identical, although they come from different horizons of the layer. This dating is in agreement with the dates obtained for Macrolithic assemblages in the rest of the Iberian Peninsula. The Macrolithic Mesolithic, also known as Mesolithic of denticulates and notches, is currently one of the best defined Mesolithic facies in the Iberian Peninsula. It is particularly well documented in the Mediterranean basin and the

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Figure 6. Anterior (a) and left lateral (b) views of the child neurocranium found in Valdavara 2. Photograph by Gerard Campeny.

production of elongated blanks, although the blade index is fairly low. Retouched artifacts are characterized by Upper Paleolithic types, like burins and bladelets with marginal retouch. Finally, we should also bring especial attention to the quartzite artifacts, introduced in form of large selected blanks.

humid depositional environment. These data suggest that the formation of the faunal assemblage was not related to human activity. During the 2007 excavation, 55 human fossils were recovered in level 3. They correspond to two children and indicate an intentional burial, although the bones were not in anatomical connection. The first individual was identified during the excavation by the recovery of an almost complete neurocranium (Figure 6) and other bones scattered around it. According to the ossification of the tympanic bone, he died when 2.5-3 years old. Four isolated deciduous teeth can be also attributed to this individual. The second individual died when 6-9 months old and was identified by a left temporal bone in which the anterior and posterior tubercles of the tympanic bone are not fused. Moreover, two isolated teeth can also correspond to this individual. During the 2008 and 2009 excavation seasons, remains of a third child have been recovered, but they are still under study. At first, it was difficult to establish the chronology of this assemblage, since no vestige of material culture was associated with the human bones. Only the direct dating of two human remains allowed to resolve this question. The dates (3270 ± 40 and 3250 ± 40 BP) suggest a Late Bronze Age context for the burials (Figure 4).

Valdavara 2 In Valdavara 2, we have excavated a 2 x 2 m pit in front of the fissure opened in the rocky wall. The stratigraphic sequence is composed of three main units. Level 1 was a superficial bioturbated layer that yielded some bones and quartz artifacts. Below this level, a horizon of large limestone boulders appeared. In the gaps between the blocks, two main sedimentary units were recognized: level 2, formed by red silts, and level 3, formed by gravels in a red silty matrix. Only faunal remains were found in level 2, while level 3 yielded an interesting accumulation of human remains as well as more mammal bones. Unlike Valdavara 1, Valdavara 2 is characterized by the scarcity of material culture items. The faunal assemblages from level 2 and 3 do not exhibit evidence of human activity and the human bones from level 3 were not associated with any potsherd or lithic artifact.

Valdavara 3

Few faunal remains were recovered in level 2, and only five have been identified: one ovicaprid remain and four rabbit bones. The faunal assemblage from level 3 is larger, and 49 remains have been identified at the anatomical and taxonomical levels. Goat is the dominant species, followed by rabbit, but we have also identified some remains of Bos sp., red deer, and small carnivores. Among goat remains, limb bones are the best represented anatomical parts. Several bones show fractures and gnawing marks. The characteristics of these marks indicate that they were produced by a medium-sized carnivore. More than a half of the remains show manganese oxides, suggesting a

Valdavara 3 is located at only 400 m from Valdavara Cave, in a stone quarry located at the top of the same ridge (672 m a.s.l.). The site was discovered in July of 2009, when a blast carried out during the quarry works exposed the 16 m thick infill of a large vertical shaft (Figure 7). As a consequence of the blast, part of the deposit fell down and accumulated at the base of the section. During our first visit to the site, we realized that these removed sediments contained a large amount of faunal remains. The first archaeological intervention was carried out in July 2009 and consisted

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Figure 7. Section remaining after the quarry works in Valdavara 3. The sedimentary infilling of the cavity can be seen in the middle of the image.

in collecting these removed remains in order to make a preliminary evaluation about the scientific interest of the site. In particular, we wanted to find out if there was some evidence of human presence in these disturbed sediments, as well as to have some clues about the site chronology. The data from these removed materials and the risk of destruction of the site by the quarry exploitation compelled to carry out a rescue excavation, which started in June 2010. The results from this first excavation will not be included in this paper. We will present a synthesis of the results extracted from the removed materials collected in 2009.

of large and medium-sized flakes on quartz, quartzite and sandstone (Figure 8). Such small assemblage is not diagnostic from the cultural or technological point of view, but it is enough to corroborate that humans made some visits to the site. Since radiometric dates are not still available, the first chronological hypothesis should be based on the characteristics of the macro and micro-mammal assemblages. Although we should bear in mind that these remains come from disturbed sediments, the taxonomical data indicates that a Late Middle Pleistocene or Early Upper Pleistocene age is the most likely.

The bulk of the 2009 assemblage is formed by faunal remains. These remains correspond to a broad spectrum of species, including both herbivores (horse, rhinoceros, Bos sp.) and carnivores (hyena, bear, lion). There is no clear evidence of human activity on these bones and it seems that most of the assemblage was formed by nonhuman agents. Moreover, some remains show carnivore toothmarks. There is also a great diversity of anatomical parts, and both cranial and post-cranial elements are represented. Although Valdavara 3 seems to be basically a paleontological site, human presence has been attested by some lithic artifacts. The lithic assemblage is composed

Conclusions Excavations in Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3 are providing information about different cultural periods of the North-western Iberian Prehistory: Bronze Age, Late Neolithic – Chalcolithic, Mesolithic, and Late Upper Paleolithic. However, these results are still preliminary and there are important questions that must be resolved, like the chronology of Valdavara 3, in order to establish the temporal range of the Becerreá sites. Meanwhile, the most significant contribution of these sites concerns the funerary behaviour of Recent Prehistory populations and

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therefore correspond to a secondary deposit formed by bones transported from the primary burial. However, we should wait for the study of the remains recovered after 2007 in order to test this hypothesis. Level C of Valdavara 1-2 represents the first Macrolithic assemblage identified in Galicia. It corroborates the wide geographical distribution of the Macrolithic Mesolithic at the scale of the Iberian Peninsula. Together with recently published sites, like Barca do Xerez de Baixo (Araújo et al., 2009), Prazo (Monteiro-Rodrigues and Angelucci, 2004), Conejar Cave and Parque Darwin, confirms that this Mesolithic techno-complex is well represented in the western and interior regions of the Iberian Peninsula. According to the dating of these sites, the chronology of the Macrolithic phenomenon in these regions is coincident with that obtained in the Mediterranean and Cantabrian regions. From a technological perspective, the dominant use of local raw materials and expedient reduction methods appear as essential patterns in the definition of this techno-complex, marking a clear rupture with the Upper Paleolithic assemblages of the Late Pleistocene. The presence of an “Upper Paleolithic” component in the Mesolithic assemblage of Valvadara Cave, as well as in other Mesolithic sites, remains an open question. Although the use of more complex technologies on non local materials can not be discarded during the Macrolithic Mesolithic, taphonomical processes should be seriously taken into account in order to explain the apparent coexistence of these different behaviours.

Figure 8. Quartzite flake recovered in the removed sediments from Valdavara 3.

the approach to cultural periods very little-known so far in North-western Iberia, like the Macrolithic Mesolithic and the Early-Middle Magdalenian. Together with other recently published sites, Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3 show the potentiality of the Eastern Ranges of Galicia for carrying out archaeological research projects. Unlike most of Galicia, this area is characterized by a good preservation of organic materials, which allows a better approach to human subsistence strategies and the availability of radiometric dates that are less reliable in other geological contexts. The use of caves for funerary purposes during the Recent Prehistory is not well documented in Galicia. This is partly due to the scarcity of karstic formations in this region. Besides Valdavara, other example is Pala da Vella Cave (Fernández Rodríguez and Villar Quinteiro, 2003), with a radiometric dating on a human vertebra (4,500 ± 35 BP) similar to that obtained from level 2 of Valdavara 1. Although both Pala da Vella and Valdavara share many characteristics, their respective potsherd assemblages are different, especially concerning decorative patterns. Only small human bones, like teeth and phalanxes, have been recovered in the upper assemblage of Valdavara 1. These are the anatomical parts that tend to rest on place when previously buried remains are removed to a secondary location. This transport of human skeletons has been well attested in other Neolithic and Bronze Age sites of the Iberian Peninsula (Bueno et al., 2005; Cámara Serrano, 2001; Cáceres et al., 2007). It seems therefore that the human remains from Valdavara 1 may correspond to primary burials from which large elements were removed and transported to another place.

The lower assemblage of Valdavara 1 is especially interesting due to the scarcity of reliable Upper Paleolithic occurrences in Galicia. This scarcity is particularly striking taking into account the proximity to the Cantabrian region, which shows one of the largest concentrations of Upper Paleolithic sites in all the Iberian Peninsula. Taking aside the A Valiña Cave, whose Upper Paleolithic attribution is dubious, only a few sites located in the North of the Lugo province have been assigned to the Upper Paleolithic using typological arguments: Dos Niñas, Férvedes II, Pena Grande and Prado do Inferno (López Cordeiro, 2003; Ramil, 1997; Villar Quinteiro, 1997). According to Villar Quinteiro (1997), the typological characteristics of Férvedes II and Dos Niñas place these sites in the Lower Magdalenian. They could be therefore chronologically close to the Pleistocene levels of Valdavara 1. However, these northern sites are rock-shelters or open air sites that do not have radiometric dating. In addition, the ongoing excavations in Eirós Cave are bringing out an interesting Upper Paleolithic sequence (Fábregas et al., 2010). The most reliable counterparts of the Valdavara 1 Pleistocene levels must be found in the Magdalenian of the Western Cantabrian region, where many sites have yielded similar radiocarbon dates and these chrono-cultural stages are particularly well represented. As we said above, the Navia River is a natural corridor between the Cantabrian region and the interior areas of Galicia. From this point of

Concerning Valdavara 2, the most outstanding feature is the age pattern of the funerary accumulation, since only child remains have been so far recovered. It seems that Valdavara 2 may show a pattern of anatomical representation opposite to that documented in Valdavara 1. There are cranial parts, long bones, and limbs, but small parts (hand and foot bones, vertebrae) are underrepresented. This accumulation could

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References

view, a relationship between Valdavara and the Cantabrian Magdalenian would be likely. The Cantabrian assemblages with radiocarbon dates similar to those from Valdavara correspond to the end of the Lower Magdalenian and the beginning of the Middle Magdalenian (Corchón, 2005; González Sainz and Utrilla, 2005). There are several assemblages from Central and Eastern Asturias (especially in the Nalón and Sella basins) that have been dated to this time span: the Lower Magdalenian (levels XII and XI, respectively dated to 14,495 ± 140 and 13,755 ± 120 BP) and Middle Magdalenian (levels IXc-IV, dated between 13,650 ± 140 and 12,869 ± 160 BP) of Las Caldas Cave (Corchón, 1999); level 3c of La Güelga Cave, assigned to the Lower Magdalenian and dated between 14,170 +1,030/910 and 14,020 ± 130 BP (Menéndez et al., 2005); level B of Entrefoces, which is also Lower Magdalenian and has been dated to 14,690 ± 200 BP (González Morales, 1990); the Middle Magdalenian of La Paloma level 6 (14,600 ± 160 BP); and, finally, levels 1a and 1c of Tito Bustillo Cave, which have also yielded some dates in the range of the Valdavara dating (level 1a: 14,250 ± 300 and 14,220 ± 180; level 1c: 13,870 ± 220 and 13,520 ± 220 BP), although some characteristics of the archaeological assemblage seem to be at odds with these dates (González Sainz, 1989; Moure, 1975).

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Finally, research on Valdavara 3 is in a very preliminary stage, but it seems that this site marks the oldest archaeological evidence so far recovered in the Becerreá area. Although its chronology is still unclear, the preliminary data indicates that it is considerably older than Valdavara Cave. This kind of sites characterized by large faunal assemblages formed by natural agents, but showing ephemeral human visits, is relatively common in the Middle Pleistocene and Early Upper Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula. If the presumed age was confirmed, Valdavara 3 would represent a significant contribution to the research on the oldest human occupations of Galicia. Acknowledgments The archaeological excavations in Valdavara Cave and Valdavara 3 are carried out thanks to the financial support of the Concello de Becerreá (Becerreá council). Excavations in Valdavara 3 are also supported by the Consellería de Cultura e Turismo de la Xunta de Galicia. We are also grateful to Alberto López Pérez, the owner of the land where Valdavara Cave is located, and Canteira do Penedo S.A. (CANPESA), owner of the quarry where Valdavara 3 was found. CANPESA has also given material and logistical support to the Valdavara 3 excavations. These excavations are carried out in the framework of the research project Ocupaciones humanas durante el Pleistoceno en la cuenca media del Miño (HUM/2007-63662 HAR2010-21786/ HIST). Finally, we are very grateful to all the excavators that took part in the archaeological works at these sites.

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