Thinking Italian Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Italian to English [2nd ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Acknowledgements......Page 10
Introduction......Page 12
SECTION 1 Process and product......Page 16
1 Preliminaries to translation as a process......Page 18
1.2 Intralingual translation......Page 23
1.3 Gist translation......Page 25
2 Preliminaries to translation as a product......Page 26
2.1 Translation loss......Page 33
2.2 Degrees of freedom; translation loss......Page 34
3 Cultural transposition......Page 36
3.1 Cultural transposition......Page 42
4 Compensation......Page 45
4.1 Compensation......Page 50
The formal properties of texts: introduction......Page 52
5 The formal properties of texts: phonic/graphic and prosodic issues in translation......Page 54
5.1 Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues......Page 64
5.2 Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues......Page 65
6 The formal properties of texts: grammatical and sentential issues in translation......Page 67
6.1 Grammatical and sentential issues......Page 73
6.2 Grammatical and sentential issues......Page 74
7 The formal properties of texts: discourse and intertextual issues in translation......Page 76
7.1 Discourse and intertextual issues......Page 83
8 Literal meaning and translation issues......Page 85
8.1 Particularising, generalising and partially overlapping translation......Page 91
9 Connotative meaning and translation issues......Page 93
9.1 Connotative meaning......Page 98
10 Language variety: translation issues in register, sociolect and dialect......Page 101
10.1 Language variety......Page 107
10.2 Language variety......Page 109
11 Textual genre and translation issues......Page 111
11.1 Genre and translation......Page 116
11.2 Genre and translation......Page 117
12 Scientific and technical translation......Page 119
12.2 Scientific and technical translation......Page 125
12.3 Scientific and technical translation......Page 126
13 Official, legal and business translation......Page 127
13.1 Official and legal translation......Page 136
13.2 Official and legal translation......Page 138
14 Translating consumer-oriented texts......Page 140
14.2 Consumer-oriented texts......Page 145
15 Revising and editing translations......Page 147
15.1 Revising and editing......Page 152
15.2 Revising and editing......Page 153
Assignment 1......Page 155
Assignment 2......Page 158
Assignment 3......Page 161
SECTION 2 The translation profession......Page 164
17 Working as a translator......Page 166
17.1 Working as a translator......Page 179
18 Technical resources......Page 180
18.1 Technical resources......Page 187
19 Professionalism and quality standards......Page 189
19.1 Professional standards......Page 194
19.2 Quality standards......Page 195
20 Summary and conclusion......Page 196
Glossary......Page 200
Bibliography......Page 208
Index......Page 212

Citation preview

Thinking Italian Translation

Thinking Italian Translation is an indispensable course for linguists who want to develop their Italian-to-English translation skills. This new edition includes: • •

up-to-date examples and new source texts from a variety of genres, from journalistic to technical; a brand new section on professionalism and the translation market.

The course is practical, addressing key issues for translators such as cultural differences, genre, and revision and editing. At the same time, it clearly defines translation theories. Thinking Italian Translation is key reading for advanced students wishing to perfect their language skills or considering a career in translation. Stella Cragie, a Qualified Member of the Institute of Translation and Interpreting, and former Principal Lecturer in Translation at the University of Westminster, is now a freelance translator. Ian Higgins, who, with the late Sándor Hervey, originated the Thinking Translation series, is Honorary Senior Lecturer in Modern Languages at the University of St Andrews. Patrizia Gambarotta is Director of the Istituto Italiano di Cultura in Mumbai.

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Thinking Arabic Translation A Course in Translation Method: Arabic to English James Dickins, Sàndor Hervey and Ian Higgins Thinking Chinese Translation A Course in Translation Method: Chinese to English Valerie Pellatt and Eric T. Liu Thinking German Translation A Course in Translation Method: German to English Sàndor Hervey, Ian Higgins and Michael Loughridge Russian Translation Theory and Practice Edna Andrews and Elena Maksimova Routledge Course in Japanese Translation Yoko Hasegawa Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies Second Edition Mona Baker and Gabriela Saldanha Arabic–English–Arabic Legal Translation Hanem El-Farahaty In Other Words A Coursebook on Translation Mona Baker Becoming a Translator An Accelerated Course Douglas Robinson The Scandals of Translation Lawrence Venuti Translation Studies Susan Bassnett

Thinking Italian Translation A course in translation method Italian to English Second edition

Stella Cragie, Ian Higgins, Sándor Hervey and Patrizia Gambarotta

Second edition published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Stella Cragie, Ian Higgins, Sándor Hervey, Patrizia Gambarotta The right of Stella Cragie, Ian Higgins, Sándor Hervey and Patrizia Gambarotta to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Routledge 2000 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Thinking Italian translation: a course in translation method: Italian to English/Sándor Hervey; Ian Higgins; Stella Cragie; Patrizia Gambarotta. – Second Edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. I. Hervey, Sándor G., editor. II. Higgins, Ian, editor. III. Cragie, Stella, editor. IV. Gambarotta, Patrizia, editor. PC1498.T46 2016 428′.0251 – dc23 2015020505 ISBN: 978-1-138-79977-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-79978-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-75587-8 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK

Contents

Acknowledgements

ix

Introduction

1

SECTION 1

Process and product 1 Preliminaries to translation as a process Practical 1 1.1 Intralingual translation 12 1.2 Intralingual translation 12 1.3 Gist translation 14 2 Preliminaries to translation as a product Practical 2 2.1 Translation loss 22 2.2 Degrees of freedom; translation loss 23 3 Cultural transposition Practical 3 3.1 Cultural transposition 31 4 Compensation

5 7 12

15 22

25 31

34

Practical 4 4.1 Compensation 39

39

The formal properties of texts: introduction

41

vi

Contents

5 The formal properties of texts: phonic/graphic and prosodic issues in translation Practical 5 5.1 Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues 53 5.2 Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues 54 6 The formal properties of texts: grammatical and sentential issues in translation Practical 6 6.1 Grammatical and sentential issues 62 6.2 Grammatical and sentential issues 63 7 The formal properties of texts: discourse and intertextual issues in translation Practical 7 7.1 Discourse and intertextual issues 72 8 Literal meaning and translation issues Practical 8 8.1 Particularising, generalising and partially overlapping translation 80 9 Connotative meaning and translation issues Practical 9 9.1 Connotative meaning 87 10 Language variety: translation issues in register, sociolect and dialect Practical 10 10.1 Language variety 96 10.2 Language variety 98 11 Textual genre and translation issues

43 53

56 62

65 72

74 80

82 87

90 96

100

Practical 11 11.1 Genre and translation 105 11.2 Genre and translation 106

105

12 Scientific and technical translation

108

Practical 12 12.1 Scientific and technical translation 114 12.2 Scientific and technical translation 114 12.3 Scientific and technical translation 115

114

Contents vii 13 Official, legal and business translation Practical 13 13.1 Official and legal translation 125 13.2 Official and legal translation 127 14 Translating consumer-oriented texts Practical 14 14.1 Consumer-oriented texts 134 14.2 Consumer-oriented texts 134

116 125

129 134

15 Revising and editing translations

136

Practical 15 15.1 Revising and editing 141 15.2 Revising and editing 142

141

16 Three specimen practicals Assignment 1 Assignment 2 Assignment 3

144 144 147 150

SECTION 2

The translation profession

153

17 Working as a translator

155

Practical 17 17.1 Working as a translator 168 18 Technical resources

168 169

Practical 18 18.1 Technical resources 176

176

19 Professionalism and quality standards

178

Practical 19 19.1 Professional standards 183 19.2 Quality standards 184 20 Summary and conclusion Glossary Bibliography Index

183

185 189 197 201

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Acknowledgements

The authors and publisher would like to thank the contributors to the first edition for their valuable input, in particular Laura Leonardo and Stella Peyronel. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders of other material, but in a few cases this has not been possible. Any omissions brought to our attention will be remedied in future editions. Carcanet Press Limited for E. Morgan, ‘Opening the Cage’, from The Second Life (1968); Einaudi Editore for material from P. Levi, Se questo è un uomo; Antonella Antonelli Agenzia Letteraria S.r.l. for material from A. Tabucchi, Piccoli equivoci senza importanza; Bulzino Editore for material from G.M. Nicolai, Viaggio lessicale nel paese del soviet; Electa Napoli (1999) for material from Pitture nella Reggia dalle Città Sepolte, Naples; the European Communities for material from EUR-LEX; Marco Fazzini and Forum for Modern Language Studies for ‘Aprire la gabbia a John Cage’; Feltrinelli Editore for material from Il Gattopardo di Tomasi di Lampedusa © Giangiacomo Feltrinelli Editore, Milan 1958; The Harvill Press and Pantheon USA for material from The Leopard, by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, translated by Archibald Colquhoun. © Giangiacomo Feltrinelli Editore 1958. © in the English translation William Collins Sons and Co. Ltd. 1961. Reproduced by permission of The Harvill Press and Pantheon USA; IBM Italia for ‘Come dicono le ricerche . . .’; Longanesi for material from M. Buticchi, Scusi, Bagnino, l’ombrellone non funziona; Arnoldo Mondadori Editore for material from S. Ballestra, Compleanno dell’iguana; Lamber di Affaba Francesco & C snc for material from a publicity brochure; Vittorio Russo for material from Santità! and Holiness!; Unione Sarda for ‘Il corrispondente del Financial Times’ by G. Pisano, 2014; Pagebypagebooks.com for The Battle of Life by Charles Dickens; Sergio Civita Editore for material from La cucina aristocratica napoletana, 1988 and for material from Campi Flegrei, 1987 by Franco Mancusi; Il Giornale for ‘Autunno ad alta quota’ by L. Romano, 2013; Marcegaglia Tourism for material from the website, accessed 2014; Feltrinelli Editore 2011 for material from Le Beatrici by Stefano Benni; Vallecchi Editore 2004 for Incantesimi – Alice nel Paese della fiction by Luisella Bolla; Sellerio Editore 2013 for material from L’arte del dubbio by Gianrico Carofiglio and for material from La voce del violino (2013) by Andrea Camilleri; BUR Rizzoli 2011 for material from Il ventre di Napoli by Matilde Serao; Rivista Ligure di Meteorologia for material from ‘Il Sistema dei centri funzionali nella previsione

x

Acknowledgements

di fenomeni intensi’ by L. Onorato; Aeronautica Militare for material from Rivista Meteo (2010); Centro italiano per la riqualificazione fluviale (CIRF) for material from the website; the European Council for material from ‘The Implementation of the Alpine Convention in the Field of Transport’; the Comune di Bologna for material from the ‘Documento Unico di Programmazione – Bilancio 2015 – 2017’; Cimbali Group for material relating to Faema; Beltrami-Felice for material from the website; La Repubblica (2014) for material from ‘Gnocchi e porcini sotto le stelle’ by P. Renzetti; Arcispedale Santa Maria Nova di Reggio Emilia for material from the website; Karen Stokes for material on working as a translator, and Helen Oclee-Brown for material on technical resources.

Introduction

This is the second edition of Thinking Italian Translation, which was first published in 2000. This book is a practical introduction to translation from Italian into English, and was originally developed from courses piloted in the Universities of St Andrews and Glasgow, following other languages in the ‘Thinking Translation’ series (French, German and Spanish). This edition follows in the footsteps of the first, retaining many of the original chapters, in particular those regarding ‘process and product’. These chapters now form Section 1 of the book. Some material from the original chapters has been replaced, with a view to providing more recent materials and different sources. New chapters on professional and practical matters of relevance to translators have replaced the contrastive grammar ones, and form Section 2. This change of focus derives from the need to balance the didactic approach with a professional perspective. In particular, it is important to highlight the far-reaching changes in the way translators work today, compared with 15 years ago, when the first edition was published. Developments in technology have played a significant role in changing the working practices of translators, and of those who request their services. IT advances have also contributed to increasing translators’ productivity and enhancing research techniques. Globalisation is another factor that has brought changes to the profession and the industry, both as regards enlarging the market, and making the world a smaller place. Section 1 (‘Process and product’) covers strategic areas drawn from translation theory and linguistics applied to the practical aspects of translation, complemented by chapters on specialised translation and revision. Section 2 (‘The translation profession’) explores the professional working environment of a translator, resources, and professional and quality standards applied to the translator’s working environment. The book follows a progressive exposition of different types of translation problem, accompanied by practical work aimed at developing a rationale for solving them. It is suitable both as a coursebook for use in advanced undergraduate or postgraduate studies in translation, and for self-study. It is not a book on translation theory, but on translation method, encouraging thoughtful consideration of possible solutions to practical problems. Theoretical issues do inevitably arise,

2

Introduction

but the aim of the book is to develop proficiency in the method, not to investigate its theoretical implications. The theoretical notions referred to are borrowed eclectically from translation theory and linguistics, solely with this practical aim in mind. When technical or theoretical terms are first explained, they are set in bold type; they are also listed in the Glossary on pp. 189–96. The focus is on how to translate. Therefore, it is assumed that the user already has a good command of Italian, and is familiar with the use of appropriate resources, in print and online. It is of use and interest to final-year undergraduates, postgraduates, to those seeking an academic or professional qualification in translation, and to practitioners. The analytical attention given to a wide variety of texts means that users explore an extensive range of Italian language and literature, while improving their use of English. This last point is important. While the main aim is to improve quality in translation, it must be remembered that this quality requires the translator to have an adequate command of English as well as of Italian. Assuming that this is the case, translator training normally focuses on translation into the mother tongue, because higher quality is achieved in that direction than in translating into a foreign language. Hence the predominance of unidirectional translation, from Italian into English, in this book. By its very nature, however, it will also be useful for Italians seeking to improve their skills in translation into English: this is a staple part of English studies in Italy, and Thinking Italian Translation offers an established methodology and plenty of practical work in this area. The book has a progressive structure. It begins with the fundamental issues, options and alternatives of which a translator must be aware: translation as process, translation as product, cultural issues in translation, and the nature and crucial importance of compensation in translation. Next, it looks at translation issues raised on six layers of textual variables, from the phonic to the intertextual. It then moves, via a series of semantic and stylistic topics (literal meaning, connotative meaning, register, sociolect and dialect), to the question of genre, or text-type. Further chapters are devoted to translation of specialist texts, translation revision and editing, and matters of professional interest. Chapter by chapter, the user is progressively trained to ask, and to answer, a series of questions that apply to any text given for translation. Pre-eminent among these are: ‘What is the purpose of my translation, and what are the salient features of this text?’ No translation is produced in a vacuum, and the book stresses that the needs of the target audience and the requirements of the person commissioning the translation are primary factors in translation decisions. For this same reason, when users are asked in a practical to provide a translation, a translation brief is always included in the assignment. As for the salient features of the text, these are what add up to its specificity as typical or atypical of a particular genre or genres. Once its genre-membership, and therefore its purpose, has been pinned down, the translator can decide on a strategy for meeting the translation brief. The attention is kept focused on this issue by the wide variety of genres found in the practicals: in addition to specialist texts, there is a focus on various sorts of journalistic and literary texts.

Introduction 3 The sorts of questions that need to be asked in determining the salient features of any text are listed in the schema of textual matrices on p. 4. The schema amounts to a checklist of potentially relevant kinds of textual features. These are presented in the order in which they arise, with one exception: as a reminder of the prime importance of purpose and genre, the genre matrix is placed at the top of the schema. There are two reasons for keeping discussion of genre as such until Chapter 11, even though its decisive importance is stressed throughout. The first is that the genre-membership of a text cannot be finally decided until the other salient features have been isolated. The second is that trainee translators are usually more confident and successful in responding to genre requirements after working on formal properties of texts, literal and connotative meaning and language variety than before. This is particularly true of texts with hybrid genre-features. Apart from genre, the schema of matrices outlines the investigation, in Chapters 3 and 5–10, of translation issues raised by textual features. (Compensation, the subject of Chapter 4, is not a textual feature, and so does not figure in the schema.) Users would be well advised to refer to the schema before tackling a practical: it is a progressive reminder of what questions to ask of the text set for translation. While the book systematically builds up a methodical approach, this is not an attempt to ‘mechanise’ translation by offering some inflexible rule or recipe. Very much the opposite: translation is a creative activity, and the translator’s personal responsibility is paramount. What is important is the need to recognise options and alternatives, the need for rational reflection and discussion, and the need for decision-making. The practical work (assignments) at the end of each chapter is designed for use by both individuals and groups. Each of the first 11 units comprises a chapter outlining a coherent set of notions and problems, and a practical consisting of one or more assignments in which specific translation tasks or other relevant exercises are set. These units are designed to be studied in numerical order, and are the essential foundation for the rest of the book. Chapters 12–14 give practice in various genres that commonly provide the bread and butter of professional translators. Chapter 15 focuses on revision and editing. Chapter 16 offers three specimen answers to typical practical assignments; the first of these, a sample answer to the assignment in Practical 2.1, is intended for analysis – and, if possible, discussion – early in the book, to show the reader what kind of issue to look at in practicals, and in what degree of detail. Chapters 17–19 are different from the others, as they do not deal with specific translation issues, but with the professional and working environment of a translator. It is vital that users have access to appropriate resources. Many of these will be Web-based. The resources should include a good monolingual Italian dictionary, a comprehensive Italian-English/English-Italian dictionary, an English dictionary and an English thesaurus. There are many good print general and, in particular, specialist dictionaries. If the practical work is done in class, it can be discussed in seminar mode and possibly marked by the tutor, who can feed back on the exercises, and provide guidance. If the practicals are used for self-study, users will find that the approach will enable them to reflect constructively on their own work.

4

Introduction SCHEMA OF TEXTUAL MATRICES Question to ask about the text

Matrix of features

Examples of typical features

GENRE MATRIX (Chapter 11) What genre(s) does this text belong to?

Genre types: • literary • religious • philosophical • empirical • persuasive • hybrid • Oral versus written:

• • • • •

short story etc. biblical text etc. essay on good and evil etc. scientific paper, certificate, etc. tour operator brochure advertisement, etc. • sermon, parody, job contract, etc. • dialogue, song, poetry, etc.

CULTURAL MATRIX (Chapter 3) Are there significant features presenting a choice between:

• • • •

Exoticism Calque Cultural borrowing Communicative translation • Cultural transplantation

• • • •

wholesale foreignness idiom translated literally etc. ‘cappuccino’, ‘piazza’, etc. public notices, proverbs, etc.

• American remakes of Italian films etc.

FORMAL MATRIX (Chapters 5–7) Are there significant features on the:

• Phonic/graphic level • Prosodic level • Grammatical level: – lexis – syntax • Sentential level • Discourse level • Intertextual level

Are there significant instances of:

• Literal meaning • Attitudinal meaning • Associative meaning

• • • •

alliteration, layout, etc. vocal pitch, rhythm, etc. archaism, overtones, etc. simple versus complex syntax etc. • sequential focus, intonation, etc. • cohesion markers etc. • pastiche, allusion to Dante, etc.

SEMANTIC MATRIX (Chapters 8–9)

• • • •

Allusive meaning Reflected meaning Collocative meaning Affective meaning

• synonymy etc. • hostile attitude to referent etc. • gender stereotyping of referent, etc. • echo of proverb etc. • play on words etc. • collocative clash etc. • offensive attitude to addressee etc.

VARIETAL MATRIX (Chapter 10) Are there significant instances of:

• • • •

Tonal register Social register Sociolect Dialect

• • • •

ingratiating tone etc. left-wing student dropout etc. drug addict jargon etc. Sicilianisms etc.

Section 1

Process and product

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1

Preliminaries to translation as a process

This chapter examines translation as a process – what it is the translator actually does. But first, we must note a few basic terms that will be used throughout the book: Text: Any given stretch of speech or writing assumed to make a coherent whole. A minimal text may consist of a single word – for example ‘Stupendo!’ – preceded and followed by a silence (however short). A maximal text may run into thousands of pages. Source text (ST): The text requiring translation. Target text (TT): The text that is a translation of the ST. Source language (SL): The language in which the ST is spoken or written. Target language (TL): The language into which the ST is to be translated. Strategy The translator’s overall ‘game plan’, consisting of a set of strategic decisions taken after an initial reading of the ST, but before starting detailed translation of it. Strategic decisions: The first set of reasoned decisions taken by the translator. These are taken before starting the translation in detail, in response to the following questions: What is the message content of this particular ST? What are its salient linguistic features? What are its principal effects? What genre does it belong to and what audience is it aimed at? What are the functions and intended audience of my translation? What are the implications of these factors? If a choice has to be made among them, which ones should be given priority? Decisions of detail: Reasoned decisions concerning the specific problems of syntax, vocabulary and so on, encountered in translating particular expressions in their particular context. Decisions of detail are made in the light of the strategy. However, problems of detail may well arise during translating, which raise unforeseen strategic issues and oblige the translator to refine the original strategy somewhat. With these terms in mind, the translation process can be broken down into two types of activity: understanding an ST and formulating a TT. These do not occur successively, but simultaneously; indeed, it is often only when coming up against

8

Process and product

a problem in formulating the TT that translators realise they have not fully understood something in the ST. When this happens, the ST may need to be reinterpreted in the light of the translator’s new understanding of it. This reinterpretation sometimes entails revising the original strategy, the revision in turn necessitating changes to some of the decisions of detail already taken. Nevertheless, it is useful to discuss ST interpretation and TT formulation as different, separable processes. The processes of translation are not different from familiar things that everyone does every day. Comprehension and interpretation are processes that we all perform whenever we listen to or read a piece of linguistically imparted information. Understanding even the simplest message potentially involves all our experiential baggage – the knowledge, beliefs, suppositions, inferences and expectations that are the stuff of personal, social and cultural life. Understanding everyday messages is therefore not all that different from what a translator does when first confronting an ST – and it is certainly no less complicated. In everyday communication, evidence that a message has been understood may come from appropriate practical response – for example, if your mother asks you for a spoon, and you give her a spoon and not a fork. Or it may come from appropriate linguistic response – such as returning a greeting appropriately, answering a question satisfactorily or filling in a form. None of these are translation-like processes, but they do show that the comprehension and interpretation stage of translation involves an ordinary, everyday activity that simply requires an average command of the language used. However, one everyday activity that does resemble translation proper is what Roman Jakobson actually calls inter-semiotic translation (Jakobson 1971: 260–6), that is, translation between two semiotic systems (systems for communication). ‘The green light means go’ is an act of inter-semiotic translation, as is ‘The big hand’s pointing to twelve and the little hand’s pointing to four, so it’s four o’clock’. In each case, there is translation from a non-linguistic communication system to a linguistic one. To this extent, everyone is a translator of a sort. Still more common are various sorts of linguistic response to linguistic stimuli, which are also very like translation proper, even though they actually take place within a single language. These sorts of process are what Jakobson (1971) calls intralingual translation. A brief look at the two extremes of intralingual translation will show what its major implications are. Take the following scenario. Signora Roberti is driving her husband through the centre of a small town. A police officer steps out and stops them. As he leans in to speak to her, she can see over his shoulder that, further on, a lorry has jackknifed and blocked the street. At one extreme of intralingual translation lies the kind of response typified in this exchange: UFFICIALE DI POLIZIA:

C’è stato un incidente più avanti, Signora, e la strada è bloccata. Lei deve girare a sinistra e proseguire per Via S.Maria.

Preliminaries to translation as a process SIG.RA ROBERTI: SIG. ROBERTI: SIG.RA ROBERTI:

9

Va bene, ho capito. Cosa ha detto? Che dobbiamo girare a sinistra.

The police officer’s essential message is ‘Giri a sinistra’, but he does not want to sound too brusque by ordering the driver to turn, so he mollifies her with a partial explanation, ‘C’è stato un incidente’, then indicates what she should do, by saying ‘Lei deve girare’; though this is phrased as an obligation, it is more polite in tone than using the imperative. The use of ‘proseguire’ rather than ‘prendere’ or ‘scendere’ is more ‘technical’ in tone and reflects the kind of register that a police officer might use with the public in Italy, marking his or her authority and reinforcing the superiority/inferiority relationship in the communication flow. When Signor Roberti asks his wife what the officer said, however, she separates the gist of the message from the circumstantial details and tonal subtleties, and reports it in her own words. This type of intralingual translation we shall call gist translation. The example also shows two other features that intralingual translation shares with translation ‘proper’. First, Signora Roberti’s gist translation is not the only possible one. For instance, she might have said ‘Dobbiamo prendere quella strada lì’. Among other things, this implies they may not know the street in question. A third possibility is ‘Dobbiamo scendere/salire per Via S.Maria’: if they do know the town, the officer’s gist is accurately conveyed. The other feature shared by intralingual translation and translation ‘proper’ is that the situation in which a message is expressed and received affects both how it is expressed and how it is received. By ‘situation’ here, we mean a combination of elements: the circumstances in which speaker and addressee find themselves (such as being stopped in a car and having to take a diversion); the accumulated experience they carry with them, all the time (knowing or not knowing the town; familiarity or unfamiliarity with conventions for giving and receiving instructions; liking or disliking the police; and so on); and the linguistic context. ‘Context’ is often used metaphorically in the sense of ‘situation’ (and sometimes even in the sense of ‘meaning’). In this book, we shall use it specifically to denote the rest of a text in which a given expression or stretch of text occurs. For example, the context of Signor Roberti’s question is the exchange between Signora Roberti and the officer; the context of the officer’s words is everything that follows them; and the context of Signora Roberti’s reply to her husband is everything that precedes ‘Che dobbiamo girare a sinistra’. As will become clear, the whole context is an important consideration in translation; but the more immediate the context, the more crucial a factor it becomes in making decisions of detail. There are always so many variables in the message situation that it is impossible to predict what the gist translation will be or how the addressee will take it. For example, Signora Roberti might simply have said ‘Qui si gira a sinistra’, an economical way of reporting the gist – no bad thing when she has to concentrate on driving. However, depending on how she says it and how her husband receives it, it could give the impression that the officer was brusque.

10 Process and product Another reason why ‘Qui si gira a sinistra’ could sound brusque is that the impersonal sounds ‘official’, whereas all the other gist translations we have given are clearly indirect speech (or ‘reported speech’). Compare this, for example, with the familiar form ‘Giriamo a sinistra’. Now all translation may be said to be indirect speech, as it does not repeat the ST, but reformulates it. Forms such as ‘Qui si gira a sinistra’ mask the fact that they are indirect speech. As a result, it is easy for reformulation consciously or unconsciously to become distortion, either because the translator misrepresents the ST or because the reader misreads the TT, or both. In other words, gist translation, like any translation, is a process of interpretation. This is seen still more clearly if we take an example at the other extreme of intralingual translation. Signora Roberti might just as easily have interpreted the officer’s words by expanding them. For example, she could build on an initial gist translation as follows: Dobbiamo scendere per Via S.Maria – un cretino di camionista ha sbandato e ha bloccato la strada. This puts two sorts of gloss on the officer’s message: she adds details that he did not give (the jackknifing, and her own judgement of the lorry driver). We shall use the term exegetic translation to denote a translation that explains and elaborates on the ST in this way. The inevitable part played by the translator’s experiential baggage becomes obvious in exegetic translation, for any exegesis by definition involves explicitly invoking considerations from outside the text in one’s reading of it – here, the jackknifed lorry, her knowledge of the town, and her attitude towards other road-users. An exegetic translation can be shorter than the ST, as in this example, but exegesis is usually longer, and can easily shade into general observations triggered by the ST but not really explaining it. If she knows the town, she might easily continue like this: Questa è la seconda volta in un mese. I camion non dovrebbero proprio passare per il centro. The explanation added in the second sentence may still just about be admissible as exegetic translation, but it does go much further than the officer’s. If she got a bit more carried away, however, her comment might still count as exegesis, but surely not as translation: Ecco un’altra brillante idea della Giunta locale: permettere ai camion di circolare in centro. As the above examples suggest, it is sometimes hard to keep gist translation and exegetic translation apart, or to see where translation shades into comment

Preliminaries to translation as a process

11

pure and simple. It certainly seems very hard to achieve an ideal rephrasing, a halfway point between gist and exegesis that would use terms radically different from those of the ST, but add nothing to, and omit nothing from, its message content. Nevertheless, with its constant movement between gist and exegesis, intralingual translation happens all the time in speech. It is also common in written texts. A good example is the use of a simpler register and style in producing specialist texts for the general public, for example, legal or medical ones, which – as laymen – they might find difficult to understand. A medical journal will contain articles written for professionals by professionals, who are well acquainted with the specialist medical concepts, style and conventions of such texts. But if we take a health website with material directed at the general public, such as advice and general information, the approach will need to be very different, namely to present the material so that it is clear and easy to understand by using simpler language, both in terms of lexis and structure. If we look at the implications for translation, it is essential to understand not only the depth, density and specialisation of the linguistic register of the ST, but also to have a clear idea of what the purpose and use of the TT will be. A TT that is excessively specialised for a general public will not be fit for purpose; by the same token, a specialist ST written for professionals will not be well served by a simplistic translation. In all the examples we have been discussing, the dividing lines between gist, exegesis, translation and comment are blurred. It could not be otherwise. If one thing has become clear in this chapter, it is the difficulty of controlling (and even of seeing) how far an intralingual TT omits from, adds to or faithfully reproduces the ST message content. And, as we shall see in the next chapter and throughout the book, what applies to intralingual translation applies even more so to translation proper: the ST message content can never be precisely reproduced in the TT, because of the very fact that the two forms of expression are different. It has also become clear that there are other important respects in which the three types of intralingual translation are on an equal footing with translation proper. They all require knowledge of the subject matter of the source text, familiarity with the source language and source culture in general, and interpretative effort. But they also require knowledge of the nature and needs of the target readership, familiarity with the target culture in general – and, above all, mastery of the target language. Synopsis-writing, reported speech, intralingual rephrasing and exegesis are therefore excellent exercises for our purposes, because they develop the ability to find and choose between alternative means of expressing a given message content.

12 Process and product

Practical 1 1.1 Intralingual translation Assignment (i) Identify the salient features of the text below, published in the Financial Times in 2012. What kind of readership does it address? How much of it would a layperson understand? Which words in particular indicate that it is a specialist text? Is the register entirely technical? Can you provide an accurate gist translation of it? Financials were the main laggards among US stocks during a week in which several large banks reported earnings with the broader market selling off on Friday after three days of gains. Wells Fargo, which reported estimate-beating profit, boosted by increased home lending, was mostly flat at $33.81. (A. Mahmudova and M. Poon, Financial Times, 20 July 2012) (ii) The following text (found on www.eur-lex.eu) is typical of the introduction to an EU Directive. What specific features of the following text signal that it is legal? Which features deviate from standard English discourse in terms of lexis, wording, grammar/syntax and format? THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION, Having regard to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, and in particular Article 114 thereof, Having regard to the proposal from the European Commission, After transmission of the draft legislative act to the national parliaments, Having regard to the opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee, Acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, Whereas, (followed by a description of the Directive in question). 1.2 Intralingual translation Assignment Below is a short extract from Boccaccio’s Decameron, together with an intralingual translation produced for educational purposes.

Preliminaries to translation as a process

13

(i) Identify the salient features of content and expression in the ST. (ii) Explain how the modern Italian version differs, and justify the changes. Text 1 Contextual information The extract is from Boccaccio’s Decameron, Seconda Giornata, Novella Quarta (the modern Italian version is found in Testi esemplari di Boccaccio, Mosé Multimedia online). In this tale, Andreuccio da Perugia goes to Naples to sell horses, and has many unexpected adventures. ST Fu [. . .] in Perugia un giovane il cui nome era Andreuccio di Pietro, cozzone di cavalli; il quale, avendo inteso che a Napoli era buon mercato di cavalli, messisi in borsa cinquecento fiorin d’oro, non essendo mai più fuori di casa stato, con altri mercatanti là se n’andò. (Boccaccio) TT A Perugia viveva [. . .] un giovane di nome Andreuccio, mercante di cavalli, ed egli, essendo venuto a sapere che a Napoli vi era un buon mercato di cavalli, messosi in borsa cinquecento fiorini d’oro, partì con altri mercanti: non si era mai allontanato da Perugia. Text 2 Contextual information The extract is taken from a medical conference held in 2009 organised by the Società italiana otolaringologia e chirurgia cervico-facciale (www.sioechcf.it) with the title ‘La patologia infiammatoria ed infettiva delle prime via aeree’. (i) Identify the salient features of content and expression in the ST. (ii) Which features of the ST might cause initial confusion to a non-specialist? Does the TT resolve the confusion? ST È esperienza comune a specialisti e medici generici il fatto che alterazioni di vario genere e grado dell’omeostasi rinofaringea possono esprimersi sia con una sintomatologia prevalentemente nasale, sia con una sintomatologia eminentemente auricolare. Dall’integrità delle strutture che costituiscono l’unità rino-faringo-tubarica dipendono la protezione e la ventilazione delle cavità ad essa connesse.

14 Process and product TT Gli specialisti e i medici generici sanno bene che diverse alterazioni dell’omeostasi [stato di equilibrio] del naso e della faringe possono esprimersi con sintomi soprattutto a livello del naso e della faringe. La protezione e la ventilazione delle cavità connesse al naso e alla faringe dipendono dal buono stato del naso, della faringe e della tuba [di Eustachio]. 1.3 Gist translation Assignment The following text is an extract from the opening lines of a story by Charles Dickens called ‘The Battle of Life’, found at www.pagebypagebooks.com. (i) Produce a gist translation in English of the text, focusing on the main points; structure your points so as to produce a clear interpretation of the text in summary form. (Group work: produce a collaborative gist translation, elect a moderator, then discuss your final version.) (ii) On completion, answer the following questions: 1 How many points are key to conveying the message effectively? 2 Were you able to extract the points and summarise them? 3 Was it a simple task to reorder the points into a coherent gist translation? 4 How effective is your version in conveying the message effectively? Once upon a time, it matters little when, and in stalwart England, it matters little where, a fierce battle was fought. It was fought upon a long summer day when the waving grass was green. Many a wild flower formed by the Almighty Hand to be a perfumed goblet for the dew, felt its enamelled cup filled high with blood that day, and shrinking dropped. Many an insect deriving its delicate colour from harmless leaves and herbs, was stained anew that day by dying men, and marked its frightened way with an unnatural track. The painted butterfly took blood into the air upon the edges of its wings. The stream ran red. The trodden ground became a quagmire, whence, from sullen pools collected in the prints of human feet and horses’ hoofs, the one prevailing hue still lowered and glimmered at the sun. Heaven keep us from a knowledge of the sights the moon beheld upon that field, when, coming up above the black line of distant rising-ground, softened and blurred at the edge by trees, she rose into the sky and looked upon the plain, strewn with upturned faces that had once at mothers’ breasts sought mothers’ eyes, or slumbered happily. Heaven keep us from a knowledge of the secrets whispered afterwards upon the tainted wind that blew across the scene of that day’s work and that night’s death and suffering! Many a lonely moon was bright upon the battle-ground, and many a star kept mournful watch upon it, and many a wind from every quarter of the earth blew over it, before the traces of the fight were worn away.

2

Preliminaries to translation as a product

Chapter 1 viewed translation as a process. However, the evidence we had for the process was a product – a gist translation and an exegetic translation. It is as a product that translation is viewed in the present chapter. Here, too, it is useful to examine two diametric opposites: in this case, two opposed degrees of freedom of translation, showing extreme SL bias, on the one hand, and extreme TL bias, on the other. At the extreme of SL bias is interlinear translation, where the TT does not necessarily respect TL grammar, but has grammatical units corresponding as closely as possible to every grammatical unit of the ST. Here is an interlinear translation of an Italian proverb: È meglio l’uovo oggi che la gallina domani.

Is better the egg today than the hen tomorrow.

Normally only used in descriptive linguistics or language teaching, interlinear translation is of limited use. It is actually an extreme form of the much more common literal translation, where the literal meaning of words is taken as if straight from the dictionary (that is, out of context), but TL grammar is respected. Since TL grammar is respected, literal translation very often unavoidably involves grammatical transposition – the replacement or reinforcement of given parts of speech in the ST by other parts of speech in the TT. A simple example is translating ‘Ho fame’ as ‘I am hungry’: the TT has a subject pronoun where there is none in the ST, and the ST noun is rendered with a TL adjective. A literal translation of the proverb would be: ‘The egg today is better than the hen tomorrow.’ We shall take literal translation as the practical extreme of SL bias. At the opposite extreme, TL bias, is free translation, where there is only a global correspondence between the textual units of the ST and those of the TT. A free translation of the Italian proverb above might be: ‘A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’. Here, the implied message of the ST is made explicit, but the grammar is different and the image of poultry is replaced by that of a bird and a bush. This is also an example of what we shall call communicative translation. A communicative translation is produced when, in a given situation, the ST uses an SL expression standard for that situation, and the TT uses a TL expression

16

Process and product

standard for an equivalent target culture situation. ‘A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is thus a standard cultural counterpart to ‘È meglio l’uovo oggi che la gallina domani’, and in most situations would be a suitable translation. The use of cultural counterparts is standard for many conventional formulae that do not invite literal translation. Public notices, proverbs and conversational clichés illustrate this particularly clearly, as in: Non calpestare l’erba.

Keep off the grass.

Buon appetito.

Enjoy your meal.

Prego.

You’re welcome/Don’t mention it.

È nato con la camicia.

He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.

Clearly, communicative translation apart, this degree of freedom is no more useful as standard practice than interlinear translation, because potentially important details of message content are bound to be lost. Between the two extremes of literal and free translation, the degrees of freedom are infinitely variable. However, in assessing translation freedom, it is useful to situate the TT on a scale between extreme SL bias and extreme TL bias, with notional intermediate points schematised as in the following diagram, adapted from Newmark (1981: 39): TL bias

SL bias

Literal

Faithful

Balanced (SUTL)

Idiomising

Free

The five points on the scale can be illustrated from the simple example of one person criticising other people’s behaviour: ‘Non esiste alcuna giustificazione per il loro comportamento.’ INTERLINEAR

Not exists any justification for their behaviour.

LITERAL

No justification exists for their behaviour.

FAITHFUL

There is no justification for their behaviour.

BALANCED

Their behaviour was not acceptable.

IDIOMISING

They really shouldn’t have done that.

FREE

They were out of order.

Before going any further, we should define what we mean by an idiomising translation. This is one that respects the ST message content, but typically uses TL idioms or familiar phonic and rhythmic patterns to give an easy read, even if

Preliminaries to translation as a product 17 (as in our example) this means sacrificing nuances of meaning or tone. By idiom, we mean a fixed figurative expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal meaning of the words that make it up, as in ‘questo è un altro paio di maniche’, ‘il mio cavallo di battaglia è la matematica’ and so on. Note that ‘idiomising’ is not synonymous with ‘idiomatic’: throughout this book, we use the term idiomatic to denote what sounds natural and normal to native speakers – a linguistic expression that is unexceptional and acceptable in a given context. Thus, in our five examples of degrees of freedom, the last four are certainly idiomatic, but only one of them is an idiomising translation. Note that although the last TT is very free and colloquially plausible, it is not a communicative translation, because it is not the standard expression in the given situation. (For this particular situation, there is no standard expression.) Its freedom is therefore gratuitous and might well be considered excessive: it might be out of character for the speaker to use ‘out of order’ in this sense, and the TT is in any case avoidably different in message content and tone from the ST.

Equivalence and translation loss In defining communicative translation, we used the term ‘equivalent target culture situation’. As a matter of fact, most writers on translation use the terms ‘equivalence’ and ‘equivalent’, but in so many different ways that equivalence can be a confusing concept even for translation tutors, let alone learners. Before going further, then, we need to say what we mean, and what we do not mean, by ‘equivalence’ and ‘equivalent’. We shall not go in detail into the philosophical implications of the term ‘equivalence’: this is not a book on translation theory. Holmes (1988), Koller (1995), Nida (1964) and Snell-Hornby (1988) between them provide a useful introduction to the question. The many different definitions of equivalence in translation fall broadly into one of two categories: they are either descriptive or prescriptive. Descriptively, ‘equivalence’ denotes the relationship between ST features and TT features that are seen as directly corresponding to one another, regardless of the quality of the TT. Thus, descriptively, the following pairs of utterances are equivalents: Sempre per l’alimentazione carburante produciamo oggi carcasse per pompe di diverso tipo.

Always for the fuel’s feeding we are now manufacturing frames for pumps of various type.

Windows knows every part of your PC, inside and out, so it can send your work to the right place. It also knows all the rules for storing and retrieving files, so you can find your work without a lot of hassle.

Windows conosce ogni elemento del vostro PC a menadito, così può inviare il lavoro al posto giusto. Inoltre, poiché conosce tutte le regole per archiviare e recuperare i file, potete trovare il vostro lavoro senza troppe difficoltà.

18 Process and product Prescriptively, ‘equivalence’ denotes the relationship between an SL expression and the canonic TL rendering of it. (By ‘canonic’, we mean ‘generally accepted as standard’.) So, prescriptively, the following pairs of utterances are equivalents: Ho sonno.

I’m sleepy.

Avanti!

Come in!

Direi di no.

I wouldn’t say so/I don’t think so.

An influential variant of prescriptive equivalence is the ‘dynamic equivalence’ of the eminent Bible translator Eugene Nida. This is based on the ‘principle of equivalent effect’, the principle that ‘the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message’ (Nida 1964: 159). Nida’s view has real attractions. As we shall suggest throughout the book, there are all sorts of good reasons why a translator might not want to translate a given expression literally. A case in point is communicative translation, which may be said to be an example of ‘dynamic equivalence’ (cf. Nida 1964: 166: ‘That is just the way we would say it’). However, there is a danger that trainee translators might see ‘dynamic equivalence’ as giving carte blanche for excessive freedom – that is, freedom to write more or less anything as long as it sounds good and does reflect, however tenuously, something of the ST message content. This danger is a very real one, as translation tutors will confirm. It is in fact a symptom of theoretical problems contained in the very notion of ‘equivalent effect’, most notably the normative ones. To begin with, who is to know what the relationship between ST message and source-culture receptors is? For that matter, is it plausible to speak of the relationship, as if there were only one: are there not as many relationships as there are receptors? And who is to know what such relationships can have been in the past? L’inferno, Pinocchio: each is, and has been, different things to different people in different places – and indeed, different to the same person at different times. In any case, few texts have a single effect even in one reading by one person; the more literary the text, the less likely this is. And these problems apply as much to the TT as to the ST: Who is to foresee the relationships between the TT and its receptors? All this suggests that, the more normative the use of ‘equivalence’, the more the term risks being taken to imply ‘sameness’. Indeed, it is used in this way in logic, sign-theory and mathematics. In mathematics, an equivalent relationship is one that is objective, incontrovertible and, crucially, reversible. In translation, however, such unanimity and reversibility are unthinkable for any but the very simplest of texts – and even then, only in terms of literal meaning. For example, if ‘Mi piace questo vino’ translates as ‘I like this wine’, will back-translation (that is, translating a TT into the SL) automatically give ‘Mi piace questo vino’, or will it give ‘Questo vino mi piace’? The answer depends on context – both the context of the ST utterance and that of the TT utterance. The fact is that the simplest of contexts is usually enough to inhibit the reversibility that is crucial to equivalence in the mathematical sense.

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Insofar as the principle of equivalent effect implies ‘sameness’ or is used normatively, it seems to be more of a hindrance than a help, both theoretically and pedagogically. Consequently, when we spoke of an ‘equivalent target culture situation’, we were not using ‘equivalent’ in a sense specific to any particular translation theory; we were using it in its everyday sense of ‘counterpart’ – something different, but with points of resemblance in relevant aspects. This is how the term will be used in this book. We have found it more useful, both in translating and in teaching translation, to avoid an absolutist ambition to maximise sameness between ST and TT, in favour of a relativist ambition to minimise difference: to look, not for what is to be put into the TT, but for what one might save from the ST. There is a vital difference between the two ambitions. The aim of maximising sameness encourages the belief that, floating somewhere out in the ether, there is the ‘right’ translation, the TT that is ‘equivalent’ to the ST, at some ideal halfway point between SL bias and TL bias. But it is more realistic, and more productive, to start by admitting that, because SL and TL are fundamentally different, the transfer from ST to TT inevitably entails difference – that is, loss. It is helpful here to draw an analogy with ‘energy loss’ in engineering. The transfer of energy in any machine necessarily involves energy loss. Engineers do not see this as a theoretical anomaly, but simply as a practical problem that they confront by striving to design more efficient machines, in which energy loss is reduced. We shall give the term translation loss to the incomplete replication of the ST in the TT – that is, the inevitable loss of textually and culturally relevant features. By ‘culturally relevant’ features, we mean features that are specific to the SL and the source culture and which make the ST what it is. The term ‘translation loss’ is intended to suggest that translators should not agonise over the loss, but should concentrate on ‘reducing’ it – that is, controlling and channelling it. Admittedly, the analogy with energy loss is imperfect: whereas energy loss is a loss (or rather, a diversion) of energy, translation loss is not a loss of translation, but a loss in the translation process. It is a loss of textual effects. Further, since these effects cannot be quantified, neither can the loss. So, when trying to ‘reduce’ it, the translator never knows how far there is still to go. Despite the limitations of the analogy, however, we have found it practical for translating and teaching. Once the concept of inevitable translation loss is accepted, a TT that is not, even in all important respects, a replica of the ST is not a theoretical anomaly, and the translator can concentrate on the realistic aim of channelling translation loss, rather than the unrealistic one of seeking the ‘right’ TT. Indeed, one of the attractions of the notion is that it frees translators actually to exploit translation loss – to introduce any loss, however major, that enables them to implement the strategy fully. Quite apart from any need for compensation in actually doing the translation, the brief itself may require a gist translation, or an exegetic translation, or an adaptation for children or immigrants, or for the stage or radio, and so on. In sum, as we shall see throughout the course, translation loss is only to be regretted when it prevents successful implementation of the translator’s strategy, that is, if it means the TT is not fit for purpose.

20 Process and product Using the term ‘loss’ rather than, for instance, ‘difference’ may seem unduly negative. It is indeed meant to be negative, but constructively so. The danger in talking of ‘translation difference’ is that ‘difference’ might be understood in a trivial sense: ‘Of course the ST and TT are different – just look at them, one’s in Italian and the other in English’. ‘Loss’ is more likely to direct attention to the relation between ST and TT as terms in a system of relationships, rather than to the texts themselves (cf. ‘just look at them’) as static, substantial, autonomous entities. Crucially, ‘loss’ is a reminder that, if you are reading a translation of Il Gattopardo, you are not reading Il Gattopardo, you are reading a reading of it. A few very simple examples, at the level of the sounds and literal meanings of individual words, will be enough to show some of the forms translation loss can take and what its implications are for the translator. There is translation loss even at the most elementary level. For instance, true SL–TL homonymy rarely occurs, and rhythm and intonation are usually different as well. So, in most contexts, ‘cane’ and ‘dog’ will be synonyms, and there will be no loss in literal meaning in translating one with the other. But ‘cane’ and ‘dog’ sound different: there is phonic and prosodic translation loss. Of course, in a veterinary textbook, this loss does not matter. But if the ST word is part of an alliterative pattern in a literary text or, worse, if it rhymes, the loss could be crucial; it depends on the purpose of the translation. Even if the ST word has entered the TL as a loanword (e.g. ‘allegretto’, ‘chiaroscuro’), using it in the TT entails translation loss in at least two ways. English-speakers pronounce ‘allegretto’ differently from Italians; so using it in an English TT involves loss on the phonic level. In any case, ‘allegretto’ still sounds somewhat foreign in English, despite its long use as a musical term, so that using it in an English TT introduces a touch of foreignness that is not present in an Italian ST, and thereby loses the cultural neutrality of the ST expression. These losses will virtually never matter, of course. Indeed, in a spoken TT, pronouncing ‘allegretto’ in an authentic Italian fashion could actually increase the translation loss, not reduce it: on top of the lexical foreignness (absent in the ST), it might increase the phonic foreignness (also absent in the ST) and introduce a comic pretentiousness, which, again, is completely absent in the ST. In some contexts, this translation loss could well matter rather a lot. In the opposite sort of case, where the ST contains a TL expression (e.g. ‘box’ in an Italian ST), loss may occur due to ambiguity. Take the product ‘box bambini’ sold by an Italian online company. In English, the juxtaposition of ‘box’ and ‘children’ would be unclear. Beyond suggesting some kind of container, there is no immediate link either lexically or semantically. The standard equivalent for the same object in current English is ‘playpen’, which would be used when transferring the ST ‘box’ in this context. The loss here is flagrant, due to the use of a different word, but it is completely insignificant. However, we would not say, as an Italian might, ‘Metti il bambino nel box’ (Put the child in the box), which is not only confusing, but has unpleasant implications. The problem – such as it is – arises from the narrowing of the meaning of ‘box’, once transplanted into Italian.

Preliminaries to translation as a product

21

A similar example with ‘box’ is the use in Italian (and other languages as a loanword) to mean ‘a garage’: adverts in Italian refer to ‘box auto’ for sale or rent. The use of ‘box’ in the auto context in English is normally associated with products for use with cars, not garages. Thus, ‘Vado a mettere la macchina nel box’ (I’ll put the car in the garage) incurs a similar translation loss. The use of ‘exotic’ terms from a third language used in the ST (e.g. from Latin, used in a legal context in either Italian or English) results in a translation loss where the same form is not directly transferable between the ST and TT; depending on context, the solution in such cases may be a gloss or exegetic translation to explain the concept. Loanwords from a third language often result in translation loss. French loanwords are relatively common in Italian, but these same items may not be current in English, or have the same value. For example, the word ‘défaillance’ (which is usually written in Italian without the acute accent on the first vowel) is used in both French and Italian to signal a failure of some kind, commonly in sport and medicine. An Italian cross-country rally report (source: www.acisportitalia.it – Campionato Italiano Cross Country Rally 2014) runs: ‘. . . non sappiamo bene a cosa imputare la defaillance che sta rallentando la nostra corsa’, referring to a series of technical problems that has hit the rally team. Given that the French word is not in common use in English, the TT requires adaptation (‘technical problems’) to render the meaning. This solution results in a loss of exoticism and economy compared with the ST. As this example suggests, it is important to recognise that, even where the TT is more explicit, precise, economical or vivid than the ST, this difference is still a case of translation loss. Some authorities refer to such differences as ‘translation gains’. It is certainly true that the following TTs, for example, can be said to be more grammatically economical, sometimes even more elegant and easier to say, than their STs. But these so-called ‘gains’ are by the same token grammatical, phonic or prosodic failures to replicate the ST structures, and are therefore by definition instances of translation loss: ST Portamonete. Imposta sul valore aggiunto. Exchange equalisation fund. Multiple re-entry visa. Blind in one eye.

TT Purse. Value added tax. Fondo rettificativo. Visto multiplo. Guercio.

Conversely, if we reverse these columns, we have a set of TTs that are perhaps clearer, more precise or more vivid than their STs: these TTs, too, all show translation loss, because the ST structures have been violated: ST Purse. Value added tax.

TT Portamonete. Imposta sul valore aggiunto.

22 Process and product Fondo rettificativo. Visto multiplo. Guercio.

Exchange equalisation fund. Multiple re-entry visa. Blind in one eye.

If translation loss is inevitable even in translating single words, it is obviously going to feature at more complex levels as well – in respect of connotations, for example, or of sentence-structure, discourse, language variety and so on. There is no need to give examples just now: some will arise in Practical 2, and plenty more later on, chapter by chapter, as we deal with these and other topics. For the moment, all we need do is point out that, if translation loss is inevitable, the challenge to the translator is not to eliminate it, but to control and channel it by deciding which features, in a given ST, it is most important to respect, and which can most legitimately be sacrificed in respecting them. The translator has always to be asking, and answering, such questions as: Does it matter if ‘I like this wine’ does not reflect the nuance between ‘Mi piace questo vino’ and ‘Questo vino mi piace’? Does it matter that ‘box’ is exotic in Italian and not in English or if ‘È nato con la camicia’ is phonically, rhythmically, grammatically, lexically and metaphorically completely different from ‘He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth’? There is no once-and-for-all answer to questions such as these. Everything depends on the purpose of the translation and on what the role of the textual feature is in its context. Sometimes a given translation loss will matter a lot, sometimes little. Whether the final decision is simple or complicated, it does have to be made, every time, and the translator is the one who has to make it.

Practical 2 2.1 Translation loss Assignment 1 (i) You have been commissioned to translate for publication in English the book from which the following ST is taken. Discuss the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this extract from the ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Paying special attention to cases where you managed to reduce significant translation loss, discuss the main decisions of detail you took, explaining what the loss was and how you reduced it. Contextual information The text is taken from ‘La cucina aristocratica napoletana’ by Franco Santasilia di Torpino, published by Sergio Civita Editore (1988), which provides recipes and anecdotes about historic aristocratic cuisine in Naples. The term ‘Monzù’ is a corruption of the French ‘Monsieur’, and referred to the chefs working for the Bourbon aristocracy and the court.

Preliminaries to translation as a product

23

ST Monzù Aquilino lavorava esclusivamente se coadiuvato da almeno due “sguàtteri” (termine napoletano per indicare gli aiutocuochi), perché le sue mani preziose e creative non potevano essere contaminate dalle operazioni di pulizia di piatti e pentole. Egli si era formato alla scuola dei cuochi di Casa Savoia, nel Palazzo Reale di Napoli e si rese celebre per un segreto culinario che mi ha stupefatto per la sua raffinatezza: eseguiva un brodo perfetto con le modalità più classiche e lo versava bollente nella zuppiera. Prima di servirlo, sospendeva per il collo con uno spago un pollo ruspante perfettamente arrostito, rosolato e croccante e lo immergeva lentamente nel brodo due volte, per poi estrarlo ed eliminarlo! Veniva così servito un brodo sublime con un retrogusto di pollo arrosto. Grandezza dei Monzù! Assignment 2 (i) You have been asked to translate the following text into English. Assume that the text in English will appear on a tourist information website and that you are translating the text before the event takes place. (ii) Before translating, predict the main words and phrases that you feel will be most challenging and explain why. (iii) Translate the text into English. (iv) After translating, compare your items in (ii) with the challenges that you eventually encountered in the translation. Were these the same or different? Contextual information The text is an extract taken from ‘Autunno ad alta quota e all’insegna del gusto’ by Luca Romano, which appeared on the website of the Italian daily Il Giornale in September 2013, in the ‘Viaggi’ section. Dal 21 settembre al 6 ottobre 45 rifugi delle Dolomiti rimarranno aperti oltre la data consueta di chiusura. La stagione in alta quota viene prolungata all’insegna delle bellezze naturalistiche delle Dolomiti, Patrimonio Naturale dell’Umanità, e del gusto: agli escursionisti sarà infatti offerta la possibilità di abbinare una bella camminata godendo dell’incanto della montagna nel suo vestito autunnale, ad un pasto tipico della tradizione enogastronomica trentina. [. . .] Con la pancia piena e il palato appagato, potrete godere delle suggestioni autunnali delle Dolomiti: per questa edizione de “I rifugi del gusto”, i gestori delle strutture hanno confezionato una proposta vacanza molto vantaggiosa. 2.2 Degrees of freedom; translation loss Assignment (i) Which of the following TL proverbs incurs the least translation loss of the proverb ‘Chi tardi arriva male alloggia’? (a) Beggars can’t be choosers.

24 Process and product (b) The early bird catches the worm. (c) First come first served. (ii) Translate the text below, then analyse any translation loss incurred in your translations, and the implications arising. Contextual information The text is from Outlet Italia – Viaggio nel Paese in svendita, by Aldo Cazzullo, Mondadori, 2007, p.89; Cazzullo is a journalist writing about how progress has affected Italian society. In this short passage, he focuses on Rome.) Il ristorante, la trattoria, l’osteria, la pizzeria sono luoghi importanti dell’ identità romana. Un tempo li si trovava a Trastevere, dove accade ancora di consumare ottimi pasti funestati però da venditori di carabattole di ogni tipo.

3

Cultural transposition

In this chapter, we complete the introduction to translation loss by looking at some implications of the crucial fact that translating involves not just two languages, but a transfer from one whole culture to another. General cultural differences are sometimes bigger obstacles to successful translation than linguistic differences. Take the following example, from a website advertising holidays in Italy (the name of the group has been replaced by X): ST Albarella è un’isola privata situata nel Parco Naturale del Delta del Po. L’Isola di Albarella è un’area suggestiva e protetta, ideale per trascorrere le tue vacanze sul mare Adriatico in piena tranquillità. Un terzo dell’isola è di proprietà del Gruppo X, che ha predisposto ogni comfort per i soggiorni turistici: case, ville ed appartamenti in affitto, residence e alberghi con offerte esclusive, centri per congressi e banchetti, un centro sportivo, un rinomato circolo Golf Club e ogni altro servizio per il tuo divertimento e il tuo relax. L’Isola di Albarella è in grado di offrirti la migliore soluzione per le tue vacanze!

TT Albarella is a private island placed in the Natural Park of the river Po’s Delta. Albarella Island is a suggestive and protected area, ideal for spending your holidays at the Adriatic seaside in full quiet. One-third of the island is the Group X’s property, which predisposed every comfort for the touristic stays: houses, villas and apartment for rent, residences and hotels with exclusive offers, congress and banqueting centres, a sport centre, a renowned Golf Club and every other service for your fun and your relax. Albarella Island can offer you the best solution for your holidays! (www.marcegagliatourism.com)

The quality of translated tourist material found on the Internet varies enormously, from texts evidently translated by competent target language speakers with an in-depth knowledge of the source language and culture, to ‘translations’ the quality of which suggests they have been processed by machine translation or produced by poor translators. This is presumably because it is cheaper to use an

26 Process and product SL translator, machine translation or an inexperienced translator to produce tourist copy, but the resulting TT, while possibly conveying information at a basic level, will do so in a manner that sounds unnatural, obscures and distorts the author’s intention and is therefore not fit for purpose. In the text above, the problems are apparent from the first line. The translation is not written in fluent and natural English. In this context, ‘situated’ is the appropriate term; ‘placed’ is distinctly odd, suggesting something that has been put in place deliberately. ‘The Natural Park of the river Po’s Delta’ sounds curious, as the TL would not use the genitive form (preferring ‘the Po Delta’), while a classic false friend is ‘suggestive’, which has a very different connotation in the TL, one which has nothing in common with the intended meaning of the ST (that is, attractive/pretty, and so on). The expression ‘sul Mare Adriatico’ also creates problems: the phrase ‘at the seaside’ is straight from a beginner’s English foreign language course, and it does not collocate successfully with ‘the Adriatic’. Worse still, the translation of ‘in piena tranquillità’ is literal and entirely unnatural (‘in full quiet’). In the next sentence, various issues arise: ‘The Group X’s property’ does not require the definite article, while for the translation of ‘ha predisposto’ any translator worth his or her salt would recognise the verb ‘predisporre’ as a common challenge: it invariably requires an adapted solution in the TT to ensure that the message is accurately and appropriately conveyed. First, the tense is wrong, which should be present perfect; second, ‘predisposed’ is a ‘dictionary translation’ that, while basically understandable, sounds awkward. It does not take much initiative to use ‘has provided’ to deliver an effective solution. ‘The touristic stays’ is another literal translation that is not fit for purpose. The ST adjective ‘turistico’ is common enough, but in standard English the nouns ‘tourism’ or ‘tourist’ are generally used in attributive position to form a compound, as in ‘tourist resorts’ and ‘the tourism/ tourist industry’. Moreover, it would not take much to render ‘soggiorni’ with ‘holidays’, as ‘stays’ is not usually used in the plural (cf. ‘I hope you enjoy your stay at our hotel’), whereas the plural form, used mainly to describe a type of corset, is virtually obsolete except as a deliberate archaism. Another predictable error is ‘residences’ – a borrowing from French in the ST that paints a different picture in the TT, of grand mansions, or a phatic form used by estate agents to ‘talk up’ a property for sale. While ‘hotels with exclusive offers’ is possible, the collocation does not sound authentic, and ‘congress’ would be better rendered with ‘conference’. We normally refer to a ‘sports centre’ in English, while the golf club is not so much ‘renowned,’ as ‘well known’ or ‘famous’, or even just ‘popular’. A further error arises with ‘relax’, where the verb has morphed into a noun; interestingly, the pronunciation in Italian also differs from English, as the stress falls on the first syllable in Italian, rather than the second. Finally, the translation of ‘è in grado di’ with the simple ‘can’ is not a very persuasive way of emphasising the attractions of the holiday. All in all, even in such a short passage, the TT shows a plethora of inaccurate and inappropriate translations, resulting in a loss of authenticity and a failure to engage the readers successfully, who will probably be more bemused by the

Cultural transposition

27

English than interested in the content. While some of the imperfections are attributable to insufficient knowledge of the English language and the inability to find appropriate solutions, others are caused by cultural challenges, in transposing names and titles from the ST, dealing with cultural references and localising these elements successfully in the TT. By localisation (or ‘localising’), we mean a degree of adaptation of a source text or product to a specific target culture, but not to the extent of full cultural transplantation (see below, p. 28). SL texts of tourist information and advice frequently result in TTs that are not fit for purpose, as they combine imperfections in dealing with the linguistic ‘nuts and bolts’ (grammar, syntax, collocations, word order, and so on) and infelicities in rendering the cultural items and values that typify such texts.

Cultural transportation As the discussion so far has shown, there may be ST expressions that, for cultural reasons, must be taken over unchanged into the TT, or that need to be localised in some way, or that must be dropped altogether. We shall use the general term cultural transposition for the main types and degrees of departure from literal translation that may be resorted to in the process of transferring the contents of an ST from one culture into another. Any degree of cultural transposition involves the choice of features indigenous to the TL and the target culture in preference to features with their roots in the source culture. The result is to reduce foreign features in the TT, thereby to some extent localising it into the TL and its cultural setting. The various degrees of cultural transposition can be visualised as points along a scale between the extremes of exoticism and cultural transplantation: Source-culture bias Exoticism and calque

Target-culture bias Cultural borrowing

Communicative translation

Cultural transplantation

Exoticism and calque The extreme options in signalling cultural foreignness in a TT fall into the category of exoticism. A TT marked by exoticism is one that constantly uses grammatical and cultural features imported from the ST with minimal adaptation, thereby constantly signalling the exotic source culture and its cultural strangeness. This may be one of the TT’s chief attractions, as with some translations of Icelandic sagas or Persian poetry that deliberately trade on exoticism. A TT such as this, however, has an impact on the TL public quite unlike any that the ST could have had on an SL public, for whom the text has fewer features of a different culture. Even where the TT as a whole is not marked by exoticism, a momentary foreignness is sometimes introduced in the form of a calque, which is an expression

28 Process and product that consists of TL words and respects TL syntax, but is unidiomatic in the TL because it is modelled on the structure of an SL expression. This lack of idiomaticity may be purely lexical and relatively innocuous, or it may be more generally grammatical. The following calques illustrate decreasing degrees of idiomaticity: Chi dorme non piglia pesci.

He who sleeps catches no fish.

Lontano dagli occhi, lontano dal cuore.

Away from the eyes, away from the heart.

The second example is a literal translation, which is often the result where a calque is used, the standard communicative counterpart of this proverb being ‘Out of sight, out of mind’. Both proverbs use the repetition successfully to reinforce the message. Calques may be useful for understanding the idea behind the ST form, but for most translation purposes it can be said that a bad calque imitates ST features to the point of sounding awkward in the TL, while a good one compromises between exoticism and excessive idiomaticity. It is easy, through haste or ignorance, to mar the TT with bad calques. However, it is conceivable that in some TTs the momentary foreignness of calque may be desirable or necessary, even if its effects need to be palliated by some form of compensation. We shall return to this point later, when looking at communicative translation. Sometimes, what was originally a calqued expression becomes a standard TL cultural equivalent of its SL original. An English example is ‘world-view’, calqued on ‘Weltanschauung’. Italian examples are ‘peso mosca’, calqued on ‘flyweight’; ‘la Casa Bianca’, calqued on ‘the White House’; and ‘paracadute’, calqued on ‘parachute’. Cultural transplantation At the other end of the scale from exoticism is cultural transplantation, where extreme forms are hardly translations at all, but more like adaptations – the wholesale transplanting of the entire setting of the ST, resulting in the entire text being completely recreated in a target-culture setting. Hollywood remakes of European films are familiar cases of this. An example of a transplantation of an Italian film into America is Scent of a Woman, starring Al Pacino, adapted from Dino Risi’s Profumo di donna. Cultural transplantation on this scale is not normal translation practice, but it can be a serious option, especially in respect of points of detail – as long as they do not have knock-on effects that make the TT as a whole incongruous. In recent years, the translation industry has practised a distinction between a standard translation commission, where a text is translated as closely as possible to the ST but at the same time incorporating any appropriate modifications to make the product fit for purpose, and transcreation, a term coined to signify

Cultural transposition

29

reformulation of a text, such as advertising copy, with any accompanying graphics and formatting, adapting it to a specific target-culture setting. In achieving these objectives, the resulting product will therefore be very different from the faithful translation of, say, a contract or a birth certificate. By and large, normal translation practice avoids the two extremes of exoticism and cultural transplantation. In avoiding the two extremes, the translator will consider the alternatives lying between them on the scale given on p. 27. Cultural borrowing The first alternative is to transfer an ST expression verbatim into the TT. This is termed cultural borrowing. It introduces a foreign element into the TT. Of course, something foreign is by definition exotic; this is why, when the occasion demands, it can be useful to talk about exotic elements introduced by various translation practices. But cultural borrowing is different from exoticism as defined above: unlike exoticism, cultural borrowing does not involve adaptation of the SL expression into TL forms. A classic example is the use of Latin in specialist texts such as archeology: a specialised text on Pompeii could include both ST and TT terms such as ambulatio, tablinum, tepidarium and frigidarium. These are terms that can be described as stable or permanent borrowings, as the culture they reflect is remote. However, borrowings prevalent in contemporary life may reflect current trends and interests, rather than specific objects or architectural features as, for example, in the use of Italian terms relating to the global ‘coffee culture’. Cultural borrowings usually reflect a ‘tribute’ to another culture, which is seen as superior or trendsetting in a particular aspect or connection. The way we consume coffee in Britain has changed significantly in the last 30 years or so. Gone is the weak and watery brew that we once knew and accepted as coffee. We now demand the very best cappuccino, espresso or latte. However, while the first two words imply the same product in the SL and TL (except for pronunciation difference, owing to the omission of the double consonant length when pronounced in English) latte is a reduction of caffé latte or caffellatte); this reduction is based on the TL speaker’s assumption that the second part of the compound noun carries the basic meaning, while in fact the opposite is true in the SL. This grammatical misconception gives rise to latte being used as the dominant part of the compound, resulting in the word latte having one meaning in English, and quite another in Italian. Arguably, given the reduction, the term is neither a direct cultural borrowing, nor an exoticism, but sits somewhere in between. Another culinary cultural borrowing in English is ‘panini’, which evidences a misunderstanding when transposed from Italian, again for grammatical reasons. Take the following sentence, where a customer makes the following response in a ‘salumeria’: Desidera? Mi faccia un panino con prosciutto crudo e mozzarella.

30 Process and product Would the corresponding translation of the word ‘panino’ in English be ‘sandwich’ or ‘panini’? If the intention is to remain close to the source culture, then the translator would have to use ‘panini’ (the plural form), even though only one item has been requested. ‘Sandwich’ conjures up a typically British concoction of two slices of bread with a filling, using a sliced loaf – a type of bread that Italians do not normally use to make a panino. Thus, the translation would be dependent on context, and how far the translator wishes to reflect the source culture or the target culture. The use of ‘panini’ to signal a singular form is a victim of cultural transposition in a similar way to ‘latte’, but for a different grammatical reason. If we look at the other foods in the example, ‘mozzarella’ has been naturalised in the TL both in form and meaning, while ‘prosciutto crudo’ could be translated either as ‘Parma ham’ or ‘dry cured ham’. A translation involving the literal ‘raw’ would clearly be unappealing. The introduction and increase in range of continental products stocked by supermarkets globally has created the need to provide ‘transparent’ language for the benefit of English-speaking consumers of foreign products and for food industry standardisation. Another good example of this trend is the occasional addition of ‘pasta’ to ‘penne’ (penne pasta) in Italian restaurants targeting Englishspeaking customers. Localisation, therefore, sometimes results in hybrid forms; while ‘pasta’ has become common parlance in the TL, ‘penne’ is still at a transitional stage in the process of entering the language definitively. In some cases, ‘penne’ are described as ‘pasta quills’ by the food industry, while in others the Italian term is used. Thus, cultural borrowing only presents the translator with a true choice in cases where previous translation practice has not already firmly established the ST expression in the TL. Communicative translation As we saw on p. 15, communicative translation is usually adopted for all those clichés, idioms, proverbs, and so on that have readily identifiable communicative equivalents in the TL. Only special contextual reasons could justify not choosing communicative translation in such cases as the following: —In bocca al lupo! —Crepi!

‘Good luck!’ ‘Thanks!’

Facciamo due chiacchiere.

Let’s have a chat.

Dammi/versami un dito di vino.

Give/pour me a drop of wine.

Non si può tenere il piede in due staffe.

You can’t run with the hare and hunt with the hounds/ You can’t have your cake and eat it.

Hai vinto la lotteria? Magari!

Have you won the lottery? I wish!/ You must be joking!/Hardly!

Cultural transposition

31

Literal translation of expressions such as these are either impossible to translate as such (e.g. ‘magari’) or might introduce a potentially comic or distracting foreignness not present in the ST. Take, for example, the expression ‘un dito di vino’: in the source culture, to physically illustrate the desired amount the fingers are placed sideways, not lengthways, on the glass, indicating a small quantity. The expression ‘a finger’, as a measure, does exist in English but is less common than the form in Italian and French, and it applies to spirits, not wine; so fingers in an English TT have the potential to be downright confusing as well as comic! Sometimes, however, the obvious communicative equivalent will not be appropriate in the context. For instance, in a TT clearly set in Italy and involving only Italian characters, it would be comic to translate ‘In casa sua ciascuno è re’ as ‘An Englishman’s home is his castle’. If this comic effect were not wanted, the translator would have either to substitute something such as ‘My home is my castle’, or to invent a generalisation with a proverbial ring to it (‘Every man’s home is his castle’, ‘Every man is master in his own house’, and so on), or to substitute a related proverb (‘Every dog is a lion at home’, and so on). Each of these has its own connotations; which – if any – is appropriate will depend on what nuance is required in the context. Translators themselves clearly need to be wary, and not ruin the message with ill-judged attempts at communicative translation. It is easy to be misled by semantic resemblances between SL and TL expressions, especially in respect of proverbs. For example, ‘To run with the hare and hunt with the hounds’ is not the communicative equivalent of ‘Una volta corre il cane e un’altra la lepre’. Depending on context, this Italian proverb might be rendered with something such as ‘He who laughs last laughs longest’ (but cf. ‘Ride bene chi ride ultimo’), ‘The biter bit’, or ‘My/your/their turn will come’, and so on. Each of these has its own nuances, and each is susceptible to the same sorts of translation loss as the various renderings of ‘In casa sua ciascuno è re’.

Practical 3 3.1 Cultural transposition Assignment 1 (i) You have been commissioned by a broadsheet to translate the following ST for inclusion in a series entitled ‘How the Continentals See Us’. Discuss (group work) or make a note of (self-study) the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Paying special attention to the options for cultural transposition that you rejected and adopted, identify the main decisions of detail you took. (If you are working in a group, discuss these decisions and compare your results.)

32 Process and product Contextual information The text is from an online article, ‘Il corrispondente del Financial Times: Ecco l’Italia vista da noi inglesi’ (Pisano 2014). ST Tre anni di permanenza a Roma sono bastati per mettere a fuoco l’Italia e gli italiani. «Società conservatrice la vostra, fatta comunque di gente tollerante. Forse troppo tollerante. Quando c’è lavoro, ma non ne vedo molto in giro, ci date dentro, non siete scansafatiche». Guy Dinmore, corrispondente del Financial Times (semplicemente Ft per gli addetti ai lavori) non adopera un italiano da accademia ma nei momenti-chiave manda il cervello in pit stop in attesa che gli suggerisca la parola giusta. È un cronista della vecchia (preistorica) guardia: non vive incollato al telefono, va per strada, soprattutto fa domande. Domande vere, si intende. Prima di approdare dalle nostre parti ha lavorato per l’agenzia Reuters a Pechino, in Kosovo (quando cadevano le bombe sinceramente democratiche del governo di centrosinistra), in Ruanda, in Iran e negli Stati Uniti. Ha vinto il premio Foreign press freedom, che non è esattamente una coppetta di paese. Durante i giorni caldi del confronto sindacati-Marchionne, ha chiesto alla Fiat di visitare lo stabilimento di Pomigliano d’Arco. «La fabbrica è chiusa», gli hanno risposto. Lui, tra vedere e non vedere, ci è andato lo stesso. E siccome non è un suddito britannico per caso, ha educatamente bussato al cancello d’ingresso: mi fate entrare? È finita che ha fatto la sua intervista al citofono, davanti a un portiere che osservava esterrefatto dalla guardiola. Confessa che diverse volte avrebbe voluto intervistare Silvio Berlusconi ma lo staff «mi ha sempre risposto vediamo. Che è un modo tutto italiano di dire no». Ha tentato di rifarsi durante gli incontri con la stampa estera «ma alle mie domande non ricevo risposta». Guy non è un estremista, anzi. Il suo giornale è la bibbia economica dei liberal e dunque non dovrebbero esserci problemi. Il guaio, come si diceva prima, è che fa e si pone domande. Dice che farle, e farle sul serio, è il suo mestiere. Anzi suo dovere. Assignment 2 (i) You have been commissioned by the local tourist office of Milena (in Sicily) to translate the following text into English for their website. Discuss (group work) or analyse (self-study) the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Given that this translation is for a website, how important is the visual content of the site? If you are not provided with the images before the translation, what impact would this have on the quality of your TT?

Cultural transposition

33

Contextual information The text is an extract from the website of the Associazione Turistica Pro Loco Milena (accessed in 2015). Il 19 marzo per la festa di San Giuseppe, patrono del paese, vengono imbandite le “tavulate di li vicchiarieddi” con le quali le diverse famiglie, per ex voto, preparano un ricco pranzo per i poveri dove la mensa è allestita con molte pietanze realizzate con prodotti di stagione. A fine pranzo a tutti è offerta la cosidetta “truscitedda” o “rizzimedda” con pane benedetto, finocchi, arance, dolci, mandorle e ceci tostati. Nel pomeriggio si svolgono la messa solenne e la successiva processione con in testa il simulacro del Santo. La seconda domenica di maggio è dedicata alla festa di San Giuseppe “in campagna” nella robba Patini del Villaggio Vittorio Veneto, dove, oltre alla tradizionale “fera di San Giseppi”, si prepara l’albero della cuccagna detto “la ’ntinna”, caratteristico gioco di abilità consistente nel cercare di raggiungere la cima di un palo, di circa otto metri trattato con sapone, per afferrare il premio, aiutandosi solamente con una particolare corda, detta “pastura”, realizzata con i peli più lunghi della criniera e della coda dei cavalli.

4

Compensation

In Chapter 3, we spoke of the need to palliate certain TT effects by the use of compensation. This term implies that where any conventional translation (whether literal or otherwise) would entail an unacceptable translation loss, this loss is reduced by the freely chosen introduction of a less unacceptable one, such that important ST effects are rendered approximately in the TT by means other than those used in the ST. Translators make these compromises all the time, balancing loss against loss in order to do most justice to what, in a given ST, they think is most important. Our aim in this book is to encourage trainee translators to make these compromises as the result of deliberate decisions taken in the light of strategic factors such as the nature and purpose of the ST, the purpose of the TT, the nature and needs of the target public, and so on. In taking these decisions, it is vital to remember that compensation is not a matter of putting any old fine-sounding phrase into a TT, but of countering a specific, clearly defined, serious loss with a specific, clearly defined, less serious one. Compensation illustrates better than anything else the imaginative rigour that translation demands. The following examples will show some of the forms it can take. In the following extract from Santità by Vittorio Russo, a Pope is reminiscing about his mother’s behaviour: ST Chiamare in causa i misteri di Dio era il modo automatico di sua madre per evitare quesiti scabrosi.

TT Whenever his mother mentioned the mysteries of God, it meant she was avoiding awkward questions.

A pre-translation analysis of the ST suggests that a literal translation of the sentence structure would result in an unnatural-sounding translation. The subject is a verbal phrase in the infinitive, which would normally require a gerund in the TT. What is more, a similar opening phrase would need to be made. ‘Making reference to the mysteries of God was . . .’ is possible, but it is hard to build on that beginning as the sentence progresses and to produce a translation that is clear and natural.

Compensation 35 The TT solution is based on a communicative evaluation of the sentence: the writer is referring to a habit the Pope’s mother had. Given this communicative aspect, the temporal framework can be identified as ‘Whenever’, a form that suggests customary behaviour, followed by the subject, verb and object (‘mysteries of God’), ending with the reason why she behaved that way (‘per evitare’ and so on). The existence of a standard collocation in the TL (‘awkward questions’) helps the translator complete the sentence naturally. There is some translation loss in choosing an adjective that is less vigorous than ‘scabrosi’, though the naturalness of the expression ‘awkward questions’ does compensate. But however effective the TT may be in terms of conveying the intended message and in a form that is accessible to the reader, there are instances of loss: the initial position of what the mother habitually did, as opposed to starting with the action, and the loss of ‘automatico’ (though compensated by ‘Whenever’). To justify the strategy, the TT takes into account the fact that impersonal constructions are far less effective in the TL, and that a subordinate clause + a main clause is an effective temporal framework within which to site and describe the action and related information. Like any structural change, these modifications are by definition instances of translation loss. But the point is that they are not simply forced on the translator by the constraints of TL grammar: they are consciously and carefully chosen in order to avoid a greater translation loss, namely the communicative ineffectiveness that would have resulted from using a more or less literal translation. It is this deliberateness and precision that makes such changes compensation rather than simply examples of standard structural differences between SL and TL. In the following example, a stylistic choice (or format) in the ST suggests a different strategy in the TT. The text is an entry describing a marble mask from Herculaneum in an exhibition catalogue (Pitture nella Reggia dalle città sepolte, Electa Napoli, 1999). ST Manca la parte inferiore del naso, che era aggiunta o riparata con un pezzo lavorato a parte già in antico. Leggera scheggiatura su di un ricciolo. Diffusi resti di color rosso minio sulla capigliatura e sulla corona. Tre fori circolari, sotto il mento, disposti a triangolo.

TT The lower part of the nose is missing, and has been added or repaired with a separate piece in antiquity. One curl has a slight chip. Traces of red lead paint are visible on the hair and crown. There are three circular holes below the chin in a triangular formation.

While the first ST sentence contains a verb, the other three do not. This lack of unity in the text formatting is also found in other entries in the catalogue; while this is clearly an acceptable format in the SL, such a style would not work well in the TL, as it mixes sentences without a main verb with a sentence that has one. Thus, readers would find that the discontinuity in sentence structure affects cohesion and coherence. Given that formatting plays an important role in cataloguing, due to layout constraints (e.g. columns, sections with images, captions, and so on)

36 Process and product the decision in the ST to reduce the last three sentences to note-form may well have been dictated by necessity rather than style. The translator of such a text, where word count and pagination constraints are important, has to deal not only with the linguistic features of the ST, but also the physical ones. Interestingly, while the TT is marginally longer (50 words; ST 46 words), the English words are shorter, and the TT occupies virtually the same amount of space on the page as the ST. There is no loss of meaning or coherence in the TT, but one could argue that the note-form (if intended) is lost; on the other hand, it is also true that this loss is mitigated by the fact the sentences are all complete, thus providing a coherent structure for the target reader.

Categories of compensation In discussing TTs, it is sometimes helpful to distinguish between different categories of compensation. We shall suggest three. However, most cases of compensation belong to more than one category. The most important thing is not to agonise over what label to give an instance of compensation, but to be clear what loss it compensates for and how it does so. The question of how to compensate can never be considered in and for itself, in isolation from other crucial factors: context, style, genre, the purpose of the ST and of the TT. Compensation is needed whenever consideration of these factors confronts the translator with inevitable, but unwelcome, compromise. Simply put, it is a less unwelcome compromise. It usually entails a difference in mode between the ST textual effect and the TT textual effect. This compensation in mode can take very many forms. For instance, it may involve making explicit what is implicit in the ST (such as in the Herculaneum text above) or implicit what is explicit. Literal meaning may have to replace connotative meaning, or vice versa. Compensation may involve substituting concrete for abstract, or abstract for concrete. It nearly always involves using different parts of speech and syntactic structures from those indicated by literal translation (as in the Santità text). All these sorts of substitution may be confined to single words, but they more usually extend to whole phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs. Sometimes, a whole text is affected. For instance, quite apart from lexical and grammatical considerations, if a poem is heavily marked by rhyme and assonance, and the translator decides that for some reason rhyme and assonance would lead to unacceptable translation loss, compensation might consist of heavily marking the TT with rhythm and alliteration instead. Compensation also usually entails a change in place, the TT textual effect occurring at a different place, relative to the other features in the TT context, from the corresponding textual effect in the ST context. We shall call this compensation in place. This technique can be seen quite clearly in the Santità example. Compensation also often involves a change in ‘economy’, ST features having to be spread over a relatively longer length of TT. We shall call this compensation by splitting. The following sentence, from an unpublished essay by the composer Luca Francesconi, provides an excellent example of the need for compensation by splitting:

Compensation 37 Anzi, la sensazione brutale è che si voglia eliminare tutto ciò che non è evasione e naturalmente anche la ricerca musicale, che è prima di tutto ricerca instancabile di identità e di valori fondanti, linguistici ed umani. Ricerca che porta con sé nel bene e nel male il retaggio del grande, antichissimo pensiero occidentale. The term ‘ricerca’ is central to the author’s thinking throughout this essay. Now in many contexts, it clearly means either ‘research’, or ‘search’, or ‘quest’, or ‘investigation’, or ‘study’. In such cases, the translator simply has to choose the right term. But in many other contexts, including this one, it means several of these things at once. There is no single English word that can carry these same combinations of meanings. This is where compensation by splitting comes in. In the following TT, we have tried to divide up the semantic load of ‘ricerca’ and spread it over several TL expressions: On the contrary, the brutal impression is that there is a wish to do away with anything that is not escapism, including of course research in and through music – that is, above all, a search, an indefatigable quest for founding values, linguistic and human. A quest that brings with it, for better or for worse, the great and ancient heritage of Western thought. In this TT, the use of ‘in and through music’ instead of ‘musical’ triggers two of the four sorts of ‘ricerca’ that are implied in the ST: research into music, and the use of music as a tool for acquiring knowledge. The other two are conveyed as nouns in apposition to ‘research’: ‘search’ and ‘quest’. The complexity of ‘ricerca’ is therefore split up into its components and spread over three nouns and two prepositions. Note that, as happens more often than not, this compensation by splitting also entails grammatical transposition – that is, there is also an element of compensation in mode. There are three instances of this. First, part of the noun ‘ricerca’ is expressed in and through prepositions. Second, these prepositions need a noun after them, so the noun ‘music’ corresponds to the adjective ‘musicale’. Third, introducing the noun ‘music’ means that ‘che’ cannot be translated with a relative pronoun, because ‘research in and through music, which is . . .’ is ambiguous: hence the change in syntax, the relative pronoun being replaced with a dash and the conjunction ‘that is’. This complex example raises very clearly the issue of the parameters of compensation. What we have done is deliberately introduce loss in economy and grammar in order to avoid more serious loss in message content. Now, since it is after all the translator’s job to convey the message content, it could be reasonably argued that splitting ‘ricerca’ as we have done is not strictly speaking compensation, but simply a constraint. That is, to do full justice to the ST’s semantic complexity, the translator does not have a choice, because this expansion is the only adequate solution – using fewer or other possible meanings of ‘ricerca’ would simply have given a mistranslation.

38 Process and product It is of course true that if, in this context, ‘ricerca’ is seen as having four meanings, a TT that does not in some way convey them all should be considered defective. In deciding whether the changes introduced amount to compensation, the crucial factor is the role of context. If an ST expression has a standard TL counterpart that, regardless of context, spreads it over a relatively longer stretch of TT, then this is a constraint, an instance of canonic expansion, not of compensation. So, for example, ‘fondo rettificativo’ will always be translated as ‘exchange equalisation fund’ – thus, the translation is predictable and the differences between the ST expression and TT expression only reflect lexical and syntactic differences between Italian and English. The ‘ricerca’ example is not like this, however. It does reflect lexical differences between Italian and English, but the TT expansion is not canonic or predictable; in fact, it is virtually unrepeatable. To the extent that it is a specific reaction to specific occurrences of ‘ricerca’ in a specific context, it is a case of compensation. Distinguishing the three sorts of compensation is a rough-and-ready categorisation. Each could be refined and subdivided. In any case, most cases of compensation involve more than one category. However, our purpose here is not to elaborate a taxonomy, but simply to alert trainee translators to the possibilities and mechanisms of compensation. In fact, in the case of compensation in mode and compensation in place, it is not usually even necessary to label them as such, because virtually all compensation entails difference in mode and place. The most important lesson to be learned from this chapter is that compensation is a matter of choice and decision. It is the reduction of an unacceptable translation loss through the calculated introduction of a less unacceptable one. Or, to put it differently, a deliberately introduced loss is a small price to pay if it is used to avoid the more serious loss that would be entailed by conventional translation of the expression concerned. So where there is no real choice open to the translator, the element of active compensation is minimal. The easiest way of illustrating this is to look at communicative translation, which certainly involves compensation, in that it reduces translation loss by deploying resources such as those mentioned in the previous paragraph. But the element of compensation is, in a sense, ‘automatic’: the original compensation was created long ago, by the first person who decided that, say, ‘Chi non risica non rosica’ is best rendered with a TL equivalent such as ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained’. Certainly, ever since then, translators confronted with this proverb have had to be alert enough to recognise the need for communicative translation – to that extent, producing the TL equivalent does, like all translation, involve choice and decision. But in cases such as this one, the translator is not required to devise the TT expression from scratch. Therefore, in discussing TTs, such cases are generally more usefully noted as communicative translation than analysed as instances of compensation. The same is true of the myriad cases where the canonic literal translation involves grammatical transposition. Take a simple exchange such as ‘Ho fame – Anch’io’: there is little option but to translate as ‘“I’m hungry.” “So am I”’, although, in a colloquial context, ‘Anch’io’ could be translated as ‘Me too’. In most contexts, the unidiomatic exoticism of ‘“I have hunger.” “Also I”’ would

Compensation 39 constitute grievous translation loss. So preserving TL idiomaticity does in a way compensate for the loss of the ST grammatical structures. But this compensation is even more automatic than that involved in communicative translation. Insofar as the canonic literal translation is unavoidable, little choice is involved, and there is no point in discussing such cases as examples of compensation. In both these sorts of mandatory translation, then, the only element of choice is in the decision not to depart from the standard rendering. Similar remarks apply to differences in ‘economy’ between ST and TT, as we saw in the ‘ricerca’ example. Occasionally, however, there may be a case for departing from the norm to some extent. This more often happens with communicative translation than with canonic literal translation. Compensation, then, is a matter of conscious choice, and is unlikely to be successful if inspiration is not allied with analytical rigour. So, before deciding on how to compensate for a translation loss, it is best to assess as precisely as possible what the loss is and why it matters both in its immediate context and in the ST as a whole. This reduces the likelihood of inadvertently introducing, somewhere in the TT, more serious translation losses than the one that is being compensated for.

Practical 4 4.1 Compensation Assignment Comparing the ST and TT (i) Take any three suitable examples and explain why you think they are more a matter of balanced (SL/TL) translation than of compensation. (ii) Analyse the principal cases where the translator seems to have used compensation to alleviate translation loss. Say why you think the compensation is successful or unsuccessful; if you think it could be improved, give your own translation, and explain why you think it is better. (iii) Analyse any cases where you think that significant translation loss is incurred without the translator apparently having tried to alleviate it with compensation. Give your own translation of these cases, and explain why you think it is better. Contextual information The ST is taken from the introduction to Marco Buticchi’s novel Scusi, bagnino, l’ombrellone non funziona. The novel is a cheeky caricature of summer ‘beach life’ in an Italian resort, with a range of colourful and eccentric characters. ST Diversi anni orsono decisi di dare una svolta alla mia vita e di “fuggire dalla pazza folla”. Non sapevo ancora che, abbandonando, insieme ai sogni di carriera,

40 Process and product capiufficio rampanti, colleghi tediosi e segretarie distratte, li avrei ritrovati tutti insieme stipati nell’angusto spazio di un arenile. Il mio nuovo habitat, tuttavia, si è rivelato foriero di interessanti scoperte antropologiche: restando appollaiato su di un trespolo da bagnino o aggirandomi per la battigia sotto il sole d’agosto ho avuto modo di osservare a lungo un interessante spaccato di umanità. Insomma, credo di poter dire di essere diventato un fine conoscitore dei comportamenti della razza umana, quando questa si trova in situazioni estreme. Certo, definire la vita da spiaggia una situazione estrema può sembrare un paradosso, ma l’esperienza mi ha insegnato che il mare, il sole, l’affollamento, il riposo più o meno forzato, in una sola parola la vacanza, è di fatto un’esperienza al limite, quanto o forse più delle asperità del Burkina Faso in sella a una moto della Parigi-Dakar. Come è uso precisare in ogni avvertenza che si rispetti, ogni personaggio qui descritto è frutto della fantasia e qualsiasi nesso con la realtà è puramente casuale, ma invito il lettore a guardarsi intorno tra gli ombrelloni di un lido affollato: sono certo che quel che vedrà, sarà molto simile a quanto mi appresto a raccontare . . . (Buticchi 2006: 7–8) TT A few years ago, I decided on a life change in order to escape the “madding crowds”. What I didn’t know then was that by ditching not only my career prospects but also ambitious office managers, boring colleagues and careless secretaries, I would rediscover them all crammed like sardines on a beach. That said, my new stamping ground has thrown up some fascinating anthropological discoveries. Perched on a lifeguard’s platform or patrolling the beach in the scorching August sun I had plenty of opportunity to study an interesting cross-section of humanity. In fact, I believe I have become quite a connoisseur of human behaviour, when people find themselves in ‘extreme situations’. Of course, defining life on a beach as an extreme situation may strike you as odd, but the experience has taught me that sea, sun, crowds and more or less forced relaxation – in a word, holiday – is nothing less than an extreme situation, equal to (or possibly worse than) attempting to negotiate Burkina Faso on a motorbike in the Paris-Dakar rally. As any literary disclaimer will tell you, the characters in this work are the products of the author’s imagination and any resemblance to actual persons is purely coincidental. All the same, I invite you, dear reader, to have a peek under the umbrellas next time you are on a crowded beach. I’m sure you’ll find that what you see there chimes with my story. (Buticchi 2006: 7–8)

The formal properties of texts: introduction

We have suggested that translation is most usefully taken as a challenge to reduce translation loss. The threat of loss is most obvious when the translator confronts general issues of cultural transfer such as those discussed in Chapter 3. However, a threat of greater translation loss is actually posed by the formal properties of the ST. In assessing the formal properties of texts, it is helpful to borrow some fundamental notions from linguistics. Linguistics offers a hierarchically ordered series of discrete levels on which formal properties can be discussed in a systematic way. Of course, although it is essential to distinguish between these levels when analysing texts, they do not actually function separately from one another: textual features on a given level always have their effect in terms of features on all the other levels. In any text, there are many points at which it could have been different. Where there is one sound, there might have been another (compare ‘road tolls’ and ‘toad rolls’). Or where there is a question mark there might have been an exclamation mark (compare ‘What rubbish?’ and ‘What rubbish!’). Or where there is an allusion to the Bible there might have been one to Shakespeare. All these points of detail where a text could have been different – that is, where it could have been another text – are what we shall call textual variables. These textual variables are what the series of levels defined in linguistics make it possible to identify. Taking the levels one at a time has two main advantages. First, looking at textual variables on a series of isolated levels makes it easier to see which are important in the ST and which are less important. As we have seen, all ST features inevitably fall prey to translation loss in some respect or other. For example, even if the TT conveys literal meaning exactly, there will at the very least be phonic loss, and very likely also loss in terms of connotations, register and so on. It is therefore excellent translation strategy to decide in broad terms which category or categories of textual variables are indispensable in a given ST, and which can be ignored. The other advantage in scanning the text level by level is that a proposed TT can be assessed by isolating and comparing the formal variables of ST and TT. The translator or reviser is thus able to see precisely what textual variables of the ST are absent from the TT, and vice versa. This makes the assessment of translation

42 Process and product loss less impressionistic, which in turn permits a more self-aware and methodical way of reducing it. We suggest six levels of textual variables, hierarchically arranged, in the sense that each level is built on top of the preceding one. Using the term ‘hierarchy’ is not meant to imply that features on a ‘higher’ level are by definition more important than those on a ‘lower’ level: the variables only have their effect in terms of one another, and their relative importance varies from text to text or even utterance to utterance. Other categories and hierarchies could have been adopted, but arguing about alternative frameworks belongs to linguistics, not to translation method. We shall progress ‘bottom-up’, from phonic details to intertextual matters, which is usually found to be more congenial than a ‘top-down’ approach. In Chapters 5–7, we shall work our way up through the levels, showing what kinds of textual variable can be found on each, and how they may function in a text. Together, the six levels constitute part of a checklist of questions that the translator can ask of an ST, in order to determine what levels and properties are important in it and most need to be respected in the TT.

5

The formal properties of texts Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues in translation

Although they are the ‘lowest’ in the hierarchy, the phonic/graphic and prosodic levels of textual variables are as potentially significant as any other.

The phonic/graphic level Taking a text on the phonic/graphic level means looking at it as a sequence of sound-segments (or phonemes), or as a sequence of letters (or graphemes), or as both. Oral texts are normally only looked at in phonic terms. Written texts are always first encountered on the graphic level, but they may need to be looked at in phonic terms as well – in fact, from a translation point of view, they are more often considered phonically than graphically. Although phonemes and graphemes are different things, they are on the same level of textual variables. To help keep this in mind, we shall normally refer to the ‘phonic/graphic level’, whether the text in question is oral or written. The occasional coincidence apart, no text in a given language can reproduce exactly the same sequence of sound-segments/letters as any text in another language. This automatically constitutes a source of translation loss. The real question for the translator is whether this loss matters at all. The answer, as usual, is that it all depends. Generally, we take little notice of the sounds or shapes of what we hear and read, paying attention primarily to the message of the utterance. We do tend to notice sounds that are accidentally repeated, but even then we attach little importance to them in most texts. Often, however, repetition of sounds is a significant factor, so it is useful to have precise terms in which to analyse it. Repetition of sounds in words can generally be classified either as alliteration or as assonance. We define alliteration as the recurrence of the same sound or sound-cluster at the beginning of words occurring next to or near one another, as in ‘two tired toads’, ‘clever kleptomaniacs’ or ‘all awful ornithologists’. We define assonance as the recurrence, within words occurring next to or near one another, of the same sound or sound-cluster, as in ‘a great day’s painting’ or ‘a swift snifter afterwards’. The two often occur together, of course, as in ‘French influence also explains Frederick II’s splendid castles in the South of Italy and Sicily’. Terminal sounds that are the same, but are not strictly speaking rhyme,

44 Process and product are best defined as assonance; so the five [z] sounds in the following are most simply described as assonance: ‘jazzy photos of animals in zoos’. A vital point to remember is that it is the sound, not the spelling, that counts in discussing alliteration and assonance. In general, the more technical or purely informative the text, the less account is taken of repetitions or other sound patterns, because they hardly ever seem to have any thematic or expressive function. That is true of the sentence about Frederick II’s castles (taken from an article on Italian architecture), and it is true of the following sentence from a text on coalmining: ‘Testwork has been carried out on screenbowl centrifuges dewatering froth-floated coal’. The alliteration and assonance in these two examples are incidental to the message. However, many texts are marked by the expressive use of phonic patterns, including rhyme. We shall say that two words rhyme where the last stressed vowel, and all the sounds that follow it, are identical and come in the same order, as in ‘bream/seem’, ‘Warwick/euphoric’, ‘incidentally/mentally’, ‘sol/suol’, ‘felice/ Beatrice’, ‘voluttuosa/posa’. The less the text is purely factual, the more alliteration, assonance and rhyme tend to be exploited. The most obvious example is poetry. However, on the phonic/graphic level, the only difference between poetry and many other genres is one of degree: alliteration, assonance and even rhyme are often exploited in fiction, drama, journalism, polemic, and so on. What are the implications of these observations for translators? As always, the translator must be guided by the purpose of the text, the needs of the target public and the function of the phonic feature in its context. In general, the sorts of feature we have been looking at will not have expressive function in a scientific, technical or other purely informative text, so the translator can happily ignore them: even considerable loss on the phonic/graphic level will simply not matter. In literary STs, on the other hand, marked phonic features very often do have thematic and expressive functions – that is, the message would be less complex and have less impact without them. Whether these effects are triggered or not is very much a matter of what the text is for and what the public is expecting. Sometimes, even if the ST contains no marked phonic features, a draft TT will inadvertently contain a grotesque concentration of sounds. This might introduce an unwanted comic note, or even make the TT difficult to read. So, even in written texts, the translator will generally want to avoid introducing tongue-twisters or other phonic effects that impair the TT’s communicative function. The use of phonic echoes and affinities for thematic and expressive purposes is sometimes called sound-symbolism. It takes two main forms. In the context, the sounds of given words may evoke other words that are not present in the text. Or the sound of a given word occurs in one or more others, and sets up a link between the words, conferring on each of them connotations of the other(s). The first two lines of Keats’s ‘To Autumn’ offer simple examples of both: Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; [. . .] (Keats 1958: 273)

Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues

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The context is crucial. Given the title of the poem and the reference to fruitfulness, ‘mellow’ is almost sure to evoke ‘yellow’, a colour of fruit and autumn leaves. In its turn, the ‘sun’ is likely to be a rich yellow, glowing like a ripe fruit through the autumn haze. These two effects ensure that the ‘mists’ are received positively by the reader/listener, and not as cold, damp and grey. The alliteration in ‘mists . . . mellow . . . maturing’ reinforces the effect, and also gives ‘maturing’ an intransitive sense as well as its transitive one: the sun itself is growing mature as the year advances. And if the sun is maturing (whether in the year or in the day), it may well be low in the sky; if so, it looks larger when seen through mist, like a swelling fruit. The [m] in ‘bosom’ links this word, too, with the other three; so the mellow fruits are perhaps reminiscent of milk-filled breasts, as if the season, sun and earth affectionately unite in maternal bountifulness. This suggestion is itself reinforced by the alliteration and assonance in ‘fruitfulness . . . friend’, and by the alliteration and assonance on [s] throughout the two lines, which associates all these key words still more closely with one another. Not many translators earn their living translating poetry. But in respect of soundsymbolism – as of many other things – poetry offers very clear examples of two vital factors that all translators do need to bear in mind. The Keats example is useful for this very reason. Practically none of the images and associations we saw in those two lines derive from literal meaning alone – that is why perceiving and reacting to sound-symbolism is bound to be subjective. All of them are reinforced or even created by phonic features. Yet those phonic features are objectively present in the text. This points to the first factor that needs to be remembered: unlike many other sorts of symbol, those in sound-symbolism do not have a single, unchanging meaning. In fact, none of the phonic features in the lines from Keats has any intrinsic meaning or expressive power at all. Such expressiveness as they have derives from the context – and that is the second vital factor. In a different context, the same features would almost certainly have a different effect. The sounds of the words have their effect in terms of the literal and connotative meanings of the words. So, without the title, ‘mellow’ might very well not evoke ‘yellow’. Neither is there anything intrinsically mellow, maternal or mature about the sound [m]: the smell in a pig-yard might be described as ‘the mingling miasmata from the slime and muck’. And, in [fr], there is as much potential for frightful frumpishness as for fruitfulness and friendship. In other words, a translator confronted with sound-symbolism has to decide what its function is before starting to translate. The aim will be to convey as much of the ST message as possible. Even if it is essential to this message that the TT include sound-symbolism, it is almost certain that the TL sounds involved will be different from the ST ones: trying to reproduce phonic patterns in the TT usually entails too much loss in respect of literal and connotative meaning. The translator’s question therefore has to be: is what matters the specific sounds in the ST’s alliteration, assonance, and so on (as for instance in ‘the murmuring of innumerable bees’), or is it rather the fact that there is alliteration, assonance, and so on? Fortunately, the latter is generally the case, and it is usually possible to compensate for the loss of given ST phonic details by replacing them with TL ones that are

46 Process and product different but have a comparable effect. As always, the crucial question is: What is the function of the sounds? These points are perhaps obvious, but it does no harm to be reminded of them, because student translators often get themselves into difficulties by assuming that they have to replicate ST sounds in the TT. In reality, the translator is only likely to want to try replicating ST sounds when they are onomatopoeic. Onomatopoeia must not be confused with alliteration and assonance. An onomatopoeia is a word whose phonic form imitates a sound – ‘splosh’, ‘bang’, ‘cuckoo’, and so on. In translating onomatopoeia, there will virtually always be some phonic translation loss. This is usually inconsequential, for instance in translating ‘Pam!’ as ‘Bang!’. It could be less inconsequential, of course, if ‘Pam!’ were part of an alliterative pattern with specific expressive function. In such a case, some form of compensation might have to be used. Similar remarks apply to rhyme. There can be no hard and fast rule regarding rhyme in translation. Each TT requires its own strategic decision. Often, producing a rhyming TT means an unacceptable sacrifice of literal and connotative meaning. With some sorts of ST (especially comic or sarcastic ones), where the precise nuances of meaning are less important than the phonic mockery, it is often easier, and even desirable, to stock the TT with rhymes and echoes that are different from those of the ST, but have a similar effect. So far, our examples of textual variables on the phonic/graphic level have concerned the sounds of words, because the shapes are less commonly a source of textual effects on this level. However, written texts often do depend to some extent on their visual layout. Advertisements and publicity material make frequent use of visual effects on the phonic/graphic level. But the most extreme examples are perhaps in literary texts. Concrete poetry, for example, depends to a great extent on layout for its effect. Sometimes a poem is laid out pictorially, to look like something mentioned in it – a bird, a telegraph pole, falling rain, and so on. Here is a different sort of case, a text by Edwin Morgan together with a translation by the eminent poet and translator Marco Fazzini. (Contextual information. John Cage was an American composer who often incorporated an element of the random into his music.) OPENING THE CAGE 14 variations on 14 words I have nothing to say and I am saying it and that is poetry John Cage I have to say poetry and is that nothing and am I saying it I am and I have poetry to say and is that nothing saying it I am nothing and I have poetry to say and that is saying it I that am saying poetry have nothing and it is I and to say And I say that I am to have poetry and saying it is nothing I am poetry and nothing and saying it is to say that I have

Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues

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To have nothing is poetry and I am saying that and I say it Poetry is saying I have nothing and I am to say that and it Saying nothing I am poetry and I have to say that and it is It is and I am and I have poetry saying say that to nothing It is saying poetry to nothing and I say I have and am that Poetry is saying I have it and I am nothing and to say that And that nothing is poetry I am saying and I have to say it Saying poetry is nothing and to that I say I am and have it (Morgan 1968: 51) APRIRE LA GABBIA A JOHN CAGE 13 variazioni su 13 parole io non ho nulla da dire e lo dico e questo è poesia John Cage poesia è dire e io non ho nulla da questo e lo dico da questo dire nulla è e non ho e io lo dico poesia dico nulla non da dire e io ho questo e poesia lo è io lo dico e ho poesia da dire e non è questo nulla nulla e poesia e non da questo io dico è dire lo ho dire non è poesia e io ho questo e da nulla lo dico io ho e dico poesia è questo e non lo dire da nulla io non ho nulla e questo è poesia e lo dico da dire non è e da questo nulla io ho e lo dico dire poesia io ho poesia e questo dire da nulla è e non lo dico da questo dire nulla io ho e lo dico poesia e non è io lo dico e è da non dire nulla e ho questo poesia io nulla poesia questo ho da dire e non lo dico e è (Morgan 1997: 32–3) The ST is a set of permutations of the words in the epigraph. By obeying his very constricting self-imposed rule, Morgan has in fact given his text a random quality (just as Cage does in his music) – there is a limit to what you can say with these 14 words, but, in exploring those limits, you find yourself saying things you would never have dreamt of saying! The rectangular layout imitates a cage or cell. Each permutation exemplifies the feisty affirmation expressed in the epigraph, while all the permutations taken together exultantly confirm that even the severest physical constraints, far from preventing expression, actually inspire and permit it. The translator has clearly decided that the layout in permutations is paramount: as in the ST, any phonic effects are subsidiary, deriving accidentally from the repetitions of words. Once graphic considerations are prioritised, literal translation of each line becomes impossible: the vital thing is to have as many permutations as there are words in the epigraph, while not losing the overall thematic exuberance of the ST.

48 Process and product We have quoted the Morgan and Fazzini texts because they offer extreme examples of basic truths of translation. First, they show very clearly how reducing one sort of loss – here, graphic loss – entails increasing other sorts of loss, deemed less important – here, lexical and grammatical. And second, they are especially good illustrations of the importance of prosodic factors.

The prosodic level On the prosodic level, utterances count as ‘metrically’ structured stretches. ‘Metrical’ here covers three sorts of thing. First, in a given utterance, some syllables will conventionally always be accented more than others; on top of this standard accentuation, voice stress and emphasis will be used for greater clarity and expressiveness. Second, clarity and expressiveness also depend on variations in vowel pitch and voice modulation. And third, the speed of vocal delivery also varies, for similar reasons. On the prosodic level, therefore, groups of syllables may form contrastive patterns (for example, short, fast, staccato sections alternating with long, slow, smooth ones), or recurrent ones, or both. Morgan’s ‘Opening the Cage’ shows very clearly the crucial role of prosodic features. Because they are grammatically so unusual, many of the lines mean very little when scanned silently on the printed page, as one normally reads. For all the grammatical vagaries, however, they do make sense if they are read out loud, with appropriate pauses and variations in speed, intonation and stress. The same is true of the Italian TT. Indeed, it is true of any text. Go back to the start of this paragraph, and try reading it in a monotone and without any variations in stress: this is very difficult to do, because it is so unnatural; and if you do succeed, the text becomes virtually incomprehensible. For the translator, there are four factors to be borne in mind when considering the prosodic level. The first is that English and Italian are as different from one another on the prosodic level as on the phonic/graphic level. This is vividly illustrated by listening to an Italian speaking on the radio, with the tuning not quite on the station, so that it is not quite possible to distinguish the words. This brings the prosodic features to the foreground. It only takes a few seconds to realise that the tempi, rhythms and melodic undulations sound very different from those of English. It is virtually impossible to produce a TT that both sounds natural and reproduces the prosodic characteristics of the ST. Just occasionally, it is worth aiming for similar rhythms in the TT to those of the ST. For instance, if part of the ST’s expressive effect stems from imitative rhythms – galloping horses, breaking waves, dripping water, and so on – there would be significant translation loss on the prosodic level if the TT failed to use similar rhythms to similar effect. However, prosodic translation loss far more commonly arises from a failure to heed one or more of the other three factors. For example, it is vital to recognise the nature and function of ST intonation and stress. This is relatively straightforward in the case of oral texts. Even in written texts, either the grammatical structure or the context will usually show what the intonation is and what its communicative purpose is. Take the following two sentences:

Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues

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Anch’io sono pittore. (Correggio) Io sono anche pittore. It is impossible to confuse these two sentences. In each, the grammatical structure engenders a specific prosodic profile – intonation and stress pattern – and a specific meaning. Following from this factor is the third: the need to select an intonation and a stress pattern that ensure that the TT sentence has the same communicative purpose as its ST counterpart. So the Correggio quotation and its variant might be translated thus: I’m a painter, too (or: I, too, am a painter) [e.g. as well as you]. I’m a painter, too [e.g. as well as a writer]. The fourth factor arises from the third, and is perhaps the one that needs closest attention. Even where the TL expression does not seem grammatically or prosodically problematic, the translator must be sure not to introduce prosodic features that are inappropriate to the message content. Perhaps the commonest cases of significant translation loss on the prosodic level arise when a grammatical choice in the TT implies a stress pattern and an intonation that lead the reader/listener to expect a different sort of message from the one that actually materialises. This often happens when the translator chooses an inappropriate conjunction or conjunctive phrase. Here is a typical example. (Contextual information. Micòl is in bed. The narrator climbs onto the bed and tries to kiss her, but she turns her head away.) ‘Perché fai così’ disse Micòl. ‘Why d’you behave like that?’ asked Micòl. ‘Tanto, è inutile.’ ‘In any case, it’s no use.’ (Bassani 1991: 176) (Bassani 1989: 218) The English expression ‘in any case’ sounds odd after a question. It typically accompanies a second affirmation in support of a quite different one that has just been made, as in ‘I can’t afford a satellite dish. In any case, I’m too busy with the farm’ (or: ‘I’m too busy with the farm, in any case’). The tone in the second sentence is emphatic and authoritative, strengthening the previous assertion into a positive refusal to buy the dish. In the Bassani TT, the translator may have been influenced by the absence of a question mark in the ST; but the fact remains that ‘in any case’ does not work after the TT question, because it implies intonations for the two sentences that clash with the message-content of Micòl’s words. The only way of making the TT convincing would be to speak the question as a sneering exclamation, as if Micòl were contemptuously saying ‘That’s not the way to do it!’ – but that is not the sense of the ST question at all. The weakness of the TT is primarily a matter of literal meaning, not of prosodic features, but scanning the TT on the prosodic level is the best way of confirming, or even discerning, the

50

Process and product

fault in literal meaning. A better TT might be: ‘What are you doing that for? You know there’s no point’. Here, for consideration, is a similar example from the same novel; the expression at issue is ‘As far as I was concerned’. (Contextual information. The characters in question are all Jews, friends of the narrator. One had died of illness in 1942. The others were arrested by Mussolini’s fascists in September 1943.) Dopo una breve permanenza nelle carceri di via Piangipane, nel novembre successivo furono avviati al campo di concentramento di Fòssoli, presso Carpi, e di qui, in seguito, in Germania. Per ciò che riguarda me, tuttavia, debbo dire che durante i quattro anni intercorsi fra l’estate del ’39 e l’autunno del ’43 di loro non avevo visto più nessuno. (Bassani 1991: 240)

After a short stay in the prison at via Piangipane, they were sent to the concentration camp at Fòssoli, near Carpi, the following November, and thence to Germany. As far as I was concerned, though, during the four years between the summer of ’39 and the autumn of ’43 I never saw any of them. (Bassani 1989: 291)

Rudiments of Italian and English versification A special set of features on the prosodic level are those found in verse, which present specific translation challenges. Our aim in the following short introduction to the rudiments of Italian and English versification is to give trainee translators a foundation for discerning and interpreting the conventional patterns in Italian verse, and for making an informed choice between English metres if the strategic decision is to produce a verse TT. We shall look only at the metrical side of versification. But it is worth remembering that tempo and melodic pitch are also vital prosodic textual variables requiring as much attention in verse translation as in prose. We shall not consider other aspects of verse, such as types of stanza or the phonic question of rhyme. For fuller information on these and on metrical questions, see Menichetti (1993), Bausi and Martelli (1993) and Hollander (1981). Italian A line of verse in Italian is defined in terms of the number of syllables it contains. There are four specifically metrical devices that affect how the syllables in a line are counted. In the following examples, the divisions between metrical syllables are shown as oblique lines. 1

The fundamental principle is that, when a word ending with a vowel is followed by one beginning with a vowel, the vowels are generally considered as one syllable. This is known as sinalefe. For example: Pa/ne/ di/ ca/sa e/ lat/te ap/pe/na/ mun/to/.

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In performance, sinalefe usually entails partial elision of the two vowels, so that they sound like a diphthong. An exception is when the speaker makes a pause for effect, or if a punctuation mark after the first vowel suggests it. 2

Sometimes, however, the vowels at the end and beginning of the two words are counted separately. This is known as dialefe. It is normal when the first vowel or both vowels are accented. For example: El/la/ giun/se e/ le/vò/ am/be/ le/ pal/me/.

3

Two consecutive vowels within a word are often counted as one syllable, even where they do not normally form a diphthong. This is known as sineresi. In performance, the effect is similar to that of sinalefe, the two vowels sounding like a diphthong. For example: Dis/se/: Bea/tri/ce/, lo/da/ di/ Dio/ ve/ra/.

4

Sometimes, two consecutive vowels within a word that do normally form a diphthong are pronounced separately. This is usually shown by a diaeresis over the first vowel, and is known as dieresi. For example: For/se/ per/ché/ del/la/ fa/tal/ quï/e/te/. There is another factor that affects how the syllables are counted: the stress pattern of the final word in the line. When the main stress of the final word is on the last syllable but two, the line may have an extra syllable. Here is a hendecasyllable (a notionally eleven-syllable line) ending with such a word: a/ pa/ro/le/ for/mar/ dis/con/ve/ne/vole. If, however, the main stress is on the very last syllable, the line will have one syllable fewer than expected. Here is a hendecasyllable ending with such a word: Pren/di/ sol/ un/ non/ti/scor/dar/di/mé/.

If the poem as a whole consists of hendecasyllables, variants such as the last two examples also count as such, metrically speaking. The same principle holds for other standard line lengths as well. Every line has its own stress pattern: a hendecasyllable must have a main accent on the tenth syllable, a decasyllable (10-syllable line) on the ninth, and so on. The distribution of other stresses within the line can vary slightly, depending how many syllables it contains, although generally lines with an even number of syllables follow a constant rhythm. In reading Italian verse, then, there is no need to look for some rigid pattern of feet that has to be imposed on the text. The pattern of stresses in the line virtually always coincides with the ‘natural’ stresses the words have in prose. The reader should therefore read the verse as the sense dictates, while taking due account of the rules given above. Observing these rules will automatically have certain rhythmic consequences and mean highlighting certain words: that is, the versifica-

52 Process and product tion will have specific thematic and expressive functions. These functions are special effects on the prosodic level, and the translator simply has to be as aware of them as of every other feature of the ST. If the verse is in rhyme, the phonic/graphic functions of the rhymes will also be affected by these prosodic features. The foregoing applies to texts in traditional, regular, verse. The very fact that a text is in regular verse is usually significant, marking the text as belonging to a particular genre. This in itself is a factor that will weigh in deciding a strategy. If a text is in free verse, this fact is similarly strategically important. Apart from that, all the student translator needs to remember is to read the text as the sense demands, while taking due account of the phonic/graphic and prosodic effects of the line-ends. English English metre is syllable-and-stress metre. That is, the line is defined in terms of feet. A line of traditional verse consists of a fixed number of particular feet. For example: The cur/few tolls/ the knell/ of par/ting day/ This line has five feet; that is, it is a pentameter. In this particular case, the feet have one unstressed followed by one stressed syllable. This is known as an iamb, or iambic foot. A line consisting of five iambs is an iambic pentameter. It is the most common English line, found in the work of the great playwrights and poets. The commonest other feet are: trochee (adj. trochaic):

When the/ pie was/ opened/

dactyl (adj. dactylic):

Merrily/ chatting and/ clattering/

anapest (adj. anapestic):

And made ci/der inside/ her inside/

Most poems do not have a regular beat throughout. This would be intolerably dreary. Even limericks are very rarely exclusively anapestic or dactylic. The opening lines of Keats’s ‘To Autumn’, quoted on p. 44, are examples of typical variations on the basic iambic pentameter. These lines still count as iambic pentameters, because they do have five feet, they are predominantly iambic, and the rest of the poem has these qualities. One other sort of English metre is worth mentioning, strong-stress metre. This is different from syllable-and-stress metre, in that only the stresses count in describing the line, the number of weak syllables being variable. Much modern verse uses this metre, often in combination with syllable-and-stress metre. The important thing to remember, then, is that the translator of a verse text has to ask what the function of the verse is. Is it decorative? Does it have thematic and/or expressive effect? What is the effect of its regularity or irregularity? Would there

Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues

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be significant translation loss in writing a prose TT? (And, of course, similar questions have to be asked on the phonic/graphic level.) Only when these questions have been answered can a reasoned decision be taken either to translate into prose or to couch the TT in an appropriate verse-form. The introduction to versification given above will help in deciding what, if any, this ‘appropriate’ TL verse-form is to be.

Practical 5 5.1 Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues Assignment Taking the following poem and the translations: (i) Analyse the salient features of the ST that you think will constitute the main challenges. (ii) Reflect on each of the TTs in turn, concentrating on any significant translation loss that you think has been incurred, and explain any successful solutions and strategies that you find. (iii) Take either TT version (a) or (b) and edit it to reflect the sense, irony and form of the ST. Contextual information The text is taken from Stefano Benni’s Le Beatrici (2011), consisting of eight ironic female monologues, each of which is followed by a poem. The verses below are the first two from the poem Canzone dell’amor rifatto, a bittersweet reminiscence of love. ST Canzone dell’amor rifatto Lui – Dove son gli occhi tuoi neri, e il profilo tuo da Dea, mi consumo nell’idea, di poterli rivedere. Lei – Sono azzurri ora i miei occhi, poiché ho lenti a contatto, ed il naso l’ho rifatto, deh riconoscimi o mio amor. (Benni 2011: 23) TT (a) Song of love recreated He – Where are your black eyes and your goddess-like profile,

54 Process and product I am consumed by the idea of seeing them once again. She – My eyes are blue now because I wear contact lenses and I’ve had my nose done, do recognise me, oh my love. TT (b) Song of love revisited Him – Your black eyes I seek and your profile divine, devoured by an idea of mine to see them once more. Her – Azure are my eyes now my contacts make them blue I’ve had a nose job too, say you recognise me, my love. 5.2 Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues Assignment (i) The following advertisement having proved successful in Italy, you are to translate it for a British campaign. Concentrating mainly on phonic/graphic features and their implications, discuss the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took, paying special attention to phonic/graphic issues. Contextual information The text is printed opposite a picture of a smartly dressed man looking into a mirror at six reflections of himself. ST COME dicono le ricerche di mercato, i profitti generati da un unico cliente affezionato sono pari al costo necessario per acquisirne sei nuovi. Poiché la ragione principale per cui si perdono clienti è un servizio inadeguato, vorremmo farti una semplice ma vantaggiosa proposta. Un modo rapido per migliorare la qualità della relazione e OTTENERE ottimi risultati è installare un Call Center basato su soluzioni IBM. Il tempo impiegato DAI tuoi operatori per gestire gli ordini diminuirà, dal momento che tutti i dati relativi ai TUOI CLIENTI

Phonic/graphic and prosodic issues

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appariranno automaticamente sullo schermo non appena telefoneranno. Potrai così sapere qual è l’ordine fatto, la situazione dei pagamenti e valutare, sulla base delle loro abitudini di acquisto, se è il caso di offrire loro qualcos’altro. E se ci chiedi il progetto per un sito Internet, i tuoi prodotti saranno disponibili non soltanto cinque o SEI giorni alla settimana, ma tutte le VOLTE che sarà necessario. Pensaci: non hai bisogno di spendere molto per dare ai tuoi clienti un servizio migliore. E quindi per avere da loro TANTO di più. (IBM Italia 1996: 87)

6

The formal properties of texts Grammatical and sentential issues in translation

We saw in Chapter 5 that the alliteration and assonance of ‘Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness’ trigger effects over and above the literal meaning of this phrase. We were considering the alliteration and assonance as features on the phonic/graphic level. But, like all utterances, this one can also be considered on the other five levels of textual variables. The extra meanings, for instance, are features on the grammatical level, while part of the effect of Keats’s phrase derives from features on the sentential level. It is these two levels that we shall look at in the present chapter.

The grammatical level On the grammatical level are considered two things: (1) words, and their formation by affixation, inflection, derivation and compounding; and (2) syntax, the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. It is on the grammatical level that translation loss is generally most immediately obvious, whenever grammatical transposition occurs. Because loss on this level is so common, we shall only give a few examples here. As ever, the question is not whether there is translation loss, but what it consists of and whether it matters. The question does have to be asked, because an essential part of interpreting any text lies in construing the literal meaning conveyed by its grammatical structure. Words We are all familiar with dictionaries. They list the practical totality of the words in a given language. This totality is known as the lexis of a language. But it is vital to remember that meanings are not found exclusively in the words individually listed in the dictionary. Any text shows that the combination of words creates meanings that they do not have in isolation, and even meanings that are not wholly predictable from the literal senses of the words combined. In translation, lexical loss is very common, but it is just one kind of translation loss among many. It can occur for all sorts of reasons. It very often arises from the fact that exact synonymy between SL words and TL words is relatively rare. ‘Ricerca’ (p. 37) is a good example. We shall return to this issue in Chapter 8.

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Another common source of lexical translation loss is the fact that, in any text, words acquire associative overtones on top of their literal meaning. The lines from Keats are a good example. It is difficult, and usually impossible, to find TL words that will convey an appropriate literal meaning and produce appropriate overtones. We shall return to these questions in Chapter 9. Grammatical arrangement Lexical issues are a particular category of grammatical issue, so it is not surprising that some of them are most conveniently examined under the heading of grammatical arrangement. Under this heading, we subsume two types of grammatical structure: (1) patterns affecting individual words – affixation/inflection, compounding and derivation; and (2) syntax, the patterns whereby words are linked to form more or less complex phrases and sentences. In both, what concerns the translator is the fact that the structural patterns differ from language to language. For instance, English more readily adds -ly to words to form adverbs than Italian does -mente, particularly if two or more adverbs occur together. Compare the following: I lavori procedono con confortante rapidità.

The work is progressing reassuringly quickly.

Sometimes, an ST adverb can be rendered either with a TT adverb or with affixation. For example: Sono stati oltremodo gentili.

They were extremely kind.

Sei oltremodo prudente.

You’re excessively cautious, or You’re overcautious.

Compounding, too, differs from language to language. German is capable of long compounds, English less so. Italian, like French, is a more analytical language, in that the relations between the elements in a compound expression tend to be marked explicitly, through either syntax (generally prepositions) or inflection, or both. Here is a simple example: Flüssigkristallanzeige = liquid crystal display = visualizzatore a cristalli liquidi = affichage à cristaux liquides. English compounds in particular are potentially ambiguous. For instance, a bodyguard guards the body, but a mudguard guards against the mud. In the example above, only knowledge of the topic makes it possible to say whether the reference is to a display of liquid crystals, a liquid display of crystals, or a display that is liquid and crystal. The Italian expression, however, is less ambiguous, thanks to the preposition and the plural inflexions.

58 Process and product The fact that Italian is more analytical than English gives rise to frequent and typical grammatical differences between the two. We can use the Keats example again here. Keats could have written: ‘Season of mists and of mellow fruitfulness’, or ‘Season of mists, of mellow fruitfulness’. In both, repeating ‘of’ means that the mists and the fruitfulness are identified as two distinct things, whereas Keats’s actual phrase melds them into a single, complex sensation. A literal translation of his phrase into Italian could incur significant translation loss on the grammatical level, since Italian syntax offers no choice but to repeat ‘di’, as in ‘Stagione di foschie e di fecondità matura’. Some form of compensation would be needed to convey the ‘singleness’ of the sensation expressed in the ST. Things often work the other way round, of course, English grammar not having a nuance that Italian enjoys. An obvious example of this is the fact that the subject pronoun tends to be omitted in Italian, unless it is needed to avoid ambiguity, or for contrast or emphasis. So ‘Ho aperto la porta’ clearly means ‘I opened the door’. In the following sentence, on the other hand, the ‘io’ is inserted to mark the contrast between two actions: ‘Ha chiuso la finestra e così io ho aperto la porta.’ In such a sentence, the subject of ‘Ha chiuso’ will normally be clear from the context; but if it is not, it will be inserted – ‘Lei’, ‘lei’, ‘lui’, and so on. In all these cases, however, English must use a pronoun. In many cases, losing the Italian nuance is of no consequence. But where emphasis is involved, the translator may have to find some form of compensation, as we shall see in discussing the sentential level. Grammatical differences are especially clear in differences in verb systems between languages, which can require special care in translating. To illustrate this, we can start with a simple example: the standard translation of ‘Si direbbe che siamo in Italia’ is ‘You would think we were in Italy.’ In some contexts, however, a better translation might be: ‘One/you would say we are in Italy.’ Conversely, depending on context, ‘You would say we were in Italy’ could be rendered in various different ways: Diresti/direste/direbbe/direbbero che siamo/eravamo in Italia. Dicevi/dicevate/diceva/dicevano che eravamo in Italia. In all these cases – not to mention ‘Sembra di stare in Italia’ – SL and TL grammatical structures are so different that there is obvious translation loss on the grammatical level. This will not usually matter, as long as the sense is accurate and as clear as in the ST. The many differences in systems of tense and aspect between Italian and English do, however, mean that the translator has always to be careful to avoid unwanted ambiguities or outright mistranslation. The Italian conditional and imperfect offer simple examples. Depending on context, each of the following Italian sentences could be translated in two or three ways: Pensavo che sarebbe venuto.

Either I thought he would have come or I thought he would come.

Grammatical and sentential issues Poteva partire subito.

59

Either He could [= was able to] leave immediately or He could have left immediately or He might have left immediately.

These few examples are simple, but they are the tip of a big iceberg. The translation loss caused by differences in grammatical structure between SL and TL is often not serious, but it is all too easy, through inattention, to let a degree of calque make the TT unidiomatic. Generally, as the discussion so far has suggested, translators give priority to the mot juste and to constructing idiomatic TL sentences, even where this entails translation loss in terms of grammatical structure or economy. Exceptions may be made where, for whatever reason, exoticism is required in the TT. More often, the ST may have salient textual properties resulting from the manipulation of grammatical structure. The marked manipulation of grammatical structure is a common feature in literary or critical texts. The translator has always to decide how distinctive the grammatical structures are, what their function is, and what the aim of the ST is. Only then can a decision be taken about how distinctive the TT’s grammar should be. A typical issue is that of syntactic streamlining versus syntactic complexity. The following two texts should be compared from this point of view. The first is from a scholarly article on Italian TV programmes entitled Incantesimi – Alice nel Paese della Fiction, and the second is from Andrea De Carlo’s Treno di panna: Le correnti del tempo confluiscono nella configurazione conclusa delle storie brevi, le cosidette miniserie, sorta di arcipelaghi narrativi il cui meccansimo seriale racchiude il racconto in un piccolo numero di puntate. Irrevocabilmente, con o senza lieto fine, viene celebrata il the end. E infatti è al cinema che le miniserie guardano, per costruzione linguistica e per regia, ma anche alla tradizione televisa dello sceneggiato, del quale sono discendenti dirette. (Bolla 2014: 113) Jill mi ha fatto un cenno con la mano. Ha detto ‘Okay, vado’. Poi si è sporta verso di me e ha chiesto se ero libero sabato. Le ho detto di sì. Lei ha detto ‘Magari facciamo qualcosa’. Ho detto ‘Bene. Ciao’. Ho chiuso la portiera. Lei è andata via veloce verso la freeway. (De Carlo 1981: 75)

The sentential level We can use the lines from ‘To Autumn’ to show how different grammatical arrangements create different assumptions in the listener or reader as regards the communicative purpose of an utterance. Keats’s own lines – Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; [. . .] –

60 Process and product are partly an address to Autumn and partly an exclamation about it: the very structure of the utterances leads the listener/reader to expect an expression of wonderment and enthusiasm. A different grammatical arrangement, however, would most likely announce a different communicative purpose. For instance: Autumn is a season of mists and mellow fruitfulness. It is also a close bosom-friend of the maturing sun. This structure announces a more purely informative text – even though, in the event, phonic and lexical features do give the utterances something more than simply informative value. In each version, the grammatical arrangement marks the utterances as having a particular communicative purpose, whatever overtones may turn out to be involved. When, as here, one looks at the communicative purpose of a given grammatical arrangement, rather than at the grammatical arrangement in its own right, one is looking at the utterance on the sentential level. On this level are considered sentences. A sentence is defined as a complete, selfcontained and ready-made vehicle for communication: nothing needs to be added before it can be uttered and understood in concrete situations. The starter’s command ‘Go!’ is a sentence. So is ‘No way!’ as an expression of refusal or disbelief. (Note that, in this definition, a sentence does not necessarily contain a verb.) Any text counts on the sentential level as a succession of sentences, each with a built-in communicative purpose. This purpose is usually conveyed by one or more of three features: (1) prosodic features, such as intonation or stress (for example, the rising pitch that signals a question in Italian and English); (2) grammatical features, such as sequential focus (for example, ‘On this level are considered sentences’, which puts emphasis on ‘sentences’); and (3) illocutionary particles (for example, the question-forming particle ‘non è vero’, or the particle ‘ma andiamo’, which qualifies an utterance as an expression of scoffing disbelief; illocutionary particles do not fit into syntax proper – their function is to tell the listener/reader what affective force the utterance is intended to have). Thus, in spoken texts, a number of different sentences, marked for different purposes, can be created purely through intonation and stress – even though they comprise exactly the same words, in exactly the same order. Here are some examples, adapted from Pittàno (1993: 76, 273): Lui non va a pesca [with falling intonation: statement]. Lui non va a pesca [with rising intonation: question, focusing on whether he is going]. Lui non va a pesca [with fall-rise intonation and stress on ‘pesca’: amazed question, focusing on the activity]. Lui non va a pesca [with low, level intonation: menacing prohibition]. The same five words could be spoken in yet other ways, to express joy, encouragement, despair and so on.

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As these examples suggest, the sentential level of spoken language is extremely rich, fine shades of intonation and stress distinguishing sentences with subtly different nuances. These refinements largely disappear in written texts, mostly because the only ways of conveying intonation and stress in writing are punctuation (usually question mark and exclamation mark) and typography (usually italics, sometimes capitals). These offer far fewer alternatives than the rich nuances of speech. Try saying ‘Lui non va a pesca’ in the four ways described above, and compare the result with the following attempts at achieving the same result in written mode: Lui non va a pesca. Lui non va a pesca? Lui non va a pesca?! LUI NON VA A PESCA!! All these written versions can in fact be spoken in a number of ways, each with its own emphases and affective force. Consequently, if punctuation and typography cannot clearly convey the desired nuance, the writer or translator has to fall back on adding explicit information about how the sentences are spoken, as in ‘she exclaimed in surprise’, ‘she said angrily’, and so on. In translating both oral and written texts, then, the sentential level requires as much care as any other. Sequential focus and illocutionary particles are easier to represent in written texts than prosodic features are; but how to translate them still cannot be taken for granted. Both are generally accompanied by appropriate prosodic features, notably intonation and stress; the translator has to be sure not to introduce inappropriate prosodic features in the TT. As regards sequential focus, something else needs to be remembered: Italian and English differ in how and when they vary word-order. We saw a simple example in comparing ‘Anch’io sono pittore’ and ‘Io sono anche pittore’ (p. 49). Sometimes, then, what is expressed by Italian sequential focus may best be expressed in English simply with intonation and stress. But on other occasions, English may need to use an illocutionary particle as well as intonation, stress and – possibly – grammatical arrangement, especially if typography and punctuation are not enough to convey the full force of the ST. This can be seen in translating three more versions of the sentence about not going fishing, which all use sequential focusing for sentence-marking purposes: Non va a pesca, lui [emphasis on ‘lui’]. Lui, a pesca, non va [hints at hostility to fishing]. A pesca, lui non va [emphatic hostility to fishing]. Neither is it self-evident how to render the illocutionary particles in such sentences as ‘Ma andiamo! Non ci crederà!’; or ‘Tacete un po’!’; or the indignant ‘Avrebbe potuto telefonarci, però!’.

62 Process and product One final point to remember is that whereas a speaker can easily use intonation, stress, gesture and facial expression to mark a sentence for a specific communicative purpose, the absence of these features in a written TT means that compensation often has to be resorted to if significant translation loss is not to be incurred on the sentential level.

Practical 6 6.1 Grammatical and sentential issues Assignment (i) You are translating for publication on a legal website the text from which the following ST is taken. Concentrating mainly on grammatical and sentential issues, discuss the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took; pay special attention to grammatical and sentential issues, but do not overlook other major decisions. Contextual information The text is an extract from L’arte del dubbio (2013) by Gianrico Carofiglio (published by Sellerio Editore Palermo). Carofiglio is a ‘magistrato’ who discusses a series of cases from the legal but also human point of view. This particular extract is from the beginning of Chapter 4: ‘Il teste esperto’. ST Due sono le situazioni che presentano le maggiori oggettive difficoltà anche per il controesaminatore più esperto e avveduto. Esse si verificano quando sia necessario sottoporre a controinterrogatorio soggetti deboli (bambini, anziani, disabili) e, per altro verso, quando il soggetto da contro esaminare sia un esperto di qualche disciplina: periti, consulenti, ufficiali di polizia giudiziaria ad alta specializzazione. Entrambe queste situazioni comportano, per ragioni opposte ma ugualmente intense, il più alto coefficiente di rischio che il controesame, se non condotto con la massima cautela, possa ritorcersi contro chi lo effettua, aggravandone la relativa posizione. Del controesame dei soggetti deboli parleremo in un successivo capitolo. È questo il momento di affrontare il tema dei cosidetti esperti. Il primo caso pratico è costituito dal controesame condotto dal pubblico ministero nei confronti di un consulente della difesa, nell’ambito di un processo di corte di assise. (Carofiglio 2013: 61)

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6.2 Grammatical and sentential issues Assignment Comparing ST and TT: (i) Determine the salient features of the ST on the grammatical and sentential levels, and say what, if any, their function is in the text. (Note that, because you are comparing an Italian text with an English one, there are likely to be features in the ST that will strike you as salient even though, if you were looking only at the ST, they would be unremarkable in Italian.) (ii) Discuss (group work) or analyse (self-study) the TT, concentrating on cases of translation loss on the grammatical and sentential levels and saying how important you think they are. Where you can improve on the TT, give your own edited TT, explaining why it is better. Contextual information Both ST and TT are reproduced, by kind permission, from a publicity brochure for Lamber, a manufacturer of industrial washing equipment. ST La storia Era il 1948 quando il Cav. Raimondo Affaba, attuale presidente della Lamber, cominciava la sua prima attività nel settore del lavaggio lattiero caseario. Nel 1958 egli dava inizio ad una nuova attività di produzione di macchine lavastoviglie industriali per il settore alberghiero. Già in quegli anni dimostrava la sua forte vocazione all’innovazione: allora si trattava di essere tra i primi a produrre lavastoviglie e sistemi di lavaggio a traino ed a nastro, oggi di sviluppare le più sofisticate tecnologie informatiche per la progettazione e la produzione di modelli d’avanguardia. Sempre con l’apporto creativo e attento dell’uomo. L’azienda Flessibilità ed informatizzazione spinta dal processo costruttivo per adattare la produzione alle esigenze ed ai desideri di ciascun cliente, sistemi di produzione e consegna just in time: grazie all’innovazione costante e ad una sapiente organizzazione, la Lamber ha saputo diventare in questi anni un’importante realtà di riferimento del settore. L’iniziale strategia volta ad estendere la propria presenza sui mercati internazionali permette oggi alla Lamber di destinare al mercato estero l’80% della propria produzione. La qualità come riferimento costante CE, VDE, DVGW, UL, UL Sanitation e CSA: dotata al proprio interno di un laboratorio di progettazione e ricerca, la Lamber ha saputo ottenere le più alte certificazioni internazionali del settore. Per la Lamber vocazione ai mercati esteri significa costruire nel rispetto delle norme più restrittive per essere in grado di

64 Process and product rispondere produttivamente alla domanda espressa dai mercati soprattutto i più evoluti. Un’esperienza che si traduce in una progettazione che utilizza le più sofisticate tecnologie CAD, ed in uno studio che incontra ed anticipa le richieste del mercato in continuo sviluppo. TT The history It was in 1948 that Raimondo Affaba, Managing Director of Lamber, established his first business in the sector of dairy equipment washing. A decade later, he also started up a new company, which manufactured industrial washing machines for the hotel sector. Even at that time, Affaba showed his strong vocation for innovation, a property that led his firm to a position of leadership among the producers of unit and system washing machines. Today the accent still lies very much on innovation, which now exploits cutting-edge information technology in the areas of design and manufacture – while keeping a close contact with the creative and careful input of man. The firm Flexibility and IT prompted by the manufacturing process to adapt production techniques to each customer’s requirements, production systems and just-in-time delivery. Consistent innovation and operational excellence are the cornerstones to Lamber’s success. The initial strategy, which was aimed at development at an international level, has brought Lamber to the current level of exports: 80% of total output. Quality as the constant reference CE, VDE, DVGW, UL, UL Sanitation and CSA. With its in-house design and research facilities, Lamber has shown it has what it takes to obtain the top international certifications. A strong vocation towards exports means manufacturing to the most stringent standards and being able to productively respond to the markets’ demand – especially the most developed ones. This broad-based experience translates into design functions that use the most sophisticated CAD technologies, as well as into marketing studies that meet – and indeed anticipate – the continuously changing market demands.

7

The formal properties of texts Discourse and intertextual issues in translation

In the last chapter, we briefly discussed a grammatical rearrangement of the two lines from ‘To Autumn’: Autumn is a season of mists and mellow fruitfulness. It is also a close bosom-friend of the maturing sun. We saw that, on the sentential level, this arrangement marks the text as informative, rather than as an expression of excitement. Now, part of this sentential effect derives from the pronoun ‘It’ and the adverb ‘also’, which explicitly connect the second sentence to the first as conveying additional information about autumn. Such connecting of one sentence to another is the most significant feature found on the discourse level.

The discourse level The textual variables considered on the discourse level are those that distinguish a cohesive and coherent textual flow from a random sequence of unrelated utterances. Strictly speaking, this level is concerned with intersentential relations (relations between sentences) and with relations between larger units, such as paragraphs, chapters, stanzas and so on. For our purposes, however, it is sometimes useful also to consider relations between parts of sentences on the discourse level, as if the parts were sentences in their own right. We shall see examples of this below, but for the most part we shall be concentrating on intersentential issues, because these are what most clearly illustrate translation issues on the discourse level. It is useful to distinguish between two aspects of discourse: cohesion and coherence. Following Halliday and Hasan (1976), we define cohesion (adj. cohesive) as the transparent linking of sentences (and larger sections of text) by explicit discourse connectives such as ‘then’, ‘so’, ‘however’ and so on. These act as signposts pointing out the thread of discourse running through the text. Coherence (adj. coherent) is a more difficult matter than cohesion, because, by definition, it is not explicitly marked in a text: it is a tacit, but discernible, thematic or emotional development running through the text. We can illustrate the difference with a simple example:

66 Process and product I was getting hungry. I went downstairs. I knew the kitchen was on the ground floor. I was pretty sure the kitchen must be on the ground floor. I didn’t expect to find the kitchen so easily. I made myself a sandwich. I was getting hungry. So I went downstairs. Well . . . I knew the kitchen was on the ground floor. I mean, I was pretty sure it must be there. Still, I didn’t expect to find it so easily. Anyway, I made myself a sandwich. The first text has no intersentential connectives. But it is coherent, thanks to the underlying chronological narrative structure. In the second text, a train of thought is restored by inserting connectives (printed in italics). These act as cohesion markers, setting up a transparent intersentential structure. Some of the cohesion markers link the sentences by explaining or commenting on the speaker’s actions: ‘So’, ‘I mean’, ‘Still’, ‘Anyway’. Others are instances of grammatical anaphora – that is, the replacement of previously used words and phrases by expressions referring back to them; here, the anaphoric elements are ‘it’ (replacing ‘the kitchen’) and ‘there’ (replacing ‘on the ground floor’). The sentential and discourse levels are by definition closely related. In this example, many of the intersentential connectives also function on the sentential level; rather like illocutionary particles, they give each utterance a particular tone and tell the listener how to take it – ‘So’, ‘Well’, ‘I mean’, ‘Still’, ‘Anyway’. For example, the two versions of the second sentence will almost certainly be spoken differently, because, on the sentential level, they have different functions: the first announces a new fact out of the blue, while in the second, ‘So’ marks the sentence as expressing a response to a situation. ‘So’ therefore has both a sentential and a discourse function here. Punctuation can have a similar double function, as in Practical 6.2 – for instance, the full stop in l. 9, and the colons in ll. 6 and 14. It is instructive to see how these have been rendered in the TT, and with what results. Furthermore, many connectives can be used to join short sentences together to make longer ones. Conjunctions such as ‘so’, ‘and’ or ‘but’ are simple examples. This is another way in which intersentential and sentential functions are often close in practice, even though they are distinguishable in analysis. For instance, ‘I was getting hungry, so I went downstairs’ will probably have a different communicative impact from ‘I was getting hungry. So I went downstairs’. Similarly, rhetorical anaphora – that is, the repetition of a word or words at the start of successive or closely associated clauses or phrases – can have a discourse function even where it occurs within a single sentence. Take these lines from Carducci’s ‘Pianto antico’: Sei ne la terra fredda, Sei ne la terra negra; Né il sol più ti rallegra Né ti risveglia amor. (Carducci 1994: 104)

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Each of these lines could just as easily be a sentence on its own. Either way, the anaphora has a discourse function, connecting the separate clauses/sentences with one another. It is therefore advisable, when examining texts on the discourse level, to pay as much attention to features within sentences as to intersentential features. To show the importance of these considerations for translation, we can subject a short Italian text to a bit of intersentential and sentential restructuring and see what difference this makes. If an intralingual restructuring makes a significant difference, it is likely that an interlingual one will also do so. Take the De Carlo text from p. 59 (Jill and the narrator are saying goodbye in a deserted street in Los Angeles): Jill mi ha fatto un cenno con la mano. Ha detto ‘Okay, vado’. Poi si è sporta verso di me e ha chiesto se ero libero sabato. Le ho detto di sì. Lei ha detto ‘Magari facciamo qualcosa’. Ho detto ‘Bene. Ciao’. Ho chiuso la portiera. Lei è andata via veloce verso la freeway. (De Carlo 1981: 75) This terse, staccato writing might suggest the dispassionate eye of a camera. In fact, however, there are connective elements which deny it any such ‘objectivity’. First, the adverb ‘Poi’ is a cohesion marker, denoting a chronological succession of events. The conjunction ‘e’ does the same. Both imply a degree of narratorial control (which the camera can never have), and, in the situation narrated, they imply some degree of intention, cause and effect. Second, ‘Le ho detto di sì’ denotes a reply to a previous question; this link is more explicit than it would be in the more simple ‘Ho detto “Sì”’. Finally, the subject pronoun ‘Lei’, which occurs twice, is not absolutely necessary for clarity, because Jill and the narrator are the only two people involved. Its presence explicitly marks the characters’ utterances as linked with one another: they are a coherent exchange, not a random accumulation of disconnected sentences. Let us see what happens if the text is stripped of its connective elements: Jill mi ha fatto un cenno con la mano. Ha detto ‘Okay, vado’. Si è sporta verso di me. Ha chiesto se ero libero sabato. Ho detto ‘Sì’. Ha detto ‘Magari facciamo qualcosa’. Ho detto ‘Bene. Ciao’. Ho chiuso la portiera. È andata via veloce verso la freeway. Interestingly, the text remains coherent, because of the chronological narrative structure and the reader’s knowledge of the context. However, additional coherence, with different implications, can be created if connective elements are introduced both on the sentential level and on the intersentential level: Facendomi un cenno con la mano Jill ha detto che sarebbe andata e, sporgendosi verso di me, ha chiesto se fossi libero il sabato seguente.

68 Process and product Alla mia risposta affermativa ha detto che avremmo potuto fare qualcosa, al che ho acconsentito e l’ho salutata. Poi, dopo che ho chiuso la portiera, lei è andata via veloce verso la freeway. ‘Facendomi’ creates a temporal link between Jill’s wave and her words, and welds them into a single complex action. The same is true of her leaning out (‘sporgendosi’) and asking if he will be free. The ‘e’ then links these two complex actions so closely with one another that they in turn become one, an even more complex action. In this restructuring, there are also three instances of indirect speech: ‘ha detto che’ (twice) and ‘ha chiesto se’. These integrate her words seamlessly into the narrative, which loses the discontinuities of the original. Likewise, ‘Alla mia risposta’ explicitly links her next words with his reply to her question, binding all three into a smoothly unfolding single event; ‘al che’ has a similar function. Finally, ‘Poi, dopo che’ introduces an explicit chronological connection. The effect of these devices is to introduce a greater degree of explicit coherence than there is in the original. Taken together, they imply that, before embarking on the narrative, the narrator has thought about these events and sorted them out into a significant pattern. This smooth, controlled narrative flow has a very different effect from De Carlo’s original, where the narrator does not seem to have stood back and got events into perspective. In the original, the relative lack of connective elements implies a narrator who either cannot or will not make much sense of events; a whole text written in this style might even suggest that the world itself is absurd. In our restructuring, on the other hand, the connective elements perhaps imply that the world can be understood, and that the narrator has the selfconfidence and intellectual ability to understand it. Other connectives than these could have been used, of course – for instance, ‘Quando le ho detto di sì’ instead of ‘Alla mia risposta affermativa’, or ‘allora ho detto “Bene”’ instead of ‘al che ho acconsentito’. These would result in a less formal register, certainly less elegant, and perhaps giving less of an impression of narrative control. An important conclusion from these analyses is that translators should be aware of the affective and thematic consequences of wholesale interference with the sentential and intersentential functions of cohesion markers and other connectives. It must be remembered that languages have different expectations in respect of cohesion and coherence. For example, it is more common in Italian than in English for texts to be explicitly structured by the use of connectives (‘dunque’, ‘magari’, ‘pure’, ‘appunto’, and so on) that signpost the logical relationship between sentences. Consequently, an English TT that used explicit connectives to reproduce all those found in an Italian ST would most likely seem stilted, pedantic or patronising. This piece of dialogue is a simple example: —Giulio sarebbe la persona giusta. —Sì, è proprio a lui che pensavo.

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This ‘proprio’ is a good example of how a sentential feature (the highlighting of ‘lui’) can double as a discourse feature (the link between the two sentences). In an oral TT, it would probably be rendered not with a cohesion marker, but with prosodic features: ‘Giulio would be the (right) man.’ ‘Yes, I was thinking of him.’ In this spoken version, there would be voice stress on ‘thinking’ and a fall-rise intonation on ‘-ing of him’, highlighting ‘him’. In a written TT, on the other hand, ‘proprio’ might well be rendered with a cohesion marker: ‘I was indeed thinking of him’; or it might be rendered with intonation and sequential focus: ‘It was him I was thinking of’. Like the ST, each of these three versions contains a sentential feature that also has a discourse function. This example is typical. In translating, the intersentential link could be marked either prosodically, or with a cohesion marker, or with sequential focus. The decision will be heavily influenced by genre and context. In a play or a novel, italics (indicating voice stress and intonation) would be a likely option. But in an academic text, or if the character in the play or the novel were a pompous type, the cohesion marker would be more likely. Even in cases where SL and TL do both habitually use discourse connectives, this is often a weak spot in translation. This is because some cohesion markers can be falsi amici, or require grammatical transposition in the TT. We have already seen an example on p. 49, where translating ‘Tanto’ as ‘In any case’ made nearnonsense of the TT. Other examples are easily found. For instance: —Non ti ho visto in ufficio ieri.

‘I didn’t see you in the office yesterday.’

—In effetti, non mi sentivo bene.

‘No/That’s right – I wasn’t feeling well.’

Here, translating ‘In effetti’ as ‘In effect’ or ‘In fact’ would be near-nonsensical. If the context showed that the speaker was a bit pedantic, an alternative rendering of ‘In effetti’ might be ‘No, indeed’ or ‘Indeed you didn’t’. The following example shows that finding accurate and idiomatic discourse connectives often necessitates grammatical transposition: Guadagna poco, ma in compenso il lavoro gli piace.

He doesn’t earn much, but he does enjoy his work.

The intensive ‘in compenso’ is rendered with the verb ‘do’ used as an auxiliary. Similarly, an adverb may most idiomatically be rendered with a conjunction. This is often the case with ‘invece’, for example. But because ‘invece’ has greater contrastive force than ‘ma’, English ‘but’ sometimes needs to be strengthened. For instance:

70 Process and product Volevo telefonargli, invece andai di persona.

I wanted to phone him, but in fact I went round to see him; or but I went round to see him instead.

Mario ha studiato legge, invece suo fratello ha scelto medicina.

Mario studied law, but his brother (has) opted for medicine.

In both examples, spoken English could make the contrast through prosodic features alone. But in the first, it is virtually impossible to show the necessary stress and intonation in writing: if the translator decides that ‘invece’ here has strong contrastive force, something such as ‘in fact’ or ‘actually’ becomes virtually inevitable. In the second example, ‘brother’ could be italicised in a written text. However, if the translator decides that italics are inappropriate in the TT context, ‘invece’ might best be rendered with ‘on the other hand’ or ‘however’, or with ‘but [. . .] medicine instead’. Languages also differ in their use of punctuation as a cohesion marker. There are two examples in Practical 6.2 (pp. 63–64), where the translator has perhaps failed to appreciate the function of colons in the ST (ST ll. 6, 14; TT ll. 6, 15). Translators should always be alert to the specific discourse function of ST punctuation and select appropriate TL punctuation. In respect of intersentential features, then, translators have to ask three simple, but very important, questions. Assuming that the ST is coherent, are the connective elements explicit (e.g. cohesion markers, or sequential focus acting as a connective) or implicit (e.g. prosodic features, or narrative chronology)? What is the thematic and expressive function of the connective elements? And what, in context, is the most accurate and idiomatic TL way of marking a given intersentential relation – should it be explicit or implicit, and does it require grammatical transposition? As for relations between larger units on the discourse level (paragraphs, chapters, and so on), these are generally less problematic than intersentential relations. As usual, the translator must first ask what the function of such features is in the ST. If they have no marked purpose, but simply reflect SL conventions, altering them to match TL conventions is unproblematic. Commercial considerations may also come into play: for instance, a publisher may be afraid that a text full of long paragraphs would not sell. The English translation of Il Gattopardo is perhaps influenced by both sorts of consideration. For example, Chapter 5 of the ST is entitled thus: ‘Arrivo di padre Pirrone a S. Cono – Conversazione con gli amici e l’erbuario – I guai familiari di un Gesuita – Risoluzione dei guai – Conversazione con l’’uom di onore’ – Ritorno a Palermo’ (Tomasi di Lampedusa, 1963a: 128). In the TT, the chapter is entitled simply ‘Father Pirrone Pays a Visit’ (Tomasi di Lampedusa, 1963b: 154). And it is not uncommon in the same TT to find several short paragraphs corresponding to one longer one in the ST. In both respects, the effect of the changes is to deprive the TT of some of the self-consciously ‘archaic’ feel of the ST.

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The intertextual level No text, and no part of any text, exists in total isolation from others. Even the most innovative texts and turns of phrase form part of a whole body of speaking and writing by which their originality or unoriginality is measured. We shall give the term intertextual level to the level of textual variables on which texts are viewed as bearing significant external relations to other texts in a given culture or cultures. There are two main sorts of intertextual relation that particularly concern translators. The most common is that of genre membership. Genre as such is the subject of Chapter 11, but we do need to outline some of its implications here. An instruction manual, for example, will or will not be typical of a certain sort of instruction manual in the SL culture; a play will or will not be typical of a certain sort of play, and so on. Before translating an ST, then, the translator must judge how typical it is of its genre. If it is utterly typical of an established SL genre, it may be necessary to produce a similarly unoriginal TT. This will be relatively straightforward in the case of, say, scientific abstracts or thrillers. It can prove tricky where there is no TL genre corresponding to that of the ST. For instance, where are the poetic and musical counterparts in English to singers like some of the twentieth-century Italian ‘cantautori’? And, whatever its genre, the more innovative the ST is, the more the translator may feel impelled to formulate a TT that is equally innovative in the TL. Alternatively, if accuracy of content is more important than considerations of style, it may be necessary to sacrifice the stylistic originality of the ST. This will usually be the case with scientific or technical texts. A variation on genre membership is imitation, which may shade into parody. The translator must be alert to this, and also have a mastery of the TL style appropriate to the genre parodied. Umberto Eco’s Diario minimo, for example, is a collection of short parodies of writers and journalists, both Italian and foreign. This poses such intricate problems as how to render into English an Italian parody of the French nouveau roman. Parody brings us to the second category of intertextual relation, that of quotation or allusion. A text may directly quote from another. In such cases, the translator has to decide whether to borrow the standard TL translation of the quoted text. If it is very familiar in the TL culture, there will have to be special reasons for departing from it, as for instance with Dante’s ‘Lasciate ogni speranza, voi ch’entrate’: the translator would seem to be making a special point if this appeared as ‘Give up all hope, you who come in’ rather than in H.F. Cary’s translation: ‘All hope abandon, ye who enter here’, or its familiar modern variant: ‘Abandon hope, all ye who enter here’. Sometimes, an ST quotation that is full of resonances for the SL reader would be completely lost on the TL reader. In such cases, the translator may either leave it out altogether, or simply translate it literally, or, if it has an important function in the ST, use some form of compensation. It depends on what exactly the function is. Umberto Eco gives an example from the translation of his novel Il pendolo di Foucault, in which the characters constantly speak in literary quotations. A quotation from Leopardi’s ‘L’infinito’ (‘al di là della siepe’) is rendered with ‘Like Darien’, an allusion to Keats: in context, it was vital to have

72 Process and product a literary reference, but it did not matter if this was not to Leopardi or a hedge (Eco 1994: 20). Translation problems can become acute where ST intertextual features are more a matter of allusion than of simple quotation. An allusion is normally something deliberate, but we often see allusions where none was intended. An accidental allusion may be more accurately called an echo. Whatever one calls it, when readers or listeners respond to intertextual features of this sort, they are real factors in the meaning and impact of the text. We know, for example, that Keats was not alluding to Donovan’s ‘They call me mellow yellow’ in ‘To Autumn’; but, for many modern readers, Donovan’s line will be a major intertext in their response to ‘mellow’ when they first encounter Keats’s poem. Conversely, when Donovan first sang his song, many listeners will immediately have recalled Keats. What we do not know is whether Keats was alluding to Thomson’s ‘roving mists’, or to Wordsworth’s ‘mellow Autumn charged with bounteous fruit’; and we do not know whether his readers in 1820 responded to these and other echoes and allusions. But, for readers who do hear these possible echoes and allusions, they are part of the richness of Keats’s lines. Intertextual questions such as these are perhaps the simplest illustration of why, in Chapter 2, we were reluctant to accept the notion of ‘equivalent effect’: any text will have different resonances – even different meanings – for different people and for different generations. This is truer of literary than of scientific or technical texts, but it is a crucial factor that translators cannot ignore in assessing the relevance of intertextual features. And, as ever, the translator must also be careful to avoid introducing inappropriate features.

Practical 7 7.1 Discourse and intertextual issues Assignment (i) You are translating for publication in the UK the work from which the following ST is taken. Concentrating mainly on discourse and intertextual issues, discuss the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (Remember to look for discourse features within sentences as well as for intersentential features.) After finishing your translation, you would find it revealing to compare it with the published TT (Levi 1996: 42–3). (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took; pay special attention to discourse and intertextual issues, but do not overlook other major decisions. Contextual information The text is from Primo Levi’s Se questo è un uomo, an account of, and reflection on, Levi’s terrible experiences in Auschwitz. It is not bombastic or melodramatic,

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but thought-provoking and very moving in its combination of factuality, humaneness, rationality and discreet rhetorical urgency. Thematically, the book explores binary opposites – good and evil, justice and injustice, freedom and imprisonment, and so on. This extract is from Chapter 2, ‘Sul fondo’, where Levi has been inducted into the camp and reached rock-bottom in this nightmare world. His fellow prisoners are of various nationalities, and include a small group of Italians. ST Se fossimo ragionevoli, dovremmo rassegnarci a questa evidenza, che il nostro destino è perfettamente inconoscibile, che ogni congettura è arbitraria ed esattamente priva di fondamento reale. Ma ragionevoli gli uomini sono assai raramente, quando è in gioco il loro proprio destino: essi preferiscono in ogni caso le posizioni estreme; perciò, a seconda del loro carattere, fra di noi gli uni sono convinti immediatamente che tutto è perduto, che qui non si può vivere e che la fine è certa e prossima; gli altri, che, per quanto dura sia la vita che ci attende, la salvezza è probabile e non lontana, e, se avremo fede e forza, rivedremo le nostre case e i nostri cari. Le due classi, dei pessimisti e degli ottimisti, non sono peraltro così ben distinte: non già perché gli agnostici siano molti, ma perché i più, senza memoria né coerenza, oscillano fra le due posizioni-limite, a seconda dell’ interlocutore e del momento. Eccomi dunque sul fondo. A dare un colpo di spugna al passato e al futuro si impara assai presto, se il bisogno preme. Dopo quindici giorni dall’ingresso, già ho la fame regolamentare, la fame cronica sconosciuta agli uomini liberi, che fa sognare di notte e siede in tutte le membra dei nostri corpi;1 già ho imparato a non lasciarmi derubare, e se anzi trovo in giro un cucchiaio, uno spago, un bottone di cui mi possa appropriare senza pericolo di punizione, li intasco e li considero miei di pieno diritto. Già mi sono apparse, sul dorso dei piedi, le piaghe torpide che non guariranno. Spingo vagoni, lavoro di pala, mi fiacco alla pioggia,2 tremo al vento; già il mio stesso corpo non è più mio: ho il ventre gonfio e le membra stecchite, il viso tumido al mattino e incavato a sera; qualcuno fra noi ha la pelle gialla, qualche altro grigia: quando non ci vediamo per tre o quattro giorni, stentiamo a riconoscerci l’un l’altro. Avevamo deciso di trovarci, noi italiani, ogni domenica sera in un angolo del Lager; ma abbiamo subito smesso, perché era troppo triste contarci, e trovarci ogni volta più pochi, e più deformi, e più squallidi. Ed era così faticoso fare quei pochi passi: e poi, a ritrovarsi, accadeva di ricordare e di pensare, ed era meglio non farlo. (Levi 1976: 49–51)

Notes 1 2

Cf. Leopardi, Appressamento della morte, III, ll. 41–2: ‘su lor crespa fronte e su la cava / lor mascella parea seder la fame.’ Cf. Dante, L’inferno, VI, ll. 53–4: ‘per la dannosa colpa de la gola, / come tu vedi, a la pioggia mi fiacco.’

8

Literal meaning and translation issues

Translation is concerned with meaning. However, the term ‘meaning’ is elastic and indeterminate, especially when applied to a whole text. This is true even of literal (or ‘cognitive’ or ‘denotative’) meanings – that is, those that are fully supported by ordinary semantic conventions, such as the convention that ‘window’ refers to a particular kind of aperture in a wall or roof. In the case of words, it is this literal meaning that is given in dictionary definitions. Yet even the dictionary definition of a word has its problems. This is because it imposes, by abstraction and crystallisation of a core meaning, a rigidity of meaning that words do not often show in reality. In addition, once words are put into a context, their literal meanings become even more flexible. These two facts make it difficult to pin down the precise literal meanings in any text of any complexity. The more literary the text, the more this is so; but it is true even of the most soberly informative texts. In this chapter, we shall discuss three degrees of semantic equivalence – that is, how close given expressions are to having identical literal meanings.

Synonymy Literal meaning is a matter of categories into which a language divides the totality of communicable experience. Thus, the literal meaning of the word ‘pencil’ consists in the fact that all over the world there are similar objects that are included in the category of ‘pencil’ – and all sorts of other objects that are excluded from it. To define a literal meaning is to specify the ‘range’ covered by a word or phrase in such a way that it is clear what items are included in that range or category and what items are excluded. It is helpful to visualise literal meanings as circles, because circles can be used to give a rough measure of semantic equivalence. So, for instance, the expressions ‘my mother’s father’ and ‘my maternal grandfather’ may be represented as two separate circles. The two ranges of literal meaning, however, coincide perfectly: that is, in every specific instance of use, ‘my mother’s father’ and ‘my maternal grandfather’ include and exclude exactly the same referents. This can be visualised as drawing two circles of exactly the same size, sliding them on top of each other and seeing that they cover one another exactly, as in the figure:

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my maternal grandfather

my mother’s father

my mother’s father my maternal grandfather

This exemplifies the strongest form of semantic equivalence, full synonymy: the two expressions are synonyms of one another, having exactly the same range of literal meaning. Comparisons of literal meaning can also be made between expressions from different languages. For example, ‘The carburettor is blocked’ and ‘II carburatore è bloccato’ cover exactly the same range of situations, and are therefore fully synonymous, as in the figure:

Il carburatore è bloccato

The carburettor is blocked

The carburettor is blocked Il carburatore è bloccato

Hyperonymy-hyponymy Unfortunately, full synonymy is exceptional. Even the nearest semantic equivalent for translating the literal meaning of an ST expression usually falls short of being a full TL synonym. Compare ‘The carburettor was blocked’ with ‘Il carburatore era bloccato’. The English phrase could be referring to an event, not

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a state. This would have to be expressed in Italian as ‘Il carburatore fu bloccato’, ‘Il carburatore si è bloccato’, ‘Il carburatore si bloccò’ or ‘Il carburatore è stato bloccato’. In fact, in some contexts, Italian would even require a pluperfect – ‘era stato bloccato’ or ‘si era bloccato’. The English phrase, then, covers a range of situations that is divided between at least seven different expressions in Italian: the English phrase is wider than any of the Italian ones. This can be shown as follows:

The carburettor was blocked

Il carburatore era stato bloccato Il carburatore si è bloccato

Il carburatore si bloccò Il carburatore si era bloccato

Il carburatore è stato bloccato

Il carburatore fu bloccato Il carburatore era bloccato

The relationship between ‘The carburettor was blocked’ and each of the seven Italian expressions is known as hyperonymy-hyponymy. An expression with a wider, less specific, range of literal meaning is a hyperonym (or ‘superordinate’) of one with a narrower and more specific literal meaning. Conversely, the narrower one is a hyponym of the wider one. So ‘The carburettor was blocked’ is a hyperonym of ‘Il carburatore era bloccato’, ‘Il carburatore è stato bloccato’, and so on; and they are all hyponyms of the English phrase. Hyperonymy-hyponymy is so widespread that one can say that the entire fabric of linguistic reference is built up on such relationships. The same external reality can be phrased in an indefinite number of ways – compare ‘I bought a Collins-

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Sansoni dictionary’ with these increasingly general phrasings: ‘I bought an Italian dictionary’, ‘I bought a dictionary’, ‘I bought a book’, ‘I bought something’. Each of these phrasings is a hyperonym of the ones before it. When there is no full TL synonym for a given ST expression (e.g. ‘The carburettor was blocked’), the translator has to look for an acceptable TL hyperonym or hyponym. In fact, translators do this automatically. For example, in most contexts SL ‘nipote’ can only be translated by a TL hyponym, either ‘granddaughter’ or ‘grandson’ or ‘niece’ or ‘nephew’. Each of these is narrower in literal meaning than ‘nipote’. Conversely, each of the English words can only be translated into Italian with a hyperonym, the wider and less specific ‘nipote’.

Particularising translation and generalising translation Translating by a hyponym results in a TT expression with a narrower and more specific literal meaning than the ST expression. TT ‘niece’ is more specific than ST ‘nipote’, adding particulars not present in the ST expression. We shall call this particularising translation, or particularisation for short. Translating by a hyperonym results in a TT expression with a wider and less specific literal meaning than the ST expression. TT ‘nipote’ is more general than ST ‘grandson’, omitting particulars given by the ST. We shall call this generalising translation, or generalisation for short. Particularisation and generalisation both entail a degree of translation loss on the grammatical level: detail is added to, or omitted from, the ST message. However, translating by a hyponym or a hyperonym is standard practice and entirely unremarkable, unless the TL hyponym or hyperonym is unnecessary, inappropriate or misleading. Particularising translation, for instance, is acceptable if the TL offers no suitable alternative and if the added detail does not clash with the overall context of ST or TT. Thus ‘Facciamo un giro’ could be translated in several ways: ‘We’re going for a walk/ride/drive/sail’, and so on. Each of these particularisations is unavoidable. Only the context will make it clear which hyponym to use. Even translating ‘Facciamo’ inevitably entails particularisation, since it can be either declarative (‘We’re going for . . .’) or imperative (‘Let’s go for . . .’): English is forced to choose one or the other. Particularising translation is usually not acceptable if the TL does offer a suitable alternative to the addition of detail or if the added detail does clash with the overall context of ST or TT. Take ‘ballerine’ and the four TTs in the following example: Le ballerine dei night sono belle. (a) (b) (c) (d)

The nightclub ballerinas are beautiful. Nightclub ballerinas are beautiful. The nightclub dancers are beautiful. Nightclub dancers are beautiful.

78 Process and product All four TTs show unavoidable particularisation, because ‘Le ballerine’ can denote either all dancers in general or the particular dancers who are the subject of discussion. Which option to choose depends on the context. As long as the option chosen is the right one, this particularisation is unremarkable. (Similarly, only context will show whether ‘ballerine dei night’ is best rendered as ‘nightclub dancers’, ‘dancers in/from nightclubs’ or ‘dancers in/from the nightclubs’). However, in TTs (a) and (b), there is a truly unacceptable particularisation. Italian ‘ballerina’ can denote a ballerina, a ballroom dancer, a disco dancer, and so on. English ‘ballerinas’ clashes with the context of nightclubs. ‘Dancers’ is a better translation, because it collocates well with ‘nightclub’. ‘Beautiful’ is also particularisation, as ‘belle’ could be translated as ‘good-looking’ or ‘lovely’, depending on the context. This example clearly shows how difficult it is to avoid some degree of particularisation or generalisation. In fact, on its own, ‘dancers’ is actually a generalisation: it omits the gender-specific detail of ST ‘ballerine’ (as distinct from ‘ballerini’). In most contexts, this would not matter. If it were absolutely necessary to specify the gender, the translator would probably be better advised to make it clear by compensation in the TT context than to commit a stylistic horror such as ‘nightclub dancing girls’ or ‘female nightclub dancers’. Similar considerations apply to generalising translation as to particularising translation. Here is another example: I carabinieri hanno fermato la macchina e hanno chiesto la patente al conducente. Does the translator retain the Italian term ‘Carabinieri’ (when this term is used in the TL it often has an initial capital to signal a proper noun – important for ‘exotic’ references) or generalise with ‘the police’? If it is significant in the ST that it is the Carabinieri that have stopped the car, then clearly no generalisation is appropriate. However, retaining the ‘exotic’ reference may require an effort on the part of the readers, if they are not familiar with policing in Italy. The generalisation is easy to understand, but does not clarify the police force. Given the range of police forces in Italy, it is often better to avoid over-particularising as this will only lengthen the TT unnecessarily and cause confusion, if the reference is not of strategic importance in the situation. However, if the ST makes specific reference to policing in Italy, differentiating between the various forces that have policing responsibilities, then the translator will need to ensure that the appropriate information is transferred. For an example of compensation in handling the relation between hyperonymy and hyponymy, see the translation and discussion of ‘ricerca’ on pp. 37–8.

Partially overlapping translation There is a third degree of semantic equivalence. Take the phrase ‘My niece’s joke’. In the context of joking, ‘La battuta di mia nipote’ is as close a literal rendering

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as possible. But the English does not specify the kind of joke, whereas the Italian TT specifies that it is a witty remark. That is, ‘battuta’, as opposed to ‘scherzo’ (practical joke) or ‘barzelletta’ (funny story), is a particularisation. Conversely, in the English phrase, the relationship between the speaker and the girl is specified unambiguously, whereas the Italian TT leaves it ambiguous: here, the TT generalises, because ‘mia nipote’ can mean either ‘my niece’ or ‘my granddaughter’. This TT, then, combines particularisation and generalisation: it keeps the reference to a jest on the part of a junior female relative, but it adds a detail not found in the ST and it omits a detail that is given in the ST. This can be visualised as two partially overlapping circles, as in the figure below. The unshaded area, where the circles overlap, represents the material the ST and TT have in common. The shaded areas represent what is omitted and what is added in the TT. This is another category of degree in the translation of literal meaning. We shall call it partially overlapping translation, or partial overlap for short. Partial overlap is almost unavoidable in whole sentences, common in phrases, and not infrequent even in single words. Take the word ‘professoressa’. If, in a given context, this is translated as ‘teacher’ and not ‘lecturer’, the TT certainly keeps the reference to someone who instructs. But it also particularises, because it adds the specific detail that she works in a school and not a university; and at the same time it generalises, because it omits the detail of her gender.

TT omits:

specific relationship

ST My niece’s joke

TT adds: TT keeps: junior female relative, jest

type of jest

TT La battuta di mia nipote

When the TL offers no suitable alternatives, partial overlap is acceptable if the omitted detail is unimportant or is implied in the overall TT context, and if the added detail does not clash with the overall ST or TT contexts. Translating ‘professoressa’ as ‘teacher’ or as ‘lecturer’, for example, will in most contexts be harmless and unavoidable.

80 Process and product Partial overlap is unacceptable if the omitted detail is important in the ST but is not implied in the overall context of the TT, or if the added detail clashes with the overall ST or TT contexts. If the TL does not offer suitable alternatives, then only compensation can counteract the omission or addition. So the teacher’s gender can be made clear through anaphora (‘she’ or ‘her’), and a reference to her workplace can, if necessary, be inserted into the TT. In many cases, the context itself will dictate how far the translator can push the translation in one direction or another, while remaining faithful to the ST as regards semantic and cultural considerations.

Practical 8 8.1 Particularising, generalising and partially overlapping translation Assignment (i) Make a detailed analysis of examples of particularising, generalising and partially overlapping translation in the TT printed opposite the ST. (ii) Where possible, give a revised TT that is a better translation, and explain your decision. Contextual information The ST is from Lampedusa’s Il Gattopardo (1958). Sicily is full of political tension, the threat to the Bourbon king and to the established social order growing daily. The political situation, together with the Prince’s autocratic presence, can make mealtimes tense and silent affairs. Today, the Prince’s mood is not improved by the departure of his beloved nephew Tancredi to join the rebels. However, a conversation with padre Pirrone before lunch helps him to come to terms with the situation to some extent: he is resigned to a future where the lower orders rule the roost. Carolina and Concetta are daughters of the Prince, Paolo a son. The TT was first published in 1960. ST Quando la campanella del pranzo li richiamò giù, tutti e due erano rasserenati, tanto dalla comprensione delle congiunture politiche quanto dal superamento di questa comprensione stessa. Un’atmosfera di inconsueta distensione si sparse nella villa. Il pasto di mezzogiorno era quello principale della giornata, e andò, grazie a Dio, del tutto liscio. Figurarsi che a Carolina, la figlia ventenne, accadde che uno dei boccoli che le incorniciavano il volto, sorretto a quanto pare da una malsicura forcina, scivolasse e andasse a finire sul piatto. L’incidente che, un altro giorno, avrebbe potuto essere increscioso, questa volta aumentò soltanto l’allegria: quando il fratello, che era seduto vicino alla ragazza, prese il ricciolo e se lo appuntò al collo, sicché pendeva lì come uno scapolare, financo il Principe acconsentì a sorridere. La partenza, la destinazione, gli scopi di Tancredi erano ormai noti

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a tutti, e ognuno ne parlava, meno Paolo che continuava a mangiare in silenzio. Nessuno del resto era preoccupato, tranne il Principe che però nascondeva l’ansia non grave nelle profondità del suo cuore, e Concetta che era la sola a conservare un’ombra sulla bella fronte. ‘La ragazza deve avere un sentimentuccio per quel briccone. Sarebbe una bella coppia. Ma temo che Tancredi debba mirar più in alto, intendo dire più in basso.’ (Tomasi di Lampedusa 1963a: 33) TT When the bell for luncheon called them downstairs, both had regained their serenity, due to understanding the political scene and to setting that understanding aside. An atmosphere of unusual relaxation had spread over the house. The midday meal was the chief one of the day, and went, God be thanked, quite smoothly. This in spite of one of the ringlets framing the face of the twenty-yearold Carolina, the eldest daughter, dropping into her soup plate because apparently of an ill-secured pin. Another day the incident might have had dreadful consequences, but now it only heightened the gaiety; and when her brother, sitting next to her, took the lock of hair and pinned it on his neckerchief where it hung like a scapular, even the Prince allowed himself a smile. Tancredi’s departure, destination and reasons were now known to all, and everyone talked of them, except Paolo who went on eating in silence. No one was really worrying about him, in fact, but the Prince, who showed no signs of the anxiety he still felt deep down, and Concetta who was the only one with a shadow on her pretty forehead. ‘The girl must have her eye on the young scamp. They’d make a fine couple. But I fear Tancredi will have to aim higher, by which of course I mean lower.’ (Tomasi di Lampedusa 1963b: 40)

9

Connotative meaning and translation issues

Literal meaning is only one aspect of verbal meaning. The meaning of a text comprises a number of different layers: referential content, emotional colouring, cultural, social and personal associations, and so on. This many-layered nature of meaning is another crucial translation issue. Whether within a single language or as between two languages, synonyms are usually different in their overall semantic effects – compare ‘clergyman’ and ‘sky-pilot’, ‘lapwing’ and ‘peewit’, ‘snowdrop’ and ‘bucaneve’, ‘gooseberry’ and ‘uva spina’, and so on. Each of these has overtones that differentiate it from its synonym. We shall call such overtones connotative meanings (or connotations) – that is, associations which, over and above the literal meaning of an expression, form part of its overall meaning. Connotative meanings are many and varied, and it is common for a single piece of text, or even a single expression, to combine more than one kind into a single overall effect. However, it is useful at this stage to distinguish six major types of connotative meaning (some of them adapted from Leech 1974: 26). Learning to identify these sharpens awareness of the presence and significance of connotations in STs and TTs alike. Note that, by definition, we are only concerned here with socially widespread connotations, not personal ones. Translators do not normally let personal connotations influence a TT if they can help it.

Attitudinal meaning Attitudinal meaning is that part of the overall meaning of an expression which consists of some widespread attitude to the referent. The expression does not merely denote the referent in a neutral way, but also hints at some attitude to it. For instance, in appropriate contexts, ‘the police’, ‘the filth’ and ‘the Old Bill’ are synonyms in terms of referential content, but they have different overall meanings. These attitudes are not part of the literal meaning of the expressions, but it is impossible to ignore them in responding to the expressions. It is therefore important not to overlook them when translating. Translating ‘la pula’ as ‘the police’ accurately renders the literal meaning of the ST, but fails to render the hostile attitude connoted by ‘la pula’ (‘the filth’, ‘the pigs’). Translating ‘la pretaglia’ as ‘clergy’ rather than something such as ‘the dog-collar brigade’ would

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miss the point. Conversely, the translator must be careful not to introduce significant connotations that are absent from the ST and clash with the TT context, as in translating ‘il clero’ as ‘the dog-collar brigade’.

Associative meaning Associative meaning is that part of the overall meaning of an expression which consists of expectations that are – rightly or wrongly – widely associated with the referent of the expression. The word ‘nurse’ is a good example. Most people automatically associate ‘nurse’ with ‘woman’. This unconscious association is so widespread that the term ‘male nurse’ has had to be coined to counteract its effect: ‘he is a nurse’ sounds odd, even today. Any area of reference where prejudices and stereotypes, however innocuous, operate is likely to give examples of associative meaning. Even something as banal as a date can trigger an associative meaning – think of 1 April or 5 November. There is a good example of associative meaning in the last sentence of Pascoli’s short poem ‘Novembre’. The air is bright and spring-like, but there are no birds. The poem ends: Silenzio, intorno: solo, alle ventate, odi lontano, da giardini ed orti, di foglie un cader fragile. È l’estate, fredda, dei morti. (Pascoli 1905: 130) Given the title and the context, the inescapable association in the last sentence is 2 November, ‘il giorno dei morti’ (All Souls’ Day), when prayers for the dead are said. The associative meaning is that of ‘graveside prayer for the dead’. A TT that omitted this connotation of liturgy and prayer might incur unacceptable translation loss. It is tempting to trigger the All Souls’ Day association with a translation such as ‘It is the cold summer of dead souls’; but this might introduce unwanted connotations of Gogol’s Dead Souls. Perhaps a reference to remembrance in a stylised, quasi-ritual diction would compensate: ‘This is the summer, cold summer, of the remembered dead.’

Allusive meaning The unwanted echo of Gogol is an example of allusive meaning. Allusive meaning occurs when an expression evokes an associated saying or quotation in such a way that the meaning of that saying or quotation becomes part of the overall meaning of the expression. Good examples are the allusions to Leopardi and Dante in the Levi text on p. 73, while in the lines from Pascoli’s ‘Novembre’, ‘l’estate’ evokes the expression ‘estate di San Martino’. This allusive meaning joins with the associative meaning of ‘graveside prayer for the dead’ to give to the description of a November day an overall meaning that is more powerful than the literal meanings of the expressions used. In fact, this overall meaning is reinforced still

84 Process and product more by another associative meaning: the St Martin’s summer in Italy is often accompanied by winds, so that ‘ventate’ makes the listener/reader more receptive to the connotation of ‘San Martino’ in ‘estate’. (This connotation is in turn reinforced on the phonic/graphic level, by the end-rhyme in ‘ventate/estate’.) Like all intertextual features, allusive meaning needs to be discerned in the first place. Even when the translator decides there is an allusion, it may be relevant to ask whether it is deliberate innuendo or sheer accident. For example, in the book Incantesimi (Bolla 2014), which comprises a series of ‘con/testi’, one short chapter is entitled ‘Forma urbis’, discussing architecture in Rome. While there is a clear allusion in the Latin title to Rome (often known as ‘l’Urbe’, from ‘urbs/urbis’), there is also resonance with the commonly used Latin phrase ‘forma mentis’. The double reference in the title will pose a challenge to the translator: retain the Latin and risk incomprehension, or find an exegetic translation? Humorous allusive meanings can pose delicate translation problems. Here is one from Michele Saponaro’s short story ‘Il cavallo morello’. Cosimo’s beloved horse Alano has disappeared from the stable. The brigadiere observes critically that the stable door is coming off its hinges. The following exchange ensues: —[. . .] Ma farò mettere la porta nuova, oggi stesso. —Già, quando i buoi sono scappati . . . Rideva anche il brigadiere. —Cavallo, signor brigadiere, era cavallo. Il mio vecchio Alano! (Saponaro 1992: 161) The brigadiere alludes to the proverbial expression: ‘Chiudere la stalla dopo che i buoi sono scappati.’ Cosimo is too upset to see the allusion, hence the comic inappropriateness when he corrects the brigadiere. The first idea will be to draw on the stock communicative translation of the Italian saying: ‘To shut the stable door after the horse has bolted.’ This is apt in the circumstances, but makes nonsense of Cosimo’s reply. The Italian allusion could be translated literally – but then the exotic touch of ‘oxen’ might draw too much attention to itself. One possibility might be to compensate for the loss of reference to oxen by using a different TL saying and adapting Cosimo’s reply accordingly: ‘But I’ll get the new door put on this very day.’ ‘I’d say that’s putting the cart before the horse . . .’ And the sergeant laughed as he said it. ‘I can’t – he’s not there, he’s gone. My old Alano!’ Another possibility would be to keep the TL communicative equivalent, but use it differently from its ST counterpart: ‘But I’ll get the new door put on this very day.’ ‘Well make sure it’s the door that’s bolted this time, not the horse.’

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And the sergeant laughed as he said it. ‘But he has – I told you, he’s gone. My old Alano!’ Here, Cosimo’s failure to respond to the pun in ‘bolted’ compensates for the loss of his failure, in the ST, to respond to the allusion.

Reflected meaning Like ‘l’estate [. . .] dei morti’, ‘bolted’ in our second TT shows more than one sort of connotative meaning. In the Pascoli example, associative meaning and allusive meaning reinforce one another. In ‘bolted’, there is an allusive meaning – ‘it’s too late’. This is reinforced by a reflected meaning. Reflected meaning is the meaning given to an expression over and above its literal meaning by the fact that its form calls to mind the completely different meaning of an expression that sounds, or is spelled, the same, or nearly the same. In our example, ‘bolted’ has two completely different meanings. The idea of ‘bolting the door’ is triggered in the sergeant’s mind (and the reader’s) by the allusion to shutting the stable door after the horse has bolted. Another example is the evocation of ‘yellow’ by ‘mellow’ in ‘To Autumn’. Reflected meanings do not usually occur spontaneously to the listener or reader. When an expression is taken in isolation, its reflected meaning or meanings are usually merely latent. It is the context that triggers these latent reflected meanings. In the Saponaro example, the two meanings of ‘bolt’ that are activated are appropriate to the situation. But there are others, such as ‘to eat hurriedly’ or ‘to sieve’, that are irrelevant to this situation in this context. These are therefore very unlikely to occur to the listener/reader. Translators should remember that being receptive to connotative meaning is not the same as looking up every possible use of a word in the dictionary and assuming that they are all relevant in the particular context in question.

Collocative meaning Collocative meaning is given to an expression over and above its literal meaning by the meaning of some other expression with which it collocates to form a commonly used phrase. Some collocative meanings are so strong that they hardly need triggering by context; for example, ‘chauvinism’ (literally, ‘fanatical patriotism’) can hardly be used today without evoking its collocative partner ‘male’, and has virtually become a synonym of ‘male chauvinism’. Others need to be activated by the context; in ‘I rode shotgun on the way to his wedding’, the innuendo is based on activating the collocative echo of ‘shotgun wedding’. For the translator, collocative meanings are important, not only because they contribute to the overall meaning of the ST, but also because of the need to avoid unwanted collocative clashes in the TT. This is easily seen from comparison of a few Italian phrases with alternative English renderings:

86 Process and product Una serpe in seno

A snake in my breast (cf. snake in the grass; Cleopatra’s asp) vs A viper in my bosom

Un mare di lacrime

A sea of tears (cf. [take up arms against] a sea of troubles) vs Floods of tears

There is a good example of unintentional collocative meaning in l. 14 of the Gattopardo TT on p. 81. ‘Concetta was the only one with a shadow on her pretty forehead’ has two unfortunate effects. Evoking the cliché ‘[don’t you worry] your pretty little head [about that]’, it turns Concetta into a bit of a bimbo, and the narrator (or the Prince) into a male chauvinist. Collocative meaning is often inseparable from allusive meaning. To take an earlier example, ‘quando i buoi sono scappati’ acquires its allusive meaning from the unmissable evocation of its collocative partner, ‘chiudere la stalla’.

Affective meaning Affective meaning is an emotive effect worked on the addressee by the choice of expression, and which forms part of its overall meaning. The expression does not merely denote its referent, but also hints at some attitude of the speaker or writer to the addressee. Features of linguistic politeness, flattery, rudeness or insult are typical examples of expressions carrying affective meanings. Compare, for instance, ‘Le dispiacerebbe fare silenzio?’ with ‘Chiudi il becco!’. These expressions share the same core literal meaning of ‘Be quiet’, but the speaker’s implied attitude to the listener produces a different affective impact in each case: polite in the first, rude in the second. Translators must obviously be able to recognise affective meanings in the ST. But they must also be careful not to introduce unwanted ones into the TT. For example, a customer at the baker’s asks for some rolls: ‘Mi dia quattro panini.’ This might sound rude if translated literally as ‘Give me four rolls’, although the ST does not have that affective meaning at all. A safer TT would cushion what sounds to the English-speaker’s ear like the brusqueness of the Italian: ‘(I’d like) four rolls, please.’ As we have seen, although these six types of connotative meaning are distinguishable from each other, it often happens that two or more occur together and nourish each other. In acquiring a translation method, it is useful to learn to distinguish exactly which sorts of connotative meaning are in play. Practical 9 involves detailed analysis of connotations, because it is designed to help in the acquisition of this ability. Once the ability has been acquired, however, it becomes relatively easy to respond to the sometimes complex connotations of a given piece of text without labelling every last component in them. All that remains, then, is to find a way of rendering the connotative meanings without too much translation loss!

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Practical 9 9.1 Connotative meaning Assignment Taking the expressions printed in bold type in the ST printed below: (i) Categorise and analyse (and/or discuss if you are working in a group) those in which connotative meaning plays a part, and examine the translation of them in the TT printed on pp. 88–9. Where necessary, give a revised TT rendering the ST connotations more successfully into English, and explain why you think your TT is better. (ii) Identify and analyse (and/or discuss) expressions where unwanted connotative meanings have been introduced into the printed TT. Give a revised TT in each case, and explain your decisions. Contextual information The ST is from Santità! (1996), a novel by Vittorio Russo. God has appeared to a contemporary Pope, and is criticising the record of the Church. Here, arguing about the rights and wrongs of the Spanish Inquisition, they are discussing the case of Elvira del Campo, who was accused of sympathising with Jews, tortured and put on trial for heresy. When the passage begins, God is responding to the Pope’s reminder that the court did finally acknowledge her innocence. ST ‘Sì, dopo averla umiliata e trattata come la più immonda delle bestie, dopo averla denudata e ricoperta appena di paños de verguenza, dopo averne fiaccato la personalità e averle strappato fino all’ultimo brandello di dignità, dopo averla seviziata e dopo che la sventurata ebbe implorato pietà per quei suoi crimini. ‘E che dovrei fare io per tutti i crimini del genere umano? I crimini veri, intendo! Elvira aveva già languito per un anno nelle segrete della Inquisizione e fu condannata a scontarne ancora tre. Fu obbligata a portare sulle vesti la croce gialla dell’ignominia, che serviva ad identificare i condannati del tribunale dell’ Inquisizione. Per ultimo le furono confiscati i beni. Perché i beni degli inquisiti erano regolarmente confiscati e divisi tra gl’inquisitori, gli scribi, i delatori, gl’impiccatori e, beninteso, il papa. Proprio come avvenne sotto la croce.’ Seguì una lunga pausa più cupa della notte. ‘L’Inquisizione non era un’istituzione brutale,’ rilevò cauto Sua Santità, ‘se rapportata alla mentalità del tempo, alle sue fobie, alle sue angosce e ai suoi spettri. Era il terrore di non essere in linea con la Tua volontà che muoveva lo zelo degli inquisitori. Io ho sinceramente pietà per le follie determinate dall’esaltazione, ma, a modo loro, quegli inquisitori furono uomini devoti. Spietati, sì, ma per amor Tuo. Più ciechi che colpevoli, essi erano solo mossi da un malinteso senso dell’ortodossia.’

88 Process and product ‘Per amor mio!’ fece eco Quello. ‘Come desidero essere detestato se l’amor mio deve generare sofferenza! Quello però non era amore, era il fanatismo della cecità di esaltati, lontani dal capire che l’opera loro mirava esclusivamente a rafforzare il potere del papa sulle anime.’ ‘Eppure, non era certo alla propria cecità che gl’inquisitori attribuivano l’annientamento degli eretici, ma alla Tua volontà. E Tu tacevi, accoglievi le lodi, i profumi degli incensi e le messe di ringraziamento . . .’ ‘Avrei dovuto intromettermi, dici tu? E disapprovi perché non l’ho fatto. E se avessi reagito, quante volte credi che avrei dovuto ridurre questo mondo ad un cumulo di macerie e di carogne immonde?’ ‘Dopo però avresti potuto rifarlo migliore! Magari prendendoTi un po’ di tempo per non avere sorprese. Che Ti costava? Hai voluto utilizzare materiale umano scadente e Ti lamenti se poi non risponde!’ ironizzò Sua Santità. ‘Dunque avrei dovuto sottoporre la mia opera ad un collaudo: un esame di riparazione! Io, insomma, rimandato a settembre come uno scolaretto! Sappi che quello che ho creato m’è sacro, ed è irripetibile e definitivo.’ “. . .e Paganini che credeva di essere originale!” considerò di sfuggita Sua Santità e replicò: ‘Beh, qualche correzione l’hai fatta. . . col diluvio, per esempio, con qualche intervento incendiario.’ (Russo 1996a: 85–7) TT ‘Yes, after humiliating her and treating her like some wild beast, and stripping her down until she was barely decent; after destroying her personality and robbing her of her dignity; after continuing to torture her when she cried for mercy for her crimes. ‘Tell me, what should I do about all those crimes against humanity? Real crimes! Elvira had already been locked away in prison by the Inquisition for a year and she was then sentenced to imprisonment for three more years. She had to wear the yellow cross of shame on her clothes, which served to identify those condemned by the Inquisition. Last but not least, she was deprived of all her worldly goods. It was common practice for victims of the Inquisition to lose all their possessions which would be shared out among the inquisitors, pen-pushers, spies, hangmen and naturally, the pope himself. Which was precisely what happened at the foot of the Cross,’ He added. A long pause followed, gloomier than dead of night. ‘The Inquisition was not a cruel institution,’ His Holiness suggested cautiously, ‘if You look at it in perspective. The period was rife with phobias, fear and paranoia. It was the terror of not doing Your will that made the inquisitors so zealous. I cannot condone the folly which derives from fanaticism but, in their way, the inquisitors were devout. Pitiless of course, but for Your sake. Bigoted rather than guilty, they were moved by a mistaken sense of orthodoxy.’ ‘For my sake, indeed!’ He repeated. ‘I would really prefer to be hated if deeds committed for my sake cause such suffering! It was not for my sake at all, it was

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sheer bigotry by fanatics who could not see that what they were doing had no other purpose than to strengthen the pope’s hold over the people.’ ‘It was to You that the inquisitors attributed the annihilation of heretics, not to their bigotry. You said nothing, accepting their praise, frankincense and myrrh, thanksgiving masses . . .’ ‘So, I should have done something about it, should I? And you rebuke me for not doing so? If I had intervened, I would have had to reduce the world to a heap of rubble with rotting corpses every five minutes!’ ‘Then You could have built a better world! Maybe You would have been more careful, so as to avoid unpleasant surprises. It wouldn’t have cost You anything! You create second-rate human beings and then You complain because things aren’t quite ship-shape!’ ‘So I should have been checked out, should I? If I failed my exam I would have to re-sit it like some schoolboy! I’ll have you know that what I create is sacred, unrepeatable and final.’ ‘. . . Like Paganini, who never repeated himself!’ His Holiness quipped mentally. Then he replied: ‘Well, You did intervene sometimes . . . what about the Flood? Or Your tricks with fire?’ (Russo 1996b: 89–91)

10 Language variety Translation issues in register, sociolect and dialect

In this chapter, we look at characteristics in the way the message is formulated that reveal information about the speaker or writer. These stylistically conveyed meanings are connotations: they are not normally recorded in the dictionary, but are read between the lines, on the basis of widespread associations. We shall call the information revealed ‘speaker-related information’, regardless of whether there is a written text or not. Likewise, to avoid cluttering the text with heavy compounds (‘speaker/writer’, ‘reader/listener’), we shall apply the terms ‘speaker’ and ‘listener’ to spoken and written texts alike. There are two broad categories of speaker-related information that can be revealed through the manner, or style, in which the message is formulated. The first comprises things that speakers intend to reveal, notably the effect they want their utterance to have on the listener. The second comprises things they do not necessarily intend to reveal, notably the social stereotype they appear to belong to, and their regional and class affiliations. Any or all of these things can occur together, of course, and they are sometimes hard to distinguish from one another. But, in analysing style, it is useful to keep them as clearly distinct as possible, because it helps the translator to pin down what features are textually important.

Register ‘Register’ is a term used in so many different ways that it can be positively misleading. For our purposes, it is enough to distinguish two types of register. Tonal register The first is tonal register. Tonal register is what is often simply called ‘register’ in dictionaries and textbooks on style. It is the feature of linguistic expression that carries affective meaning. It is the tone that the speaker takes – vulgar, familiar, polite, formal, and so on. The affective meaning of a feature of tonal register is conveyed by a more or less deliberate choice of one out of a range of expressions capable of conveying a given literal message – compare, for example, ‘me ne frego della tua salute’, ‘non mi importa della tua salute’ and ‘la tua salute mi è

Language variety 91 indifferente’. The effect of tonal register on listeners is thus something for which speakers can be held responsible, in so far as they are deliberately being obscene, polite, and so on. It is clearly important for the translator to assess where the ST expression comes on the SL politeness scale, and to render it with a corresponding TL degree of politeness. But it is not enough just to have a repertoire of expressions capable of injecting various affective meanings into a literal message. Equally important is the situation in which the expression is used. Different sorts of social transaction – preaching in church, defending a client in court, selling a car to a customer, and so on – all imply different tonal registers. Nor is that all. The source culture and the target culture may have different expectations regarding the appropriate tonal register(s) for a given situation: awareness of such differences is as important as awareness of situation and having a repertoire of tonal registers. Social register A social register is a style from which the listener infers what social stereotype the speaker belongs to. A stereotype by definition excludes individual idiosyncrasies of people belonging to the stereotype; but, for better or for worse, we do tend to organise our interactions with other people on the basis of social stereotypes. These stereotypes range from broad value-judgemental labels such as ‘pompous’, ‘down-to-earth’, ‘trendy’, and so on to increasingly specific stereotypical personality types such as ‘the henpecked husband’, ‘the six-pints-before-the-kick-off football fan’, ‘the middle-aged female Guardian-reading academic’, and so on. Insofar as each of these stereotypes has a characteristic style of language use, this style is what we mean by social register. Social register therefore differs from tonal register in that the speaker-related information is not usually intentionally revealed by the speaker. Whatever information the style conveys about the kind of person the speaker is, it will often be tentative. It is generally confirmed and refined by context and situation. Once these are taken into account, social register will carry information about such things as the speaker’s educational background, social persona (that is, a social role the speaker is used to fulfilling), occupation and professional standing, and so on. In other words, a social register is a style that is conventionally seen as appropriate to both a type of person and a type of situation. Clearly, in translating an ST that has speaking characters in it, or whose author uses social register for self-projection, a major concern is constructing an appropriate TL register. In purely informative texts, this is relatively straightforward, the main problem being to find the conventional TL style for the genre. The more journalistic or literary the ST, however, the greater the importance of characterisation, and therefore of social persona. When the translator is operating between Western European cultures, social stereotypes can sometimes be matched reasonably closely – football fans perhaps, or guests at an aristocratic ball, or university students. But even such parallels are far from exact: there are discrepancies between the stereotypes of British and Italian football fans, British and

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Italian aristocrats, British and Italian university students. And what is the Italian translator to do with Jeeves and Wooster, for example? The problem is more acute still where there is no target-culture counterpart to an ST social persona. Take the bersagliere, the giudice per le indagini preliminary, the vinificatore in the hills: if there are social registers characteristic of these types, how is the translator going to convey them in English? Any strategy is going to involve loss, compromise and compensation. Whatever TL social register is finally decided on, it is most important to keep it consistent. Social or tonal? Social and tonal register are not always fully distinguishable. There are two reasons for this. First, it is not always clear whether a style of expression reflects social stereotyping or the speaker’s intentions towards the listener. Second, characteristics of particular social registers often include features of tonal register. Both reasons are exemplified in the following outburst: Sei solo un’egoista, ecco cosa. Una stronzetta che vuole fare un po’ di esperienza con noialtri marginali. Ti eccita che mi buco, giusto? Ti eccita che un poveraccio si spara merda in vena.

You’re totally self-centred, you are. A stupid cow that just wants to sample life with the drop-outs. Turns you on, doesn’t it, me being a smack-head? Turns you on, some poor bastard shooting shit in his veins. (Ballestra 1991a: 126)

There are obvious features of tonal register that reinforce the initial insult (‘Sei solo un’egoista’): ‘stronzetta’; the belligerent ‘ti eccita [. . .], giusto?’; ‘poveraccio’; ‘merda’. The social register is that of an aggressive and perhaps self-pitying young dropout. The context shows that he is a specific kind of dropout: he injects, and he uses druggie jargon (‘mi buco’), together with phrases such as ‘fare un po’ di esperienza con noialtri marginali’, typical of the stereotypical left-winger. With more of the context, it might even be possible to identify a specific left-wing social register. But there is enough here to see that part of the social register is contributed by the tonal register, namely the aggressiveness and self-pity. Conversely, it may be that some of the features of tonal register are not actually deliberate reflections of the speaker’s attitude, but are simply automatically entailed by his social persona; this could be the case with ‘poveraccio’ and ‘merda’, for example. In addition to this, it is notable that the text is not incoherent or illiterate; the social register is that of a junkie who has some education – ‘marginale’, for example, is typical sociological jargon. This is why, in the TT, we have ‘sample life with the drop-outs’ rather than ‘see what life’s like with the drop-outs’, and ‘doesn’t’ instead of ‘don’t’. It is clear that the workings of register can be quite complex even in a simple example such as this one. Here, tonal and social register can to a great extent be

Language variety 93 distinguished from one another. In cases where it is impossible to disentangle them without lengthy analysis, it is acceptable, in discussing translation, simply to use ‘register’ as a cover-term.

Sociolect Whereas a social register belongs to a fairly narrowly stereotyped social persona, a sociolect is defined in terms of sociological notions of class. A sociolect is a language variety typical of one of the broad groupings that together constitute the ‘class structure’ of a society. Examples of major sociolects in the United Kingdom are those labelled as ‘urban working class’, ‘white collar’, ‘public school’, and so on. These labels are noticeably vague. This is partly because British society does not have a rigid class structure, and partly because a ‘class’ label is often useless if not qualified by geographical reference. ‘Public school’ is relatively neutral to regional variation, but the further the speaker is from ‘public school’ on the scale, the more necessary it is to take class and regional factors together: compare ‘urban working class’, ‘Leith urban working class’, ‘Bermondsey urban working class’, and so on. Mixed sociolectal/regional designations such as these are often more helpful in recognising language variants than purely sociological ones. Sociolectal features can nevertheless convey important speaker-related information. If they are salient features of the ST, the translator cannot ignore them when deciding on a strategy. The first crucial factor to consider is what their function is in the ST. Thus, in translation of an eyewitness account of a crime for Interpol, sociolect (and register) would probably be subordinated to getting the facts clear. But if sociolect is not incidental, the translator may need to find a way of showing this in the TT. This is sometimes the case with journalistic texts, and often with literary texts. Even in such cases, however, a number of questions must be weighed in forming a strategy: What is the function of the ST sociolect(s)? What is the purpose of the TT? Would it not be safest to produce a TT in a bland ‘educated middle-class’ sociolect? If the strategy is to incorporate some TL sociolectal features corresponding to those in the ST, the requirements are similar to those involved in choosing social register: it has to be decided what sociolects are the most appropriate, and there must be no inconsistencies in TT sociolect (assuming there are none in the ST sociolects). To return to the junkie example, ‘doesn’t’ and third-person singular ‘don’t’ belong to different sociolects; it might sound odd to mix ‘sample life with the drop-outs’ and ‘turns you on, don’t it’ – unless the context showed that the ST speaker also mixes sociolects.

Dialect The fourth type of speaker-related information that can be inferred from style concerns what part of the country speakers are from – where they grew up, or where they live. This inference is based on dialect, a language variety with features of accent, lexis, syntax and sentence-formation characteristic of a given region.

94 Process and product In Italy, dialects are much more prevalent than in some other European countries. They are also so different from one another, particularly between North and South, and from ‘standard Italian’ that a speaker of one dialect may not be able to understand a speaker of another. Very many literary texts include dialectal features that instantly identify the regional affiliations of the characters. For Italians, this enriches the text or film with all manner of sociocultural associations. Take the popular Sicilian detective series Il Commissario Montalbano, where the narrator and characters use a hybrid language: standard Italian mixed with Sicilianisms as an ‘exotic’ feature to suggest location and cultural context. There is a wide range of characters in each of Andrea Camilleri’s Inspector Montalbano novels: police, local people – including peasants, experts, foreigners and Italians from other parts of the country. This diversity gives rise to a ‘multilayered’ language that distinguishes the provenance, social class and sometimes the occupation of the speaker. The stereotyping and sociolinguistic implications are easily lost on a nonItalian viewer or reader, if the translation or dubbing/subtitles fail to reflect the ‘exotic’ features successfully. In the television series, understanding what is going on depends largely on the visual element (storytelling, use of gestures), in addition to the subtitles for a non-Italian-speaking audience. Of course, Italian viewers have less difficulty in identifying with the context and the action, while other viewers are to a great extent reliant on subtitles or dubbing. In translation, such a text needs to provide greater ‘visualisation’ and adaptation, to aid TL readership understanding. Even if the translator spots dialectal and specific sociocultural features and their significance, there is still the question of what to do about them. Apart from being able to identify dialect features in the first place, there are three main problems. First, it has to be decided how important the dialectal features in the ST are to its overall effect. Similar considerations apply as to sociolect. In purely informative texts, dialect is unlikely to be significant, but in such texts dialect is not frequent. However, in journalism, and especially in literary texts, the ST dialect(s) may have important functions: one character may habitually be incomprehensible to another; or dialect may carry vital source-culture connotations; or it may give vital local colour to the ST. Second, if dialect does have a function in the ST, an essential strategic decision is whether and why to use TL dialectal (or regional) features. There are very obvious dangers in using TL dialect: How do you decide which – if any – TL dialects correspond to the ST ones? And will a TL dialect or regional language variation not sound ridiculous on the lips of Lombards or Sicilians? With luck, dropping ST dialectal features will not incur really damaging translation loss. If one is not so lucky, but prudence warns against using dialect and regionalisms in the TT, the important ST effects produced will probably have to be rendered through compensation. English has few, if any, dialects as different from the standard language as Italian ones are. There are some regional differences (particularly in the north) but the distinctive features are more often phonological than lexical or syntactic. The solutions chosen by the translated forms, in the case of Inspector Montalbano, will need to create a similar impact (as far as possible) on

Language variety 95 the target reader/viewer. However, it is clear that there is no standard strategy for dealing with a sprinkling of Sicilianisms, so the translator needs to find other ways of addressing these features, and to distinguish, through language, the different registers and social roles of the ‘players’. Here, for discussion, is an example from Andrea Camilleri’s La voce del violino, with a proposed translation. Contextual information This is the story of a young woman who is murdered, and a great violinist who lives like a hermit, interwoven with Montalbano’s private life and problems. In this scene, Catarella – a bumbling police officer at the local station (played in the TV series by a character actor) – is on the phone to the Inspector. Catarella’s idiolect is a major source of humour: the comic effect of malapropisms mixed with ‘sicilianisation’ is similar in some respects to the ‘frenchified’ English used by the gendarme in Allo, Allo – though in an entirely different context, and without the same innuendo. ST ‘Pronto’. ‘Pronto, dottori? È lei di lei pirsonalmente?’ ‘Pirsonalmente, Catarè. Che c’è?’ ‘C’è che chiamò il giudici Tolomeo’. ‘Tommaseo, Catarè, ma va bene lo stesso. Che voleva?’ ‘Parlare pirsonalmente con lei pirsonalmente. Ha chiamato alimeno alimeno quattro volte. Dice così se gli tilifona di pirsona.’ ‘Va bene’. ‘Ah dottori, ci devo quomunicari una cosa d’importanzia strema. Mi chiamò dalla Quistura di Montilusa il commissario dottori che di nome si chiama Tontona’. ‘Tortona’. ‘Come si chiama, si chiama. Quello. Lui dice che io devo affrinquintari un concorso d’informaticcia. Lei che ne dice?’ (Camilleri 2013: 36–7) TT ‘Hello?’ ‘Sir, hello, sir. Is that you sir, you personally?’ ‘Personally, Catarella. What’s up?’ ‘That judge called, . . .Tolomeo.’ ‘Tommaseo actually, but never mind. What did he want?’ ‘To talk to you personal . . . personally. He was calling every four minutes then four minutes later. He went . . . can you like call him, personally.’ ‘OK.’ ‘Oh sir, I got to report something important to you. An inspector called Tontona phoned me from the police station at Montelusa.’

96 Process and product ‘Tortona.’ ‘Whatever . . . Him, anyway. He said what I got to do is an information techniques course. What do you think sir?’ The main challenges in translation are to find a way of poking fun gently at Catarella, without the language degenerating into total farce or undermining his character. The armoury of language available in the TL is obviously much narrower than in the SL, so the translator must make do with fairly limited resources, and rely on contriving an idiosyncractic register and style to render the comic effect, while remaining faithful to the sense of the dialogue. Techniques used here include: avoiding the standard ‘in person’ and using ‘personally’ and ‘personal’; the use of ‘like’ to suggest a low register; repetition (sir), incorrect verb forms and awkward phrasing. These techniques are a form of compensation for the loss of connotations carried by the ST dialect and ‘mangled’ language Catarella speaks. A wholesale cultural transplantation of this or similar texts would be virtually impossible to achieve. The third problem is one that applies to sociolect and register as well: once a decision is taken to use TL dialect, it must be accurate, and it must be consistent. Many literary TTs in particular are sabotaged by weaknesses in the translator’s grasp of TL language variety. Among the many skills a translator has to have is that of pastiche, but if this is not executed sensibly, the resulting effect can be one of ridiculous rather than one of ‘local colour’.

Code-switching Many people are adept at switching between language varieties, and even between languages. This is known as code-switching. People may do this for social camouflage, to match their social persona to the particular situation they are in. Or they may do it for storytelling purposes, imitating the various characters in their story. Or it may be for persuasive purposes, sprinkling the text with expressions from different registers, sociolects or dialects. Any text containing characters with recognisably different styles of expression is by definition marked by codeswitching. This is particularly common in literary texts. Since code-switching is a definite strategic device, translators have to be prepared to convey in the TT the effects it has in the ST. In doing this, of course, they are subject to the requirements and caveats that we have outlined in discussing register, sociolect and dialect.

Practical 10 10.1 Language variety Assignment (i) You are translating for publication in the UK the text from which the following ST is taken. Concentrating on language variety, discuss the strategic decisions

Language variety 97 that you have to take before starting detailed translation of this ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took; pay special attention to language variety, but do not overlook other major decisions. Contextual information The text is from a novella by Silvia Ballestra. Antò Lu Purk, from Pescara, in Central Italy, is a typical 1980s left-wing student. He has just found a summer job on a building site. The foreman had challenged him to try building work, not thinking him tough enough for it. The ST mixes standard Italian, Pescara dialect, colloquial Italian and youth slang. Bettino Craxi, secretary of the Socialist Party, became Prime Minister in 1983. He fled Italy following accusations of bribery and corruption. Dialect forms not likely to be in the dictionary are: cumpà: compagno, amico; jame: andiamo; mo’: ora; scì: sì. The trickiest phrase is ‘ssa su per in là’. Signora Ballestra has kindly supplied the following gloss: Si tratta di un ibrido tra invenzione e dialetto. Dovrebbe essere un ordine generico e confuso per indicare una direzione. “Ssa’ sta per ‘là’ (in dialetto ‘esso-iesso-essa’ significano ‘là’, più o meno). Dunque bisognerebbe trovare una forma contratta e musicale per rendere quest’idea di indicazione perentoria ma in realtà approssimativa verso un luogo imprecisato. ST Il venerdì mattina presto, senza aver chiuso occhio tutta la notte per l’emozione della nuova impresa, si presentò al capomastro in tenuta da lavoro: capelli sciolti lunghi, pantaloni di velluto a coste fini e maglietta Marijuana libera, Craxi in galera! Sarà questa, la nostra primavera! ‘Non ti vedo affatto in forma, ragazzo’ lo apostrofò il capomastro, scrutando i lividi preoccupanti che gli cerchiavano gli occhi: ‘Che ti succede, non hai dormito?’ ‘Tranquillo, cumpà. Sto caricato a mille’ mentì Lu Purk. ‘Non vedo l’ora di cominciare. Jame’ disse. ‘Passatemi il primo secchio ‘ssa su per in là.’ Fece un gesto vago verso la sommità dell’impalcatura; uno dei muratori giovani lo vide dal tetto, lo salutò allegro con un cenno del braccio. ‘Mo’ arrivo, cumpà! Te vengo a da’ ‘na mano’ fremette impaziente. ‘Stai scherzando, figliolo?’ disse il capomastro, con un filo d’inquietudine nella voce. ‘Eravamo d’accordo che tu ti saresti occupato dei secchi. Non è posto per te, lassù. È pericoloso’ assentì gravemente. ‘Sorveglierai la macchina impastatrice e darai una mano allo zoppo per i secchi, punto e basta.’ ‘Come volete voi, capo’ disse Lu Purk, allargando le braccia. ‘Non vi scaldate. Resterò di guardia alla fottuta macchina impastatrice dovesse cascare il mondo.’ ‘Certo’ assentì il capomastro. ‘Se vuoi tirar su qualche soldo e non farmi rimpiangere d’averti dato ascolto, mi farai il santo piacere di obbedire agli ordini, d’accordo?’

98 Process and product ‘Scì’ disse Antò Lu Purk. ‘Non vorrei darvi grattacapi per niente al mondo’ aggiunse. (Ballestra 1991b: 80–1) 10.2 Language variety Assignment (i) You are translating for publication in English the work from which the following STs are taken. Discuss the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of these STs, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the texts into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took; pay special attention to language variety and the historical and social context, but do not overlook other major decisions. Contextual information The two texts are from Il ventre di Napoli, a work originally written (in several stages) in the nineteenth century by the journalist Matilde Serao. In these extracts, she examines the Neapolitan lottery – la smorfia – where each number has a meaning, and witchcraft. ST1 Questa scienza della smorfia è così profonda, così abituale, che per dare del pazzo a qualcuno si dice: “è nu vintiroie” (ventidue, matto), e crescendo man mano la collera, tutte le ingiurie avendo un numero relativo, si dicono in gergo del lotto. Una donna dà un pugno ad un’altra, e le rompe la faccia; davanti al giudice, si scolpa, dicendo: “m’ha chiammata sissantotto”; il giudice deve prendere la smorfia e vedere a che cosa corrisponde di oltraggioso quel numero. [. . .] Il popolo napoletano giuoca per quanto ha denaro. Per quanto sia povera, trova sempre sei soldi, mezza lira, al sabato, da giuocare; ricorre a tutti gli espedienti, inventa, cerca, finisce per trovare. La sua massima miseria non consiste nel dire che non ha pranzato, consiste nel dire: “Nun m’aggia potuto jucà manco nu viglietto”; chi ascolta, ne resta spaventato. (Serao 2012: 67; 69) ST2 Il napoletano crede agli spiriti che danno i numeri, crede agli assistiti; gli assistiti sono una razza di gente stranissima, alcuni in buona fede, alcuni scrocconi, che mangiano poco, bevono acqua, parlano per enigmi, digiunano prima di andare a letto e hanno le visioni. Vivono alle spalle dei giuocatori: non giuocano mai. Talvolta i giuocatori delusi bastonano l’assistito, poi gli chiedono perdono. Anche i monaci hanno le visioni.

Language variety 99 [. . .] Il popolo napoletano, specialmente le donne, crede alla stregoneria. La fattura trova apostoli ferventi: le fattucchiere, o streghe, abbondano. Una moglie vuole che suo marito, che va lontano, le resti fedele? La strega le dà una cordicella a nodi, bisogna cucirla nella fodera della giacchetta del marito. Si vuole avere l’amore di un uomo? La fattucchiera brucia una ciocca dei capelli vostri, ne fa una polverina, con certi ingredienti: ‘bisogna farla bere nel vino, all’uomo indifferente.’ (Serao 2012: 57–8)

11 Textual genre and translation issues

It has become clear from the first half of this book that different STs require different strategic priorities. In deciding which textual variables to prioritise, the translator has always to ask: What is the purpose of the ST, and what is the purpose of the TT? These questions imply two others: What kind of text is the ST, and what kind of text should the TT be? The texts we have used as examples and in practicals all illustrate the importance of these questions in deciding a strategy. At issue here is a fundamental consideration in translation: all texts are defined in terms of genre. By genre we mean what Hymes (1967) calls a ‘type of communicative event’ – that is, a category to which, in a given culture, a given text is seen to belong and within which the text is seen to share a type of communicative purpose with other texts. In this definition, the term also covers the traditionally identified genres of literature. The term text-type is often used in a similar sense to ‘genre’. If there is a difference, it is at most one of nuance: there is perhaps a danger that ‘type’ has static connotations, which might lead students to overlook the element of purpose in the definable qualities of a text. We shall use ‘genre’, because the element of ‘event’ in its definition ensures that the definable qualities of a text are seen as dynamic, as together constituting an attempt to realise a communicative purpose. Most texts belong to a genre or genres. Some innovative texts arguably do not, when they first appear: but even these are defined by contrast with genres to which they do not belong. Innovative texts aside, it can be said that any ST shares some of its properties with other texts of the same genre, and is perceived by an SL audience as being what it is on account of such genre-defining properties. Therefore, in order to assess the nature and purpose of the ST, the translator must have some sort of overview of genre-types in the source culture, and be familiar with the characteristics of relevant genres within those types. What is true of SL texts is true of TL texts. Since the nature and the purpose of a given text imply one another, the translator has to be as familiar with targetculture genre-types and genres as with those of the source culture. Paying due attention to the nature and purpose of the TT guarantees a degree of TL bias, which helps to prevent the excessive SL bias that so often defeats the purpose of the TT. In the Buticchi text (Chapter 4), there is a certain universality in the subject matter: in fact, the author relies on this to be able to use his characters in an ‘allegory’ of

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summer beach life. The beach – however universal it may be as a symbol – is far more likely to be located in a country such as Spain or Italy, where the summer can generally be relied upon to be hot, rather than a traditional British seaside setting such as Blackpool. We can even identify with Buticchi’s ambitious manager and careless secretary types. But in order to put the readers at their ease, and transfer the author’s ironic allegory more effectively, the TL needs to be as spontaneous as possible. In effect, the TT of this piece shows TL bias in the rather more colloquial register of the language. Once the story gets under way, though, the characterisation becomes heavily source-culture-oriented, and to such an extent that the translator needs great skill to carry off the translation. One of the main problems with this text is that the characters are typical caricatures of Italian society, not British society. So criticism of Italian provincialism through the use of names or places, for example, will struggle to be effective in the TT, thus rendering the translator’s task more complex. Since translators need to consider these genre-related questions before translating a text, it is useful for them to have a framework of broad genre-types. This helps to identify salient genre characteristics of the ST, and to check those of the TT they are producing. We are not going to attempt an exhaustive typology of genres; that would be too elaborate for our purposes. In determining the genre of a text, two essential factors need to be considered. The first is the author’s attitude to the treatment of the subject matter of the text. (We use ‘author’ to denote the originator of the text, whether it is oral or written.)

Subject matter Subject matter in itself is not a useful criterion for describing genres, because the same subject matter can figure in very different genres. What is at issue is the author’s attitude, implicit or explicit, to treatment of the subject matter. On this basis, we can distinguish five broad categories of genre. The first category is that of literary genres. Literary genres have subdivided and diversified very greatly over the centuries. There are innumerable subgenres of poetry, fiction and drama, each with its characteristic style. However, all texts in this category have two essential features. First, they concern a world created autonomously in and through the texts themselves, and not controlled by the physical world outside. However close a literary text is to history or autobiography, it still approaches its subject matter by recreating experience in terms of a subjective, internal world, which is fundamentally perceived as fictive, for all its similarities to the world outside the text. Second, whatever other characteristics they have, and whatever their subject matter, literary texts contain features of expression, on any level of textual variables, that emphasise, modify or actually create features of content. With their reliance on suggestion – through such things as connotation, imagery and analogy – literary texts are especially vulnerable to chance and subjectivity. However carefully the author tries to control the reactions of the reader or listener, it is less possible than with most other genre-types to be certain that the effect is

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the one the author desired or intended. An acceptance of this uncertainty is part of the literary author’s attitude to treatment of subject matter. The second category comprises religious genres. In terms of the author’s attitude, the subject matter of religious texts implies the existence of a spiritual world that is not fictive, but has its own external realities and truths. The author is understood not to be free to create the world that animates the subject matter, but to be merely instrumental in exploring it. This category has perhaps diversified less than any of the others, but, certainly in the field of Christianity, it still has a wide range of styles, from the seventeenth-century Authorised Version of the Bible to modern ‘happy-clappy’ ways of worshipping. The third category comprises philosophical genres. These have as their subject matter a ‘world’ of ideas. Pure mathematics is the best example of the kind of subject matter that defines philosophical genres. Even in the field of metaphysics, the author is understood not to be free to develop theoretical structures at will, but to be constrained by some standard of rationality. This does not, of course, prevent it being easy for the reader to misunderstand the point; hence the exhaustive t-crossing and i-dotting with which philosophical authors try to reduce the uncertainty of effect, and which is such a characteristic marker of these genres. Philosophical genres have not proliferated as much as literary ones, but they are strikingly diverse nonetheless. The fourth category is that of empirical genres. Genres in this category deal with the real world as it is experienced by observers. An empirical text is more or less informative, and it is understood to take an objective view of observable phenomena. Scientific, technological and many scholarly texts fall into this category. It therefore goes on diversifying into new subgenres as new scientific and academic disciplines are created. Finally, there is the category of persuasive genres. The essence of these is that they aim at making listeners or readers behave in prescribed or suggested ways. This aim can be pursued through various means: we are classifying in a single category the entire gamut of texts from instruction manuals, through laws, rules and regulations to propaganda leaflets and advertisements. The very many subgenres in this category have a common purpose, that of getting an audience to take a certain course of action, and perhaps explaining how to take it.

Oral texts and written texts Each of these five genre categories includes both oral and written texts. In truth, it is almost impossible not to distinguish an oral text as belonging to a discrete oral genre, and a written text as belonging to a discrete written genre, even where the texts share the same subject matter: the difference in medium generally entails a difference in attitude to treatment of the subject matter. Thus, a story told in a pub is in a different genre from a story printed in a magazine. A prayer on the Beatitudes, a talk on Gramsci, a tutorial explanation of quarks – each is in a different genre from any kind of written reflection on the topic. A complicating factor is that many oral genres also involve written texts: songs, plays, sermons,

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lectures, a salesman’s patter – all may be performed on the basis of a written text that is either read out, or spoken from memory, or used as the basis for improvisation. To get an idea of the significance of these factors for translation, it is helpful first to look at some of the specific characteristics of oral texts as distinct from written ones. An oral text is in essence a fleeting and unrepeatable event. This has important implications. First, vocal utterance is usually accompanied by visual cues, such as gestures or facial expressions that are secondary to it but form part of the overall text and can play a role in creating its meaning. Prosodic features that operate on the sentential and discourse levels (see e.g. pp. 48–50) are often reinforced by such visual cues. Second, on every level of textual variable, effective oral texts obey the ‘rules’ of a spoken language first and foremost. In particular, an effective oral text avoids information overload, elaborate cross-referencing, excessive speed, and so on, because these can make the text hard to follow. In all these respects, what is true for oral STs is true for oral TTs as well. A third implication of orality is the appearance of spontaneity that generally characterises oral texts. This goes not only for impromptu conversation or narrative, but also for prepared texts, such as memorised lines in a play. Even in a speech or a lecture where the speaker sticks closely to a script, the delivery may imitate that of an unscripted text. Similarly, dramatised reading, recited verse and song lyrics, if well performed, can all give the audience a chance to enter into the illusion of spontaneous vocal utterance. An oral text is, in fact, always quite different in nature and impact from even the most closely corresponding written version. An awareness of these properties of oral texts is a necessary starting point for translating an oral ST into an oral TT. Spoken communication has characteristics that are very much language-specific. Oral translation is not simply a matter of verbal transposition: the genre-related techniques of the target culture must be respected as well, including gestures, facial expressions and so on. Translating a joke, for instance, will generally involve quite different genres from conference interpreting. Both, however, make it clear that an oral text in any genre is not only an utterance, but also a dramatic performance. Another genre helps to highlight a second set of difficulties peculiar to oral translation. This is the genre of the song lyric. Assuming that the TT is to be sung to the same tune as the ST, there will be major translation problems on the phonic/ graphic and prosodic levels, as well as the grammatical level. We have seen that the phonic and prosodic properties of different languages are very different. This poses real problems in translating opera into English, as Michael Irwin points out: A language prolific in short vowel-sounds, awkward consonantal clusters and sudden shifts of tempo does not lend itself easily to musical drama. No singer is likely to relish tackling a word such as ‘strengths’ or ‘relapsed’. ‘To be or not to be’ could be splendidly singable; ‘that is the question’ would be taxing. Presumably Rodolfo was given the absurd phrase, ‘your tiny hand is frozen’, because the natural adjective, ‘little’, is a terrible throat-closer. (Irwin 1996: 96–7)

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Clearly, anyone translating a lyric or libretto needs to understand the prosodic features not only of the SL, but also of the TL. On the phonic level, the songtranslator must pay attention to how vowels correspond with notes in the score: on certain musical notes, certain vowels are impossible to sing without distortion. Consonant clusters must also be attended to, not just so that the performer is not given a tongue-twister to sing, but also to avoid nonsense: in Ronald Millar’s Robert and Elizabeth, for instance, ‘while earth contains us two’ can come out as ‘while earth contains a stew’ when sung. Given these factors, it is not surprising that translators of songs and libretti sometimes take considerable liberties with ST literal meaning. Translators actually do a great deal of their work in a written medium, even when it involves an oral text or texts. Inevitably, metamorphoses result from the crossover from written to oral, and vice versa. These metamorphoses are essentially due to the fact that writing is such a pale copy of speech in terms of expressive force. Crossover in the process of translation may take a number of forms. We shall mention four, and there will be an opportunity to try some of these out in the practical. In the first type of crossover, the translator starts with an oral ST, and then uses a written transcript to compose a TT that is on paper, but suitable for oral performance. Song lyrics are typically translated in this way. In the second type of crossover, the translator starts with a written ST, considers how it might be performed orally and then composes a TT that is on paper, but suitable for oral performance: this is generally how plays are translated. Third, the translator may start with a written script, try out the ST orally and then produce a TT suitable either for silent reading or for oral performance, or for both. Poetry is usually translated like this. In the fourth type, the translator starts with an oral ST and its transcript, and produces a TT for silent reading: this is how film subtitles are generally produced. Consideration of the two factors we mentioned at the outset – the author’s attitude to treatment of the subject matter, and whether the text is an oral or a written one – concentrates the translator’s mind on four groups of vital strategic questions. First, what are the salient features of the ST? What do these features imply about its purpose? What genre do the features and purpose suggest it belongs to? Second, does the ST have recognisable genre-specific characteristics that require special attention? If so, which of them should be retained in translation? Third, what TL genre(s) provide a match for the ST genre? What do existing specimens of these TL genres suggest regarding formulation of the TT? Fourth, what genre should the TT ultimately belong to, and what genre-specific features should it have? Two words of caution are needed here. First, it is easy for trainee translators to begin their strategic considerations along these lines: ‘This text belongs to genre A, therefore it has characteristics x, y and z.’ This is putting the cart before the horse. It is much more useful to identify the text’s characteristics first, and then, on that basis, to assign it to a genre. This results in a more sensitive appraisal of the true purpose of the text, which in turn makes it easier to be flexible and to

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recognise cases where, as very often happens, the ST actually has a blend of features – it may be predominantly typical of one genre, but also have features from other genres or even other genre categories. So, for example, instruction manuals may vary in character between the empirical and the persuasive categories. Advertising commonly shares features with literary texts, as do religious and philosophical texts. The same is even true of some empirical texts, such as Goethe’s scientific treatises in verse. Religious texts, such as sermons, often share features with persuasive texts. Many legal or administrative texts – contracts or memoranda of agreement, for instance – combine empirical and persuasive genrefeatures. This ‘hybridisation’ in genre is common in journalism, and in parody and satire, which can make wholesale use of a mixture of features from various genre categories. Such blends may theoretically constitute subgenres and subdivisions of subgenres, but that is not our concern: our aim here is to encourage trainee translators to isolate the salient features and the purpose of an ST, so they can relate these to the purpose of the TT and thus be in a position to develop an appropriate translation strategy. The second word of caution is that it is essential for translators to be familiar with the characteristic features of the TL genre or genres that they decide correspond most closely to the ST genre(s). If in doubt, sample texts from the chosen TL genre should be carefully examined before the translation is started. Professional translators tend to specialise in particular fields, and one of the first things they do is acquire an awareness of relevant TL genre characteristics. Before embarking on any of the exercises in Practical 11, it is suggested that preliminary TL genre-sampling is carried out.

Practical 11 11.1 Genre and translation Assignment (i) You are translating the following two short STs for publication online; the first in a regular digest of the international football scene, and the second for an online blog on forthcoming events of interest to visiting tourists. Find similar texts in English as a basis for your version of these STs. What benefits derive from finding ‘parallel’ (model) texts, and what drawbacks are there? (ii) Translate the texts into English. (iii) Describe the two different genres and the challenges that they pose as distinct cultures and registers. (iv) Find further examples of STs where individuals are referred to using a nickname. What strategies should be adopted when localising the ST into the TL? (v) Find further examples of STs that advertise forthcoming events of interest to a general TL public. Suggest strategies for localising the STs into the TL.

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Contextual information The first ST appeared in December 2014 in the online version of Corriere della Sera, sports section. The title of the article is: ‘L’Imperatore si prepara allo sbarco in Normandia: firma per il Le Havre’. This short passage regards the footballer Adriano Leite Ribeiro (often just called Adriano), whose nickname is ‘l’Imperatore’. Since publication of the story in the press, the deal to join Le Havre has collapsed, and he will no longer be joining the French club. The second is an extract from publicity on the Expovenice ‘Festival del Mare’ at Forte Marghera (Mestre), held in 2014 (www.festivaldelmare.com). Assume, for the purpose of the translation, that you are translating this text for a future event. ST1 Adriano torna in Europa. L’ex Imperatore interista, che ha concluso sette mesi fa la sua avventura all’Atletico Paranaense, ha trovato l’accordo per legarsi [. . .] al Le Havre [e] a fine anno l’attaccante brasiliano si aggregherà alla formazione della Normandia militante nella Ligue 2. L’Imperatore è pronto allo sbarco in Normandia. ST2 Il Festival del Mare [. . .] si propone come un modo nuovo di “fare evento”, un modo per far conoscere l’emozione della nautica per chi ancora non ha una piccola barca o un’opportunità, per chi è già diportista e vuole vedere cosa offre oggi il mercato delle piccole imbarcazioni da diporto. 11.2 Genre and translation Assignment (i) You are translating the following interview for inclusion in a journal for translators. Before starting your translation, consider the crossover of oral speech with the written language. How would you ensure that the translated version sounds as though the interview is actually taking place? (ii) Translate the interview into English. (iii) Explain the decisions of detail you took. Contextual information The ST is an extract from an interview with the translator Egisto (Egi) Volterrani, which appeared in Gli autori invisibili: Incontri sulla traduzione letteraria by Ilide Carmignani (2014: Internet Bookshop Italia s.r.l.). ST D: Quando e perché hai deciso di dedicarti alla traduzione? R: Mi sono innamorato della mia insegnante di inglese, eccellente traduttrice. Mi faceva partecipare ai suoi dubbi, alle sue scelte meditate e alle sue gioie.

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D: R:

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Mi faceva piacere; per corrispondere, ho voluto provare anch’io. Ho proposto a Giulio Bollati, allora direttore editoriale dell’Einaudi, la mia traduzione di un romanzo di Sony Labou Tansi, uno scrittore congolese di espressione francese. È andata. Correva l’anno 1985. Era il mio primo testo tradotto, poi ne ho tradotti più di cento altri, sullo slancio. C’è chi dice che si deve portare il lettore al testo e chi dice che si deve portare il testo al lettore. Tu come consigli di procedere? Si deve liberare la mente dai soliti problemi e concentrarsi sul testo da tradurre. Leggerlo con particolare attenzione cercando di individuarne tutte le istanze espressive, anche quelle mediate, derivanti dal suo contesto più generale e da eventuali contesti o riferimenti speciali. Smontarlo e rimontarlo, per ottenere più esattamente possibile, nella mia lingua, lo stesso risultato di espressione che si trova nell’originale, con la stessa soddisfazione o insoddisfazione che ritengo (valuto) possa avere provato l’autore. Faccio attenzione a non aggiungere e a non togliere, e soprattutto a non chiarire e a non scegliere al posto suo, quando lui non ha scelto, a rispettare l’equivoco, eccetera. . . . È un lavoro ambizioso e modesto! Con la riforma, la traduzione è entrata anche all’università. Credi che un corso possa aiutare un giovane a formarsi come traduttore? Non ho ancora esperienza di insegnamento della traduzione nell’Università. Le scuole di traduzione possono essere utili, almeno lo spero. Devono funzionare come atelier, dove l’insegnante di versione, maestro di bottega, riesca a eccitare la sensibilità e la passione degli allievi e a costruirne le capacità tecniche e sapienziali con metodo maieutico.

12 Scientific and technical translation

All texts can be categorised in terms of genre. There is no a priori reason for giving special attention to any one genre rather than any other. However, since most language students are not trained in science or technology, they are often in awe of ‘technical’ texts. Yet many professionals earn their living translating such texts. This is why we are devoting a whole chapter to the main translation issues they raise. The ‘technical’ is not confined to science and technology, of course. It is simply to avoid repeating ‘scientific and technological’ that we shall be using the term ‘technical texts’ to denote texts written in the context of scientific or technological disciplines. In fact, any specialist field has its own technical terms and its own genre-marking characteristics: a look at a hobbies magazine, or a concert review, or the business pages in the paper, quickly confirms this. Texts in these and any other specialised field are, properly speaking, ‘technical’ texts. However, it is also true that many texts commissioned for translation ‘straddle’ technical areas, such as legal/medical (for example, a clinical trial document) and legal/technical (for example, a tender with specifications), pointing to the need for a translator to have the relevant competence and experience. The fact that scientific and technological texts are unfamiliar to many aspiring translators makes them clear illustrations of two important points in the translation of all specialist texts. First, the translator must be just as familiar with technical terms and genre-marking features in the TL as in the SL. Second, the problems met in translating specialist texts are similar to those met in translating in any other genre, specialised or not. A textual variable is a textual variable, a hyponym is a hyponym, whatever the genre and whatever the subject matter, and the relative merits of literal and free translation need to be considered in translating any text. Before discussing translation of technical material, it is useful to consider another view of the term ‘technical’. In the very useful text Scientific and Technical Translation Explained Jody Byrne (2012) makes a distinction between ‘technical’ texts, which aim to ‘convey information as clearly and effectively as possible’ and scientific ones, which ‘discuss, analyze and synthesise information to explain ideas, propose new theories and evaluate methods’. He also stresses the importance of scientific and technical texts as ‘a driver for the industry and the economy’, and

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provides a list of document types that are frequently translated, including manuals, reports, conference papers, popular science, proposals, abstracts, projects, patents, and so on. Returning to our definition of ‘technical’, we can say that most technical texts are relatively inaccessible to the non-specialist reader. There are three main reasons for this inaccessibility. One is lexical; the others are conceptual. In illustrating them, we shall refer to the following text: Anche la presenza di correnti discendenti può originare forti raffiche al suolo (> di 80-100 km/h), che prendono il nome di “Down Burst”; queste ultime una volta arrivate al suolo tendono ad espandersi orizzontalmente in tutte le direzioni, insinuandosi sotto l’aria calda e meno densa. Il loro bordo anteriore può raggiungere 1000 m di spessore e viene chiamato “gust front” o fronte di raffica. Il sistema frontale è fisicamente visualizzabile come una serie di nubi decisamente più scure in grado di avanzare velocemente verso l’esterno dell’area temporalesca al di sotto del cumulonembo e si presenta generalmente accompagnato da forti salti di vento ed improvvisi rinforzi estremamente pericolosi, anche per il piccolo diporto (a causa di un aumento del moto ondoso locale che risulta caratterizzato da onde corte e ripide, responsabili di rovesciamenti e/o affondamenti). (Rivista Ligure di Meteorologia) There are three sorts of lexical problem arising from the specialised use of technical terms. First, there is the obvious problem of terms not used in everyday, ordinary language, and which may well be unfamiliar to the inexperienced translator, for example ‘cumulonembo’ (l. 8). An everyday term to signal this phenomenon could be ‘storm clouds’, for example. These terms can usually be found in a good bilingual or specialist resource, and the more technical the term, the more likely it is that there is a one-to-one match (cumulonimbus). Another typical feature is the use of terms from other languages: Latin is used extensively (for example, in medicine and botany), while English terms are commonplace in many scientific, and particularly technical, Italian texts. The use of such terms indicates that either there is no corresponding term in Italian, or that the author may prefer to use an English term as a ‘status symbol’ or as a term that is universally recognised, given that a significant amount of technical documentation produced in Italy is published in English. There are two examples of English words in the text: ‘Down Burst’ (l. 2) and ‘gust front’ (l. 5). Both English terms are explained in the ST. However, it is worth checking whether the terms are used in exactly the same way in the TL. In fact, on consultation, it turns out that the compound downburst is written as a single word, and of course, without initial capitalisation. The second problem is that of terms whose everyday uses are familiar to the translator, but which look as if they are being used in some technically specialised

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way in the ST. The everyday meanings of ‘downburst’ are not self-evidently inappropriate. But only a specialist will be able to confirm whether ‘bordo’ (l. 4) or ‘salti di vento’ (l. 9) are indeed technical terms in this text. Third, a term may have an everyday sense that is not obviously wrong in the context. This is the most dangerous sort of case, because the translator can easily fail to recognise the term as a technical one, and mistakenly render it in its ordinary sense. For example, ‘aria calda’ (l. 4): the specialist will think of translating ‘calda’ as ‘warm’ (not ‘hot’); in fact, the phrase ‘hot air’ in the TL has a pejorative nuance, and would introduce an unwelcome association into the TT. Another interesting point regards ‘correnti discendenti’ (l. 1): in this context, the term used by a specialist would be ‘downdraughts’ (though the term ‘descending currents’ is perfectly acceptable). This example shows the variation between a standard and easily understandable technical phrase and what could be called technical jargon, meaning the ‘insider’ language used by specialists in a particular field. The translator will need to judge how far in that direction it is appropriate to venture, as attempting to produce a translation by slotting in a scattering of highly specialised terms is a risky path to tread and can end up looking like a bluffer’s guide that has gone wrong! As these examples show, access to up-to-date specialist dictionaries and reference materials, whether in hard copy or online, is essential for technical translators. Of course, even the most recent materials will, by definition, be slightly out of date, because scientific and technological fields are constantly developing. Even the best reference material does not always give a single, unambiguous synonym for a particular technical term. This means that the normal caveats concerning use of dictionaries and other reference sources also apply to technical translation. That is, translators can only select the appropriate TL term if they have a firm grasp of both the textual context and the wider technical context. The problem is not lessened by the fact that some of the context may remain obscure until the correct sense of the ST terms has been defined. This brings us to the two conceptual reasons why technical texts may be difficult to translate. The first type of conceptual problem in technical translation arises from ignorance of underlying knowledge taken for granted by experts, but not understood by non-specialists and not explicit in the ST. The conceptual unfamiliarity of technical texts makes it easy to misconstrue the context. A single such mistake can make the TT factually nonsensical. For example, if ‘rovesciamenti’ (l. 12) is not understood in the context and translated as ‘reversals’ or ‘overturnings’ instead of ‘capsizing’, then the TT will lose credibility as a technical text. The second conceptual problem concerns what might be called the ‘logic’ of a discipline – methods of argumentation, the development of relations between concepts. There may be problems that hinge specifically on that logic. This type of problem is the most intractable of all in technical translation. Non-specialists are always likely to reach a conceptual impasse from which no amount of attention to syntax or vocabulary can rescue them. In that case, they have only two options: learn the concepts of the field in which they wish to translate, or work in close consultation with experts. In practice, trainee technical translators should do both,

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and aim to eventually become experts themselves with the help of specialist input, and possibly with the help of the author of the ST. These remarks about the need for consultation are not to be taken lightly. They raise the important question of the responsibility – and perhaps legal liability – of the translator. There is a difference here between literary translation and technical translation. It is not that literary translators are not held responsible for their work, but the implications of mistranslation are generally less serious for them than for technical translators, where one mistake could cause financial damage or loss of life and limb. Examples of such errors include wrong dosages of medicines, the use of affirmative instead of negative verbs (and vice versa). Sometimes such errors can happen due to lack of care in producing a translation, possibly due to haste or tiredness, and the absence of a thorough check. But basically the golden rule, which is essential to all translation, is: never be too proud or embarrassed to ask for help or advice. The spectre of legal liability is a reminder that even the minutest error of detail on any level of textual variables is typically magnified in a technical text. It is all too easy in translation to confuse similar words. Take the term ‘vite’, for example. Used in most technical contexts, it is a screw, but in aeronautical engineering it is a rivet; and in a medical text, the wrong medical dosage could cause extremely severe consequences. Another typical danger is that of confusing closely similar technical names in chemistry. Consider how similar are some of the prefixes and suffixes that can be attached to the root ‘sulph’, and how many possible permutations of them there are: perbidehypohydro-

sulph

-ate -ite -ide -onate

The slightest error in affixation here will be a major factual error, whereas, in nontechnical language, affixation may sometimes be a matter of style. For example, in Italian, there is a subtle distinction between ‘continuo’, ‘continuato’ and ‘continuativo’ – compare ‘un rumore continuo’, ‘orario continuato’ and ‘in via continuativa’. Depending on context, the translator often has a choice between ‘continuous’ and ‘continual’. Similarly, there is generally little difference in practice between ‘disbelieving’ and ‘unbelieving’. In literary texts, the choice between affixes can often depend on context or questions of euphony or style. But with technical terms in specialist texts of any kind, the temptation to be guided by such considerations must be resisted absolutely. Another temptation trainee translators often succumb to is that of ‘improving on’ the ST; this is risky, and although done with good intentions to make the text ‘better’ or ‘more technical’ can result in errors and distortion. For example, in a text on nuclear radiation, ‘un equivalente di dose efficace’ is ‘an effective dose equivalent’, whether you like it or not – too bad if you think it would sound more

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elegant or make more sense to say ‘an effectively equivalent dose’ or ‘an equivalent effective dose’! Some parts of technical texts may be formulated in mathematical symbols. These need minimal effort in translation, although they cannot always be literally transcribed. Careful attention must be paid to any differences between SL and TL convention. For example, where English has a decimal point in figures, Italian has a comma. The technical translator’s paramount concerns, then, are accuracy and conformity with the requirements of genre. Insofar as the requirements of genre imply style, register is also important: the wrong tonal register may alienate the reader and undermine confidence in the TT; the wrong social register may misrepresent a social persona that the ST author has been at pains to project. The relation between accuracy and style is not always straightforward, however. If an ST is badly written or ungrammatical, should this be reflected in the TT? The question applies to all translation, of course. In our view, translators are not, in principle, responsible for ‘improving’ defective STs. However, this is sometimes necessary with purely informative texts, because the crucial thing is factual accuracy. If there is any potentially misleading or dangerous ambiguity or obscurity in the ST, there is every reason to keep it out of the TT – if necessary after consultation with the author or an expert. Before embarking on the practical, it will be useful to note some of the characteristics of technical texts in English. First, the language is usually informative, and often includes expressions denoting purpose or role, and explanations of method or process. Second, in accounts of experiments or research programmes, the passive is used extensively, which keeps the style impersonal. The logic and development of technical texts is crucial, and formulations of cause and effect are normal, including connectors such as ‘consequently’, ‘hence’ and ‘thus’, verbs such as ‘cause’, ‘determine’ and ‘result in’, and the use of ‘by + -ing’ to signal method. (Note, however, that such connectors are usually less prominent in abstracts of reports: to keep things brief, abstracts tend to list the main areas of investigation and the main conclusions, without linking them explicitly.) Italian texts tend to use a variety of formulations to express a single concept; for instance, ‘rappresentare’, ‘assicurare’, ‘costituire’ and ‘presentare’ often simply correspond to the verb ‘to be’. They are sometimes repetitive and over-precise by English standards; as a rule, technical translation into English prioritises economy of language, precision and clarity. Another typical feature of technical texts is the frequent use of compound nouns (for example, ‘website design’, ‘fine-coal dewatering centrifuge’) and indeed of nominalisation in general. Here, for discussion, is an extract from a test piece for a translation company, with a plausible English TT: La coltura di questo parassita, di recente introduzione, si presta allo studio di nuovi farmaci e per il confronto con quelli esistenti.

Recently introduced methods for the culture of this parasite are useful in the study of new medicines and in their comparison with existing ones.

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The nominalised compactness and impersonality of this TT match those of the ST, and meet TL genre requirements. It must be remembered, however, that even non-technical Italian makes much more use of nominalisation than nontechnical English does. So, in translating technical texts, it should not be assumed that all ST nominal structures have to be rendered with TL nominal structures. The sentence we have just looked at contains an example: even the technical TT renders ‘di recente introduzione’ as ‘recently introduced’, not as ‘of recent introduction’. The examples we have been looking at illustrate the features of scientific and technological language that Pinchuk neatly categorises as follows: 1 [Technical language] is specialized and tends to become more and more specialized in contrast to the versatility of ordinary language. [Everyday] language tends towards liveliness and multiplicity of meaning, but the controlled language of science is manipulated in the direction of insipidity and colourlessness. 2 It seeks the most economic use of linguistic means to achieve standardization of terms and usage. 3 It seeks to avoid ordinary language associations and endeavours to define terms accurately. (Pinchuk 1977: 165) Technical translation, like translation in any genre, requires familiarity with SL and TL material of a similar type, to serve as a source of information and as a stylistic model. Translators may well need some time to find the information (for example, concepts or lexis) they are seeking. Useful sources of information include monographs, abstracting and indexing journals, periodicals, yearbooks, textbooks, encyclopedias, standards and trade literature, theses and dissertations, in addition to online resources. The European Commission has a database containing centrally agreed translations of specialist terminology, which is continually updated. EU staff translators and translators at large are able to access the database, called IATE, as a resource freely available to the public (see Chapter 18, ‘Technical resources’). The texts in Practical 12 will show that, apart from the lexical and conceptual problems outlined above, technical translation is not essentially different from most other sorts of translation: as long as the translator has access to appropriate resources, whether on the Internet, in hard copy or from experts (or any combination of these), there is no reason why technical translation in any field should not be attempted.

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Practical 12 12.1 Scientific and technical translation Assignment After analysis (or group discussion) of the challenges encountered in translating the meteorology text on p. 109, make a list of useful reference materials you have found, then produce a glossary on the topic. Find a similar topic in the SL and carry out the same exercise. 12.2 Scientific and technical translation Assignment The following abstract and translation are from a conference paper on the impact of aviation on the atmosphere. (i) Rate the TT (5 high; 1 low) on: (a) understandability; (b) fitness for purpose; and (c) translator competence. (ii) Comment on: (a) the strategy used by the translator; (b) the language used; and (c) specific errors and general imperfections. (iii) Retranslate the ST into English. (iv) What lessons do you learn from retranslating the ST? Write a short report on your findings, as advice on approaching a translation assignment of this type. ST

TT

Summary Sommario The composition of the atmospheric La composizione del sistema system has been and is critically atmosferico è stata ed è criticamente dependent by social, technical and dipendente dalle scelte sociali, tecniche e di opportunità effettuate dal opportunity choices made by mankind in its more recent history. This paper, genere umano nella sua storia più briefly, shows some of the substantial recente. Il lavoro presenta points of the problem, with particular sommariamente alcuni punti reference to the impact of human sostanziali del problema, con society flying activity, offering particolare riferimento all’impatto features finalized to evaluate the delle attività aviatorie della società fundamental importance of the main umana, offrendo elementi finalizzati a chemical constituents monitoring in valutare l’importanza fondamentale del monitoraggio dei composti chimici the atmosphere, in the determination of anthropogenic effects on general principali presenti in atmosfera nella climatic variability. determinazione degli effetti antropogenici sulla variabilità climatica generale. (Rivisto Meteo, 2010, www.aeronautica.difesa.it)

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12.3 Scientific and technical translation Assignment (i) You are translating the following ST for the English version of an Italian environmental website. Define your strategy for translating the ST, by first of all identifying the potential challenges posed by structure, content and language. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Produce a glossary of the main technical terms used, and a list of useful resources. (iv) If you are working in a group, compare your versions and discuss how you resolved the challenges you identified. If you are working independently, produce a checklist of problems identified and your decisions of detail. Contextual information The ST appeared on the website of the Centro Italiano per la Riqualificazione Fluviale – CIRF (accessed 2014). The organisation is a technical and scientific not-for-profit body founded in 1999. ST Cos’è la Riqualificazione Fluviale Secondo il CIRF è “l’insieme integrato e sinergico di azioni e tecniche, di tipo anche molto diverso (dal giuridico-amministrativo-finanziario, allo strutturale), volte a portare un corso d’acqua, con il territorio ad esso più strettamente connesso (“sistema fluviale”), in uno stato più naturale possibile, capace di espletare le sue caratteristiche funzioni ecosistemiche (geomorfologiche, fisico-chimiche e biologiche) e dotato di maggior valore ambientale, cercando di soddisfare nel contempo anche gli obiettivi socio-economici” (CIRF, 2006). Un’azione relativa a un corpo idrico, quindi, si può secondo noi definire di “riqualificazione fluviale” solo se ha come obiettivo il miglioramento dello stato ecologico; non si tratta pertanto di realizzare piste ciclabili lungo l’alveo (è un’azione che soddisfa l’obiettivo “fruizione” e che spesso riduce sensibilmente il valore dello stato ecologico), né di “ripulire” i fiumi da vegetazione o sedimenti (azioni finalizzate al conseguimento dell’obiettivo “riduzione del rischio idraulico”, sebbene nella pratica il risultato sia spesso di direzione opposta). Non va infine confusa con l’ingegneria naturalistica, che costituisce una classe alternativa di tecniche di intervento -generalmente di stabilizzazione dell’alveo o delle sponde- che, a seconda dell’obiettivo per cui vengono utilizzate, a volte possono essere utili per riqualificare a volte, al contrario, possono peggiorare lo stato ecologico dei corsi d’acqua. (CIRF, www.cirf.org)

13 Official, legal and business translation

For the lay translator, the many genres of official, legal and business text can be just as disconcerting as scientific and technological ones – in fact, possibly even more so. For example, it is easy to take official documents such as certificates for granted, but these documents usually have a format and layout specific to the genre, and use a specialist register, which contains technical terms, abbreviations and acronyms, in addition to personal data. In this chapter, we shall examine three areas that are the bread and butter of much translation work: administrative documents, and examples of legal and economic texts. Clearly, these examples and the discussions on approaching translation in these areas represent just the tip of the iceberg, and are intended merely to give a general idea of the kind of characteristics and challenges that such texts present.

Certificates A significant proportion of translation work regards certificates or formatted documents of one sort or another. The translation is usually required for practical purposes, such as moving from one country to another, and applications of many different kinds, containing personal data, details of academic achievement, and so on. Now look at the first of the two documents below, and decide which features are not directly transferable into the TT without further research: Text 1 (From a Carta d’identità) Cognome

............................................................................................................................................

Nome ..................................................................................................................................................... nato il

....................................................................................................................................................

atto n.

....................................................................................................................................................

a

................................................................................................................................................................

Cittadinanza ......................................................................................................................................

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...........................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................

Stato civile ......................................................................................................................................... Professione

........................................................................................................................................

CONNOTATI E CONTRASSEGNI SALIENTI Statura M. Capelli Occhi

..........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................................................

Segni particolari ............................................................................................................................. Firma del titolare

...........................................................................................................................

Impronta del dito indice sinistro [in a box bottom left] When you have identified these items, consider the following points. The wording does not constitute a major challenge, but there is little continuous discourse and there are no sentences, so it is worth noting: • •

•

The use of upper and lower case. Should this be retained exactly or adapted? Technical terms such as stato civile, connotati e contrassegni, impronta, titolare; it is often assumed by those who commission translations that certificates are straightforward, but the first time one tackles such a text care needs to be taken to ensure the terms used in the TT are as close to the potential or existing TT equivalent document as possible. A standard bilingual dictionary may provide suggestions for the terms, but it is important to check, using other resources, that these are appropriate terms for the specific context.

The following text represents a computer-generated Stato Civile transcript (using fictitious data). The layout is a simplified version of the original. Translate the text, having read the guidance that follows it. Text 2 COMUNE DI S.MARIA SUL MARE SERVIZI DEMOGRAFICI UFFICIO DELLO STATO CIVILE ESTRATTO PER RIASSUNTO dal Registro degli atti di NASCITA con generalità L’UFFICIALE DELLO STATO CIVILE sulle risultanze dei registri di stato civile

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Process and product dell’anno 2014, atto XYZ355678, parte 1, serie B36 certifica che: ROSSI MARIA da SALVATORE e da ESPOSITO SOFIA ANNUNZIATA E’ NATA il venti dicembre duemilatredici a S. MARIA SUL MARE ANNOTAZIONI MARGINALI: NESSUNA Rilasciato ai sensi dell’art. 3 del D.P.R. 2/5/1957 n.452 a richiesta della parte interessata. L’UFFICIALE di STATO CIVILE [space left for signature] GIACOMO DE MARINIS Catanzaro, 12/4/14

(The document also bears some round stamps and illegible signatures). To start with, it is helpful to ‘get a feel’ for the document from a physical point of view. As regards layout and formatting, it should be assumed that the translation may be compared with the original document, for legal and administrative purposes. While the TT will not be an exact copy of the ST format and layout, the documents should have a similar structure, to facilitate checking and comparison. Once the physical attributes of the text have been noted, the wording should be examined carefully, in order to analyse the function of the document and the use it may be intended for. As with all translations, question words come in handy to prepare the job: What? Who? Why? When? It is worth considering which items might not be directly transferable to the TT. Many legal and administrative documents are formulaic, and the wording in them is often more complex than in standard written discourse. Moreover, there is no running text, thus many items lack specific contextualisation. Certificate translation relies broadly on like-for-like positioning of the elements, as far as possible, given the need to produce documents that directly reflect each other. However, the TT user may need to make an effort, due to cohesion and coherence problems, to understand the TT if the formulation and discourse pattern is at variance with standard types. The positive aspect of certificate translation is that once the translator has acquired some familiarity with the standard configuration and language of specific formats, further work may not constitute a major challenge, unless it is a document of a completely different type, containing extra-textual references that require further research. In all cases, it is important to look at similar certificates in the TL, where they exist, which will help to resolve perplexities about terminology and sequencing of information. However, it is equally important not to simply copy the wording and style of a similar TL document, as this is likely to result in TT at variance

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with the ST. It is also worth noting that the translation of a certificate from one geographical and cultural context to another one will need to reflect the target culture, though it cannot automatically be transposed into the TT setting. In Text 2, various issues arise due to the ST formulation: in English, the word order usually starts with the subject (L’Ufficiale di Stato Civile), followed by the verb (certifica), the direct object (lacking in this ST), concluding with the indirect object(s) (sulle risultanze and so on); thus, changes need to be made in the TT for coherence. A typical legal expression is ai sensi di, which translates as ‘pursuant to’ or ‘under’, while DPR stands for Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica, for which several translations exist (for example, Decree of the President of the Italian Republic, or Italian Presidential Decree, which is more economical).

Legal texts Legal terms and expressions are also frequently used in certificates and other official documents, so it is important to become as familiar as possible with legal language, sources and references. Legal documents cover many different types, such as contracts, legal opinions, court proceedings and legislation, but legal language is also used in a variety of contexts, such as administration and politics. Translating legal documents requires specialist knowledge, not only of the legal systems in question, but also of the language and conventions used in each context. As many documents follow a formulaic structure, it is helpful to find parallel texts in the TL, wherever possible. Translating into English does create problems, though, as it is essential to know the specific target culture in order for the translation to be localised effectively. The EU provides translations of a wide range of its legal documents: directives, judgments, opinions, case law, and so on. While it should be remembered that EU law is different from national laws, and uses a different framework of reference, comparison of EU source and target texts is useful as a general guideline. Here is an example from a European Council judgment (12/102006) regarding the implementation of the Alpine Convention in the field of transport (2007/799/EC), reported in the Official Journal of the European Union. The initial part of this document clearly shows the formulaic nature of the text in the style and language used: Italian version IL CONSIGLIO DELL’UNIONE EUROPEA, visto il trattato che istituisce la Comunità europea, in particolare l’articolo 71, in combinato disposto con l’articolo 300, paragrafo 2, primo comma, prima frase, vista la proposta della Commissione, considerando quanto segue: (1) Uno degli obiettivi della politica comunitaria nel settore dei trasporti è la promozione a livello internazionale, di misure intese ad affrontare i

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problemi regionali ed europei che ostacolano la mobilità sostenibile dei trasporti e che comportano rischi per l’ambiente. (2) Il 14 maggio 1991 il Consiglio ha autorizzato la Commissione a partecipare, a nome della Comunità, ai negoziati alla convenzione alpina e sui relativi protocolli, in consultazione con gli Stati membri. A first reading of the Italian shows two different styles: the formulaic beginning followed by more natural language, where the main information follows a more natural discourse pattern. The version in English has similar characteristics (but also includes some archaic forms standard in legal language, such as ‘thereof’ and ‘thereto’). English version THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION, Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European Community, and in particular Article 71 in conjunction with Article 300 paragraph 2, first sentence of the first subparagraph thereof, Having regard to the proposal of the Commission, Whereas: (1) Promoting measures at international level to deal with regional and European problems hindering sustainable mobility in transport and resulting in risks to the environment is one of the objectives of the Community’s policy on transport. (2) The Council authorized the Commission on 14 May 1991 to participate, on behalf of the Community, in the negotiations on the Alpine Convention and the protocols thereto, in consultation with the Member States. It is important to point out that all EU language versions have equal value, rather than being considered source or target texts. A comparison of the two texts shows how conventions apply in both languages, and not only in EU legal contexts: ‘visto/a’ is translated as ‘having regard to’, while ‘considerando quanto segue’ is translated simply as ‘whereas’. English legal language still contains some old-fashioned words and formulations, as mentioned above. Words such as ‘thereto’ and ‘thereof’ are still used, but there is a tendency to simplify legal language to ensure that it is understood by the general public and to remove archaisms where possible. Returning to our text comparison, the phrase ‘in combinato disposto con’ sounds rather more obscure than the English ‘in conjunction with’; it is often the case that technical texts in Italian are more specialist than corresponding ones in English. Other terms worth noting include the ‘hierarchy’ of legal document terms: ‘articolo’, ‘paragrafo’, ‘comma’ and ‘frase’. The first two may be translated literally, while ‘comma’ is ‘sentence’ here, and ‘frase’ is ‘subparagraph’. Incidentally,

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the term ‘clause’ or ‘paragraph’ may be used in non-EU legal translation for ‘comma’, and ‘frase’ may well be translated differently elsewhere. There are a number of terms relating to different sections of legal documents, including ‘titolo’ (which has a different use in legal Italian), ‘sezione’, ‘voce’, ‘sottovoce’, and so on. The following EU texts, on harmonisation relating to the World Customs Organization, show how such terms are used: Ogni parte contraente si impegna parimenti ad applicare le regole generali [. . .], nonché tutte le note di sezioni, di capitoli e di sottovoci. Each Contracting Party also undertakes to apply the General Rules [. . .] and all the section, chapter and subheading notes. It is also worth pointing out the use of initial capitalisation in English of certain noun phrases, and the absence in Italian. Again, these are drafting conventions that should be followed. As with any genre, translators need to have some familiarity with texts of similar type written in English, so that the appropriate register, terminology and conventions can be used in the translation. Though legal systems and legislation share common features, there is a lack of equivalence between different countries in terms of legislative bodies and instruments. As regards terms of reference, Italian terms differ substantially from those used in British legislation. For example, Italy is a republic, and has a legal system based on the Napoleonic Code. Hence the use of terms such as ‘DPR’ (‘Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica’), ‘decreto-legge’, ‘decreto regionale’, and so on. One can even find ‘DR’ (‘decreto regio’), referring to laws passed under the monarchy (before 1948). The formulations also appear far more complex than in corresponding English texts. The search for legal equivalence is therefore sometimes fruitless. The translator’s objective is to convey as clearly as possible the concept in question, so that it is both accurate and understandable to the target readership, which may be specialised, lay, or both. The language adopted will also need to be in current use. Looking through a legal dictionary will show just how many historical terms are still currently used in the English legal system – ‘lien’, ‘tort’, ‘estoppel’, ‘garnishment’, ‘chattels’, despite the trend towards more transparent language. The translator must find out if and when such terms may be used when translating from the language of a country whose institutions and precepts differ from those of the target culture. Certain differences are taken for granted. In England and Wales, law is based on precedent, while in Italy it is enshrined in the Codes: Codice Civile (C.C.), Codice di Procedura Civile (C.P.C.), Codice Penale (C.P.), and so on. Standard transfers of these forms can be located through search engines, and hard copy dictionaries, though it can be confusing if more than one version is found. It is then up to the translator, on the basis of the context in which the transfer has been found, and perhaps in consultation with a qualified lawyer, to decide which form is the most appropriate.

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Legal language also typically uses Latin expressions, many of which are specific to a particular legal system. Translating into Italian is less problematic than into English, as Italians are more likely than their English-speaking counterparts to be able to understand Latin expressions. Often, a Latin expression in an Italian ST, though retained in the TT, will require a footnote or gloss by the translator to explain its sense in the context. In translating Italian legal texts, then, the accent will be on accuracy, clarity and avoidance of ambiguity. Where necessary, footnotes or translator’s notes are used. Technical terms used in the United Kingdom will often be unacceptable, because they are too culture-specific. Take even such an apparently uncomplicated term as ‘legge’. The parallel instrument in the United Kingdom is an Act (of Parliament), but using this term to denote an Italian law would cause cultural confusion. When translating references to laws, which are often abbreviated, it may be advisable to add a gloss to clarify the details, or add the ST expression to the TT in brackets. For EU directives, there are official versions in each EU language; these can be found on the EU’s EUR-Lex facility, which is available to the general public. This facility is important if the end user wishes to consult the law in the original source. It is worth noting that certain terms, for example ‘avvocato’, also have a number of parallels, according to the legal system in question and the specific context: the term may denote a solicitor, barrister, advocate, attorney or counsel. Translators should ensure they are aware of the target culture’s framework, and carry out research using a variety of resources, both from the Internet and in hard copy (specialist bilingual dictionaries, preferably encyclopaedic ones, in addition to legal reference works in both languages). Translating Italian legal texts therefore requires a working knowledge of the source-culture and target-culture legal systems, as well as research into the specific area in question – criminal law, commercial law, contract law, and so on. And, with experience, the translator will be able to use ‘will’ and ‘shall’ correctly to convey function and obligation, to use passive forms, and to insert initial capital letters correctly, as in the following example: CONTRACT Between ................................................... and ................................................... (represented by ..................................) hereinafter referred to as the Interpreter hereinafter referred to as the Client It is agreed as follows: The Client requires the services of the Interpreter for an international conference/meeting between .......................... (date) and .......................... (date) at .................................... for interpreting duties from .................................... and into ....................................

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1. Interpreter’s Duties The Interpreter will be available at the venue from .................................... to .................................... (date) for .................. days of simultaneous/consecutive interpreting work for a period not exceeding an eight-hour day. (Where the working day exceeds eight hours, additional hours shall be subject to overtime, at a rate to be agreed.) 2. Fees The Client shall pay the Interpreter a fee of £ .................. for each half day worked (up to three hours), and £.................. for each full day worked. The hourly rate for overtime shall be £ .................. per hour. Expenses as outlined below shall also be charged. (Note that the term ‘hereinafter’ is often omitted now, and the reference will simply be to ‘The Interpreter’ or ‘The Client’). A typical contract for services may be structured as follows: details of the parties to the contract/agreement; terms and conditions; services; obligations of the parties; fees and payment; limitation of liability; confidentiality; force majeure; duration/termination; and proper (or governing) law. A contract made in the UK normally also includes definitions of the key terms used (such as Interpreter and Client, in the above example) to ensure a correct reading and understanding of the contract. Care has to be taken with the use of auxiliary verbs in English: ‘will’ denotes something that is to take place within the scope of the contract, while ‘shall’ represents an obligation on a party or the parties. There are other ways of expressing obligation, such as using the verb ‘to undertake’, but it is important to avoid using ‘must’, ‘have to’ ‘ought to’ and ‘should’; as such use can lead to interpretation problems. For the same reason, ‘would’, ‘could’ and ‘might’ are not used; ‘may’ is used, and implies possibility or consent, whereas ‘may not’ indicates prohibition. For example, a termination clause might run: ‘The Client may give notice of termination on the monthly anniversary of the Commencement Date.’ Another point worth mentioning is the impersonal style of contracts: specific references to persons are not made, except for the parties in question. There is no use of possessive or demonstrative pronouns or adjectives, such as ‘this’ and ‘his’. Widespread use is made of ‘such’ (tale/i), ‘same’, ‘above-mentioned’ and ‘said’ (stesso/medesimo, sopramenzionato, suddetto), when referring back, while the adjective ‘proprio’ remains impersonal (for example, ‘il Cliente non avrà il diritto di cedere alcuno dei propri diritti’/‘The Client may not assign all or any part of its rights’). In this case, the client is a company, thus the possessive ‘its’ is used.

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Business and economic texts This section covers texts from a very wide range of specialist areas such as economics, finance, commerce and accounting. Under each of these broad areas, there are multiple subdivisions, with specialist terminology and style conventions. There are, however, certain common features such as figures, percentages, abbreviations and acronyms, in addition to extra-textual references. It is important to understand and use these features and conventions accurately, otherwise the TT will lack authority; apart from giving rise to confusion, it could also result in distortion. A typical example is the contrasting use of the decimal point and the comma: for example, 8,5 miliardi/8.5 billion (or 8.5 bn) and 20.000 studenti/20,000 students. It is worth noting that the latter figure is often written ‘20 mila’ in Italian, while this form is not used in English. As with law, there are SL and TL areas that share similar characteristics but which use different references, for example taxation. While we make a ‘tax return’ in the UK, in Italy the tax document for taxpayers with income other than that from an employment contract is often simply referred to as ‘il 740’. If we take one specific area – economic forecasts – as an illustration, we can see what form the language takes and some of the distinguishing features. The following extract is a summary of the OECD’s 2014–2016 forecast by an online Italian investment source: Senza bisogno di scomodare le previsioni economiche, si può dire che già quest’anno [. . .] il Pil della Cina supererà quello dell’Eurozona, mentre nel 2016 spetterà agli USA essere scalzati dal primo posto, superati dal nuovo gigante asiatico. (InvestireOggi 2012) The register suggests a journalistic approach, rather than a highly specialist one. The language contains common economic terms and references (‘Pil’ and ‘Eurozona’) in addition to words from a lower register (‘scomodare’ and ‘scalzati’). It is interesting to note that metaphor is also used in ‘gigante asiatico’, and that the same form exists in the TL. A TL version of the same OECD information shows a similar non-specialist approach: China’s economy, which has experienced a declining rate of growth for three years, is accelerating and will surpass the United States as the world’s largest economy by 2016, according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (International Business Times 2013) There is nothing in the text above that would cause problems of comprehension to the lay reader. The metaphor relating to traffic flow (accelerating/surpass) is easy to identify with. However, if we look at material actually published by the OECD in the TL, a more specialist register is clearly noticeable:

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Activity in the OECD economies will be boosted by accommodative monetary policies, supportive financial conditions and a fading drag from fiscal consolidation. (OECD 2014) This level of specialised terminology and register is aimed at a readership familiar with macroeconomics, as regards both the concepts and the terms. Thus, the lay reader may well experience difficulties in fully understanding the language. These differences in register are relevant to translators. If the register and terminology are too specialised for the lay reader, this will result in a lack of comprehension; by the same token, if the register and terminology used are of a noticeably lower register, the resulting translation will lack prestige and will not meet the expectations of a specialised target readership. As with any area, the debutant translator should build up for reference purposes a portfolio of ‘parallel texts’ in both languages of the kind of documentation that typifies economic and financial drafting and writing. This makes it possible to get a feel for different types of document and register, to understand how they work, what they are for and the specialist language used. The conventions used in both languages will gradually become apparent, and can be automatically applied in translation. The essential requirement is that the translation should accurately reflect the purpose for which the ST was written, that the TT format should accurately correspond to the ST format, and that the TT should take into consideration any cultural gaps that the reader may not be able to bridge without assistance. Finally, as with any text in any genre, it is important to bear in mind the purpose and readership of the TT when translating documents, as this will inform the strategy adopted in tackling cultural issues, such as the lack of equivalent institutions or instruments, lack of equivalent terminology, presence or absence of features such as capitals, abbreviations, notes, etc. The TT of a legal or financial text created for information purposes is potentially more flexible as a medium than one that will be used in court or in a legal action. It is also important to gain as much information as possible about the situation in which a text has originated, particularly if it is being used in a legal action or is the subject of controversy or dispute. Texts are never produced in a vacuum: the more that is known about the subject matter of the ST, the more effective and relevant the TT will be.

Practical 13 13.1 Official and legal translation Assignment 1 You have been asked to translate the following blank certificate into English for administrative purposes. Pay attention to the style and register of the text in your translation, and compile a short glossary of the legal terms and expressions used. How many of these could be used in other contexts?

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ST1 Dichiarazione sostitutiva della Certificazione di Residenza (art. 46 – lettera b – D.P.R. nr. 445 del 28.12.2000)

La/il sottoscritta/o .............................................................................................. nato/a .................................................................................................................. è consapevole che in caso di dichiarazione mendace sarà punito ai sensi del Codice Penale secondo quanto prescritto dall’art. 76 del succitato D.P.R. 445/2000 e che, inoltre, qualora dal controllo effettuato emerga la non veridicità del contenuto della dichiarazione resa, decadrà dai benefici conseguenti al provvedimento eventualmente emanato sulla base della dichiarazione non veritiera ( art. 75 D.P.R. 445/2000). E’ informato ed autorizza la raccolta dei dati per l’emanazione dei provvedimento amministrativo ai sensi dell’art. 10 della L. 675/96 e DICHIARA di essere residente a: ................. in Provincia di ...................... in Via ............................................ nr. ...................... / ...................... Int. ...................... ...................... li, .......................................... ___________________________________ Firma dei dichiarante (per esteso e leggibile)*

Esente da imposta di bollo ai sensi dell’art. 37 D.P.R. 445/2000 * La firma non va autenticata, né deve necessariamente avvenire alla presenza dell’impiegato dell’Ente che ha richiesto il certificato. La presente dichiarazione ha validità per 6 mesi (art. 41 D.P.R. 445/2000); Tale dichiarazione può essere trasmessa via fax o con strumenti telematici (art. 38 D.P.R. 445/2000) La mancata accettazione della presente dichiarazione costituisce violazione dei doveri d’ufficio (art.74 comma 1 D.P.R. 445/2000). Assignment 2 You are translating the following clauses from an Italian contract on the provision of services by one company to another. (i) Find examples of the following: (a) verbal forms denoting obligation; (b) fixed legal phrases; and (c) long and complex sentence structures.

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(ii) Define a strategy for tackling the issues identified in (i), including resources needed. (iii) Translate the text into English. If you are working in a group, assign roles as follows: coordinator, translators and revisers, then produce a collaborative translation. If you are working independently, having translated the text, write a brief analysis of the challenges you encountered, and how you resolved them. ST2 Riservatezza Ciascuna delle Parti si impegna, durante la pendenza del presente Contratto e successivamente alla sua scadenza, a mantenere la più stretta riservatezza in relazione a qualsiasi Informazione Riservata e a non divulgarla a terzi senza l’espresso consenso scritto dell’altra Parte. Forza maggiore La parte che invoca l’evento di Forza Maggiore dovrà immediatamente comunicare per iscritto all’altra Parte la natura, la portata, l’effetto e l’eventuale durata della circostanza che costituisce l’evento di Forza Maggiore. La stessa Parte dovrà inoltre fare tutto ciò che è ragionevolmente possibile per ridurre gli effetti dell’evento di Forza Maggiore sull’adempimento delle proprie obbligazioni nascenti dal presente Contratto, e, nel rispetto di quanto previsto dalla Clausola 6.6 bis, subito dopo la cessazione dell’evento di Forza Maggiore, dovrà darne comunicazione all’altra Parte e riprendere il pieno adempimento delle proprie obbligazioni nell’ambito del presente Contratto. Legge applicabile e foro competente Il Contratto e le Condizioni Generali saranno disciplinati e interpretati sotto ogni aspetto in conformità alla legge italiana in relazione a qualsiasi azione o procedimento legale per l’esecuzione dello stesso, o che insorga o sia in relazione al Contratto. Ognuna delle Parti di cui al presente Contratto si rimette irrevocabilmente alla competenza esclusiva del Tribunale di Milano. 13.2 Official and legal translation Assignment You are translating the following article from a local government report. (i) Translate the text into English, assuming the ST has been recently published and for immediate use. (ii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you take, paying special attention to how you deal with the statistical information.

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Contextual information The ST is from a report entitled Documento Unico di Programmazione – Bilancio 2015–2017 published in July 2014 by the Comune di Bologna. The passage below is an extract from the section on forecasts for the region’s local economy. ST3 Il Pil per l’Emilia-Romagna viene stimato in crescita dell’1% nel 2014 e dell’1,8% nel 2015. Per il 2014 ci si attende anche una leggera ripresa della domanda interna (+0,7%) e degli investimenti (+1,3%). Si conferma poi la crescente importanza dei mercati esteri per l’economia regionale: nel 2014 si prevede infatti una discreta accelerazione della dinamica delle esportazioni (+3,6%). Quanto alla dinamica dei vari settori economici, continua ad emergere innanzitutto l’ulteriore forte riduzione del valore aggiunto delle costruzioni (nel 2014 –1,4%), mentre il valore aggiunto generato dall’industria dovrebbe riprendere a salire con una certa decisione (+1,6%). Relativamente al comparto dei Servizi infine si prevede, sempre nel 2014, una crescita dello 0,9%. I problemi maggiori sembrano venire tuttora dal mercato del lavoro: secondo [il rapporto] Unioncamere-Prometeia l’occupazione si ridurrà ancora e la disoccupazione salirà al 9,3% dall’8,5% attuale.

14 Translating consumer-oriented texts

All texts, including translations, are produced for a purpose. The purpose is always a major factor in deciding a strategy. Translating consumer-oriented texts makes the importance of purpose especially clear. This, together with the fact that many translators earn their living with these sorts of text, is why a chapter on such texts has been included. By ‘consumer-oriented texts’, we mean texts that try to persuade the public to buy something, or tell purchasers how to use what they have bought, or advise on commodities that might be bought or courses of action that might be taken. The range thus includes advertisements, websites, user manuals, consumer magazines, recipe books, public notices, information leaflets, and so on – even a lot of propaganda can be classified under this heading. Consumer-oriented texts may therefore fall into the category either of persuasive or of empirical genres, or both. Sometimes they have literary, religious or philosophical genre-features as well. The most extreme instance of consumer-oriented translation is translating adverts. This is often more a question of producing original copy than of translation. The term transcreation (p. 196), is a form of cultural adaptation from one language to another of material that requires customising for the target-culture setting. Unlike most text translations, adverts require a holistic treatment of the original message, graphic content and brand image in order to evoke as closely as possible the same message, emotions and implications in the target culture as in the source culture. Most translation agencies and companies now offer transcreation services alongside standard translation services for their clients, and will provide customised solutions, using specially trained translators and copywriters. However, it is not unusual for translators to be asked to translate websites and trade publicity as a commission not specifically identified as transcreation, even when they have no specific experience of cultural adaptation. Such work may simply be defined as ‘marketing’. Here, the usual caveats apply: if you have not tackled a job where a substantial amount of cultural adaptation is required, it is best avoided until experience has been gained in this area. A great deal of Web-based material is commissioned for translation. This is certainly a good way of focusing attention on the dimensions of intent, information and adaptation. This kind of work frequently involves more than cultural

130 Process and product adaptation, as there will inevitably also be a need to physically match the size and shape of the translation to the ST layout: a four-line section will (normally) need to be a four-line section in the TT. Some website material is very specialist, such as lists of technical products for sale, while tourist material, for example, tends to be descriptive with persuasive intent, rather than an informative text, thus requiring a different set of skills. Many websites contain material of different registers: the ‘Home’ button is likely to bring up a menu with the profile of the company, which may be basic information or company history, while ‘Products’ or ‘Services’ will involve more technical content or lists. There may also be links to documents and presentations in different formats, styles and registers from within the same site or external links. It is worth remembering that a website is a technical platform, with a particular format and style. Producing a TT that reads ‘Why joining?’ (seen on a website for a technicans’ federation) is unhelpful, apart from being poor English. If the intention is to attract new members, a more direct approach would serve the purpose, such as ‘Subscribe’ or ‘Sign up’. Using a question form is confusing, unless a specific answer is provided. English is more likely to use an affirmative form, such as the imperative. Any translator considering work with websites should understand web conventions and be able to use specialist software, such as website building programs. Translating adverts obliges the translator to consider carefully the central question of cultural differences between the SL public and TL public: nowhere more clearly than in advertising may intercultural differences make literal translation unwelcome, even where it is possible. Different cultures value different things, and have different taboos. There is also evidence that different cultures stereotype consumers differently. It is impossible to generalise on the basis of one example, but, as a sample of possible differences in cultural stereotyping that might influence translation choice, here is a pair of texts for analysis and comparison. The texts are from the Italian and global sites for Faema coffee machines: SUPERAUTOMATICHE

SUPERAUTOMATIC MACHINES

La vasta gamma di opzioni permette di soddisfare le più disparate necessità in termini di stili di preparazione e di consumo.

A vast spectrum of options allows one to fully satisfy the different needs in terms of both preparation and consumption styles.

Cliccate sull’immagine di vostro interesse per accedere alla relativa gamma prodotti. All’interno della singola famiglia, attivate la funzione appropriata per confrontare i modelli.

Click on one of the pictures below to go to the product range of your interest. Within single product families, activate the appropriate function to compare models. (www.faema.it – Cimbali Group)

The TT, while conveying the basic message, does not read like an advert at all. It lacks spontaneous expression in the TL, and sounds stilted and unnatural.

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In both ST and TT, the transition between the paragraphs from impersonal to imperative looks (and sounds) awkward; and in the TT even more so, due to the use of the pronoun ‘one’. The dual purpose of conveying a persuasive message and providing practical information to the consumer is consequently not achieved. Analysis of the TT shows poor collocation in the TL (‘vast spectrum of options’), unnatural use of the impersonal form (‘allows one to fully satisfy’) and calque (‘of your interest’). Over and beyond the actual translation issues, the instruction on activating the ‘appropriate function’ to compare models is obscure. It should also be said, though, that the ST version is equally unhelpful. In fact, it is only by playing around with the options on the website that the user can actually make a comparison. Another example of unhelpful wording in both TT and ST using a different text is the following: “Superautomatics are bean-to-cup machines, as they are able to prepare a cup of coffee by simply pushing a button”. The subject and pronoun suggest that it is the machines themselves that ‘push the button’ in a robotic manner. The translator needs to be aware of the implications of word-for-word translation, such as confusion and involuntary humour. The ST is as follows: “Le superautomatiche sono macchine che, partendo dal caffè in grani, sono in grado di preparare una tazza di caffè semplicemente premendo un tasto”. Despite the sophisticated technical term ‘bean-to-cup machines’ both ST and TT sound illogical, on account of the gerund ‘premendo’ (‘pushing’), which requires a human subject. Moreover, the effect is worsened by the lack of punctuation before ‘semplicemente’. It is self-evident that retaining illogical ST formulations in the TT – to remain faithful to the ST – affects the overall quality and authority of the TT. Thus, a potential pitfall in website design emerges: if the intention is to offer a facility that provides a set of functions, these should be clear and practical, otherwise the consumer will become disorientated and lose interest in the product. Time is of the essence in the online environment. The effectiveness of versions of the text in other languages will depend not only on the linguistic skill and cultural awareness of the translator, but also on the quality of the source material, in addition to the quality of the website design and ease of navigation. In this particular case, the world of coffee machines is very much a global one, given the boom in ‘coffee culture’, thus the issue of cultural differences between source and target is minimal. Here, practicality and accessibility are the keywords, rather than tackling cultural differences. Even where translated material on a website is otherwise of reasonable quality, the odd mistake or unwanted association of ideas can still creep in, leading to obscurity or involuntary humour. Take the following examples from the website of a company that produces fragrances in Florence:

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Process and product [L’Officina Profumo – Farmaceutica di Santa Maria Novella] ha collocato la produzione [. . .] nella zona di Firenze nord in uno stabilimento stile liberty. Production is carried out on Liberty style premises [. . .] in the north of Florence [. . .].

The reference to ‘Liberty style’ is a classic cultural misfit: ‘stile Liberty’ is the standard term to indicate the period variously known in English by the following French expressions: Art Nouveau, fin de siècle, Belle Époque. The reference in the ST is to the architectural style of the building, and in English the first or second of these expressions could be used. The use of ‘Liberty’ in the TT is doubly confusing: the initial capital could indicate the shop established by Arthur Lasenby, Liberty in London (usually called ‘Liberty’s’ in the TL), thus the connection with the building in Florence would be lost – except to a reader aware of the meaning of ‘stile Liberty’ as used in Italian. Moreover, Italian Art Nouveau buildings look nothing like the ‘mock Tudor’ shop that Mr Liberty built in London. Moving on, the use of the expression ‘in the north of Florence’ is unidiomatic: ‘in the northern part of Florence’ would sound better. In the following sentence we learn that ‘ognuno [dei prodotti] ha la peculiarità di poter raccontare la sua storia’, which is translated as ‘each product has a peculiar story’. The use of the false friend ‘peculiar’ introduces involuntary (and unwanted) humour: this is a problem, because the intention is to attract consumer interest in the company and what it sells. From products with their own unique story to an odd or strange story is a bad slip. In consumer-oriented translation, pitfalls are never far away for the unwary! Much transcreation work relates to adverts for publication in the press (possibly in addition to online sources). In these cases, features such as design, images, tag lines, colour and language all contribute to the overall effect. A good example is an advert for a car, where the overall persuasive impact generated is based on the combined effect of these features. Looking at the language in isolation is obviously ineffective. The overall message will be transmitted by words such as: award-winning, new, more, less (money), cool/hot (both suggesting up to date and desirable), impressive, and so on. The focus of the advert will depend on what factors are particularly important in a given context, thus in a recession the message will be on good value for money, while for a more sophisticated market the message may focus on luxury and image. For such work, language specialists work closely with advertising specialists, to ensure that the TL impact is appropriate to the locale. Generally speaking, it is also important to remember that changes in structure, vocabulary and register are as much a matter of standard differences between languages as of genre-specific cross-cultural differences. This point can be exemplified from an Italian bath and shower gel container. It may be that the English text is not actually a translation of the Italian, but they do correspond to one another very closely. The differences are not differences of genre, but of characteristic

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idiom and grammatical structure. A literal translation of either text would be unidiomatic. Here they are, for comparison and discussion: Aveeno olio detergente, a base di avena colloidale e di un sistema equilibrato di olii selezionati, deterge accuratamente la pelle sensibile, svolgendo inoltre una spiccata azione emolliente, idratante e condizionante. Si disperde uniformemente nell’acqua, formando un’emulsione lattea finissima che agisce su tutta la superficie cutanea senza privarla dei costituenti protettivi e migliorandone le caratteristiche dopo la detersione.

Aveeno Bath & Shower Oil, with colloidal oatmeal and a balanced mixture of softening oils, thoroughly cleanses, moisturizes, and conditions sensitive skin. Aveeno Bath & Shower Oil evenly disperses throughout the water, forming a delicate milky emulsion which acts on the entire surface of the skin. It safeguards the skin and helps to maintain natural moisturizing oils.

Uso: Bagno: versare circa 30 ml (5 cucchiai) nell’acqua del bagno.

Instructions for use: Bath: add approximately 30 ml (5 tablespoons) to bath water.

Doccia: applicare direttamente sulla cute, massaggiare e risciacquare.

Shower: massage directly onto skin and then rinse.

Before starting this task, it is worth pointing out that 5 tablespoons is actually 83 ml, not 30 ml – thus one does wonder what the effect of 5 tablespoons would be! Finally, the same point can be made ‘negatively’, by comparing an ST with a TT that, for whatever reason, has not taken grammatical and idiomatic differences between SL and TL sufficiently into account. However scrupulous the attention to genre, the TT suffers, once more, from excessive SL orientation. The imaginative and ‘quaint’ source text was found on the website of a Moka coffee maker (Beltrami-Felice), in a presentation of the company. Sad to say, the English version not only contains two typographical errors, but also reads as though it has been translated using machine translation. None of the tone or style has been conveyed, and the resulting TT is simply curious and unnatural. ST Sembra una storia antica, fatta di mulini ad acqua e di vecchie catene di montaggio. Invece no! Si tratta piuttosto di una grande intuizione industriale che nonostante i suoi over 60 è ancora all’avanguardia. Siamo molto legati al caffè anche se non ci prendiamo pause.

TT It seems on old story, with water mills and old assembly lines. Not at all. It’s rather a great industrial intuition that despite its fitty years is still advanced. We are closely tied to coffee even if we don’t take pauses.

(Beltrami-Felice: www.beltrami-felice.it)

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Practical 14 14.1 Consumer-oriented texts Assignment (i) Explain why the Beltrami-Felice TT above does not render the message effectively in terms of: (a) language; (b) culture; and (c) image. (ii) Retranslate the text into English as a faithful translation. (iii) Now attempt a transcreated version, where you focus on creating a similar impact on the reader to the ST, rather than a translation. (iv) Compare the two versions and (a) decide which is more effective in conveying the message and why; and (b) highlight the risks involved in ‘recreating’ a text in a different language and context. 14.2 Consumer-oriented texts Assignment (i) You have been commissioned by a regional Italian tourist publication to translate the text Gnocchi e porcini sotto le stelle by Patrizia Renzetti, which appeared on the website of La Repubblica (July 2014). The text advertises a local food festival. Assume that you are translating the text for a future date, and make the strategic decisions that are needed before starting detailed translation of this ST. (ii) Translate the text into English. If you are working as a group, elect a coordinator and produce a collaborative translation. (iii) Produce a checklist of challenges found and decisions of detail adopted. What strategy have you adopted as regards localization? ST San Lorenzo Nuovo e la patata dell’Alto Viterbese: ovvero un paese ricco di storia, l’ultimo ad essere stato fondato dallo Stato Pontificio, e una particolare qualità di questo tubero che trova nei terreni di origine vulcanica, permeabili e ricchi di potassio, le condizioni ideali per il proprio sviluppo. Da questa “accoppiata” non poteva che nascere la Sagra degli gnocchi, [. . .] che animerà il grazioso centro a pochi passi dal Lago di Bolsena. Un primo piatto noto in tutto il mondo che verrà proposto ai visitatori in ben quattro varianti - il classico ragù, con burro e salvia, alla vodka e con il pesto - e sarà realizzato rigorosamente con le gustose patate della zona; completerà il ricco menù una carrellata di piatti tipici del territorio, dal prosciutto e melone ai formaggi della Tuscia, dalla trippa e salsiccia fino ai fagioli con le cotiche. Gli stand gastronomici apriranno ogni sera alle 19 e a fare da contorno alla festa saranno le bancarelle, i giochi per bambini, la musica e i fuochi d’artificio. Davvero suggestiva è anche la location della manifestazione, la grande piazza Europa sulla quale si affaccia la cattedrale di San Lorenzo Martire, che fu

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progettata dall’architetto Francesco Navone sul modello della piazza ottagonale Amalienborg di Copenaghen. Adagiato su una collina a 503 metri d’altezza, San Lorenzo Nuovo gode d’estate della brezza proveniente sia dal mar Tirreno che dal lago ed è situato in una zona strategica, fra boschi incontaminati e a due passi dal confine con l’Umbria e con la Toscana. Ancora un primo piatto della tradizione, ma questa volta in provincia di Rieti, realizzato con materie prime locali di grande qualità: uova, farina, funghi, olio extravergine di oliva. [...] Andrà in scena a Casaprota la Sagra delle fettuccine ai funghi porcini, una ricetta tipica della cucina contadina preparata con i gustosi funghi porcini che crescono abbondanti sui Monti Sabini e l’olio dal tipico colore giallo dorato con leggeri toni di verde, l’ingrediente che sublimerà il gusto delle fettuccine e delle altre tipicità locali proposte. (La Repubblica, 10.7.2014)

15 Revising and editing translations

Throughout this book, we have considered translation both as a process and as a product. The assessment of existing translations has been an important feature in various chapters and in practicals. In this chapter, we turn our attention to the final stage of translation as a process, looking at revision and editing in greater detail. Any form of post-translation process is an operation carried out on a pre-existing text. Various terms are used in the profession to indicate this operation, including: revision, editing, checking and proofreading (or simply ‘proofing’). The lack of consistency in the way these terms are used leads to confusion about what exactly is intended: •

•

•

•

‘Checking’ may simply mean a hasty read-through of a TT, with or without any recourse to the ST, or – at the other extreme – an in-depth comparison of the ST/TT with the appropriate corrections or edits. Software programs used by some work providers are capable of executing a basic check on the ST/TT, but are not capable of a systematic comparison of all aspects. ‘Editing’ may refer to the checking process, or may only be used for a final stylistic ‘polishing’ of the TT; it may also indicate editing and polishing of an ST translated using machine translation (MT) or translation memory (TM). This process is also referred to as ‘post-editing’. ‘Proofreading’ is usually associated with work carried out by proofreaders for the publishing industry, where proofs are marked up with symbols indicating typographical or formatting errors, or other instructions to the typesetters. This activity was traditionally carried out on hard copy (galley proofs), but now tends to be performed electronically. Thus, the use of ‘proofreading’ to indicate checking of a translation is somewhat of an anomaly. A more current term is ‘proofing’. ‘Revision’ is a common term for checking a translation. However, it can also be used to indicate editing a text, or polishing the final version of the TT without recourse to the ST.

Translation work providers use these terms, but without any consistency, hence it is important for the translator to understand: (a) the process their TT will be

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subject to following delivery; and (b) any work they may be asked to perform on a TT produced by a human translator, an automated system (MT) or MT + human translator. For the sake of clarity, we shall opt for ‘revision’, which we use here to mean ensuring accuracy by eliminating errors and inconsistencies. Errors of accuracy can be relatively minor, such as spelling mistakes or punctuation, but they can also include ungrammatical or misleading constructions. Moreover, it is not only the language of the TT that may be wrong or unsuitable: the concepts themselves may have been distorted in transmission. The TT is the sum not only of a translator’s ability in the two linguistic systems concerned, but also of knowledge of the subject matter in question. So, for example, a translator may be equipped linguistically to tackle a text on computer software, but not have the expertise necessary to make the right terminological and practical decisions, thereby undermining the TT’s authoritativeness. So revision is where the task concerns checking a TT against the ST for accuracy, while editing will be used where the TT requires ‘polishing’ after the revision process. The two overlap to some extent, especially where TT peculiarities are not so much errors as features of style and/or register. In Brian Mossop’s popular and very useful volume Revising and Editing for Translators (Mossop 2014), he states that the reviser should make as few changes as possible to the TT, and avoid any unnecessary ones. This is sensible advice. The revision process should not be an opportunity to imprint one’s own style on a TT, but rather to identify units that – for whatever reason – impair the quality of the TT. However, before starting on a revision, it is important to ascertain that the task of revision is actually a viable process. If a translator is asked to revise a TT that is patently unfit for purpose due to its poor quality (containing material inaccuracies, poor English, careless errors, and so on) then it is unreasonable to expect that person to completely ‘overhaul’ the TT, and for a fraction of the cost of the original translation. In any event, such a request may constitute an impossible task. In this case, the only course of action is for the ST to be retranslated (by someone more competent than the original translator!). So it is essential, when presented with a revision job, to compare the ST and the TT before accepting the job. Another point to remember is that the reviser must be able to justify any edits made to the TT – both to the commissioning entity, and to the original translator. It is good practice to submit any edits to the TT to the translator for comment, before any such edits are incorporated into the final version to be sent to the client by the translation company. The revision process achieves much better results where there is cooperation between the parties concerned, for obvious reasons. Another point worth mentioning in this connection is that the translator should treat comments made (as long as they are constructive!) by the reviser as a form of collaboration, rather than as overt criticism. A healthy working relationship in this sense is of benefit to all the stakeholders in the translation. In addition to considering revision of TTs by other translators, it is essential to revise one’s own work, before it is submitted to a translation intermediary or

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to a direct client. It is clearly good practice to ensure that the TT is the best possible version of the ST that the translator can produce. One way of assuring quality is to ask another translator – who is competent in the language combination and the subject matter – to check it. However, in most cases, it is worth bearing in mind the translator will have signed a confidentiality agreement with the work provider, stating that the content of the ST, TT and any materials connected with the job may not be divulged to third parties: to ask a friend to look over the translation without requesting explicit permission from the commissioning entity is therefore not only unprofessional, but could also land the translator in trouble. Translation companies usually have a system for revising TTs, as part of their quality assurance processes, thus the translator does not need to arrange revision by a third party. It is self-evident that translators must be scrupulous about assuring the accuracy and appropriateness of their translations, and that all instructions given to the translator at the commissioning stage have been complied with before submission. Another aspect of the revision process regards possible localisation of the TT into a specific version of the TL. For example, where the TL is English, the target is the US, and the translator is British, the TT will require ‘Americanisation’ before delivery to the end client. This service is usually provided by the translation company to ensure that the TT is delivered in the appropriate language variety. Localisation into a different form of the same language reflects not only spelling differences, but also more subtle differences that the translator may not be aware of, so the operation is best left to professionals. As a general rule, translators are required to produce their edited versions electronically, using the Word function ‘Track Changes’. When enabled, this tool shows all changes made to the pre-existing text, thus allowing in-house checkers/revisers to see where any changes have been made and to validate the changes. Increasingly, machine translation (MT) and translation memory (TM) are used to produce ‘editable’ translations. The former uses an automatic translation process, based on interfacing two terminological databases, combined with some ‘natural language’ features that recognise and process grammar. While the quality of MT is by no means perfect, it has improved to some extent since the very early versions, and – depending on the simplicity or complexity of the input source text, and with all the due caveats – the TT generated may, at least in part, be basically understandable, though results tend to vary considerably. Where the ST structures are simple, the grammar straightforward and the lexis easily recognised, the outcome will obviously be more satisfactory than where the text is complex, with sophisticated stylistic variance. Here is an example from a tourist guide to the Campi Flegrei area north of Naples, famous for its Greek and Roman history. It shows what MT can do – and what it cannot do!

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ST Uscendo dalla periferia occidentale di Napoli si passa nella conca di Agnano, uno dei più antichi e vasti crateri dell’area flegrea (6.5 chilometri di perimetro).

TT Leaving the western outskirts of Naples you pass in Agnano basin, one of the most ancient and vast craters in the Phlegrean (6.5 kilometres perimeter).

Imponenti i resti dello stabilimento termale costruito dai romani, a terrazze sul pendio del monte Spina. Ancora oggi, come è noto, le facoltà terapeutiche delle fonti e dei fanghi di Agnano sono famose in tutto il mondo. Del complesso fanno parte anche le Stufe di San Germano (con ambienti a temperature crescenti, da 35 a 75 gradi). (Mancusi 1987)

Imposing the remains of the spa built by the Romans, in terraces, on the slope of Mount Spina. Even today, as is known, of sources and sludge Agnano are famous worldwide. The complex also belongs the stoves of San Germano (with environments at increasing temperatures, from 35 to 75 degrees). (Google Translate 2014)

Analysis of the TT shows the following defects: 1 2

3

4

5

6

Recognising certain grammatical forms, particularly where the syntax differs between the SL and TL (for example, ‘the complex also belongs the stoves’). Geographical references: for example, it is unclear why ‘dell’area flegrea’ generates simply ‘in the Phlegrean’. This sounds like the name of a sea, rather than an area. Another example of how geography fails to work is ‘you pass in Agnano basin’, which is confusing and curious. Lack of authenticity: while the system may pick up some standard phrases and expressions, less common ones may not be picked up, such as ‘on the slope of Mount Spina’ (the plural form is used in the TL, and Mount is usually abbreviated to Mt). Prepositions: the system is often incapable of assigning the correct preposition when linking to the noun: you would pass through the Agnano basin (not in it). Lexis: two substantial errors are generated in this short text: ‘sludge’ for ‘fanghi’, and ‘stoves’ for ‘Stufe’. The first is particularly worrying, as it is a technical term used for effluent; here, the reference is to mud treatments used in spa treatments. The wrong term destroys any persuasive value the ST may have gained thus far. The second term is incorrect as it fails to recognise that ‘Stufe’ is a proper noun/geophysical feature, translating it as ‘stoves’. Research will show that these are in fact ‘steam baths’. Style/syntax: the system cannot deal with stylistic variance and word order: the phrase starting ‘Imponenti’ is a good example. There is no main verb in the ST, which is needed for coherence in the TT. The language generated as a result is meaningless.

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Process and product A further example regards the first part of the last sentence: starting the sentence with an articulated preposition baffles the automatic translator, producing an incomprehensible TT.

Given the obvious defects in MT, one may wonder why it is discussed here at all. The answer is that clients may generate their own TTs using MT, which they send to a translation company or to a translator for ‘editing’. Producing a polished version from an MT-generated TT is no mean feat. In fact, the translator may well find it more straightforward to simply retranslate the ST, if the quality of the MT-generated text is particularly flawed. Such commissions are frequently a poisoned chalice for another reason: editing is paid at much lower rates than translation, and if the quality is poor (as is likely with MT), then the job is simply not worth taking on. Most translation commissioned by translation intermediaries requires the translator to use translation memory (TM) software (also known as CAT – computer-assisted translation – tools). For more information on TM, see Chapter 18, ‘Technical resources’. Unusual translations may also be thrown up in technical translation, as, for example, in the following excerpt from a trade brochure: ST L’estrusione a freddo dell’alluminio ha trovato un’importante applicazione nei particolari per filtri carburante (nafta e benzina). L’alluminio è preferito al ferro zincato per il suo migliore comportamento nelle prove in atmosfera salina. I pezzi da noi realizzati fino ad oggi sono le vaschette ed i tubetti interni. [. . .] Sempre per l’alimentazione carburante produciamo oggi carcasse per pompe di diverso tipo. Dove particolari esigenze di durezza e resistenza lo richiedono, abbiamo realizzato l’applicazione di inserti in acciaio.

TT The cold extrusion of the aluminium has found an important application in the parts for fuel filters (Diesel oil and petrol). The aluminium is preferred to the galvanized iron for his better behaviour for the tests in the saline atmosphere. The pieces we have realized till now are the cans and the inside tubes. [. . .] Always for the fuel’s feeding we are now manufacturing frames for pumps of various type. Where particular exigences of hardness and resistance request it, we have realized the application of steel inserts.

A peculiarity of this TT is that some appropriate technical terms have been used, but are stitched into a practically meaningless fabric.

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Practical 15 15.1 Revising and editing Assignment (i) You have been asked to revise and edit the following machine TT, which is drawn from the same source as the text on Agnano. (ii) First of all, produce your own translation of the ST, without recourse to the MT-generated text. (iii) Then revise the MT-generated text using the categories provided in the MT analysis of the Campi Flegrei text. (iv) Now compare the two TTs. Which is the more successful, and why? Contextual information The ST and TT are taken from the section Termalismo e Geotermia in “Campi Flegrei” (Mancusi 1987). While the ST is not from a recent publication, the description is still valid today. ST Nel sottosuolo dei Campi Flegrei non c’è soltanto fuoco e magma vulcanico. I filoni legati alle risorse termali e geotermiche costituiscono autentici tesori, in parte ancora da scoprire e valorizzare. La ripresa delle attività termali dovrebbe contribuire in maniera decisiva al decollo del movimento turistico, su basi produttive industriali. Nell’hinterland flegreo si contano ben 75 sorgenti, della portata di quasi 7 milioni di litri al giorno, da Pozzuoli alle sponde del lago Lucrino, dove prosperano piccole aziende di carattere familiare e artigianale. Diversa la valenza internazionale del vasto complesso termale di Agnano. Oltre alle acque, qui è possibile sottoporsi alle cure di fanghi, stufe, inalazioni. Le acque sono ricche di acido carbonico, bicarbonati alcalini, cloruro di sodio. I fanghi, di composizione sulfureo-ferruginosa, risultano radioattivi a temperatura di 60–70 gradi. Le cure sono particolarmente efficaci nelle forme croniche reumatiche, articolari, nelle nevriti; nei diversi casi di miositi, sinusiti, gotta, obesità, ipertensione arteriosa, nelle affezioni delle prime vie respiratorie e ginecologiche. (Mancusi 1987) TT Underground of Campi Flegrei is not only fire and volcanic magma. The lodgings resource-related thermal and geothermal are real treasures, some yet to be discovered and developed. The recovery of thermal activities should contribute significantly to the take-off of tourism, bases of industrial production. In hinterland flegreo there are over 75 sources, extent of almost 7 million liters per day, from Pozzuoli to the shores of the lake Lucrino, where small businesses thrive, and family and crafts. Other than the international value of the extensive spa complex of Agnano. In addition to water, here you can undertake the treatment of sludge,

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stoves, inhalations. The waters are rich in carbonic acid, bicarbonates, sodium chloride. The sludge, composition sulphurous-ferruginous, are radioactive at a temperature of 60–70 degrees. The cures are particularly effective in chronic rheumatic joints, in neuritis; in several cases of myositis, sinusitis, gout, obesity, high blood pressure, diseases of the respiratory tract and gynecological. (Google Translate 2014) 15.2 Revising and editing Assignment (i) You have been asked to revise and edit the following TT, extracted from patient information on a hospital website. (ii) Copy the TT into a Word document, then revise the TT using Track Changes. (iii) If you are working in a group, compare your mark-up with a colleague’s version. Working with Track Changes means that any edit you make will show, so the more changes you make, the denser the marked-up version becomes. Consider how this affects the editing process. (iv) If you are working independently, select units in the TT that are worth retaining and units that are definitely not fit for purpose, then comment on your selections. Contextual information The ST and TT are taken from an online brochure containing patient information which appeared on the website of the Arcispedale Santa Maria Nova di Reggio Emilia (www.asmn.re.it). The section used is “Trattiamo insieme il suo dolore”. The date is unknown (website accessed 2015). ST Gentile signora, gentile signore, in questo opuscolo trova alcune informazioni utili per collaborare insieme nella gestione del dolore che lei può provare, a causa della malattia o delle cure che sta facendo. Le informazioni contenute in questo opuscolo non intendono sostituire il colloquio diretto con i professionisti sanitari. Usi questo opuscolo come spunto per domande e richieste. È importante che lei non senta dolore. Infatti, il dolore che si fa sentire: • • • •

non ci fa vivere bene la nostra vita di tutti i giorni; disturba il nostro sonno; disturba il nostro appetito; ci toglie il piacere della compagnia degli amici, della famiglia e così via.

Il dolore forte ci può anche portare a dover essere ricoverati, come magari è successo proprio ora. [. . .]

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E le chiediamo anche di dare un valore al dolore che sente. Nei giorni in cui sarà ricoverato le chiederemo di darci un numero da 0 a 10 che rappresenti il suo dolore. Per noi questo numero è come il termometro per la febbre. Se ci dice 0 significa che lei non sente dolore. Se ci dà un numero alto (sopra il 5) lei sente un dolore forte e noi dobbiamo farlo passare. Sulla base del numero che lei ci darà noi potremo usare i farmaci che le possono fare bene. (Servizio Sanitario Regionale Emilia-Romagna) TT Dear Patient, this leaflet gives you some useful information to cooperate on pain management; the pain you could feel as a consequence of your disease or of the treatment you are receiving. This leaflet doesn’t replace the dialogue with healthcare staff. Please use this leaflet as suggestion source to put questions and requests. It’s important that you play an active role in keeping pain under control. It’s important that you do not feel pain. As a matter of fact, the pain we feel: • • • •

prevents us from enjoying our everyday life; disturbs our sleep; disturbs our appetite; it takes away our pleasure of staying with our friends, relatives and so on.

Sharp pain can provoke hospital admission, as perhaps it’s your case. [. . .] We kindly ask you to give a value to the pain you are feeling. During your hospitalization, we will ask you to give a numerical 0–10 value, which expresses pain you are feeling. This numerical value means what clinical thermometer means to fever. 0 value means you don’t feel pain at all; a value higher than 5 means you’re feeling a sharp pain and our task is to stop it. According to the numerical value you give, we will use medicaments which could be helpful to you. (Servizio Sanitario Regionale Emilia-Romagna)

16 Three specimen practicals

This chapter comprises sample responses to the sorts of problem posed by many of the practicals in Thinking Italian Translation. It has two purposes. The first is to give examples of how to set about practicals that involve doing a translation accompanied by discussion of strategy and detail. Each sample shows the sort of feature to discuss under these heads, and the amount of detail to go into. We would stress that the TTs given are not intended as prescriptive ‘fair copies’: on the contrary, we hope that the book has shown that there is no such thing as the ‘right’ translation, floating out there waiting for the trainee to find it. This will be particularly clear if you have done Practical 2.1, on p. 23, because our first example is an answer to that assignment: there are bound to be translations and explanations that you disagree with. And this brings us to the second purpose of these specimen exercises, which is to function as texts for critical analysis in their own right: where trainees are working in groups, discussion of the specimen in itself makes for a valuable practical assignment.

Assignment 1 See p. 23 above for the assignment. Specimen commentary 1 (i) Strategic decisions While the ST is a serious and informative piece of social history, it is not pompous or stodgy: the author refers to himself in the first person (‘mi ha stupefatto’), there is as much pacy narrative as explanatory background, a touch of suspense in the description of how the consommé is prepared, and an amused irony in ‘le sue mani preziose’ and the exclamation marks at the end. The irony is a reminder of how far away the Bourbon era seems, as are the touches of local colour in ‘sguàtteri’ and ‘Monzù’. Our strategy is therefore to preserve the pace and tone, while avoiding anachronism and inappropriate connotations by keeping the sociocultural setting in mind, where necessary visualising the scene described.

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(ii) TT Monzù Aquilino would only work1 when assisted2 by at least two ‘sguàtteri’ (a Neapolitan term for kitchen assistants)3, so that his precious creative hands should not be tainted4 by cleaning dishes and pans. He had trained at the school for chefs5 established by the House of Savoy at the Royal Palace in Naples, and had become6 famous for a culinary secret that amazed me on account of7 its ingenuity.8 He would prepare a perfect consommé9 in the traditional manner10, then pour11 the boiling liquid into a tureen.12 Before serving it, he would take a perfectly roasted farmhouse chicken, well browned and crisp, tie a piece of string round its neck, lower it slowly into the consommé twice, only to remove the chicken and throw it away!13 This method produced a sublime consommé, with just a hint of roast chicken. How great were those Monzù!14 (iii) Decisions of detail 1 There are three standard TL forms for the Italian imperfect ‘lavorava’: ‘worked’, ‘used to work’ and ‘would work’. In practice, any of these three forms could be used here, though the simple past does not convey the aspect of habit as well as the other two. The form ‘would work’ is preferred for two reasons: (1) it is a more literary form, less colloquial, than ‘used to’; (2) in the context, ‘would only work’ has a connotation of ‘temperamental fussiness’ (he refused to work unless . . .): it therefore does incur avoidable translation loss by going beyond the impact of the ST imperfect, but this loss itself compensates for the loss of some of the same connotation in our translation of ‘preziose e creative’ and ‘non potevano . . .’ (see note 4). 2 We preferred ‘when’ to ‘if’ here because it refers specifically to time (that is, only those times when assisted). The restriction of the action is already conveyed by ‘esclusivamente’. As the ST uses ‘coadiuvato’ rather than ‘aiutato’, a corresponding term in a higher register is chosen (‘assisted’) to reflect the style of the ST. 3 As the ST provides the meaning of the Neapolitan term ‘sguàtteri’ (even showing where the stress falls), we have retained the term for local colour. To translate ‘aiutocuochi’, there are various possibilities, including ‘souschefs’ and ‘kitchen assistants’. However, kitchen chores such as cleaning dishes suggest menial work, whereas a sous-chef is on a higher rung of the culinary ladder. Therefore, ‘kitchen assistants’ is a more appropriate term in context. 4 ‘le sue mani [. . .] non potevano essere contaminate’ requires a change of auxiliary verb in the TT: the formulation ‘his hands could not be contaminated’ gives rise to ambiguity, owing to the polysemy of ‘could’ in English. The use of ‘should’, implying moral obligation (rather than possibility or capacity), works well with ‘tainted’, a more literary term than ‘contaminated’, which is unsuitable here due to the environmental association. Translation loss is mitigated, as the TT expresses the aspect of the auxiliary verb, suggesting ‘what should not be done’.

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5 In the TL, there are various possibilities here: ‘chef school’, ‘cookery school’, ‘culinary school’, even ‘cooking school’. However, these may sound too modern for the context, therefore the compound noun is avoided and a form more faithful to the ST is used. 6 The three tenses in ‘Egli si era formato [. . .] si rese [. . .] che mi ha stupefatto’ are all different, which causes a problem for translation. The first two verbs are linked by the conjunction ‘and’, therefore using the same tense (past perfect: ‘had trained’/‘had become’) followed by the past simple (‘amazed’) in the relative clause is a sensible way of maintaining coherence. In fact, the chronology of the verbs is clear: the first two are much more remote than the third. 7 It would be possible to simply use ‘by’ or ‘with’ to translate ‘per’. We opted for ‘on account of’ because it separates ‘amazed’ and ‘ingenuity’ (two emphatic words) more effectively than a mere preposition. Moreover, the longer form reflects the suspense and expectation of the build-up to the revelation of how the exquisite consommé is achieved. 8 We decided against ‘refinement’ or ‘sophistication’ because these terms suggest a refined and elegant environment: while this would certainly be true of the sumptuous dining setting, neither the kitchen nor the dangling chicken evoke such refinement – rather, the author is complimenting the Monzù on the ingenuity of his recipe. ‘Refinement’ in the TT would therefore result in too great a translation loss. 9 We avoided using ‘broth’, not because it is technically incorrect, but – once again – due to the social and historical context. A consommé would be served in an aristocratic environment, while broth would be for the common people. This distinction has more value in a historical context, given that ‘broth’ is used widely in the TL today in gastronomy. 10 Using the singular in the TT (‘in the traditional manner’) without the superlative could be considered too free. However, there is a dynamic in the ST in the build-up to the ingenious recipe. A literal translation (‘in the most classic ways’) would be so odd that it would distract attention from the author’s intention; our more natural way of expressing this simple concept avoids a significant translation loss. 11 The literal translation could be retained in the TT (‘and poured it’), but in this culinary context the TT is more idiomatic with the connective ‘then’, which is used so frequently in writing recipes when making a transition from one stage of preparation to the next. 12 The TT aims to recreate the final stages of the consommé process in a logical manner, by following the steps chronologically (as in a recipe). Adding the step ‘take [. . .] chicken’ gives the reader a clearer picture. Though it lengthens the TT, the insertion of this further step maintains the suspense, conforms better with TL culinary convention, and serves to dispel any confusion arising from the way the process is described in the ST – retaining the ST word order in this sentence would make it harder for the reader to follow and visualise the action: ‘Before serving it, he would hang by the neck with a piece of string

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a perfectly roasted farmhouse chicken, well browned and crisp, and lower it slowly into the consommé.’ 13 ‘Then’ could be used to link the last two stages of preparation of the consommé, but, like ‘per poi estrarlo’, ‘only to’ adds an element of surprise that is in keeping with the revelation of how the effect is achieved. 14 The closing exclamation will really only work in English if the phrase is made into a complete sentence, with a main verb. There is insufficient wording in the ST to develop the concept and sustain the emphasis in English – ‘The greatness of those Monzù!’

Assignment 2 (i) You have been commissioned to translate the ST from which the following extract is taken for inclusion in a book on the worldwide impact of the Chernobyl disaster. Discuss the strategic decisions that you would have to take before starting detailed translation of the ST, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the second paragraph of the extract into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took. Contextual information The text is taken from a glossary of Soviet and Russian words that have become part of the Italian language. This extract is followed by examples of the use of ‘Černóbil’ in Italian as a noun meaning ‘sudden disastrous event’. The explosion of a nuclear reactor at Chernobyl in Ukraine in 1986 had devastating results, and is still the biggest nuclear disaster in history. ST Le dimensioni bibliche della tragedia di Cernóbyl’ indussero alcuni ad associarla alle allucinanti visioni allegoriche contenute nell’Apocalisse attribuita a S. Giovanni, laddove, nell’ottavo capitolo, vengono descritti i flagelli – annunziati dal suono delle ‘sette trombe’ – che colpiranno l’umanità, chiari segni dell’ ineluttabile giustizia divina. In particolare venne ricordato il passo in cui si parla del funesto suono di tromba del terzo angelo quando ‘dal cielo cadde una grande stella ardente come una fiaccola’, chiamata Assenzio, la quale investì la terza parte delle acque dei fiumi e delle sorgenti trasformandole in assenzio e ‘molti uomini morirono perché queste si erano fatte amare’. Apocalittico, l’evento, lo fu davvero. L’equilibrio ecologico ne risultò sconvolto. Né la scienza è in grado di indicare i limiti temporali dei suoi effetti, lenti e devastanti sull’uomo e sul mondo animale e vegetale. Dal fungo atomico alto circa un chilometro e mezzo levatosi nel cielo al momento dello scoppio del reattore, si formarono nubi cariche di radioattività, che a causa dei venti si propagarono rapidamente portando la contaminazione anche in zone distanti migliaia di chilometri dal luogo del disastro (malgrado ciò abbiamo visto

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moltiplicarsi in Italia il numero dei comuni alle cui porte campeggiavano cartelli con su scritto ‘Comune denuclearizzato’: ingenuo tentativo di esorcizzare il ‘diavolo atomico’, che non conosce frontiere). (Nicolai 1994: 45–6) Specimen commentary 1 (i) Strategic decisions The ST specifically concerns the fortunes of Russian words in Italian culture, but this is not part of the translation brief. The ST also makes biblical references that have resonance throughout the Christian world, and these are relevant to the brief. In tone and content, the ST combines factuality with subjective and sometimes ironic comment, especially in the second paragraph. One feature of the factuality is a tendency to list data in long sentences. Given these features, our strategy is the following. If translating the whole text, we would render ‘Černóbil’ in its standard TL form, since the Italianisation of Russian words is irrelevant to the translation brief. The ST references to Revelation are in a recognisably ‘biblical’ Italian, marked by slight archaism – ‘la terza parte’ and ‘si erano fatte’ instead of ‘un terzo’ and ‘erano diventate’. If translating the whole of the ST, we would use the text of the Authorised Version in these cases, to respect the ST theme of continuity: 2,000 years on, the vision of apocalypse is still relevant. If the passage quoted were translated faithfully from the Italian, it would look like a deliberate, and therefore significant, departure from English biblical norms. There would consequently be serious translation loss, because it would look as if the function of the quotation were to make some point about Italian culture, whereas in fact it is to link Chernobyl with the Apocalypse, a familiar reference in the Christian world. In this connection, the title of the New Testament book in English is ‘The Revelation of St John the Divine’, usually referred to simply as ‘Revelation’. If translating the whole text, however, we would follow the ST and refer to it as ‘the Apocalypse’ – otherwise, at the start of the second paragraph the adjective ‘apocalyptic’ and the word order would lose most of their point. Since the long sentences are unobtrusive in Italian, their length having no thematic or expressive function, they will be divided into shorter TL sentences, where this is necessary to ensure an idiomatic style as unremarkable as the ST style: the essential thing is to preserve the mixture of factuality and slightly ironic comment. (ii) TT Apocalyptic it certainly was, an ecological catastrophe.1 And science cannot say how long the2 slow devastation of human beings and wildlife will go on. From the mushroom cloud3 that rose a mile into the sky when the reactor exploded, smaller clouds formed, laden with radioactivity.4 Carried by winds, these rapidly

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spread the contamination to areas thousands of miles from where the disaster had occurred. This did not prevent towns and villages5 all over Italy6 putting up notices informing travellers that they were entering7 a ‘Nuclear-Free Zone’8 – a naive attempt to exorcise the ‘Demon of the Atom’, who is no respecter of frontiers.9 (iii) Decisions of detail 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8 9

‘Apocalittico’ picks up on the ‘Apocalisse’ of the previous paragraph (see strategic decisions). The word order of ‘Apocalyptic it certainly was’ conveys the emphasis and oral quality of the corresponding ST sentence. Conflating the two ST sentences in the TT preserves the implication that the ecological devastation is an amplification of the adjective ‘apocalittico’, while avoiding anticlimax, unconvincing collocation or uneconomical repetition (‘Ecological balance was ruined by it’, ‘It was an ecological disaster’, and so on) – that is, the grammatical loss prevents greater losses in expressiveness. ‘The’ loses the particularity of ‘i suoi’, but is meant to convey the relative ‘detachment’ of ‘effetti’ (that is, effects still continuing long after the event): translating ‘effetti’ literally would entail a sentence that read less naturally in English than the ST sentence does in Italian. ‘Atomic mushroom’ sounds odd (is it a rock band?). ‘Mushroom cloud’ is the standard expression, a communicative translation of the standard SL expression. But it loses the explicit reference to atomic power, so that the echo of ‘atomico’ in ST l. 3 is lost. This last ST sentence does not seem to translate idiomatically without being split into two or even three. As long as there is no particular expressive function in the ST structure, the loss entailed in this dividing up is unimportant. (If it were felt that the big, swelling sentence imitated the big, swelling cloud, as might be the case in a novel or poem, then one would have to think how to produce a similar effect in the TT.) There is no direct target-culture counterpart to ‘comune’. Fortunately, the focus of the ST and TT is not on Italian local government, so ‘towns and villages’ conveys the essential message with insignificant translation loss. ‘All over Italy’ was chosen to convey the tinge of scepticism at this ‘ingenuo tentativo’; literally, it denotes space rather than quantity, but we judged this semantic loss to be a price worth paying for keeping the hint of scepticism. The TT incurs translation loss through conveying the message content by other means, viz. the explicit mention of what is only implicit in the ST – the travellers entering the zone. The loss was judged less serious than the loss of clarity and idiomaticity in ‘the doors/gates/entrances’ of towns and villages. ‘Nuclear-free zone’ is the communicative translation in the UK. TT ‘no respecter of’ goes further than the ST, corresponding more to ‘non riconosce’ than to ‘non conosce’: the ST expression means simply ‘knows no frontiers’, ‘is unaware of frontiers’. There are difficulties with such expressions, however. For instance, if the subject is a person, one expects ‘knows no’ to collocate with something such as ‘restraint’ or ‘fear’; while the

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Process and product standard idiom ‘knows no bounds’ tends to collocate with dubious moral qualities (‘Their avarice/ambition/mendacity knows no bounds’, and so on). We preferred ‘is no respecter of frontiers’ to other possibilities because the semantic loss is a small price to pay for preserving the matter-of-fact authority of the ST, which leaves no doubt as to the author’s dismissive opinion of the ‘comuni denuclearizzati’.

Assignment 3 (i) You are translating for publication in a literary journal the short story from which the following ST is taken. Discuss the strategic decisions that you have to take before starting detailed translation of the text, and outline and justify the strategy you adopt. (ii) Translate the text into English. (iii) Discuss the main decisions of detail you took. Contextual information The text is the opening paragraph of Antonio Tabucchi’s ‘Rebus’ (1985). In this story, ‘fact’ and ‘fantasy’ are impenetrably interlocked – as the narrator will say, life is not only an ‘ingranaggio’, but also a ‘rebus’. The style varies greatly as the story progresses. ST Stanotte ho sognato Miriam. Indossava una lunga veste bianca che da lontano sembrava una camicia da notte; avanzava lungo la spiaggia, le onde erano paurosamente alte e si frangevano in silenzio, doveva essere la spiaggia di Biarritz, ma era completamente deserta, io stavo seduto su una poltrona a sdraio, la prima di un’interminabile fila di poltrone deserte, ma forse era un’altra spiaggia, perché a Biarritz non mi ricordo poltrone come quelle, era solo l’idea di una spiaggia, e le ho fatto cenno col braccio invitandola a sedersi, ma lei ha continuato a camminare come se non si fosse accorta di me, guardando fisso in avanti, e quando mi è passata vicino mi ha investito una folata di aria gelida, come un alone che si portava dietro: e allora, con lo stupore senza sorpresa dei sogni, ho capito che era morta. (Tabucchi 1988: 29) Specimen commentary (i) Strategic decisions The whole paragraph consists of one long sentence. But it is not really complex: for the most part, it is an unpolished-looking, rather rambling succession of affirmations that would normally be divided into shorter sentences. The conjunctions are like unpremeditated qualifications and additions to a spontaneous narrative – the style imitates the sort of dream that consists of an untidy accumulation of

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bizarre events that seem to happen in a matter-of-fact, take-it-or-leave-it way. This parallel between grammatical and sentential features and the recent dream helps to convey the grip it still has on the narrator. So do the repetitions (‘spiaggia’, ‘Biarritz’, ‘poltrone’) and the use of the passato prossimo. The choice of tense also helps to establish the spontaneous oral tone. The text is not markedly colloquial, however. The use of the passato remoto referred to in the contextual information implies that, over the text as a whole, simple grammatical and sentential features help to suggest that the events narrated are both an ‘ingranaggio’ and a ‘rebus’. These features help to create the impressionism of the narrative, which looks as if it has not been thought out in advance by the narrator. This is, of course, something that has been carefully thought out by the author. The strategy is, therefore, wherever TL grammar and usage permit, to use similar grammatical and sentential features to produce similar faux-naïf effects. Contracted verb forms and parataxis will be used where appropriate, to preserve the ‘oral’ element of the ST. (ii) TT I dreamt about Miriam last night. She was wearing something long and white1 that looked from a distance like a nightdress;2 she was walking along the beach, the waves were terrifyingly3 high, they4 were breaking without a sound, it must have been the beach at Biarritz, but it was completely empty,5 I was sitting on a deck chair,6 the first in an endless row of empty deck chairs, but perhaps it was another beach, because I don’t7 remember deck chairs like those at Biarritz, it was just the general idea8 of a beach, and I waved her to come and sit down,9 but she walked on as if she hadn’t seen me, staring straight ahead, and as10 she walked past me I was assailed by a waft of icy air she carried with her like an aura: and then, with that completely unsurprised11 amazement you have in dreams, I realised she was12 dead. (iii) Decisions of detail 1 Given the ‘unpolished’ style, imitating the flow of the dream, ‘something’ is more natural than the rather formal or technical ‘garment’. 2 ‘Camicia da notte’ is highlighted by its position. The ST order could be kept in English, but ‘from a distance’ is put after the verb, so that the sentence does not have a formal, literary feel that is not present in the ST. 3 The heavy adverb ‘paurosamente’ is unusual, and thus emphatic; hence the choice of ‘terrifyingly’ rather than ‘frighteningly’. 4 A literal translation – ‘were terrifyingly big and (were) breaking’ – sounds crisply dispassionate. It is also a vaguely comic zeugma, the adjective and verb being yoked together by ‘were’; this grammatical effect is absent from the ST, where ‘erano’ and ‘si frangevano’ are completely different verbs. While they are distinct, of course, the conjunction ‘e’ does connect them.

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7 8

9

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Process and product Inserting ‘they’ keeps the two clauses as distinct as the ST ones, thus maintaining the dreamlike accumulation of weird sensations and events. At the same time, the anaphoric function of ‘they’ preserves a connection between the clauses; there is therefore no need to translate ‘e’ with ‘and’ in this particular case. ‘Deserted’ would be possible, but the ST adjective is repeated in ‘poltrone deserte’ (l. 5). Losing the unpolished, emphatic repetition in the TT would dilute the atmosphere; but ‘deserted deck chairs’ is an unconvincing collocation. Hence the choice of ‘empty’ here. Strictly, the ‘poltrona’ has arms – this is clearly a superior sort of beach. But ‘deck chair with arms’ draws far more attention to the arms than the ST does, and leads the reader to expect some significance that never materialises. Using ‘deck chair’ on its own incurs lexical translation loss, but this is insignificant, especially as the reference to the fashionable resort of Biarritz is enough in itself to show that this is a classy beach. ‘Can’t’ is possible, but might imply more of an effort to remember; this would detract slightly from the impression of spontaneous flow. ‘Just the idea’ might be less clear than ‘solo l’idea’; ‘general’ is inserted to make it as clear as it is in the ST that this is a dream, a passe-partout beach that the narrator somehow thought was Biarritz. ‘I waved her to come’ may be less formal than the ST expression, but keeping the ST structure – ‘I waved to her, inviting her to sit down’ – would be more literary, explanatory or even pompous than the ST, certainly less spontaneously narrative. ‘When’ would be more literally exact, making it clear that the walking past and the being assailed are seen as completed events, not ongoing states. But ‘as’ perhaps sounds more natural in a quasi-oral narrative, and ‘waft’ makes it clear that this is a punctual event. The striking ST oxymoron is kept in the TT; but the nominalised ‘amazement without surprise’ would sound odd in English. However, turning the ST noun into an adjective (‘unsurprised’) loses expressive force here: to compensate for this loss, ‘that’ is used instead of ‘the’, and ‘completely’ is inserted. The conjunction ‘that’ is omitted to maintain the spontaneous flow.

Section 2

The translation profession The three chapters that comprise Section 2 focus on the translator’s working practices and environment, and professional standards. These chapters are not related to working in a specific language combination. The aim is to provide an overview of the translator’s working environment, including working in-house; freelancing for translation service providers or direct clients; working as a translation project manager; the resources needed; and ethical behaviour and quality standards. The information in these chapters is intended merely as a guide to this complex and multifaceted industry. The chapters may be taken in any order, and are followed by practicals to enhance personal and professional development. Readers should bear in mind that the industry continues to develop apace. Information such as websites and technical resources are correct at the time of going to press.

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17 Working as a translator

Introduction In Europe, and the West in general, most translators work freelance. There are also in-house translators (often referred to as ‘staff translators’) working in the international organisations that comprise the European Union and the United Nations, in central and local government bodies (for example, in the UK at the Home Office or the Foreign and Commonwealth Office), in the media (for example, the BBC press monitoring facility), and in various private companies (for example, in audiovisual translation and the computer games industry) in addition to multinationals (for example, eBay/PayPal). Most in-house translators in the UK are employed by translation companies (or agencies), and a range of other language service providers. Translation service providers (TSPs) typically employ a few in-house translators, usually offering at least two languages, and/or specialising in an area where the company has a representative client base, such as legal, financial or medical translation, or in a specific language group. The majority of translation jobs in the UK are outsourced to freelancers, with just a few in-house staff on the premises, including translators, project managers and support staff. In some cases, translation management workflow may be operated remotely through Web-based platforms, resulting in a much smaller number of staff needed on-site. These platforms can deal with all stages of project management: checking translator availability, commissioning the job, providing documentation, instructions and translation memory files, tracking workflow, revision, feedback, and financial management. Cloud technology enables an organisation to share operations with other users, while streamlining project management in this way results in a quicker and more effective throughput, in addition to greater cost-effectiveness for the company. Some in-house translators may also be teleworkers, at least part of the time. Flexible working patterns are now the norm in the translation environment, as in other industries. Internships for newly qualified translators usually take the form of a physical placement on company premises, typically for a couple of months. However, some internships are run remotely, and might offer suitable interns the experience of a teleworking translator, where documents, translations and other training materials

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are posted on a Web-based platform available to the intern. The package might include: translation work, checking and revising translations, using translation memory tools, even subtitling software. While this is not yet the norm, in future it may become the preferred method of training suitable candidates to be translators. The benefits of the training programmes will obviously depend on the quality of the training provision. Given that a large proportion of translation is outsourced to freelancers, rather than produced in house, newly qualified translators should seek opportunities for training and internships, so they are familiar with the professional working environment. This will increase employability prospects. The translation market is a competitive environment, so translators should seek competitive advantage by developing expertise in a particular subject area or a rarer language combination.

Working in an international organisation For translators interested in working in an international organisation, such as the European Union (EU) or the United Nations (UN), information is available on the Internet about traineeships (paid or unpaid) and vacancies for staff translators. The EU operates a website called EPSO, which is a gateway to all employment opportunities at the EU, and, more specifically, provides information on how to apply for open competitions for translators. These are launched when there is a need for new translators to replace staff translators who may be about to retire, or where there is a demand for a specific language for which there is no suitable staff translator. The Directorate-General for Translation (DGT), based at the European Commission (EC), has the largest number of translators in the EU, followed by the European Parliament (EP). Translators work on one of two sites: Brussels or Luxembourg. There are also translators (called lawyer-linguists) at the European Court of Justice (ECJ), who must have a qualification in law, as well as a high level of translation skills. The application process for EU staff translators consists of a number of stages: completion of an application for a specific language (‘call’), followed by a selection test (involving papers in verbal, numerical and abstract reasoning). Only successful candidates progress to the translation test, and – following success at this stage – to interview. Unsuccessful candidates are eliminated at each stage of the process. Finally, successful candidates are put on a reserve list and called when there is a specific vacancy to fill. The structure of the European Commission’s DGT is by language, with each official language having its own translation department organised in translation units. Staff usually translate from at least two languages into their mother tongue, and have access to a wide range of resources: terminology aids, translation memories, archived texts and machine translation. Work is allocated using an internal Web-based platform, where staff can access and manage jobs, in addition to reference documents, pre-processing files, document comparisons, ongoing translations and documents already released. The Web interface enables staff to use a range of search criteria via a search engine. As mentioned in Chapter 18, ‘Technical resources’, IATE and EUR-Lex are available to the general public,

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while the EU’s central translation memory software (Euramis) is for internal use only. Translators at the DGT currently use the integrated translation support tool SDL Trados Translator’s Workbench, which works with the content of Euramis translation memories. The UN has ‘duty stations’ across the world – in New York, Geneva, Vienna and Nairobi – while there are a number of other UN institutions such as WHO, FAO and IMO that employ staff translators. Vacancies for in-house translators and information about traineeships are published on the UN’s Outreach Portal. Staff translation jobs in international organisations offer a number of advantages, including training and support, generous employee packages, and opportunities for promotion.

Working as an in-house translator in a translation company Finding work as a translator in a translation company is a very different process. Most in-house translators will have not only gained a postgraduate translation degree, but have completed a translation internship of at least three months, which will guarantee familiarity with the business side of the company, coupled with the chance to learn new skills and hone existing ones. Moreover, they will normally have accumulated a number of years working as a translator. Some in-house translators have a business or technical background, rather than one in languages. It is important to remember that to be successful in applying for work, whether in-house or freelance, an applicant needs to be able to meet the company’s specific requirements as regards language competence, translation skills, subject knowledge and IT skills. Starting salaries are usually less generous than for staff translators in organisations such as the EU and UN, and the working day may be longer. Translators sometimes cover additional tasks, such as checking and revising translations, and taking responsibility for large translation projects. Though possibly less glamorous than working as a staff translator in an international organisation, working in-house in a translation company delivers valuable experience that is difficult to obtain elsewhere, and enhances a translator’s employability prospects. In fact, many freelance translators start their professional careers in-house, then progress to working independently, once they have gained sufficient experience to launch a freelance career.

Working as a translation project manager While translation project management does not usually involve translation, it is useful to spend a few words on this very important translation-related work. The vast majority of translation companies use project managers (PMs) to interface with freelancers and clients. While PMs may have trained to become translators, their job does not usually involve translation proper. They are, in effect, ‘front of house’ operatives who act as a link between the client and the translator. Their work includes providing quotes for jobs, liaising with clients, finding suitable

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translators, assigning jobs, agreeing rates and delivery deadlines, keeping track of the progress of the job, receiving the translation, checking it, and submitting it to the client. Typically, a PM will be someone with excellent transferable skills – wellorganised with meticulous attention to detail, excellent time management, advanced IT skills, the ability to respond promptly and effectively to client/translator needs, and the willingness to learn new skills. In the past, project management was a far less sophisticated and rather ad hoc process. Over the years, translation companies have had to up their game significantly due to the challenging and competitive environment of the translation industry. Possessing a distinctive competitive advantage is key to success for any business. A large translation services provider may have several PMs, responsible for managing a number of projects, often at the same time. Companies are likely to use software and applications customised to their own needs in terms of client support, workflow, sales and production. Nothing can be left to chance – translation and related services function like any other business. The PM’s role in this cutting-edge environment is crucial. This kind of role attracts many linguists, who enjoy multitasking and operating in a dynamic and fast-moving environment.

Working as a freelance translator Being a freelance translator implies much more than working as a translator from home. First of all, it is important to have the right skills to be employable as a translator. The main prerequisite is to have excellent source language skills, and though active language skills in the source language(s) are not necessary, it does help if a translator has lived for some time in a country where the language is spoken. Excellent target language skills are a must, and the target language should be the translator’s mother tongue, while knowledge (and preferably experience) of specialist subject areas is also important. Last but not least, good all-round IT skills (see Chapter 18, ‘Technical resources’) are required. Freelancers (in any industry) operate in a business environment that will vary from country to country as regards taxation, business type, national insurance and legal requirements. A freelancer has to make decisions before starting up about the business name, the legal form in which he or she will trade, a workspace, resources needed, how to market services to potential clients and – most importantly – how to make enough money for the business to be viable. It is sensible to find relevant information from reliable sources and make reasonable assumptions about likely income and outgoings over the initial trading period. If a loan is needed to help with business start-up, the lender will require a business plan, which will usually be based on projecting income and outgoings over a threeyear period. (Budgeting for the business is discussed later on in this section). Taking the time at this stage to set up the business properly, particularly as far as record-keeping is concerned, will save time and energy in the future and ensure proper monitoring of the performance of the business as it grows. For those who

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lack experience with accounting, it is advisable to enlist the services of an accountant (or a bookkeeper, which will be less expensive). To start with, it is important to find out what options are available as regards the legal form of the business. In the UK, many freelance translators operate as ‘sole traders’, but depending on personal circumstances it may be advantageous to set up a limited company. A sole trader is self-employed. The options available in other countries may differ and advice should be sought from reliable sources such as the tax authorities, an accountant, a lawyer or from accredited business support organisations. A name is chosen for the business, whether for a limited company (or equivalent) or for sole traders, who often trade under a name other than their own. To be successful in obtaining work translation services need marketing online in a global environment, so the business name needs to be meaningful – or at the very least not inappropriate, funny or even offensive – to potential clients around the world. Once the legal and tax formalities of setting up the business have been dealt with, some thought needs to be given to a workspace. Many translators work from home, while others rent office space – sometimes with other translators. However, today many translators simply work from their laptops wherever they feel comfortable. Working from home has distinct advantages – it keeps costs down, it allows people to work at times that suit them, saves time on travelling, and so on, but there are disadvantages: it can be difficult to separate working life from personal life, and friends and neighbours may need to be educated to the idea that working from home does mean ‘work’. Moreover, some translators find freelancing a very lonely occupation. Where a workspace at home is being used, it is important to check with the insurance company to see whether the policy will allow working from home. Keeping track of the work done, invoices issued, invoices paid, and so on, is vital. Some translators use a simple spreadsheet but others prefer to invest in an accounting package. For those who use the services of an accountant or a bookkeeper it is best to ask what would be appropriate, bearing in mind that – in principle, at least – the business will get larger rather than smaller over the coming years. Good telecommunications resources are important: in particular, fast and reliable access to email and the Internet is essential. Turnaround times in the translation industry are short and busy project managers need to get jobs placed quickly, so being accessible via a mobile when away from the desk is critical. Being able to access email when out and about can offer a competitive advantage and also gives added flexibility. Increasingly, translation companies use instant messaging services to contact translators, so it could be a good idea to think about installing one of the popular ones (Skype or Windows Live Messenger, for example) and make sure the user name appears on any public-facing advertising. Technical resources are discussed in Chapter 18, but in addition to electronic resources most translators need good, up-to-date, monolingual dictionaries in their source and target languages, along with thesauruses, style guides and grammars.

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Plenty of general dictionaries, of course, are available online, but many specialised ones still exist in book form only. Recommendations from colleagues are helpful before investing in specialist dictionaries, which can be extremely expensive, especially if published abroad. Although a translation business is relatively inexpensive to set up and run, a budget will need to be set for start-up costs and planning how to cover running costs over the initial period of trading. Creating a budget for start-up costs is relatively simple – a costed ‘shopping list’ covering items such as office furniture, hardware, software, devices, fees for initial legal and/or accountancy advice and other resources should also be considered. In order to check the longer-term viability of the business plan – and how much initial capital is needed or earnings from other sources until there is enough translation work to cover costs and start making a profit – it is useful to create a cash-flow forecast, month by month, for the initial trading period. (In practice, this is a useful business tool for controlling costs and monitoring performance going forwards.) Some costs – such as monthly or quarterly phone bills or Web hosting – will be relatively easy to estimate and some, such as accountants’ fees, can be agreed in advance. Income figures are more difficult, but not impossible, to forecast. First, a translator should get a feel for how much work can be produced in a day, while maintaining high quality standards. Next, rates for the language combination and subject area need to be researched. Some translation companies and translators’ websites offer guidance, as do translators’ profiles on translation directory sites. A useful reference source is the 2011 Rates and Salaries Survey, produced jointly by the Chartered Institute of Linguists and the Institute of Translation and Interpreting. This can be purchased online from one of these organisations. However, it is quite difficult to find out directly from translation companies what rates they pay. A ‘contractor’, ‘supplier’, ‘vendor’, ‘partner’ or ‘member’ (various terms are used to describe freelance translators by different work providers) is expected to quote a (standard) rate per language combination, which will be held in a database. Some companies – in particular multinational ones – offer a scale of rates and expect the translator to charge within that band. Others may be more open to negotiation. Rates for direct clients, of course, will be significantly higher, though it may be harder to get information about what they are willing to pay. Once a rate (or rate band) has been established, it is possible to make a reasonable calculation and estimate how much work can be done in a day, thus the amount of work that needs to be done in a given month to cover costs and hopefully start making a profit. It is also important to remember that clients are likely to take at least 30 days from the invoice date until the job is paid (60 days is not uncommon in some European countries). Therefore, clients should be invoiced regularly (monthly, at least) and the invoice should include all the requisite information to ensure payment is made as quickly as possible. As increasing amounts of translation work are processed, a more accurate picture of current and future volumes of work can be calculated, and figures can be adjusted accordingly. A cash-flow forecast is a working tool that helps to manage the business effectively, and avoids financial problems. Lastly, it is

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sensible to keep an eye on tax liability as it builds up over the course of the year: some money should be put away to cover this while it is being earned, rather than suddenly having to face a large bill. It is worth bearing in mind that in some countries VAT is added to any invoice and a withholding tax (tax at source) may also apply. As mentioned above, it is important to understand the tax regulations and system in the country of official residence.

Working for translation service providers (TSPs) There is a wide range of different working practices globally in terms of translation service providers. It is a very mixed landscape, consisting of: • • • •

very small companies, maybe two partners or business associates, who process translations in a limited language range or in a specialised field; small companies with few in-house staff that operate mainly in their local area, and are dependent to some extent on local business for custom; medium-sized businesses with in-house staff and possibly more than one office per country; and large companies (including multinational/international ones) who benefit from globalisation and have offices worldwide.

The size and scale of a translation company, however, is far less important than it once was. Nowadays, all companies and freelance translators advertise their services via the Internet (in addition to advertising locally through other media), which means that size has, to some extent, become irrelevant. Large companies will have more resources available to produce websites and advertising materials and may appear a better choice to potential clients, given their slick presentation and quality accreditations, than a small service provider. Given the multitude of translation services available on the Internet, clients are spoiled for choice. Some translation service users may decide on the factor of cost alone, as company margins are squeezed by economic factors and competition. The greater the supply of translation services, the more competitive the rates tend to be offered by TSPs (and freelancers, as a result) in order to secure the job. Other – sensible – clients are more concerned about quality, aware that a translation of poor quality can have an adverse effect on their business and image in the market. Mistakes and poor quality can be very costly. A freelancer, then, is to some extent a small fish in a very large pool. But it is not all bad news. Demand is high across the industry for competent, qualified and experienced translators, and TSPs that pride themselves on quality of service will only use translators who are able to deliver a high-quality product, rather than the ‘translator’ who offers the lowest rates. The Internet gives freelancers the opportunity to market their services globally, and a translator who can stand out from the crowd because he or she is expert in a particular subject area, or offers a rare language combination, will be able to compete with larger service providers. The sheer volume of work outsourced to translators worldwide every day makes

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it a global industry for all the players: client, service provider and translator. However, a major concern is that the globalisation of the industry is driving down rates; there are other reasons for this downward trend, but the supply/demand ratio and the proliferation of work offered through the Internet are certainly significant factors. Another factor to bear in mind is that freelancers may be paid in a currency other than one in use where they live, owing to the TSP operating from a different country. Thus, a British-based translator may be paid in dollars or euros, which will reduce the actual value of the remuneration due to currency exchange rates and bank charges. These extra costs should be factored into the rate charged for the job. Accepting low rates, while it may bring in money and a flow of work, has specific disadvantages: it contributes to creating further downward pressure on rates, and a translator who has accepted a low rate may subsequently find it difficult to negotiate a higher one, even if their standard of work is good. This is obviously demotivating and demoralising, and can lead to frustration and stress. Translators need to shop around for work that pays a decent rate. Negotiation is therefore a key skill to develop, in particular when considering working with translation intermediaries. Working practices vary considerably across the industry. Small local companies may have a more hands-on approach to working with freelancers than their large counterparts. Contact is likely to be predominantly person-to-person, with opportunity for individual negotiation on rates and terms of business. Large companies tend to have complex systems, which are used in dealings with all freelancers. For example, freelancers may have their own secure web page on the company’s platform, where they can post their CV, the signed confidentiality agreement, personal details, tax information, bank details and other documentation required by the company. Here, translators can find details of their assignments, company documentation, payment information, and so on. These platforms are, in effect, a working tool that speeds up the project manager’s job, as mentioned above. Testing new recruits is standard procedure in the translation industry, and considered essential for selecting reliable translators, thus promoting and preserving quality. A translator who does not pass a translation test is unlikely to be offered work by that company. Another requirement for working with TSPs is experience in using computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools, also known as translation memory. Nowadays, the industry, whether large companies or even individual freelancers, will usually commission work to translators who use translation memory.

Commissioning a translation The commissioning process for a piece of translation work from a translation company generally involves a number of stages and individuals. A typical process might be as follows:

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The translation company contacts the translator to check rate and availability for delivery by the deadline required by the end client. The document for translation is usually sent to the translator at this point; a representative sample may give a good idea of the job, but it is better to have sight of the whole document before committing to it. The translator: – checks that the subject matter falls within his or her area of expertise; – checks that he or she can deliver by the deadline; – confirms his or her rate (for an existing client) or quotes a rate (for a new client); and – checks any specific requirements (formatting, style guide, terminology resources, reference materials to be used/available, and so on).

•

•

Once any negotiations over deadline/rate and so on are complete, the translation company sends the translator a purchase order (PO), usually with an email confirmation with any other resources required to complete the job. The translator: – checks the PO/confirmation to make sure it tallies with what has been agreed; – checks that he or she can download/open/edit all the relevant files; and – translates the document and sends it back to the translation company, having raised any queries for the end client prior to delivery.

• •

• • •

The translation company confirms receipt of the file. At this point, the translation company may carry out its own editing and/or proofreading in-house or send it out to another freelancer. The edited file may be sent back to the translator for him or her to approve/reject any changes made; however, this does not always happen in practice. The translator prepares his or her invoice and sends it to the translation company. The translation company checks the invoice against its records. The invoice is paid.

This is, of course, a somewhat simplified version of what can sometimes be quite a complex process involving negotiations between the translation company, translator and end client, both prior to accepting the job (for example, over rates and deadlines) and during the translation process (for example, to raise terminological queries, resolve ambiguities in the source text, and so on). The key point to remember, though, is that the translator needs to be an active participant throughout the process, not purely at the translation stage. Perhaps one of the most difficult things a translator has to do is decide when to accept a job. Particularly in the early stages, when work may be thin on the ground, it can be very tempting to accept anything and everything offered, whatever the rate, whatever the deadline and whatever the subject matter.

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There are, however, ethical considerations to be taken into account. Professional codes of conduct generally include stipulations on not accepting work outside your area of competence. There are also some purely practical considerations: working in a field one is not familiar with is extremely time-consuming, because of the amount of research needed both before starting the job and during the translation process; moreover, it is much less likely that the quality of work that a reputable agency requires can be produced, which will have negative consequences for the continuation of the working relationship. At best, the experience will not be a pleasant one; at worst, one may end up having to argue with a company that has incurred additional costs for revising the work or even having it redone. So, before accepting a job, it is essential to seriously consider whether the job is viable, in terms of translator competence, deadline, research needed, and so on. The big question, though, is how much to charge. Typically, translators will have a standard rate for each client they work with, and that rate will apply to all of the work they do for that client. Occasionally a job may attract a surcharge for urgency, working antisocial hours, and so on, or different rates may be charged for different types of work. The rate set will depend on a number of factors, such as the direct costs of running the business (computer and other hardware, software, Internet connection, office space, business insurance, memberships, taxes, and so on) and the cost of living in a particular area (how much is needed for living expenses, savings, personal insurance, and the amount of disposable income). The volume of translation produced in a working day is obviously a critical part of the calculation. Other factors that need to be taken into account in judging what rate will be acceptable to a particular client include where the translator is located, the sort of clients and sectors translators work with or are targeting, and so on. When working for clients in a country with a different currency it is important to factor in any variations in exchange rates but also any additional bank charges that may be incurred for currency conversion, though it may be possible to come to an agreement with the client on splitting the costs. Assessing whether it is realistically possible to meet the deadline is a crucial part of deciding whether to accept a job, so it is essential to manage the workload carefully, and be clear about how much it is possible to fit into a working day: discussions on translator forums suggest an average of 2,000 to 3,000 words a day, with relative newcomers to the profession more likely to be found at the lower end of the scale. Again, lots of factors will affect output: familiarity with the subject matter, speed and accuracy of typing, the use of translation memory or voice recognition software, the format of the source document and the complexity of the page layout (reproducing the page layout in a new Word file from a scanned PDF file, for example, will take considerably longer than overtyping a wordprocessed document or using a computer-aided translation tool). Time also needs to be allowed for editing and proofreading: at the very least, a thorough edit comparing source against target to check for completeness, accuracy, correct transfer of figures, etc., followed by thorough proofreading for spelling, grammar, style, cohesion and coherence.

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Part of managing one’s workload is building in time for contingency: how to deliver the job or communicate with clients if connectivity is lost, there is a hardware failure or the server crashes? Just imagine having to cope with a fire or flood in the office! Once the clearing up is done, how long would it take to be up and running again? Which data are business-critical and which would simply be time-consuming to recreate? It is worth thinking about backup options well in advance and taking reasonable precautions to protect data: few clients will be very sympathetic if a job is not delivered due to a hard disk crash with no backup of the file. The final stage of the commissioning process is invoicing and credit control. It is essential to comply precisely with any specific instructions from the client on what to include in the invoice, such as a purchase order (PO) number, and with any requirements specific to the country or residence and/or the country being invoiced: the local tax office should be able to help with the former and the client should be able to recommend an appropriate adviser for the latter. For payments between European countries, the IBAN (International Bank Account Number) and BIC (Bank Identifier Code) are required, which are normally printed on a bank statement. The payment terms stated on the invoice should be those negotiated with the client. If payment is not received on time, follow it up with the client, preferably in writing, and make sure a record is kept of any telephone conversations. Most translation companies are reputable and have every interest in keeping their suppliers happy by settling their invoices on time, but it pays to be vigilant: keeping on top of accounts gives a clear idea of who owes what and when, so any potential problems can be dealt with in a timely manner. It is also worth being aware of the right to charge interest for late payment and (should things go badly wrong) of how to pursue a claim through the courts. One source of information can be found on www.gov.uk, the link to which is: www.gov.uk/government/publications/late-payment-directive-user-guide-tothe-recast-directive. This site provides information for businesses and the selfemployed. The Better Payment Practice Campaign (www.payontime.co.uk) also offers helpful advice, including a range of standard letters and forms. The campaign itself was concluded in 2008, but the website is still available. Lastly, it is sensible to set a credit limit for each client, and be prepared to stop accepting work from them if they exceed it on a regular basis, or if there is cause for concern, such as nonpayment or routinely late payment of invoices from a client who previously had a good track record.

Working for direct clients As the translator becomes more experienced, and better known within the translation community, it is possible that offers of work may arrive from direct clients; this means being contacted directly by a company, organisation or individual with a request to translate a text. There are distinct advantages

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of working for direct clients: first and foremost, the rate charged will not include the margin that intermediaries take as remuneration for their services as work providers to the translator. However, if the job is required by an individual, such as a person requiring translation of a document (for example, a birth certificate), there may be some resistance about paying a ‘professional’ rate for the job. Unless the person commissioning the translation has had dealings with translators before, and is aware of the standard rates charged for translation, he or she may feel that the rate is excessive for a short document (and a translator will probably charge a minimum fee for a short translation). The person may also be unable to pay the going rate, for personal reasons. Therefore, it is important to explain terms and conditions on any material that advertises translation services. It is not a good idea to publish specific rates, but rather to ensure that anyone interested in the services can find the translator’s contact details easily. While it is usually possible to obtain better rates from companies and organisations than from intermediaries, it is worth bearing in mind that translation is sometimes seen as a ‘necessary evil’ if a company is struggling or, as happens fairly regularly, the economic climate is negative. In such cases, companies will try to spend as little as possible on consultancy and commissions to external contractors, such as translators. The working relationship with a direct client will be less predictable and well defined than when working with an intermediary, such as a translation company. Intermediaries need to be able to offer an effective service, if they are to prosper, thus they will have systems, practices and procedures that are standardised, as already mentioned, in order to save time and effort in the workflow process, and to ensure consistency and quality. Typically, when dealing with a direct client, it is preferable to communicate with one person, rather than different individuals, unless there is a specific reason to do so. One should also check that terms of business have been expressly accepted by the client (particularly as regards remuneration and terms of payment), that the deadline is realistic, and that all specific details relating to the job are in writing. Some companies do not commission frequent translation jobs, so it may be necessary to explain how the process works. In particular, there should be a nominated person in the company who can help if assistance with the text is needed, such as relevant reference materials, queries on the source language text, queries on the target language text and on any background details that may be relevant. Without any specific support, a translator may struggle to complete the job successfully. On the other hand, a client who is always breathing down your neck, or moving the goalposts, is problematic. To avoid duplication of effort, check that the version of the text being translated is the final one, rather than a draft. Another important point is to check whether there is any individual or body (in addition to the work provider) that will scrutinise the translation, such as an editor, a professional body or association. Hidden players will cause hiccups in the translation process, if approval of the target text is not immediately forthcoming. Remember that working with direct clients requires autonomy and professionalism, and a translator may have to guide and ‘educate’ the client, so that the job can be performed in the best possible manner.

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Marketing your services There are various ways that freelance translators can use to market their services. Some of these are free of charge; others will need to be paid for. Paid advertising is not necessarily the most effective way of publicising translation services; therefore, before considering advertising in the Yellow Pages or local press, compare the potential benefits with facilities that do not require payment. While it may look good to advertise your services through the local chamber of commerce, for example, you may find that, rather than receiving offers of work, you are on the receiving end of communications from other translators seeking work! Marketing your translation services via the Internet covers a wide range of activities, from various forms of online advertising to listings in the directories of the professional bodies for translators. It can also be broadened to encompass, for example, participation in e-groups, profiles on business and social networking sites and writing a translation blog; the two forms of online marketing discussed here, however, are: • •

individual translator websites; and online profiles on translation directory sites.

A website is often the best way to market translation services. Using a professional to design it may be expensive, so you should think about asking colleagues for recommendations so as to find an appropriate designer, capable of attracting visitors to the website and optimising it to ensure good rankings on the major search engines. There are, of course, various open-source Web-building programs, which will produce a good basic website. The vast majority of freelance translators now have a website, which enables them to advertise their services globally. For your website, it is a good idea to think about targeting clients from source and target language countries, which will include having the website translated by a native speaker of the source language. It is much safer to do this, rather than run the risk of producing copy in your source language that is ungrammatical or poorly written. You could, for example, think about engaging the services of a colleague working in that language combination for this purpose. As with all marketing activities, it is important to think about the consistency of the brand image of the service(s) that you are advertising online. In some cases, less is better than more – a complicated, difficult-to-navigate website will not be inviting to visitors, thus design, structure and content are crucial factors in disseminating information about who you are, and what you do. Large volumes of translation work are placed on the major translation directory sites. The advantages of these sites include advertising your services to a very wide audience, and networking opportunities with other translators. Moreover, there is access to translator forums, which are used for posting questions and receiving responses. If you provide suitable responses to the questions posted, your ranking on the site will improve, which will enable you to find more work.

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The downside is that it is a marketplace full of individuals looking for translation work, and given the ratio of supply to demand, rates tend to be on the low side. Thus, ways of distinguishing yourself from the competition are vital, whether through the logo or brand you choose, the services you offer or the graphics you use. In essence, what you need to project is a distinctive ‘brand’ that is memorable in terms of what your services comprise. Avoid using descriptors that are boastful or untrue, such as ‘best’ or ‘superb’, as these will only put off potential customers. Now that you have a broad picture of the working environment of a translator, complete the following practicals to develop your understanding of the profession, and your role within it.

Practical 17 17.1 Working as a translator Assignment (i) Find information on the Internet for a staff translator job (for example, at the European Union) or for a traineeship/internship, noting the qualifications and specialist/transferable skills required to apply. Make a list of your skills and experience, then compare this with the staff translator or traineeship/internship profile. Where there are discrepancies, consider what continuing professional development (CPD) might enhance your chance of being considered as a suitable candidate. (ii) Imagine working as a freelance translator: what particular transferable skills (rather than specialist language ones) do you think would impress a translation services provider, and why? (iii) Produce a CV to be used for seeking freelance translation work. If you already have a standard CV, consider whether it needs enhancing or updating. What features should you focus on, to maximise your chances of getting work?

18 Technical resources

The nuts and bolts The way translators work today has changed significantly since the first edition of Thinking Italian Translation, published in 2000. Giant strides in information technology (IT) in terms of both hardware and software have contributed to enhancing translators’ productivity (and that of the clients they work for), whether as staff (or in-house) translators or freelancers. The array of resources now available is impressive, so a chapter has been included to give some idea of the working environment of a translator, both physically and virtually. This overview will touch on the most important areas: hardware, software, various resources used to aid translation, building a website, and, last but not least, social media. All of these resources play an important role in supporting translators. Given the breadth of this subject, this chapter provides an overview, rather than an in-depth exploration of the resources available. Let us assume that you are a translator who is about to enter the profession – for example, after having completed a postgraduate qualification in translation. When considering your working environment and operations you will have various needs, which must be analysed and defined, particularly if you intend to work freelance. In-house translators will normally be provided with equipment, resources, training and mentoring by their employer, whether they work for an international organisation or in the private sector. Aspiring freelancers will normally be equipped with computing facilities (PC and/or laptop) and be conversant with commonly available software packages, such as Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint) and with Windows. In addition, the ability to type quickly and accurately should not be underestimated, if translation deadlines are to be met and reasonable productivity levels achieved. So a ‘needs analysis’ should be performed well before launching into the profession, aimed at identifying what is essential or simply desirable in terms of IT and other resources. A good place to start is reading The Translator’s Tool Box, written by working translator Jost Zetzsche. It is an excellent guide with practical tips and suggestions. But whatever equipment you decide that you need, learn how to use it to a professional standard. You will also need to consider technical support: Whom can you call when something goes wrong? You must not let your clients down. Think of yourself as a business and work out your IT needs accordingly.

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Workspace The best way to start your needs analysis is to envisage exactly where and how you will be working. Freelance translators usually have a physical workspace at home or in an office, but are also increasingly mobile, working virtually anywhere from a laptop as long as there is a reliable broadband connection. It is essential to have a workspace that is dedicated to translation, whether it is a separate room or part of a room or office. You should, however, avoid working where other people are habitually present, as this will be a distraction. You need a workstation for your computer, and plenty of space for materials such as hard copy resources. Your seating should be comfortable, support your back and be fit for purpose. Ensure that you have adequate lighting, that there is a window and that the area is well ventilated. It is helpful to have shelves close by to avoid having to fetch reference works from another room. You also need space for a printer/scanner and a landline phone, if you use one. Your workspace does not need to be large and cumbersome – so plan your space and furniture carefully, so that it is ergonomic and as stress-free as possible. Having everything to hand in your workspace improves your productivity and avoids distractions.

Hardware While it is not essential to have the most advanced (and expensive!) computer and/or laptop on the market, it is important to have equipment that is fit for purpose and that can, if needed, be upgraded to a higher specification. Given the speed of advances in technology, this chapter will not make specific suggestions regarding equipment and resources, given that product development continues at a fast pace. If you are unsure what hardware to invest in, a sensible suggestion is to find out what other translators use and recommend – for example, by attending events organised by professional translator associations or via translator groups on professional bodies or social media. Product development has created devices that can be used in multiple contexts; at the time of writing the convertible laptop (i.e. a device that can be used as a tablet or a laptop) is ideal for ultimate flexibility if you often work on the move. You also need a printer and scanner (a fax, though useful, is not essential). The all-in-one type of printer that prints, copies and scans is a good option, but be aware that replacement cartridges for laser printers tend to be expensive. An external hard drive (EHD) helps to reduce the number of files stored on your computer’s hard drive and provides a storage facility that is not dependent on your internal hard drive, so if anything goes wrong with your computer, your data will be safe. Finally, you need an efficient and up-to-date router for your broadband connection. This is essential, and you cannot work without it. A mobile phone is, of course, necessary when you are on the move to ensure you can be contacted with offers of work.

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Software As mentioned above, you should – at the very least – have the complete Microsoft Office package (for PC or Mac) and an up-to-date operating system. Many source documents are produced in Word, but these may have additional formatting, so it is important to have recent versions, otherwise you may find that you are saving your work in a version that loses essential formatting. PowerPoint translation assignments are frequent, and working with these requires not only language skills, but also the ability to work within the layout constraints of the source material. Many financial documents are produced in Excel, so you should also be able to work with this program. If you intend to translate websites, you need to be familiar with the appropriate software. Some clients may also need translators to be familiar with XML (Extensible Markup Language), which is used to describe data, or HTML (HyperText Markup Language), used to create web pages. It is straightforward to find information and tutorials on common tools on the net. Translators may also benefit from using accounting software that will enable them to do their books. There are packages available that can monitor financial performance in real time, and generate reports on demand, for example on turnover, profit and loss, monies owed and owing. Software is also available that deals with multiple currencies, though it comes at a price (not a great one). While it should not be seen as replacing an accountant, it is certainly a useful tool, and free trials are available.

Voice recognition Voice recognition software products are now widely available, and allow users to dictate text directly to a PC/laptop. The software is relatively reliable once it has been ‘trained’ to recognise the user’s voice, and generally produces satisfactory to good results. If the translator is familiar with the source text and type and used to voice recognition, this software can dramatically increase productivity. Importantly, it reduces the need to type for long periods, thus reducing the risk of injuries such as repetitive strain injury (RSI).

Internet It goes without saying that a translator must be able to surf the net quickly and effectively, in order to deliver a prompt and accurate translation. A good reliable router and broadband connection that does not frequently lose connectivity are basic requirements. It is also a good idea to have a backup USB wireless modem, because even the most reliable connection will drop off now and then (typically when you have an important deadline!). You should also have good Internet search skills, so you can retrieve and refine information and data swiftly in both the source and target languages. When you are offered a translation job, it is crucial to decide quickly whether you have sufficient resources to complete the job competently and promptly. Therefore, being able to locate information strategic to the nature of the assignment is a key factor in deciding whether or not to accept a job.

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The sheer amount of information available on the Internet, while clearly an advantage, can also be a distraction; being unaware of how much time you spend searching the net can lead to problems with delivering a translation on time. It is also useful to have Skype installed on your device, as some clients prefer this method of communication.

Storing and sharing To quote the John Lewis Technology brochure (Spring 2014): ‘Cloud computing is a term that describes files and data that are stored away from your personal gadgets in the “cloud”. The cloud itself is a remote server that can store any digital files. [. . .] Remote servers are located all over the world and are, in essence, warehouses full of computer storage drives.’ These facilities are provided by major companies (Apple, Google, Microsoft) and provide backup and storage services. The cloud enables you to transfer files, instead of using a device like a USB stick, and to maintain security. You can build your own ‘cloud’ using a small wireless hard drive that connects to the Internet. With this device, you can share the contents of the hard drive online with the owner and approved users. These facilities enable you to store fewer files on your computer. However, some clients may not want their data stored this way, and you must respect their wishes.

Translation tools There is a range of aids to translation that are used by translators nowadays, some of which are no longer just ‘desirable’. A good place to start is to see what tools a major international organisation such as the European Commission (EC) provides for its translators. In the booklet Translation tools and workflow (2009), the following needs are identified: • • • •

appropriate terminology (dictionaries, glossaries and databases); reference materials (paper and electronic archives and aligned texts); the capability to reuse previously translated texts (using translation memory and electronic archives); and administrative and operational support (employer/work colleagues/technical support).

Terminology resources As Tim Cooper (a senior terminologist at the European Commission) points out in the Institute of Translation and Interpreting’s Bulletin (in an article by Farid Aitsiselmi (Aitsiselmi 2013), terminology ‘is not about terms: it is concerned with the relationship between concepts and the terms used to denote them. Terminology is about languages for specific purposes, and focusing on particular domains, where the concepts are arranged according to a systematic concept structure’.

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Translators are increasingly dependent on Web-based tools for terminology searches, such as IATE (Interactive Terminology for Europe), a databank created by the EU that compiles terminology from all the EU institutions and bodies, and currently comprises over 8 million terms. IATE can be used to search for a specific source language term or abbreviation and retrieves equivalents in the requested EU language. Results are graded in terms of reliability, helping the translator to make an informed choice. IATE can be accessed free of charge by the general public, and the public interface provides a search-only facility (the full integrated service is only available to EU staff translators). IATE is an interactive database so the public can contribute to the content, which is constantly updated, and contributions are validated. The content differs from language to language, depending on the length of time a state has been an EU member. Other databanks worth consulting are: Termium Plus: a terminological/linguistic databank that covers four languages (not Italian). EuroTermBank: a centralised online term bank that covers 27 languages.

Web-based tools There are other Web-based tools that translators may find useful, that can reduce the time spent browsing by creating one-click customisable keyboard combinations linked to favourite searchable online resources, or making it easy to perform searches in two different languages. EUR-LEX, the EU’s online repository of published EU legislation, is a versatile and very useful tool, comprising treaties, secondary legislation and preparatory acts in all official EU languages, in addition to implementing measures and case law of the European Court of Justice. EUR-LEX enables you to find a term from any EU/EC official document and its translation, but you can also see how it is used in context. There is a basic search and an advanced search option, and results can be seen in a multilingual display (up to three languages). Also worth mentioning are online memories using dictionaries, such as Glosbe and Linguee. There are many online dictionaries, a popular one being WordReference. They do, of course, have their limitations, and the solutions offered should be crosschecked with other resources for suitability. Web-based dictionaries are easy to consult, but differ in terms of quality and coverage. The best course of action is to experiment with online bilingual dictionaries until you find ones that are reliable. It is also sensible to have a range of print dictionaries, some of which will relate to your specialist area.

Translator gateways and communities There are several gateways or portals that have created online translator communities, such as ProZ and TranslatorsCafé. These sites provide a forum for

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translators to exchange ideas and make suggestions, in particular on translating terms and providing information relating to questions posted. Registration is usually free (unless you require more sophisticated services). They offer other services, such as training and events, advice, articles, glossaries, and may act as a clearing house for job offers. It is wise to steer clear of bidding wars that may take place on such sites, but you can use the profile feature as a shop window for your services.

Translation memory (TM) Organisations such as the EU and UN use tools that produce raw translations of a source text by interfacing the text with an archive of material already translated in the target language. The raw translation can then be edited into a polished translation by a translator. These tools, often referred to by the acronym CAT (computer-assisted translation), are also widely used by translation service providers, in order to increase productivity and produce documents that are consistent as regards terminology and style. Many translators now use a freelance version of these tools so they can benefit from the archived material held by the work provider (or translations from their own portfolios), enabling them to retrieve matches from the archives and produce a raw target text more swiftly than a human translator. While there are a number of standard products on the market (the best known being SDL Trados), many organisations have developed their own customised versions, designed specifically for their needs. Nowadays, most CAT tools are compatible, enabling the translator to work with different applications and clients. Manufacturers of CAT tools usually provide free demonstrations, which enable a translator to try out the software before purchasing it, and understand the principles on which it is based. Another popular CAT tool is MemoQ. There are also open source TM products, such as OmegaT. Staff translators, especially in international organisations, have a wide range of linked resources that provide them with shared data from different sources.

Machine translation (MT) MT is a raw translation of a source text using a basic system of dictionaries and linguistic programs. The best known of these systems is Google Translate – a system that looks for patterns in hundreds of millions of documents derived from human translations. This tool has advantages and disadvantages. It can be used to provide a rapidresponse translation to the requester; however, the quality of responses varies widely according to language and text type, and some specialised technical terms may not be found. Problems also arise where the software does not recognise the syntax of the source language, and produces incoherent translations as a result. One advantage of MT is to gain a quick overview of a subject, though the standard of the retrieval will differ enormously from text to text in terms of

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accuracy and coherence. It is therefore seen as an unreliable translation tool by most professional translators. However, it can be useful for translation of a third language unit (say in French or German, if you are translating from Italian). But it is worth bearing in mind that Google never forgets: it will store and index any text you enter. Always respect your client’s copyright and confidentiality when using machine translation engines. Sometimes translators are commissioned to revise translations created using MT, which means post-editing a ‘raw’ translation. The amount of correction will obviously depend on the type of text, the purpose of the translation and the quality of the raw translation: if the target text is for the highest specification (publication and/or specialist readership) then the raw text may not even be good enough to revise, and the translation will have to be done from scratch. It should be pointed out that MT can become an addiction for less confident translators, leading to large-scale use of such systems – inevitably resulting in unreliable work. Therefore, it is a tool that should be used with all the usual caveats.

Social media Many translators are frequent users of social media – particularly the younger generation, who have grown up with Facebook and Twitter – but there is a wide variety of social media that can help translators. The main advantages are set out in Dillon and Hammond (2009), the main points of which are summarised here. Given that the translator community is global, it makes sense to ensure that translators are not limited by physical constraints as regards providing opinions, marketing services, and generally interacting with various stakeholders in the profession and outside it. Functions include interactive activities such as blogging, exchanging documents, sharing photos, videos, and so on. There are also popular translator forums (as mentioned above) that offer a range of features: live and archived question/answers, training, jobs, articles, blogs, advice, and so on. Working with others in real time has distinct advantages over a ‘static’ presence such as a website, which showcases your profile but does not interact directly with the public. Other benefits are that social media are free (though translator forums have some paying services), the content is user-generated and customisable, and they enable you to overcome physical limitations in terms of geography and time. Using social media sensibly and regularly will enable translators to further their careers by exploiting links to career-related information, such as conferences, talks, presentations and other opportunities for continuing professional development.

Building a website All translators should have a website: this is an opportunity to say who you are, what you do, how you do it, and – importantly – encourage potential clients to consider using your services. You do not need lots of sophisticated software to get started: the basics are a PC or Mac, an Internet connection and browser, and image-editing software. Invest in a guide to creating a website (such as

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Alannah Moore’s (2013) The Creative Person’s Website Builder, from which some of the following material is drawn. Other requirements are a domain name and Web hosting for your site. Free software is available (such as WordPress) that can produce an excellent website, and provides a range of features: different designs, various layouts, customisation, and many add-ons. You do not need to be an expert in IT. Your site can either be self-hosted or hosted by WordPress. Once you have decided on a domain name, you will need to register it (for a fee). If you are using WordPress, you will need to have a hosting company that supports this software, provides technical support and is reliable. Other features to look out for are unlimited storage, bandwidth, databases and email addresses. It is a good idea to look at other translators’ websites and identify features that you consider strategic for your web presence. As with a CV, you will need to project the image of a competent professional, so highlighting qualifications and experience is essential. Try to make your site interesting, with good visuals, clear and logical layout, easy access to information and a mission statement that projects an image of you as a person, rather than just listing your assets. A site that is mainly text will not attract visitors. However, an excessively fussy and decorative website may be distracting and send the wrong message, such as suggesting a lack of rigour and professionalism. Your home page is always important, and should be seen as the nerve centre of your pitch. If this is weak, visitors are unlikely to navigate the rest of the site. Remember, too, that while you wish to attract new clients, you may also be contacted by cold callers wanting to find work. You should ensure that you have links to appropriate sites, and be easily found via an Internet search. There is plenty of advice available on the Internet on the dos and don’ts of websites, from translators, translator groups and gateways, and professional bodies.

Practical 18 18.1 Technical resources Assignment (i) Design and produce a template for your technical needs analysis, with the following features: workspace, hardware, software, terminology, CAT tools, social media, other technical resources. Rank your entries in terms of: necessary/desirable; possess/need; can use/can’t use. If you are working in a group, compare and contrast your analysis, and use suggestions from your colleagues to improve on your template. (ii) Having produced your needs analysis, it is advisable to calculate how much it will cost you to meet these needs. Add a column to your template with your predicted cost per item. If you already have the item, consider what an upgrade or new item might cost. You will also need to bear in mind other expenses, such as mobile/phone/broadband bills, electricity and heating,

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journal subscriptions, further product purchases, technical support/repairs, rent, council tax, and so on. This will give you a picture of your capital expenditure and ongoing costs. (iii) Define your approach to using social media, saying how you use it at present, and what better use you could make of it to enhance your translator profile. If you are working in a group, discuss your results and try to set up a translator group on the Internet, linking it with other similar groups.

19 Professionalism and quality standards

Professional standards The two previous chapters have dealt with the practical aspects of working as a translator, providing basic information for anyone wishing to develop this career. Ethical behaviour and quality issues relating to the profession are not always given the prominence they deserve; therefore, it is worth devoting a chapter to understanding the term ‘professionalism’ for a translator, the ethical behaviour expected, and the quality standards that relate to the translation process and product. Let us address professionalism first. It is worth considering both the terms ‘profession’ and ‘professionalism’ to start with. First, a distinction can be made between ‘occupation’ and ‘profession’. An occupation can be any form of work. A profession, on the other hand, has certain distinctive characteristics: the existence of a professional body that represents the activities conducted by its members and defends their interests; specialist skills acquired through higher education; certification of skills; experience of working in the specialist field(s); testing of competence and certification; continuing professional development (CPD); selfregulation; professional conduct; individual clients; and recognition of the category. Using this shopping list, translation can certainly be considered a profession. However, public recognition of translation as a profession lags behind several other professions, partly owing to lack of visibility: translators work behind the scenes rather than in the public arena. Professionalism suggests acting in a manner befitting a member of a profession. More specifically, the term ‘professionalism’ indicates a set of values peculiar to that profession, which informs standards of working and ethical behaviour. Belonging to a profession confers the benefit of status and recognition but also involves responsibilities – following the rules laid down by the body representing the profession and acting appropriately in all professional contexts. Membership of a professional body gives access to useful information and services available to members. Examples are: training and CPD opportunities, such as events, webinars, conferences, and so on; offers of work, both paid and voluntary; publications; an online forum; and a directory of members. The membership criteria are established by the members themselves, rather than by an external agency. One particularly

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important function is to promote the profession by providing information and guidance to third parties, such as the public sector, the media, trade and industry, schools and universities, the voluntary sector, and the general public. Ethical behaviour is reflected in the codes of conduct established by the bodies representing translators (or linguists). For example, the Institute of Translation and Interpreting (ITI) and the Chartered Institute of Linguists (CIoL) have codes of conduct that set out what is expected of a member of their professional body. The basic professional standards can be summed up as follows: • • • • •

maintaining high standards of work or performance; confidentiality; impartiality; supporting and developing the profession; and assisting other professionals.

It is undeniable that the most important principle for a translator is to produce work that is of the highest possible standard. To produce work of this standard requires not only competence, but also common sense and the benefit of experience: if a translator has any doubt as to the ability to produce excellent work when offered a job, then the job should not be accepted. It is therefore crucial at the commissioning stage of a translation to be able to make an informed decision as to the viability of the translation. The consequences of sub-standard work go far beyond the individual translator: in the event of poor work, the translator will lose the client; there are likely to be problems with payment; the translation will need to be revised or retranslated, incurring extra cost and time. Last but not least, the image of the translation profession could be damaged. It is essential for a translator to be sure that, with all the resources available, including time – which is a major factor – the job can be done to, at the very least, a satisfactory standard. Most translation service providers (TSPs) test freelancers looking for work to check that they have the requisite skills before offering them any work. However, translators sometimes receive offers of work relating to languages or subjects that are not their main specialities, and extra care has to be taken when deciding whether to accept such assignments. Professional competence goes beyond specialist language skills. In addition to translation competence, the translator needs to have linguistic and textual competence in the source language and target language; research competence, information acquisition and processing skills; cultural and technical competence. These levels of competence are set out in EN 15038, the English version of the quality standard for translation service providers published by the European Committee for Standardization. Professional standards are of great importance to translation service providers as well as to individual translators; where service providers are intermediaries (as is usually the case), their survival in the industry relies on accurate translation, promptly delivered in the format required. Ensuring that a translator is competent

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to complete the job successfully is part of the company’s quality assurance system. We will explore quality later on in this chapter. Confidentiality and impartiality are principles enshrined in every code of professional conduct. Translating these into practice, though, is not always easy. How often are we tempted to ‘innocently’ reveal details of our work? Translators are normally required to sign a confidentiality agreement with a TSP, which means maintaining total confidentiality relating to all information relevant to the translation assignment. Impartiality is also sometimes difficult to put into practice. Imagine translating a book about hunting and shooting animals – if you found these activities to be reprehensible, your attitude to the source text would be affected. Similarly, a text embodying ideological views that the translator does not share would also be an unsuitable assignment. Translators deal with all kinds of sensitive texts and subjects, and maintaining impartiality can sometimes be difficult. Where a translator is uncomfortable with the content or ideas expressed in a source text, the job should be refused on moral grounds. A code of conduct, while valuable as a set of principles, cannot be expected to provide specific orientation for each and every case that might arise. However, virtually all codes of conduct relating to translation state that no work should be subcontracted to another translator without the prior and express authorisation of the client. It is self-evident that passing on part of a job (or even an entire one) to another translator without the agreement of the client – even for a very valid reason such as lack of time – is not only unprofessional, but a high-risk strategy that can result in poor work, payment problems, loss of clients and damage to the image of the profession as a whole. In reality, translators are faced with professional dilemmas all the time: should I take on this job if I am not 100 per cent sure of completing it competently by the deadline? Will I be able to resolve the problems I encounter in time? Can I ask a fellow translator to look at my translation before I submit it to my client? Should I correct material errors that I notice in the source text without contacting the client? As a translator acquires experience in the field, common sense is usually able to indicate the best way to deal with issues arising from the translation. Professional bodies can also provide advice to their members, and assistance from more experienced translators is valuable. Professional behaviour dictates that we should lend assistance to other professionals, and to those who aspire to become professional linguists. We should treat our peers with respect, and work with them to promote the aims and objectives of both the profession and its members. Last but not least, translators must support their profession, uphold its values and defend its principles. Comments from the general public – such as the common phrase ‘lost in translation’ (an expression used to signify any kind of misunderstanding) – are not only irritating, but also misplaced, and put the whole profession in a bad light. Countering such attitudes and attacks on the profession in general are one way of defending it.

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Quality standards Quality has already been mentioned twice in the section on professionalism: with regard to professional standards of work set out in codes of conduct, and the quality standard published by the European Committee for Standardization (EN 15038). There is also an International Standard on Translation Projects (ISO/TS 11669: 2012), the purpose of which is to provide guidance on all aspects of the translation project, for the mutual benefit of all stakeholders. The standard sets out the need for a system that results in a project specification, to be used as a tool and reference for all parties involved in the process and the product. According to the Introduction, the priority of the project specification is that ‘the content be readable in the target language and correspond in some way to the source content. However, the nature of the correspondence between source and target contents will vary according to the needs of the project, as determined by the project specifications’. While this may seem vague, the wording is intended to include transcreation projects, where correspondence is between content, not merely text. Inclusion of all the stakeholders in the translation process and product is an important benchmark, which reinforces the message that translators do not work in a vacuum, even though they may be working from home. The other point is that a viable system is seen as essential in terms of translation project management and as a guarantee of quality. However, quality is a complex phenomenon, and the basic precepts need to be understood in the context of translation, both from the point of view of translators themselves, and of those they work for. Translators should all follow a quality control procedure, as regards both process and product. Quality control (QC) starts from the moment a translator is contacted with an offer of work. As already mentioned, the first step is to make an informed decision about whether the job is viable, in terms of competence, deadline, format, research time and sources. Once the decision has been taken to accept the job, all details must be confirmed in writing with the work provider, whether intermediary or direct client. Intermediaries have systems in place to be able to raise a purchase order (PO) swiftly, as part of the company’s workflow. It is important for the translator at this stage to ensure that everything required to carry out the job has been received (for example, PO, documentation, glossaries, and so on). At this stage, the job details should be logged by the translator (electronically) on a worksheet, noting all relevant details, then the source text researched. It is useful to make a note of useful resources for future reference. The execution phase of the job is obviously crucial, and attention should be paid to: comprehension, terminology, style and register, target audience and formatting. If problems or queries arise during this phase, the work provider should be consulted, to achieve the best possible outcome. On completion, a thorough check of the TT needs to be carried out, including the following checklist: • •

TT is complete (that is, no omissions or unjustified redundancies). TT is formally accurate (that is, no errors in reporting data).

182 • • • • •

The translation profession ST message is accurately/appropriately conveyed. TT is cohesive and coherent. TT follows any instructions and guidance provided. TT reads like an authentic piece of TL writing. Any issues raised during the job have been resolved.

The delivery of the TT should, of course, be made by the deadline (and preferably in advance of it) and in the format required. Confirmation from the recipient of the safe and complete delivery of the TT should be requested and received. Any feedback or suggested edits from the work provider should be dealt with as soon as possible. Before issuing an invoice, it is vital to ensure that the job has been done to the satisfaction of the work provider. The invoice should include everything needed for payment to be made, that is, invoice number, sender/recipient contact details, job/PO number, details of job, amount/fee, currency, IBAN details for bank transfers, payment terms, and so on. It is important to keep track of invoices issued and to keep a record of when (and how) to expect payment. If payment is not received by the due date, appropriate action should be taken to chase up late payment. Typically, this starts with an informal enquiry as to the reason for the delay. If payment is not forthcoming, more stringent action will need to be taken, such as a warning letter. Finally, if payment is delayed for a substantial amount of time, the translator may have to take legal action. This is clearly the last resort. There are various reasons why payment is sometimes late, but however valid these reasons are for the company or individual paying for the translation, the translator relies on prompt remuneration of work successfully completed and delivered. Once a job has been paid, it is time to archive the TT with any relevant documentation, notes and feedback. Any suggested and reasonable corrective action requested by the work provider should be taken by the translator, with a view to improving the service. These are the bare bones of a translator’s quality control system, backed up by common sense, experience and a safety net. For freelancers, this usually takes the form of a professional liability (or indemnity) insurance policy, to guard against claims for damages arising from work that may be described as sub-standard. Fortunately, such claims are rare, but it is not worth taking any risks. Information on suitable insurance policies may be obtained from professional translation bodies. Translation service providers (companies/agencies) will also hold indemnity insurance. Their quality assurance and control system has to be effective and transparent, and most TSPs will hold quality certification, which will reassure potential users of the quality of their services. Client-oriented quality assurance is based on the following features: quality of translators, workflow, materials (for example, glossaries/databases), tools, and feedback. It must also provide quality assurance for the suppliers (translators). Key points here include: good communications, reliability of service and prompt payment, timely assistance in case of queries, and assistance with research and materials where possible.

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International organisations, such as the EU, also follow strict quality procedures, based on staffing, methods and procedures, and tools. Recruitment and selection procedures need to be rigorous and transparent, and staff need the competence levels to produce documentation of the highest standards. Mentoring and training of staff is also part of quality assurance. Documentation, terminology and tools such as translation memory are also major factors in both quality assurance and productivity. Checking translations is usually carried out by senior staff acting as revisers, a process that enables any corrective action to be taken swiftly and promotes best practice. Now that you have some idea of professional standards and behaviour, you may find the following practicals useful as a basis for reflection, analysis and discussion.

Practical 19 19.1 Professional standards Assignment The following questions present professional challenges. The material can be used in various ways: (a) Answering the questions as formulated, and (in class mode) discussing the possible responses. (b) Group mode: creating a multiple-choice question for each question, by creating three possible responses to the challenge. On completion, the responses can be analysed and discussed, and consensus reached on the most appropriate course of action. (c) Self-study mode: an interesting way of approaching the situations is to imagine two different responses, then decide which you think is the more appropriate, and why. Questions (‘You’ implies ‘the translator’): 1 You are unable to complete the translation by the agreed deadline. What action should be taken? 2 You feel that engaging in CPD is a waste of valuable time and should be optional. Is this an acceptable position? 3 You reveal information relating to a translation by asking a colleague to revise your work. What conflict of interest arises here? 4 You decide to contact the client directly about ambiguities in the source text, rather than ‘waste time’ going through the TSP. Why is this unacceptable? 5 In order to get work, you charge a rate well below the market average. What consequences arise from this behaviour? 6 You receive a source text that is poorly presented and written. What action should you take?

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7 You are asked to translate material that contains evidence of wrongdoing. What action should you take? 8 You accept a job from a company consisting of a text detailing industrial action, to be sent to the company’s headquarters. You are instructed by the company to play down the industrial dispute taking place, for political reasons. What do you do? 9 The text you are translating appears to contain errors and omissions that the client cannot help you with. What action do you take? 10 You have been offered a substantial translation by someone who has seen your CV on the internet, which has impressed him. What action should you take before considering whether to accept the job? 19.2 Quality standards Assignment Devise a quality control worksheet (template or document) to be used for each translation. It should be comprehensive, user-friendly and practical. Class mode: This task can be set as homework, and the formats discussed in class. Individual mode: Once you have produced the template, try it out on your next translation, assess its effectiveness, then make any improvements needed. Tips: Bear in mind that you will need to be able to: • • • • • •

fill in the form quickly; add items to it easily; extract information from it quickly; update it easily; use it as a record for all the different aspects of your translation work; and use it to assure the quality of your work.

20 Summary and conclusion

The only conclusion necessary to Thinking Italian Translation is a summing up of what it is the translator is supposed to be thinking about. The first thing to remember is that, whatever revision or editing the TT has undergone, it is the translator who is ultimately responsible for it. ‘Thinking’ translation implies a clearsighted acceptance of this responsibility, but it also implies reducing the element of chance in how the TT will be received. If responsibility entails making decisions, applying the method presented in this book will enable the translator to make them intelligently and imaginatively enough to be confident of what the overall impact of the TT will be. This is why we have stressed throughout the book the need for a clearly formulated initial strategy, and for clearly formulated decisions of detail rationally linked to the strategy. One thing we hope to have shown is that no strategy can be assumed a priori. Formulating an appropriate strategy means assessing the salient features of a particular ST and of the particular circumstances in which it is to be translated. The crucial question, then, is: How do I decide which features are salient? What we have tried to do is equip the student translator with a way of answering this question, whatever the nature of the ST. For our purposes, the salient features of a text can be said to be its most relevant ones, those that have significant expressive function. Devising a strategy means prioritising the cultural, formal, semantic, stylistic and genre-related properties of the ST according to two things: their relative textual relevance, and the amount of attention they should receive in translation. The aim is to deal with translation loss in as rational and systematic a way as possible. This implies being prepared, if necessary, to lose features that have relatively little textual relevance in a given ST (for example, alliteration in a technical text on mining), sacrificing less relevant textual details to more relevant ones. And, of course, it implies using compensation to restore features of high textual relevance that cannot be more directly rendered (for example, a play on words in a literary text). ‘Textual relevance’ is thus a qualitative measure of how far particular properties of a text are responsible for its overall impact. Textually relevant features are those that stand out as making the text what it is. Since it is the translator who decides what is textually relevant, the decision is inescapably subjective. But not necessarily damagingly so. A relatively objective test of textual relevance is to

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imagine that a particular textual property is omitted from the text and to assess what difference this would make to the overall impact of the text. If the answer is ‘little or none’, the property in question has little textual relevance. But if omitting it would imply a loss in either the genre-representative or the individual character of the text, then it has high textual relevance. Developing a translation strategy by assessing textual relevance in an ST entails scanning the text for every kind of feature that might be relevant to producing an appropriate TT. For this scanning to be effective, it is vital to have in mind a systematic set of questions to ask of the ST. These questions correspond to the checklist of kinds of textual feature introduced in the schema of textual matrices on p. 4. The successive chapters of Thinking Italian Translation tackle the sorts of translation issues lying behind the questions that need to be asked of texts. The idea is learning to ask the questions systematically, one after the other. As translators working through the book will have found, it only takes a bit of practice to be able to do this very quickly and efficiently. Some comments are called for on aspects of the relation between the schema of textual matrices and the book you have read. First, the ‘cultural’ matrix is different in focus from the others. Unlike the others, it does not list types of feature that may in themselves be salient in the ST before the translator starts forming a strategy. Corresponding to Chapter 3, it lists types of feature whose relevance can only be decided when the translator starts to form a strategy. That is, it draws attention to features that force the translator to choose between source-culture and target-culture elements. As such, it does invite the translator to assess how far the culture-specificity of ST features is textually relevant – this is why we have included it in the schema of textual matrices. The other matrices are more straightforward reminders of what sorts of thing to look for when asking what the relevant features of a text are. Chapters 5–7 correspond to the ‘formal’ matrix, introducing translation issues raised by the formal properties of texts. Chapters 8 and 9 correspond to the ‘semantic’ matrix; the translation issues addressed here are the ones most typically raised by literal and connotative meaning. Chapter 10 corresponds to the ‘varietal’ matrix; the questions to ask here concern language variety and its translation implications. Chapter 11, corresponding to the ‘genre’ matrix, gives a set of parameters to apply in identifying textual genre preparatory to translation. (As is explained in the Introduction and stressed throughout the course, genre is a primary factor in deciding a strategy, but can itself only be determined after the other salient features of the ST have been identified. Hence its position halfway through the book rather than at the beginning.) Chapters 12–14 then give a brief sample of the many subgenres from which professional translators will normally choose their speciality. Some vital topics in the book do not figure as such in the schema of matrices. This is because they either apply universally from top to bottom of the schema, or concern a translation operation, not a textual feature. Grammatical transposition, for example, is introduced in Chapter 2, but is of central relevance in every chapter

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and every practical. There is a case to be made for including it in the cultural matrix, but it is so all-pervasive that it is not useful to identify it as a discrete element in the matrix. Another absolutely crucial topic, introduced as such in Chapter 4 but everywhere relevant, is compensation. More than anything else, successful compensation exemplifies the combination of imagination and rigour that is the mark of a good translator. However, even though compensation very often involves cultural and/or grammatical transposition, it is a translation operation, not a textual feature. So too is revising, which is introduced as such in Chapter 15, but is a vital stage in the translation process and figures in a number of chapters and practicals. One pre-eminent translation issue is neither a textual feature nor a translation operation. This is the translation brief – why the text is being translated, on whose behalf, and for what audience. As we suggest in Chapter 11, it is useful, for practical translation needs, to see the communicative purpose of a text as very closely linked with its genre. Genre, of course, is a textual feature, and as such figures at the head of the schema on p. 4. The reason why it is placed at the top is precisely that it shares a prime importance with communicative purpose: the translation process will result in a translation product, a text having specific textual features, and produced in order to meet a communicative demand. This demand, formulated by the work-provider, is the translation brief. As the brief is neither a process nor a textual feature, it does not have a chapter to itself. But it has decisive importance, and that is why we have everywhere stressed its role as a parameter in assessing the relevance of ST and TT textual features, and why, in practicals, you have been asked to produce your TTs as if in response to a specific commission. It should be remembered that the schema of matrices can be used to analyse any text, not just an ST. It can be applied to draft TTs, their features being systematically compared with those of the ST so as to see which details will be acceptable in the final version. Published TTs can also be evaluated in the same way. But whatever the text that is analysed by this method, never forget that the watchword is . . . thinking translation. Section 1 of this book (‘Process and product’) encourages a methodical approach based on reasoned analysis of textual features and the translation problems they pose. But ‘methodical’ is not synonymous with ‘mechanical’ or ‘automatic’. As we said in the Introduction, good translators know what they are doing: for thinking translation, there has to be a thinker, an individual person using flair and rigour to take creative, responsible decisions. We have tried to do two things in Section 1. First, to help you ask and answer the strategic questions we listed on p. 2: What is the message content of this particular ST? What are its salient linguistic features? What are its principal effects? What genre does it belong to and what audience is it aimed at? What are the functions and intended audience of my translation? What are the implications of these factors? If a choice has to be made among them, which ones should be given priority? And second, to help you use intelligent, creative techniques for the translation operation, the battle with the problems of syntax, lexis, etc. that has to

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be fought in translating particular expressions in their particular context. Chapter 16, at the end of Section 1, provides the opportunity to explore three commented translations, which can be used to critically analyse and discuss the strategy and detail of the choices made. Finally, the addition of three chapters (Chapters 17–19), covering professional aspects relating to the work of a translator, is intended to provide information and advice to complement the methodological and practical focus of Section 1. Since the first edition of this book in 2000, there have been significant developments in the translation industry, due to globalisation and technological advances, both of which have had wide-reaching effects on the work of translators and of those who request their services. While the industry and technology will no doubt continue to develop apace, it is hoped that these chapters will, at least, provide a snapshot of the industry in its current state of evolution.

Glossary

affective meaning a type of connotative meaning, affective meaning is the emotive effect worked on the addressee by using one particular linguistic expression rather than others that might have been used to express the same literal message. alliteration the recurrence of the same sound or sound-cluster at the beginning of two or more words occurring near or next to one another; not to be confused with assonance or onomatopoeia. allusive meaning a type of connotative meaning; in a given linguistic expression, allusive meaning consists in evoking the meaning of an entire saying or quotation in which that expression figures. NB If a saying or quotation appears in full, that is a case of citation: e.g. ‘The darling buds of May are just beautiful this year’; allusion occurs where only part of the saying or quotation is used, but that part evokes the meaning of the entire saying or quotation: e.g. ‘Brrr . . . No darling buds yet awhile, I’m afraid’. anaphora see grammatical anaphora and rhetorical anaphora. associative meaning the connotative meaning of a linguistic expression which takes the form of attributing to the referent certain stereotypically expected properties culturally associated with that referent. assonance the recurrence of a sound or sound-cluster within words occurring near or next to one another; not to be confused with alliteration or onomatopoeia. attitudinal meaning the connotative meaning of a linguistic expression which takes the form of implicitly conveying a commonly held attitude or valuejudgement in respect of the referent of the expression. back-translation translation of a TT back into the SL; the resulting text will almost certainly not be identical to the original ST. calque a form of cultural transposition whereby a TT expression is closely modelled on the grammatical structure of the corresponding ST expression; a calque is like a moment of exoticism, although exoticism proper is a feature of whole texts or sections of texts. NB Calque is different from cultural borrowing, which imports the ST expression verbatim into the TT.

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code-switching the alternating use of two or more recognisably different language variants (varieties of the same language, or different languages) within the same text. coherence (adj. coherent) the tacit, yet intellectually discernible, thematic or affective development that characterises a text, as distinct from a random sequence of unrelated sentences. cohesion (adj. cohesive) the explicit and transparent linking of sentences and larger sections of text by the use of overt linguistic devices, such as conjunctions or grammatical anaphora, that act as ‘signposts’ for the coherence of the text. collocative meaning the connotative meaning lent to a linguistic expression by the meaning of some other expression with which it frequently collocates; e.g. ‘social intercourse’ almost inevitably acquires a connotation of ‘sex’ from the common collocation of ‘sexual intercourse’. Collocative meaning is thus a kind of echo of expressions that partner a given expression in commonly used phrases. communicative translation a mode of free translation whereby ST expressions are replaced with their contextually/situationally appropriate cultural equivalents in the TL; i.e. the TT uses situationally apt target-culture equivalents in preference to literal translation. compensation a technique of reducing translation loss: where any conventional translation (however literal or free) would entail an unacceptable translation loss, this loss is mitigated by deliberately introducing a less unacceptable one, important ST effects being approximated in the TT through means other than those used in the ST. NB Unlike e.g. an unavoidable, conventional grammatical transposition or communicative translation, compensation is not forced on the translator by the constraints of TL structures – it is a conscious, free, one-off choice. compensation by splitting compensation that involves dividing up a feature carried in a relatively shorter stretch of the ST and spreading it over a relatively longer stretch of the TT; an ad hoc choice, not a grammatical constraint. compensation in mode compensation that involves using a different mode of textual effect in the TT from the one used in the corresponding part of the ST; most compensation is compensation in mode, whatever other features it has. compensation in place compensation that involves a TT textual effect occurring at a different place, relative to the other features in the TT context, from the corresponding textual effect in the ST context; an ad hoc choice, not a grammatical constraint. connotation see connotative meaning. connotative meaning (or connotation) the implicit overtones that a linguistic expression carries over and above its literal meaning. NB The overall meaning of an expression is compounded of its literal meaning plus these overtones and its contextual nuances.

Glossary 191 context (adj. contextual) the rest of the text in which a given linguistic expression or stretch of text (e.g. lines, paragraph, chapter) occurs; the immediate context is an essential consideration in making any decision of detail. cultural borrowing taking over an SL expression verbatim from the ST into the TT; the borrowed term may remain unaltered in form, or it may undergo some degree of transliteration. NB Cultural borrowing differs from calque and exoticism, which do not use the ST expression verbatim, but adapt it into the TL, however minimally. cultural transplantation the highest degree of cultural transposition, involving the wholesale deletion of source-culture details mentioned in the ST and their replacement with target-culture details in the TT. cultural transposition any departure from literal translation that involves replacing SL-specific features with TL-specific features, thereby to some extent reducing the foreignness of the TT. decisions of detail translation decisions taken in respect of specific problems of lexis, syntax, etc.; decisions of detail are taken in the light of previously taken strategic decisions, although they may well in their turn lead the translator to refine the original strategy. dialect a language variety with non-standard features of accent, vocabulary, syntax and sentence-formation characteristic of the regional provenance of its users. discourse level the level of textual variables on which whole texts or sections of texts are considered as coherent or cohesive entities. editing the final ‘polishing’ of a TT, following revision, and focusing on matching TT style and presentation to the expectations of the target readership. exegetic translation a style of translation in which the TT expresses and comments on additional details that are not explicitly conveyed in the ST; i.e. the TT is an explication, and usually an expansion, of the contents of the ST. exoticism the lowest degree of cultural transposition, importing linguistic and cultural features wholesale from the ST into the TT with minimal adaptation; exoticism generally involves multiple calques. NB Exoticism is different from cultural borrowing, which does not adapt ST material into the TL, but quotes it verbatim. free translation a style of translation in which there is only a global correspondence between units of the ST and units of the TT – e.g. a rough sentence-to-sentence correspondence, or an even looser correspondence in terms of even larger sections of text. generalisation see generalising translation. generalising translation (or generalisation) rendering an ST expression by a TL hyperonym, e.g. translating ‘sonaglio’ as ‘bell’. The literal meaning of the TT

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expression is wider and less specific than that of the corresponding ST expression; i.e. a generalising translation omits detail that is explicitly present in the literal meaning of the ST expression. genre (or text-type) a category to which, in a given culture, a given text is seen to belong and within which it is seen to share a type of communicative purpose with other texts; that is, the text is seen to be more or less typical of the genre. gist translation a style of translation in which the TT expresses only the gist of the ST; i.e. the TT is at the same time a synopsis of the ST. grammatical anaphora the replacement of previously used linguistic expressions by simpler and less specific expressions (such as pronouns) having the same contextual referent; e.g. ‘I dropped the bottle and it broke’. grammatical level the level of textual variables on which are considered words, the decomposition of inflected, derived and compound words into their meaningful constituent parts, and the syntactic arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. grammatical transposition translating an ST expression having a given grammatical structure by a TT expression having a different grammatical structure containing different parts of speech in a different arrangement. hyperonym a linguistic expression whose literal meaning includes, but is wider and less specific than, the range of literal meaning of another expression; e.g. ‘vehicle’ is a hyperonym of ‘car’. hyperonymy-hyponymy the semantic relationship between a hyperonym and a hyponym; a lesser degree of semantic equivalence than synonymy. hyponym a linguistic expression whose literal meaning is included in, but is narrower and more specific than, the range of literal meaning of another expression; e.g. ‘car’ is a hyponym of ‘vehicle’. idiom a fixed figurative expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal meanings of the words that constitute it, e.g. ‘football’s a different kettle of fish’, ‘she’s so stuck up’. idiomatic an idiomatic expression is one that, in its context, is unremarkable, natural, normal, completely acceptable. NB ‘Idiomatic’ is not synonymous with ‘idiomising’. idiomising translation a relatively free translation that respects the overall ST message content, but typically uses TL idioms or phonic or rhythmic patterns to give an easy read, even if this means sacrificing some semantic details or nuances of register. NB ‘Idiomising’ is not synonymous with ‘idiomatic’. illocutionary particle a discrete element that, when added to the syntactic material of an utterance, tells the listener/reader what affective force the utterance is intended to have; e.g. ‘alas’, ‘ma di’ un po’!’

Glossary 193 interlinear translation a style of translation in which the TT provides a literal rendering for each successive meaningful unit of the ST (including affixes) and arranges these units in the order of their occurrence in the ST, regardless of the conventional grammatical order of units in the TL. intertextual level the level of textual variables on which texts are considered as bearing significant external relationships to other texts, e.g. by allusion or imitation, or by virtue of genre membership. intralingual translation the re-expression of a message conveyed in a particular form of words in a given language by means of another form of words in the same language. lexis (adj. lexical) the totality of the words in a given language. linguistic expression a self-contained and meaningful item in a given language, such as a word, a phrase, a sentence. literal meaning the conventional range of referential meaning attributed to a linguistic expression. NB The overall meaning of an expression in context is compounded of this literal meaning plus any connotative meanings and contextual nuances that the expression has. literal translation an SL-oriented, word-for-word, style of translation in which the literal meaning of all the words in the ST is taken as if straight from the dictionary, but the conventions of TL grammar are respected. localisation applied to the translation process, localisation involves adapting a source text or product to a specific target culture, but not to the extent of full cultural transplantation. nominalisation the use of a linguistic expression that either consists of a noun or has a noun as its nucleus, and which could be replaced by an expression not containing a noun. onomatopoeia a word whose phonic form imitates a sound; not to be confused with alliteration or assonance. partial overlap see partially overlapping translation. partially overlapping translation (or partial overlap) rendering an ST expression by a TL expression whose range of literal meaning overlaps only partially with that of the ST expression, e.g. translating ‘professoressa’ as ‘lecturer’; i.e. the literal meaning of the TT expression both adds some detail not explicit in the literal meaning of the ST expression (she works in a university, not a school) and omits some other detail that is explicit in the literal meaning of the ST expression (she is female); partially overlapping translation thus simultaneously combines elements of generalising and of particularising translation. particularisation see particularising translation.

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Glossary

particularising translation (or particularisation) rendering an ST expression by a TL hyponym, e.g. translating ‘bell’ as ‘sonaglio’. The literal meaning of the TT expression is narrower and more specific than that of the corresponding ST expression; i.e. a particularising translation adds detail to the TT that is not explicitly expressed in the ST. phonic/graphic level the level of textual variables on which is considered the patterned organisation of sound-segments (phonemes) in speech, or of letters (graphemes) in writing. prosodic level the level of textual variables on which are considered ‘metrically’ patterned stretches of speech within which syllables have varying degrees of prominence (e.g. through stress and vowel-differentiation), varying degrees of pace (e.g. through length and tempo) and varying qualities of pitch. reflected meaning the connotative meaning given to a linguistic expression by the fact that its form (phonic, graphic or both) is reminiscent of a homonymic or near-homonymic expression with a different literal meaning; e.g. ‘I can see you’re naval’ could have a reflected meaning of ‘bare midriff’ in certain contexts. Reflected meaning is thus a kind of echo of the literal meaning of some other expression that sounds, or is spelled, the same, or nearly the same, as a given expression. register see social register and tonal register. rephrasing the exact rendering of the message content of a given ST in a TT that is radically different in form, but neither adds details that are not explicitly conveyed by the ST nor omits details that are explicitly conveyed in it; perfect rephrasing is rarely achieved. revision checking a TT against the ST to eliminate errors and inconsistencies; compare editing. rhetorical anaphora the repetition of a word or words at the beginning of successive or closely associated clauses or phrases. rhyme rhyme occurs when, in two or more words, the last stressed vowel and all the sounds that follow it are identical and in the same order. sentence a complete, self-contained linguistic unit capable of acting as a vehicle for communication; over and above the basic grammatical units that it contains, a sentence must have sense-conferring properties of intonation or punctuation, and may in addition contain features of word order, and/or illocutionary particles, which contribute to the overall meaning, or ‘force’, of the sentence. NB In this definition, a sentence does not necessarily contain a verb. sentential level the level of textual variables on which sentences are considered. SL see source language. social register a style of speaking/writing from which relatively detailed stereotypical information about the social identity of the speaker/writer can be inferred.

Glossary 195 sociolect a language variety with features of accent, vocabulary, syntax and sentence-formation characteristic of the class affiliations of its users. source language (or SL) the language in which the ST is expressed. source text (or ST) the text requiring translation. ST see source text. strategic decisions the initial decisions that constitute the translator’s strategy; strategic decisions are taken, in the light of the nature of the ST and the requirements of the TT, as to which ST properties should have priority in translation; decisions of detail are taken in the light of these strategic decisions. strategy the translator’s overall ‘game-plan’, consisting of decisions taken before starting to translate in detail – e.g. whether and when to give literal meaning a higher priority than style, to address a lay readership or a specialist one, to maximise or minimise foreignness in the TT, to use formal language or slang, prose or verse, etc. synonym a linguistic expression that has exactly the same range of literal meaning as one or more others. NB Synonymous expressions usually differ in connotative meaning, and are therefore unlikely to have identical impact in context. synonymy the semantic relationship between synonyms; synonymy is the highest degree of semantic equivalence. syntax (adj. syntactic) the branch of grammar that concerns the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. target language (or TL) the language into which the ST is to be translated. target text (or TT) the text that is a translation of the ST. text any stretch of speech or writing produced in a given language (or mixture of languages – cf. code-switching) and assumed to make a coherent whole on the discourse level. text-type see genre. textual variables all the demonstrable features contained in a text, and which could (in another text) have been different; i.e. each textual variable constitutes a genuine option in the text. TL see target language. tonal register a style of speaking/writing adopted as a means of conveying an affective attitude of the speaker/writer to the addressee. The connotative meaning of a feature of tonal register is an affective meaning, conveyed by the choice of one out of a range of expressions capable of conveying a particular literal message; e.g. ‘Excuse me, please’ versus ‘Shift your butt’.

196

Glossary

transcreation is the process whereby text such as advertising copy with any accompanying graphics and formatting is adapted to the target-culture setting. The objective is to elicit as closely as possible the same emotions and relevance in the target-culture setting as in the source-culture setting. Transcreation is thus a specific type of cultural transplantation. translation loss any feature of incomplete replication of the ST in the TT; translation loss is therefore not limited to the omission of ST features in the TT: where the TT has features not present in the ST, the addition of these also counts as translation loss. In any given TT, translation loss is inevitable on most levels of textual variables, and likely on all. NB The translation losses are only significant in so far as they prevent the successful implementation of the translator’s strategy for the TT. transliteration the use of TL spelling conventions for the written representation of SL expressions. TT see target text.

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Index

Bold type denotes a term that appears in the Glossary and the page where it is first defined

accent, regional 94, 191, 195 accentuation see stress adjective, adjectival 15, 26, 35, 37, 103, 123, 148, 149, 151, 152 adverb, adverbial(s) 57, 65, 67, 69, 151 advert/isement, advertising 4, 21, 25, 29, 46, 54, 102, 105, 129–30, 132, 134, 159, 161, 166, 167, 196, 197; see also persuasive genres affective meaning 4, 86, 90, 91, 189, 195 affixation 56–7, 111 alliteration 4, 36, 43–6, 56, 185, 189, 193 allusion 4, 71–2, 83–5, 189, 193 allusive meaning 4, 83–6, 189 ambiguity 20, 58, 112, 122, 145, 163, 183 anapest, anapestic 52 anaphora see grammatical anaphora, rhetorical anaphora aspect, verbal 58, 82, 145 association 45, 82, 83, 90, 94, 110, 113, 131, 145 associative meaning 4, 83–5, 189 assonance 36, 43–6, 56, 189, 193 attitudinal meaning 4, 82, 189 back-translation 18, 189 balanced (source language/target language) translation 16, 39 Ballestra, S. 92, 97–8, 197 Bassani, G. 49, 50, 197 Bausi, F. and Martelli, M. 50, 197 Benni, S. 53, 54, 197

Bolla, L. 59, 84, 197 brief see translation brief business translation 116–28 Buticchi, M. 39, 40, 100, 101, 197 Byrne, J. 108, 197 Cage, J. 46, 47, 48, 108 calque 4, 27–8, 59, 131, 189, 191 Camilleri, A. 94, 95, 197 Carducci, G. 66, 197 Carmignani, I. 106, 197 Carofiglio, G. 62, 197 Cazzullo, A. 24, 197 Chartered Institute of Linguists 160, 179, 199 checking 109, 118, 136, 137, 156, 157, 158, 183, 194; see also revision, revising cliché 16, 30, 86 code-switching 96, 190, 195 cognitive meaning see literal meaning coherence, coherent 7, 35, 36, 65–8, 70, 118, 119, 139, 146, 164, 175, 182, 190, 191, 197 cohesion, cohesive 4, 65–70, 118, 164, 182, 190, 191, 197 collocation 26, 27, 35, 131, 149, 152, 190 collocative meaning 4, 85–6, 190 communicative translation 4, 15–18, 28, 30–1, 38, 39, 84, 149, 190 compensation 2, 3, 19, 28, 34–40, 46, 58, 62, 71, 78, 80, 92, 94, 96, 185, 187, 190

202

Index

compensation by splitting 36–7, 190 compensation in mode 36–8, 190 compensation in place 36, 38, 190 compound, compounding 56–7, 90, 109, 112, 146, 192 conjunction, conjunctive phrase 37, 49, 66, 67, 69, 146, 151, 152, 190 connective 65–70, 146 connotation 22, 26, 31, 41, 44, 82–90, 94, 96, 100, 101, 144, 145, 190; see also association, overtone connotative meaning 2, 3, 36, 45, 46, 82–9, 186, 189, 190, 193, 194, 195 consumer-oriented texts 129–35; see also persuasive genres context, contextual 7, 9, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 26, 30, 31, 36, 37, 38, 39, 44, 45, 48, 58, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 85, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 108, 110, 111, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 125, 132, 134, 145, 146, 151, 170, 173, 178, 181, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 Correggio, A. 49 crossover (between oral and written genres) 104, 106 cultural borrowing 4, 29–30, 189, 191 cultural transplantation 4, 27, 28–9, 96, 191, 193, 196 cultural transposition 3, 25–33, 189, 191 dactyl, dactylic 52 Dante 4, 71, 73, 83 De Carlo, A. 59, 67, 68, 197 decisions of detail 7, 8, 9, 22, 31, 54, 62, 72, 97, 98, 106, 115, 127, 134, 147, 149, 150, 151, 185, 191, 195 demonstrative 123 denotative meaning see literal meaning derivation 56, 57 DGT see Directorate-General for Translation dialect 2, 4, 90, 93–7, 191, 195 dialefe 51 Dickens, C. 14, 199 direct client 138, 153, 160, 165, 166, 181 Directorate-General for Translation (DGT) 156, 157 dieresi 51

discourse level 4, 65–7, 70, 103, 191 Donovan 72 drama 44, 101, 103 Eco, U. 71, 72, 81, 197 editing 2, 3, 136–43, 163, 164, 175, 185, 191, 194, 198 emphasis 26, 48, 58, 60, 61, 101, 147, 149 empirical genres 102, 129; see also scientific text, technical text equivalence, equivalent effect 17, 18, 19, 72, 74, 75, 78, 112, 121, 192, 195, 198; see also semantic equivalence EU see European Union EUR-LEX 12, 122, 156, 173, 198, 199 European Commission 12, 113, 156, 172, 198, 199 European Council 119, 198 European Parliament 12, 156, 200 European Union (EU) 12, 113, 119, 120, 121, 122, 155, 156, 157, 168, 173, 174, 183, 198 exegetic translation 10, 15, 19, 21, 84, 191 exoticism, exotic 4, 21, 22, 27–9, 38, 59, 78, 84, 94, 189, 191 faithful translation 29, 134 Fazzini, M. 46, 48, 198 film 4, 28, 94, 104 foot (metrical) 52 foreign, foreignness 2, 4, 20, 27–31, 71, 191, 195; see also exoticism formal properties of texts see textual variables 41–73 Francesconi, L. 36 freelance translator 155–63, 167–9, 170, 174, 179, 182 free translation 15, 16, 108, 190, 191, 192 free verse 52 French 1, 21, 22, 26, 31, 43, 57, 71, 95, 132, 175 generalisation see generalising translation generalising translation 77–8, 191, 192, 193

Index 203 genre 2, 3, 4, 7, 36, 44, 52, 71, 91, 100–7, 108, 112, 113, 116, 121, 125, 129, 132, 133, 185, 186, 187, 192, 193, 195 German 1, 57, 175 gerund 34, 131 gist translation 9–10, 12, 14, 15, 19, 192 Gogol, N. 83 grammatical anaphora 66, 189, 190, 192 grammatical level 4, 56, 58,77, 103, 192 grammatical transposition 15, 37, 38, 56, 69, 70, 186, 187, 190, 192 grapheme 43, 194 graphic features see phonic/graphic level graphic level of textual variables see phonic/graphic level Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 65, 197 Hollander, J. 50, 197 Holmes, J.S. 17, 197 homonymy 20 hyperonym 75–8, 191, 192; see also hyperonymy-hyponymy hyperonymy-hyponymy 75–6, 192 hyponym 75–8, 108, 192, 194 iamb, iambic 52 IATE see InterActive Terminology for Europe IBM Italia 54, 55, 197 idiom 4, 16, 17, 30, 133, 150, 192 idiomatic, idiomaticity 17, 28, 39, 59, 69, 70, 133, 146, 148, 149, 192 idiomising translation 16, 17, 192 illocutionary particle 60, 61, 66, 192, 194 indirect speech 10, 68 inflection 56, 57 in-house translator 155, 157, 169 Institute of Translation and Interpreting (ITI) 160, 172, 179, 200 InterActive Terminology for Europe (IATE) 113, 156, 173, 199 interlinear translation 15, 16, 193 internship 155, 156, 157, 168 inter-semiotic translation 8 intersentential 65–70, 72; see also discourse level

intertextual level, intertextuality 2, 4, 42, 65, 71–3, 84, 193 intonation 4, 20, 48, 49, 60, 61, 62, 69, 70, 194 intralingual translation v, 8–12, 67, 193 Irwin, M. 103, 197 ITI see Institute of Translation and Interpreting Jakobson, R. 8, 197 Keats, J. 44, 45, 52, 56, 57, 58, 59, 71, 72, 197 Koller, W. 17, 198 language variety 3, 22, 90–9, 138, 186, 191, 195 Latin 21, 29, 84, 109, 122 Leech, G. 82, 198 legal translation 116–27 Leopardi, G. 71, 72, 73, 83 levels of textual variables see textual variables Levi, P. 72, 73, 83, 198 lexis 4, 11, 12, 56, 94, 113, 138, 139, 187, 191, 193; see also vocabulary linguistic expression (defined) 17, 90, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 linguistics 1, 2, 15, 41, 42 literal meaning 2, 4, 15, 17, 18, 20, 36, 41, 45, 49, 50, 56, 57, 74–81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 104, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 literal translation 15, 16, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 47, 58, 130, 133, 146, 151, 190, 191, 193 literary genres see literary texts literary texts 2, 46, 93, 94, 96, 101, 105, 111 literary translation see literary texts localisation 27, 30, 138, 193 machine translation 25, 26, 133, 136, 138, 156, 174, 175 Mahmudova, A. and Poon, M. 12 Mancusi, F. 139, 141, 198 marketing 167, 175 matrices see textual matrices Menichetti, N. 50, 198

204

Index

metre, metrical 48, 50, 51, 52, 194 metric structure of speech see prosodic level Morgan, E. 47, 48, 198 Mossop, B. 137, 198 names 27, 101, 111 Newmark, P. 16, 198 Nicolai, G.M. 148, 198 Nida, E. 17, 18, 198 nominalisation 112, 113, 193 noun 26, 29, 37, 78, 112, 121, 139, 146, 147, 152, 193; see also nominalization Oclee-Brown, H. 198 official translation 116–28 onomatopoeia 46, 189, 193 Onorato, L. 198 oral text (vs written text) 43, 48, 102–4 overtone 4, 57, 60, 82, 190; see also connotation, connotative meaning parody 4, 71, 105 partial overlap see partially overlapping translation partially overlapping translation 78–80, 193 particularisation see particularising translation particularising translation 77–8, 80, 193, 194 Pascoli, G. 83, 85, 198 pastiche 4, 96 persuasive genres 102, 105; see also advertising philosophical genres 102, 129 phoneme 43, 194 phonic features 44, 45; see also phonic/graphic level phonic/graphic level 4, 43–55, 56, 84, 103, 194 Pinchuk, I. 113, 198 Pisano, G. 32, 198 pitch 4, 48, 50, 60, 194 Pittàno, G. 60, 198 poetry, poetic 4, 27, 44, 45, 46, 47, 101, 104, 197; see also verse prefix 111 preposition 37, 57, 139, 140, 146

professional standards 1, 153, 178, 179, 181, 183 professionalism 176, 178–83 project manager see translation project manager pronoun 15, 37, 58, 65, 67, 123, 131, 192 proofreading 136, 163, 164; see also editing and revision/revising prosodic features 48, 49, 52, 60, 61, 69, 70, 103; see also prosodic level prosodic level 4, 43, 48–50, 52, 103, 194 proverb 4, 15, 16, 23, 28, 30, 31, 38, 84 punctuation 51, 61, 66, 70, 131, 137, 194 purpose, communicative 48, 49, 59, 60, 62, 100, 187, 192 purpose of source text (ST) or target text (TT) 2, 3, 19, 20, 22, 26, 27, 28, 34, 36, 44, 70, 93, 100, 104, 105, 106, 125, 129, 137, 142, 175 qualification 2, 156, 168, 169, 176 quality standards 1, 153, 160, 178, 181 rate 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 168, 183 reflected meaning 4, 85, 194 register 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 41, 68, 90–6, 101, 105, 112, 116, 121, 124, 125, 130, 132, 137, 145, 181, 192, 194, 195; see also social register, tonal register relative (clause, pronoun) 37, 146 relevance 1, 72, 185, 186, 187, 196 religious genres 102 Renzetti, P. 134, 198 rephrasing 11, 194 reported speech see indirect speech Revelation 148 revision, revising 1, 2, 3, 8, 136–42, 155, 185, 191, 194, 198 rhetorical anaphora 66, 189, 194 rhyme 20, 36, 43, 44, 46, 50, 52, 84, 194, 197 rhythm, rhythmic 4, 16, 20, 22, 36, 48, 51,192 Romano, L. 23, 198 Russo, V. 34, 87, 88, 89, 198 Santasilia di Torpino, F. 22, 198 Saponaro, M. 84, 85, 198

Index 205 scientific text (genre/translation) 4, 44, 71, 72, 102, 105, 108–15, 116, 197, 198 script 103, 104 semantic equivalence 74, 75, 78, 192, 195 sentence 10, 22, 26, 34, 35, 36, 44, 48, 49, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 72, 79, 83, 94, 113, 117, 120, 126, 132, 140, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 sentential level 4, 56, 58, 59–67, 194 sequential focus 4, 60, 61, 69, 70 Serao, M. 98, 99, 198 sinalefe 50, 51 SL see source language Slang 97, 195 Snell-Hornby, M. 17, 198 social register 4, 91–3, 112, 194; see also register sociolect 2, 4, 90, 93, 94, 96, 195 song 4, 53, 72, 102, 103, 104 sound-symbolism 44, 45 source language (SL) (defined) 7, 194, 195 source language (SL) bias 15, 16, 19, 100 source text (ST) (defined) 7, 195 spoken text see oral text ST see source text staff translator 113, 155, 156, 157, 168, 173, 174; see also in-house translator stereotype, stereotyping 4, 83, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 130 Stokes, K. 198 strategic decisions 7, 144, 148, 150, 191, 195 strategy 2, 7, 8, 19, 35, 41, 52, 92, 93, 95, 100, 105, 125, 129, 144, 148, 151, 180, 185, 186, 188, 191, 195, 196 stress 21, 26, 48, 49, 51, 52, 60, 61, 62, 69, 70, 145, 194 strong-stress metre 52 style, stylistic 2, 11, 35, 36, 68, 71, 78, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96, 101, 102, 111, 112, 118, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 130, 132, 133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 145, 148, 150, 151, 159, 164, 174, 181, 185, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 suffix 111 superordinate see hyperonym

syllable 26, 48, 50, 51, 52, 194 synonym, synonymous 4, 17, 20, 56, 75, 77, 82, 85, 110, 192, 195 synonymy 4, 56, 74, 192, 195 syntax, syntactic 4, 7, 12, 27, 28, 36, 37, 38, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 94, 95, 110, 139, 174, 187, 191, 192, 195 Tabucchi, A. 150, 198 target language (TL) (defined) 7, 195 target language (TL) bias) 15, 16, 19, 100, 101 target text (TT) (defined) 7, 195 technical resources 113, 140, 153, 156, 158, 159, 169–77 technical text 71, 72, 108–13, 120, 185; see also empirical genres, technological text technological text 108; see also technical text teleworking 155 tempo 50, 103, 194 tense 26, 58, 146, 151 text (defined) 7, 195 text-type see genre textual matrices 3, 4, 186 textual variables 2, 41–2, 43, 46, 50, 56, 65, 71, 100, 101, 111, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196 Thomson, J. 72 TL see target language TM see translation memory Tomasi di Lampedusa, G. 70, 81, 198 tonal register; see also register 4, 90–2, 112, 194, 195 transcreation 28, 129, 132, 181, 196 translation brief 2, 148, 187 translation loss 17, 19–24, 31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, 43, 46, 48, 49, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 77, 83, 86, 94, 145, 146, 148, 149, 152, 185, 190, 196 translation memory (TM) 136, 138, 140, 155, 156, 157, 162, 164, 172, 174, 183 translation project manager 153, 155, 157, 159 translation rate see rate translation service provider (TSP) 153, 155, 161, 162, 174, 179, 180, 182, 183, 199

206

Index

transliteration 191, 196 trochee, trochaic 52 TSP see translation service provider TT see target text

versification 50 vocabulary; see also lexis 7, 110, 132, 191, 195 voice stress see stress

United Nations (UN) 155, 156, 157, 174, 200

Wordsworth, W. 72 workflow 155, 158, 166, 172, 181, 182, 198 written text (vs oral text) 11, 43, 44, 46, 48, 61, 70, 90, 102, 103

verb, verbal 26, 34, 35, 58, 60, 69, 82, 96, 103, 111, 112, 119, 123, 126, 139, 145, 146, 147, 151, 156, 194 verse 50, 51, 52, 53, 103, 105, 195, 198

Zetzsche, J. 169