THEOLOGY AND IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE: AN ESSAY IN LITERARY CRITICISM FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

Citation preview

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

D

a t e __________M

R oberts, P r esto n Thomas, Jr*

a rc h

fl,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 9 5£L

May 31, 1921 Birth Date

Author

Theology and Im aginative L iter a tu res An Essay in L ite r a r y C r itic ism from the T itle o f Dissertation

P o in t o f View o f C h r istia n Theology

March, 1950

D iv in ity School Department or School

Degree

Convocation

Permission is herewith granted to the University of Chicago to make copies of the above title, at its discretion, upon the request of individuals or institutions and at their expense.

3 isi y

/ro

¥ /&

Date filmed

Number o f pages

/WT

/? r lk r £ r

Signature o f author

(X o ^

Extensive Quotation or Further Reproduction of This Material by Persons or Agencies Other than the University of Chicago May N ot Be Made without the Express Permission of the Author.

Short T

ttt i.

■

Theology

I rregular

and

n u m b e r in g

Im aginative L itera tu re

0

By cash □ AID ] By thesis deposit f ~1 D

a t e b il l e d .

O

v e r s iz e d s h e e t s

[o ]

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

THEOLOGY AND IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE An E ssa y i n L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m from th e P o i n t o f View o f C h r i s t i a n Theology

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

BY PRESTON THOMAS ROBERTS, JR.

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS MARCH, 1950

PREFACE T h is i s a n e s s a y i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m from t h e p o i n t o f view o f c o m p a r a tiv e th e o lo g y i n g e n e r a l and C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y i n p a rtic u la r. I n a l l p a r t s , I have so u g h t t o d is e n g a g e th e d i s c u s s i o n from th e r e a l m o f th e p u r e l y p e r s o n a l .

I have done so b e c a u s e I am p e r ­

suaded t h a t th e c o n c e r n s o f w h ich I have w ish e d to w r i t e h av e a w id e r g e n e r a l i t y th a n m y s e lf , an d t h a t b o t h my theme and my t h e o r y a r e c a p a b le o f p h i l o s o p h i c s t a t e m e n t .

These c o n c e r n s an d t h i s

theme a n d th e o r y may r e f l e c t my p e r s o n a l b a c k g ro u n d , te m p eram e n t, t r a i n i n g , and b e l i e f s .

I most c e r t a i n l y hope t h a t t h e y do s o .

But I do n o t t h i n k t h a t th e y a r e sim p ly o r c o m p le te ly a f u n c t i o n o f them . The c o n c e rn an d th e l a b o r s I n v o lv e d i n t h e r e s e a r c h f o r an d th e w r i t i n g o f a d o c t o r a l e s s a y a r e a p t , i f n o t b ound, to r e s t upon a n d t o i n s p i r e c o n c e r n s and o b j e c t s t h a t a r e w id e r an d d e e p e r th a n t h e c o n t e n t s p r o p e r to th e body o f th e e s s a y i t s e l f .

Among

o t h e r t h i n g s , th e y g iv e e x p r e s s i o n to a p a s s i o n w hich b eg a n f a r b ac k i n c h ild h o o d an d i n i t i a t e l a b o r s t h a t may w e l l consume a l i f e ­ tim e o f t e a c h i n g and r e s e a r c h .

F or t h i s r e a s o n , a l y r i c a l p r e f a c e

h a s p r o v e n to be b o t h n e c e s s a r y an d i m p o r t a n t . The s t a r t i n g p o i n t o f t h i s e s s a y was a c l u s t e r o f f i r s t ­ hand i m p r e s s i o n s e n c o u n te r e d w h i l e an u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d y i n g im a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e .

They r e v e a l e d t h a t many e p i c s , l y r i c s , 11

p l a y s , n o v e l s , an d s h o r t s t o r i e s have e x h i b i t e d e v e n ts an d mean­ i n g s , a s i n t e r e s t i n g an d p ro fo u n d from a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view , a s can be d i s c o v e r e d i n a s s p e c i a l p l a c e s :

d isc u rs iv e or

s y s t e m a t i c works i n d o g m a tic , c o n f e s s i o n a l , a p o l o g e t i c , p r o p h e t i c , o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l th e o l o g y , w h e th e r th e y be o f tim e p r e s e n t o r o f tim e p a s t , o r even i n t h e i n t e n s e l y s a c r e d l i t e r a t u r e o f th e H eb ra ie -C h ristia n tr a d i t i o n .

They a l s o d i s c l o s e d t h a t many o f

th e B i b l i c a l w r i t i n g s a r e s a c r e d p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e l i t ­ e r a t u r e , w h e re in t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f a b s t r a c t t h e o l o g y , an d th e d e t a i l s o f c o n c r e t e l y r e l i g i o u s an d m o ral f e e l i n g , a r e f u s e d a s e x p r e s s e d i n a e s t h e t i c sym bols. T here w ere t h r e e i n s i g h t s t h a t t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s , r i g h t l y o r w ro n g ly , summoned b e f o r e my mind.

F irs t of a l l ,

t h e r e was th e

b e l i e f t h a t t h e s t o r y o f m a n 's l i f e i s f r a u g h t a t a l m o s t e v e ry d e c i s i v e p o i n t a n d moment w i t h a d e p t h t h a t i s i n e s c a p a b l y th e o ­ l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s i n c h a r a c t e r .

S e c o n d ly , t h e r e was t h e con­

v i c t i o n t h a t e v e ry man o f l e t t e r s , o r a t l e a s t a g r e a t o n e , i s d r i v e n to s e a r c h o u t t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h a t e x i s t e n c e by h i s c a l l ­ i n g , an d may be e n a b le d , by v i r t u e o f th e h i g h l y d i s c i p l i n e d manner o f h i s s p e a k in g , to show f o r t h a s a u t h e n t i c a p i c t u r e o f t h i s t h e o l o g i c a l an d r e l i g i o u s d e p t h a s an y o t h e r man.

And l a s t l y ,

t h e r e was th e id e a t h a t t h e m o tiv e s f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n , th e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f l i t e r a r y c o m p o s itio n s , th e c o n d i­ t i o n s f o r l i t e r a r y enjoym ent an d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d t h e b a s e s f o r l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , t h e o r y , and c r i t i c i s m may b e s t b e d e s c r i b e d i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o l o g i c a l te r m s . I can remember t h e im p a c t o f t h e s e im p r e s s io n s upon me iii

now, f o r th e y have g iv e n r i s e t o a l l t h a t h a s f o llo w e d .

T here

was a s i m p l i c i t y a b o u t t h e i r f o r c e and v i v i d n e s s t h a t seemed to have b e e n to u c h e d o f f by a k in d o f p r o f u n d i t y .

They s a i d :

The m easure o f a man i s th e scope o f h i s t h e o l o g i c a l con­ c e r n . To p o n d e r l i f e one h a s to b e p o s s e s s e d o f a p a s s i o n f o r t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts and m eanings. One o f th e b e s t ways to become immersed i n t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s and i d e a s i s to con­ s i d e r th e m o tiv e s o r i n t e n t , th e i n n e r c o n t e n t an d s t r u c t u r e , an d th e e f f e c t s o r demands o f a man o f l e t t e r s ' s p e a k in g . F or t h e d e p t h o f m an's r e l i g i o u s n e s s , b e f o r e and w i t h i n t h e l i f e o f God, i s t h e r e a l i t y o f Im p o rta n c e t h a t t h e p o e t , th e d r a m a t i s t , o r th e n o v e l i s t i s bound o r a p t to sp e a k from, a b o u t , and t o . His sym bols— a t t h e i r b e s t —a r e f a s h io n e d by an d f o r i t s d i s c l o s u r e . T here was a n i n e x o r a b l e l o g i c a n d a e s t h e t i c h e r e .

The symmetry

o f b e l i e f was c h a rg e d w i t h th e e m o tio n a l i n t e n s i t y b o rn o f d i r e c t e n c o u n ter.

I n t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s , t h e w o rld had become p a r t o f me,

and I had become p a r t o f th e w o r ld .

N o th in g e l s e seemed t o be

w o rth t a l k i n g a b o u t . T hese i m p r e s s io n s c o n c e r n in g th e p r e s e n c e o f a t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e rn an d o f a t h e o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y , b e f o r e , w i t h i n , and a f t e r th e sym bols o f l i t e r a t u r e , w ere l i v e l y and c o m p e llin g , to s a y th e le & s t , even to th e p o i n t o f c l a im in g l n d u b l t a b i l i t y and s h e e r l a c k o f a m b ig u ity .

T h ere were some t h i n g s one had t o a r g u e .

d i d n o t have to a r g u e them. them.

F o r a f t e r a l l , I had n o t lo o k e d f o r

They had s o u g h t me o u t .

o r m ean in g s.

T here can be no e r r o r i n e v e n ts

T here can be no v a g u e n e ss o r u n c e r t a i n t y c o n c e rn in g

t h e i r k in d o f e v i d e n t i a l f o r c e . in fa llib le .

But one

D ire c t a c q u ain ta n c e i s c l e a r and

What you have e x p e r i e n c e d Im m e d ia te ly , you have ex­

p e r i e n c e d im m e d ia te ly .

I t i s sim p ly g iv e n and t h e r e — a co m p lete

f a c t , a c o n c re te r e a l i t y .

I t i s s i l l y to a s k w h e th e r s u c h f l a s h e s

o f i n s i g h t and d i s c l o s u r e be t r u e o r f a l s e . iv

I n t u i t i o n s an d r e v e l a

t l o n s o f t h i s k in d s t a n d b e f o r e d i s c u s s i o n . mere a c c e p t a n c e o r r e j e c t i o n . a s sim ila tio n .

They do n o t a s k f o r

T h e i r c l a i m i s t h e c l a im f o r

They a r e t h e one s o r t o f t h i n g i n t h i s w o rld t h a t

i s c l e a r , c e r t a i n , an d c o m p le te .

T r u t h , b e a u t y , g o o d n e s s , and

p i e t y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t an d im p o r ta n c e . The p r e s u m p tio n h e r e , a s I lo o k b a c k upon i t now, i s a b i t a p p a llin g .

I was n o t c o n s c io u s th e n o f t h e way t h e s e im­

p r e s s i o n s an d i d e a s had n e v e r b ee n sim p ly " o u t t h e r e . " a lw a y s b e e n on th e " i n s i d e " a s w e ll* i n t o t h e i r m aking.

They had

And I had e n t e r e d v e r y much

Nor was I aw are t h a t my f e e l i n g s f o r th e

sym bols o f l i t e r a t u r e a l r e a d y b r i s t l e d w i t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s f a r l e s s d i r e c t an d r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e i n t u i t e d e v e n ts an d m eanings th e m s e l v e s .

Nor was I a b l e t o d i s c r i m i n a t e among t h e many k i n d s ,

l e v e l s , s t a g e s , a n d d e g r e e s o f t h e o l o g i c a l t r u t h and l i t e r a r y b e a u ty i n v o l v e d .

I was e q u a l l y o b l i v i o u s t o w hat m ig h t v e r y

w e l l l i e beyond t h e most p e r f e c t a e s t h e t i c sy m b o l’ s r e a c h .

In

f a c t , I ev en w ent so f a r a s to r e s i s t t h e sym bolism o f p h il o s o p h y , o f s c i e n c e , o f h i s t o r y , o f common s e n s e , o f d a i l y l i f e , a n d o f d re a m s, a s b e i n g somehow l e s s c l e a r , l e s s c e r t a i n , a n d l e s s com­ p le te . B ut t h i s e x tr a v a g a n c e i s o f t h e v e ry n a t u r e o f d i r e c t i n t u i t i o n s : n o t t h e i n s i g h t s one c r e a t e s , b u t t h e i n s i g h t s one i s c re a te d by.

You can f o r g i v e t h e i r h id d e n d o g m atic o r e c l e c t i c

te n d e n c ie s , f o r th e y a r e s t a r t i n g p o in ts , e x c iti n g your sen se o f w onder t o eome a l i v e .

A c e r t a i n w i l d n e s s i s e x a c t l y w hat th e y

had b e t t e r be and d o .

No m a t t e r how p r i m i t i v e l y u n c r i t i c a l may

b e t h e en c h an tm en t th e y a r o u s e , no m a t t e r how d i s c o n n e c t e d an d

unfath om ed may be th e w o rld th e y invoke* no m a t t e r how a b s u r d an d f a n t a s t i c may be th e i n t e r p r e t a t i v e Judgm ents th e y c a l l f o r t h , t h e s e i m p r e s s io n s g iv e b i r t h to r e a s o n , t o t h e l i f e o f t h e mind. T h e i r fe r m e n t i s w hat c r e a t e s th e " l i f e and motion* o f t h e s o u l . F o r th e m ost p a r t , and n o t so s u r p r i s i n g l y a t t h a t , th e y can re m a in j u s t a s t e l l i n g i n t h e end a s th e y w ere a t t h e o u t s e t . Of c o u r s e , one must l e a r n how to d i s t i n g u i s h among th e o b j e c t s o f t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s b etw een t h e q u a l i t i e s o f p a s s i n g e v e n t s , r e c u r r e n t s t r u c t u r e s , a n d more o r l e s s e n d u r in g p e r s o n s , s o c i e t i e s , s i t u a t i o n s and t h i n g s .

One m ust a l s o r e n d e r a p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n

o f t h e i r n a t u r e , a p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s e s an d p r i n ­ c i p l e s i n te rm s o f w h ich th e y so im m e d ia te ly w orked, and a f u l l ­ blow n j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e t r u t h and im p o r ta n c e o f t h e i r s t a t u s . One may a l s o h ave t o ch eck t h e i r d r i v e to e x a g g e r a t i o n , and th e f o l l y o f i t s c o n s e q u e n t o m is s io n s o r d i s t o r t i o n s , i n o r d e r to a c q u i r e t h e b a l a n c e o f f e r e d by d i f f e r i n g , p e r h a p s w id e r , d i s c i p l i n e s an d p o i n t s o f view .

But i n an y c a s e , t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s a r e a p t

to have p r e s e n t e d a n elem e n t o f d e c i s i v e c l a r i t y and s c o p e , once an d f o r a l l .

They seem to p o s s e s s a n uncanny, an d y e t a re m a rk a b ly

l e g i t i m a t e , way o f i n s p i r i n g t h e i r own t r u s t an d p r o v i d i n g th e b a s i s f o r t h e i r own j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

F or t h e i r b e s t w o rk in g n o t

o n l y q u ic k e n e d , b u t d i r e c t e d y o u r s e n s i b i l i t y an d i n t e l l i g e n c e to a p p r e h e n d th o s e a s p e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e , o f la n g u a g e , and o f r e a l i t y t h a t m a t t e r m o st.

I n them you began n o t sim p ly to r e f l e c t

o r to d i s c o u r s e upon th e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s - y o u began to r e e n a c t an d to p a r t i c i p a t e i n them.

I t i s e n d le s s ly p e r ilo u s to r e l i n q u i s h

th e g i f t s o f th e s h o r t e s t o f s e a s o n s , f o r i n y o u th r e a c t i o n s to vi

t h e q u a l i t i e s o f e v e n ts a r e more s e n s i t i v e t h a n , and r e s p o n s e s to t h e i r r e l a t i o n s a r e j u s t a b o u t a s t h o u g h t f u l a s , th e y a r e a t an y l a t e r tim e . Of c o u r s e , im p r e s s io n s and i d e a s l i k e t h e s e do n o t come from now here.

They o n ly a p p e a r to ta k e you by s u r p r i s e .

have a l o n g h i s t o r y — p e r s o n a l , p r i v a t e , d e t a i l e d .

They

And i t i s b e­

c a u se o f t h e i r I n t i m a t e h i s t o r y , i n p a r t , t h a t one must r e s p e c t them.

F or th e y t e l l you a b o u t w hat h a s gone i n t o y o u r making.

E v e r y th in g e l s e a b o u t you may be s u s p i c i o u s l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and f a l s e , fram ed by Im ages o f w hat you sh o u ld l i k e to t h i n k and f e e l , o r su p p o se you somehow o u g h t to t h i n k an d f e e l — a l l th o s e h o r r i d t r a p p i n g s an d i m p o s i t i o n s t h a t c a n d i s t o r t o n e 's a c t u a l , n a t i v e th o u g h t s a n d f e e l i n g s . c a lc u la te d .

But t h e s e im p r e s s io n s a r e n o t p o s e d , n o t

They a r e n a i v e , f r e s h , an d r e a l .

They a r e th e

" i n n e r l i g h t " upon w hich a Q uaker can s c a r c e l y f a i l to d w e ll . F or i n s t a n c e , th e y t o l d me, among o t h e r t h i n g s , a b o u t how d e e p ly I a c t u a l l y c a r e d f o r th e B i b l e , how ever much I l i k e d to f e e l above an d beyond i t .

They rem ind ed me t h a t , d e s p i t e my

l i b e r a t i o n s , I owed a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g to i t ,

i n c l u d i n g my s e n s e

o f c a l l i n g to e n v is a g e th e o lo g y a n d r e l i g i o n th r o u g h t h e symbols of lite ra tu re .

F o r th e y ta u g h t me to r e v e r e n c e ab o v e a l l e l s e ,

th e way my c h i l d i s h I m a g i n a t i o n had r e f u s e d to g iv e up w hat i t s t e a c h e r s h ad so u g h t so h a r d , i f b l i n d l y , to d e s t r o y — t h a t s im p le , im m ed ia te jo y an d sorro w t h a t can come o f r e a d i n g t h e s t o r i e s a b o u t e n c o u n t e r s b etw een God a n d man i n B i b l i c a l t i m e s .

T hese s t o r i e s

w ere t o l d so c o n c r e t e l y , and t h e r e f o r e so p r o f o u n d ly , t h a t th e y c o u ld h a v e b e e n , an d w e r e , a b o u t t h e e n c o u n te r s betw een God an d v ll

man, n o t j u s t "once upon a t i m e ," b u t a t a n y tim e and i n my own life .

The B i b l e ' s c la im to perm anence, i t s v e r y c a p a c i t y to

en du re i n my c h i l d i s h f e e l i n g s , you s e e , r e s t e d p r i m a r i l y upon its a rt.

W hatever p h i l o s o p h i c a l th e o lo g y , i n th e s y s t e m a t i c

s e n s e , was p r e s e n t i n i t s g r e a t e s t s t o r i e s must have b e e n a lm o s t to o d i s g u i s e d

f o r th e eye to s e e .

At l e a s t I cannot r e c a l l i t

a s so m e th in g a p a r t from th e s t o r i e s and t h e i r sh a p e . no p r e a c h i n g , no f o r m u l a t i n g .

T h ere was

T h ere was o n ly t h e v i s i o n o f w hat

God c o u ld be f o r t h i s man and f o r t h a t , and t h e r e f o r e f o r an y man, an d f o r me.

And y e t I ca n remember my i n t e n s e d i s c o m f o r t o v e r th e

way t h e s e s t o r i e s w ere h o r r i b l y b e s p o i l e d by th o s e who r u i n e d t h e i r sh a p e , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e i r m eaning, by t r y i n g t o t r a n s l a t e th e symbols woodenly a n d c r a z i l y i n t o t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e m o r a ls — th e o ­ lo g ic a l o r o th e rw ise .

S h a k e s p e a re and t h e Bifcie ( I th o u g h t o f

them t o g e t h e r th e n , even th e n ) c r e a t e d w o r l d s , n o t s y s t e m s ; p i c ­ t u r e s , n o t d o c t r i n e s ; schemes o f im a g es, n o t a d j u s t e d c o n c e p t s . They p r e s e n t e d a c t i o n s , n o t a r g u m e n ts . them, from them, o r to them.

One d i d n o t r e a s o n a b o u t

One j u s t e n t e r e d i n .

They s t i r r e d

e m o tio n s more f a m i l i a r th a n a n y t h i n g e l s e one knew, and made them fresh .

They became a k in d o f r i t u a l one w anted to go th r o u g h

a g a i n and a g a i n .

The B i b le an d S h a k e s p e a re were t h i n g s one s h o u ld

sim p ly l i k e to c h a n t, i f one o n ly had th e v o i c e .

And w hat was

most re m a rk a b le a b o u t them was t h e e n e rg y an d ra n g e o f t h e i r la n g u a g e , i t s s u s t a i n e d i n t e n s i t y and m a s s iv e n e s s , i t s p l a s t i c Im agery and rh y th m , i t s c o n s i s t e n t d e p th o f a tm o sp h e re and to n e . The o n ly d i f f e r e n c e , and i t was c o n s i d e r a b l e i f somewhat b a f f l i n g to me th e n , was t h a t my g ran d m o th e r r e a d t h e B i b l e , n o t v iii

S h a k e s p e a r e , a s sh e l a y s i c k and d y in g .

What had e x c i t e d me a b o u t

h e r , even b e f o r e t h e n , when she would a s c e n d t h e a t t i c s t a i r s to b e a l o n e w i t h t h e B i b l e I n h e r room, was t h e way she p r o j e c t e d e v e r y t h i n g she th o u g h t an d f e l t a n d d i d and was I n t o I t s r e a d i n g . I t was n o t sim p ly a n a c t o f p i e t y f o r h e r , i n t h e n arro w s e n s e . I t was a n a c t o f l i f e .

She was j u s t l i v i n g more v i v i d l y an d

s p a c i o u s l y i n t h o s e moments t h a n a t an y o t h e r tim e . see i t in h er ey es.

You c o u ld

They seemed t o have b een ta k e n bya k in d o f

sp e ll.

She n e v e r t o l d me what i t was t h a t she had d i s c o v e r e d

th e re .

She d i d n o t have t o .

She sim p ly ru m b led an o l d s to n e upon

th e f l o o r t h a t was t h e c e i l i n g o f my room.

T h a t t o l d me e v e ry ­

t h i n g a b o u t h e r so rro w an d h e r j o y . Of c o u r s e , I have som etim es hoped a n d w ondered, p e r h a p s v a i n l y and p r o f a n e l y , w h e th e r she had b e e n s t r u c k a t t h o s e tim e s by t h e s e same i m p r e s s i o n s t h a t had come i n upon me— t h e w o n d ro u sly c o n c r e t e q u a l i t y o f t h e H e b r a i c - C h r i s t i a n i m a g i n a t i o n , a n Im ag in a­ t i o n f o r w hich t h e r e i s no m eaning a p a r t from a d e t a i l e d h a p p e n in g , no w ords t h a t a r e n o t a l s o a c t i o n s , no i d e a s , no d o c t r i n e s t h a t a r e n o t a l s o s t o r i e s , no r e l i g i o n , no t h e o l o g y , no God ( t r a g i c a l l y an d p e r h a p s i d o l a t r o u s l y enough) a p a r t from a c o n c r e t e f i g u r e , a p a r t from a M e ssia h o r an I n c a r n a t i o n , i f you w i l l . But t h i s d o e s n o t m a t t e r .

What m a t t e r s , a s J o y c e h a s

s a i d , i s " t h e e n c h a n tm e n t o f th e h e a r t , " t h e s e n s e o f c a l l i n g . When I f e l t d r i v e n t o mumble s i l e n t l y some words from S h a k e s p e a re b e s i d e h e r g r a v e , a l o n g w i t h th e B i b l e ' s own w hich th e m i n i s t e r h a d p r o v i d e d , I f e l t most d e e p ly w hat t h e S c r i p t u r e s h ad b ee n f o r h e r i n h e r own l i f e , and t h e way th e o lo g y an d r e l i g i o n c o u ld a l o n e ix

make t h e i r way f e l t I n t o m ine.

The B i b l e h a d I n v e s t e d t h e h a r d

r e a l i t i e s o f h e r d a l l y l i f e w i t h a s im p le , a l m o s t c e r e m o n ia l d ig n ity .

The w o rld i t s words c r e a t e d and in v o k e d had g iv e n a

r i c h l y i m a g i n a t i v e o r d e r i n g a n d sh ap e t o h e r e x p e r i e n c e s .

Its

s t o r i e s h ad k e p t a l i v e an d k i n d l e d h e r c a p a c i t y f o r human s t r i v i n g , b o t h f o r s u f f e r i n g an d f o r p e a c e .

They had c a p t u r e d f o r h e r some

s e n s e o f t h e e l e m e n t a l t r a i t s o f d i v i n e and human c h a r a c t e r , l y i n g c o n s t a n t w i t h i n a l l t h e s h i f t i n g g u i s e s ; had im m ersed h e r i n p rim ­ i t i v e p a t t e r n s o f r e c u r r e n c e , o f b i r t h , l i f e , d e a t h , an d r e n e w a l; a n d had e n l a r g e d t h e warmth a n d wisdom o f h e r f i n a l a f f i r m a t i o n f o r man’ s common r e l i g i o u s l o t an d d e s t i n y .

Her r e s p o n s e s to them had

d e e p e n e d h e r c h a r a c t e r a n d h e r w o r th , h ad endowed h e r w i t h f e e l i n g s and c o n v i c t i o n s , i n s i s t e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r and p e n e t r a t i n g l y s i n c e r e . What t h e B i b l e had b ee n f o r h e r , a l l g r e a t l i t e r a t u r e was to be f o r me.

I f e l t summoned, from n e a r and from a f a r . An i n d e b t e d n e s s , a b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s

an d im m e a s u ra b le .

s o r t i s so p e r s o n a l

B ut t h e r e i s n o t h i n g s e n t i m e n t a l o r p e c u l i a r

h e r e , i n t h e I n i t i a l o r i n t h e e n d u r in g im p r e s s .

Most s t a r t i n g

p o i n t s an d most q u e s t s a r e o f t h i s c h a r a c t e r , l i t t l e c a n ad d up to s o m e th in g b i g ,

th in g s th a t

I d w e ll upon t h e s e I m p r e s s i o n s , and

i l l u s t r a t e t h e i r p e r s o n a l o r i g i n s , o n ly b e c a u s e t h e r e was a tim e when I a l m o s t f o r g o t them , an d b e c a u s e I f e e l t h a t t h e p e r i s h i n g o f th e s o r t o f t h i n g t h e y w ere i s what i s most d e e p ly wrong w i t h t h e modern a c a d e m ic w o rld an d w i t h many o f i t s s c h o l a r s — a k in d o f d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e h e a r t , a l a c k o f p a r t i c u l a r i t y i n t h e imag­ i n a t i o n , a want o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a e s t h e t i c sym bols c r e a t i v e o f f e e l i n g s w ith i n t e g r i t y , w ith h o n e s t y , w i t h d e p t h .

x

The s e c r e t

c a u se o f any l i f e , a f t e r a l l , no m a tte r how i n t e l l e c t u a l may become I t s s p e c i a l t a s k s , i s some s a c r e d memory o f c h ild h o o d such a s t h i s — i n c r e d i b l y sim p le , im m e a s u r a b ly humble, and a w f u lly s i n c e r e .

E v e r y th in g w o rth c u l t i v a t i n g humanly was i n

t h a t f i g u r e —a l l th e more re m a rk a b le f o r b e in g o r d i n a r y and p l a i n , th e h e r o i c i d e a l , th e t r a g i c v i s i o n , r e l i g i o u s l o n g in g an d r e ­ lig io u s peace.

You have to keep th e p i c t u r e o f th e o n s e t f i r m l y

i n mind, even a s you s e e k to s u b j e c t th e P a s s i o n o f i t s d i r e c t r e c o g n i t i o n to th e more a u s t e r e d i s c i p l i n e o f th o u g h t.

F o rg e t

th e f i g u r e , f o r g e t th e f a c e , and you can l o s e a l l s e n s e o f connec­ t i o n w i t h what l i e s so f a r b e f o r e , below , an d a f t e r t h e b r i g h t c i r c l e o f yo ur e d u c a te d c o n s c io u s n e s s .

W ithout t h i s s e n s e o f

d e r i v a t i o n and o f i s s u e a n e d u c a te d s e n s i b i l i t y w i l l a lw a y s have f o r som ethin g more r e a l and im p o r ta n t th a n i t s e l f , you oan become a l l h ead and no h e a r t .

You may even s u f f e r t h e most h o r r i d d e l u ­

s io n o f a l l — th e e r r o r , th e p r e t e n s i o n , th e en o rm ity o f t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e human mind does so m eth in g more th a n c l a r i f y i n p r i n c i p l e what t h e human h e a r t has known, knows, and w i l l know, f o r a th o u ­ sand y e a r s i n f a c t . These I m p r e s s io n s , and t h e i r I n t i m a t e h i s t o r y , p r o v id e d t h i s e s s a y w ith i t s b e g in n in g s .

S e v e r a l y e a r s o f s tu d y an d r e ­

f l e c t i o n a s a g r a d u a te s t u d e n t and i n s t r u c t o r have a c c o m p lis h e d i t s end.

The t a s k has b een one o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a g e n e r a l th e o r y

o f th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between th e o lo g y and im a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e , and o f th e t h e o l o g i c a l b a s e s f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n , l i t e r a r y en­ joy m en t, and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

T h is th e o r y a t t e m p t s to a c c o u n t

f o r th e i n v a s i o n o f t h e s e im p r e s s io n s , and to j u s t i f y t h e g iv e n xi

s e n s e o f t h e i r t r u t h and Im p o rta n c e .

The im p r e s s io n s c r e a t e d

th e c o n t e n t —what i s spoken from , a b o u t, and t o ; th e r e f l e c t i o n s have f a s h io n e d th e s t r u c t u r e — th e manner o f th e sp e a k in g and i t s sh a p e. fe lt;

The one was th e g i f t o f im m ediate f e e l i n g , im m e d ia te ly th e o t h e r was th e p r o d u c t o f d i s c i p l i n e d th o u g h t, c o n s c io u s l y

d isc ip lin e d .

I sh o u ld l i k e to t h i n k t h a t b o th I s s u e d from th e

n atu re o f th in g s .

I f so , t h e one would be th e e f f e c t , th e o t h e r

th e t e s t o f t r u t h an d v a l u e .

The d i s t i n c t i o n h e r e i s betw een

f e e l i n g and t h i n k i n g th e w o rld .

Both f e e l i n g and th o u g h t I n c r e a s e

v i v i d n e s s o f a p p r e h e n s io n , and a r e e q u a lly im p o r ta n t, " i n due s e a s o n ."

The one i s th e p r o j e c t o f yo u th ; th e o t h e r o f m a t u r i t y .

The im p r e s s io n s were th e v i v i d and d is c o n n e c te d i n s i g h t s a p p ro ­ p r i a t e f o r y o u th , unfathom ed, u n d is c r i m in a te d , and u n a n a ly z e d , w h e re in f e e l i n g s p i e r c e d a c t u a l i t y f a r d e e p e r th a n th o u g h ts a s y e t c o u ld go.

E v e r y th in g depended upon th e p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s i n

s i g h t — t h e words o f t h e B ib le and o f S h a k e s p e a re ,

W ithout th e

u n iq u e n e s s and s p e c i a l i t y o f t h e i r e x p r e s s io n , e v e r y t h in g would have b een l o s t .

N o th in g would have happened.

For y o u th , t h i s

s u r r e n d e r to th e im m e d ia te ly r e a l t h i n g was good.

One dev elo p ed

i n c o n n e c tio n w ith i t s accom panying r i t u a l s and e m o tio n s.

The

r e f l e c t i o n s In v o lv e d th e m en tal s t r i v i n g to s t a t e i n p r i n c i p l e and i n th e a b s t r a c t what had p r e v i o u s l y been i n t u i t e d i n f a c t —• w ith a s com plete detach m ent from th e o r i g i n a l i n s t a n c e s f e l t a s p o ssib le .

For th e a s p i r a t i o n s o f m a t u r i t y , t h i s s t u d i e d q u e s t

f o r i n t r i n s i c and e x t r i n s i c r e a s o n a b l e n e s s , d is e n g a g e d from emo­ t i o n , r i t u a l and b e l i e f , had t o be param ount. S e l e c t i n g th e m a t e r i a l s f o r t h i s e s s a y has t h e r e f o r e been x il

easy,

I had th e docum ents, i n t h e v ery n a t u r e o f th e c a s e , a s

a y o u th .

What h as b een h a rd h a s b een th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f them—

th e s t r u c t u r e , t h e form . a s i t was c l e a r .

The t a s k to be done was a s f o r m id a b le

U ltim a te ly i t had two v e r s i o n s .

One had to be

e i t h e r a p h i l o s o p h e r o r a man o f l e t t e r s , f o r t h e i r c a l l i n g s ex­ e m p l i f i e d th e two fu n d am e n tal ways o f u n d e r s ta n d in g and e x p r e s s ­ in g th e t h e o l o g i c a l g e n e r a l i t i e s an d d e t a i l s t h a t shape*,

th e one

by a d j u s t i n g schemes o f c o n c e p ts o r i d e a s ; th e o t h e r by a d j u s t i n g schemes o f p e r c e p t s o r im ag es; th e one by a b s t r a c t n e s s , th e o t h e r by c o n c r e te n e s s o f p r e o c c u p a t i o n , o f d i s c o u r s e , and o f g az e. The d i f f i c u l t i e s and c o m p lic a tio n s have a r i s e n o u t o f th e f a c t t h a t one i s s t i l l v e ry much o f a y o u th a t th e ag e o f tw e n ty -fiv e .

N e i t h e r en d e a v o u r, e x c e p t r a r e l y , where one i s a

K eats o r a David Hume, can become w ith any s e r i o u s n e s s o r h o n e s ty , n o t to s p e a k o f s u c c e s s , th e p r o j e c t o f y o u th , u n le s s i m i t a t i o n an d n o t o r i g i n a l i t y be th e aim .

Both e n d e av o u rs sim p ly presume

a wisdom and a m a s te r y t h a t r e q u i r e more, o r j u s t s h o r t o f a l i f e t i m e , to a t t a i n .

P u rsu e sim p ly p h ilo s o p h y and you have th e

b a r e s t fo rm u la w hich woodenly o v e r s i m p l i f i e s th e w o rld , a fo rm u la t h a t you in te n d e d to be p h ilo s o p h y , b u t w hich lo o k s v ery much upon seco nd g la n c e l i k e a commonplace.

In s te a d o f a R e lig io n in

th e M aking, t h e r e i s th e b a n a l i t y o f a bad sermon c o n c e a le d b e­ h in d good academ ic p r o s e .

P u rs u e sim p ly l i t e r a t u r e , and you

q u i c k l y have a m orass o f d is c o n n e c te d f e e l i n g s and d e t a i l .

In­

s t e a d o f a H am let, t h e r e I s a s o l i l o q u y t h a t sh o u ld n e v e r have b ee n o v e r h e a r d . What i s l e f t ?

I n s o f a r a s o r i g i n a l i t y g o e s , t h e r e i s th e x iii

t a s k o f p o i n t i n g to some g r e a t domain f o r th o u g h t— some l a r g e c i r c l e whose scope you hope may some day be c o n t a in e d , by o t h e r s o r by y o u r f u t u r e s e l f .

I n s o f a r a s I m i t a t i o n g o e s , t h e r e i s th e

t a s k o f s e t t i n g down what t h e r e was i n th e works o f some g r e a t man o r men w ith whom you s h o u ld have b een sp e n d in g th e l a s t y e a r s o f y ou r fo rm a l e d u c a t i o n .

I n t h i s way, th e tw o - f o ld i d e a l f o r

th e d o c t o r a l e s s a y may be f u l f i l l e d — f r e s h n e s s and d i s c i p l i n e d m a s te r y . These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s have d e te rm in e d th e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f my e s s a y :

i t s d i v i s i o n i n t o p a r t s on theme,

w h e re in I t r y to Invoke a n e n l a r g e d s e n s e o f th e f a r - f l u n g g r e a t ­ n e s s o f my t o p i c ; I n t o p a r t s on th e o r y , w h e re in I s e e k to g iv e i t s sw eeping c h a r a c t e r some fo rm a l d e f i n i t i o n ; and i n t o p a r t s on h i s t o r y , w h e re in I a t t e m p t to show how my theme and th e o ry f i n d e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n th e p l a y s o f t h e Greek t r a g e d i a n s an d o f S h a k e s p e a re . The l y r i c a l q u a l i t y o f t h i s p r e f a c e , and th e p e r s o n a l s o u r c e o f th e i n n e r c o n t e n t an d s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s e s s a y , a t t h e i r b e s t , flo w from t h e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s , n o t p r i v a t e f a n c y , p r e t e n s i o n , o r w eakn ess; th e d o c t r i n e s o f P l a t o and o f W hitehead t h a t t h e one fu n d a m e n ta l sa c ra m e n t I s e x p r e s s i o n ; and t h a t ex­ p r e s s i o n i s alw ay s in w ard and i n v i s i b l e a t th e o u t s e t , and v i s i b l e and o u tw a rd o n ly i n th e end.

T h ere i s n o th in g more d i f f i c u l t th a n

th e e x t e r n a l i s a t l o n o f a n I n t e r n a l f a c t — u n l e s s i t be th e i n t e r ­ n a l is a t io n o f an e x te rn a l f a c t . no e s c a p e .

From t h e s e d o c t r i n e s t h e r e i s

B e fo re t h e i r s tu b b o r n t r u t h , to o many d i s s e r t a t i o n s

can be Judged and found w a n tin g . x lv

Two t h i n g s a r e m is s in g :

th e

s e n s e o f t h e b e g in n in g , w h erein f e e l i n g and n o t th o u g h t i t s e l f s e t th o u g h t i n m otion and p r o v id e d th e m a t e r i a l f o r i t s i n t e l l e c ­ t u a l o p e r a t i o n s ; and th e se n se o f th e end, w h e re in th e a r c o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c l a r i f i c a t i o n had t o he c u t s h o r t and became a b ro k en a r c .

For t h e s e r e a s o n s , I have t r i e d to announce a s e n s e

o f c a l l i n g i n t h i s p r e f a c e , and have sought to keep from Jumping o v e r th e l i f e to come, and i t s e n s u in g d i s c i p l i n e s , w i t h i n th e body o f t h i s e s s a y . F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e th e f a c t s o f in d e b te d n e s s an d c o l l a b ­ o ra tio n .

To my t e a c h e r s —W a lte r Mohr, "Baron" B r i n t o n , W illiam

Hubben, and George W alton a t George S ch o o l; F. 0 . M a tth ie s s e n , P e r r y M i l l e r , K enneth Murdock, Samuel E l i o t M orlson, Edmund Morgan, and R ic h a r d S c h l a t t e r i n Cambridge; and B e rn a rd Loomer, Henry N elson Wieman, Wilhelm Pauck, and C h a rle s H a rts h o rn e i n Chicago— I owe a s much a s one I n d i v i d u a l can e v e r owe to a n o t h e r i n th e way o f a c q u a in t a n c e o r o f t h e o r y . and ev e ry one. ad v iser.

They a r e g r e a t t e a c h e r s , each

I am e s p e c i a l l y in d e b te d to Dean Loomer, my t h e s i s

A p a rt from h i s k in d s e v e r i t y and p a t i e n c e , I sh o u ld

have s e t down my pen too l a t e o r soon, and sh o u ld n e v e r have been a b l e to t h i n k o f my t h r e e c o n c e r n s — th e o lo g y , p h ilo s o p h y , and l i t e r a t u r e — t o g e t h e r r a t h e r th a n a p a r t .

I a l s o owe a g r e a t d e a l

t o c e r t a i n unnamed f r i e n d s h i p s en jo y ed a s a member o f th e s t a f f o f th e C o lle g e R e sid e n c e H a ll s and a s a n i n s t r u c t o r i n H um an ities i n th e C o lle g e i n C h icag o,

The s t u d e n t s t h e r e o f t e n had a s much

o f t h a t p e c u l i a r k in d o f awe, h u m i l i t y , an d a r d o u r th e l i f e o f th e mind r e q u i r e s a s many o f t h e i r e l d e r s :

awe b e f o r e i t s immense

d i f f i c u l t y , h u m i l i t y b e f o r e i t s l a c k o f any im m ediate o r o b v io u s xv

r e l e v a n c e , and a r d o u r b e f o r e t h e g r e a t n e s s o f i t s h o p e s .

For i t

was th e y who i n s i s t e d most s t r e n u o u s l y t h a t a n e s s a y b y a young man h a s to be above a l l a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , and s h o u ld sp e a k o u t o f t h e p r i d e o f b e i n g p o s s e s s e d by some k in d o f aw ak en in g an d d i s c o v e r y .

On t h e human s i d e , th e y a l s o f o re w a rn e d me t h a t

my a u d i e n c e would have t o be p e r s o n s a s s p e c i a l i n i n t e r e s t a s m y s e lf .

F or th e w o rld was n o t w a i t i n g f o r t h e w o rd s.

t h e r e a n y r e a l l y good r e a s o n why i t sh o u ld b e .

Nor was

E d u c a te d c o n s c io u s ­

n e s s was n o t w hat c o u ld most d e e p ly e f f e c t o r a f f e c t th e outcom e. And y e t th e c a l l i n g to f e e l a n d t h i n k t h e w o rld s to o d o u t a s one o f th e t h i n g s w i t h a n u l t i m a t e c la im to e x i s t e n c e i n i t s own rig h t.

M oreover, a p a s s i o n a t e r a t i o n a l i t y — l i t e r a r y o r p h i l o s o p h i ­

c a l — seemed a lw a y s to have b e e n one o f t h e g r e a t ways to p r e s e n t w hat i s a c t u a l i n l i f e w i t h what i s p o s s i b l e f o r i t , and what i s p o s s i b l e f o r l i f e w i t h w hat i s a c t u a l i n i t . I n s o f a r a s my e s s a y i s w r i t t e n o u t o f a s e n s e o f hope and p r o m is e , i t s m otto i s ta k e n from S h a k e s p e a r e 1s H am let—-"The p l a y ' s th e t h i n g , w h e re in I ' l l c a t c h th e c o n s c ie n c e o f t h e K ing."1 I n s o ­ f a r a s my e s s a y i s w r i t t e n o u t o f a s e n s e o f im m e d ia te , i f n o t o f u l t i m a t e , f a i l u r e , i t s m otto i s ta k e n from A u g u s t i n e 's C o n f e s s io n s — " A ll t h i s I w ept n o t , I who wept f o r Dido s l a i n • • •

xvi

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE.......................................................................................................... INTRODUCTION

.......................

ii 1

P art I. II. III. IV. V.

THEOLOGY AND IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE*. AN APPEAL TO HISTORY ............................................... THEOLOGY AND LITERARY CRITICISM

16

..................

40

KINDS OF THEOLOGY................................................................

72

KINDS OF LITERATURE

. . . . . . . . .

..................

123

AFFINITIES AND ANTIPATHIES BETWEEN VARIOUS KINDS OF THEOLOGY AND VARIOUS KINDS OF LITERATURE . ........................................................ . . . . .

145

THE THEOLOGICAL CONTENT AND LITERARY STRUCTURE OF GREEK DRAMATIC TRAGEDY , . .................................

176

THE THEOLOGICAL CONTENT AND LITERARY STRUCTURE OF SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMATIC TRAGEDY ............................

238

CONSTRUCTIVE SUGGESTIONS FOR A CHRISTIAN P O E T I C S ........................................................................................

360

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL N O T E ..........................................................................

387

V I. V II. V III.

x v ii

"T he p l a y ' s t h e t h i n g W herein I ' l l c a t c h th e c o n s c ie n c e o f th e K in g .'" H a m le t. A ct I I , S cene 2 " A l l t h i s I w ept n o t , I who w ept f o r Dido s l a i n C o n f e s s i o n s . Book I

INTRODUCTION Theme T heory P o i n t a o f View and Methods o f A n a ly s is Employed P r o t o t y p e s and Models I n P h i l o s o p h i c a l T heo lo g y , I n L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m , and in L ite ra tu re Argument and E v id en c e o f th e V a rio u s P a rts C o n c lu s io n s M orals

Time. The theme o f t h i s e s s a y i s th e im p o rta n c e o f t h e th e o lo g ­ i c a l e le m e n t w i t h i n I m a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e . My co n c e rn i s to show t h a t t h i s a s p e c t o f l i t e r a t u r e i s f a r more c l e a r i n c o n t e n t , d i s c i p l i n e d i n manner o f e x p r e s s i o n , and p ro fo u n d i n s t a t u s o f p e n e t r a t i o n th a n h a s , to my know ledge, b een v e r y w id e ly s e t f o r t h in a d i s c u r s i v e o r a fo rm a l way by e i t h e r t h e o l o g i a n s o r men o f l e t t e r s . I n s p e a k in g o f th e o lo g y a s an elem e n t w i t h i n I m a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e , I have r e f e r e n c e to th e way th e o lo g y i s a c o n s t i t u e n t ele m e n t w i t h i n th e i n n e r w o rld o f e v e n ts and m eanings o f w hich im a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e c o n s is ts .

I s h a l l a l s o a t t e m p t to e x h i b i t

t h a t th e o lo g y i s th e most im p o r ta n t and p o w e r fu l o f a l l th e e l e ­ m en ts, by v i r t u e o f th e way I t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h a t w o rld a n d l a r g e l y d e te r m in e s t h e manner o f i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n . By t h e o lo g y , I s h a l l mean any a t t e m p t to fathom th e b e a u ty and th e m is e ry o f th e drama t h a t i s life by means o f a J o i n t r e f e r ­ ence t o t h e c h a r a c t e r an d agen cy o f God, th e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t b e ­ tw een good and e v i l , th e s p e c i f i c c a p a c i t i e s f o r a e s t h e t i c , i n ­ t e l l e c t u a l , m o ra l, p o l i t i c a l , an d r e l i g i o u s d e p t h i n human n a t u r e , an d w h a te v e r i s r e m o r s e l e s s , c a p r i c i o u s , o r o th e r w is e s e n s e l e s s w i t h i n th e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s .

I n s p e a k in g o f th e o lo g y , I s h a l l

have i n mind more p a r t i c u l a r l y th e o lo g y o f t h e c l a s s i c a l w e s te r n k in d s.

The p r i m o r d i a l b o d ie s o f t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t an d system

i n th e West have b ee n an d a r e G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , o r s k e p t i c a l I n te m p e r. 2

3 By im a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , I s h a l l mean an y e f f o r t to t e l l t h e s t o r y o f man’ s l i f e t h a t i s so c o n c r e t e i n manner o f e x p r e s s i o n t h a t th e t e l l i n g a p p e a r s t o r e f l e c t — a s I n a m i r r o r — o r to h e i g h t e n —a s i n a d r e a m - - th e v e ry c o n c r e t e n e s s o f l i f e Itse lf.

I n s p e a k in g o f I m a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e , I more e s p e c i a l l y

s h a l l have i n mind l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e more I n t e n s e , m a s s iv e , and r e f l e c t i v e k in d s.

The fu n d a m e n ta l k in d s o f s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e

i n t h e w e st have b e e n l y r i c a l , d r a m a t i c , o r e p i c i n a t t i t u d e and sc o p e , an d a l l e g o r i c a l , r e a l i s t i c , o r sy m b o lic i n manner o f p r e s e n ­ ta tio n .

One o t h e r k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i s u s u a l l y c i t e d

I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n :

fa n ta sy .

I s h a l l c o n te n d t h a t f a n t a s y , a t

i t s b e s t , i s a c o n c e a le d r e f in e m e n t o f one o r more o f t h e o t h e r modes. The theme o f t h i s e s s a y i s th e Im p o rta n c e o f t h e i n t e r ­ r e l a t i o n s betw een t h e s e t h e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f l i f e and th e se l i t e r a r y r e p re s e n ta tio n s o f l i f e . T heory The g e n e r a l t h e o r y to be s e t f o r t h i n a fo rm a l way i s t h a t th e g r e a t n e s s o f I m a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e th e o ­ l o g i c a l t r u t h and th e l i t e r a r y b e a u ty o f th e e v e n ts and m eanings i t p re se n ts.

A p a r t from t h e p r e s e n c e o f some k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l

c o n t e n t , l i t e r a t u r e can In d e e d be l i t e r a t u r e ; b u t i t c a n n o t be fu lly g re a t.

T h at i s , l i t e r a t u r e i s n o t b y any I n n e r d e f i n i t i o n

o r o f any o u te r n e c e s s ity th e o lo g ic a l.

T heology i s n o t so m e th in g

a p a r t from w hich l i t e r a t u r e c a n sim p ly n e v e r b e .

Many o t h e r

m o t i f s ca n occupy t h e c e n t e r o f i n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n .

For

l i t e r a t u r e h a s been an d can be a s complex a n d m a n y -sid e d a s l i f e

its e lf.

M oreover, many o f t h e s e o t h e r e le m e n ts a r e e s s e n t i a l

f o r g r e a t n e s s , f o r exam ple, m o ral s t r e n g t h , s o c i a l a w a r e n e s s , p o l i t i c a l wisdom, s c i e n t i f i c a c c u r a c y , and p h i l o s o p h i c d e p t h . Nor can t h e s e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s , a l t h o u g h s e p a r a b l e i n t h e o r y f o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s o r e m p h a sis, be d i v i d e d i n f a c t .

P u re t h e ­

o lo g y , a p a r t from t h e s e o t h e r e le m e n ts , i s j u s t a b o u t a s d e v o id o f i n t e r e s t an d im p o rta n c e a s t h e s e o t h e r e le m e n ts a r e a p a r t from t h e o lo g y .

G r e a tn e s s r e q u i r e s a b a la n c e d f u s i o n and d i s c r i m i n a ­

t i o n o f them a l l .

But th e o lo g y i s th e most i n t e r e s t i n g and im­

p o r t a n t o f a l l th e p o s s i b l e and a c t u a l a s p e c t s — t h e m a s te r o f a l l p o i n t s o f view l e s s s y n o p ti c th a n I t s e l f . summit an d th e n e c e s s a r y b a s e .

Theology i s b o th th e

W ith o u t th e o l o g y , i t i s n o t p o s s i ­

b l e to keep t h e s e o t h e r a s p e c t s c l e a r , d i s c i p l i n e d , an d g e n e r a l . And y e t t h e mere p r e s e n c e o f a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view , a l th o u g h e s s e n t i a l f o r g r e a t n e s s , i s n o t o f i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t to s e c u r e th a t claim .

The t h e o l o g i c a l d im e n sio n must be t r u e a n d I m p o r t a n t.

A f a l s e o r t r i v i a l t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e can be w orse t h a n no th e o lo g ic a l p e rsp e c tiv e a t a l l .

M oreover, even t h e b e s t o f t h e o ­

lo g i c a l s ta n d p o in ts , a lth o u g h s u f f i c i e n t i n an a b s t r a c t o r l o g i c a l s e n s e , i s c o n c r e t e l y an d a e s t h e t i c a l l y n o t enough.

The t h e o l o g i c a l

theme m ust b e p r e s e n t e d i n a l u c i d , s t r u c t u r e d , an d a f f e c t i n g way. O th e r w is e t h e t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts a n d m eanings c a n n o t f u l l y engage th e s e n s e s o r th e mind an d h e a r t .

An u n f o r t u n a t e manner o f p r e ­

s e n t a t i o n — i n c o h e r e n t w i t h o r in a d e q u a t e to t h e t h e o l o g i c a l con­ t e n t — can v i t i a t e t h e b e s t o f t h e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s , no m a t t e r how i n t e r e s t i n g a n d p ro fo u n d i n i t s e l f .

And c o n v e r s e l y , t h e b e s t

manner o f e x p r e s s i o n c a n n o t r e s c u e a weak t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t o r

sy stem from i t s fu n d a m e n ta l l a c k o f c l a r i t y and scope* an d w here and i f t h e r e i s a f u s i o n o f t h e o l o g i c a l

Only when

t r u t h an d

l i t e r a r y b e a u ty I n t o a complex u n i t y t h a t m ight be c a l l e d " t r u t h ­ f u l b e a u ty * c a n be t h e g r e a t n e s s t h a t I s p o s s i b l e f o r l i t e r a t u r e i n p r i n c i p l e be v i s i b l y , I n t e l l i g i b l y , and a f f e c t i n g l y shown f o r th In f a c t . The o n ly s e v e r e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s e s s e n t i a l to t h i s th e o r y d e r i v e from th e l i m i t a t i o n s , th e p r e t e n s i o n s , t h e p e r v e r s i o n s , th e f i x a t i o n s ,

th e I n e r t i a s , and t h e w e a r i n e s s e s t h a t h a u n t man­

k in d i n th e a c t o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n and i n th e a c t o f l i t e r a r y e n jo y m e n t.

By v i r t u e o f f i n l t u d e , what we mean by t r u t h f u l b e a u ty

i s n e v e r w h o lly c l e a r , c e r t a i n , f i n a l , o r c o m p le te .

By v i r t u e o f

p r e t e n s i o n , o u r c la im s f o r c l a r i t y , c e r t a i n t y , and c o m p le te n e s s te n d to become d o g m a t i c a l l y i n e x c e s s o f , s k e p t i c a l l y l e s s th a n , h u m a n i s t i c a l l y i m p e r t i n e n t to w a rd , a g n o s t i c a l l y i n d i f f e r e n t b e f o r e , o r n i h i l i s t i c a l l y h o s t i l e in fa c e o f th e f a c t s .

By v i r t u e o f p r e ­

t e n s i o n , we a l s o r e s i s t f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n and a b u s e o u r freedom to r e g a r d o r to d i s r e g a r d w hat i s t h e r e to be se en by r e v e r i n g so m e th in g we c o n s c i o u s l y r e c o g n i s e to be o t h e r th a n God,

By v i r t u e

o f p e r v e r s i o n , we o f t e n c r a v e a n d a r e u n c o n s c io u s ly w racked by s o m e th in g f a r l e s s th a n e i t h e r t r u t h o r b e a u t y . o f w hich P l a t o sp o k e .

T h is i s th e s u r d

And by v i r t u e o f f i x a t i o n , i n e r t n e s s , and

w e a r i n e s s , o u r r e s t l e s s n e s s i s s t a y e d b e f o r e an y p r o p e r p e r f e c t i o n is a tta in e d .

And y e t t h e g r e a t f a c t re m a in s t h a t t r u t h f u l b e a u ty

i s t h e immanent an d c o n c r e t e i d e a l i n te rm s o f w hich we can o f t e n r e c o g n i s e t h e s e l i m i t s , d i s t o r t i o n s , and a b e r r a t i o n s f o r w hat th e y a r e , a n d c o r r e c t them a s i d o l s i n th e name o f p o i n t s o f view w i t h more c l a r i t y and s c o p e .

M oreover, God c o r r e c t s them f o r us

6 even i f an d a s th e y a r e n o t c o r r e c t e d by u s . The s o f t e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s d e r i v e from th e f a c t t h a t t r u t h f u l b e a u ty i s a lw a y s a h i g h l y complex and r e l a t i v e p r o p e r t y . T h ere a r e many k i n d s , l e v e l s , s t a g e s , an d d e g r e e s o f t r u t h f u l b e a u ty .

I m p e r f e c t i o n o f a h i g h e r k in d an d a t a h i g h e r l e v e l can

r a n k ab o v e p e r f e c t i o n o f an d a t a lo w e r.

M oreover, t h e r e i s su c h

a t h i n g a s t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f a k in d , a l e v e l , a s t a g e , o r o f a degree.

J u s t s o , we a r e q u i t e happy w henever and w h e re v e r e i t h e r

t r u t h o r b e a u ty i s a t t a i n e d . fre sh n ess.

F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s th e m a t t e r o f

I m i t a t i o n o r r e p e t i t i o n a s su c h w i l l n o t d o ,

is necessary.

N o v e lty

What i s r e q u i r e d i s th e & est o f young l i f e c a l l e d

f o r t h b y , and i n p a s s i o n a t e s e a r c h o f , h arm o n ie s t h a t a r e e v e r more v i v i d , c o m p lic a te d , an d d e e p .

And y e t t h e a r d o u r s o f y o u th

a r e h e l p l e s s , o r s h o r t l y come to n a u g h t, a p a r t from a d eep s e n s e o f r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e p a s t , and a l i v e l y s e n s e o f d u ty f o r th e fu tu re .

W ith o u t t h e h a u n t i n g b ack g ro u n d o f tim e p aB t an d t h e

b e c k o n in g f o r e g r o u n d o f tim e f u t u r e , y o u th i s a p t to be consumed by a n i d o l a t r o u s lo v e f o r im m e d ia c ie s i n t h e p r e s e n t . T h is th e o r y presum es t h a t some k in d o f th e o lo g y o r o t h e r i s t r u e a n d i m p o r t a n t ; t h a t some k in d o f l i t e r a t u r e o r o t h e r i s d e s i r a b l e and p r o fo u n d ; and t h a t c e r t a i n k in d s o f c o n n e c ti o n b e­ tw een g iv e n k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t an d g iv e n k in d s o f l i t ­ e r a r y s t r u c t u r e a r e more c o h e r e n t and a d e q u a te th a n c e r t a i n o t h e r s . These a r e th e p r e m is e s I a r g u e from .

T h is th e o r y i m p l i e s t h a t

t h e m o tiv e s f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n , th e i n n e r c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e o f l i t e r a r y c o m p o s iti o n s , t h e c o n d l t l o n s f o r l i t e r a r y e n jo y m e n t, th e demands a p p r o p r i a t e to l i t e r a r y u n d e r s ta n d in g , and th e s u b j e c t

m a t t e r , th e p u r p o s e s , and th e methods f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m may h e s t be d e s c r i b e d i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o l o g i c a l te rm s .

The se a r e

th e c o n c lu s io n s I a r g u e to w ard . P o i n t s o f View an d Methods o f A n a ly s is Emplo y e d The p o i n t s o f view an d t h e methods o f a n a l y s i s I se e k to employ i n e l a b o r a t i n g t h i s g e n e r a l theme and th e o r y i n a s p e c i f i c way a r e t h r e e i n k in d and number.

In o rd er of In c re a sin g d i f f i ­

c u l t y a n d im p o r ta n c e , th e y a r e h i s t o r i c a l , c r i t i c a l , and c o n s t r u c ­ tiv e in c h a ra c te r. From a n h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f view , my co n c ern i s to p r e s e n t a summary n a r r a t i o n an d d e s c r i p t i o n o f some o f th e o u t s t a n d i n g i n t e r r e l a t i o n s betw een th e o lo g y and i m a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e i n th e w e s t, from th e v e ry b e g in n in g to th e p r e s e n t day.

My aim from

t h i s h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f view i s to draw a t t e n t i o n to t h e g r e a t f a c t t h a t t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s have been p e r s i s t e n t and o f a com­ p le x , y e t s p e c if ia b le , c h a ra c te r.

I t I s by v i r t u e o f t h e s e r e ­

c u r r e n t k in d s o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n t h a t th e s t o r y o f th e o lo g y I n th e West c a n n o t be f u l l y u n d e rs to o d a p a r t from th e s t o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e , and t h a t c o n v e r s e ly th e s t o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t b e f u l l y u n d er­ s to o d a p a r t from t h e s t o r y o f th e o lo g y .

T h is i n i t i a l a p p e a l to

h i s t o r y d e r i v e s i t s i n t e r e s t an d im p o rta n c e from th e f a c t t h a t many modern t h e o l o g i a n s sp e ak a s i f l i t e r a t u r e had a lw a y s b ee n below s e r i o u s t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n , and t h a t many modern men o f l e t t e r s sp e ak a s i f th e o lo g y had alw ays b e e n below s e r i o u s l i t e r ­ a ry co ncern.

My p u rp o se i s to e x h i b i t t h a t th e h i s t o r i e s o f b o th

dom ains c o n t r a d i c t th o s e who e n t e r t a i n t h i s k in d o f view .

T heology

h a s a l m o s t alw ays been among th e e v e n ts and m eanings o f w hich th e

i n n e r c o n t e n t o f l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t s ; a n d l i t e r a t u r e h a s a lm o s t a lw a y s b ee n among t h e i n n e r methods o f w hich t h e s t r u c t u r e o f th e o lo g y c o n s i s t s .

The m o ral o f t h i s a p p e a l to h i s t o r y i s t h i s :

th e p e r s i s t e n t i n t e r p l a y b etw een th e o lo g y an d i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a ­ t u r e h a s a g a i n and a g a i n e n a b le d b o t h to r i s e i n c o n j u n c t i o n to t h e i r f u l l and p r o p e r h e i g h t s . From a c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f view , my c o n c e rn i s t o p r e s e n t a f o rm a l and e x p l a n a t o r y a n a l y s i s o f some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t a f f i n i t i e s and a n t i p a t h i e s b etw e en v a r i o u s k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f an d v a r i o u s k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

F or exam ple, I

o b s e r v e and a r g u e t h a t l i t e r a t u r e c o n s t r u c t e d from a G reek th e o ­ l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view t e n d s , o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , to w ard an a l l e g o r i c a l manner o f p r e s e n t a t i o n ; t h a t l i t e r a t u r e f a s h i o n e d from th e s t a n d p o i n t o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y te n d s t o b e r e a l i s t i c i n method; an d t h a t l i t e r a t u r e a n im a te d by a C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l p a s s i o n t e n d s t o become s y m b o lic .

S i m i l a r l y , f a n t a s y i s a m ethod a s k e p t i c

i s v e r y l i k e l y to em ploy.

And c o n v e r s e l y , I m a in ta in t h a t an

a l l e g o r i c a l k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n i s bound o r a p t t o ex­ p r e s s Greek t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts a n d m ean in g s, a r e a l i s t i c manner o f e x p r e s s i o n H e b r a ic , and a sy m b o lic C h r i s t i a n .

J u s t so, fa n ta s y

te n d s to be a v e h i c l e f o r s k e p t i c i s m , p l a y f u l o r s e v e r e .

The f o c u s

o f i n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n a t t h i s c r i t i c a l l e v e l i s upon c o r r e l a ­ t i o n s an d c o n n e c ti o n s b etw een d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l con­ t e n t and d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

T h is c r i t i c a l

s t a g e go es f a r beyond a m e re ly n a r r a t i v e o r d e s c r i p t i v e a p p e a l to h i s t o r y .

The a p p e a l i s to a l o g i c a l an d e x p l a n a t o r y a n a l y s i s

o f t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b etw een th e 9w b a t " o f t h e o l o g i c a l m eaning

9 and t r u t h , and th e "how" o f l i t e r a r y manner and b e a u ty .

The im­

p o r ta n c e o f t h i s i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l o f co n c e rn d e r i v e s from th e f a c t t h a t many t h e o l o g i a n s and men o f l e t t e r s do not a p p e a r to be c r i t i c a l l y aw are o f th e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s and c o n n e c tio n s between c e r t a i n g iv e n and f a m i l i a r k in d s o f th e o lo g y and c e r t a i n g iv e n an d f a m i l i a r k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e .

Nor do th e y a p p e a r to be c r i t i c a l l y

c o n s c io u s o f th e way th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e a r e m u tu a lly c o n s t i ­ t u t i v e a s w e ll a s i m p l i c a t i v e i n c h a r a c t e r , whereby a g iv en kind o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t can l a r g e l y d e te rm in e a g iv e n manner o f l i t e r a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n an d a g iv e n k in d o f l i t e r a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n can l a r g e l y d e te rm in e a g iv e n k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t . m o ral o f t h i s a p p e a l to c r i t i c i s m i s t h i s :

The

a p a r t from a c r i t i c a l

a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e a f f i n i t i e s and a n t i p a t h i e s , a f a t a l l a c k o f co­ h e re n c e can a r i s e . From a c o n s t r u c t i v e p o i n t o f view , my co n cern i s to p r e s e n t a p o s i t i v e th e o ry o f t h a t s p e c i f i c k in d o f c o n n e c tio n betw een th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e I c o n s i d e r to be p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y from a C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y p o i n t o f view.

At t h i s

f i n a l l e v e l and s t a g e , my p u rp o se i s to p r e s e n t and to j u s t i f y my own c o n c r e t e an d p a r t i c u l a r d e c i s i o n s on c o n t r o v e r s i a l t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y i s s u e s .

My c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s tio n s f o llo w from a

P r o t e s t a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e b a s i c themes an d problem s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , from symbolism a s a l i t e r a r y method, and from p r o c e s s p h ilo s o p h y a s a w o rld view .

The im p o rta n c e o f t h i s f i n a l

l e v e l and s ta g e o f co n c ern d e r i v e s from th e f a c t t h a t many th e o ­ l o g i a n s and men o f l e t t e r s — C h r i s t i a n an d o th e r w is e — c o n f in e them­ s e l v e s c a u t i o u s l y an d e x c l u s i v e l y to e i t h e r th e h i s t o r i c a l o r th e

10 c r i t i c a l l e v e l s , w ith o u t s t a t i n g a c o n s tr u c tiv e th e o ry o f t h e i r own.

A s e n s e o f h i s t o r y and a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m a r e v e r y n e c ­

essary.

A p a r t from a s o l i d f o o t i n g i n b o t h , a c o n s t r u c t i v e t h e o r y

i s n o t a p t to be r e s p o n s i b l e o r v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g a n d p r o fo u n d . And y e t a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y an d a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m a r e n o t enough. W ith o u t a p o s i t i v e t h e o r y , we can become f u n c t i o n s o f h i s t o r i c a l an d c r i t i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t may o r may n o t be j u s t i f i e d from a c o n s t r u c t i v e t h e o l o g i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y p o i n t o f view . o f t h i s c o n c lu d in g a p p e a l to e v a l u a t i o n i s t h i s :

The m o ral

a p a r t from a

f u l l - b l o w n c o n s t r u c t i v e e f f o r t , a f a t a l l a c k o f ad e q u a c y c a n a r i s e . P r o t o t y p e s and Models i n P h i l o s o p h i c a l T h eo lo g y . L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m , an d L i t e r a t u r e The p r o t o t y p e s f o r my e s s a y i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l th e o lo g y and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a r e p r o v id e d by p a r t s o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f A l f r e d N o rth W hitehead an d t h e P o e t i c s o f A r i s t o t l e . I n l i t e r a t u r e , my models f o r Greek t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f s and a l l e g o r i c a l l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e a r e th e p l a y s o f th e G reek t r a g e ­ d i a n s , P l a t o ' s d r a m a t i c d i a l o g u e s c o n c e r n in g t h e d e a t h o f S o c r a t e s — t h e A p o lo g y . P h a e d o . a n d C r l t o —a n d a s p e c t s o f th e F o u r t h G o sp el. My m odels o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y a n d r e a l i s t i c l i t e r a r y s t r u c ­ t u r e a r e th e Book o f J o b an d a s p e c t s o f t h e S y n o p tic G o s p e ls . My m odels f o r C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y a n d sym bolism a r e a s p e c t s o f th e S y n o p tic G o sp e ls and t h e F o u r th G o sp e l, a s p e c t s o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's Hamlet an d King L e a r . M i l t o n ' s Samson A g o n l s t e s . M e l v i l l e ' s B i l l y Bud. H a w th o rn e 's The S c a r l e t L e t t e r an d The House o f th e Seven G a b le s . C h a u c e r 's The C a n te r b u r y T a l e s . M i l t o n 's P a r a d i s e L o s t , and D o s to y e v s k y 's The B r o t h e r s Karamazov and The Id io t.

11 My models f o r s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y an d f a n t a s y a r e B r o n t e 's W u th erln e H e i g h t s . G o e th e 's F a u s t . M e l v i l l e ' s Moby D ick, and K a f k a 's The C a s t l e . My models i n l i t e r a t u r e a r e drawn f o r th e most p a r t from th e re a lm o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y .

I n s o f a r a s I employ exam ples from

o t h e r k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e I I n t e r p r e t them a s d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s . I have done so f o r th e sake o f s i m p l i c i t y , c l a r i t y , f o r c e , and v iv id n e ss.

I n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f d ra m a tic t r a g e d y , many th e o ­

l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y i s s u e s have a way o f coming t o g e t h e r w ith overw helm ing l u c i d i t y and power f o r me.

D ram atic tr a g e d y t h e r e ­

f o r e s ta n d s a t th e c e n t e r o f my knowledge and a c q u a i n t a n c e .

More­

o v e r, t h e r e would a p p e a r t o be good t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y r e a ­ sons f o r th e b e l i e f t h a t d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s a n u l t i m a t e t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y form .

For t h e sake o f sc o p e, I a l s o s t r e s s a n a l o g i e s

to o t h e r k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e , f o r example, t h e e p i c , t h e l y r i c , and th e n o v e l and s h o r t s t o r y ; and to th e o t h e r g r e a t a e s t h e t i c dom ains— r i t u a l , myth, th e f i n e and u s e f u l a r t s , th e w o rk in g , p l a y i n g , c o n v e r s in g , l o v i n g , and f i g h t i n g o f which d a l l y l i f e c o n s i s t s , and dream s. Argument and E vidence o f th e V a rio u s P a r t s My e s s a y h as e i g h t p a r t s . P a r t I i s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e summary a p p e a l to t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y .

I n t h i s P a r t I a t t e m p t to s e t f o r t h what

I p e r c e i v e and u n d e r s ta n d to be th e c r u c i a l d e t a i l s and g e n e r a l i ­ t i e s o f t h a t h i s t o r y , i n s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e a p a r t from c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o r c o n s tru c tiv e in te r p r e ta tio n . P a r t s I I th r o u g h V a r e d e v o te d to th e se n se o f c r i t i c i s m .

12 P a r t I I p r e s e n ts a g e n e ra l th eo ry o f the th e o lo g ic a l b a s i s f o r lite r a r y criticism ;

P a r t I I I an a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s

of th e o lo g ic a l m otif:

P a r t IV a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s

o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e ; and P a r t V a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c o n n e c t i o n betw een t h e d i f f e r i n g k i n d s o f t h e o l o g y and the d i f f e r i n g kinds o f l i t e r a t u r e . P a r tB VI and VII combine a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y a n d a se n s e of criticism .

I n t h e s e p a r t s , I s e e k t o document my h i s t o r i c a l

and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s by means o f a c o m p a r a t i v e stu d y o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t a n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e o f Greek a n d Shake­ spearean dram atic trag e d y . P a r t V I I I i s dom in a te d by a s e n s e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and evaluation.

I n t h i s f i n a l P a r t I t r y t o s u g g e s t t h e way t h e

P o e tic s o f A r i s t o t l e re q u ire s tran sfo rm atio n in l i g h t o f the d i f f e r i n g a n d , I t h i n k , more s e a r c h i n g p r e m i s e s o f w hat I u n d e r ­ sta n d to c o n s t i t u t e the h e a r t o f C h r is tia n theology. I n no p a r t do I h o l d a n y b r i e f f o r d e t a i l s o r s y ste m , o f e i t h e r the th e o lo g ic a l o r the l i t e r a r y v a r i e t y .

I t i s the

g e n e r a l k i n d o f p r o b le m , a n d t h e g e n e r a l s o r t o f s o l u t i o n w i t h w hich I am c o n c e r n e d t h a t c o n s t i t u t e my theme and t h e o r y and my a rg u m e n t and e v i d e n c e .

I am p a i n f u l l y aware o f t h e s e r i o u s and

l a m e n t a b l e gap b etw een t h e o r y a n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n . so u g h t to w r i t e w i t h f a r g r e a t e r c l a r i t y ,

I have a l s o

sc o p e , and f o r c e o f

c o n v i c t i o n t h a n I hav e sometimes f e l t , p e r c e i v e d , o r t h o u g h t , on t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t i t i s a l w a y s b e s t to c a r r y an i d e a t o i t s i d e a l l i m i t a n d i n l i g h t o f my c o n v i c t i o n t h a t one p o s s i b l e i d e a l f o r a d o c t o r a l e s s a y i s t o s t a t e a h i g h l y g e n e r a l p o i n t o f view

13 a s a b a s i s f o r t e a c h i n g and r e s e a r c h .

For t h e s e r e a s o n s , my e s s a y

I s more e x p o s i t o r y t h a n a r g u m e n t a t i v e , p r o c e e d i n g f o r t h e most p a r t i n t h e form o f dogm atic a s s e r t i o n .

And y e t I have s o u g h t to

compose e a c h a n d e v e r y p a r t i n t h e s p i r i t o f p h i l o s o p h i c i n q u i r y , r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e s p i r i t o f dogma, c o n f e s s i o n , o r a p o l o g y . I n a l l p a r t s , t h e r e a r e a p t to be s t r o n g p e d a g o g i c a l u n d e r ­ tows and o v e r t o n e s , f o r t h i s e s s a y h a s a r i s e n o u t o f , i l l u s t r a t e s , and h a s bee n d e s i g n e d to i s s u e i n t o t h e g e n e r a l academ ic s i t u a t i o n . C o n c lu s io n s The h i s t o r i c a l c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e o l o g y h a s b e e n a con­ s t i t u e n t a n d a c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t w i t h i n W e ste rn l i t e r a t u r e , and t h a t l i t e r a t u r e h a s been a c o n s t i t u e n t and a c o n s t i t u t i v e ele m e n t w i t h i n W e s te rn t h e o l o g y . The c r i t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e r e have b e e n d e f i n i t e c o r r e l a t i o n s and c o n n e c t i o n s o f some k i n d o r o t h e r b e tw e e n Greek t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f s a n d a l l e g o r y a s a l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e ; H e b r a ic t h e o l o g y and r e a l i s m ; C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y and symbolism; and s k e p t i c a l t h e o l o g y and f a n t a s y . The c o n s t r u c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r and t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f a g r e a t d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y e x h i b i t i n g P r o t e s t a n t t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f s and a sy m b o lic l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e f o l l o w from t h e n o t i o n s o f d i v i n e immanence a n d t r a n s c e n d e n c e , t h e r a d i c a l cha ra cte r o f m a n 's freedom and m a n 's s i n , and t h e r e d e m p t i o n and d am n a tio n w i t h i n l i f e and h i s t o r y t h a t c a n come o f a c o n j u n c t i o n o f g r a c e a n d power o f f e r e d by God i n h i s a c t s o f r e v e l a t i o n and r e c e i v e d by man i n h i s a c t s o f f a i t h .

14 M orals For t h e o l o g y , t h e m oral i s t h a t i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e i s one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s io n s o f t h e o l o g y .

Im aginative

l i t e r a t u r e i s i n f a c t the i d e a l o p p o site o f philosophy.

The

e x p r e s s i o n t h a t i s l i t e r a t u r e and t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i s p h i l ­ osophy a r e t h e u l t i m a t e e m o t i o n a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l s a c r a m e n t s o f which t h e o l o g y c o n s i s t s . For l i t e r a t u r e , t h e m o r a l i s t h a t t h e o l o g y i s t h e d e e p e s t m o tiv e f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n , t h e most i m p o r t a n t and p o w e r f u l ele m e n t w i t h i n l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n s , a n d t h e p r o f o u n d e s t b a s i s f o r l i t e r a r y enjoym ent a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

Unless th e p o e t, the

work, a n d t h e a u d i e n c e a l i k e r e e n a c t o r ad v a n c e some l a r g e and p e n e t r a t i n g t h e o l o g i c a l v i s i o n , l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t be f u l l y g r e a t . For l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , t h e m oral i s t h a t t h e i n n e r w o r l d o f e v e n t s and meanings o f w h ich l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t s may b e s t be d e s c r i b e d , e x p l a i n e d , and e v a l u a t e d i n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o l o g i c a l term s. F o r t h e C hurch, t h e m oral i s t h a t l i t e r a t u r e i s one o f t h e g r e a t domains t o w h ic h an e c u m e n i c a l P r o t e s t a n t movement must r e ­ l a t e i t s e l f i f i t i s t o have i n f l u e n c e b o t h w i t h i n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n o f t h e wide w o rl d t h a t i s w ithout. F o r t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s , t h e m oral i s t h a t i t i s j u s t a s im­ p o r t a n t f o r t h e o l o g y t o f i n d i t s way i n t o a h u m a n i t i e s c u r r i c u l u m , a t b o th th e c o l l e g e and th e g ra d u a te l e v e l s , a s i t i s f o r l i t e r a ­ t u r e t o f i n d i t s way i n t o a c o u r s e o f s t u d y i n t h e o l o g y .

The hope

o f t h e o l o g y i n t h e modern w o rld i s i n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s ; and th e

15 hope o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s I s I n t h e o l o g y . R e f o r m a tio n , and t h e new R e n a i s s a n c e ,

T h is way l i e s t h e new

PART I :

THEOLOGY AND IMAGINATIVE LITERATURE*. AN APPEAL TO HISTORY Theme D etails Periods Forms W r i t e r s and Works G eneralities Interplay M o d a lity Kind 8 L e v e ls Stages Degrees Summary

Theme My c o n c e r n i n t h i s f i r s t p a r t i s t o in v o k e t h e theme o f t h i s e s s a y by means o f a summary a p p e a l to h i s t o r y . The g e n e r a l m oral t o be s t r e s s e d i s t h a t t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s betw een t h e o l o g y and I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e have bee n c l e a r , w ide, r e c u r r e n t , and d e e p .

A gain a n d a g a i n i n t h e West, from t h e very

b e g i n n i n g to t h e p r e s e n t day, t h e o l o g y has p r o v i d e d l i t e r a t u r e w i t h a l a r g e p a r t o f i t s c o n te n t, and l i t e r a t u r e has provided theology w ith a la r g e p a r t o f i t s s t r u c t u r e .

The s l i g h t e s t r e c o u r s e to

t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y makes i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r ­ s t a n d how anyone c o u l d e v e r hope o r c l a i m — on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r h i s t o r i e s — to c o n s i d e r t h e o l o g y and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a p a r t . Most o f t h e g r e a t p e r i o d s , most o f t h e g r e a t form s, and many o f t h e g r e a t w r i t e r s and works t h a t r i g h t l y s t a n d o u t i n t h e memory o f mankind a r e marked by a p ro fo u n d f u s i o n o f t h e o l o g i c a l u n d ersta n d in g and l i t e r a r y ex p res sio n .

Some k i n d o f t h e o l o g y ,

Greek, H e b r a i c , C h r i s t i a n , o r s k e p t i c a l , has n e a r l y a lw a y s p r o v i d e d t h e d om ina nt m o tiv e f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n .

Some k in d o f t h e o l o g y

h a s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y governed t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e works composed, endowing t h e i r i n n e r w o rld o f e v e n t s and mean­ i n g s w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c marks o f a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m , symbolism, or fantasy.

And some k in d o f t h e o l o g y h a s s c a r c e l y e v e r f a i l e d to

be p o w e r f u l l y i n f l u e n t i a l w i t h i n t h e enjoym ents r e c e i v e d , and t h e k i n d s o f c o n s c i o u s o r u n c o n s c io u s judgment g i v e n , on t h e p a r t o f a u d i e n c e s , r e a d e r s , an d c r i t i c s .

I f t h e h i s t o r i e s o f t h e o l o g y and

l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l a n y t h i n g , t h e y r e v e a l t h a t you c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d 17

18 t h e e v o l v i n g c o n t e n t o f t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f W e ste rn t h e o l o g y a p a r t from t h e i r d i f f e r i n g l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s , o r t h e e v o l v i n g s t r u c t u r e o f the v a rio u s kinds o f im a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e a p a r t from t h e i r d i f f e r i n g t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t s .

I t i s by v i r t u e o f

t h i s p e r s i s t e n t a n d complex i n t e r p l a y t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f l i t e r a ­ t u r e i s one o f t h e b e s t keys to t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e o l o g y , a n d t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e o l o g y i s one o f t h e b e s t keys t o t h e h i s t o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e t h a t we p o s s e s s . An a p p e a l to h i s t o r y , no m a t t e r how p u r e , e x t e n s i v e , and c o m p le t e , c a n n o t o f i t s e l f o r t a k e n s e p a r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e o l o g ­ i c a l t r u t h or l i t e r a r y beauty. e n t i r e un to I t s e l f a p a r t .

Wot even h i s t o r y i s an i s l a n d ,

T r u t h and b e a u t y r e q u i r e a s e n s e o f

c r i t i c i s m an d a c o n s t r u c t i v e e f f o r t a s w e l l . h i s t o r y i s no l e s s d a r k t h a n b r i g h t .

Among o t h e r t h i n g s ,

Theology has g i v e n b i r t h

to a l o t o f u n q u e s t i o n a b l y bad l i t e r a t u r e .

And l i t e r a t u r e has

g i v e n r i s e to a l o t o f u n q u e s t i o n a b l y b ad t h e o l o g y .

There i s a

d a r k n e s s w i t h i n t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y from a l m o s t e v e r y a c t u a l , and very l i k e l y , from any c o n c e i v a b l e t h e o l o g i c a l o r l i t ­ e r a r y p o i n t o f view.

The t a l e to be t o l d i s most c e r t a i n l y n o t

one o f u n q u a l i f i e d " s w e e t n e s s a n d l i g h t . " t h e p a s t i s no b r i g h t e r f o r b e i n g d a r k .

But t h e d a r k s i d e o f And t h e whole p o i n t o f

t h i s e s s a y i s t h a t t h e r e i s som e thin g happy to r e c o u n t .

Nor can

t h e d a r k n e s s i n h i s t o r y be se en a p a r t from a b r i g h t n e s s which t h e r e b y f l i c k e r e d and grew dim.

Moreover, i t was not s im p ly t h e

b r i g h t n e s s which f l i c k e r e d and grew dim. dim.

Men became b l i n d to th e l i g h t .

p e rv e rte d the l i g h t .

Men f l i c k e r e d a n d grew

Men r e s i s t e d t h e l i g h t .

Men so u g h t t o f i x and to s t a y t h e l i g h t .

Men

19 Men grew weary o f t h e l i g h t . a t the l i g h t . lig h t.

Men even became a n g r y a n d r e b e l l i o u s

At c e r t a i n t i m e s a n d p l a c e s , men a l m o s t p u t o u t t h e

I t i s t h e r e f o r e upon t h e b r i g h t n e s s t h a t I s h a l l f o r th e

most p a r t d w e l l .

My p u r p o s e h e r e a t t h e o u t s e t i s t o in v o k e an

e n l a r g e d s e n s e o f i t s overw helm ing r i c h n e s s a n d c o m p l e x i t y . T h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y c o n s i s t s o f d e t a i l s and g en eralities.

I s h a l l b e g i n w i t h a summary n a r r a t i o n o f some o f

t h e o u t s t a n d i n g p e r i o d s , form s, w r i t e r s and w o rk s . d etails.

These a r e t h e

I s h a l l proceed to a d e s c r ip tiv e statem ent o f s i x la rg e

p r i n c i p l e s — i n t e r n a l t o t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y — I n te r m s o f w h ic h t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e d e t a i l s b e g i n s to t a k e on a somewhat more complex an d p r o f o u n d i n t e g r i t y . eralitie s,

These a r e t h e gen­

The d e e p e n i n g o f t h e s e d e t a i l s and g e n e r a l i t i e s , and

a n a t t e m p t to r e s o l v e some o f t h e many d i f f i c u l t p r o b le m s t h a t a r i s e i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , con­ s t i t u t e t h e t h e o r y a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e theme o f t h i s e s s a y , and w i l l be t h e c o n c e r n o f i t s l a t e r and more c r i t i c a l and c o n s t r u c t i v e p arts. th e ir

I s h a l l t h e r e f o r e end t h i s p a r t w i t h a f o r e s h a d o w i n g o f Bform and p r e s s u r e . "

A deep s e n s e o f h i s t o r y s h o u l d n o t

f a l l , by v i r t u e o f a k i n d o f I n t e r n a l a g e n c y a n d momentum, to g i v e r i s e t o a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m and e v a l u a t i o n .

And c o n v e r s e l y ,

a n y c r i t i c a l and c o n s t r u c t i v e e f f o r t h a s to b a s e i t s e l f , i n p a r t , upon m o d e ls , norms, an d t e s t s p r e s e n t e d by a n d drawn from h i s t o r y . H i s t o r y i s a m i r r o r i n te rm s o f which we can b e g i n t o r e c o g n i s e greatness as g re a t. The p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l s I have s e l e c t e d f o r e m p h asis w i l l o f c o u r s e be t o k e n s o f my own v e r y l i m i t e d knowledge and a c q u a i n t -

20 ance.

For example, E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h a r e t h e o n l y l a n g u a g e s I n

w hich I have b e e n a b l e t o r e a d I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e o r i g i n a l a t a l l w idely o r w e ll. e l e m e n t i n W e ste rn l i t e r a t u r e ,

I n a study o f th e th e o l o g i c a l t h i s i s not a s m a l l l i m i t a t i o n .

There a r e a l s o German, R u s s i a n , L a t i n , I t a l i a n ,

Hebrew, and Greek.

T here i s som e thing p r o v i n c i a l , i f n o t p a r o c h i a l , a b o u t b e i n g l a r g e ­ l y a fu n c tio n of a s in g l e language.

Nor i s i t t h e b e s t t h i n g i n

t h e w o r l d t o be a t t h e mercy o f t r a n s l a t i o n and o f a u t h o r i t y . J u s t so t h e s p e c i f i c g e n e r a l i t i e s to w hich I h av e c h o s e n t o g i v e w e i g h t w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d by my own n o t i o n s a s to what i s o f p e r m a n e n t I n t e r e s t and i m p o r t a n c e , from b o t h a t h e o l o g i c a l a n d a l i t e r a r y stan d p o in t.

My t h e o l o g i c a l s y m p a t h i e s — by i n s t i n c t ,

by i n h e r i t a n c e , by e d u c a t i o n , a n d by r e a s o n e d c o n v i c t i o n — a r e C h r i s t i a n and P r o t e s t a n t .

My l i t e r a r y t a s t e a n d b i a s a r e f o r

sym bolism , a s o p p o se d to a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m , o r f a n t a s y , a s t h e p r o f o u n d e s t way to t e l l a s t o r y . I t i s n o t t h e b e s t t h i n g i n t h e w o r l d t o be p o s s e s s e d o f suc h s t r o n g a n t e r i o r c o n v i c t i o n s .

For a n t e r i o r c o n v i c t i o n s , no

m a t t e r how n o b le i n o r i g i n o r p o w e r f u l i n I n t e n s i t y , c a n b e wrong, p reten sio us, or perverse.

And y e t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e o r n e c e s s a r y

f o r anyone to s p e a k o f d e t a i l s o r g e n e r a l i t i e s a p a r t f ro m a n i n ­ c i p i e n t sense of c r i t i c i s m and e v a lu a tio n .

The k i n d o f d e t a i l s

a n d t h e s o r t o f g e n e r a l i t i e s I s h a l l c i t e can h a v e , I t h i n k , I h o p e , a very w ide s o u r c e and a h i g h l y o b j e c t i v e meaning.

In o th er

w o rd s , I do n o t t h i n k t h e i r s e l e c t i o n h a s e s s e n t i a l l y o r i r r e v e r s ­ i b l y r e q u i r e d any p a r t i c u l a r , c o n c r e t e d e c i s i o n s on c o n t r o v e r s i a l th eo lo g ical or lit e r a r y Issues.

21

D etails:

Periods

The g r e a t p e r i o d s i n t h e o l o g y and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e West have b e e n t h e H e b r a i c , t h e H e l l e n i c Greek, t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n , m e d iev a l C a t h o l i c i s m , t h e R e n a i s s a n c e and R e f o r m a tio n , Romanticism, a n d t h e modern p r e s e n t .

The i n t e r m e d i a t e p e r i o d s a r e

somehow l e s s r e m a r k a b l e ; t h e p r e - H e l l e n i c , t h e H e l l e n i s t i c , t h e Graeco-Roman, t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t o r N e o - C l a s s i c i s m , and t h e age o f L i b e r a l i s m o r R e a lism . and t r a n s m i t .

Such p e r i o d s r e c e i v e , p r e s e r v e , p e r f e c t ,

They p r e p a r e o r p a s s th e to r c h — t h e l e g a c y of G reece,

o f I s r a e l , o r o f C hristendom . torch i s before or a f t e r . ality .

But t h e y a r e n o t t h e t o r c h .

The

They l a c k any s p a r k o f p r o f o u n d o r i g i n ­

W ith in t h e i r l i m i t s , so m e th in g i s s l o w l y d y in g , and some­

t h i n g i s p o w e r l e s s to be b o r n .

There a r e o f c o u r s e many e x c e p t i o n a l

i n d i v i d u a l s a n d movements w i t h i n ea ch.

And y e t t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s

f a i l to s u f f u s e t h e p e r i o d a s a whole w i t h b r i l l i a n c e . The e a r l i e r t h e g r e a t p e r i o d s , t h e l e s s c l e a r ,

structured

and i m p o r t a n t t h e y may a p p e a r to be from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e present.

What we know o f t h e p a s t i s so vague, f r a g m e n t a r y , un­

c e r t a i n , and confused.

In fact,

t h e v e r y problem o f p e r i o d i s a t i o n

i t s e l f r e s i s t s any s i m p l e , u n i v e r s a l s o l u t i o n .

And y e t , w i t h a

s l i g h t s h i f t i n e m p h a sis , i t i s t h e p r e s e n t t h a t i s t h e more shadowy and dim, f o r I t I s i n p r o c e s s , and i n b a f f l i n g need o f d efin itio n .

By c o n t r a s t , t h e g r e a t p e r i o d s i n t h e p a s t , however

d i s t a n t , a p p e a r c l e a r , f o r c e f u l , and c o m p le t e .

The p r e s e n t seems

t o l a c k o r to be l o s i n g a s e n s e o f m a ste r y and d e p t h .

There a r e

no s a i n t s i n t h e p r e s e n t — o n l y d u l l a r d s , madmen, o r f o o l s .

But

22 t h e g r e a t p e r i o d s o f t h e p a s t w ere a t one tim e t h e p r e s e n t , d e v o i d o f t h a t s e r e n i t y t h e y may t a k e on i n r e t r o s p e c t .

And i t i s w i t h i n

t h e i n s i s t e n t p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t t h a t “ t h e J o u s t o f l i f e 31 h a s a l w a y s been l o s t o r won.

As W hitehead h a s rem a rk e d , t h e p r e s ­

e n t i s h o l y ground, t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e m e e t i n g house f o r t h e commun­ i o n o f t h e s a i n t s to g a t h e r .

The p r e s e n t shows f o r t h “ t h e l i g h t

t h a t n e v e r was on l a n d o r s e a ,* a n d i s l u r e d by som ething more t h a n “f o r g o t t e n b e a u t y . "

I t can even dream o f " t h e l o v e l i n e s s t h a t h a s

n o t y e t come i n t o t h e w o r l d . ■ Forms The o u t s t a n d i n g forms o f i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e have b e e n t h e e p i c , t h e l y r i c , t h e drama, t h e n o v e l , and t h e s h o r t s t o r y . The n o v e l and t h e s h o r t s t o r y o f c o u r s e come r a t h e r l a t e upon t h e stage o f l i t e r a r y h is to r y . being l a t e .

And y e t t h e y a r e no l e s s g r e a t f o r

Moreover, t h e s e forms a r e n o t , a n d have n e v e r b e e n ,

pure o r f ix e d .

They have a lw a y s shaded o f f i n t o one a n o t h e r .

And many g r e a t forms have bee n mixed o r i n t e r m e d i a t e . There a r e a l s o s e v e r a l more d i s c u r s i v e and l e s s p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n a l l i t e r a r y fo rm s— t h e h i s t o r y , t h e e s s a y , t h e l e c t u r e , t h e l e t t e r , t h e j o u r n a l , t h e d i a r y , t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y , t h e memoir, t h e b i o g r a p h y , t h e o r a t i o n , an d t h e sermon. b o r d e r upon s c i e n c e and p h i l o s o p h y .

The a r t o f h i s t o r y can

The a r t o f r h e t o r i c c o n t r a c t -

i n g l y s h a d e s o f f i n t o " l i f e and m o t i o n . ” T here a p p e a r s to be a k i n d o f l i t e r a r y continuum r a n g i n g from u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o e x p r e s s i o n a s t h e dominant I n t e n t on th e p a r t o f t h e w r i t e r o r s p e a k e r , from t h e l o g i c a l l y a b s t r a c t to t h e a e s t h e t i c a l l y c o n c r e t e i n te rm s o f t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e

23 o f th e work composed, a n d from a n enchantm ent i n t h e r e g i o n o f th e mind, th e i n t e l l e c t , t h e h ea d , o r t h e b r a i n , to t h e r e g i o n o f t h e s e n s e s , t h e body, th e h e a r t , t h e a f f e c t i o n s , o r t h e w i l l w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e f a c u l t i e s c a l l e d i n t o p l a y , t h e demands made upon, and t h e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and en­ joyment on t h e p a r t o f t h e a u d i e n c e , r e a d e r , o r c r i t i c .

And a s

one moves from p r o s e to v e r s e , one a p p r o a c h e s t h e domains o f myth, ritu al,

t h e song and dance, th e f i n e and u s e f u l a r t s , an d dreams.

I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f seems to be l o c a t e d somewhere i n t e r ­ m e d ia te between p h i l o s o p h y and s c i e n c e on t h e one hand, and t h e a r t s o f music, p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , and a r c h i t e c t u r e on t h e o t h e r . Moreover, t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n the u se s o f la n g u a g e .

The

p h i l o s o p h e r and t h e s c i e n t i s t a b s t r a c t and s t a t e , t h e man o f l e t t e r s s u g g e s t s a n d em bodies, and t h e r h e t o r i c i a n s demand and persuade.

There a r e a l s o g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t s between t h e k in d s o f

symbolism employed.

There i s th e symbolism o f la n g u a g e , and o f

I t s s t r u c t u r e s and meanings, a s i n p h i l o s o p h y , s c i e n c e , and a s p e c t s of lite ra tu re .

T here i s t h e symbolism o f e v e n t s , a n d o f t h e i r

q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s , a s i n a r t .

And t h e r e i s t h e symbolism of

s i g n , g e s t u r e , and b e h a v i o r , a s i n a s p e c t s o f t h e drama, i n r i t u a l , and i n mime. And y e t t h e r e i s a d a n g e r i n such s h a r p d i v i s i o n s .

Truth

and b e a u t y ca n n o t be s e t t l e d by a b a r e a p p e a l t o f a c u l t y , to g e n r e , to t h e u s e s o f l a n g u a g e , o r to k i n d s o f symbolism, any more than t h e y can be d e c i d e d on t h e b a s i s o f a mere a p p e a l to h i s t o r y .

The

q u e s t i o n a s t o what manners o f f e e l i n g , p e r c e i v i n g , remembering, e x p e c t i n g , i m a g i n i n g , d ream in g , t h i n k i n g , i n f e r r i n g , c o n s t r u c t i n g ,

24 w r i t i n g , s p e a k in g , o r a c t i n g I n f a c t “h o l d s a s 't w e r e t h e m i r r o r up t o n a t u r e " o r p r e s e n t s what i s a c t u a l i n l i f e w i t h what i s p o s s i b l e f o r i t i s i n d e e d a most complex t o p i c .

Above a l l , we

s h o u ld n o t be s im p ly dogm a tic , s im p ly a p o l o g e t i c , o r s im p ly skep tical.

And t h e r e may be some t h i n g s t h a t a l l symbolism—

a e s t h e t i c , l o g i c a l , o r b e h a v i o r a l — may keep r e m o te .

"And Mary

t o o k a l l t h e s e t h i n g s , and p o n d e r e d them i n h e r h e a r t . " W r i t e r s a n d Works I f we a r e to t r u s t b o t h t h e i n t u i t i v e and t h e t u t o r e d wisdom o f mankind, t h e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y g r e a t f i g u r e s and works i n i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l i n number.

I n enumer'

a t i n g a few o f them, I s h a l l n o t a t t e m p t t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e g r e a t from t h e l e s s g r e a t , f o r t h a t i s a c r i t i c a l and a c o n s t r u c t i v e task.

Nor s h a l l I a t t e m p t to i n t r o d u c e th e many f a m i l i a r d i s t i n a

t l o n s between o r w i t h i n t h e v a r i o u s fo rm s, f o r example, between t h e f o l k and t h e a r t e p i c , between s t a g e a n d c l o s e t drama, o r betw een t h e p i c a r e s q u e , t h e d o m e s t i c , t h e r o m a n t i c , and t h e c h a r a c t e r - s i t u a t i o n novels.

Moreover, I s h a l l c o n f i n e m y s e l f f o r t h e

most p a r t t o works t h a t a r e i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t from t h e p o i n t o f view o f my theme and t h e o r y . I n the e p i c form, t h e r e i s t h e man o r t h e s e r i e s o f men who s e t down t h e Books o f G e n e s is and Exodus i n t h e P e n t a t e u c h o f t h e Old T estam e n t; t h e man o r t h e s e r i e s o f men who composed Homer's I l i a d and Odyssey— th e B i b l e o f t h e G reeks; t h e man o r t h e s e r i e s o f men who composed H e s i o d ' s Theogony and Works and D ays: P l a t o ' s myth o f the Gave i n t h e R e p u b l i c , and t h e myth o f Er i n t h e Tlmaeus: V i r g i l ' s A e n e l d : Beow ulf: W illia m L a n g l a n d ' s

25 V i s i o n o f P i e r s Plowman: S i r Thomas M a lo r y ’s Morte D ' A r t h u r : The Romance o f t h e B ose: The Song o f R o l a n d : D a n t e ' s D iv in e Comedy: C h a u c e r ' s The C a n t e r b u r y T a l e s : M i l t o n ' s P a r a d i s e L o s t : R u n y a n 's P i l g r i m 's P r o g r e s s : A esop's F a b le s; the N le b e lu n e e n lle d e n ; S w i f t 's G u l l i v e r ' s T r a v e l s : G o e t h e ' s F a u s t : M e l v i l l e ' s Moby D i c k : T. S. E l i o t ' s W a s t e l a n d : J o y c e ' s U l y s s e s and F i n n e g a n ' s Wake: Thomas Mann's t e t r a l o g y , J o s e p h and His B r o t h e r s : and K a f k a 's The C a s t l e ,

X r e f e r t o t h e s e l a t t e r works a s e p i c s by v i r t u e o f

t h e e l e v a t i o n o f t h e i r d i c t i o n and t h e g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e i r them es, c h a r a c t e r s , p l o t s , s e t t i n g s , atm osphere, and to n e. In the l y r i c ,

t h e r e a r e t h e l y r i c s o f Sappho and P i n d a r ' s

O des: V i r g i l ' s E c lo g u e s and G e o r g i e s : H o r a c e ' s Ars P o e t l c a ; O v i d ' s M etam orphoses; t h e Book o f P s a lm s , t h e Song o f Songs o f Solomon, and t h e many l y r i c a l p a r t s o f t h e P r o p h e t i c and Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e s ;

t h e many anonymous m e d ie v a l l y r i c s ,

sacred

and s e c u l a r , c u lm in a tin g in th e v e r n a c u la r verse o f F ra n c o is V i l l o n ; S p e n s e r ' s F a e r i e Queene: t h e s o n n e t s o f S h a k e s p e a r e and M i l t o n ; M i l t o n '8 L ' A l l e g r o and I I P e n a e r o s o ; D onne's s a c r e d and s e c u l a r p o e t r y ; t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l and r e l i g i o u s v e r s e o f H e r b e r t , Crashaw, Vaughan, an d T r a h e r n e ; D r y d e n 's Dunclad a n d P o p e ' s E ssa y on Man: B l a k e ' s Songs o f I n n o c e n c e a n d E x p e r i e n c e : t h e co m p le te p o e t r y o f Wordsworth, K e a ts , S h e l l e y , a n d C o l e r i d g e ; B a u d e l a i r e ' s F low ers o f E v i l : T e n n y s o n 's I d y l l s and I n Memorlam: A r n o l d ' s Dover B e ac h ; B r o w n in g 's d r a m a t i c monologues; B r i d g e ' s A T e s ta m e n t o f B e a u t y ; t h e c o m p le te p o e t r y o f Thomas Hardy, G e r a ld Manley Hopkins a n d F r a n c i s Thompson; Y e a t s ' Ode t o Byzantium and o t h e r poems; E l i o t ' s P r u f r o c k , W a s t e l a n d . Ash Wednesday, and

26 Four Q u a r t e t s : A uden’ s For t h e Time B e i n g , a n d o t h e r poems; P o und’ s C a n t o s : t h e v e r s e o f Anne B r a d s t r e e t and Edward J o h n so n ; M ic h ae l W i g g l e s w o r t h ’s Day o f Doom: W hitm an's Leaves o f G r a s s : R o b e r t

F r o s t ' s Masque o f Reason and Masque o f Mercy a n d o t h e r

poems; and t h e p o e t r y o f F r e n e a u , Emerson, T hore au, B r y a n t , Long­ f e l l o w , L a n i e r , Timrod, Emily D ickenson, E. A. Robinson, H a r t Crane, S andburg, L i n d s a y , M arianne Moore, and Robinson J e f f e r s . I n t h e drama, t h e r e a r e A e s c h y l u s ' P rom etheus Bound and the O r e s t e l a :

S o p h o c l e s ' O edipus t h e K in g . A n t i g o n e , and Oedipus

a t C o l o n u s ; E u r i p i d e s ' Medea. H l p p o l y t u s . The T r o j a n Women. A l c e s t l s . and t h e B a c c h a e : A r i s t o p h a n e s ' L y s i s t r a t a . C l o u d s . B i r d s . and F r o g s : t h e more d r a m a t i c o f t h e P l a t o n i c D i a l o g u e s , l i k e th e Symposium and t h e P h a e d r u s . and e s p e c i a l l y t h e A pology, t h e Phaedo. an d th e C r i t o . c o n t a i n i n g P l a t o ' s a c c o u n t o f th e d e a t h o f S o c r a t e s ; t h e Book o f J o b ; t h e S y n o p t i c G o sp e ls; t h e Gospel A c c o r d i n g t o S t . J o h n ; t h e t r a g e d i e s o f S e n e c a , and t h e com edies o f P l a u t u s a n d T e r e n c e ; t h e m e d ie v a l m y s t e r y and m o r a l i t y p l a y s , l i k e Everyman. The C a s t e l l o f P e r s e v e r a n c e , and The Second S h e p h e r d ' s p l a y ; t h e E l i z a b e t h a n drama, i n c l u d i n g , among many o t h e r s , Thomas K yd's The S p a n i s h T r a g e d y . Marlowe' s D o c to r F a u s t u s . The Jew o f M a l t a , and T a m b e r l a ln e : S h a k e s p e a r e ' s O t h e l l o . Macbeth. H amlet. King L e a r . and The Tem pest: Ben J o n s o n ' s The A l c h e m i s t . V olp o n e. S e J a n u s . C a t a l i n e . and E v e ry Man i n His Humour: T o u r n e u r ' s The R e v e n g e r ' s T raged y and The A t h e i s t ' s T r a g e d y : W e b s t e r ' s The W hite D e v i l a n d The Duchess o f M a l f l : B e aum on t's and F l e t c h e r ' s The M a i d ' s T r a g e d y : M i l t o n ' s Samon A g o n l s t e s : D ry d e n 1s A l l f o r Love: t h e N e o - C l a s s i c drama o f t h e F r e n c h , i n c l u d i n g R o s t a n d ' s Cyrano de B e r g e r a c .

27 C o r n e i l l e s Le Cid. Ha c i n e ' s Andromache and P h e d r e , and t h e comedies o f Mo11e r e ; I b s e n ' s The G h o s ts . The Wild P a c k , A D o l l ' s House, and o t h e r p l a y s ; Shaw's A n d ro o les and t h e L io n . P ygm alion. Man and Superman. S a i n t J o a n , and o t h e r p l a y s ; t h e drama o f t h e I r i s h R e n a i s s a n c e , i n c l u d i n g among many o t h e r s C a r r o l l ' s Shadow and S u b s t a n c e . S y n g e 's A Playboy o f t h e Western^World, and O ' C a s e y ' s Juno and t h e P a y c o c k : Chekhov's The C herry O rchard and The Three S i s t e r s ; t h e p l a y s o f Lorca and P i r a n d e l l o ; and t h e modern American drama, i n c l u d i n g a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e A n d e r s o n 's W l n t e r s e t and O ' N e i l l ' s Mourning Becomes E l e c t r a ; E l i o t ' s The Family Reunion and Murder i n t h e C a t h e d r a l ; and J o y c e ' s E x i l e s , I n th e n o v e l , t h e r e a r e C e r v a n t e s ' Don Q u i x o t e : B o c c a c c i o ' s Decameron T a l e s ; R a b e l a i s ' G argantua and P a n t a g r u e l : F i e l d i n g ' s Tom J o n e s ; D efo e1s Moll F l a n d e r s ; S t e r n e ' s S e n t i m e n t a l J o u r n e y and T r i s t r a m Shandy; V o l t a i r e ' s C andlde; B a l z a c ’s P e r e G o r l o t and and Eugenie G ra n d e t; S t e n d h a l ' s The Red and t h e B l a c k ; F l a u b e r t ' s Madame Bovary; t h e com plete n o v e l s o f Dickerfs; Jane A u s t e n ' s Emma and P r i d e and P r e j u d i c e : B r o n t& 's W uthering H e i g h t s ; H a w th o rn e 's The S c a r l e t L e t t e r and The House o f t h e Seven Gables; M e l v i l l e ' s Moby D i c k . P i e r r e , and B i l l y Bud; Mark T w a in 's H u c k le b e r r y F inn; Henry Ja m es' The Wings o f t h e Dove. The Golden Bowl. The A m bassadors. The P o r t r a l t o f a L ady. The S p o i l s o f P o y n to n . and o t h e r n o v e l s ; Hemingway' s F a r e w e l l to Arms. The Sun Also R i s e s , and For Whom t h e B e l l T o l l s ; S t e i n b e c k ' s The Grapes o f Wrath: th e n o v e ls o f F a u l k n e r and C a ld w e ll ; E d i t h W h a r t o n 's Age o f I n n o cen c e and E th an Frome; F. S c o t t F i t z g e r a l d ' s The G re a t G ats b y ; S i n c l a i r L ew is' Main S t r e e t and o t h e r n o v e l s ; Theodore D r e i s e r ' s S i s t e r

28 C a r r i e a n d An A merican T r a g e d y : S te p h e n Crane*s The Red Badge o f C o u r a g e : H o w e lls ' The R i s e o f S i l a s Lapham an d o t h e r n o v e l s ; t h e n o v e l s o f T r o l l o p e , T h a c k e r a y , M e re d ith , and George E l i o t ; H a r d y ' s F a r From t h e Madding Crowd. Ju d e t h e O b s c u r e . The Mayer o f C a s t e r b r l d g e a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; G a l s w o r t h y ' s The F o r s y t e S a g a ; A ldous H u x l e y ' s A n t i c Hay. P o i n t C o u n t e r p o i n t , a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; L a w r e n c e 's Sons a n d L o v e r s , a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; C o n r a d ' s The H e a r t o f D a r k n e s s and o t h e r n o v e l s ; V i r g i n i a W o l f f ' s To a L i g h t h o u s e a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; E. M. F o r s t e r ' s A P a s s a g e to I n d i a a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; T o l s t o y ' s War a n d P eac e a n d Anna K a r e n i n a : T u r g e n i e v ' s F a t h e r s a n d S o n s : G o g o l ' s Dead S o u l s : D o s t o y e v s k y ' s The B r o t h e r s Karamazov. The I d i o t . Crime and P u n i s h m e n t , a n d The P o s s e s s e d ; Thomas Mann's Magic M ountain. D o c to r F a u s t u s a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; I g n a z i o S i l o n e ' s B read a n d Wine: M a l r a u x ' s M an's F a t e a n d Man*s Hope; Djuna B a r n e s ' Nlghtwood: K o e s t l e r ' s D a r k n e s s a t Noon: K a f k a ' s The T r i a l ; Andre G i d e ' s The C o u n t e r f e i t e r s a n d o t h e r n o v e l s ; a n d P r o u s t ' s Remembrance o f T h in g s P a s t . I n th e s h o r t s t o r y , t h e s t o r i e s o f De M a u p a ssa n t, Poe, B a l z a c , F l a u b e r t , Chekhov, Hemingway, and S te p h e n Crane; H a w t h o r n e 's The G e n t l e Boy. Young Goodman Brown, and o t h e r s t o r i e s ; Henry J a m e s ' The Turn o f t h e Screw. P a l s y M i l l e r . The B e a s t I n th e Ju n g le and o t h e r s t o r i e s ; J o y c e 's D u b lin e r s : A n d erso n 's W ln esb u rg . O h i o ; M ann's S t o r i e s o f Three D e c a d e s ; G e r t r u d e S t e i n ' s T h ree L i v e s : K a t h a r i n e Anne P o r t e r ' s F l o w e r i n g J u d a s and P a l e H o r s e . P a l e R i d e r ; Robinson J e f f e r s ' Roan S t a l l i o n and o t h e r s t o r i e s ; K a f k a ' s M etam orphosis and I n a P e n a l C o lo n y ; and D o s t o y e v s k y ' s N otes from t h e U nderground a n d o t h e r s t o r i e s .

29 Most o f t h e s e works b r i n g t o g e t h e r some g r e a t complex o f t h e o l o g y and some g r e a t l i t e r a r y form.

Homer’ s e p i c s , t h e drama

o f t h e Greek t r a g e d i a n s , and t h e more d r a m a t i c o f t h e P l a t o n i c D ia l o g u e s e x p r e s s t h e Greek ele m e n t i n W estern t h e o l o g y ; t h e Books o f G e n e s i s , Exodus, and J o b , t h e H e b r a i c ; t h e G o s p e l s , The D iv in e Comedy. The C a n te r b u r y T a l e s . P a r a d i s e L o s t . Samson A g o n l s t e s r The S c a r l e t L e t t e r , and B i l l y Bud, t h e C h r i s t i a n . Many o r most, i f n o t a l l , o f t h e r e m a i n i n g works p r e s e n t t h e p r o f o u n d l y s k e p t i c a l e lem e n t i n Weste rn t h e o l o g y s i d e by s i d e w i t h e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s Greek, H e b r a i c , o r C h r i s t i a n :

f o r ex­

am ple, i n S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s Hamlet a n d King L e a r. B r o n t e ’ s W u th e r ln g H e i g h t s . M e l v i l l e ' s Moby D l c k f G o e t h e ' s F a u s t . D o s t o y e v s k y ’ s The B r o t h e r s Karamazov. K a f k a ' s The C a s t l e , and J o y c e ’ s U l y s s e s and F i n n e g a n ' s Wake. f u s i o n o f them a l l .

The outcome i s t h e r e b y a t e r r i b l y complex A l l o f t h e w r i t e r s and works— many o f c o u r s e

from h i g h l y h u m a n i s t i c , a g n o s t i c , o r n i h i l i s t i c p o i n t s o f view— a r e marked by a p r o f o u n d t e n s i o n betw een f a i t h and d o u b t , by a c o n t r a s t b etw een an immediate f o r e g r o u n d o f v a g u e n e ss a n d u n c e r ­ t a i n t y , a n d a v a s t background o f t r a d i t i o n a l c l a r i t y and a s s u r ­ ance o f b e l i e f .

A l l a r e r e n d e r e d g r e a t o r s m a l l by v i r t u e o f

some f r e s h and t r o u b l e d pondeilng o f t h e g r e a t t h e o l o g i c a l themes and p r o b le m s ;

t h e s u b j e e t - o b j e c t , t h e body-mind, t h e a p p e a r a n c e -

r e a l i t y , th e freedom -necessity, th e g r e a t n e s s - t r i v i a l i t y ,

the

m o rta llty -im ro o rta lity , the f ln lte n e s s - p r e te n s io n - p e r v e r s io n f i x a t i o n - w e a r l n e s s , and t h e God-man-good an d e v i l - n a t u r e - d e v l l themes a n d p ro b le m s . I f we a r e to t a k e a somewhat f u r t h e r r a n g e beyond t h e

30 s t r i c t l y i m a g i n a t i v e o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y form s, t h e l i t e r a ­ t u r e w i t h t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and t h e t h e o l o g y w i t h l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e become a l m o s t a s wide a s t h e h i s t o r y o f W e s te r n l i t e r a ­ ture i t s e l f . I n t h e h i s t o r i c a l form, t h e r e a r e t h e c h r o n i c l e s , th e a p o c a l y p t i c Book o f D a n i e l , and t h e h i s t o r i c a l e le m e n ts i n th e p r o p h e t i c and wisdom l i t e r a t u r e s o f t h e Old T e sta m e n t; i n t h e New T esta m e n t t h e r e a r e t h e G o s p e ls a s h i s t o r y , and t h e a p o c a l y p t i c Book o f R e v e l a t i o n ; t h e h i s t o r i e s o f H ero d o tu s and T h u c y d id e s; t h e Graeco-Roman h i s t o r i e s o f T a c i t u s and L ivy; t h e m e d ie v a l h i s t o r i e s o f Bede a n d E u s e b i u s ; t h e Anglo-Saxon C h r o n i c l e ; A u g u s t i n e ’ s Clt.v o f God; G ib b o n 's D e c lin e and F a l l ; W illia m B r a d f o r d ’ s H i s t o r y o f Pllmmoth P l a n a t a t l o n ; t h e h i s t o r i e s o f Hume, Macauley, C a r l y l e , Henry Adams, and M i c h e l e t ; and t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f h i s t o r y , Vico, H egel, B u r k h a r d t , S p e n g l e r , and Toynbee, I n t h e l e t t e r form, among many o t h e r s t h e r e a r e t h e P auline E p is tle s ,

t h e l e t t e r s o f Keats a n d R i l k e , a n d G o e t h e ' s

C o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h Eokermann. I n t h e sermon, t h e r e a r e t h e sermons of L a n c e l o t Andrewes, Jeremy T a y l o r , John Donne, and

J o n a t h a n Edwards.

In the o r a tio n , P e r i c l e s ’ Funeral O ration

a s g i v e n by

T h u c y d id e s ; D e m o s th e n e s' P h i l i p p i c s ; and th e o r a t i o n s o f C ic e r o and B u r k e ; and t h e p o l i t i c a l o r a t o r y o f L i n c o l n and C h u r c h i l l , I n t h e e s s a y form, t h e e s s a y s o f A ddison and S t e e l e i n t h e S p e c t a t o r P a p e r s ; t h e E s s a y s of M o n ta ig n e ; B u r t o n ' s Anatomy o f M e la n c h o ly ; Browne' s R e l l e l o M e d i c i ; P a s c a l ' s Penaees and The

P r o v i n c i a l L e t t e r s : and Jeremy T a y l o r ' s Holy L i v i n g and Holy Dying. I n t h e a u t o b i o g r a p h y , j o u r n a l , d i a r y , and b i o g r a p h y , t h e r e a r e P l u t a r c h ' s L i v e s : D iogenes L a e r t i u s ' L i v e s o f t h e A n c i e n t P h i l o s o p h e r s ; A u g u s t i n e ' s C o n f e s s i o n s ; Ma r c u s A u r e l i u s ' M e d i t a t i o n s B o e t h i u s ' C o n s o l a t i o n s o f P h i l o s o p h y ; D a n t e ' s De Nuova V i t a ; S t . F r a n c i s ' L i t t l e F l o w e r s : Thomas a Kempis' I m i t a t i o n o f C h r i s t ; the w r i t i n g s o f m y stics l i k e E ck h ard t, T au le r, C ath erin e o f Sienna, S t . Jo h n o f t h e Cross, and Boehme; F o x 's J o u r n a l and Woolman' s J o u r n a l : t h e D i a r y o f W i l lia m Law a n d o f Jo h n E v e ly n ; F r a n k l i n ' s A u t o b i o g r a p h y ; C e l l i n i ' s A u t o b i o g r a p h y ; Solomon Maimon's A u t o b i o g r a p h y ; M i l l ' s A u t o b i o g r a p h y ; Newman's A p o lo g ia Pro Sua V i t a : T h o r e a u ' s Walden: R im b au d 's I l l u m i n a t i o n s a n d S eason i n H e l l ; G ld e 's J o u r n a l s : D ostoyevsky's D i a r i e s : K a fk a 's D i a r i e s ; J o y c e ' s A P o r t r a i t o f t h e A r t i s t a s a Young Man: Henry Adams' E d u c a t i o n : I z a a c W a l t o n ' s L i f e o f John Donne: B o s w e l l ' s L i f e o f J o h n s o n : and S a n d b u r g ' s L i n c o l n . G eneralities T here c a n n o t be v e r y much p o i n t t o su c h a summary a p p e a l t o h i s t o r y a s t h i s u n l e s s c e r t a i n t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y g e n e r ­ a l i t i e s c a n be d i s c e r n e d w i t h i n . i s an i n f i n i t u d e o f d e t a i l .

D e t a i l s a r e n o t enough.

D e t a i l s o f and f o r and by t h e m s e l v e s

do n o t s u g g e s t o r embody any l a r g e k in d o f c l a r i t y , order.

There

P rin c ip le s are necessary.

system, o r

And y e t p r i n c i p l e s i m m e d i a t e l y

i n t r o d u c e t h e n o t i o n s o f , a n d t h e whole h o s t o f p r o b le m s c o n n e c t e d w ith , c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s and c o n s tr u c t iv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

I have

s o u g h t to d i s c e r n some n o n - c o n t r o v e r s i a l p a t t e r n s d e s c r l b a b l e a s

32 Immanent to the f a c t s .

I suggest the follow ing s ix g e n e r a l i t i e s

a s b e i n g i n t e r n a l to t h e o l o g i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . In terp lay The f i r s t g e n e r a l i t y i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e r p l a y .

At

c e r t a i n tim e s a n d p l a c e s i n h i s t o r y we e n c o u n t e r t h e o l o g i a n s who were i m p e l l e d t o u n d e r s t a n d and e x p r e s s t h e i r t h e o l o g y i n a l i t e r ­ a r y way.

P l a t o , A e s c h y l u s , D a n te , Bunyan, a n d M i l t o n come immedi­

a t e l y to mind.

These men were p r i m a r i l y t h e o l o g i a n s , and o n ly

i n c i d e n t a l l y men o f l e t t e r s .

L i t e r a t u r e p r o v i d e d t h e medium o r

th e v e h ic le f o r t h e i r th e o l o g i c a l concern. p e n e t r a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e by t h e o l o g y .

This i s the i n t e r ­

At o t h e r t i m e s and p l a c e s ,

we c o n f r o n t men o f l e t t e r s who w ere i m p e l l e d to e x p r e s s t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n t s and meanings i n t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e .

Sophocles, E u ri p id e s ,

C hau cer, S h a k e s p e a r e , B r o n t e , Hawthorne, M e l v i l l e , and D ostoyevsky come i m m e d i a t e l y t o mind.

These men were p r i m a r i l y men o f l e t t e r s ,

and only i n c i d e n t a l l y th e o lo g ia n s .

T heology p r o v i d e d t h e s u b j e c t

m a tte r f o r t h e i r l i t e r a r y concern.

T h is i s t h e I n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n

o f t h e o l o g y by l i t e r a t u r e .

In e i t h e r in s ta n c e , a profound i n t e r ­

p l a y b e tw e e n t h e r e a l m s o f t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a t u r e shows f o r t h . No m a t t e r where o r when t h e o l o g y does not c o n t r i b u t e i t s c o n t e n t to l i t e r a t u r e , l i t e r a t u r e a s l i t e r a t u r e has a " d i f f e r i n g c r y . ” I n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , when l i t e r a t u r e b a n i s h e d t h e o l o g y from i t s domain, l i t e r a t u r e a s l i t e r a t u r e s u f f e r e d a n e c l i p s e .

No

m a t t e r where o r when l i t e r a t u r e does not c o n t r i b u t e i t s s t r u c t u r e t o t h e o l o g y , t h e o l o g y a s t h e o l o g y has a " d i f f e r i n g c r y . "

In the

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , when t h e P u r i t a n s b a n i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e from t h e t h e o l o g i c a l domain, t h e o l o g y a s t h e o l o g y s u f f e r e d a c o l l a p s e .

33 I t i s by v i r t u e o f t h i s i n t e r p l a y t h a t t h e o l o g i a n s a r e bound t o f i n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e o l o g y , a n d t h a t men o f l e t t e r s a r e bound to f i n d t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f s w i t h i n l i t e r a t u r e .

T heology

a n d l i t e r a t u r e have f u s e d and i n t e r p e n e t r a t e d i n such a way a n d to suc h a n e x t e n t t h a t i t becomes i m p o s s i b l e and u n n e c e s s a r y to t h i n k o f them a p a r t .

They have e x i s t e d t o g e t h e r , c o n j o i n e d i n a

complex u n i t y , from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g t o t h e p r e s e n t day . M odality The second g e n e r a l i t y i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m o d a l i t y .

There

have b e e n many p o s s i b l e and a c t u a l a s p e c t s o f t h e o l o g y , o f which l i t e r a t u r e h a s bee n one.

O t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e o l o g y have bee n

myth, r i t u a l , a r t , h i s t o r y , dogma, a p o l o g y , c o n f e s s i o n , p r o p h e s y , and p h ilo so p h y .

O t h e r a s p e c t s o f l i t e r a t u r e have b e e n a e s t h e t i c ,

m o r a l, p o l i t i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c .

P e r h a p s t h e most c o n c r e t e way

t o i n v o k e t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s t o c o n s i d e r t h e p ro b lem s o f t h e o ­ l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y edu catio n .

I f I encounter a youth d e s iro u s

o f a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e o l o g y , I can do one o r more o f many t h i n g s . I can se nd him to t h e t r a d i t i o n o f

'

pure" o r form al t h e o l o g y -

d o g m a tic , c o n f e s s i o n a l , a p o l o g e t i c and p r o p h e t i c : New T e s ta m e n t l i t e r a t u r e s ,

t h e Old and

S t. P au l, the F a th e rs , A ugustine, the

S c h o l a s t i c s , P a s c a l , L u t h e r , C a l v i n , Hooker, Edwards, S c h l e i e r m a c h e r , R i t s e h l , K i e r k e g a a r d , H ege l, B a r t h , B r u n n e r , T i l l i c h , N ie b u h r , B e rd a e y e v , and B uber.

I c a n a l s o send him t o t h e t r a d i t i o n o f

p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r n a t u r a l theology: S o cratlcs,

P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , the p r e -

t h e more p h i l o s o p h i c a l o f t h e P a t r i s t i c F a t h e r s ,

A ugustine a s a p h ilo s o p h e r, the S to ic s , th e E picureans,

th e

Cynics, th e S k e p tic s , th e N e o - P l a to n i s ts , th e S c h o l a s t i c s l i k e

34 Anselm, A q u in a s , a n d Ockham, D e s c a r t e s , Hume, B e r k e l e y , L e i b n i z , Maimonldes, S p i n o z a , Locke, Ja m es, B e rgson, A l e x a n d e r , W h iteh e ad , R u s s e l l , T e n n a n t, a n d Temple.

Or I c o u l d send him t o t h e p h i l ­

o s o p h e r s o f h i s t o r y — H e r o d o tu s a n d T h u c y d id e s , t h e Old and New T e s t a m e n t s , A u g u s t i n e , Gibbon, V ico, B u r k h a r d t , H e g e l, S p e n g l e r , and Toynbee.

Or I can send him to i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e — t o

Homer, A e s c h y l u s , S o p h o c l e s , and E u r i p i d e s , A r i s t o p h a n e s , P l a t o , t h e Book o f Jo b , t h e G o s p e l s , V i r g i l , C ha uce r, D ante, S h a k e s p e a r e , Donne, M i l t o n , B l a k e , Goethe, D o sto y e v sk y , Kafka, and J o y c e . I can a s k him t o

Or

compare and c o n t r a s t t h e m yths, t h e r i t u a l s , t h e

o b s e r v a n c e s , and t h e k i n d s o f a r t — i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e i r a t t e n d a n t b e l i e f s and p o l i t i e s — o f Greek r e l i g i o u s n e s s , o f J u d a is m , and o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .

Each o f t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e o l o g y m ight

c l a i m t o be t h e p u r e o r t h e o n l y a s p e c t o f t h e o l o g y , o r p e r h a p s even o f t h e f a i t h o r r e v e l a t i o n .

But no one o f them, t a k e n s e p ­

a r a t e l y , would be t h e whole o f t h e o l o g y ,

And no one o f them o r

a l l o f them ta k e n i n c o n j u n c t i o n a s a complex would i n f a c t e x h a u s t the f a i t h o r r e v e l a t i o n . e s s e n t i a l to t h e o l o g y .

And y e t a l l o f them would be p a r t o f and I f any p a r t o r a s p e c t o f t h e o l o g y be o m i t t e d

o r d i s t o r t e d , a whole d im e n s io n o f t h e o l o g y would s u f f e r a c o l l a p s e . J u s t so, i f I en co u n ter a youth d e s ir o u s o f a c q u ain tan ce w ith i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , I can a s k him t o r e a d and t h i n k a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e from many p o i n t s o f view— a e s t h e t i c , m o r a l, p o l i t i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c , and t h e o l o g l c a l .

Each p o i n t o f view m ight c l a i m to

be t h e p u r e , t h e p r o p e r , t h e b e s t , o r t h e o n l y way t o l o o k upon lite ra tu re .

But no one o f them, and no complex o f them, would

in f a c t exhaust l i t e r a t u r e .

And y e t each and a l l a r e p a r t o f

35 l i t e r a t u r e and e s s e n t i a l to i t .

I t i s by v i r t u e o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e

o f m o d a l i t y t h a t l i t e r a t u r e i s a c o n s t i t u e n t element w i t h i n t h e ­ o l o g y , a n d t h a t t h e o l o g y i s a c o n s t i t u e n t e lem e n t w i t h i n l i t e r a ­ tu re,

A p a r t from t h e o l o g y , l i t e r a t u r e i n one o f i t s many p o s s i b l e

an d a c t u a l a s p e c t s re m a in s i n c o m p l e t e and c a n n o t be u n d e r s t o o d ; and a p a r t from l i t e r a t u r e ,

t h e o l o g y i n one o f i t s many p o s s i b l e

a n d a c t u a l a s p e c t s r e m a in s i n c o m p l e t e a n d c a n n o t be f u l l y u n d e r ­ stood. Types The t h i r d g e n e r a l i t y i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t y p e s .

There

have b e e n many k i n d s o f t h e o l o g y , many k i n d s o f l i t e r a t u r e , and many k i n d s o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a t u r e in h isto ry .

T h ere h a s b e e n more t h a n one s t o r y t o t e l l , and

t h e r e h a s bee n more t h a n one way to t e l l a s t o r y .

To t e l l t h e

s t o r y o f m a n 's l i f e from t h e p o i n t o f view o f Greek t h e o l o g y r e q u i r e s a very d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e t h a n to t e l l t h e s t o r y o f man’ s l i f e from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f H e b r a i c , C h r i s t i a n , o r s k e p tic a l theology.

When a Greek t e l l s a s t o r y , he t e l l s i t

w i t h a c e r t a i n £Lnd o f i n t e n t , t h e t e l l i n g h a s a c e r t a i n c h a r ­ a c t e r i s t i c i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , and t h e t e l l i n g h a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c k i n d o f s e n s o r y , e m o t i o n a l an d i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t , A s t o r y t o l d from a C h r i s t i a n , a n H e b r a i c , o r a s k e p t i c a l p o i n t o f view i s t o l d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t m o ti v e , t h e t e l l i n g h a s a d i f f e r ­ ent kind o f e f f e c t .

I t i s by v i r t u e o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e o f ty p e s

t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e to d i s c r i m i n a t e among v a r i o u s k i n d s o f t h e o l o g y , v a r i o u s k i n d s o f l i t e r a t u r e , and v a r i o u s k i n d s o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p b e tw e e n t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f a n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n literatu re.

36 L e v e ls The f o u r t h g e n e r a l i t y I s t h e p r i n c i p l e of l e v e l s .

At any

p o i n t o r moment i n h i s t o r y , t h e r e i s a s o r t o f h i e r a r c h y o f ex­ c e l l e n c e , r a n g i n g from t h e l i f e o f th e s e n s e s and t h e em otions, th r o u g h th e l i f e o f r i t u a l and o f b e l i e f , to th e l i f e o f p h i l ­ o s o p h i c a l and l i t e r a r y c o n t e m p l a tio n and enjoyment.

In philosophy

and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e and i n th e a c t s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g and enjoyment, th e v a r i o u s k in d s o f Western th e o lo g y have h i s t o r i c a l l y r i s e n to t h e i r f u l l h e i g h t s .

I n Greek t h e o l o g y , t h e r e i s th e

g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between A r i s t o t l e ’ s Meta-physics and P l a t o ’ s Timaeus on t h e one hand and t h e p l a y s o f the Greek t r a g e d i a n s on th e o t h e r ; i n m edieval C a t h o l i c i s m , t h e r e i s t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between A q u i n a s 1 Summa Theologlca

and D a n te ’ 3 Divine Comedy; and

i n modern the ology between P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y and Finnegan*s Wake.

P h ilo so p h y and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a r e t h e i d e a l o p p o s i t e s

o f which th e o lo g y c o n s i s t s .

I t i s by v i r t u e o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e t h a t

one can say t h a t t h e p l a y s of t h e Greek t r a g e d i a n s and th e p h i l o s ­ o p h i e s o f A r i s t o t l e and P l a t o a r e the h i g h e s t o r supreme e x p r e s ­ s i o n s o f Greek t h e o l o g y , and t h a t t h e G ospels, t h e D iv in e Comedy. The C a nterbury T a l e s , t h e p l a y s o f S h ak esp eare, and P a r a d i s e Lost on th e one hand and th e w r i t i n g s o f A u g u s tin e , A quinas, L u th e r , and C a lv in a r e th e h i g h e s t o r supreme e x p r e s s i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o l o g y . S ta g e s The f i f t h g e n e r a l i t y i s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s t a g e s .

There

a r e g r e a t e r and l e s s e r p e r i o d s o f e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n t h e o l o g i c a l a n d lit e r a r y history.

They a p p e a r to r i s e and f a l l i n te rm s o f a

3? complex k i n d o f r h y t h m i c d e v e lo p m e n t.

Back o f e a c h b r i l l i a n t

p e r i o d o f g e n i u s , t h e r e i s t o be found some k in d o f d a r k n e s s and su p erstitio n .

The b r i g h t p e r i o d i s u s u a l l y f o l l o w e d i n t u r n by

a p e rio d o f decadence.

Back o f Homer, t h e r e a r e t h e a r c h a i c and

p r i m i t i v e forms o f Greek r e l i g i o u s n e s s .

A f t e r Homer and t h e

Greek p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d d r a m a t i s t s , t h e r e i s t h e f a l l i n g o f f o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d Graeco-Roman p e r i o d s .

Back o f S h a k e s p e a r e

t h e r e a r e the m y s t e r y a n d m o r a l i t y p l a y s .

A fte r Shakespeare,

th e re i s the l e s s e r v i t a l i t y of th e R e s to ra tio n t h e a t r e .

Back

o f t h e I r i s h R e n a i s s a n c e t h e r e i s p r i m i t i v e s a g a , l e g e n d and b allad ry .

Back o f I b s e n , t h e r e i s Norse mythology and f o l k l o r e .

A f t e r I b s e n and t h e I r i s h R e n a i s s a n c e , t h e r e i s th e m e d i o c r i t y o f t h e c o n te m p o ra ry t h e a t r e .

At t h e most g e n e r a l l e v e l , t h e r e a r e

s t a g e s i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f whole c u l t u r e s and c i v i l i s a t i o n s ; a t a s li g h t l y le s s general le v e l,

th e re a r e s ta g e s i n the evolu­

t i o n o f p e r i o d s a n d o f movements w i t h i n p e r i o d s ; a n d a t t h e most c o n c r e t e l e v e l t h e r e a r e r h y th m ic p a t t e r n s and c y c l e s i n th e developm ent o f t h e l i v e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . a p p e a r t o move from the l y r i c a l ,

The g r e a t men of l e t t e r s

th ough t h e d r a m a t i c , to t h e e p i c

l e v e l o f e x p r e s s i o n by way o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e ; and from t h e h e r o i c i d e a l , t h r o u g h t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n , t o some k in d o f r e l i g i o u s l o n g i n g a n d p e a c e by way o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t .

The l i f e and

t h e works o f Herman M e l v i l l e move from t h e a e s t h e t i c immediacy and pagan abandon o f Typee, to t h e h e r o i c c r y o f s o c i a l I n j u s t i c e I n W h i t e - J a c k e t , t h r o u g h t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n o f Moby Dick and t h e p i t e o u s a b n o r m a l i t y o f P i e r r e , t o t h e C h r i s t i a n pe a c e a n d g l o r y o f B i l l y Bud.

The same o r a s i m i l a r k i n d o f t h e o l o g i c a l and

38 a n d l i t e r a r y o d y s s e y may be found i n t h e l i v e s and l a b o r s o f D ante, S h a k e s p e a r e , G oethe, and J o y c e .

I t i s by v i r t u e o f t h i s

p r i n c i p l e o f s t a g e s t h a t we can say t h a t a g i v e n p e r i o d o f t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a t u r e o r a g iv e n work o f t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a t u r e i s e a r ­ l i e r and low er o r l a t e r and h i g h e r t h a n a n o t h e r . D egrees The s i x t h p r i n c i p l e i s th e p r i n c i p l e o f d e g r e e s . t o number, q u a n t i t y , a n d s c o p e .

I refer

Some works o f l i t e r a t u r e have

"more8 t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s than o t h e r s .

An e p i c a s a l i t e r a r y

form i s o f a g r e a t e r e x t e n t o r scope t h a n a l y r i c .

The t h e o l o g ­

i c a l c o n t e n t w i t h i n l i t e r a t u r e can a l s o be "more o r l e s s " c l e a r , s t r u c t u r e d , and p r o f o u n d . Summary I n s o f a r a s t h e r e i s a n y c l a r i t y and f o r c e i n t h i s a p p e a l to h i s t o r y , I am moved t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f i s n o t upon t h o s e who e nde avour to t h i n k o f t h e o l o g y a n d l i t e r a t u r e to g e th e r r a t h e r than a p a r t .

On t h e b a s i s o f d e t a i l s a n d g e n e r a l ­

i t i e s , i n h e r e n t w i t h i n t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , and a p a r t from c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o r c o n s t r u c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n , i t must be s a i d t h a t t h e o l o g y h a s b e e n a c o n s t i t u e n t ele m e n t w i t h i n l i t ­ e r a t u r e a n d t h a t l i t e r a t u r e h a s b e e n a c o n s t i t u e n t ele m e n t w i t h i n theology. And y e t a n a p p e a l to h i s t o r y i s n o t enough.

We have t o

be a b l e to t h i n k a b o u t t h e o l o g y i n a l i t e r a r y way and to t h i n k a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e i n a t h e o l o g i c a l way.

We have to d e v e l o p a

th eo lo g ical basis fo r lit e r a r y c ritic is m .

We have to a n a l y z e

39 the v a rio u s kinds o f th eo lo gy, th e v ario u s kinds o f l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e o l o g i c a l m o tif and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

We r e q u i r e a c a r e f u l and d i s c i p l i n e d

s t u d y o f some g r e a t p e r i o d s and o f some g r e a t w r i t e r s a n d w o rks. And f i n a l l y we have t o p r e s e n t a c o n s t r u c t i v e t h e o r y o f l i t e r a ­ t u r e from t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h a t k i n d o f t h e o l o g y and t h a t way o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y we c o n s i d e r t o be most i n t e r e s t i n g a n d p r o f o u n d .

PART I I :

THEOLOGY AND LITERARY CRITICISM

Theory Requirements Any Kind o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m Must F u l f i l l D e f i n i t i o n o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m and o f Theology a s a n Element i n L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m The V ario u s Kinds o f C r i t i c s and C r i t i c i s m The B e s t Kind o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c and t h e B e st Kind o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m The Task o f t h e T h e o l o g i c a l C r i t i c and o f Theological C riticism S ta te m e n t o f T h e o l o g i c a l and L i t e r a r y O b j e c t i o n s and Reply Summary

My c o n c e r n i n t h i s p a r t i s to c o n s i d e r t h e n a t u r e o f the th e o lo g ic a l b a s i s f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

T here w i l l be

a t r a n s i t i o n i n t h i s p a r t from theme to t h e o r y , a n d from a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y to a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m . Theory The g e n e r a l t h e o r y t o be s t r e s s e d i s t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r and t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f a n y g i v e n scheme o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e t r u t h a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l ele m e n t i n i t s method a n d p o i n t o f view.

A p a r t from t h e p r e s e n c e o f a

t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n o f some k i n d o r o t h e r , a t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m c a n I n d e e d e x i s t , and may even g i v e r i s e t o good c r i t i ­ cal p ra c tic e of a so rt. i n t e r e s t i n g o r profound.

But i t s a c h i e v e m e n t s c a n n o t b e v e r y Many e l e m e n t s o t h e r t h a n t h e o l o g y —

a e s t h e t i c , m o r a l, s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c , a n d s c i e n t i f i c — a r e of course e s s e n t i a l fo r g re a tn e ss.

Nor can t h e o l o g y f l o u r i s h

by s t a n d i n g a p a r t from o r o v e r a g a i n s t t h e s e o t h e r e l e m e n t s .

And

y e t t h e o l o g y must n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a n y one o r a n y complex o f them.

And t h e o l o g y i s i n p r i n c i p l e t h e most t r u e a n d I m p o r t a n t

o f them a l l ,

t h e m a s t e r o f a n y e l e m e n t o r a n y complex o f e l e m e n t s

l e s s c l e a r , s t r u c t u r e d , and g e n e r a l t h a n I t s e l f .

And y e t t h e

mere p r e s e n c e o f a n y one o r a l l o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e o l o g y , d oes n o t o f i t s e l f s u f f i c e .

They must be t r u e and

i m p o r t a n t , b o t h w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s , and a s I n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d p a r t s o f a c o n c r e t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d f o r m a l s y s te m . 41

42 R e q u ir e m e n ts Any Kind o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m Must F u l f i l l There a r e two g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a n y k i n d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m must f u l f i l l . F i r s t o f a l l , any scheme o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m must be a c o n c r e t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d f o r m a l system . To be a f o r m a l sy ste m , a t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m must c o n s i s t o f a s e t o f te rm s and p r i n c i p l e s , a s e t o f m ethods, a n d a s e t o f norms, models, a n d t e s t s .

The te rm s must be d e f i n e d

i n suc h a way a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e s must be s t a t e d i n s u c h a manner t h a t w h a t e v e r l i e s w i t h i n t h e l i t e r a r y domain can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from and r e l a t e d to w h a te v e r l i e s w i t h o u t ; a n d I n s u c h a manner t h a t th e d i f f e r i n g p a r t s o r a s p e c t s o f w hatever l i e s w ith in the l i t e r a r y domain c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a n d r e l a t e d t o ea ch o t h e r , b e tw e e n and among t h e m s e l v e s .

The methods must b e s p e c i ­

f i e d i n su c h a way t h a t t h e r u l e s f o r a l l k i n d s o f o p e r a t i o n p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y w i t h i n t h e sy stem , w h e th e r t h e y be d e s c r i p ­ tiv e , c l a s s l f i c a t o r y , explanatory, or ev a lu ativ e in c h a ra c te r, can be d e t e r m i n e d w i t h p r e c i s i o n and s c o p e; a n d i n s u c h a f a s h i o n t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e norms, m o dels, a n d t e s t s come I n t o view .

Inso­

f a r a s t h e d e f i n i t i o n s re m a in p u r e l y n o m in a l, t h e p r i n c i p l e s p u r e l y a n a l y t i c , a n d t h e m odels, norms, and t e s t s p u r e l y i d e a l , t h e s y s t e m r e m a in s a b s t r a c t and u n i n t e r p r e t e d .

But i f and when

some o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n s become r e a l , some o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s s y n t h e t i c , and some o f t h e norms, models a n d t e s t s e m p i r i c a l o r p r a g m a t i c , t h e s y s t e m becomes c o n c r e t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d .

An u n s p e c i ­

f i e d — I f n o t a n u n s p e c i f i a b l e — number o f su c h f o r m a l c r i t i c a l

43 sy stem s a p p e a r t o be c o n c e i v a b l e .

There a l s o a p p e a r t o be many

p o s s i b l e —a l t h o u g h v e r y l i k e l y a l i m i t e d number—- c o n c r e t e i n t e r ­ p r e t a t i o n s o f ea ch complex and u n i t a r y s y s te m t h a t h a s b e e n a b ­ s tr a c tly sp ecified . S e c o n d ly , a n y c o n c r e t e l y I n t e r p r e t e d f o r m a l scheme o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m must be t r u e and i m p o r t a n t . To be t r u e , such a scheme must be c o h e r e n t b e f o r e l o g i c and a d e q u a t e b e f o r e f a c t .

To be i m p o r t a n t , a n y su c h scheme must t

be i n t e r e s t i n g and r e l e v a n t b e f o r e v a l u e . By c o h e r e n c e . I mean t h a t t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n ts c o n s t i ­ t u t i n g t h e scheme must be i n t e r n a l l y c l e a r , o r d e r l y , a n d con­ s i s t e n t w i t h i n , b e tw e e n , and among t h e m s e l v e s ; and e x t e r n a l l y c l e a r , o r d e r ly , and c o n s is te n t w ith r e f e r e n c e to a l l o th e r k inds, »

l e v e l s , and s t a g e s o f a c c e p t e d o r a c c e p t a b l e human e x p e r i e n c e , symbolism, and know ledge. sisten cy .

Coherence i s a w i d e r n o t i o n t h a n con­

I t h a s r e f e r e n c e to i n t e g r i t y o f s t r u c t u r e o r r e l a t e d ­

n e s s , t o m u t u a l i t y o f i m p l i c a t i o n and d e r i v a t i o n , and t o a v a r i e t y o f e l e m e n t s c o n j o i n e d I n complex u n i t y . By a d e q u a c y . I mean t h a t a l l I n s t a n c e s o f a n y k i n d o f ' i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a r e i n t e r p r e t a b l e by means o f t h e c r i t i c a l sy s te m , a n d t h a t t h e r e a r e no known o r knowable exam ples o f any k i n d o f l i t e r a t u r e I n c a p a b l e o f such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

Adequacy

i n v o l v e s a n a p p e a l to b o t h e x t e n s i v e and i n t e n s i v e c o m p l e t e n e s s . By I n t e r e s t . I mean t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l t h e o r y d o e s j u s t i c e t o t h e common s e n s e i n t u i t i o n s o f mankind, a n d does n o t o f f e n d t h i s n a t i v e , i n h e r i t e d , o r t u t o r e d wisdom o f mankind to o d e e p l y w i t h o u t d e m o n s t r a b l y good c a u s e . t r i n s i c reasonableness.

I n t e r e s t i s an a p p e a l to i n ­

44 By r e l e v a n c e . I mean t h a t t h e c l a s s i c examples o f e a c h o f t h e g r e a t l i t e r a r y f o rm s , a s r e c o g n i s e d b y t h e common e x p e r i ­ ence o f mankind, a n d a s u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e s p e c i a l i s t s who have made i t t h e i r c o n c e r n to a t t a i n a n i n t i m a t e and d i s c i p l i n e d mas­ t e r y t h e r e o f , r e c e i v e a p e c u l i a r l y v iv i d and f o r c e f u l I n t e r p r e t a ­ t i o n no m a t t e r where o r when t h e c r i t i c a l s y s t e m i s c o m p e t e n t l y employed.

R e le v a n c e i s a n a p p e a l t o u t i l i t y ,

to p rag m atic conse­

q u e n c e s , t o f r u i t f u l n e s s , and to s p e c i f i c r e s u l t s . These r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t r u t h a n d i m p o r t a n c e have a r a t i o n a l and a n e m p i r i c a l s i d e .

On t h e r a t i o n a l s i d e , c o h e r e n c e a n d i n t e r ­

e s t r e p r e s e n t th e a b s t r a c t and g e n e ra l c o n d itio n s any c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e must a n t e c e d e n t l y f u l f i l l .

On t h e e m p i r i c a l s i d e , a d e ­

q uacy a n d r e l e v a n c e r e p r e s e n t t h e c o n c r e t e and p a r t i c u l a r r e s u l t s a n y c r i t i c a l t h e o r y must c o n s e q u e n t l y a c h i e v e .

F ailu re in prac­

t i c e c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d by b a r e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f theory.

Nor can w eakness i n t h e o r y be j u s t i f i e d by b a r e r e f e r e n c e

to the e x c e lle n c e o f p r a c t i c e .

Conversely, any s t r e n g t h i n th e o ry

can be j u s t i f i e d o n l y by ad d e d r e f e r e n c e t o some e l u c i d a t o r y power of p ractice.

And a n y s u c c e s s i n p r a c t i c e can be j u s t i f i e d o n l y

by ad d e d r e f e r e n c e t o some r e v e l a t o r y power o f t h e o r y . must i n f o r m p r a c t i c e a n d p r a c t i c e must I n fo rm t h e o r y .

Theory T his i n t e r ­

p l a y o f form, f a c t , i n t e r e s t a n d v a l u e i s t h e f i n a l a u t h o r i t y b e f o r e w hich a l l mankind must bow.

T h i s i n t e r p l a y i s what c o n s t i t u t e s t h e

s o u r c e s f o r , t h e i n t r i n s i c meaning o f , and t h e t e s t s f o r t r u t h and im portance. These r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e n o t p e c u l i a r t o l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . They a r e my u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s a l l t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n ­ i n g a l l domains must a n t e c e d e n t l y f u l f i l l ,

of the o p e ra tio n s a l l

45 I n q u i r i e s i n t o any k i n d s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r must i n t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s and meanings go th r o u g h , and o f t h e outcomes a l l methods must i n t h e way o f r e s u l t s c o n s e q u e n t l y a t t a i n .

These r e q u i r e ­

ments must be s a t i s f i e d by any one w i t h i n any s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r d i s c i p l i n e and t h e r e b y by l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s and w i t h i n l i t e r a r y criticism . I do n o t mean to c l a i m t h a t t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s e x h a u s t what h a s o r can be s p e c i f i e d i n t h e way o f g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . The p u r e " i f and o n l y i f “ may be more o r l e s s complex i n c h a r a c t e r and more o r l e s s l i m i t e d i n number t h a n t h i s s e t o f two.

A ll I

c l a i m i s t h a t t h e s e g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s seem t o be b o t h p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y .

T hat i s , t h e y a p p e a r to be c a p a b l e o f some o b s e r v ­

a n c e , n o t c a p a b l e o f com plete v i o l a t i o n w i t h im p u n i ty , and not c a p a b l e o f any o b s e r v a n c e w i t h o u t some s u c c e s s . Nor do I i n t e n d to presume o r im ply t h a t any s i n g l e t h e o r y o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , o r t h e l a b o r s o f any s i n g l e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , no m a t t e r how p e n e t r a t i n g o r g r e a t , h a s e v e r o r can e v e r meet t h e s e g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h c l a r i t y , c e r t a i n t y , com­ pleteness, or f in a lity .

As a f i n a l and e f f i c i e n t c a u s e , t h e s e

r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e a n end, a m e asure, a c r i t e r i o n , and a t e s t i n te rm s o f w hich we can judge our i n t e n t i o n s , and o u r l a b o r s , and our r e s u l t s , as g r e a t o r sm all. As a f i n a l ca u se and a s an a t t a i n a b l e i d e a l , t h e s e r e ­ q u i r e m e n t s c o n s t i t u t e a hope, a dream, a p e r s u a s i v e l u r e , beckon­ i n g us from above, beyond and i n f r o n t .

As an e f f i c i e n t cause

and a s a r e a l i s e d f a c t , t h e y c o n s t i t u t e an i n h e r i t a n c e , a memory, a n d a g i f t , i m p e l l i n g us from w i t h i n , below and b e h i n d .

As a

46 f i n a l c a u s e , t h e y f u n c t i o n l i k e d e s t i n y i n a Greek t r a g e d y — o v e r whelmar^y c l e a r , i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t :

som e th ing l a r g e l y

p o w e r l e s s a p a r t from what we t h i n k and f e e l and do, and a l m o s t i n c a p a b l e o f c o m p lete e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e form o f a n y t h i n g we can th in k o r f e e l o r do.

As a n e f f i c i e n t c a u s e , th e y f u n c t i o n l i k e

f a t e i n a Greek t r a g e d y — s t u b b o r n , r e m o r s e l e s s , and i r r e v e r s i b l e : so m e th in g vague and c o m p u ls iv e , som ething o v e r which we may have l i t t l e c o n s c i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r c o n t r o l , and som e th ing t h a t h a s b e e n r e a l i s e d d e s p i t e , a p a r t from, and even o v e r a g a i n s t what we may c o n s c i o u s l y t h i n k o r f e e l o r do.

As a n i d e a l and a s a f a c t ,

th ese requirem ents seek and d i r e c t s a t i s f a c t i o n .

A ll lo g ie a l and

e m p i r i c a l t h e o r i e s a n d a l l men t u r n o u t to be b l i n d , p r e t e n t i o u s , p e r v e r s e , f i x e d , weary o r i n e r t .

They t h e r e b y become i n s u f f e r a b l e .

We need to be r e s c u e d from them— from t h e t h e o r i e s and from t h e men.

I t i s f o r th e se reasons t h a t the r i g o r o f these requirem ents

i s as k i n d a s i t i s s e v e r e .

Our I n t e n t i o n s , o u r l a b o r s , and o u r

r e s u l t s a r e n e i t h e r so good a s we t h i n k n o r so bad a s we d e s e r v e . The n e c e s s i t y f o r such a s e t o f r e q u i r e m e n t s a s t h i s i s even more o b v io u s i n t h o s e k i n d s o f c r i t i c s an d c r i t i c i s m w h e r e in t h e o l o g y i s h e l d t o be t h e summit o r t h e n e c e s s a r y b a s e t h a n i t i s i n t h o s e w h e r e in th e o l o g y i s h e l d to be n e g l i g i b l e , I r r e l e v a n t , o r a l i e n to t r u t h and v a l u e .

A p a r t from r e q u i r e m e n t s o f some

k i n d o r o t h e r , t h e o l o g y can g i v e r i s e t o more c o g n i t i v e e r r o r , moral e v i l , a e s t h e t i c d i s t a s t e , a n d r e l i g i o u s i m p i e t y t h a n any o t h e r s i n g l e human p o i n t o f view o r any p o s s i b l e complex o f such human p o i n t s o f view.

But i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h such r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

no p o i n t o f view and no complex o f p o i n t s o f view can g iv e r i s e to a g r e a t e r t r u t h and i m p o r ta n c e t h a n t h e o l o g y .

47 T h e o lo g ic a lly d e riv e d and th e o l o g i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d , t h i s s e t o f r e q u i r e m e n t s , o r any s i m i l a r s e t , flow r e s p e c t i v e l y from t h e a b s t r a c t and t h e c o n c r e t e , t h e a b s o l u t e a n d t h e r e l a t i v e , o r t h e p r i m o r d i a l a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t a s p e c t s o r n a t u r e s o f God, In p h ilo s o p h ic a l term s, the r a t i o n a l sid e o f th e req u irem en ts f o l l o w from God a s f i n a l c a u s e , t h e e m p i r i c a l s i d e from God a s e f f i c i e n t cause.

I n t h e o l o g i c a l te r m s , t h e r a t i o n a l s i d e f o l l o w s

from God a s Logos, t h e e m p i r i c a l s i d e from God a s C h r i s t ,

I t is

o n l y by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r and a g e n c y o f God t h a t t h e s o u r c e s , t h e m ethod s, and t h e m odels, norms, and t e s t s f o r t r u t h and i m p o r t a n c e can be s a f e l y o r s u c c e s s f u l l y d e f i n e d .

A p a r t from

v a l i d and i m p o r t a n t r e f e r e n c e t o what and where God i s a n d d o e s , t h e e s s e n t i a l l i m i t s , p r e t e n s i o n s , p e r v e r s i o n s , and w e a r i n e s s e s o f a l l k i n d s , l e v e l s a n d s t a g e s o f human e x p e r i e n c e and symbolism c a n n o t be u n d e r s t o o d .

Nor i s t h e r e any o t h e r way to e l i m i n a t e

o r to a l l o w f o r f o l l y , p r e t e n s e , p e r v e r s i o n , o r f a t i g u e a p a r t from s u c h t h e o l o g i c a l r e f e r e n c e ,

And y e t no k i n d o f t h e o l o g y ,

n o t even C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , i s t h e s o u r c e , method, o r end o f t r u t h and im portance, end.

God i s t h a t s o u r c e , method, m e a s u r e , and

No t h e o l o g y can be t r u s t e d .

We can a n d do t r u s t o n l y God.

But i n s o f a r a s a n y d i s c i p l i n e o r s u b j e c t m a t t e r can be t r u s t e d , t h e o l o g y can be t r u s t e d .

And i n s o f a r a s any c o n c r e t e t h e o l o g y

can be t r u s t e d , C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y can be t r u s t e d .

I t i s my p e r ­

s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n t h a t some k i n d o f t h e o l o g y I n g e n e r a l and a c e r ­ t a i n kind o f C h r is t ia n theology i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e capable o f s u g g e s tin g a b e t t e r b a s i s f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m th a n any o th e r d i s c i p l i n e o r any o t h e r k i n d o f t h e o l o g y , j u s t a s t h e y a r e c a p a b l e

48 o f su g g e s tin g b e t t e r bases f o r s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t io n , f o r morals, f o r p o l i t i c a l l i f e , and f o r p h i l o s o p h y and s c i e n c e .

And y e t t h i s

c o n v i c t i o n i s n o t s im p ly o r o f any n e c e s s i t y an a p r i o r i p r e m i s e . This c o n v i c t i o n i s my f a i t h , my hope, a n d my t r u s t — i n i t s e l f s u b j e c t t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t r u t h and i m p o r t a n c e . D e f i n i t i o n o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m and o f Theology a s a n Element i n L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m By l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , I mean any e f f o r t to d e s c r i b e , to i n t e r p r e t , o r t o e v a l u a t e t h e e v e n t s and meanings o f which t h e b a c k g ro u n d , t h e m o t i v e s , t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , th e e f f e c t s , o r the in f lu e n c e of im ag in ativ e l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , I have i n mind t h a t k in d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m which i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f l i t e r a r y works r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e b a c k g ro u n d , t h e i n t e n t o f t h e man o f l e t t e r s ,

t h e Immediate e f f e c t upon t h e

a u d i e n c e , o r t h e u l t i m a t e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e work upon a g iv e n culture or c iv ilis a tio n . By t h e o l o g y a s a n e lem e n t w i t h i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , I mean a n y a t t e m p t t o e x h i b i t t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r o r g r e a t n e s s o f Im aginative l i t e r a t u r e i s a fu n c tio n of the th e o lo g ic a l t r u t h as w e l l a s o f t h e l i t e r a r y b e a u t y o f t h e e v e n t s an d meanings i t p resen ts.

I a l s o have r e f e r e n c e to any e f f o r t to show t h a t t h e

m o ti v e s f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n , t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f l i t e r a r y w orks, t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r and t h e demands a p p r o p r i a t e t o l i t e r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g and enjoy m ent, a n d t h e aim s and methods f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i t s e l f may b e s t b e e n v i s a g e d and a t t a i n e d i n e s s e n t i a l l y th e o lo g i c a l term s.

49 More s p e c i f i c a l l y , I have i n mind t h a t k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m which i s c o n c e r n e d to e x h i b i t t h a t t h e o l o g y i s a con­ s t i t u t i v e a s w e l l a s a c o n s t i t u e n t elem e nt w i t h i n t h e i n n e r w o rl d o f e v e n t s and meanings o f w hich a work o f l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t s — g o v e r n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and l a r g e l y d e t e r ­ m in in g t h e s t r u c t u r e o r manner o f i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Only i n c i ­

d e n t a l l y do X have r e f e r e n c e t o t h a t k i n d o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m which s p e a k s o f t h e o l o g y a s an e lem e n t i n t h e b a c kgroun d o u t o f which t h e work came, t h e m o tiv e s o f t h e man o f l e t t e r s ,

the e f f e c t

upon t h e a u d i e n c e , o r t h e i n f l u e n c e upon t h e c u l t u r e i n t o which t h e work I s s u e d .

U l t i m a t e l y I have i n mind t h a t k i n d o f t h e o ­

l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m which i s c o n c e r n e d t o s p e c i f y t h e p r o p e r t i e s a g i v e n l i t e r a r y form must e x h i b i t i f i t i s to f u l f i l l t h e r e q u i r e ­ ments o f a c e r t a i n k in d o f t h e o l o g y . The V a r io u s Kinds o f C r i t i c s and C r i t i c i s m There a r e many k i n d s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s and t h e r e a r e many k i n d s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

And y e t t h e r e i s more t h a n a

sim p le m u l t i p l i c i t y o f w r i t e r s a n d works.

Whether by n a t u r e o r

by a r t — f o r p u r p o s e s o f emphasis o r a s th e r e s u l t o f a n a l y s i s — t h e y f a l l o r can be grouped i n t o i n t e l l i g i b l e t y p e s . There a r e a l s o many ways to c l a s s i f y t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m . The s i m p l e s t k i n d o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s b a s e d upon th e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e p u r e a n d t h e impure c r i t i c s a n d between p u r e a n d Impure c r i t i c i s m .

The p u r e c r i t i c and p u r e c r i t i c i s m

make a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e t a s k s o f t h e p o e t and o f t h e a u d i e n c e on t h e one hand and t h e t a s k o f t h e c r i t i c on th e

50 o th e r *

The t a s k o f t h e p o e t i s c r e a t i o n , o f t h e a u d i e n c e e n j o y ­

ment, a n d o f t h e c r i t i c a n a l y s i s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

From t h i s

p o i n t o f view, a c r i t i c i s a c r i t i c , n o t a p o e t o r an au d ie n c e * And c r i t i c i s m i s c r i t i c i s m , n o t c r e a t i o n o r enjoym ent.

The im­

p u r e c r i t i c and t h e impure k in d o f c r i t i c i s m i n s i s t t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e c r i t i c and t h e t a s k o f c r i t i c i s m a r e c r e a t i v e a c t s i n t h e same o r a s i m i l a r s e n s e a s th e a c t o f p o e t i c c r e a t i o n o r o f p o e t i c enjoyment a r e c r e a t i v e a c t s . A somewhat more complex c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s b a s e d upon t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between f o r m a l c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m and i n f o r m a l c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m .

The f o rm a l c r i t i c and f o rm a l c r i t i c i s m

make a s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n between a e s t h e t i c and l i t e r a r y t e r m s , p r i n c i p l e s , and t e s t s on t h e one hand and te r m s p r i n c i p l e s and t e s t s d e r i v e d from o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s a n d s u b j e c t m a t t e r s — f o r example t h e o l o g y , m o r a ls , p o l i t i c s , p h i l o s o p h y , o r s c i e n c e . From t h i s f o rm a l p o i n t o f view, a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s an a e s t h e t i c and l i t e r a r y c r a f t s m a n , n o t a t h e o l o g i a n , a m o r a l i s t , a p o l i t i c a l p h ilo so p h er, a philosopher, o r a s c i e n t i s t .

The i n f o r m a l c r i t i c

and i n f o r m a l c r i t i c i s m i n s i s t t h a t t h e m o tiv e s o f t h e c r i t i c and th e i n t e n t o f c r i t i c i s m are to embrace a s many s u b j e c t m a t t e r s and d i s c i p l i n e s a s a r e p o s s i b l e o r n e c e s s a r y .

The f o r m a l u n i t y

o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s a complex u n i t y , c o n s i s t i n g o f a s many s u b je c t m a tte rs and d i s c i p l i n e s a s a r e consonant w ith u n ity . S t i l l more c o m p l i c a t e d i s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b a s e d upon t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw e en I n t e r n a l c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m and ex­ t e r n a l c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m .

The i n t e r n a l c r i t i c and I n t e r n a l

c r i t i c i s m a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f

51 l i t e r a r y w orks.

The e x t e r n a l c r i t i c and e x t e r n a l c r i t i c i s m a r e

p r i m a r i l y c o n c ern ed w i t h e n t i t i e s beyond o r o u t s i d e t h e work— t h e p o e t b e f o r e t h e work, t h e a u d i e n c e a f t e r t h e work, o r t h e c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n o u t o f which t h e work came an d i n t o which i t i s s u e d . F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s t h e k i n d o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n which i s b a s e d upon t y p e s , l e v e l s , and s t a g e s o f l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s .

Some

k i n d s o f c r i t i c s a n d some k i n d s o f c r i t i c i s m c o n f i n e th e m s e l v e s to an h i s t o r i c a l l e v e l and s t a g e o f a n a l y s i s .

The p ro b lem s a t t h i s

l e v e l and s t a g e a r e who w r o t e what where and when and to whom. O th e r c r i t i c s and o t h e r k i n d s o f c r i t i c i s m t a k e a f u r t h e r r a n g e t o t h e c r i t i c a l l e v e l and s t a g e o f a n a l y s i s where t h e I n t e n t i s ex p lan ato ry r a t h e r than p u re ly n a r r a t i v e o r d e s c r i p t i v e .

The

pr o b le m s a t t h i s l e v e l a n d s t a g e are to a c c o u n t f o r t h e i n t e r r e l a ­ t i o n s between t h e what o f l i t e r a r y c o n t e n t and t h e how o f l i t e r a r y structure.

S t i l l o th e r c r i t i c s and o th e r kinds o f c r i t i c i s m i n t r o ­

duce t h e q u e s t i o n o f norms, o f Judgment and o f c r i t e r i a . the e v a lu a tiv e kind o f c r i t i c and c r i t i c i s m .

T h is i s

The pro b lem s a t

t h i s l e v e l and s t a g e arc to d e t e r m i n e what k i n d o f l i t e r a t u r e i s more t r u e and I m p o r t a n t t h a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e o r a c t u a l k i n d s . The B e s t Kind o f C r i t i c a n d t h e B e s t Kind o f L ite ra ry C riticism No s i n g l e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c and no s i n g l e work i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m has o r c a n e i t h e r c o n f i n e I t s e l f to o r p e r f e c t l y f u l f i l l any one o f t h e s e complex i d e a l s .

Moreover, t h e te rm s p u r e and im­

p u r e , i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l , and f o r m a l and i n f o r m a l a r e h i g h l y r e l a t i v e te r m s .

The d i s t i n c t i o n s o f which t h e y sp e ak shade o f f

52 i n t o one a n o t h e r .

Many k i n d s o f c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m a r e mixed

and i n t e r m e d i a t e .

J u s t s o * - t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s , l e v e l s , and s t a g e s

o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a r e not m utually e x c lu siv e o r u n r e la te d . Any c r i t i c and any k i n d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s a p t , i f n o t bound, to c o n j o i n many o f t h e s e i d e a l s , and t h e i r a c c e s s o r y p o i n t s o f view and methods. And y e t a l l t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c r i t i c s and c r i t i c i s m a r e n o t e q u a l l y t r u e and i m p o r t a n t .

I t i s p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y

to d i s c r i m i n a t e among t h e v a r i o u s c r i t i c a l I d e a l s and to recommend th e b e s t k i n d o f c r i t i c and t h e b e s t kin d o f c r i t i c i s m . Most o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n n e c te d w i t h the problem o f d e c i d i n g what k in d o f a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c and what k i n d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m are t h e b e s t d e r i v e from th e f a c t t h a t many l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s and much l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a r e e i t h e r too g e n e r a l o r too d e t a i l e d i n p o i n t o f view and method. Some c r i t i c s s p r e a d th e m s e l v e s too w i d e l y , c o n c e r n i n g th e m s e l v e s w i t h th e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c .

O th e r

c r i t i c s c a u t i o u s l y d e l i m i t t h e i r work too n a r r o w l y , p r e o c c u p y in g th e m s e l v e s w ith t h e t e c h n i c a l I s s u e s o f some s p e c i a l l i t e r a r y sc ien ce l i k e prosody.

S t i l l o t h e r c r i t i c s d e v o t e t h e m s e l v e s to

I n q u i r i e s which c l e a r l y t a k e them away from t h e s t u d y o f l i t e r a ­ t u r e r a t h e r t h a n tow ard i t —- f o r example, i n t o t h e r e a l m s o f p h i l o s o p h y , t h e o l o g y , p o l i t i c s , s o c i o l o g y , p s y c h o lo g y , o r m orals a s su c h . My l i n e o f t h o u g h t i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s t h a t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m r e q u i r e s a c o n s c i o u s r e c u r r e n c e to t h a t k i n d o f p u r e , i n t e r n a l , and f o r m a l c r i t i c i s m t h a t was i n i t i a t e d by A r i s t o t l e

53 in his P o e tic s.

The P o e t i c s i s m o d e s tly —an d I t h i n k r i g h t l y -

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e im m edia te c o n t e x t o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n and en jo y m en t, w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r l y c l e a r a n d d i s c i p l i n e d em phasis upon t h e i n n e r o o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e o f what i s t h e r e a s c r e a t e d and a s enjoyed. This kind o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s in te r m e d ia te between t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f a e s t h e t i c s and the d e t a i l s o f v a r i o u s s p e c i a l l i t e r a r y sciences. A e s th e tic s I s a p a r t o f philosophy.

To be s u f f i c i e n t ,

i t s p r i n c i p l e s must be a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e e n t i r e a e s t h e t i c domain, i n c l u d i n g myth, r i t u a l , t h e f i n e an d u s e f u l a r t s , and dream s. I t must a l s o s p e ak o f many o f t h e common e x p e r i e n c e s o f d a l l y l i f e , l i k e t h e b e a u ty o f p e r c e i v e d n a t u r e , c o n v e r s a t i o n , work, p l a y , l o v e and w a r.

A e s t h e t i c s must a l s o r e l a t e t h e s e v a r i o u s

a e s t h e t i c domains t o o t h e r k i n d s o f human e x p e r i e n c e , symbolism, and k n o w le d g e : h i s t o r y , t h e n a t u r a l , b i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y . o f an a e s t h e t i c experience?

What i s t h e n a t u r e , f u n c t i o n and

s t a t u s o f l i t e r a t u r e and o f t h e a r t s ? a poem?

What i s an a u d i e n c e ?

i s beauty?

What i s t h e n a t u r e

What i s a p o e t ?

What i s

What i s l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m ?

What

What i s th e d i f f e r e n c e between an a e s t h e t i c symbol

an d a l o g i c a l o r e m p i r c a l p r o p o s i t i o n ?

The pro b lem s I n v o l v e d

i n t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f a e s t h e t i c s a r e c l e a r l y too sw eeping t o d e f i n e t h e p r e c i s e alms and methods o f l i t e r a c y c r i t i c i s m . At t h e o p p o s i t e end o f t h e a e s t h e t i c continuum, t h e r e a r e v a rio u s s p e c i a l l i t e r a r y s c ie n c e s concerned w ith d e t a i l e d a s p e c ts o f l i t e r a t u r e or the a r t s .

There i s t h e s t u d y o f p r o s o d y

54 In p o e t r y , o f harmony i n music, o f c o m p o s iti o n I n p a i n t i n g . These detailed studies a r e c l e a r l y t o o special to d e f i n e l i t e r a r y criticism . Somewhere between t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f a e s t h e t i c s a n d t h e d e t a i l s o f s p e c i a l i s e d s c h o l a r s h i p a r e t h o s e s t u d i e s c o n c ern ed w i t h t h i n g s e s s e n t i a l l y e x t e r n a l to l i t e r a t u r e o r p e r t a i n i n g to th e v e r y i n f o r m a l and Impure s i d e o f L i t e r a t u r e .

F o r example,

th e re a r e h i s t o r i c a l s tu d i e s o f the ev o lu tio n of L i t e r a r y genre, movements, s c h o o l s , s t y l e s , p e r i o d s , n a t i o n s , c o n v e n t i o n s , and languages.

There a r e a l s o s p e c i a l s t u d i e s o f t h e b i o g r a p h y o f

v a r i o u s g r e a t w r i t e r s , o f t h e p s y c h o lo g y o f L i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n o r enjoyment, o f t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n o r i n f l u e n c e o f L i t e r a r y works, a n d s t u d i e s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l , t h e o l o g i c a l o r p o l i t i c a l and moral s e t t i n g o r I n f l u e n c e o f l i t e r a t u r e .

These s t u d i e s , i n t e r ­

e s t i n g a n d i m p o r t a n t a s t h e y may w e l l b e , a r e t o e im pure, i n f o r m a l and e x t e r n a l t o l i t e r a t u r e to d e f i n e t h e b e s t k i n d o f L i t e r a r y c r i t i c and c r i t i c i s m .

They a r e a p t t o t a k e t h e c r i t i c and h i s c r i t i c i s m

away from th e work o f l i t e r a t u r e r a t h e r th a n toward i t . The kin d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c 1 c o n c e iv e ae the i d e a l i s i n t e r m e d i a t e b etw e en th e p h i l o s o p h i c a e s t h e t i c l a n , t h e s p e c i a l i s t s c h o l a r , and t h e s t u d e n t who i s I n t e r e s t e d i n L i t e r a t u r e a s a document r e l e v a n t to some o t h e r s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r d i s c i p l i n e . This k i n d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s co n c ern ed w i t h p a r t i c u l a r I n s t a n c e s , o f p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s of l i t e r a t u r e .

I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h them, he

i s p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h t h e im mediate c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f L i t e r ­ a r y c r e a t i o n a n d enjoyment, w ith p a r t i c u l a r emphasis upon th e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f the work composed.

To be s u r e ,

t h i s k i n d o f c r i t i c s h o u ld r e n d e r h i s p h i l o s o p h i c p r e m i s e s ex—

55 p l i c i t and c r i t i c i s e d a t some p o i n t , f o r t h e r e can r e a l l y be no e s c a p e from them.

And o t h e r w i s e he w i l l be h a r d p u t to keep h i s

c r i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e c l e a r and g e n e r a l , e i t h e r i n h i s own mind o r a s e x p r e s s e d to o t h e r s .

I n f a c t , many t h e o r i e s o f

l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , and much c r i t i c a l p r a c t i c e , a r e v i t i a t e d p r e ­ c i s e l y by t h i s l a c k o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e c i s i o n and sc o p e .

A p art

from a p h i l o s o p h i c s e n s e , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m can become t e d i o u s and undisciplined.

I t i s j u s t a s e a sy to be w h i r l e d a b o u t by d e t a i l s

a s i t i s by g e n e r a l i t i e s .

Whether a c r i t i c c e a s e s t o b e a c r i t i c

and becomes a n a e s t h e t i c i a n i f and when he does t h i n k o r speak p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i s — I t h i n k —a nominal problem .

The i m p o r t a n t

p o i n t i s t h a t h i s c r i t i c i s m ca n n o t be w h o lly in d e p e n d e n t o f p h i l o ­ so p h ic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , any more t h a n i t can be sim p ly in d e p e n d e n t o f and u n r e l a t e d to t h e o l o g y , p o l i t i c s , m o r a ls , o r s c i e n c e .

On

th e o t h e r hand, t e c h n i c a l m a t t e r s l i k e pro so d y a r e n o t to be ignored.

At many p o i n t s and moments, even t h i s k in d o f a c r i t i c

i s h e l p l e s s w i t h o u t them. ing en u ity .

They a r e s a f e g u a r d s a g a i n s t a w ild

I n summary, t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a r e

i n s e c u r e a p a r t from t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f p h i l o s o p h y and th e de­ t a i l s o f science.

But i n th e end t h e s e t h i n g s a r e p r e l i m i n a r y

to and i n s t r u m e n t a l f o r t h e t a s k o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n i t s m ajor a s p e c t .

That a s p e c t i s concerned w i t h t h e I n t e g r i t y o f

th e work o f l i t e r a t u r e and o f i t s k i n d . W ithin t h i s g e n e r a l k in d o f p u r e , I n t e r n a l , and f o rm a l c r i t i c i s m , t h e r e a r e t h r e e g r e a t a l t e r n a t i v e ways t o a p p r o a c h a work o f l i t e r a t u r e .

These ways d e t e r m in e t h e v a r i o u s k in d s

o f good c r i t i c s and good c r i t i c i s m .

The f i r s t way I s t o fo c u s

56 upon t h e m otive o r I n t e n t o f t h e c r e a t o r I n t h e a c t o f l i t e r a r y creatio n .

The second way i s to f o c u s upon t h e im m e d ia te e f f e c t s

upon t h e a u d i e n c e i n th e a c t o f l i t e r a r y e n jo y m e n t.

The t h i r d

way i s to f o c u s upon t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e work, t h e i n t e r p l a y o f t h e what a n d t h e how.

The f i r s t way may b e s t

be s y m b o l is e d by K ant, t h e s e c o n d by Hume, and t h e t h i r d by A risto tle. I s h a l l d e f e n d t h e t h i r d way i n t e r m s o f i t s s t r e n g t h . I s h a l l d e f e n d t h e o t h e r two ways i n te rm s o f i t s w e a k n e s s . A c c o rd in g t o t h e f i r s t i d e a l , t h e t a s k o f t h e c r i t i c i s t o s p e c i f y t h e i n s i g h t o r i n s i g h t s g i v i n g r i s e t o l i t e r a r y con­ s t r u c t i o n i n the a c t o f c r e a tio n .

The f o c u s o f I n t e r e s t and

a t t e n t i o n i s upon t h e u n d e r l y i n g a p p r e h e n s i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e a c t o f c r e a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n and embodiment.

The method t h e c r i t i c

s e e k s t o employ i s t o r e - c o n s t r u c t and t o r e e n a c t t h e c o m p l i c a t e d a c t of l i t e r a r y creation:

s e l e c t i o n , e m p h asis a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n .

T h is i d e a l s t r e s s e s t h e f e r m e n t o f g e n i u s b e f o r e a n d b e h i n d th e w ork.

The em phasis i s upon m o t i v e s , i n t e n t i o n s , o r i g i n s ,

a n d s u b j e c t i v e aims,,

sources,

A m a jo r d i f f i c u l t y w i t h t h i s e m p h asis i s

t h a t t h e a c t u a l a c t o f l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n i s h i d d e n and p a s t — a t h i n g - i n - i t s e l f — t o be r e c o v e r e d o n l y by c o n j e c t u r e .

A l l we can

t r u s t i s t h a t t h e d r a m a t i s t was i n f a c t i m p e l l e d to s p e a k o u t o f so m e th in g i m p e l l i n g and d ee p .

A p a r t from t h i s t r u s t , we have t o

i n f e r from t h e work o r s im p ly c o n j e c t u r e t h e i n t e n t a n d m o ti v e . The p o e t ' s own s t a t e m e n t s o f h i s m otive and i n t e n t ,

s e t down b e ­

f o r e o r a f t e r t h e a c t o f c r e a t i o n , may o r may n o t be r e v e a l i n g a n d i n a n y c a s e c a n n o t be t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e .

F or t h e y may o r

may n o t c o r r e s p o n d to what t h e d r a m a t i s t i n f a c t c r e a t e d .

57 The second a p p r o a c h I s t o examine t h e im m ed ia tely im­ p r e s s i v e e f f e c t s upon t h e a u d i e n c e .

These a r e a l s o t h i n g s - i n -

th e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to a p p r e h e n d t h e a c t u a l i m p r e s s i o n s o f a n o t h e r o r o f o n e ' s own s e l f a p a r t from a n a l y s i s and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

We t h e r e f o r e have to s p e ak o f t h e normal,

t h e c o m p e te n t, o r t h e i d e a l s p e c t a t o r . The t h i r d t h e o r y i s to a n a l y s e th e i n n e r and g i v e n i n ­ t e g r i t y o f t h e work o f l i t e r a t u r e a p a r t from t h e a c t o f c r e a t i o n a n d t h e a c t o f e n jo y m en t.

From t h i s p o i n t o f view, t h e p o e t ' s

I n t e n t and the a u d i e n c e 's im p ressio n a r e brought i n only in s o f a r a s t h e y throw l i g h t upon t h e I n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f the work a s g i v e n and a s r e c e i v e d .

T h is i s a t once t h e o l d e s t and

t h e n e w e s t o f c r i t i c a l I d e a l s . The m a jo r d i f f i c u l t i e s conn e cte d w i t h t h i s p o i n t o f view r e v o l v e a b o u t t h e problem s o f t h e r e l a t i o n b etw e en " p o e t r y a n d b e l i e f " and t h e r e l a t i o n s betw een " l i t e r a t u r e and l i f e . " T h i s i n s i s t e n c e upon a p u r e , i n t e r n a l , and f o rm a l th e o r y o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m may sound l i k e a v e r y s t r a n g e and f o r c e d anomaly i n an e s s a y s e e k i n g to r e l a t e t h e o l o g y to i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e i n g e n e r a l , and C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y to t h e a n a l y s i s o f d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y a s a l i t e r a r y form i n p a r t i c u l a r . But I t h i n k i t I s n o t .

My conc ern I s w i t h t h e o l o g y a s a

c o n s t i t u e n t e lem e n t w i t h i n l i t e r a t u r e and w i t h i n c r i t i c i s m .

My

co n c e r n a s a c r i t i c i s w i t h t h e o l o g y i n s o f a r a s t h e o l o g y i s In f a c t among t h e e v e n t s and meanings o f which t h e i n n e r w orld o f l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t s and o f which l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m c o n s i s t s . For example, t h e problem a s to w h e th e r S hakespeare th e

58 man was o r was n o t a c o n s c io u s o r u n conscious C h r i s t i a n — th e Im pure, t h e i n f o r m a l , an d t h e e x t e r n a l q u e s t i o n — i s n o t p a r t of my s u b j e c t m a t t e r , i s i r r e l e v a n t t o my aim, and i s unan sw e ra b le by my method.

Nor am I conc erned w i t h t h e problem a s to w hethe r

S h a k e s p e a r e ' s a u d i e n c e was o r was n o t C h r i s t i a n .

Nor am I a t t e m p t

i n g t o impose my own th e o lo g y upon h i s p l a y s , o r s e e k i n g to e n a b le h i s p l a y s to evoke my own t h e o l o g i c a l s e n t i m e n t s .

My co n c e r n i s

to e x h i b i t t h a t t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f h i s p l a y s — a p a r t from what may

o r may

not

have been h i s a c t u a l i n t e n t , and

a p a r t from what may

o r maynot

have been t h e i r a c t u a l e f f e c t —a r e

d e s c r i b a b l e i n g e n e r a l l y t h e o l o g i c a l and s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n term s.

Any em phasis upon t h e a c t o f c r e a t i o n o r t h e a c t o f e n jo y ­

ment a p a r t from a r i g o r o u s h i s t o r i c a l , c r i t i c a l , and c o n s t r u c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f what p r o p e r t i e s make a p l a y C h r i s t i a n I s u n w i t t i n g . And any em phasis upon t h e r e l a t i o n between h i s p l a y s a n d l i f e o r h i s p l a y s a n d my own p e r s o n a l b e l i e f i s a l s o beyond my method and p o i n t o f view. I n s h o r t , I se e no concern f o r l i t e r a t u r e

c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n p r i n c i p l e between a

f o r i t s own sake and a c o n c ern f o r t h e o lo g y

I n s p e a k i n g o f t h e I n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a t u r e I am n o t s e e k i n g to r e l a t e t h i n g s t h a t a r e a l r e a d y i n f a c t u n r e ­ lated .

My p o i n t i s t h a t t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f

S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p l a y s a r e c o n s t i t u t e d by c e r t a i n t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f s . Theology i s a n i n t e g r a l and c o n s t i t u t i v e a s p e c t o f them.

More

g e n e r a l l y , my c o n c e r n I s to s p e c i f y what k i n d o f i n n e r p r o p e r t i e s a p l a y must e x h i b i t i n o r d e r to be c a l l e d C h r i s t i a n , H e b r a ic , Greek, o r s k e p t i c a l *

59 I t h e r e f o r e a c c e p t and i n s i s t upon t h e c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e o f modern a e s t h e t i c s a n d modern l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m t h a t a p l a y a s a p l a y a n d c r i t i c i s m a s c r i t i c i s m s h o u ld not r e f e r beyond th e m s e l v e s to some e x t r i n s i c s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r p u r p o s e s o f u t i l i t y ,

cogni­

tio n , o r conation as over a g a in s t the o ld e r theory o f l i t e r a t u r e and c r i t i c i s m a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h i m p u r i t i e s , i n f o r m a l i t i e s , and e x t e r n a l i t i e s . And y e t i n r e c u r r i n g t o A r i s t o t l e , and i n s t r e s s i n g t h i s c r u c i a l p r i n c i p l e o f modern a e s t h e t i c s a s i n i t i a l l y s t a t e d i n a c l a s s i c form by b o t h Hume and K ant, I am s t r e s s i n g j u s t t h o s e e l e m e n ts i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s o f A r i s t o t l e , Hume, and Kant which many o f t h e i r f o l l o w e r s have e i t h e r f o r g o t t e n o r have t e n d e d t o p l a c e t o one s i d e .

For example, A r i s t o t l e g i v e s a v e r y c o n c r e t e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to h i s f o r m a l terms and p r i n c i p l e s from t h e p o i n t o f view o f Greek t h e o l o g y .

And Hume and Kant g i v e v e r y c o n c r e t e

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f what t h e y mean by t h e a c t o f c r e a t i o n and t h e a c t o f e njoym ent, Hume from t h e p o i n t o f view o f an a g n o s t i c o r h u m a n i s t i c t h e o l o g y , Kant from t h e p o i n t o f view o f a C h r i s t i a n . This e le m e n t o f c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n I a c c e p t , p r o v i d e d t h a t i t l e a d s toward t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f t h e work r a t h e r t h a n away from o r o u t s i d e i t . The T ask o f t h e T h e o l o g i c a l C r i t i c and of Theological C ritic is m The t a s k o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c and o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m i s t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e o l o g y and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e to g e th e r r a t h e r than a p a r t .

A t h e o lo g ic a l c r i t i c th in k s about

t h e o l o g y i n a l i t e r a r y way and a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e i n a t h e o l o g i c a l

60 way.

T h e o lo g i c a l c r i t i c i s m i s concerned w i t h t h e l i t e r a r y a s p e c t

o f t h e o lo g y , and w i t h t h e t h e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f l i t e r a t u r e . A t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c ca n n o t cla im t h a t t h e o l o g y th e o n ly way to t h i n k a b o u t l i t e r a t u r e .

provides

His o n ly cla im i s t h a t

t h i s way, h i s way, i s n e c e s s a r y and I m p o r t a n t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y bec ause l i t e r a t u r e has always been one o f th e g r e a t media w herein mankind has been e na bled to e n t e r t a i n t h o s e e v e n ts and meanings t o which th e o lo g y r e f e r s ; and b ec au se th e o lo g y haa always been p r e s e n t among t h e e v e n ts and meanings o f which lite r a tu r e consists. I t i s I m p o r t a n t bec ause t h e g r e a t n e s s o f any t h e o lo g y i s i n p a r t a f u n c t i o n o f t h e l i t e r a r y b e a u ty i t can s u s t a i n ; and b e ­ cause th e g r e a t n e s s o f l i t e r a t u r e i s in p a r t a f u n c t i o n o f th e t r u t h and im porta nce o f th e th e o lo g y i t shows f o r t h . The l a b o r s o f a t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c a r e t h e i d e a l o p p o s i t e o f t h o s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c r i t i c s who have a concern f o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o lo g y . I n sp e ak in g o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m and p h i l o s o p h i c a l c r i t i c i s m a s i d e a l o p p o s i t e s , I mean t h a t p h ilo s o p h y and im agina­ t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a r e the two re a lm s of symbolism and d i s c o u r s e w ith which th e o lo g y i s by n a t u r e most d e e p ly c o n c ern ed .

We go to

t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s and t h e i r w r i t i n g s i n s e a r c h o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , to t h e men o f l e t t e r s and t h e i r works f o r th e sake of e x p r e s s i o n . A p a r t from p h i lo s o p h y , t h o s e e v e n t s and meanings to which th e o lo g y r e f e r s cannot be u n d e r s to o d .

A p a r t from i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e ,

th o s e e v e n t s and meanings to which t h e o l o g y r e f e r s cannot be en­ jo y e d .

For t h i s r e a s o n , t h e g r e a t t h e o l o g i a n s i n t h e w est have

61 a l m o s t a lw a y s spoken i n e i t h e r a p hilosophic o r a l i t e r a r y manner. And f o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r s and men o f l e t t e r s have a l m o s t alw a y s spoken t h e o l o g i c a l l y .

As p h i l o s o p h e r s ,

A r i s t o t l e and P l a t o had knowledge a b o u t and t h o u g h t t h r o u g h t h e e v e n t s and meanings o f w hich Greek t h e o l o g y spoke. le tte rs,

As men o f

t h e Greek t r a g e d i a n s h a d a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h a n d f e l t

t h r o u g h t h e e v e n t s and meanings o f Greek t h e o l o g y .

J u s t so,

A q u in as f o r m u l a t e d m e d ie v a l C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y i n t h e a b s t r a c t , w h ereas Dante p r e s e n t e d m e d ie v a l C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y i n t h e con­ crete.

One measure o f t h e g e n i u s o f P l a t o i s t h a t he d i d b o t h .

F or t h e s e r e a s o n s , p h i l o s o p h y and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a r e t h e i d e a l o p p o s i t e s o f w hich t h e o l o g y c o n s i s t s . A p a r t from f a i t h and r e v e l a t i o n , t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p h i l o s o p h y and t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a r e t h e u l t i m a t e d im e n s io n s o f t h e o l o g y .

But f a i t h and r e v e l a t i o n a r e

o f c o u r s e i n no s e n s e a s p e c t s o f t h e o l o g y . man d o e s o r can do w i t h t h e h e l p o f God.

F a i t h i s s o m e th in g And r e v e l a t i o n i s some­

t h i n g God does o r c a n do w i t h t h e h e l p o f man.

F a i t h and r e v e l a ­

t i o n may be t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d l i t e r a t u r e .

They

a r e what t h e b e s t and t h e g r e a t e s t o f p h i l o s o p h y and l i t e r a t u r e a re about,

But t h e y a r e n o t t h e o l o g y .

They a r e b e f o r e and a f t e r .

I n t h i s s e n s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a r y t h e o l o g y b o t h a r i s e o u t o f and I s s u e i n t o s o m e th in g much r i c h e r and more u l t i m a t e than them selves.

F o r t h e a c t o f f a i t h on m a n 's p a r t and t h e a c t

o f r e v e l a t i o n on G od's p a r t a r e more I n t i m a t e a n d u l t i m a t e s a c r a ­ ments t h a n p h i l o s o p h i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n . L e t me d e f i n e more f o r m a l l y t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c and o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m .

62 The c o n c e r n o f a t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s t o e x h i b i t t h a t th e g r e a tn e s s o f im a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e i s a f u n c tio n o f the theo­ l o g i c a l t r u t h a s w e l l a s o f t h e l i t e r a r y b e a u t y o f t h e e v e n t s and meanings to p r e s e n t s . The t a s k o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m i s to show t h a t t h e m otives f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n ,

t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e

o f l i t e r a r y w orks, t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r an d t h e demands a p p r o p r i a t e to l i t e r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e njoym ent, and t h e b a s e s f o r l i t e r ­ a r y c r i t i c i s m i t s e l f may b e s t be e n v i s a g e d a n d p u r s u e d i n e s s e n ­ t i a l l y th e o lo g ic a l term s. More s p e c i f i c a l l y ,

the ta s k o f th e o lo g ic a l c r i t i c i s m i s

h i s t o r i c a l , c r i t i c a l , and c o n s tr u c t iv e i n c h a r a c te r . From a n h i s t o r i c a l p o i n t o f view, a t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c must e x h i b i t t h a t t h e o l o g y h a s b e e n a c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t w i t h i n lite ra tu re .

From a c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f view, a t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c

must e x h i b i t t h a t t h e o l o g y has bee n a c o n s t i t u t i v e e le m e n t w i t h i n literatu re.

From a c o n s t r u c t i v e p o i n t o f view, a t h e o l o g i c a l

c r i t i c must s p e c i f y t h e p r o p e r t i e s a g iv e n l i t e r a r y f o rm must f u l f i l l i f i t i s to p r e s e n t t h e k i n d o f a w o rld o f w hich t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g an d p r o f o u n d k i n d o f t h e o l o g y s p e a k s . S t a t e m e n t o f T h e o l o g i c a l and L i t e r a r y O b j e c t i o n s and Reply Many t h e o l o g i a n s a n d l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s have n o t a n d do n o t c o n s i d e r suc h a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m to be e i t h e r p o s s i b l e , n e c e s s a r y , o r I m p o r t a n t .

I t is

t h e r e f o r e e s s e n t i a l to s p e a k somewhat c o n t r o v e r s i a l l y w i t h s k e p t i c s and a g n o s t i c s i n e a c h domain, b o t h among t h e l i v i n g a n d among t h e dead.

63 A p a r t from s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i o n s t o s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f t h e p o i n t o f view I am s e e k i n g t o r e p r e s e n t and recommend, t h e r e i s t h e g e n e r a l o b j e c t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s n o t and ca n n o t be any i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . My l i n e o f t h o u g h t i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s t h a t most l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s who c l a im t o be untram m elled by any t h e o l o g i c a l p r e m i s e s , an d most t h e o l o g i a n s who c l a i m to be d e v o id o f any l i t e r a r y prem­ i s e s , t a c i t l y employ them i n any c a s e .

T h e o l o g i c a l an d l i t e r a r y

p r e m i s e s a r e no b e t t e r f o r b e i n g u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i m p l i c i t l y , and u n c r i t i c a l l y held.

T his way l i e t h e f u r i e s i n whose wake can

come a n a r c h y , v i o l e n c e , o r boredom.

A l l p r e m i s e s o f a l l k in d s

s h o u ld be i n t h e open a i r , and t h e r e b y c a p a b l e o f c r i t i c i s m and improvement by o t h e r s , by o u r own f u t u r e s e l v e s , by n a t u r e , o r by God.

Moreover, a l l p r e m is e s o f a l l k i n d s s h o u ld aim a t b e i n g

in clu siv e.

T h e o l o g i c a l p r e m is e s sho uld se ek t o embrace a l l k in d s

o f fo rm s , f a c t s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s , i n c l u d i n g l i t e r a r y fo rm s , f a c t s , i n t e r e s t s and v a l u e s ; l i t e r a r y p r e m i s e s s h o u ld s e e k t o em­ b r a c e a l l k in d s o f form s, f a c t s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e o l o g i c a l forms, f a e t s , i n t e r e s t s , and v a l u e s .

Lack o f o p e n n e ss

o r i n c l u s i v e n e s s a r i s e s out o f and i s s u e s i n t o t h e v a g a r i e s o f c o n f e s s i o n , a p o l o g y , dogma, o r s k e p t i c i s m i n b o t h dom ains.

Con­

f e s s i o n i s u l t i m a t e l y a k in d o f w h i s t l i n g i n th e d a r k i n o r d e r to keep t h e f a i t h f u l ' s courage up, p a r t i c u l a r l y o n e ' s own.

There i s

so m e th in g s e c r e t t h a t c a n n o t r e a l l y s t a n d t h e l i g h t o f day.

Apology

i s u ltim a te ly a d esp erate device of defensive r e t r e a t or a t ta c k to keep t h e p io u s from f a l l i n g a p a r t w i t h i n t h e f o l d o r t h e im pious from coming too much t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t .

Dogma and s k e p t i c i s m a r e

64 i n v e r t e d forms o f t h e same e r r o r .

U ltim ate ly they a r e f u n c tio n s

o f f e a r — f e a r o f a n a r c h y , t y r a n n y , o r boredom.

The f e a r o f a n a r c h y

i s the f e a r o f a w ild o b l i t e r a t i o n of d i s t i n c t i o n s .

The f e a r o f

t y r a n n y i s t h e f e a r t h a t t h e o l o g y w i l l be s a c r i f i c e d to l i t e r a t u r e o r l i t e r a t u r e to t h e o l o g y .

The f e a r o f boredom i s t h e f e a r t h a t

e i t h e r theology, l i t e r a t u r e o r b o th w i l l c o lla p s e in th e fa c e of a b an a lity or so p h isticatio n .

I n i t s g r e a t p e r i o d s no k in d o f

t h e o l o g y o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m h a s e v e r been sim p ly c o n f e s s i o n a l , sim p ly a p o l o g e t i c , o r sim p ly dogm atic o r s k e p t i c a l .

They have

been p o s i t i v e l y h i s t o r i c a l , c r i t i c a l , and c o n s t r u c t i v e .

T h e o lo g ia n s

have q u a l i f i e d t h e i r t h e o l o g y by l i t e r a r y p r e m i s e s , and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s have q u a l i f i e d t h e i r l i t e r a r y p r e m is e s by t h e o l o g y . h a s been a f r u i t f u l i n t e r p l a y a n d t e n s i o n .

There

There has been a r e ­

f u s a l t o d i s j o i n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e i n a s e n s e l e s s l y i n c o h e r e n t o r i n a d e q u a t e way.

A l i t e r a r y s e n s e h a s been e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e o ­

l o g i c a l I n t e g r i t y , and a t h e o l o g i c a l s e n s e f o r l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , many C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s e x p r e s s a c o m p le te l a c k o f c o n c e r n f o r , I f n o t a p o s i t i v e a n t i p a t h y toward, the problem sof l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n ,

enjoyment and c r i t i c i s m .

And

many l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s who c l a i m to w r i t e from t h e p u r e , t h e b e s t , o r t h e c l a s s i c C h r i s t i a n p r e m i s e s do n o t sound l i k e v e r y p ro fo u n d o r t h e p r o f o u n d e s t o f C h r i s t i a n s t o me. My l i n e o f t h o u g h t i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n I s t h a t t h e r e a r e many p o s s i b l e c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h and r e v e l a t i o n , e a c h w i t h p o s i t i v e h i s t o r i c a l , c r i t i c a l and c o n s t r u c ­ t i v e grounds.

Some k i n d s o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , by t h e i r very

n a t u r e , can have no e o n c ern w i t h any p a r t o f n a t u r e , l i f e , h i s t o r y ,

65 c u l t u r e , o r c i v i l i s a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g th e re b y l i t e r a t u r e and l i t e r ­ ary c ritic ism .

F or example, c e r t a i n r a d i c a l k i n d s o f P r o t e s t a n t

t h e o l o g y c o n s i d e r b o t h l i t e r a t u r e and p h i l o s o p h y t o be beyond t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d enjoym ent o f o r d i n a r y , s i m p l e minds and h e a r t s , and t h e r e f o r e “v a i n t h i n g s , f o n d l y i n v e n t e d . "

O ther kinds

o f P r o t e s t a n t t h e o l o g y do not c o n s i d e r f a i t h a n d r e v e l a t i o n t o be the p ro p e r s u b je c t m a tte r o f e i t h e r p h ilo s o p h y and l i t e r a t u r e be­ c a u s e f a i t h and r e v e l a t i o n a r e beyond r e a s o n and i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e i r d e c l a r a t i o n s o f i n d e p e n d e n c e and t r a n s c e n d e n c e amount to a t h e o l o g y o f c o m p le te and i n s u r m o u n t a b l e c u l t u r a l d e s p a i r . good news i s t h e good news o f c u l t u r a l d a m n a ti o n .

T heir

They r e v e r t to

t h e c i v i l i s e d d e s p a i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c and t h e Graeco-Roman w o r l d s .

J u s t so , many k i n d s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

a r e by t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h any k in d o f C h r i s t i a n theology. little

To my mind, t h e y a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e m s e l v e s to b e o f

faith . The t h e a t r e i s n o t t h e Church any more t h a n t h e academy

is.

And God i s more t h a n and o t h e r t h a n s im p ly a p h i l o s o p h e r o r

a poet.

And y e t i t i s my hope a n d my t r u s t t h a t t h e r e i s a k in d

o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y f o r w hich l i t e r a t u r e a n d l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m can sta n d a t th e very c e n t e r o f t h e o l o g i c a l concern, a lo n g w ith o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f l i f e a n d t h e w o r l d ; and t h a t t h e r e i s a kind o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m w herein C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l p r i n ­ c i p l e s can s t a n d a t t h e v e r y c e n t e r o f c r i t i c a l c o n c e r n .

I th in k

t h e o l o g y can have a co n c e rn f o r l i t e r a t u r e a n d l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . I think l it e r a r y f o r theology.

c r i t i c s and men o f l e t t e r s can have a p a s s i o n

I th in k l i t e r a t u r e is e s s e n tia l for th eo lo g ical

66 i n t e g r i t y ; and t h a t t h e o l o g y i s e s s e n t i a l f o r l i t e r a r y i n t e g r i t y . I n s o f a r a s t h e o l o g y g i v e s up l i t e r a t u r e , t h e o l o g y g i v e s up a c r u c i a l a s p e c t o f theology; i n s o f a r a s l i t e r a t u r e g iv e s of theology, l i t e r a t u r e g i v e s up a c r u c i a l a s p e c t o f l i t e r a t u r e . These g e n e r a l m a t t e r s a r e i n a s e n s e a n d to a d e g r e e b e ­ yond t h e r e a l m o f a rg u m e n t an d e v i d e n c e . faith .

They a r e where men p a r t ways.

They a r e m a t t e r s o f

The o n l y a p p e a l i s t o con­

f l i c t i n g u lti m a t e i n t u i t i o n s i n t o the n a tu r e o f f a i t h and o f revelatio n . The more s p e c i f i c t h e o l o g i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y o b j e c t i o n s a r e m a t t e r s o f argum ent and e v i d e n c e . The most p o w e r f u l s p e c i f i c c r i t i c i s m from a t h e o l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t i s t h a t t h i s c o n c ern f o r l i t e r a t u r e a n d l i t e r a r y c r i t i ­ cism commits me to t h a t k in d o f a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view which i s g e n e r a l l y known a s C h r i s t i a n humanism. As a t h e o l o g y , C h r i s t i a n humanism p l a y s f a v o r i t e s w i t h mankind a t t h e c o s t o f a c o n c e r n f o r God and n a t u r e . i n c u l t i v a t i n g t h e human s p i r i t ,

Moreover,

C h r i s t i a n humanism i s a p t to

p la y f a v o r i t e s w ith th e a e s t h e t i c and th e i n t e l l e c t u a l v i r t u e s a t t h e c o s t o f t h e m o ra l, th e p o l i t i c a l , a n d t h e r e l i g i o u s .

In

t h i s s e n s e and to t h i s d e g r e e , C h r i s t i a n humanism s t r e s s e s t h e Greek e le m e n t i n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y a s o v e r a g a i n s t t h e H e b r a i c , I t t h e r e b y t e n d s to p r e f e r t h e a e s t h e t i c r i c h n e s s a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l b r i l l i a n c e o f C a t h o l i c i s m to t h e m oral s e r i o u s n e s s , t h e p o l i t i c a l e a r n e s t n e s s , and t h e a c t i v i s t p i e t y o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m .

At i t s

w e a k e s t and i t s w o r s t , C h r i s t i a n humanism i s a p t to s p e a k o f the B i b l e somewhat d i s p a r a g i n g l y a s j u s t one good book among many

67 o t h e r s , o f t h e G ospels a s j u s t h i s t o r y o r j u s t l i t e r a t u r e , and o f t h e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h and r e v e l a t i o n a s j u s t myth, p o e t r y , o r fantasy. Now I must c o n f e s s t h a t I do f e e l a n a f f i n i t y w i t h t h e b e s t and most p r o fo u n d a s p e c t s o f C h r i s t i a n humanism a s a k i n d o f theology.

I t h i n k we need a new R e n a is s a n c e a s w e l l a s a new

R e f o r m a tio n .

I have a deep l o v e o f and a d m i r a t i o n f o r t h e Greek

elem e nt i n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . p o w e r f u l and t h e b e s t .

I t h i n k i t i s among t h e most

I most c e r t a i n l y do n o t want to g i v e up

t h e human s p i r i t i n the name o r i n t h e f a c e o f e i t h e r God o r nature.

As a Quaker, I have no l o v e f o r t h a t k in d o f C h r i s t i a n

t h e o l o g y which i s u n f a i r to t h e p l a n t s and t h e a n i m a l s , t o c a n n i ­ b a l s , o r to S o c ra te s .

J u s t s o , I have no l o v e f o r t h a t k in d o f

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y which r e v e r e s t h e G ospels a p a r t from t h a t t o which t h e Gospels r e f e r and a r e a b o u t . And y e t I do not t h i n k t h a t my c o n c e r n f o r i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e o f i t s e l f commits me to C h r i s t i a n humanism a s a t h e o l o g y . I t h i n k t h e r e i s much more to o u r world t h a n t h e human s p i r i t . There i s good and t h e r e i s e v i l . God.

There i s n a t u r e .

And t h e r e i s

I t h i n k t h e human s p i r i t c o n s i s t s o f so m e th in g more th a n

in te lle c tu a l b rillia n c e or a e sth e tic s e n sitiv ity .

Moreover, I

do n o t t h i n k i t i s w o rth y o f o r s a f e f o r mankind to c u l t i v a t e t h e human s p i r i t a p a r t from God a n d n a t u r e , o r to s e a r c h f o r t r u t h and b e a u t y a p a r t from a s e a r e h f o r t h e good, t h e r i g h t and t h e j u s t , and t h e h o l y . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , I f i n d A r n o l d ' s c r i t i c a l e s s a y s weak and t h i n t h e o l o g i c a l l y .

I f i n d S a n t a y a n a ' s views on r e l i g i o n ,

68 myth, and p o e t r y I n s u f f e r a b l e .

And beyond a c e r t a i n and v e r y

e a r l y p o i n t , I c a n n o t s t a n d T. S. E l i o t .

Even Niebuhr and T i l l i c h ,

d e s p i t e t h e i r p r o f o u n d c o n c e r n f o r l i t e r a t u r e a s a k in d o f symbolism, w orry me by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e y a p p e a r to have a d o c t r i n e

o f man b u t no f u l l - b l o w n d o c t r i n e o f e i t h e r God o r n a t u r e . The most p o w e r f u l c r i t i c i s m o f t h i s co n c e r n from a l i t e r ­ a r y p o i n t o f view i s t h a t i t commits me to t h a t kin d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m which i s im pure, i n f o r m a l , and e x t e r n a l i n method and stan d p o in t.

I n b a s i n g l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m upon e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o ­

l o g i c a l e v e n t s and m eanings, I am s a i d t o be i n t r o d u c i n g a n element i n t o l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m w hleh i s i n c a p a b l e o f p u r e , f o r m a l , and I n te r n a l treatm ent.

Moreover, I am s a i d to be t a k i n g t h e f o c u s

o f I n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n i n c r i t i c i s m away from works o f l i t e r a ­ t u r e to som ething e s s e n t i a l l y e x t e r n a l to them and o u t s i d e . I n s o f a r a s t h e s e l i t e r a r y o b j e c t i o n s a r e o f th e m s e l v e s p u r e l y fo rm a l and I n t e r n a l , I f e e l t h e i r f o r c e .

I f using the kind

o f c r i t i c a l method and p o i n t o f view I w ish to employ means t h a t I s h a l l be s im p ly r e a d i n g my own p r i v a t e k in d o f t h e o l o g y i n t o l i t e r a t u r e , i t w i l l i n d e e d be i r r e l e v a n t , i f n o t u n f o r t u n a t e .

If

u s i n g t h e k in d o f c r i t i c a l s t a n d p o i n t I wish to employ means t h a t I s h a l l have t o go o u t s i d e l i t e r a t u r e to f i n d t h e k i n d o f t h e o l o g i ­ c a l e v e n t s and meanings f o r w hich I s e e k , my l a b o r s w i l l a s c e r ­ tain ly f a il.

But I t h i n k a n d hope t h a t my method can be made ob­

j e c t i v e a n d p r e c i s e , by o t h e r s o r by my own f u t u r e s e l f .

And I

t h i n k a n d hope t h a t th e k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n t s and meanings o f w hich I s p e a k a r e a s f u l l y I n s i d e l i t e r a t u r e a s t h e y a r e w i t h ­ o u t w i t h i n l i f e and h i s t o r y .

69 I n s o f a r a s t h e s e l i t e r a r y o b j e c t i o n s a r e o f th e m s e l v e s I n f o r m a l and e x t e r n a l , cannot accep t:

t h e y f o l l o w from a k in d o f p h i l o s o p h y I

nam ely, t h a t k in d o f p h i l o s o p h y w hich r e s t s upon

a m isunderstanding of A r i s t o t l e .

T h is k in d o f p h i l o s o p h y c l a i m s

t h a t t h e m o ti v e s f o r l i t e r a r y c r e a t i o n , t h e I n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f l i t e r a r y w orks, t h e demands a n d c o n d i t i o n s p r o p e r f o r l i t e r a r y e n jo y m en t, and t h e b a s e s f o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a r e purely a e s th e tic .

I am more P l a t o n i c , a n d I s h o u l d a l s o s a y ,

more A r i s t o t e l i a n .

I t h i n k t h a t a man o f l e t t e r s s h o u l d have a s

many m o t i v e s a s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h u n i t y o f p u r p o s e , t h a t l i t e r a ­ t u r e s h o u l d s u g g e s t and embody a s many k i n d s o f e v e n t s and mean­ i n g s a s can be worked i n t o a complex harmony, a n d t h a t a u d i e n c e s r e a d e r s and c r i t i c s s h o u l d employ a s many o f t h e i r f a c u l t i e s and a s many o f t h e i r c o n c e r n s a s i s p o s s i b l e i n s e e k i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d and to e n j o y l i t e r a t u r e .

For t h i s r e a s o n , I t h i n k and I hope t h a t

men o f l e t t e r s w i l l alw a y s have i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l, p o l i t i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s a s w e l l a s a e s t h e t i c m o t i v e s ; t h a t l i t e r a t u r e w i l l a lw a y s have a t h e o l o g i c a l a s w e l l a s an a e s t h e t i c a s p e c t ; and t h a t a u d i e n c e s , r e a d e r s , and c r i t i c s w i l l alw a y s make any demands, i n ­ c l u d i n g t h e o l o g i c a l demands, upon l i t e r a t u r e . Summary I n a summary way, I s h o u l d l i k e to s t a t e , a p a r t from l i t e r ­ a r y d e t a i l and t h e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m , what r e a l l y s t a n d s a t t h e cen­ t e r o f a t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c ’ s work. His c o n c e r n i s f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o r y a s t h e o l o g y and a s literatu re.

Above a l l e l s e , he w ants t o keep t h i s s t o r y c l e a r ,

w id e , an d d ee p .

He w ants to keep i t s t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t p e n e t r a t -

70 l n g , and he w ants to keep I t s l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e d i s c i p l i n e d . He p o n d e r s t h e Gospels b e c a u s e t h e y remind him o f l i f e .

He pon­

d e r s e a r l i e r and l a t e r W e ste rn l i t e r a t u r e b e c a u s e i t r e m in d s — o r f a i l s t o rem ind— him o f t h e G o sp e ls. O th e r t h e o l o g i c a l s t o r i e s have been t o l d . o t h e r s t o r i e s to r e - t e l l :

And t h e r e a r e

t h e Greek s t o r y , t h e H eb raic s t o r y ,

and t h e modern s k e p t i c ' s s t o r y . own way t r u e and i m p o r t a n t .

Each o f t h e s e s t o r i e s i s i n i t s

But I t h i n k t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o r y

i s t h e most t r u e and i m p o r t a n t o f them a l l . There i s s o m e th in g common t o a l l t h e s e s t o r i e s and t h e i r ways.

Each t u r n s upon God, man, good and e v i l , and n a t u r e .

And

each employs a e s t h e t i c symbols r a t h e r th a n l o g i c a l o r e m p i r i c a l p ropositions. content.

And y e t t h e y d i f f e r .

They d i f f e r i n t h e o l o g i c a l

And t h e y d i f f e r i n l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

The C h r i s t i a n

s t o r y i s n o t j u s t t h e same s t o r y a s t h e H e b r a ic s t o r y . i t t h e same a s t h e Greek s t o r y . from a l l t h e r e s t . same way.

Nor i s

And t h e s k e p t i c s t o r y d i f f e r s

Nor can t h e s e v a r i o u s s t o r i e s be t o l d i n the

The C h r i s t i a n s t o r y c a n n o t be t o l d i n j u s t an H e b r a ic

way o r i n j u s t a Greek way.

I f i t is,

som ething i s m i s s i n g , some­

th in g i s lo s t . To be s u r e ,

these s t o r i e s a r e not pure s t o r i e s .

manners a r e n o t p u r e m anners.

And t h e s e

At many p o i n t s and moments,

A e s c h y lu s sounds l i k e t h e Hebrew p r o p h e t s .

In the O r e s t e l a .

A e s c h y lu s i n f a c t fo re sh a d o w s t h e r e d e m p tiv e theme a t t h e h e a r t o f C h r is t ia n theology. and H e b r a ic e l e m e n t s .

The G ospels th e m s e l v e s have Greek e le m e n ts And t h e modern s k e p t i c ' s s t o r y may be found

i n t h e Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e Old T estam e n t, a t t h e v e r y c e n t e r

71 o f the B ible i t s e l f .

Moreover, t h e r e i s n o t j u s t one C h r i s t i a n

s t o r y , i n t h e G ospels o r a f t e r .

Any work o f w e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e

i s a p t , i f n o t bound, to i n v o l v e a complex f u s i o n and I n t e r w e a v ­ i n g o f a l l t h e s e s t o r i e s and t h e y ways. And y e t t h e g r e a t f a c t r e m a in s t h a t we must somehow s e e k to become c l e a r c o n c e r n i n g j u s t what a s p e c t o f a g i v e n s t o r y o r o f a g i v e n manner o f s p e a k in g i s s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n r a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i c a l l y H e b r a i c , s k e p t i c a l , o r Greek.

We can combine

them i n t h e o l o g y , we can combine them i n l i t e r a t u r e , we can com­ b i n e them i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , we can combine them i n p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y — p r o v i d e d we know what i t i s t h a t we a r e a b o u t . A p a r t from a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h an d knowledge a b o u t t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s , a n a l o g i e s , c o n t r a s t s and d i f f e r e n c e s we s h a l l h o p e l e s s l y e n t a n g l e them and o b l i t e r a t e a l l th o s e i m p o r t a n t t h e o l o g i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y d i s t i n c t i o n s we r e a l l y i n t e n d to keep c l e a r . To keep t h e s e g r e a t t h e o l o g i c a l s t o r i e s and t h e i r ways a t once c l e a r and d i s t i n c t and y e t r e l a t e d i s t h e p a s s i o n o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c and o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m .

T h is i s one o f

t h e g r e a t ways to t h e new R e f o r m a tio n and t h e new R e n a i s s a n c e .

PART I I I :

KINDS OF THEOLOGY

The C l a s s i c a l Kinds o f T heology T y p o lo g ic a l D i f f i c u l t i e s and C o m p lic a tio n s Themes and P roblem s Common to A l l T heology S o lu tio n s C h a ra c te r is tic o f P a r tic u l a r T h e o lo g ie s Greek Theology H e b ra ic Theology C h r i s t i a n Theology S k e p t i c a l Theology

My p u rp o s e in t h i s p a r t i s to p r e s e n t — i n th e form o f a ty p o lo g y —a t h e o r y o f t h e v a r i o u s k in d s o f c l a s s i c a l th e o lo g y t h a t have p r e v a i l e d i n th e W est.

A p a rt from a ty p o lo g y o f some

k in d o r o t h e r , i t i s v e ry d i f f i c u l t

to keep th e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t s

b etw een d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f th e o lo g y c l e a r an d g e n e r a l . The C l a s s i c a l Kinds o f Theology I n th e ty p o lo g y I s h a l l employ, th e p r i m o r d i a l b o d ie s o f t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t a n d sy stem i n th e W est have b e e n G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , an d s k e p t i c a l i n c h a r a c t e r .

To my mind, a

c o m p a r a tiv e h i s t o r i c a l and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e f o u r g r e a t t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s — and o f t h e i r a t t e n d a n t b e h a v i o r , e m o tio n s, r i t u a l s , m yths, p o l i t i e s , b e l i e f s , and d o c t r i n e s — c a n p r o v id e th e most r e v e a l i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f g e n e r i c t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t s o f v iew .

In c l a r i t y o f i n s i g h t , i n g e n e r a lity o f th o u g h t, i n d ep th

o f t h e o l o g i c a l p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o m y ste ry an d m eaning, a s w e l l a s i n s h e e r power and e x t e n s i o n o v e r th e w o rld o f h e a r t s and minds an d d e e d s , t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s s t a n d o u t above and beyond a l l th e re st.

I f a n y t h i n g i s c l e a r an d c e r t a i n t h e o l o g i c a l l y an d r e l i ­

g i o u s l y , th e o verw h elm in g g r e a t n e s s o f ea ch o f t h e s e f o u r c l a s s i ­ c a l p o i n t s o f view i s c l e a r a n d c e r t a i n . They a r e t h e r e , b o th b e f o r e us and w i t h i n u s.

I n th e

t h e o l o g i c a l an d r e l l g o u s r e a lm , th e y a r e th e d a t a , t h e g iv e n , th e i n h e r i t a n c e . them .

We f e e l them b e f o r e an d a f t e r we can t h i n k

Acquaintance w i t h p r e c e d e s — t e m p o r a l l y , i f n o t l o g i c a l l y — 73

74 know ledge a b o u t . w ith u s .

They d i d n o t b e g i n w i t h u s .

Nor s h a l l th e y end

I t i s n e i t h e r p o s s i b l e n o r n e c e s s a r y to c u t t h e o l o g y

o f f from them.

Any a t t e m p t to c o n s t r u c t a th e o lo g y , a p a r t from

a s o l i d h i s t o r i c a l and c r i t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n i n one o r more s t r a n d s w i t h i n ea c h o f t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s , i s a p t to d e s t r o y more th a n i t c r e a t e s , a n d i s n o t l i k e l y t o b e o f v e ry g r e a t I n t e r e s t o r im­ p o rta n c e .

When a l l i s s a i d an d d on e, I t i s s t i l l th e G reek, t h e

Jew, t h e C h r i s t i a n , a n d t h e s k e p t i c who p r o v id e t h e c o n c r e t e m odels an y p r o f o u n d ly c r e a t i v e th e o lo g y w i l l s e e k a s i t s p r o t o t y p e s t o r e ­ e n a c t.

I n s o f a r a s we a r e G re e k s, we r e e n a c t th e l i f e , p a s s i o n ,

an d d e a t h o f S o c r a t e s and O e d ip u s; i n s o f a r a s we a r e Jew s, o f Abraham, I s a a c , J a c o b , Moses, J o b , an d th e P r o p h e t s ; i n s o f a r a s we a r e C h r i s t i a n s , o f J e s u s a n d P a u l; i n s o f a r a s we a r e modern s k e p t i c s o f Hume, H am let, I v a n , and S te p h e n D a e d a lu s . b a n i s h t h e s e " a n c e s t r a l v o i c e s , p r o p h e s y in g , . . "

We can Such a t h i n g

a s a th e o lo g y i n t h e a b s t r a c t o r de novo may o f c o u r s e b e p o s s i b l e . And y e t a p r o f o u n d ly c r e a t i v e th e o l o g y , no m a t t e r how o r i g i n a l and f r e s h , w i l l have to s t a r t from somewhere.

I t h i n k i t c a n an d

m ust s t a r t from h e r e — from a n h i s t o r i c a l a n d c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f what i s s p e c i f i c a l l y G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , and s k e p t i c a l . To b e t h e o l o g i c a l o r r e lig io u s i s s t i l l to f e e l , to p e r c e i v e , to th in k ,

to w r i t e , t o sp e a k o r t o behave l i k e a G reek, a Jew , a

C h ristia n , or a sk e p tic .

I n t h i s se n s e t h e s e c l a s s i c a l k in d s o f

th e o lo g y a r e " i d e a l o p p o s i t e s " an d " f i n a l c o n t r a s t s , " p r o v i d i n g t h e summit a s w e l l a s th e i n i t i a l b a s e .

I n t h i s s e n s e , th e y a r e

c o n s e q u e n t a s w e l l a s p r i m o r d i a l , s t a n d i n g b o t h a t th e b e g i n n i n g an d a t t h e en d .

75

T y p o lo g ic a l D i f f i c u l t i e s an d C o m p lic a tio n s a n d y e t d i f f i c u l t i e s , a t f i r s t g la n c e h o p e l e s s a n d i n ­ s u p e r a b l e a t once a r i s e , b a n i s h i n g t h i s seem ing c l a r i t y and c e r ­ ta in ty .

S in c e t h e s e c o m p l i c a t i o n s h a u n t a l l t y p o l o g i e s , i n c l u d i n g

t h o s e to be em ployed i n o t h e r c o n n e c ti o n s i n l a t e r p a r t s o f t h i s e s s a y , I s h a l l a t t e m p t t o in v o k e a s e n s e o f t h e b a f f l i n g c o m p lex i­ t i e s t h a t b e s e t them h e r e an d now, once a n d f o r a l l .

I t i s more

f r u i t f u l to d w e ll upon t h e p o s i t i v e e le m e n ts i n o u r e x p e r i e n c e an d o u r sym bolism , b o t h t h e o l o g i c a l an d l i t e r a r y . t h i n k t h e r e i s any need f o r c o m p le te d e s p a i r .

And I do n o t

But a p a r t from a

deep s e n s e o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w hich h a u n t a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y and a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m , a c o n s t r u c t i v e t h e o l o g i c a l e f f o r t can r e n d e r i t s e l f t r i v i a l and i r r e l e v a n t . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , i t i s n o t o b v io u s t h a t t h e f o r m a tiv e t h e o l o g i c a l t r a d i t i o n s i n th e West a r e th u s l i m i t e d i n number. F or exam ple, f o u r o t h e r l a r g e com plexes a r e o f t e n c i t e d i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n — t h o s e i s s u i n g from C o n f u c iu s , Buddha, Mohamet, a n d Z o ro a ste r.

T here i s a l s o t h e N ear E a s t e r n b a c k g ro u n d — t h e th e o lo g y

an d r e l i g i o u s n e s s o f E gypt and B a b y lo n ia .

I t would seem, and I

s a y t h i s w i t h d i f f i d e n c e , t h a t t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s do n o t r e q u i r e m a jo r o r in d e p e n d e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n th e W e s t.

The s p i r i t and

th e d o c t r i n e s o f C o n fu c iu s and Buddha may be fo u n d , f o r a l l i n ­ t e n t s and p u r p o s e s , among many o f t h e a n c i e n t G re e k s, an d among some o f t h e modern s k e p t i c s .

The power th e o lo g y an d r e l i g i o u s n e s s

o f Mohamet, s a d l y enough, r e c u r s among some o f t h e f o l l o w e r s o f L oyola a n d o f C a lv in .

And Z o r o a s t e r i s so m e th in g to w h ich C h r i s t i a n

th e o lo g y i s i n c o n s t a n t d a n g e r o f r e v e r t i n g , a s i n a s p e c t s o f th e

76 P a u l i n e t r a d i t i o n , I n th e Romantic th e o lo g y o f C o l e r id g e , Emerson, C a r l y l e , an d M e l v i l l e , an d i n many o f th e e x i s t e n t i a l , d i a l e c t i c a l , and c r i s i s t h e o l o g i e s o f th e p r e s e n t d ay . Nor i s i t a t a l l c l e a r t h a t t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s , even i f th e y be t h u s l i m i t e d i n number, a r e sim p le i n c h a r a c t e r .

I t c e rta in ly

h a s and can mean many t h i n g s to be a G reek, a Jew, a C h r i s t i a n , or a sk e p tic .

T here a r e s e v e r a l d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e k in d s o f each

g e n e r i c ty p e w hich i t i s n e c e s s a r y an d im p o r ta n t to d i s e n t a n g l e and keep c l e a r an d d i s t i n c t .

F o r exam ple, among th e G reeks t h e r e

a r e th e p r i m i t i v e a n d a r c h a i c fo rm s o f r e l i g i o u s n e s s c o n c e r n in g w hich we know l i t t l e , b u t w hich a p p a r e n t l y a r e th e s o u r c e o f th e d e p th i n th e m y s t i c a l s i d e o f G reek t r a g e d y , o f t h e P r e - S o e r a t i c s , and o f S o c r a te s and P l a t o ; t h e r e i s th e Homeric o rth o d o x y which so u g h t to r e f i n e , e l e v a t e , and g iv e s t r u c t u r e to t h i s p r i m i t i v e r e l i g i o u s n e s s from a s o p h i s t i c a t e d and a r i s t o c r a t i c p o i n t o f view ; t h e r e a r e th e O rp h ic and E l y s i a n m y s t e r i e s ; t h e r e a r e th e e l a b o r ­ a t e l y r a t i o n a l i s e d t h e o l o g i e s o f th e g r e a t Greek p h i l o s o p h e r s and men o f l e t t e r s o f t h e c l a s s i c H e l l e n i c p e r i o d ; and f i n a l l y t h e r e a r e th e H e l l e n i s t i c t h e o l o g i e s o f th e E p ic u r e a n s , th e S t o i c s , th e s k e p t i c 8 and c y n i c s , an d th e N e o - P l a t o n i s t s .

Among t h e Jew s, th e

th e o lo g y o f th e p a t r i a r c h s i s n o t th e t h e o l o g y o f t h e p r o p h e t s , and t h e th e o lo g y o f th e p r o p h e ts i s n o t th e th e o lo g y o f th e wisdom lite ra tu re .

A f t e r t h e r i s e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , J e w is h th e o lo g y i s a

most com plex t o p i c .

And w i t h i n C h risten d o m , th e G ospels do n o t

a l l t e l l t h e same s t o r y ; t h e r e i s an i n i t i a l c o n t r a s t b etw een John and P a u l; t h e r e a r e l a t e c o n t r a s t s betw een th e c l a s s i c p e r i o d s a n d movements w i t h i n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y :

P a tristic ,

77 S c h o l a s t i c and R e fo rm a tio n ; th e m y s t i c s , p i e t i s t s , d e i s t s , m o ra l­ i s t s , r o m a n t i c i s t s , e v a n g e l i c a l s , f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s , m o d e r n is ts and lib e ra ls.

The B i b le Commonwealth o f t h e P u r i t a n s an d t h e Holy

E x p erim e n t o f t h e Q uakers a r e e q u a l l y p a r t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o r y . And t h e r e I s t h e c o n te m p o ra ry c o n t r a s t betw een N eo-O rthodoxy and N e o -N a tu ra lism w i t h i n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , t h e one i s s u i n g from Kant an d th e o t h e r from Hume.

Among th e s k e p t i c s , t h e r e a r e

a t h e i s t s , a g n o s t i c s , h u m a n is ts , a n d n i h i l i s t s .

A m o n o lith ic

c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f any one o f t h e s e g r e a t t r a d i t i o n s w i l l n e v e r do.

They a r e i n t e r n a l l y com plex, i f n o t i n c o h e r e n t an d i n c o n s i s t ­

en t. T here a r e a l s o many l e v e l s , s t a g e s , an d d e g r e e s o f i n s i g h t and sy stem w i t h i n e a c h o f th e c l a s s i c k in d s o r w i t h i n s t r a n d s o f ea ch c l a s s i c k in d .

A t an y p o i n t o r moment i n h i s t o r y , t h e r e i s

th e p r i m i t i v e l e v e l o r s t a g e o f s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s an d e m o tio n . S en so ry e x p e r i e n c e s an d em otio ns a r e more o r l e s s v i v i d , co m p li­ c a t e d , an d d e e p .

A t a s l l g i t l y h i g h e r l e v e l an d a l a t e r s t a g e ,

th e re I s r i t u a l .

R i t u a l can b e more v a r i e d i n k in d .

c e re m o n ie s , o b s e r v a n c e s , p r a y e r , an d w o r s h ip . l e v e l a n d l a t e r s t a g e , t h e r e I s myth.

T h ere a r e

A t a somewhat h i g h e r

Myths can be more o r l e s s

g e n e r a l o r s p e c i a l i n s c o p e , more o r l e s s l y r i c a l , d r a m a t i c , o r e p ic i n m anner, and more o r l e s s t r u e an d i m p o r ta n t i n s t a t u s . P e rh a p s even s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s , e m o tio n s, and r i t u a l s can be t r u e o r f a l s e , and m e a n in g fu l o r m e a n in g le s s .

We u s u a l l y t h i n k

o f them a s f o r t u n a t e o r

u n fo rtu n a te , s in c e re o r in s in c e r e , appro­

p r ia te or in a p p ro p ria te .

But i n any c a s e myth c o n t a i n s a n i n c i p i ­

e n t s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m and e v a l u a t i o n n o t p r e s e n t i n s e n s o r y e x -

p e r l e n c e s , e m o tio n s, o r r i t u a l .

A t a s t i l l h i g h e r l e v e l and

l a t e r s t a g e t h e r e a r e b e l i e f s , p o l i t i e s , and t h e o l o g i e s .

B e lie fs—

o r a t l e a s t d o c t r i n e s —a r e e m p h a ti c a l ly t r u e o r f a l s e , m e a n in g fu l o r m e a n in g le s s .

And t h e o l o g i e s can be p o p u la r o r ad v an ced i n

l e v e l and d o g m a tic , c o n f e s s i o n a l , a p o l o g e t i c , p r o p h e t i c , p h i l o s o p h i ­ c a l o r l i t e r a r y i n stag es.

M oreover, th ro u g h o u t h i s t o r y , t h e r e a r e

many k in d s o f d evelo pm en t w i t h i n each l e v e l — o f a s c e n t , s t a s i s , o r re v e rsio n .

And t h e r e a r e many s t a g e s o f developm ent w i t h i n each

k in d o f c l a s s i c t h e o lo g y .

For exam ple, Greek th e o lo g y d e v e lo p s

up to and to w ard , an d away from and down from th e b r i l l i a n c e o f th e H e l l e n i c p e r i o d .

The s t a g e s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y and r e ­

lig io u s n e s s a re d isc o n c e rtin g ly d iv e rse .

The g r e a t p e r i o d s a r e

commonly u n d e r s to o d to be th e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n , th e P a t r i s t i c , th e S c o l a s t i c , th e R e fo rm a tio n , th e R om antic, an d th e modern p r e s e n t . B ut t h e s e s t a g e s an d l e v e l s a r e n o t c l e a r and d i s t i n c t . shade o f f i n t o one a n o t h e r .

They

And many s t a g e s an d l e v e l s a r e mixed

and i n t e r m e d i a t e . T here i s a l s o a n i n t e r p l a y betw een an d among t h e s e t r a d i ­ tio n s.

T here i s p a r a l l e l i s m , a n d t h e r e i s i n t e r a c t i o n , b o th d i r e c t

an d i n d i r e c t . l i k e G re ek s.

Many G reeks sp e a k l i k e C h r i s t i a n s , an d many C h r i s t i a n s P l a t o sounds v e ry C h r i s t i a n a t many p o i n t s , e s p e c i a l ­

l y i n th e Tlmaeus an d i n th e Laws.

A e s c h y lu s ’ t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f

th e F u r i e s i n t o t h e Eumenides a t th e end o f O r e s t e l a i s a f o r e ­ shadow ing o f many o f th e b a s i c I n s i g h t s o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o lo g y . C o n v e rs e ly , th e Book o f Joh n I s v e ry G reek, a s a r e th e t h e o l o g i e s o f th e P a t r i s t i c s and th e S c h o l a s t i c s . makes h i m s e l f f e l t .

Now P l a t o , now A r i s t o t l e

S i m i l i a r l y many Jews sp eak l i k e C h r i s t i a n s ,

79 and many C h r i s t i a n s l i k e Jew s,

The r e l a t i o n o f th e Law to th e

G ospel a n d o f th e M essiah to t h e C h r i s t a r e complex t o p i c s .

Any

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s an d c o n t r a s t s b etw een C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t th e o lo g y must in v o lv e a complex i n te r w e a v in g b etw een G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , an d s k e p t i c a l t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s . M oreover, many a p r o t o t y p e f o r modern s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y a s s t a t e d i n t h e re a lm o f p h ilo s o p h y b y Hume o r K ant, o r in t h e r e a lm o f l i t e r a t u r e by S h a k e s p e a r e , I b s e n , D o sto y ev sk y , and J o y c e , can be found w i t h i n t h e wisdom l i t e r a t u r e o f th e Old T e sta m e n t i t s e l f . To s p e a k o f t h i s i n t e r p l a y a s " e c l e c t i c " o r " s y n c r e t i s t i c " i s no an sw e r to th e p ro b lem .

I t is. t h e pro b lem .

And i n a s e n s e and to

a d e g r e e , e i t h e r o r b o t h o f t h e s e methods may d e f i n e p a r t o f th e so lu tio n . F i n a l l y , even i f one can d is e n g a g e t h e s e I n te r w e a v in g s t r a n d s an d by a k in d o f m o ti f a n a l y s i s d i s c o v e r w hat i s p e c u l i a r to e a c h , t h e r e i s th e p ro b lem o f c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

T here

a r e many p o s s i b l e c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f what i s d i s t i n c t i v e l y G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , o r s k e p t i c a l .

The s e a r c h f o r an

" e s s e n c e " o r "a f a c t " p u r e , s im p le , an d u n d e f i l e d by i n t e r p r e t a ­ t i o n would a p p e a r to be a s e a r c h f o r a " w i l l o ' t h e w is p ."

Each

c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e l e c t s what i s i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o r ta n t from some g iv e n t h e o l o g i c a l p u rp o s e and p o i n t o f view . many P l a t o ' s . S h a k e s p e a r e 's . N y g r e n 's .

T h ere a r e many Greek t r a g e d i a n s .

T here a r e

T h ere a r e many

H a r n a c k 's s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y i s not

And N y g re n 's i s n o t C o c h r a n e 's .

These many d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d c o m p lic a tio n s a r e commonplaces i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e o l o g i c a l m ethod.

But th e y a r e n o n e t h e l e s s

80 s tu b b o r n an d s e r i o u s f o r b e in g f a m i l i a r and w ell-k no w n . By v i r t u e o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , a n a p p e a l to h i s t o r y and a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m b e g i n to b r e a k and f a l l .

Any ty p o lo g y , no

m a tte r how t r u e an d I m p o r t a n t, becomes a r t i f i c i a l an d a b s t r a c t . I t b e g i n s t o do y o u r t h i n k i n g f o r you.

I t b e g i n s to c a r r y you

away from th e I m p o r ta n t t h e o l o g i c a l themes a n d p ro b lem s r a t h e r th a n to w ard them.

Any c o n s t r u c t i v e th e o lo g y , no m a t t e r how h i s ­

t o r i c a l l y and c r i t i c a l l y b a s e d , w i l l have to d is e n g a g e i t s e l f a t some p o i n t from e a c h and a l l o f t h e s e f o u r c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n s f o r th e sak e o f c l a r i t y a n d g e n e r a l i t y o f t h o u g h t .

I t w i l l have

t o thro w t h e ty p o lo g y away and b e g i n sim p ly t o t h i n k f o r i t s e l f . Themes a n d P roblem s Common to A l l Theology F or t h e s e r e a s o n s I s h a l l b e g in w i t h an a t t e m p t to s t a t e d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y c e r t a i n themes and problem s common to a l l k in d s o f th e o lo g y .

I s h a l l th e n p r o c e e d to one p o s s i b l e c o n c r e t e i n t e r ­

p r e t a t i o n o f w hat i s s p e c i f i c a l l y Greek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , an d sk e p tic a l.

The them es and t h e pro blem s I s h a l l employ a r e God,

man, good and e v i l , an d n a t u r e . I do n o t c la im t h a t my s t a t e m e n t o f th e p ro b lem s i s ex h a u s­ tiv e ,

Nor do I c l a im t h a t my c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e

c l a s s i c a l k in d s o f th e o lo g y a r e th e o n ly p o s s i b l e o r n e c e s s a r y c o n c re te i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

Nor do I c la im t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s

th e b e s t o r o n ly k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l m ethod.

F or exam ple, th e o ­

l o g i e s c a n be s p e c i f i e d a s e a s i l y i n te rm s o f t h e i r m ethods and d a t a a s i n te rm s o f t h e i r r e s u l t s .

My o n ly c la im i s t h a t t h i s

p r o c e d u r e h as p ro v e d t o be b o th p o s s i b l e an d n e c e s s a r y f o r my p u r ­ p o se a n d from my p o i n t o f view .

81 God l a t h e p r i m i t i v e t h e o l o g i c a l n o t i o n . The n o t i o n o f God i s p r i m i t i v e i n th e se n se t h a t a doc­ t r i n e o f God i s what makes a th e o lo g y a th e o lo g y , and i n th e se n se t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f God i s l o g i c a l l y an d e m p i r i c a l l y p r i o r to a l l o t h e r d o c t r i n e s i n power. T here a r e a t l e a s t s i x o u t s t a n d i n g problem s c o n n e c te d w ith th e id e a o f God. i s God?

I s t h e r e a God?

I s God one o r many?

Where an d when i s God? How does God a c t ?

What

How do we know

God? These pro blem s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d , and i n a se n se t h e y a r e in se p a ra b le .

An an sw er to any one o f them i s bound o r a p t to

presume and im ply an answ er to one o r more o f th e o t h e r s .

For

exam ple, God i s w hat h e i s i n p a r t by v i r t u e o f b e i n g where and when he i s , and i n p a r t by v i r t u e o f t h e way he a c t s .

These

q u e s t i o n s may b e s t be u n d e rs to o d a s a s p e c t s o f th e one problem o f God, s e p a r a b l e o n ly f o r p u rp o s e s o f a n a l y s i s o r em p h asis. T here a r e two problem s in v o lv e d in t h e q u e s t i o n : a God?

I s th e re

T here i s t h e problem o f m eaning, and t h e r e i s t h e problem

of tru th .

The pro blem o f meaning i s b r i e f l y t h i s :

what i s th e

n o t i o n o f God In v o lv e d i n a g iv e n k ind o f th e o lo g y , and does t h i s n o t i o n o f God make sen se? a n a ly tic .

T his problem i s l o g i c a l , a p r i o r i , and

I t can be s e t t l e d o n ly by means o f an a p p e a l to i n t u i ­

t i o n , i n t r i n s i c r e a s o n a b l e n e s s , d i s c u r s i v e d i s c u s s i o n , and fo rm a l a rg u m e n t.

The problem o f t r u t h i s t h i s :

I s t h e r e i n f a c t an

e n t i t y o f th e k in d o f w hich t h i s th e o lo g y sp e a k s and to which i t s e e k s to r e f e r ? sy n th e tic .

T h is p roblem i s e m p i r i c a l , a p o s t e r i o r i , and

I t can be s e t t l e d o n ly by means o f an a p p e a l to o b -

82 s e r v a t l o n , i n d u c t i v e e v id e n c e a n d p r a g m a tic c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n g e n e r a l G reek t h e o l o g y h a s d e f i n e d God i n su c h a way— a s an i d e a l r a t h e r th a n a s an a c t u a l e n t i t y — t h a t th e q u e s tio n of e v id e n c e h a s b ee n I g n o re d a s u n n e c e s s a r y o r d is m is s e d a s i r r e l e ­ v an t,

On th e o t h e r han d, H e b ra ic an d C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y h av e p r e ­

s e n t e d e v id e n c e f o r th e r e a l p r e s e n c e o f God— p e r c e i v e d a s an a c t u a l r a t h e r th a n c o n c e iv e d a s a n i d e a l e n t i t y — t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f arg u m e n t h as b e e n o v e r lo o k e d o r r e s i s t e d .

The power o f s k e p t i ­

c ism a s a th e o lo g y d e r i v e s i n l a r g e p a r t from t h e f a i l u r e o f th e t h r e e c l a s s i c a l p o s i t i v e t h e o l o g i e s to c o n j o i n arg u m en t and e v i ­ d ence i n r e p l y t o b o th s i d e s o f th e q u e s t i o n , I s t h e r e a God? The c la im o f s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y i s t h a t t h e Greek a rg u m e n ts f o r God a s a n i d e a l e n t i t y a r e n e c e s s a r y b u t f o r m a l l y I n v a l i d , and t h a t t h e H e b ra ic an d C h r i s t i a n e v id e n c e s f o r God a s a n a c t u a l e n t i t y a r e p o s s ib le b u t i n s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n c re te .

F o r example, t h e s k e p t i c s

c a n a n d hav e a r g u e d t h a t th e o n t o l o g i c a l arg u m e n t f a i l s to p r o v id e God a s a n I d e a l e n t i t y , and t h a t t h e c o s m o lo g ic a l arg u m e n t f a i l s to p r o v i d e God a s an a c t u a l e n t i t y .

J u s t so th e s k e p t i c s can and

have shown t h a t t h e e v id e n c e f o r God a s an a c t u a l e n t i t y i s i n ­ c o n c lu siv e . The p ro b le m o f th e one a n d th e many a s a p p l i c a b l e to God i s i n t i m a t e l y bound up w i t h th e q u e s t i o n a s to t h e a rg u m e n ts and e v id e n c e f o r h i s e x i s t e n c e and t h e p rob lem o f h i s n a t u r e .

The

p ro b le m a t i s s u e i s n o t sim p ly t h e pro blem a s to w h e th e r t h e r e i s one God o r many g o d s. u n ity and m u l t i p l i c i t y .

I t i s r a t h e r t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n in g G od's I t i s t h e p ro blem a s to how we a r e to

a d j u s t t h e p o l a r i t i e s o f c o n t i n u i t y and a t o m i c i t y , s i m p l i c i t y

83 an d i n n e r c o m p le x ity , s o l i t a r i n e s s and community, a b s o l u t e n e s s and r e l a t e d n e s s i n o u r co n c ep t o f God. I f God i s J u s t one i n e v e ry se n s e r a t h e r th a n many i n some sen se,., God must be a sim p le e n t i t y , d e v o id o f p a r t s . and c a n n o t e x i s t a s a c o n c r e te p h y s i c a l e n t i t y .

He does no t

He may s u b s i s t

o r have b e in g , b u t he i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n i d e a l n o t a n a c t u a l e n t i t y . He must be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t and e t e r n a l , e n jo y in g no q u a l i t i e s i n o r r e l a t i o n s to th e r e a l w o rld o f l i f e and h i s t o r y . p l e t e l y n e g a tiv e o r m y s t i c a l th e o lo g y i s p o s s i b l e .

Only a com­ We ca n n o t

f e e l , p e r c e i v e , know, o r say a n y t h i n g d i r e c t l y and unam biguously a b o u t God.

He i s J u s t g iv e n and t h e r e — everyw here and nowhere,

a t a l l tim e s and a t no tim e s — l i k e a number, a t r i a n g l e , o r an a b s tra c t id e a l.

We ca n n o t e m p i r i c a l l y d e f i n e , d e s c r i b e o r i n t e r ­

p r e t what he i s and d o e s , o r where and when he i s .

Most o f th e

p ro b lem s t h a t i n e v i t a b l y a r i s e i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h th e n o t i o n o f God become ambiguous an d u n a n s w e ra b le . On th e o t h e r hand, i f God i s J u s t many i n e v e ry s e n s e r a t h e r t h a n one In some s e n s e , t h e r e i s no i d e n t i t y o r u n i t y to God.

The God o f Abraham, I s a a c and J o se p h c a n n o t be i n any se n s e

t h e same God who r e v e a l e d h i m s e l f to th e P r o p h e ts an d d i s c l o s e d h im s e lf i n J e s u s C h r i s t .

And th e God who r e v e a l e d h i m s e l f i n

J e s u s C h r i s t c a n n o t be t h e l i v i n g and p r e s e n t God. I n most o f t h e c l a s s i c a l k in d s o f W estern th e o lo g y , God i s i n some se n se one and in some s e n s e many.

T here i s an a d j u s t ­

ment o f some k in d o r o t h e r betw een th e n o t i o n s o f God a s one and o f God a s many. I n Greek th e o lo g y , God i s f o r t h e most p a r t I n t e r p r e t e d

84 a s one i n o r d e r t h a t he may r e c u r a s an a b s t r a c t o r i d e a l e n t i t y and i n o r d e r t h a t he may e x h i b i t a n unch ang in g form, c h a r a c t e r , or stru c tu re .

But God i s a l s o i n t e r p r e t e d a s many i n o r d e r t h a t

he may p e r s i s t a s a s i n g l e , u n i t a r y , s u b s t a n t i a l and e n d u rin g e n tity .

And y e t t h i s need f o r m u l t i p l i c i t y i n God was r a r e l y , i f

e v e r , c l e a r l y d e f i n e d an d s t a t e d i n Greek th e o lo g y . I n H ebraic th e o lo g y God i s b o th one and many i n o r d e r t h a t th e God o f Abraham, I s a a c and J o s e p h may be th e same God who spoke to th e P r o p h e ts .

But th e em phasis i s upon God a s a k ind o f o c c u r ­

r e n c e , a g a in and a g a i n d i s c l o s e d w ith in th e c o u rse o f e v e n ts and m eanings. I n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , God i s a l s o b o th one an d many. God a s F a th e r and a s Logos i s God a s one, e x h i b i t i n g an unchang­ in g and e t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e .

God a s C h r i s t and a s th e Holy S p i r i t

a r e God a s a u n iq u e o c c u rr e n c e o r s e r i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e s . I n s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y , God i s e i t h e r n e i t h e r one n o r many, s i n c e he n e i t h e r e x i s t s nor s u b s i s t s , o r he i s one i n th e se n se t h a t he r e c u r s a s t h e h u m a n is tic i d e a l , a s a memory o r a dream o f u n re a lise d p o s s ib ility . The problem s r e v o l v i n g aro u n d G od's n a t u r e — c o n c e r n in g what God i s —a r e e s s e n t i a l l y two.

There i s f i r s t o f a l l th e

problem a s to w h e th e r God I s a p e r s o n , a n i d e a , a s u b s t a n c e , o r a p rocess.

And se c o n d ly t h e r e i s th e problem a s to h i s p r o p e r ­

tie s or a ttrib u te s.

I f God i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p e r s o n , t h e r e I s

a n a lm o s t i n s u p e r a b l e problem c o n c e rn in g th e e v id e n c e and a r g u ­ ments f o r h i s e x i s t e n c e .

Moreover, i f God i s a p e r s o n , he has a

way o f becoming i n s u f f e r a b l e , f o r a l l th e p e r s o n s w ith whom we

85 a r e d i r e c t l y a c q u a i n t e d a r e i n some way l i m i t e d , p r e t e n t i o u s , p e r v e r t e d , f i x e d , o b s e s s e d , w eary , o r i n e r t .

I f God i s i n t e r p r e t e d

a s a n i d e a , a form , o r a p r i n c i p l e , God i s e s s e n t i a l l y l a c k i n g i n c a u s a l e f f i c a c y o r pow er. e f f ic ie n t c a u sa lity . do a n y t h i n g .

Or he h a s sim p ly f i n a l r a t h e r th a n

God may e x i s t , b u t he d o e s n o t a n d c a n n o t

Such a God may be p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i n t e l l i g i b l e , b u t

he i s n o t t h e o l o g i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t o r r e l i g i o u s l y i n t e r e s t i n g .

If

God i s a s u b s t a n c e , God i s r e a l i n h i s own r i g h t , r e q u i r i n g n o t h i n g b u t h i m s e l f i n o r d e r to e x i s t , b u t he i s and can be o n ly a c c i d e n t a l ­ l y , s e c o n d a r i l y , d e r i v a t i v e l y an d i n c i d e n t a l l y q u a l i f i e d by an d r e ­ l a t e d to th e w o r ld .

We do n o t an d c a n n o t a f f e c t o r a c t upon him.

And i t i s d i f f i c u l t to p e r c e i v e o r u n d e r s ta n d how he can a f f e c t o r a c t upon u s.

Man i s man a n d God i s God, b u t t h e r e a r e n o t an y

r e a l e n c o u n te r s b etw e en th e two s o r t s o f e n t i t i e s .

I f God i s

i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p r o c e s s , many o f t h e s e p ro b lem s can be r e s o l v e d . I f God i s a p r o c e s s , he can have a n a b s t r a c t and a c o n c r e t e , an a b s o l u t e an d a r e l a t i v e , a r e a l a n d a n o m in a l, a n e s s e n t i a l and an e x i s t e n t i a l , a s u b j e c t i v e and a n o b j e c t i v e , a b o d i l y and a m e n ta l, a n a p p a r e n t and a n a c t u a l a s p e c t .

The t h e o l o g i c a l

a n t i n o m i e s an d p a r a d o x e s a r e r e s o l v e d i n s u c h a way t h a t God becomes a t once p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y I n t e l l i g i b l e an d t h e o l o g i c a l l y and r e l i g i o u s l y a v a i l a b l e .

T h is i s t h e s o l u t i o n o f modern p r o c e s s

p h i l o s o p h y , an d from th e p o i n t o f view o f th e k in d o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y i n w hich I b e l i e v e , i t i s th e c l a s s i c a l C h r i s t i a n s o l u ­ tio n . The t r a d i t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s o f God i n c l u d e o m n is c ie n c e o r wisdom, h o l i n e s s o r go od ness o f w i l l , power o r c a u s a l e f f i c a c y ,

86 and s e n s i t i v i t y o r a e s t h e t i c f e e l i n g .

God i n some s e n s e o r

o t h e r i s a t once w is e , good, p o w e rfu l, and k in d .

A p a rt from some

s p e c i f i a b l e p r o p e r t i e s —- q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s — God i s a v o id . I f God i s j u s t p o w e rfu l b u t n o t w ise and good and k in d , God i s an enemy.

I n s o f a r a s God i s a t once k in d and p o w e rfu l, p a t i e n t

and s e v e r e , God may be a f r i e n d .

A p art from a se n se o f G od's

c r e a t i v i t y an d pow er, mankind can l o s e z e s t f o r l i f e and may be d e s t r o y e d by boredom o r by v i o l e n c e .

A p a rt from a s e n s e o f G od's

g o o d n ess, wisdom, an d a e s t h e t i c s e n s i t i v i t y th e se n se o f G od's s h e e r c r e a t i v i t y and power can l e a d to a s e n s e o f d e s p a i r .

Only

i f th e p r o p e r t i e s o f wisdom, g o o d n ess, power, and s e n s i t i v i t y can be c o n jo in e d i n such a way t h a t God i s a t once c r e a t o r , Judge o r c r i t i c , and red eem er can mankind rem ain an im a te d by a p a s s i o n f o r e v e n ts w h e re in q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s a r e e v e r more v i v i d , com­ p l i c a t e d and deep w ith o u t d e s t r o y i n g h i m s e l f , o t h e r s , n a t u r e , o r God.

The mere a s s e r t i o n o f G od's goodness and s e n s i t i v i t y , a p a r t

from h i s power and wisdom w i l l a l s o n o t do.

The se n s e o f red e m p tio n

a s su c h can l e a d to s e n t i m e n t a l i t y , to th e d e n i a l o f e v i l ,

s i n , or

d e a t h , and to a f a i l u r e to p u r s u e t h a t k in d o f a e s t h e t i c , I n t e l l e c ­ t u a l , m o ra l, p o l i t i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s e x c e l l e n c e t h a t can make man­ k in d 's l i f e g r e a t.

Most o f th e g r e a t t h e o l o g i e s have so u g h t i n some

way to m ingle c r e a t i o n , judgm ent, and g r a c e . Greek th e o lo g y f o r th e most p a r t c o n c e iv e d God un der th e image o f a p h i l o s o p h e r o r a p o e t — b ec k o n in g man onward I n th e name o f a n e t e r n a l v i s i o n o f t r u t h an d b e a u ty .

I n many k in d s o f Greek

th e o lo g y God i s a t th e same tim e s u b j e c t to th e n e c e s s i t i e s and c a p ric e s o f n atu re o r f a t e . l e s s a p a r t from m ankind.

Moreover God i s u n c r e a t l v e and h e l p ­

Greek th e o lo g y so u g h t to make l i f e

87 s u f f e r a b l e i n th e name o f t h i s image o f God.

F or man s h a r e s th e

d i v i n e image o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y . I n H e b ra ic th e o lo g y t h e r e i s a n em phasis upon G od's c r e a t i v i t y , pow er, Judgm ent, an d w i l l a lm o s t to th e e x c l u s i o n and a p a r t from h i s wisdom, g o o d n e s s , and k in d n e s s . I n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , God i s a t once g r a c e and pow er. The e s s e n c e o f th e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h and o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a ­ t i o n i s th e v i v i d , i n t e l l i g i b l e an d a f f e c t i n g f u s i o n o f c r e a t i o n , Judgment and g r a c e i n t h e l i f e , p a s s i o n , d e a t h , and r e s u r r e c t i o n of Jesus C h rist.

T h is I s t h e complex an d u n i t a r y m eaning o f th e

Palm s, th e C ro ss, a n d t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n . id e a l,

T h ere i s th e h e r o i c

t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n , and t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a p e a c e beyond

tra g e d y . S k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y p a y s com plim ents to God by making him th e s u b j e c t o f e v e ry p r o p e r t y .

God i s even made o v e r i n th e

image o f th e D e v il . The p ro b lem a s to w here and when God i s i n t r o d u c e s t h e p ro b lem o f G o d 's s t a t u s o r l o c u s . p e c ts.

F irst of a l l ,

T h is p ro b lem h as s e v e r a l a s ­

t h e r e i s t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t b etw een th e

n o t i o n s o f G od's immanence and G o d 's t r a n s c e n d e n c e .

Some t h e ­

o l o g i e s i n t e r p r e t God a s e s s e n t i a l l y t r a n s c e n d e n t , and a c c i d e n t a l l y Immanent.

O th e r t h e o l o g i e s i n t e r p r e t God a s e s s e n t i a l l y and w h o lly

tra n sc e n d e n t.

I n s o f a r a s God i s e s s e n t i a l l y t r a n s c e n d e n t , b o th

G od's e x i s t e n c e and e x c e l l e n c e become am biguous o r u n d e c id a b l e . I n s o f a r a s God i s e s s e n t i a l l y immanent, G o d 's e x i s t e n c e and ex­ c e l l e n c e become a s s u r e d but t h e r e i s a g ra v e d a n g e r o f i d o l a t r y . God becomes c l o s e r th a n o n e 's hands and f e e t .

One can b e g in to

88 ta k e God f o r g r a n t e d .

God becomes m a n lp u la ta b le , to o much i d e n ­

t i f i e d w ith m a n 's own image a n d p u r p o s e s .

T h is i s t h e p ro b lem

upon w hich H e b ra ic th e o lo g y may be s a i d t o h av e w avered u n c e r t a i n l y . G reek th e o lo g y f o r th e most p a r t d e c id e d i n f a v o r o f e s s e n t i a l tr a n s c e n d e n c e .

The g e n iu s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , I t h i n k , i s th e

r a d i c a l a s s e r t i o n o f d i v i n e Immanence w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g th e t e n s i o n and p o l a r i t y p r o v id e d by t r a n s c e n d e n c e . S eco n d ly , t h e r e i s th e p rob lem a s to w h e th e r God w orks o r makes h i m s e l f e v i d e n t more a t one tim e a n d p l a c e th a n a t a n ­ o t h e r tim e an d p l a c e ; o r more I n t e n s i v e l y an d e x t e n s i v e l y i n one k in d , l e v e l o r s t a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e th a n a t o t h e r s ; o r som etim es I n one way and som etim es i n a n o t h e r ; o r more t o some p e o p le th a n to o t h e r p e o p l e .

This prob lem becomes e s p e c i a l l y a c u t e f o r

C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y w i t h i t s d o c t r i n e s o f g e n e r a l and s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n , an d o f th e r e a lm s o f n a t u r e an d g r a c e .

On t h e one

h an d , God must be p r e s e n t no m a t t e r w here o r when.

I n t h i s sense

God i s L ogos, t h e law o f l i f e , n a t u r e , and h i s t o r y .

On t h e o t h e r

h an d , God must r e v e a l h i m s e l f i n a f r e e an d d e c i s i v e manner a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s an d moments i f he i s to be a r e a l a g e n t a s w e l l a s a mere p r i n c i p l e .

T h is i s th e prob lem C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y h a s

so u g h t to s o lv e i n th e d o c t r i n e s o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n and t h e T r i n i t y . The I n c a r n a t i o n i s th e d o c t r i n e o f s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n — God r e v e a l e d h i m s e l f i n a p a r t i c u l a r way i n J e s u s C h r i s t . God a s Logos an d God a s C h r i s t .

The T r i n i t y c o n j o i n s

The H oly S p i r i t i d e a a d d s th e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f , an d th e n e c e s s i t y f o r , r e c u r r e n t s p e c i a l r e v e l a ­ tio n s.

And y e t many p ro b lem s rem a in I n c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a ­

t i o n s o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n an d t h e T r i n i t y .

I t i s in f a c t d o u b tfu l

89 w h eth er C h r is tia n th e o lo g y , a s c o n v e n t io n a lly I n te r p r e te d ,

r e a lly

c o n s t i t u t e s much o f a n a d v a n c e upon G reek o r H e b r a ic t h e o l o g y i n th is regard.

I n s o f a r a s t h e I n c a r n a t i o n I m p l i e s t h a t God s i m p l y

condescended to r e v e a l h im s e lf in tia lly

Jesus C h r ist,

u n q u a l i f i e d by and u n r e la t e d to

h isto r y ,

G reek t h e o l o g y i s

c o p y o f God i n l i f e

th e e v e n ts o f l i f e

a n d h i s t o r y b u t n o t God a s a c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y . A p a r t from a r a d i c a l a s s e r ­

t i o n o f d i v i n e im m a n en ce, t h e e s s e n t i a l l y r e ta in e d .

and

s i m p l y e c h o e d — t h e r e i s a n im a g e o r a

God r e m a i n s a v o i d — d e u s a b s c o n d l t u s .

is

r e m a in in g e s s e n ­

M oreover,

t r a n s c e n d e n t G reek d i e t y

i n s o f a r a s th e a t t r i b u t e o f m ercy,

fo r­

g i v e n e s s , and g r a c e rem a in s an a c c i d e n t a l r a t h e r th a n an e s s e n t i a l a ttr ib u te ,

H eb ra ic t h e o lo g y i s

m a in s a j u d g e , a c r i t i c , is

still

str a in e d .

n ot b a s i c a l l y m o d ifie d .

o r a n en em y.

God’ s g o o d n e s s i s

g i b l y r e l a t e d to h i s pow er.

There i s

God r e ­

The q u a l i t y o f h i s

m ercy

th ere, but not as i n t e l l i ­ e i t h e r p ow er a p a r t from

g o o d n e s s o r g o o d n e s s a p a r t fr o m p o w e r . The f i n a l p r o b le m c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f God i s w h a t h e d o e s o r how h e w o r k s .

There i s

to w h eth er he a c t s i n h i s t o r y a t a l l .

t h e g e n e r i c p r o b le m a s There a r e th e s p e c i f i c

p r o b l e m s a s t o t h e w ays i n w h ic h h e may w o rk .

F or t h e m o st p a r t ,

G reek t h e o l o g y d o e s n o t an d c a n n o t e x h i b i t God a s w o r k i n g w i t h i n life

a n d h i s t o r y e x c e p t i n a h i g h l y a b s t r a c t and g e n e r a l w ay, and

b y m eans o f a k i n d o f r e m o t e c o n t r o l . cen d en t.

M oreover,

God i s

e s s e n t ia lly tran s­

i n s o f a r a s h e d o e s an d c a n work i n h i s t o r y ,

h e w o r k s a s a f i n a l c a u s e , a s a p e r s u a s i v e i d e a l , b e c k o n i n g men f o r t h I n t h e name o f t r u t h a n d b e a u t y .

H eb ra ic t h e o lo g y s t r e s s e s

t h e e s s e n t i a l Imm anence o f God.

an a g e n t i n h i s t o r y w ith

God i s

90 h i s p r o p h e t s and h i s c h o sen p e o p l e .

And y e t H e b ra ic th e o lo g y

w avers on t h i s p o i n t by v i r t u e o f i t s g r e a t c o n c e rn w i t h i d o l a t r y . G od's p u r p o s e s a r e n o t to be i d e n t i f i e d w ith o u r p u r p o s e s .

Just

s o , t h e r a d i c a l d o c t r i n e o f d i v i n e immanence i s q u a l i f i e d by c o n f i n i n g G o d 's work to t h e C ovenant and th e Law.

A p a r t from t h e

g iv e n a n d f i x e d c h a r a c t e r o f th e Covenant a n d th e Law, t h e r e i s sim p ly a n a p p e a l t o m y ste ry — to t h e d e u s a b s c o n d l t u s .

And y e t ,

I n s o f a r a s God i s a l i v e and w o rk in g i n h i s t o r y , he w orks a s an e f f i c i e n t c a u se i n H e b ra ic th e o lo g y .

He p u s h e s men from b e h in d ,

he h a s s a n c t i o n s , an d he a t t a i n s h i s p u rp o s e a p a r t from a n d i n s p i t e o f what men d o .

The g e n i u s o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y , I t h i n k ,

c o n s i s t s i n i t s a t t e m p t s to h o ld a b a l a n c e b etw e en f i n a l and e f f i c i e n t c a s u a l l t y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h God somewhat more e v e n ly . God i s a t once a s t r u c t u r e an d a l i v i n g e v e n t .

He i s a t once a

p e r s u a s i v e l u r e an d a n e f f i c i e n t c a u s a l a g e n t .

He d e f i n e s th e

good, p r e s e n t s t h e good, an d th e n demands a n d e n f o r c e s t h e good. God i s a p r i n c i p l e a n d a n i d e a l p o w e r le s s a p a r t from mankind a s i n G reek th e o lo g y ; a n d God i s a pow er, a n enemy ab o v e and a p a r t from w hat man d o e s a s i n H e b ra ic t h e o lo g y .

I n th e b e s t o f

C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , God an d man a r e a g e n t an d p a t i e n t t h e one u n to t h e o t h e r .

God i s h e l p l e s s a p a r t from w hat man i s a n d d o e s ,

an d man i s h e l p l e s s a p a r t from w hat God i s a n d d o e s . b e in g v o id s o r e n e m ie s, God and man a r e f r i e n d s . r e c e i v e s dem ands.

In ste a d of

Each g i v e s and

T h ere i s no f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e one a p a r t from

th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e o th e r .

I t i s n o t s im p ly a m a t t e r o f God

p r o p o s i n g an d man d i s p o s i n g , o r o f man p r o p o s i n g an d God d i s p o s i n g . God i n i t i a t e s a n d man s e l e c t s .

And man i n i t i a t e s a n d God s e l e c t s .

91 The seco nd theme common to a l l t h e o l o g i e s c o n c e r n s t h e n a t u r e o f m ankind.

I s man one o r i s man many?

What i s man?

Where and when i s man?How can a n d does man co n d u c t

h is lif e ?

These p ro b le m s , i f n o t i d e n t i c a l w ith t h e p ro b lem s a r i s i n g i n c o n n e c ti o n w ith t h e c o n c e p t o f God, a r e a n a lo g o u s . u n re la te d .

Nor a r e th e y

I n most t h e o l o g i e s , God i s i n some s e n s e p e r c e i v e d

an d c o n c e iv e d i n th e image o f mankind, even i f I n g e n e r i c con­ t r a s t to him.

And man i s p e r c e i v e d and c o n c e iv e d i n some s e n s e

i n th e image o f God.

I n Greek t h e o lo g y , God i s a p h i l o s o p h e r and

a p o e t summoning man to l i f e w i t h h i s v i s i o n o f i d e a l form s o f t r u t h an d b e a u ty .

The p u r s u i t o f t r u t h and b e a u ty a r e t h e r e b y

th e e s s e n c e o f man

an d t h e aim o f h i s e x i s t e n c e .

I n H e b ra ic

t h e o lo g y , God i s a ju d g e , th e i n c a r n a t i o n o f m oral an d p o l i t i c a l e n e rg y .

The p u r s u i t o f m oral r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d p o l i t i c a l J u s t i c e

i s t h e r e b y th e c h a r a c t e r o f man’ s l i f e , and t h e h i g h e s t aim o f th a t l i f e . severe.

I n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , God i s a t once k i n d l y and

The p rob lem o f th e C h r i s t i a n l i f e and th e e s s e n c e o f

man’ s l i f e , i s t o c o n j o i n wisdom, goodness an d pow er, a l l t h r e e s u b j e c t to a n d i n c r e a t i v e t e n s i o n x*;ith th e p i e t y t h a t comes o f f a i t h an d r e v e l a t i o n . The p ro b lem a s to w h e th e r man i s one o r many i s a v e ry com plex t o p i c , a s i n th e c a s e o f God.

The p rob lem i s c o m p lic a te d

i n th e c a s e o f man by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e p ro b lem h as b o th a n i n d i v i d u a l an d a s o c i a l d im e n sio n . man i s i n some s e n s e b o t h one and many. i n some s e n s e one an d many.

T hat i s , a s i n g l e

And g ro u p s o f men a r e

G reek th e o lo g y i n g e n e r a l s t r e s s e d

th e s u b s t a n t i a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and th e g ro u p .

An

92 i n d i v i d u a l can be b o r n , can l i v e f o r a tim e , an d can d i e .

A

s o c i e t y , a c u l t u r e , o r a c i v i l i s a t i o n can a l s o be b o r n , c a n l i v e f o r a t i m e , an d can d ie*

I n b o t h c a s e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r an d th e

aim o f t h e u n i t y i n v o l v e d i s to p e r s i s t , e s s e n t i a l l y u n q u a l i f i e d by an d u n r e l a t e d t o o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s and g ro u p s .

The Greek

t r a g i c h e r o s e e k s t o d is e n g a g e h i m s e l f from n a t u r e an d o t h e r s I n o r d e r t h a t he may r e t a i n h i s i n d i v i d u a l e s s e n c e u n t a i n t e d by th e r e l a t i v i t y o f a c c i d e n t a l q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s .

S i m i l a r l y , th e

Greek p o l l s o r c i t y s t a t e c o n t r a s t e d i t s e l f w ith b a r b a r i a n s w ith ­ o u t , a t t e m p t i n g to be e s s e n t i a l l y u n q u a l i f i e d by an d u n r e l a t e d to them.

J u s t so , th e v a r i o u s Greek s o c i a l c l a s s e s r e s i s t e d I n t e r ­

p e n e t r a t i o n o f th e one by th e o t h e r s .

H e b r a i c - C h r i s t l a n th e o lo g y

h a s i n g e n e r a l so u g h t to r e v e r s e t h i s p o i n t o f view .

In d iv id u a lity

i s u n d e r s to o d to be a complex u n i t y , i n t e r n a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d by q u a l i f i c a t i o n s from o t h e r s and by o t h e r s .

The aim o f l i f e i s t h a t

i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s a n d g ro u p s s h o u ld become i n t e r m i n g l e d i n ways t h a t a r e e v e r more v i v i d , c o m p lic a te d , and d e e p .

The Greek God i s a

l o r d l y s p e c t a t o r , v ie w in g t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eanings o f t h i s l i f e d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y from above and beyond and a p a r t .

The

H e b r a i c - C h r i s t l a n God i s a p a s s i o n a t e a g e n t w i t h i n l i f e and h i s ­ t o r y , s e e k in g to b e i m p l i c a t e d i n , to d i r e c t , and to s e r v e th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eaning s, e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and r e ­ l a t e d to them.

I n Greek th e o lo g y , to be many— t h a t i s ,

to p e r s i s t

a s a com plex u n i t y — one h as to be one; i n H e b r a i c - C h r i s t l a n th e o lo g y , to be one you have to be many.

T h is whole p ro b lem o f a p p l y i n g

th e c o n c e p ts o f u n i t y a n d m u l t i p l i c i t y , o f c o n j u n c t i o n and d i s ­ j u n c t i o n , o f s o l i t a r i n e s s and community, and o f a t o m i c i t y and

93 c o n t i n u i t y to mankind h as b een c o m p lic a te d i n modern th o u g h t by th e r a d i c a l d e n i a l o f s e l f - i d e n t i t y i n e i t h e r th e G reek o r t h e H e b ra ic -C h ristia n sen se.

I n i t s m i l d e s t fo rm , th e modern s k e p t i ­

c a l n o t i o n i s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s an d g ro u p s a r e p e r s i s t e n t l y com plex u n i t i e s i n o n ly a v e r y v ag u e , i n t e r m i t t e n t , a n d i n d e t e r ­ m in a te s e n s e .

A t i t s most s e v e r e , th e n o t i o n i s t h a t b o t h i n ­

d i v i d u a l s an d g ro u p s a r e m u l t i p l i c i t i e s a s w e l l a s u n i t i e s . The p ro b le m a s to w hat i s man i s u s u a l l y d i s c u s s e d i n te rm s o f th e p r o p e r t i e s t h a t man may be s a i d to s h a r e i n common a s o v e r a g a i n s t God, a n i m a l s , p l a n t s , p h y s i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t s l i k e ato m s a n d t h e s t a r s , an d o t h e r u n i t s i n n a t u r e .

In

a l l t h e o l o g i e s , man i s i n t e r m e d i a t e b etw een God and n a t u r e i n some sense.

The d i f f e r e n c e s eomeln te rm s o f th e s p e c i f i c p r o p e r t i e s

i n te rm s o f w hich t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e made, a n d i n te rm s o f th e more o r l e s s r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s .

The G reeks

i n g e n e r a l s t r e s s e d man’ s r e a s o n a s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a ,

t h e Jews

man’ s w i l l , and th e C h r i s t i a n s m a n 's h e a r t o r s p i r i t .

I n modern

t h e o l o g y , sim p ly la n g u a g e o r t h e c a p a c i t y f o r sym bolism i s th e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m ark.

A lm ost a l l t h e o l o g i e s a t t r i b u t e some k in d

o f f e e l i n g o r s e n s a t i o n to th e p l a n t s and th e a n i m a l s .

The q u e s ­

t i o n becom es v e ry c o n t r o v e r s i a l when s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t s l i k e e le c tro n s a re in f e r r e d , c o n stru c te d , o r c o n je c tu re d .

And t h e r e

i s no w id e s p re a d a g re e m e n t c o n c e r n in g w h e th e r m e n ta l p r o c e s s e s l i k e p e r c e p t i o n , v o l i t i o n , i m a g i n a t i o n , r e a s o n i n g , rem em b ering , e x p e c t i n g , an d d re a m in g a r e a p p l i c a b l e to God. c ip le th e y a re d e f i n i t e l y I n a p p lic a b le . a re d e f in ite ly a p p lic a b le .

I f God I s a p r i n ­

I f God I s a p e r s o n , th e y

I f God i s a s u b s t a n c e o r a p r o c e s s ,

th e y may o r may n o t b e r e l e v a n t .

More e x a c t l y , we h a v e to be

94 e i t h e r a g n o s t i c o r say no. The problem a s to where and when man I s t u r n s upon th e p ro b le m s o f man’s m o r t a l i t y o r im m o r ta lity and man’s freedom o r n e c e ssity o f w ill.

I n s o f a r a s man has b o th a fo rm er and a f u t u r e

l i f e , a s i n some k in d s o f Greek th e o lo g y , man i s n o t c o m p le te ly a f u n c t i o n o f j u s t t h i s l i f e an d t h i s h i s t o r y .

M oreover, i n s o f a r

a s trem endous s t r e s s i s p u t upon t h a t a s p e c t o f t h i s l i f e which i s c o n s c io u s , t h o u g h t f u l , and p e r c i p i e n t , men a r e dead f o r a l a r g e p a r t o f th e tim e— a s i n s le e p and i n dream s.

There a r e a l s o th e

problem s o f madness and o f o b s e s s io n . The problem a s to how man does and can , i f n o t sh o u ld and m ust, l i v e t u r n s upon th e s u b j e c t - o b j e c t , body-m ind, m o r t a l ! t y i m m o r t a l i t y , f r e e d o m - n e c e s s i ty , and g r e a t n e s s - t r i v i a l i t y p ro b lem s. T here I s a l s o t h e problem a s to th e e x c e l l e n c i e s and d e f i c i e n c i e s o f w hich l i f e c o n s i s t s .

I n s o f a r a s man’ s problem i s a f u n c t i o n

o f h i s f i n i t e n e s s , a s i n Greek th e o lo g y , t h e e s s e n t i a l problem i s th e problem o f knowledge.

I f man h as knowledge, th e problem s

o f power and goodness ta k e c a r e o f th e m s e lv e s .

I n s o f a r a s man’ s

p ro b lem i s a f u n c t i o n o f s i n o r th e a b u se o f h i s f i n i t e freedom , th e e s s e n t i a l problem i s th e r e l i g i o u s problem . f o r f a i t h , t r u s t , hope, h u m i l i t y and f o r g i v e n e s s .

Man sh o u ld seek Knowledge o f

and f o r and by I t s e l f does n o t and cann ot f i n a l l y s a v e . p i e t y o r goodness s a v e .

Only

I n s o f a r a s man’ s problem i s a f u n c t i o n

o f p e r v e r s i o n , o b s e s s i o n , f i x a t i o n , I n e r t n e s s , o r w e a r in e s s , man sh o u ld s e e k e n e rg y .

I f th e problem o f power i s s o lv e d , th e p ro b ­

lems o f knowledge an d o f goodness w i l l ta k e c a r e o f th e m s e lv e s . The t h i r d theme common to a l l t h e o l o g i e s i s t h e problem

95 o f good an d e v i l . i s e v il?

Where

A re th e y one o r many?

What i s good and what

and when a r e good and e v i l ?

c r e a t e d , ju d g e d ,

and redeem ed?

so u rce , m e asu re,

an d end o f good.

th e e x c e l l e n c i e s o f

How a r e good a n d e v i l

God i s u s u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e

m a n 's l i f e .

God c r e a t e s ,

ju d g e s an d redeem s

Godc r e a t e s th e good i n th e s e n s e

t h a t he i s th e s o u r c e o f m a n 's m o t i v a t i o n and o f m an 's freed o m . God i s a judge i n t h e s e n s e t h a t he m e asu res w hat i s a lw a y s and ev ery w h ere good, d i v i d i n g th e good from th e e v i l an d p r o v i d i n g a c r i t e r i o n o f m o tiv e and s a t i s f a c t i o n .

God i s t h e re d e e m e r o f good

by v i r t u e o f th e f a c t t h a t a l l ways o f l i f e d i r e c t e d i n th e name o f so m e th in g o t h e r th a n h i s name a r e s e l f - d e f e a t i n g and come to n a u g h t,

in

th e s e n s e t h a t t h e r e i s i n f a c t one and o n ly one way

of lif e

i n te rm s o f w hich t h e r e c a n be r e a l

f u l f i l l m e n t , an d i n

th e s e n s e t h a t God c o n t r i b u t e s to m an's l i f e above and beyond i t s m e r i t an d o f t e n i n s p i t e o f i t s s i n . I n Greek th e o lo g y God i s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e w o rld i n t h e s e n s e t h a t he i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e g e n e r a l m e ta p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f e x i s t e n c e , a l t h o u g h he i s s u b j e c t to f a t e and ch an ce a n d f o r t h e m ost p a r t l i m i t s r a t h e r t h a n p r o v i d e s . I n H e b ra ic t h e o lo g y , God i s ju d g e a s w e l l a s c r e a t o r . God i s a l s o c r e a t o r i n H e b ra ic th e o lo g y , b u t th e em p hasis i s upon God a s c r i t i c ,

God a s Ju d g e.

I n Greek th e o l o g y , by v i r t u e o f th e ch ance

are

f a c t t h a t f a t e and

o u t s i d e God no l e s s th a n o u t s i d e man, a s p e c t s o f ex­

i s t e n c e , i f n o t e x i s t e n c e i t s e l f , a r e o f th e m s e lv e s e v i l and illu so ry . I n H e b ra ic th e o l o g y , e x i s t e n c e o f i t s e l f i s good.

Only

96 th e a b u s e o r p e r v e r s i o n o f t h a t e x i s t e n c e an d o f i t s freedo m a r e e v il or illu so ry . I n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y t h e em phasis i s upon God a s re d e e m e r. God i s c r e a t o r i n t h e s e n s e t h a t he f i l l s men w ith a r e s t l e s s l y h e r o i c e n e rg y .

God i s Judge i n th e s e n s e t h a t he d i v i d e s th e

good from th e e v i l .

But God i s above a l l red ee m er i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t no man can f a l l so f a r a s t o be beyond th e p a t i e n t k in d n e s s o f G o d 's g r a c e , and i n th e s e n s e t h a t no man i s so good a s to be In c a p a b le o f s in o r in c a p a b le o f f u r t h e r p e r f e c t i o n .

I n Greek

th e o lo g y , th e b a r e f a c t t h a t men a r e l i m i t e d , m o r t a l , a n d e n c h a in e d by th e body and th e p a s s i o n s i s o f i t s e l f e v i l .

I n H e b ra ic and

C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y th e e v i l d o e s n o t r e s i d e i n f i n i t e n e s s , m o r t a l ­ i t y , o r ig n o r a n c e a s s u c h .

A G reek i s m e la n c h o ly b e c a u s e he i s

n o t i n t h e p o s i t i o n to se e e v e r y t h i n g o r b e c a u s e he c a n n o t l i v e fo rev er.

A Jew o r a C h r i s t i a n become m e la n c h o ly b e c a u s e t h e y

r e s i s t s e e i n g w hat i s t h e r e to be s e e n , and b e c a u s e t h e y do n o t even l i v e f o r a d a y .

A Greek c r a v e s f o r th e i m p o s s i b l e p o s s i b i l i t y ,

a Jew and a C h r i s t i a n f o r th e r e a l i s a b l e p o s s i b i l i t y .

A Greek

f i n d s no s o l u t i o n to h i s p ro b le m s w i t h i n t h e re a lm o f n a t u r e , l i f e , a n d h i s t o r y , w h erea s b o th th e Jew and t h e C h r i s t i a n f i n d t h e i r s o l u t i o n s i n a Judgment an d a g r a c e t h a t works w i t h i n n a t u r e , l i f e an d h i s t o r y .

The G reeks come p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e to

I d e n t i f y i n g e v i l w i t h a c t u a l i t y a n d good w ith p o s s i b i l i t y . A l l t h r e e c l a s s i c a l t h e o l o g i e s c la im t h a t t h e r e i s one an d o n ly one good, an d one and o n ly one s o u r c e o f good.

S k e p tic a l

th e o lo g y o f t e n d e n i e s t h a t t h e r e i s one and o n ly one good, an d one

a n d o n ly one s o u r c e o f good.

M oreover some k in d s o f s k e p t i c a l

97 th e o lo g y have c la im e d to d i s c o v e r a u n i t a r y p r i n c i p l e and s o u rc e o f e v i l — namely t h e D e v il . T h ere i s a l s o t h e p ro b lem a s to w h e th e r some t h i n g s a r e b e t t e r th a n o t h e r t h i n g s w i t h i n t h e m a n ifo ld o f good an d e v i l . V alue i s complex a n d m a n y -sid e d .

T here a r e - a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

m o ra l, s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l an d r e l i g i o u s v a l u e s .

F or t h e most p a r t ,

G reek th e o lo g y s t r e s s e s th e a e s t h e t i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l v i r t u e s , and H e b ra ic and C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y th e m o ra l, s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s v i r t u e s .

And y e t t h e Greeks w ere d e v o te d to a l l

a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n , and H e b ra ic and C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y have c la im e d t h e w hole o f l i f e a s w e l l .

And y e t a l l

t h e o l o g i e s have a way o f p l a y i n g f a v o r i t e s among t h e k in d s o f v a l u e s i n te rm s o f s e l e c t i o n and e m p h a sis. The f o u r t h g r e a t t h e o l o g i c a l m o tif common to a l l r e v o l v e s a b o u t th e c o n c e p t o f n a t u r e :

th e o lo g y

p h y sic a l, b io lo g ic a l,

p s y c h o l o g i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l , and cosm ic n a t u r e .

F or th e most

p a r t G reek t h e o l o g y d e - v a l u a t e d th e g o o dn ess o f n a t u r e .

N a tu re

was th e re a lm o f n e c e s s i t y an d chan ce to w h ich b o t h man and God w ere u n h a p p ily s u b j e c t .

There a lm o f p h y s l s

bounds to th e re a lm o f n o u s.

set

lim its

an d

The r e a lm o f p h y s l s had s u f f i c i e n t

power i n f a c t to p l a y havoc w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l, p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s o r d e r . f a t e and c h a n c e .

P h y s ls was an a n k e a n d t y c h e f

I n s o f a r a s man i s w i t h i n n a t u r e , he s t a n d s a t

t h e a p e x o f th e h i e r a r c h y r a n g i n g from th e p l a n t s , th r o u g h t h e a n i m a l s a n d mankind to God.

F or most G reeks t h i s h i e r a r c h y was

f ix e d , n o t ev o lv in g . H e b ra ic t h e o l o g y s t r e s s e s t h e g oo d n ess o f n a t u r e , a s w e l l

a s th e goodness o f l i f e and h i s t o r y .

T here i s n o th in g e v i l o f

I t s e l f a b o u t th e body, i t s f e e l i n g s , p a s s i o n s , d e s i r e s , and s e n s e s f o r th e Jew,

The a s c e t i c elem e n t i n w e s te r n th e o lo g y comes f o r

th e most p a r t from th e G reek s.

M oreover, th e O ld T estam en t i s

n o t u n f a i r to th e p l a n t s , th e a n im a ls o r t h e s t a r s .

God r e v e a l s

h i m s e l f i n th e h ea v e n s no l e s s th a n i n th e re a lm o f h i s t o r y and s p i r i t o r i n th e s a n c t i t i e s o f th e m oral and r e l i g i o u s l i f e . C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y has w avered u n c e r t a i n l y on t h i s p o i n t . The Greek elem ent i n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y h a s alw ays so u g h t to d e em phasize th e c o n n e c tio n s betw een man and t h e n a t u r e o r man’ s d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t in v o lv e m e n t i n n a t u r e .

The H e b ra ic elem e n t

has so u g h t to s t r e s s i t . Modern s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y has deepened th e p ro blem o f m an's r e l a t i o n to n a t u r e im m easurab ly , a l t h o u g h th e an sw e rs g iv e n by s k e p t i c s a r e d i v e r s e and am biguous.

On th e one hand, modern

p r o c e s s p h ilo s o p h y h a s s t r e s s e d t h a t b o th man an d God a r e p a r t o f and cau g h t up i n t h e c r e a t i v e advance o f n a t u r e .

In fa c t

c r e a t i v i t y i s t h e a n a lo g u e i n modern th o u g h t to f a t e i n Greek th o u g h t.

I n t h i s se n s e n a t u r e i s n o t l i f e l e s s , a s i t

th e p o i n t o f view o f c l a s s i c a l s u b s ta n c e p h ilo s o p h y .

was from N a tu re

c o n s i s t s o f e v e n ts and p r o c e s s e s e v o lv in g from l e v e l to l e v e l an d from s ta g e to s t a g e .

N a tu re i s th e s o u r c e o f e n e rg y .

On th e o t h e r hand, modern s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y h as b ro u g h t o u t t h e p e s s i m i s t i c I m p l i c a t i o n s o f m an's in v o lv e m e n t i n n a t u r e . Man i s seen to be a c r e a t u r e o f i n s t i n c t , h i s b e h a v io r e x p l i c a b l e i n te rm s o f t h e c o n d i tio n e d r e f l e x , th e law o f a s s o c i a t i o n , and f a c t s l i k e I n e r t i a , th e p r i n c i p l e o f l e a s t a c t i o n , w e a r i n e s s , and

99 fa tig u e .

M an's e n e rg y I s l i m i t e d and e x p e n d a b le .

l a f i x e d an d g ro o v ed .

M oreover i t

I n modern M a rx is t and F r e u d ia n th o u g h t—

t h e dom inant form s o f modern s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y — th e d e c i s i v e f a c t o r s i n m an's l i f e , i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e , o p e r a t e below c o n s c io u s n e s s , th o u g h t and s e n s e - p e r c e p t l o n .

Man i s a f u n c t i o n

o f im p u l s iv e , c o m p u lsiv e and v i o l e n t f o r c e s w i t h i n , b etw een and w ith o u t.

These f o r c e s p u sh a r o u n d , th r o u g h , and o v e r t h o s e who

se e k to i g n o r e , o b s t r u c t , r e s i s t , o r p e r v e r t them. f r o n t e d w i t h two r e a l c h o ic e s o n ly :

Man i s con ­

a n a r c h y , t y r a n n y , and t h e i r

r e v e r s i o n s to lo w e r e s t a t e s ; o r a d v a n c e .

I t is th is re s tle s s

c r e a t i v e advance i n t o n o v e l t y o r d e a t h th r o u g h v i o l e n c e o r b o r e ­ dom t h a t i s th e d e e p e s t modern a n a lo g u e to f a t e i n Greek t r a g e d y . F or t h i s r e s t l e s s c r e a t i v i t y i s b o th r u t h l e s s an d k in d .

I t is

r u t h l e s s b e c a u s e i t s demands must be met o r e l s e a t e r r i f i c p r i c e I s p aid .

They c a n n o t b e d e f i e d w i t h im p u n ity .

C re a tiv ity is

s tu b b o r n f a c t , i n e l u c t a b l e power, r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e c a u sa lity .

I t i s so m e th in g , b o th ground and c o n s e q u e n t, to w hich

b o t h man and God a r e s u b j e c t an d i n w hich th e y a r e c a u g h t up. And i t i s som ething n e i t h e r God n o r man, n e i t h e r Zeus n o r P ro m etheu s can f u l l y e n jo y , c o n t r o l o r u n d e r s ta n d .

C re a tiv ity ,

l i k e f a t e , i s k in d b e c a u se i t r e s c u e s man from h i s f i n i t e n e s s , h i s s i n , h i s p e r v e r s i o n , and h i s w e a r in e s s . S o l u t i o n s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f P a r t i c u l a r T h e o lo g ie s Having come to t h e end o f my v e ry c u r s o r y r e v ie w o f th e them es an d p ro b lem s common to a l l t h e o l o g i e s , I s h a l l a t t e m p t to p r e s e n t one p o s s i b l e c o n c r e te i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s o l u t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p a r t i c u l a r t h e o l o g i e s . I n s p e c i f y i n g th e

100 I d e n t i t i e s and c o n t r a s t s betw een Greek, H e b ra ic , C h r i s t i a n , and s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y , I s h a l l make ev ery e f f o r t to be h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e an d c r i t i c a l l y d i s c r i m i n a t i n g .

And y e t , by v i r t u e o f

th e many d i f f i c u l t i e s and c o m p lic a tio n s foreshadow ed a t t h e b e­ g in n in g o f t h i s p a r t , I do n ot e x p e c t t h a t v e ry many t h e o l o g i a n s w i l l c o n s i d e r my summary a v e ry happy e f f o r t .

There a r e a p t to

be to o many e r r o r s I n d e t a i l , o m is s io n s , and m is ta k e s i n em p hasis. My o n ly c la im s a r e t h a t t h e k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o tif I s h a l l s p e c i f y a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y Greek, H e b ra ic , C h r i s t i a n , and s k e p t i c a l have some r a t h e r i n t i m a t e c o n n e c tio n w ith some g r e a t h i s t o r i c a l e x p r e s s io n o f one o r more k in d , l e v e l , o r s ta g e o f t h e s e g e n e r i c t h e o l o g i e s ; t h a t my c r i t i c a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o f th e i d e n t i t i e s and c o n t r a s t s betw een and among them a r e c o h e r e n t w ith and a d e q u a te to one p o s s i b l e c o n c r e te i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e a j and t h a t a n y c o n s t r u c t i v e th e o lo g y must b a s e i t s e l f i n p a r t upon a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y and a se n se o f c r i t i c i s m n o t c o m p le te ly d i f f e r e n t from a summary o f t h i s s o r t . Greek Theology I n g e n e r a l , Greek th e o lo g y i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by an em phasis upon God a s b e in g a p r i n c i p l e , a s u b s ta n c e , and an i d e a l ; a s t r e s s upon th e r a t i o n a l and s p i r i t e d elem e n ts i n human n a t u r e ; th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e a e s t h e t i c and th e i n t e l l e c t u a l v i r t u e s from th e m a n ifo ld o f good and e v i l ; and b y a n o b i l i t y o f d i s c o n t e n t in the f a c e o f th e c a p r i c e s and n e c e s s i t i e s o f n a t u r e .

These a r e ch a r­

a c t e r i s t i c m o ti f s and emphases w i t h i n Greek th e o lo g y , r e g a r d l e s s o f ty p e , l e v e l , o r s t a g e .

W hether one i s sp e a k in g o f th e P r e -

S o e r a t i c , th e H e l l e n i c , o r th e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s ; w h eth er one

10L i s r e f e r r i n g to t h e a r c h a i c fo rm s o f r e l i g i o u s n e s s , to Homer, H esiod and. th e P r e - S o c r a t i c s , t o P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , an d th e G reek t r a g e d i a n s , o r to t h e m y s t e r i e s , th e s k e p t i c s ,

th e c y n i c s , t h e

S t o i c s , t h e E p ic u r e a n s , and th e N e o - P l a t o n i s t s — t h e s e s o l u t i o n s a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c eLements o f i d e n t i t y a n d a n a lo g y . I n G reek th e o lo g y , God i s c o n c e iv e d a s a p r i n c i p l e , a s a h e a v e n ly i d e a l , a s a d i v i n e e r o s . and a s a t r a n s c e n d e n t s u b s t a n c e . A.s a n I d e a l e n t i t y , God i s an a r t i f a c t of o r a form b e f o r e a n d i n th e m ind.

He c a n n o t h e p e r c e i v e d d i r e c t l y a s a n a c t u a l e n t i t y .

T here i s no Im m ediate a c q u a i n t a n c e w ith God.

I n our e x p e rie n c e ,

t h e r e a r e Im ages and I d e a s o f God, b u t not God i n HimseLf,

Knowl­

edge a b o u t God can he a t t a i n e d o n ly on th e b a s i s o f a n a lo g y o r r a tio n a l in fe re n c e .

God i s e s s e n t i a l l y t r a n s c e n d e n t , w h o lly un­

q u a l i f i e d by a n d u n r e l a t e d to th e c h a n c e s and n e c e s s i t i e s o f n a t u r e , l i f e , and h i s t o r y .

He I s t h e l o r d l y s p e c t a t o r , v ie w in g th e c o u r s e

o f e v e n ts and m eanings w i t h o u t p a s s i o n o r s t a n d p o i n t , fro m above a n d beyond an d a p a r t .

I n Him t h e r e I s no shadow o r t u r n i n g ,

I s a l o n e w ith HimseLf, t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h o u g h t .

He

He c o n te m p la te s

e t e r n a l forms o f t r u t h and b e a u t y , c o m p le te ly d is e n g a g e d from and I n d i f f e r e n t to w h at i n f a c t comes to p a s s .

I n s o f a r a s h e has

i n f l u e n c e on m ankind, i t I s a s a p e r s u a s i v e r a t h e r th a n a s a c o e rc iv e e n t it y .

He i n s p i r e s t h e a s c e n t o f th e s o u l to h i g h e r

k in d s o f v i r tu e .

He summons men from a f a r ,

c a l l i n g them f o r t h

i n t h e name o f a g r e a t v i s i o n o f t r u t h a n d b e a u t y .

But I t i s a

v i s i o n w h ich he a s weLL a s th e y a r e p o w e r le s s to b e o r d o .

For

th e G reek d i e t y , no l e s s th a n G reek men, a r e s u b j e c t to t h e nec­ e s s i t i e s and c a p r i c e s o f n a t u r e .

F a te i s th u s t h e u l t i m a t e e n t i t y

to w h ich b o th man a n d God a r e s u b j e c t .

I t l a by r e f e r e n c e to th e

102 d i v i n e elem e n t i n th e w o rld t h a t th e Greek t r a g i c h ero d e f i e s c i r c u m s ta n c e an d f i n d s p ea ce i n an eq u a n im ity t h a t i s n o t o f t h i s w o rld an d w hich r e s i d e s a p a r t from th e j o u s t o f l i f e and h i s t o r y . C o n c ern in g t h e n a t u r e o f man, Greek th e o lo g y s t r e s s mind, n o u s , s p i r i t , and s o u l r a t h e r th a n the s e n s e s , th e body, th e p a s s i o n s , th e h e a r t , o r th e w i l l .

Mind i s th e a s p i r i n g elem e n t

i n m a n 's n a t u r e , t h e a s p e c t t h a t s e t s man o f f from th e a n im a ls and u n i t e s man w ith God.

Mind i s th e d i v i n e and im m o rtal e le m e n t.

Mind i s w hat r e c o l l e c t s th e fo rm e r l i f e o f w hich t h i s l i f e i s a fa d e d e c h o , and w hat dream s o f a f u t u r e l i f e o f which t h i s l i f e i s a f a i n t fo re s h a d o w in g .

The t e n s i o n a t th e h e a r t o f Greek

a n t h r o p o l o g y i s b etw een th e a s p i r i n g e ro s o f mind a s c e n d in g up­ w ard i n p u r s u i t o f p e r f e c t t r u t h and b e a u ty , and th e heavy down­ ward te n d e n c y o f th e body, th e s e n s e s , th e p a s s i o n s , and th e w i l l w hich r e g a r d so m e th in g l e s s th a n t r u t h and b e a u ty .

The more

m y s t i c a l s i d e o f G reek th e o lo g y , to be found i n some o f th e P r e S o c r a t i c s and i n S o c r a t e s an d P l a t o , an d above a l l i n E u r i p i d e s among t h e Greek t r a g e d i a n s , d i s c e r n s a c r e a t i v e a s w e l l a s a d e s t r u c t i v e power i n t h e b o d i l y and e m o tio n a l a s p e c t s o f m an's n a tu re .

But even th e Greeks who were most Im p re sse d by th e body,

by th e p a s s i o n s , an d b y th e w i l l so u g h t to d i s c i p l i n e t h e s e w i l d e r e le m e n ts i n m an 's n a t u r e by r e a s o n and judgm ent.

T h is i s th e

t e n s i o n betw een th e D io n y s ia n and th e A p p o lo n ia n themes a t th e h e a r t o f Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y .

The c r a v i n g f o r a c o n j u n c ti o n

o f r e a s o n and em o tio n I s a l s o t h e theme t h a t makes P l a t o ' s p h ilo s o p h y g r e a t .

And y e t th e f e a r o f v i o l e n c e bo rn o f e x c e s s

i s much g r e a t e r th a n th e f e a r o f boredom b o rn o f d e f i c i e n c y .

103 The c o u n s e l s f o r p r u d e n c e and m o d e ra tio n a r e more r e c u r r e n t and i n s i s t e n t th a n t h e c o u n s e ls f o r t h a t k in d o f I n t e n s i t y w hich can b o r d e r upon m adness. T here i s a n a r i s t o c r a t i c p re m is e a t t h e b a s e o f t h e Greek u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f good an d e v i l . th e many.

The a s e e n t I s o f th e few , n o t o f

And th e a e s t h e t i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l v i r t u e s a r e to be

p r e f e r r e d to th e m o r a l, p o l i t i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s .

The h i e r a r c h y

o f n a t u r e w ith o u t and o f th e f a c u l t i e s w i t h i n i s echoed w i t h i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f s o c i e t y .

I do n o t mean to r e f e r t o o b v io u s

t h i n g s l i k e t h e s o c i a l an d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f c i t y s t a t e s l i k e A th e n s o r S p a r t a , an d t h e i r common b a s e i n t h e s l a v e r y o f women and men.

I mean to r e f e r to th e g e n e r a l l y h i e r a r c h i c a l

c o n c e p ti o n o f God, o f n a t u r e , o f t h e human f a c u l t i e s , o f i n d i ­ v i d u a l s and g r o u p s , and o f e x c e l l e n c e a n d d e g r a d a t i o n .

From God

to th e a n i m a l s , t h e G reek i d e a l i s a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t s e a r c h a f t e r t r u t h a n d b e a u t y — a s e a r c h t h a t i s beckoned and l u r e d f o r t h by e r o s . th e d i v i n e l o v e o f p e r f e c t i o n .

Some e n t i t l e s a r e more

c a p a b le o f t h i s a e s t h e t i c and i n t e l l e c t u a l i d e a l th a n o t h e r s . M oreover th e d i v i s i o n s betw een an d w i t h i n e n t i t l e s are c o n c e iv e d to be s h a r p an d f i x e d .

T here i s l i t t l e

em phasis on t h e way t h i n g s

sh ad e o f f i n t o one a n o t h e r o r upon th e way many t h i n g s a r e mixed and I n t e r m e d i a t e .

Nor i s t h e r e f l u i d d ev elo pm ent from ty p e to

t y p e , o r from l e v e l t o l e v e l , o r from s t a g e to s t a g e . C o n cern in g n a t u r e , Greek th e o lo g y i s n e g a t i v e an d p e s s i ­ m is tic .

N a tu re i s t h e re a lm o f chance an d n e c e s s i t y — b o th w i t h i n

and w ith o u t.

E v i l i s I n v o l u n t a r y and u n w i t t i n g .

i n f i n i t u d e and l i m i t a t i o n .

I t s source I s

G reek t r a g e d y a lw a y s o c c u r s i n th e

104 f a c e o f , and i n t h e t e e t h o f , a n d a t t h e han d s o f n a t u r e , w h e th e r i t be w i t h i n by means o f th e body and t h e p a s s i o n s , o r w i t h o u t by means o f chance a n d n e c e s s i t y .

I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t Greek

d r a m a tic t r a g e d y i s m e lo d ra m a tic b u t n o t f u l l y t r a g i c i n th e C h ristia n sense.

The G reeks a s k and e x p e c t man t o be h e r o i c ,

an d y e t p r e c i s e l y i f and when he i s so he i s h u m i l i a t e d by c h a n ce an d f a t e .

He s u c c e e d s , u n w i t t i n g l y an d by v i r t u e o f a b i t t e r and

p o ig n a n t k in d o f i r o n y , i n d e s t r o y i n g th e v e ry t h i n g s h e most d e e p ly l o v e s .

His fla w i s a p u r e l y I n t e l l e c t u a l e r r o r i n ju d g m e n t.

I n th e r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e , he a c c u s e s h i s own e s s e n c e w i t h i n — w hat c o u ld n o t have b ee n o t h e r w i s e — o r th e g e n e r a l m e ta p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n w ith o u t.

The c a u s e o f t r a g e d y i s r o o t e d i n th e v e ry n a t u r e o f

t h i n g s , i n th e v ery c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e .

Man i s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e t r a g e d y , n o r can he a l t e r th e c o n d i t i o n s o f h i s l i f e t h a t r e n d e r tr a g e d y i n e v i t a b l e . o r h i s own d e f e a t .

Man d o es n o t c r e a t e h i s own d i f f i c u l t i e s

T h ere i s a d eep chasm i n e x i s t e n c e b etw e e n t h e

a c t u a l an d th e i d e a l , betw een tim e and e t e r n i t y , betw een th e body an d th e mind, a n d b etw een th e m o r t a l and t h e im m o rta l.

Whenever

an d w h e re v e r C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y r e v e r t s to t h i s g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t b etw e en God and t h e w o rld , n a t u r e and g r a c e , f a i t h and r e a s o n , an d th e s a c r e d and th e s e c u l a r i t i s G reek. What th e l i f e , p a s s i o n , d e a t h , and r e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s C h r i s t a r e f o r C h r i s t i a n th e o l o g y , th e l i f e , p a s s i o n , d e a t h , and i m m o r t a l i t y o f S o c r a t e s a r e f o r th e G reek.

S o c ra te s d e d ic a te s

h i s l i f e to th e p u r s u i t o f t r u t h , b e a u ty , and g o o d n e ss.

When

n e c e s s a r y , he s a c r i f i c e s them, w ith o u t f e a r o r p a s s i o n , upon t h e a l t a r o f s e n s e l e s s a n d a r b i t r a r y pow er. a s a c r if ic e is necessary.

And by d e f i n i t i o n such

His i m p e r t u r b a l i t y f i n d s j u s t i f i c a t i o n

105 i n th e v ery Greek an d P l a t o n i c d o c t r i n e s o f r e c o l l e c t i o n and im m o r t a l i t y .

The sad i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f t h i s l i f e and t h i s w orld

a r e f a i n t c o p ie s o f som ething more p e r f e c t , r i c h e r , and more com­ p l e t e t h a t was b e f o r e an d w i l l come a f t e r .

S o c r a te s l i v e d th e

good l i f e i n s o f a r a s t h a t i s p o s s i b l e w i t h i n a m o r ta l fra m e , em ploying h i s r a t i o n a l i t y to keep th e s e n s e s , th e body and th e p a s s i o n s i n b ou nds, su b d u in g a n d s u b li m a t in g th e low er to th e h i g h e r f a c u l t i e s , t h e e a r t h l y to th e h e a v e n ly p u r s u i t s , d a r k n e s s to l i g h t , th e n i g h t to th e day, and th e m o r ta l to th e im m o rta l. Having l i v e d to d i e , he h as a v i s i o n o f th e undying form s o f t r u t h and b e a u ty b e f o r e him a s he g o e s .

The whole g e n iu s o f Greek t h e ­

o lo g y i s to be found i n t h i s n o t i o n t h a t man must l i v e h i s l i f e a s i f i t w ere Im m o rta l.

The w eakness o f Greek th e o lo g y i s t h a t t h i s

i d e a l e i t h e r g iv e s r i s e t o a r e s t l e s s l y h e r o i c and a r i s t o c r a t i c s e a r c h f o r t r u t h and b e a u ty t h a t can be a s r u t h l e s s a s i t i s k in d , o r i s overwhelmed by d e s p a i r i n th e f a c e o f s e n s e l e s s f o r c e s w i t h i n an d w i t h o u t , a d e s p a i r t h a t I s s u e s i n t h e c o u n s e ls o f p r u d e n c e , th e boredom, th e s e n s u a l i t y , an d th e v io le n c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e R e n a is s a n c e and o f th e H e l l e n i s t i c w o rld s .

T here i s a g r e a t

s t r e n g t h an d a g r e a t w eakness i n sim p ly t a k i n g th o u g h t and lo o k ­ in g b e f o r e and a f t e r . H e b ra ic Theology One d i s t i n g u i s h i n g mark o f H ebraic th e o lo g y I s th e a s s e r ­ t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s one and o n ly one God. Gods b e f o r e me." ment.

"Thou s h a l t have no o t h e r

R a d ic a l monotheism may be a r a t h e r l a t e a c h i e v e ­

But i t i s h i g h l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n o n e t h e l e s s .

s i n w i t h i n H eb raic th e o lo g y i s t h e r e f o r e i d o l a t r y .

The c a r d i n a l Such a n a s s e r -

106 t i o n o f r a d i c a l m onotheism h as i t s s t r e n g t h and i t s w e a k n ess. The s t r e n g t h i s to be fo un d i n t h a t i n t e g r i t y w hich can come o f a n y monism.

The w eakness i s th e t e m p t a t i o n to d e v e lo p a power

t h e o l o g y — t h a t i s , t o commit u n c o n s c io u s i d o l a t r y i n t h e name o f t h e one an d o n ly o ne God. C o n c e rn in g t h e c h a r a c t e r o f God, H e b ra ic th e o lo g y i s n o t c o m p le te ly c o n s i s t e n t .

I n g e n e r a l , God i s a p e r s o n a l an d c o n c r e t e

e n t i t y r a t h e r th a n a n im p e r s o n a l an d a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e a s i n Greek t h e o lo g y . cause.

T h a t i s , God i s an e f f i c i e n t a s w e l l a s a f i n a l

He h a s power a s w e l l a s goodness an d wisdom.

I t is fo r

t h i s r e a s o n , among many o t h e r s , t h a t H e b ra ic th e o lo g y e n v i s a g e s God p r i m a r i l y a s th e i n c a r n a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l an d m o ral e n e rg y . God i s a ju d g e , a c r i t i c , an d a k in g . o v e r human d e s i r e an d p u r p o s e .

He i s a b s o l u t e l y s o v e r e ig n

A t i t s c r u d e s t , t h i s becomes th e

n o t i o n o f a p o w erfu l, c o e r c i v e , w r a t h f u l a n d j e a l o u s d e i t y . l i g i o u s n e s s i s b a s e d upon f e a r r a t h e r th a n upon l o v e .

Re­

At i t s

b e s t , t h i s becomes th e n o t i o n t h a t God i s s o v e r e i g n o v e r n a t u r e , l i f e , a n d th e sc e n e o f h i s t o r y , s e t t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n te rm s o f w hich m a n 's i n d i v i d u a l and c o l l e c t i v e l i f e i s c r e a t e d , ju d g e d , and redeem ed.

F or exam ple, one f i n a l p ro b lem o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y

i s w h e th e r th e w o r ld i s good b e c a u s e God c r e a t e d i t ,

o r w h e th e r

God c r e a t e d th e w o rld b e c a u s e i t was good. T here i s a n a n a lo g o u s a m b ig u ity i n H e b ra ic th e o lo g y con­ c e r n i n g w here an d when God i s .

Some k in d s o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y

s t r e s s a d o c t r i n e o f r a d i c a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e , w hereby God i s e s s e n ­ t i a l l y above an d beyond th e sc e n e o f l i f e an d h i s t o r y i n th e e p l s t e m o l o g i c a l , t h e c a u s a l , th e v a l u e , a n d t h e m e ta p h y s i c a l s e n s e s .

107 He I s a p a r t from l i f e an d h i s t o r y i n th e e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s e n s e b e c a u s e he i s d eu s a b s c o n d l t u s . te rio u s .

God i s r a d i c a l l y f r e e and mys­

H is p u r p o s e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o u r p u r p o s e s , n o r

h i s ways o u r ways.

God i s tr a n s c e n d e n t i n th e c a u s a l se n s e b e ­

c a u se he can a l t e r th e laws o f n a t u r e to work a p a r t from them i n s t r a n g e , wondrous, and d e v io u s ways.

He i s t r a n s c e n d e n t i n the

v a lu e s e n s e b e c a u s e what he means by good and e v i l i s n ot n ec­ e s s a r i l y what we mean bygpodand evil, and in th e m e ta p h y s ic a l se n se b e c a u s e what he i s and does a r e n o t c o m p le te ly a f u n c t i o n o f l i f e and h i s t o r y .

O th e r k in d s o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y have a s s e r t e d a

r a d i c a l d o c t r i n e o f d i v i n e immanence.

God i s a c o n c r e t e and l i v ­

i n g God, a l i v e and a c t i v e w ith in th e scen e o f h i s t o r y .

God r e ­

v e a le d h i s p u r p o s e s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n th e Law and th e Covenant; God c h o se h i s p e o p l e , r e s c u i n g them i n th e Exodus; God spoke d i r e c t l y to h i s P r o p h e ts . From t h i s p o i n t o f view , God i s p e r ­ c e iv e d a s a n e n t i t y w orking w i t h i n th e re a lm o f n a t u r e , l i f e and h isto ry . to ry .

He i s i n f a c t th e law and moving power o f l i f e an d h i s ­

What God means by good an d e v i l i s i n p r i n c i p l e what we

mean by good and e v i l . i s a g i f t from God.

I n f a c t o u r v e ry s e n s e o f good and e v i l

And f i n a l l y , G od's l i f e and work a re a lm o s t

c o m p le te ly a f u n c t i o n o f n a t u r e , l i f e , and h i s t o r y . On th e w ho le, I t h i n k t h i s d o c t r i n e o f d i v i n e immanence i s th e more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o ti f i n H eb raic t h e o lo g y , a s i t i s to b e fo un d i n th e Old T estam e n t,

T h is i s e s p e c i a l l y th e c a s e w ith

r e f e r e n c e to t h e q u e s t i o n a s to how God w orks.

The H e b ra ic con­

c e p t s o f t h e Law, t h e Covenant, t h e Chosen P e o p le , th e P r o p h e ts , th e M e ssia h , t h e t h e o c r a t i c community, and t h e s a c r e d h i s t o r y

108 and b o o k s, a l l t e s t i f y to a God who i s c o n c r e t e l y a l i v e and immanent w i t h i n h i s t o r y .

The c l o s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n

an d God w ith a l l a s p e c t s o f n a t u r e , l i f e , h i s t o r y , c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n i s i n f a c t th e f i n a l P r o p h e tic problem .

N e ith er

God n o r th e r e l i g i o u s l i f e can be beyond l i f e and h i s t o r y i n th e Greek s e n s e , f o r God i s e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by an d r e l a t e d to th e w o rld a s a l i v e a g e n t w ith l i f e and h i s t o r y .

T here i s f o r

example l i t t l e r e f e r e n c e to r e c o l l e c t i o n o r i m m o r t a lit y i n H eb raic th e o lo g y . h isto ry .

Our ey es a r e fo c u se d upon e x p e rie n c e w i t h i n l i f e and Only i n c i d e n t a l l y i s t h e r e a r e f e r e n c e b e f o r e and a f t e r .

C on cerning human n a t u r e , H eb raic th e o lo g y c o n c e iv e s o f man i n th e image o f God.

God i s God, and man i s man.

a g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t betw een them. some s e n s e to be l i k e God. upon m a n 's w i l l .

T here i s

But m an's problem i s s t i l l i n

The em phasis among th e f a c u l t i e s i s

I n s h a rp c o n t r a s t w ith Greek th e o lo g y , H eb raic

th e o lo g y i n s i s t s t h a t man can know th e good and s t i l l n o t do i t . T h e r e f o re a c a r d i n a l s i n i n H eb raic th e o lo g y I s w eakness o f th e w i l l , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h i s w eakness be b o rn o f s e l f - p i t y .

The human

i d e a l i s t o be o b e d i e n t to th e Lord o f l i f e and h i s t o r y , to be r i g h t e o u s i n h i s e y e s , to s ta n d u p r i g h t b e f o r e him, and to meet l i f e w ith som eth in g l i k e h i s overw helm ing m oral f o r c e .

H eb raic

th e o lo g y i s above a l l d i s t i n g u i s h e d by th e e x t r a o r d i n a r y demands i t p l a c e s upon human n a t u r e .

At th e same tim e , p a r t o f th e g e n iu s

o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y I s to a s k much and y e t t o e x p e c t l e s s o f man­ k in d . C oncerning good and e v i l , H eb raic th e o lo g y i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by a n em phasis upon th e m oral, p o l i t i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s v i r t u e s r a t h e r th a n upon th e a e s t h e t i c an d I n t e l l e c t u a l .

To be s u r e ,

109 H eb raic th e o lo g y i n s i s t s th e man employ th e f u l l s t r e t c h o f h i s fa c u ltie s.

M oreover, t h e r e i s a s t r o n g l y i n t e l l e c t u a l elem en t

i n H e b ra ic th e o lo g y .

P i e t y h a s been i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c te d w i t h

a l e a r n e d t r a d i t i o n , from th e Old T estam ent to th e p r e s e n t d ay . And on th e a e s t h e t i c s i d e , t h e r e i s no contem pt f o r th e body o r th e p a s s i o n s .

The v i s i b l e b o d i l y and e m o tio n a l w o rld i s good.

The trem endous d u a lis m o f Greek th e o lo g y on t h e boay-m ind pro b lem i s overcom e.

T here i s l i t t l e a s c e t i c i s m , m o r a l i z i n g , o r f e a r o f

s e n s u a l i t y i n th e Old T estam e n t.

The good Jew i s sim p ly i n t e r e s t e d

i n t h i n g s o t h e r t h a n th e l i f e o f th e s e n s e s o r th e body ta k e n s e p a r a t e l y o r a s su c h .

But t h e d i s t i n c t i v e theme o f H e b ra ic t h e ­

o lo g y i s s t i l l t h a t p i e t y and r i g h t e o u s n e s s r a t h e r t h a n t r u t h o r b e a u ty a s su c h s a v e . C oncerning n a t u r e , H e b ra ic th e o lo g y r a d i c a l l y a s s e r t s t h a t l i f e and th e w o rld a r e good. th e y a r e good.

God c r e a t e d Heaven and E a r t h , and

H e b ra ic th e o lo g y does n o t c o n c e iv e o f n a t u r e a s

th e r e a lm o f chance o r n e c e s s i t y . o f z e s t and e n e rg y .

N atu re i s a l i v e , th e s o u rc e

L i f e and h i s t o r y a r e th e sc e n e o f naan's l i f e

and o f G od's work. I n g e n e r a l , I t h i n k t h e r e a r e two keys to t h e u n d e r s ta n d ­ i n g o f th e more I n t e r e s t i n g and I m p o rta n t a s p e c t s o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y .

The f i r s t key i s to d i s t i n g u i s h b etw een th e v a r i o u s

k in d s , l e v e l s , and s t a g e s o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y a s t h e y a r e r e c o r d e d w i t h i n o r can be i n f e r r e d d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y from th e Old T estam en t l i t e r a t u r e s .

F or exam ple, th e d o c t r i n e s o f c r e a t i o n

ex n l h l l o . th e F a l l , th e d o c t r i n e o f o r i g i n a l s i n , w i t h i t s a t ­ t e n d a n t memory o f th e Garden o f Eden t h a t was and t h e dream o f

110 P a r a d i s e to b e , a r e n o t and c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h th e b e s t k i n d , l e v e l , o r s t a g e o f H e b ra ic t h e o lo g y .

The p e a k o f H e b ra ic

th e o lo g y an d r e l i g i o u s n e s s i s to be found i n t h e P r o p h e t i c and Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e s , a s I n t e r p r e t e d a g a i n s t t h e b ack g ro u n d o f th e h i s t o r i e s , t h e Law, and t h e C ovenant.

The secon d key i s t o p o n d er

th e g r e a t q u e s t i o n a s to why i t was and why i t i s t h a t t h e Jews f a i l e d and s t i l l f a i l to a c c e p t Je su s C h r is t, w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to t h e m in g l in g o f H e b r a ic , G reek and C h r i s t i a n e l e ­ m ents i n th e G o s p e ls .

The most f a v o r a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e

H e b ra ic r e j e c t i o n o f C h r i s t i s t h a t th e C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e o f t h e I n c a r n a t i o n and t h e T r i n i t y a r e i d o l a t r o u s i n th e s e n s e t h a t God h a s a lw a y s b een e s s e n t i a l l y w i t h i n l i f e and h i s t o r y and t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t need t o co n d e sc e n d to im pinge o r e n t e r l i f e and h i s t o r y a t th a t p o in t.

The l e a s t f a v o r a b l e i s t h a t t h e J e w is h r e a s o n s

w ere p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n r e l i g i o u s i n c h a r a c t e r , and t h a t i n s o ­ f a r a s t h e y were r e l i g i o u s th e y f o llo w e d from a n i d o l a t r y o f t h e C ovenant and th e Law.

The Jews c o u ld n o t r e c o g n i s e a M essiah

who d id n o t come i n pow er, an d r e f u s e d to r e c o g n i z e a f r e s h r e v e l a ­ t i o n o f th e S p i r i t above and beyond th e Law. C h r i s t i a n Theology C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by i t s r a d i c a l a s s e r ­ t i o n o f d i v i n e immanence.

God i s e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and

r e l a t e d to t h e e v e n t s an d m eanings o f l i f e and h i s t o r y .

T h is

p r o v i d e s t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t b etw een C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y on th e one hand and Greek th e o lo g y on t h e o t h e r . G reek th e o lo g y i s d e e p .

The d e p a r t u r e from

T h is i s a l s o why i t i s so n a t u r a l to

s p e a k o f th e H e b r a i c - G h r l s t l a n t r a d i t i o n , f o r H e b ra ic th e o lo g y

I ll I s I n g e n e r a l o r on th e whole c o n tin u o u s w ith C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y on t h i s p o i n t .

I n H eb raic th e o lo g y God i s i n a s e n s e immanent

and i n a s e n s e t r a n s c e n d e n t .

Some k in d s o f H eb raic th e o lo g y

waver u n c e r t a i n l y on th e p o i n t . upon immanence.

But th e em p h asis, I t h i n k , i s

Greek th e o lo g y s t r e s s e s God’ s tr a n s c e n d e n c e .

The Greek d e i t y i s e s s e n t i a l l y u n q u a l i f i e d by and u n r e l a t e d to th e re a lm s o f n a t u r e , l i f e , an d h i s t o r y .

To my mind, i t I s t h i s

r a d i c a l a s s e r t i o n o f d i v i n e immanence o f w hich th e g e n iu s and th e f i n a l i t y o f th e C h r i s t i a n f a i t h and t h e C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n con­ sis t.

God r e v e a l e d h im s e lf d i r e c t l y an d f u l l y i n J e s u s C h r i s t .

C h r i s t i s n o t a f a i n t copy o f God i n th e Greek s e n s e .

Nor i s

C h r i s t J u s t a n i n d i r e c t m essen ger o r m e d ia to r from God i n th e H eb raic s e n s e . God i s d i r e c t l y a n d f u l l y i n C h r i s t . I s d i r e c t l y and f u l l y th e Son o f God.

And C h r i s t

God d i d n o t sim p ly con­

d escen d to e n t e r l i f e and h i s t o r y a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t a n d moment i n o r d e r to rem ind men o f o r e n a b le men to hope f o r Im m o rtal t h i n g s a s i n Greek th e o lo g y .

Nor d id God e n t e r l i f e and h i s t o r y sim ply

to r e s c u e men from t h e i r i d o l a t r y o r to r e - d i r e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t an d a t t e n t i o n to th e t r u e , l i v i n g , and a c t u a l God i n th e H eb raic sense.

L i f e and h i s t o r y a r e r e v e a l e d to be G od's r e s i d e n c e and

n a t i v e ground.

What i s tr a n s c e n d e n t a b o u t God— e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y ,

c a u s a l l y , i n a v a lu e s e n s e , and o n t o l o g i c a l l y — I s d i s c l o s e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f what i s immanent.

I t a ris e s out o f, i t is ill u s tr a te d

i n , and i t i s s u e s i n t o what i s immanent.

Not a l l k in d s , l e v e l s ,

s t a g e s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y a r e e q u a lly c l e a r , d i s c i p l i n e d , and g e n e r a l on t h i s p o i n t .

In s o fa r a s th e F a th e rs , th e S c h o la s tic s ,

th e D e i s t s , and some o f th e R o m a n tic is ts among C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s

112 waver on t h i s p o i n t i t i s b e c a u s e th e y a r e a l s o h i g h l y G reek i n o u tlo o k .

I n s o f a r a s A u g u s tin e , t h e extrem e r i g h t w ing o f th e

R e fo rm a tio n , an d modern Neo-Orthodoxy waver on t h i s p o i n t i t i s b e c a u se th e y a r e a l s o h i g h l y H e b r a ic .

And i n s o f a r a s t h e G ospels

th e m s e lv e s waver on t h i s p o i n t , i t i s b e c a u se t h e y a r e a l r e a d y compounds o f Greek, H e b ra ic , an d C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l I n t u i t i o n s . I n s o f a r a s th e c h a r a c t e r o f God i s c o n c e rn e d , C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y s t r e s s e s h i s goodness r a t h e r th a n sim p ly h i s power o r h i s wisdom.

God i s n o t a v o id o r a n enemy a s I n s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y ,

j u s t a p r i n c i p l e , an i d e a , o r an i d e a l a s i n Greek th e o lo g y , o r a n unbending Judge a s i n H eb raic th e o lo g y . companion. lo v e .

He i s a f r i e n d , a

I t i s h i s n a t u r e t o i n s p i r e f a i t h , h op e, t r u s t , and

No man c a n f a l l so f a r a s t o be beyond H is p a t i e n t c o n c e r n .

And no man can r i s e so h ig h a s t o be above t h e need f o r

His

fu rth e r p e rfe c tio n . I n answ er to th e q u e s t i o n a s to where and when God i s , C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y r e p l i e s w ith th e d o c t r i n e s o f th e I n c a r n a t i o n an d t h e T r i n i t y .

These d o c t r i n e s ex e m p lify th e g e n e r a l theme

o f d i v i n e Immanence. you.

The Kingdom o f God i s b e f o r e you an d w i t h i n

God i s a t ev e ry p o i n t and moment w i t h i n n a t u r e , l i f e , and

h i s t o r y b e c a u se God i s Logos.

God I s p r e s e n t w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r

p r o v id e n c e a t p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t s and moments i n h i s t o r y b e c a u se God i s C h r i s t .

T h is means t h a t C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y d oes n o t con­

c e iv e t h a t God i s p e c u l i a r l y a t t h e b e g in n in g , a t th e m id d le , o r a t th e end o f any a c t o f e x p e r ie n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r o r o f l i f e a s a w h o le.

He i s g e n e r a l l y p r e s e n t a t any p o i n t o r moment.

he i s s p e c i f i c a l l y p r e s e n t in ea ch p o i n t and moment.

And

He i s i n

113 th e b e g i n n i n g i n t h e s e n s e t h a t e v e ry s i t u a t i o n man c o n f r o n t s h a s r e a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r good a n d f o r e v i l .

He i s a l s o a t th e

b e g i n n in g o f man’ s l i f e I n t h e s e n s e t h a t he i n i t i a t e s t h e s e n s e o f h e ro ic c a llin g .

He i s a t t h e m idd le o f e v e ry s i t u a t i o n i n th e

s e n s e t h a t he p r e s e n t s what i s a c t u a l i n l i f e w ith w hat i s p o s s i ­ b le fo r i t ,

c o n f r o n t i n g w hat i s good w ith w hat I s b e t t e r .

He i s

a l s o a t t h e m id d le o f man’s l i f e b e c a u s e he l e a v e s man r a d i c a l l y f r e e to cho ose th e good o r th e e v i l even a s he c l e a r l y an d d e­ c i s i v e l y p r e s e n t s a n d d e t e r m in e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw e en them. And he i s a t th e end o f e v e ry s i t u a t i o n by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t he tr a n s f o r m s e v e ry end i n t o a new b e g i n n in g .

He i s th e

ju d g e a n d t h e m easu re o f what i s t r a g i c , and he i s t h e red ee m er in

te rm s o f w hich w hat i s t r a g i c can

of

what i s more t h a n m e re ly t r a g i c . He can a c h i e v e t h e good

d e s p i t e m a n 's s i n .

be

t r a n s f i g u r e d i n th e name

He a s s u r e s t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e w i t h l i f e .

He i s t h a t " o b j e c t i v e im m o r t a l i t y " o f w hich l i f e and h i s t o r y con ­ sis t I n an sw e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n a s to how God w o rk s, C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y i n s i s t s upon c o n j o i n i n g c r e a t i v i t y , d e m p tio n . n o v e lty .

Judgm ent, an d r e ­

God i s c r e a t i v e i n t h e s e n s e t h a t he i s t h e s o u r c e o f He c r e a t e s m a n 's s e n s e o f c a l l i n g ; he e n a b le s men to

em brace l i f e a g a i n an d a g a i n ev en a s th e y s t a n d deep i n t r a g e d y ; he

e n a b l e s th e new to be c r e a t e d o u t

of

be

t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o th e new.

judgm ent i n th e s e n s e t h a t

God i s

th e o l d , and th e o l d to

i t i s b y r e f e r e n c e to h i s c h a r a c t e r t h a t a l l men can a n d do f i n d th e m s e lv e s in c o m p le te an d w a n tin g — t h e m i r r o r i n te rm s o f w hich th e y can p e r c e i v e t h e i r own g r e a t n e s s o r t r i v i a l i t y a s t r i v i a l

114 or g re a t.

He I s a re d e e m e r i n th e s e n s e t h a t he w orks above and

beyond w hat man c a n do f o r h i m s e l f o r w hat man d e s e r v e s . C o n c e rn in g t h e n a t u r e o f man, C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y s t r e s s e s th e h e a r t r a t h e r t h a n th e i n t e l l e c t o r th e w i l l .

The theme o f

C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y i s t h e wisdom o f th e h e a r t , t h e r e a s s e r t i o n o f th e h e a r t to new l i f e i n th e f a c e o f f i n i t e n e s s , s i o n , an d t r a g e d y .

sin , p erv er­

And y e t C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y h a s b e e n p e c u l i a r l y

a v e r s e t o p l a y i n g f a v o r i t e s among t h e f a c u l t i e s .

Not th e p io u s

h e a r t o r t h e r i g h t e o u s w i l l , n o t m an 's c a p a c i t y to t a k e th o u g h t, n o t any p a r t i c u l a r c a p a c i t y o r v i r t u e b u t m a n 's w hole b e i n g m ust be b o r n , d i e , a n d b e b o rn a g a i n . tru ste d .

M an's s e n s e o f b e a u t y c a n n o t be

M an's s e n s e o f t r u t h c a n n o t be t r u s t e d .

v i r t u e a n d r e l i g i o u s p i e t y c a n n o t be t r u s t e d . a s p e c t o f any man, c a n b e t r u s t e d .

M an 's m o ral

No man, an d no

Only God can be t r u s t e d .

C o n c e rn in g t h e d o c t r i n e o f good and e v i l , C h r i s t i a n t h e ­ o lo g y i n s i s t s t h a t w hat God means by good a n d e v i l i s i n p r i n c i p l e t h e same a s o r a n a lo g o u s to w hat man means by good an d e v i l .

T h ere

i s n o t a n i m p o s s i b l e gap b etw een t h e r e a lm s o f n a t u r e and g r a c e , o f tim e a n d e t e r n i t y , o r o f t h e Church and t h e w o r ld .

C h ristia n

th e o lo g y i n s i s t s t h a t a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s an d moments w hat God means b y good and w hat man means by good a r e i n f a c t t h e same. This

i s th e w hole c o n t e n t and m eaning o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o r y —

th e f u s i o n o f g r a c e and pow er, t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f m ercy and j u s t i c e , t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f God a s Logos a n d God a s C h r i s t , C o n c e rn in g n a t u r e , C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y r e - a f f i r m s th e H e b ra ic i n s i s t e n c e t h a t th e w hole o f n a t u r e , l i f e an d h i s t o r y i s good.

E v i l c a n n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w ith f i n i t e n e s s , w i t h i g n o r ­

115 a n c e , w i t h th e b a r e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een man and God. t h e o n ly c a u se o f th e w o rld . c o n d i t i o n e d by him.

God i s n o t

N a tu re and man a r e f r e e a s w e l l a s

E v i l i s i n th e w o rld a p a r t from God an d even

somewhat' a p a r t from n a t u r e and man a s su c h .

E v i l comes i n t o th e

w o rld th r o u g h p r e t e n s i o n r a t h e r th a n f i n i t e n e s s . C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y has o f c o u rs e n o t b e e n o f one v o ic e on a l l t h e s e d i f f i c u l t an d com plex p o i n t s .

T here i s a g e n e r i c

c o n t r a s t betw een J e s u s and P a u l, b etw een t h e v a r io u s p a r t s o f th e G o sp els th e m s e lv e s , betw een th e P u r i t a n and t h e Q uaker, b e­ tween th e c h i l d r e n o f d a r k n e s s and th e c h i l d r e n o f l i g h t . a r e many k in d s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y .

There

T h ere i s th e " m i r a c l e ,

m y s te ry , and a u t h o r i t y " o f Greek O rth od ox th e o lo g y .

T h ere i s th e

th e o lo g y o f p a r a d o x , o f pow er, o f o r i g i n a l and u n f o r g i v a b l e s i n , o f t h e d i a l e c t i c o f s i n an d g r a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f P a u l , A u g u s tin e , an d L u th e r .

And t h e r e a r e th e many d i f f i c u l t C h r i s t i a n myths con­

c e r n i n g th e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e body, t h e Day o f Ju dg m en t, and th e Second Coming.

Nor have a l l C h r i s t i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e

I n c a r n a t i o n o f th e T r i n i t y , and o f th e Atonem ent b e e n c l e a r , d i s ­ c i p l i n e d and g e n e r a l . But th e o v erw h elm in g ly d i s t i n c t i v e C h r i s t i a n them es a r e a t once c l e a r a n d g e n e r a l .

They a r e t h e them es o f d i v i n e imman­

e n c e , o f m an's r a d i c a l freedom and s i n ; an d o f re d e m p tio n and d a m n atio n w i t h i n l i f e an d h i s t o r y . th e o lo g y i s overcom e.

The a b s o l u t e d u a lis m o f Greek

And th e p ro m ise o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y i s

e l u c i d a t e d and f u l f i l l e d .

They r e v o l v e a b o u t th e c e n t e r o f "God

so lo v e d th e w o rld . . . , " o f t h e good news, o f th e new l i f e , o f th e r e d e m p tio n i n b o th g r a c e and power.

T raged y i s no l o n g e r a

116 f u n c t i o n o f m an 's e s s e n t i a l b e i n g o r n a t u r e a s i n Greek t h e o lo g y . And t h e r e i s a go od ness i n t h e w o rld t h a t c a n f u l f i l l w ith o u t n e g a t i n g t h e Law o f H e b ra ic t h e o lo g y . wisdom o r by t h e i r r i g h t e o u s n e s s . p ie ty .

Men a r e n o t sav ed by t h e i r

Nor a r e th e y sav ed by t h e i r

They a r e sa v ed by God who p r e s e n t s them w i t h a good th e y

can r e a l i s e , e n jo y , an d u n d e r s ta n d , who l e a v e s them r a d i c a l l y f r e e to choose th e good o r th e e v i l , and who h as th e g r a c e an d th e power to r e s c u e mankind from i t s own s i n .

By v i r t u e o f t h e s e

r a d i c a l them es o f d i v i n e immanence, and t r a n s c e n d e n c e , human f r e e ­ dom an d s i n , an d r e d e m p tio n an d d am n atio n w i t h i n l i f e and h i s t o r y no human s i t u a t i o n I s so bad a s to be h o p e l e s s o r so p e r f e c t a s to be beyond r e v e r s i o n , s t a s i s , o r f u r t h e r a s c e n t .

The e s s e n t i a l

p a t t e r n o f m a n 's l i f e i s from th e h e r o i c i d e a l o f t h e P sa lm s, th ro u g h th e t r a g i c vislcn o f th e C ro s s , t o th e R e s u r r e c t i o n t h a t i s E aster. th e end.

L i f e i s open a t th e b e g i n n in g , a t t h e m id d le , and a t Because God i s e s s e n t i a l l y immanent, man i s f r e e even

to s i n , a n d e v e ry end i s a new b e g i n n in g . S k e p t i c a l Theology By s k e p t i c i s m , I mean t h a t k in d o f a t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t o r sy ste m w hich i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d by th e s e a r c h i n g q u a l i t y o f i t s d o u b t.

The n e g l e c t o r w i l l f u l d i s t o r t i o n o f t h i s f o u r t h g r e a t

k in d o f t h e o l o g y by t h o s e who have s to o d w i t h i n th e t h r e e p o s i t i v e t r a d i t i o n s i s th e most p o w e r fu l r e a s o n why th e y have a g a i n and a g a in f a l l e n in to d eserv ed d is r e p u t e .

Any r e - s t a t e m e n t o f Greek,

H e b r a ic , o r C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y t h a t f a i l s to come to te rm s w ith t h i s f o u r t h g r e a t k in d o f th e o lo g y I s bound to a p p e a r I r r e l e v a n t i f not p a lp a b ly ir r e s p o n s ib l e and in s in c e r e .

I n t h i s s e n s e and

117 to t h i s d e g r e e , th e l a s t a s w e l l a s t h e f i r s t volume by a n H e b r a ic C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s h o u ld be L eav es from t h e N otebook o f a Tamed Cyn i c . W ith in t h i s g e n e r a l s k e p t i c a l com plex, I mean t o i n c l u d e fo u r s p e c ia l su b -k in d s: n ih ilism .

a t h e i s m , a g n o s t i c i s m , humanism, and

Of t h e s e f o u r s u b - k i n d s , I c o n s i d e r a g n o s t i c i s m an d

humanism t o be by f a r t h e more r e m a r k a b le .

A th eism an d n i h i l i s m

a r e s e l f - d e f e a t i n g , a n d f o r t h i s r e a s o n d e v o id o f i n t r i n s i c i n t e r ­ e s t o r e x t r i n s i c im p o r ta n c e , of re a l b e lie f.

M oreover, I t h i n k th e y a r e in c a p a b l e

And w h at i s more, i n s o f a r a s th e y c o n t a i n e le m e n ts

t h a t a r e c a p a b le o f b e l i e f , t h e y presum e o r im p ly d o c t r i n e s t h e i r p o s i t i o n s h o u ld e x p l i c i t l y r e j e c t .

The o n ly r e l e v a n c e o f a t h e i s m

an d n i h i l i s m i s c o v e r t a n d i n d i r e c t — th e y p r o v id e w o n d e r f u l ly i n ­ v e r t e d p a r o d i e s o f th e o r th o d o x I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e o t h e r t h r e e p o s i t i v e k in d s o f th e o lo g y w hich come t o t h e same s e l f - d e f e a t i n g an d f a n t a s t i c p o i n t s . By a t h e i s m , I mean t h a t k in d o f a t h e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n w hieh s a y s t h a t i t i s v e ry c l e a r and c e r t a i n t h a t God does n o t i n f a c t e x i s t o r i s e v i l a p a r t from any o b s e r v a t i o n s and r e a s o n ­ i n g s t o th e c o n t r a r y , w h a te v e r t h i s body o f arg u m e n t a n d e v id e n c e may b e .

An a t h e i s t a t t r i b u t e s m ost o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d com­

p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s l i f e to th e o lo g y and to r e l i g i o u s p e o p l e .

If

we c o u ld o n ly c l e a r t h e w o rld o f th e o lo g y an d r e l i g i o n , l i f e would s w i f t l y r i s e to a h i g h e r and f i n e r l e v e l .

The theme o f t h e o l o g y

I s th e theme o f s u p e r s t i t u t i o n , b i g o t r y , a n d e r r o r . The p r im a r y d i f f i c u l t y I have w i t h a t h e is m i s t h a t th e d o c t r i n e — b o t h i n c o n t e n t , i n i n n e r a t t i t u d e , a n d i n g ro u n d s—

118 i s u s u a l l y a n i n v e r t e d copy o f t h e madness o r fan aticism i t s e t s o u t so v a l i a n t l y t o d e s t r o y . By n i h i l i s m I mean th e t h e o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k t h a t c l a im s t h a t a l l t h e o r i e s o f l i f e and e x i s t e n c e a r e m e a n in g le s s , i n c o h e r ­ e n t, o r in a d e q u a te .

N i h i l i s m c u l t i v a t e s a co ntem pt f o r e x i s t e n c e ,

c o n j o in e d w ith a lo v e f o r a l l t h a t i s s e n s e l e s s , v i o l e n t , c a p r i c i o u s , and r e m o r s e l e s s i n t h a t e x i s t e n c e . n o t h i n g new u n d er th e s u n ."

“A l l i s v a n i t y . "

"T h ere i s

"No man i s happy u n t i l he d i e s . "

"C ursed be th e day w h e re in I was b o r n ." The c h i e f f o rm a l d i f f i c u l t y I have w i t h n i h i l i s m i s t h a t i t sp e a k s l o u d l y when i t sh o u ld i n f a c t be s i l e n t , a n d t h a t i t f o r t h e m ost p a r t f a l l s to s u p p r e s s a l i v e l y s e n s e o f th e im p o rta n c e o f i t s own a t t i t u d e . An a g n o s t i c i s a t once a f a r more a m ia b le and f a r more po w erfu l c h a ra c te r.

A c l a s s i c a l a g n o s tic i n s i s t s th a t th e o lo g ic a l

an d r e l i g i o u s p ro b le m s a r e Immensely i n t e r e s t i n g and I m p o r t a n t . The o n ly d i f f i c u l t y he h a s w ith them i s t h a t th e y a r e u n d e c id a b le e i t h e r i n p r i n c i p l e o r i n f a c t o r b o th .

The a g n o s t i c u s u a l l y

d oes n o t d o u b t th e p r a g m a tic o r human v a lu e o f r e l i g i o n , i n s h a rp c o n t r a s t to b o th t h e a t h e i s t and th e n i h i l i s t .

Nor do es he d o u b t

th e c a p a c i t y o f th e i d e a o f God to r e s o l v e many o u t s t a n d i n g p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l p ro b le m s— I n p r i n c i p l e .

But he u s u a l l y c o n te n d s t h a t th e

e m o t i o n a l l y s t r o n g and th e I n t e l l e c t u a l l y r i g o r o u s can do w ith o u t God b o t h i n t h e i r c o n d u c t and i n t h e i r t h e o r y .

The a g n o s t i c ' s

f a v o r i t e weapon i s O ccam 's r a z o r — e n t i t l e s s h o u ld n o t be m u l t i p l i e d by i n f e r e n c e , c o n j e c t u r e o r c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h o u t a d e m o n s tr a b ly good c a u s e . ex iste n c e .

And he can f i n d no d e m o n s tra b ly good c a u s e f o r G od's He d o e s n o t deny t h a t God e x i s t s .

He o n ly d e n i e s t h a t

119 th e a rg u m e n ts an d t h e e v id e n c e c a l l f o r a n y t h i n g more th a n s u s ­ pended jud g m en t.

F or m ost a g n o s t i c s , God i s t h e r e f o r e a d eu s ex

m achina c o n v e n i e n t l y b r o u g h t upon th e p h i l o s o p h i c sc e n e a t j u s t t h a t p o i n t and moment w h e re in a n o th e r w is e i n c o h e r e n t an d I n a d e q u a te p h ilo s o p h y would c o l l a p s e .

God I s t h e r e f o r e n o t o n ly an unnec­

e s s a r y a n d h a r m le s s e n t i t y , b u t a l s o a p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e ro u s o n e. The c o n c e p t o f God c a n be employed i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y by weak i n ­ t e l l e c t s o r h e a r t s a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s .

And

y e t t h e c l a s s i c a l a g n o s t i c d o c t r i n e i s t h a t b o th t h e o l o g i c a l p r o b ­ lem s an d t h e o l o g i c a l a n sw e rs a r e w ith o u t m eaning o r c o n t e n t and t h e r e b y u s e l e s s , u n n e c e s s a r y , and h a r m le s s .

They e x p l a i n e v e r y ­

t h i n g , an d t h e r e f o r e t h e y e x p l a i n n o th in g .

A l l k in d s o f th e o lo g y

a r e e q u a l l y t r u e and e q u a l l y f a l s e . d e c i d i n g betw een them .

T here i s t h e r e b y no b a s i s f o r

M oreover, t h e o l o g i c a l p ro b lem s a r e i n f a c t

s e t t l e d on th e b a s i s o f i n t u i t i o n , e m o tio n a l c o n v i c t i o n , a u t h o r i t y , tra d itio n , or re v e la tio n .

They a r e seldom r e a l l y s u b j e c t e d to o r

am enable to r a t i o n a l o r e m p i r i c a l d e m o n s tr a ti o n .

A fa v o rite

a g n o s t i c r e f r a i n i s t h a t th e t h e o l o g i a n ' s a p p e a l t o f a i t h o r m y ste ry i s i n f a c t a c o n f e s s i o n o f d e f e a t , and i s i n t e r p r e t a b l e a s a g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l an d r e l i g i o u s c o n fu sio n .

He i s fo n d o f p u s h in g p io u s t h e o l o g i c a l a rg u m e n ts to

Im pious c o n c l u s i o n s :

f o r exam ple, t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f i m m o r t a l i t y

p r o v i d e s more e v id e n c e f o r d e s p a i r th a n f o r hope; t h a t i f God em ploys e v i l to s t r e n g t h e n men, t h e D e v il may e q u a l l y w e l l employ good to d e c e i v e them; t h a t i f God i s a b s o l u t e l y good a n d a b s o l u t e l y p o w e r f u l , th e n he m ust a l s o be a b s o l u t e l y e v i l .

The g r e a t a g n o s ­

t i c s w ere some o f th e P r e - S o c r a t l c s , a c e r t a i n a s p e c t o f E u r i p i d e s ,

120 some o f th e H e l l e n i s t i c c y n i c s and s k e p t i c s , a s p e c t s o f th e Old T estam en t Wisdom l i t e r a t u r e , M o n taig n e, Hume, S w i f t, and J o y c e . A p a rt from humanism, a g n o s t i c i s m a t i t s b e s t i s p e r h a p s th e most f o r m id a b le o f a l l t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f s a p a r t from th e t h r e e c l a s s i ­ c a l k in d s o f p o s i t i v e th e o lo g y . T h ere may be l i t t l e o r much beyond t h e g r a v e , But t h e s t r o n g a r e s a y in g n o th in g u n t i l th e y s e e . At t h e same tim e a g n o s t i c i s m makes th e o lo g y j u s t a s d i f f i ­ c u l t to r e f u t e a s i t i s to a c c e p t .

Those k in d s o f modern P r o t e s t a n t

th e o lo g y which r e f u s e to sp eak one way o r th e o t h e r c o n c e r n in g u l t i m a t e b e g in n in g s o r u l t i m a t e e n d in g s , o f a fo rm e r o r a f u t u r e l i f e , c a n n o t be u n d e r s to o d a p a r t from t h i s p o w e rfu l a g n o s t i c tra d itio n .

P r o b a b ly th e most p e r s u a s i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f a g n o s t i c i s m

i n modern l i t e r a t u r e h a s been g iv e n by B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l i n h i s F re e M an's W orship, an d more g e n e r a l l y by t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f l o g i c a l an d e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f w hich he i s p e r h a p s t h e most p ro m in e n t member. A h u m a n ist c la im s t h a t t h e o n ly s p i r i t i n t h e w o rld i s th e human s p i r i t .

God i s I n t e r p r e t e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f mankind—

a s a memory, a n i d e a l , o r a dream .

L ike t h e a g n o s t i c ,

th e human­

i s t mayn o t d o u b t t h e p r a g m a tic v a lu e o f r e l i g i o n f o r most f o r most

o f t h e tim e .

p e o p le

But f o r t h e b e s t o f men i n t h e b e s t o f

t h e i r moments, th e o lo g y i s n o t n e c e s s a r y o r d e s i r a b l e .

The

e s s e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s o f e x i s t e n c e a r e b etw een man an d man, b etw een man an d

n a t u r e , an d b etw een man a s he i s o r was an d man a s he can

or w ill

become. The s t r e n g t h o f humanism a s a th e o lo g y i s i n

b o u n d le s s lo v e f o r mankind a s s u c h .

its

Humanism s e e k s to become

aw are o f an d i m p l i c a t e d i n p i t y a n d t e r r o r w h erev e r an d w henever

121 th e y may be fo u n d .

I t i s a p o w e r fu l c r i t i c i s m o f th e o r th o d o x

t h e o l o g i e s when th e y g iv e up th e human s p i r i t c o m p le te ly i n th e name o f God o r n a t u r e .

To humanism, we owe some o f o u r most

p o w e r fu l c r i t i q u e s an d ad v a n c e s upon o r th o d o x th e o lo g y .

For

exam ple, humanism h a s alw ay s i n s i s t e d upon th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e­ tween th e o lo g y an d r e l i g i o n .

Theology i s a n a t te m p t upon th e

p a r t o f men to u n d e r s ta n d th e ways o f God w ith man. so m e th in g men do, a way o f l i f e .

R e lig io n i s

Humanism i n s i s t s t h a t we t a l k

a b o u t God n o t a b o u t C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h a t we w o rs h ip God n o t th e C h r i s t i a n community o r th e J e w ish p e o p le .

Humanism i s a c r i t i c

o f i d o l a t r o u s power t h e o l o g i e s o f every day and a g e — th e power t h e o l o g i e s o f Mohamet, o f G alv in and o f P a u l, an d o f t h e power m o t i f s em erging o u t o f t h e c r i s i s , t h e o l o g i e s o f th e p r e s e n t d ay.

e x i s t e n t i a l , and p r a g m a t i s t

Humanism c r i t i c i s e s r e l i g i o u s

p e o p le f o r co m m ittin g th e s i n o f r e l i g i o u s p r i d e — th e a s c e t i c s who a r e p ro u d o f t h e i r own v i r t u e ; th e P u r i t a n s who d e r i v e p l e a ­ s u r e from d e n y in g th e goodness o f th e p h y s i c a l w o rld an d o f i t s a e s t h e t i c and s e n s o r y v a l u e s ; t h e te n d e n c y o f r e l i g i o u s p e o p le to become s l a v i s h and a b j e c t b e f o r e t r a d i t i o n and a u t h o r i t y ; and who a r e wont to t u r n t h i n g s l i k e p h ilo s p h y a n d l i t e r a t u r e o v e r to w hat i s s e c u l a r and u n r e l a t e d to th e f a i t h .

D ee p est o f a l l

th e h u m a n ist c r i t i c i s m s i s i t s ex p o su re o f th e op tim ism w i t h i n c e r t a i n k in d s o f t r a d i t i o n a l th e o lo g y :

t h e i r a t t e m p t to c o n c e a l

t r a g e d y , to deny t h a t f e a r and so rro w a r e cosm ic f a c t s , a s r e a l f o r God a s f o r man; t h e i r a p p e a l t o a n o t h e r l i f e and a n o t h e r w o rld a s a co m p e n sa tio n f o r and a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s on e.

The

g e n iu s o f humanism i s i t s s t r e s s upon th e g r e a t n e s s o f t h i s l i f e

122 and t h i s w o rld an d f o r t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t i e s a s p a r t o f th e l i f e o f God. a fte r.

For humanism, t h i s l i f e i s no copy o f som ething b e f o r e o r T his i s i t .

S h i f t i n g th e problem s o f t h i s l i f e to a n o t h e r

re a lm sim p ly w i l l n o t do what i t i s supposed o r I n te n d e d to d o. For th e form er

l i f e o r t h e n e x t l i f e a r e a t l e a s t o f n o t much

more e n ig m a tic

th a n t h i s one.

D eath i s n o t l i v e d th o u g h .

D eath i s n o t an event w i t h i n l i f e .

L ife ju s t ce ases.

t h i s l i f e h as a b e g in n in g , a m id dle and an end.

T his i s I t .

And

The re d e m p tio n

o f t r a g e d y , i n s o f a r a s t h e r e i s re d e m p tio n , must be t h e r e and th e n o r h e r e and now. The weakness o f humanism i s i t s a t te m p t to make man and h i s s p i r i t th e measure o f good a n d e v i l , to th e p r e t e n s i o n ,

deny th e f i n i t e n e s s ,

th e p e r v e r s i o n , and th e w e a r in e s s a t th e h e a r t

o f l i f e , a n d to r e s i s t f u r t h e r p e r c e p t i o n o f th e way God works i n g ra c e and power a p a r t from and beyond what men can do to i n c r e a s e th e b e a u ty o f t h i s l i f e and t h i s w orld.

PART IV*.

KINDS OF LITERATURE

Genre Theory an d A e s t h e t i c T heory Kinds o f L i t e r a r y S t r u c t u r e A lle g o r y R e a lism Symbolism F a n ta s y Modes o f N a r r a t i o n an d D e s c r i p t i o n L y ric a l D ram atic Eplo E lem en ts f o r L i t e r a r y A n a l y s i s S to r y C h a r a c te r P lo t Theme Language S e ttin g Tone A tm osphere S c a le P ace

My c o n c e rn i n t h i s p a r t i s to p r e s e n t a th e o r y — i n th e form o f a n o t h e r ty p o lo g y — o f th e v a r i o u s k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c ­ t u r e r e c u r r e n t i n t h e West. Many k in d 6 o f ty p o lo g y a r e p o s s i b l e .

Each can be o f g r e a t

i n t e r e s t and im p o r ta n c e f o r some p u rp o se and f o r some p o i n t o f view .

I have fo u n d o n ly t h r e e to be d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t to t h e

theme a n d t h e o r y o f t h i s e s s a y , co n c ern ed a s i t i s w ith l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m from th e p o i n t o f view o f c o m p a ra tiv e th e o lo g y i n gen­ e r a l an d C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y i n p a r t i c u l a r . Genre T heory an d A e s t h e t i c Theory The s i m p l e s t an d most o b v io u s k in d o f ty p o lo g y i s b a s e d upon d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f l i t e r a r y g e n re —-fo r exam ple, t h e e p i c , th e l y r i c , th e dram a, t h e n o v e l , t h e s h o r t s t o r y , and th e movie. T hese a r e th e more a e s t h e t i c an d p r e s e n t a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y fo rm s. T here a r e more d i s c u r s i v e and l o g i c a l - e m p i r i c a l l i t e r a r y forms a s w e ll:

th e j o u r n a l , th e memoir, th e h i s t o r y , th e a u to b io g r a p h y ,

t h e b io g r a p h y , t h e e s s a y , th e l e c t u r e , th e o r a t i o n , an d th e s e r ­ mon.

I n s p e a k in g o f im a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , I , o f c o u r s e , f o r th e

most p a r t have th e f i r s t group i n mind.

For t h e s e a r e th e form s

w hich have e n a b le d mankind to r i v a l th e v ery c o n c r e t e n e s s o f l i f e i t s e l f — a s i n a m i r r o r o r i n a dream . T h ere a r e many s u b - k in d s w i t h i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l l i t e r ­ a r y fo rm s .

F or exam ple, u n d er th e e p i c , t h e r e a r e f o l k and a r t

e p i c s , b o t h d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from le g e n d an d myth; u n d e r th e drama, 124

125 s t a g e an d c l o s e t d ram as, t r a g e d i e s and co m ed ie s, th e tr a g i- c o m e d y , th e m elodram a, t h e rom ance, and t h e f a r c e ; u n d e r t h e l y r i c , t h e e le g ia c ,

th e p a s t o r a l , th e p e r s o n a l, th e s a t i r i c ,

th e n a r r a t i v e ,

t h e d r a m a t i c , t h e r e l i g i o u s , an d t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l l y r i c ; u n d er th e n o v e l a n d s h o r t s t o r y , t h e p i c a r e s q u e , t h e d o m e s tic , t h e G o th ic , th e "problem " o r " d i s c u s s i o n , " t h e r o m a n ti c , and t h e c h a r a c t e r s i t u a t i o n n o v e ls an d s h o r t s t o r i e s . T h is k in d o f ty p o lo g y I s e i t h e r to o s im p le o r to o t e c h n i ­ c a l f o r my p u r p o s e s .

The s im p le s i d e i s o b v io u s .

The t e c h n i c a l

s i d e i n v o l v e s t h e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y o f t h e s e form s i n g e n e r a l , o r t h e t e c h n i c a l s tu d y o f some s p e c i a l a s p e c t o f one o r more o f them in p a r tic u la r ; th e c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f i d e n t i t i e s , a n a lo g ie s, c o n t r a s t s and d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een and among t h e v a r i o u s g e n r e , an d b etw e en and among th e v a r i o u s s u b - k in d s ; a n d a c o n s t r u c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f th e r e l a t i v e c l a r i t y and sc o p e o f w hich th e y a r e c a p a b le . th in g s ,

For exam ple, A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s , among many o t h e r t r a c e s th e h i s t o r y o f t h e l y r i c , th e e p i c , an d th e drama;

c r i t i c a l l y d e f i n e s , com pares an d c o n t r a s t s t h e i r d i f f e r i n g n a t u r e , f u n c t i o n , a n d s t a t u s r e l a t i v e t o one a n o t h e r , and to h i s t o r y , s c i e n c e and p h ilo s o p h y ; and n o r m a ti v e ly d e c i d e s t h a t t h e d r a m a tic t r a g e d y i s t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g and p r o fo u n d o f a l l l i t e r a r y g e n r e . The o n ly g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s an d r e a s o n i n g s I have t o make i n t h i s c o n n e c ti o n a r e t h a t t h e s e g e n re a r e n o t a s p u r e , f i x e d , and c l e a r - c u t a s once was t h o u g h t, f o r exam ple, by A r i s t o t l e . sh a d e o f f i n t o one a n o t h e r .

They

And many g r e a t g e n re and many g r e a t

i n d i v i d u a l works o f l i t e r a t u r e a r e mixed an d i n t e r m e d i a t e . a s k e d f o r a m in g lin g o f comedy an d t r a g e d y i n p r i n c i p l e , and

P la to

126 S h a k e s p e a re a t t a i n e d t h a t m in g lin g i n f a c t .

The P l a t o n i c D ia lo g u e s

th e m s e lv e s a r e a t once h i s t o r y , p h ilo s o p h y , th e o lo g y , an d l i t e r a ­ tu re .

And works l i k e C a r r o l l ' s A l i c e i n W onderland a r e t h e ban e

o f p u r i s t g e n re t h e o r y .

M oreover, works l i k e K a f k a 's C a s t l e .

and J o y c e 's U ly sse s an d F i n n e g a n 's Wake a r e a t once d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s , n o v e ls an d e p i c s .

U ly s s e s c o n t a i n s ev e ry c o n c e iv a b le

l i t e r a r y g e n r e , p a r t l y f o r s e r i o u s and p a r t l y f o r p l a y f u l p u r p o s e s . L i t e r a r y g en re a l s o form a k in d o f continuum , s h a d in g o f f i n t o p h ilo s o p h y and s c i e n c e a t t h e one end, and i n t o m u sic, p a i n t i n g , s c u l p t u r e , an d a r c h i t e c t u r e on t h e o t h e r .

H i s t o r y i s on t h e

b o r d e r l i n e , a t once b o th a n a r t and a s c i e n c e .

M oreover, l i t e r a ­

t u r e s h a r e s deep a n a l o g i e s w i t h r i t u a l , myth, p l a y , and dream s. Some g e n r e t h e o r i s t s , and some men o f l e t t e r s , th e g e n r e .

se e k to m ing le

O th e r s s e e k to keep them c l e a r and d i s t i n c t .

Some

s t r e s s t h e i d e n t i t i e s an d a n a l o g i e s b etw een an d among them. O th e r s s t r e s s th e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t s and d i f f e r e n c e s .

The hope

o f modern l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , th e o r y and c r i t i c i s m i s to a v o i d b o th a n o m i n a l l s t i c and a r e a l i s t i c t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e i n th e re a lm o f genre.

Nominalism h o p e l e s s l y c o n fu s e s g e n r e .

l e s s l y h y p o s t a t i s e s them.

R e a lism hope­

T h is would a l s o be my hope— to s t e e r

a m id d le c o u r s e b etw een a d e n i a l o r c o n f u s io n o f g e n re on th e one h and, an d a f a l s e a b s o l u t i s a t i o n o f them on th e o t h e r . a p l a y , n o t a l y r i c o r a n o v e l o r an e p i c .

A p la y i s

L ite ra tu re is l i t e r a ­

t u r e , n o t p h ilo s o p h y , h i s t o r y , s c i e n c e , th e o lo g y , myth, r i t u a l , or a r t.

And y e t no s p e c i f i c work o f l i t e r a t u r e i s a p u r e example

o f any g e n r e .

And an y work in v o lv e s a c o m p lic a te d i n t e r w e a v i n g

o f s e v e r a l g e n r e , sh a d e s o f f i n t o many o t h e r s , and e n jo y s i n t i m a t e

127 I d e n t i t i e s and a n a l o g i e s w ith o t h e r k in d s and s u b - k in d s o f th e same k i n d . The most c o m p lic a te d and d i f f i c u l t k in d o f ty p o lo g y i s b a s e d upon d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c th e o r y and p r a c ­ tic e .

By t h i s I mean to r e f e r to h ig h ly g e n e r a l c o n c e p ts c o n c ern ­

i n g w hat im a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e may b e s t b e and do.

A e sth e tic

t h e o r i e s ra n g e from th e c l a s s i c a l th e o ry w h e re in l i t e r a t u r e i s a m im e sisf a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , o r a n i m i t a t i o n o f l i f e , n a t u r e , and h i s t o r y ; to th e modern th e o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e a s e x p r e s s i o n . A cc o rd in g to t h e c l a s s i c a l th e o r y o f l i t e r a t u r e a s r e p r e ­ s e n t a t i o n , i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e e n jo y s a c o g n i t i v e n a t u r e , f u n c t i o n , and s t a t u s .

L i t e r a t u r e can a n d sh o u ld c o n s i s t o f s i n g u l a r

an d g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t th e c h a r a c t e r o f God, man, good and e v i l , a n d n a t u r e i n th e same s e n s e , i f n o t to t h e same d e g r e e , a s do p h ilo s o p h y and s c i e n c e .

L ite r a tu r e i s a fu n c tio n of reason,

b o t h on th e p a r t o f th e w r i t e r ,

th e c h a r a c t e r s , and th e a u d ie n c e .

L i t e r a t u r e i s t h e r e b y m e a n in g fu l and t r u e , a s w e ll a s b e a u t i f u l . The aim i s to i n s t r u c t a s w e l l a s to p l e a s e ; th e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s o f a body o f e t e r n a l t r u t h s embedded i n th e d r a m a tic i n t e r p l a y o f c h a r a c t e r an d s i t u a t i o n ; and th e e f f e c t I s I n th e b e s t s e n s e d i d a c t i c .

The t e s t s a r e c o h e re n c e and c o r r e ­

spondence. A c c o rd in g to th e modern t h e o r y , l i t e r a t u r e e x p r e s s e s m an's s e n s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s to p e r c e p t s and c o n c e p ts , b u t e s s e n t i a l l y s e n s o r y an d e m o tio n a l f e e l i n g s a r e e x p r e s s e d a p a r t from any l o g i c a l o r e m p i r i c a l a t t i t u d e s , c o n t e n t s , o r g ro u n d s.

P h ilo s o p h y and

s c i e n c e a r e i n th e mood o f a s s e r t i o n and i n d i c a t i o n . p r o p o s i t i o n s and d e s c r i b e f a c t s .

They a f f i r m

I m a g in a tiv e l i t e r a t u r e ev o k e s,

128 s u g g e s t s , q u e s t i o n s , o r w onders.

I t I s i n th e o p t a t i v e , Im pera­

t i v e , i n t e r j e c t o r y , o r i n t e r r o g a t i v e moods.

In th e a c t o f l i t e r ­

a r y c r e a t i o n , th e p o e t s e e k s to e x t e r n a l i z e an d o b j e c t i f y an i n ­ te rn a l fa c t.

I n th e a c t o f l i t e r a r y enjoy m en t, th e a u d ie n c e se e k s

to i n t e r n a l i z e an e x t e r n a l a n d o b j e c t i v e f a c t . v i v i d n e s s , s c o p e , an d d e p th o f f e e l i n g .

The t e s t s a r e

R e a c tio n s o f a u d i e n c e s

and i n t e n t i o n s o f p o e t s can be a p p r o p r i a t e o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e and g en uine o r f e ig n e d .

But th e y c a n n o t be m e a n in g fu l o r m e a n in g le s s ,

tru e o r f a ls e . There a r e v a r io u s i n t e r m e d i a t e t h e o r i e s : a r t a s c r a f t , i n ­ v o lv in g t h e t e c h n i c a l and fo rm a l r e l a t i o n s o f means to end and o f d e v ic e to e f f e c t ; a r t a s p ro p h e c y and a s dream; a r t a s p la y and e n t e r t a i n m e n t , r a n g i n g from g e n t l e d e l i g h t to th e i d e a l o f a n e scap e o r h eav y e n c h an tm en t; a r t a s r i t u a l , a s myth, o r a s th e t h e r a p e u t i c h e a l i n g o f a s p i r i t u a l wound; a r t a s a weapon i n th e s o c ia l s tru g g le ; l i t e r a t u r e a s a se d a tiv e o r a stim u la n t; l i t e r a ­ t u r e a s an a r t , d e p e n d in g upon a u d i t o r y , v i s u a l , t a c t i l e , m u sc u la r, and g l a n d u l a r r e a c t i o n s and im a g e s. T h is k in d o f a e s t h e t i c ty p o lo g y i s a l s o n o t im m e d ia te ly r e l e v a n t to my theme an d t h e o r y .

I t i s to o a b s t r a c t and g e n e r a l .

A co m p lete a e s t h e t i c ty p o lo g y i s more p r o p e r l y th e domain o f p h i­ losophy o r some s p e c i a l s c i e n c e .

I t sh o u ld i n c lu d e c a r e f u l r e f e r ­

ence to t h e o t h e r g r e a t a e s t h e t i c dom ains— th e a r t s , myth, and ritu a l.

I t sh o u ld r e l a t e a e s t h e t i c s to o t h e r s u b j e c t m a t t e r s and

d i s c i p l i n e s —p h ilo s o p h y , h i s t o r y , s c i e n c e , and th e o lo g y .

I do n o t

t h i n k t h a t l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , t h e o r y o r c r i t i c i s m i s co m p lete a p a r t from su ch a g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c , j u s t a s i t c a n n o t shake i t s e l f

129 lo o s e from many t e c h n i c a l and d e t a i l e d i s s u e s . sup p o se, i l l u s t r a t e , and im ply one.

I t s h o u ld p r e ­

At some c r u c i a l p o i n t and

moment a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c d o e s, ca n , and s h o u ld , make h i s g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s e x p l i c i t and c r i t i c i s e d .

W hether he goes

beyond h i s c a p a c i t i e s a s a c r i t i c and becomes a p h i l o s o p h e r o r a s c i e n t i s t i f and when he does so i s , I r e p e a t , a nom inal p ro b lem . The p o i n t i s t h a t a c r i t i c i n th e end can be no more i n t e r e s t i n g and p ro fo u n d th a n t h e g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c he p e r f o r c e em ploys. The t h r e e k in d s o f ty p o lo g y I s h a l l employ d i f f e r from t h e s e two i n th e s e n s e t h a t th e y a r e i n t e r m e d i a t e betw een th e d e t a i l s o f genre t h e o r y and t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f a e s t h e t i c t h e o r y . The f i r s t o f th e t h r e e p e r t a i n s to any k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c ­ tio n .

The o t h e r two a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r r e le v a n c e to th e a n a l y s i s

o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y , a lth o u g h th e y can be r e n d e r e d a p p l i c a b l e to th e l y r i c , th e e p i c , th e s h o r t s t o r y , th e n o v e l, and th e movie, I s h a l l p r e s e n t th e f i r s t ty p o lo g y a p a r t from an y s p e c i f i c r e f e r ­ en ces t o d ra m a tic tr a g e d y ; t h e o t h e r two by means o f c o n c r e te r e f e r e n c e to i t . Kinds o f L i t e r a r y S t r u c t u r e The f i r s t ty p o lo g y i s b a s e d upon d i f f e r i n g m ethods o f l i t e r a r y p re se n ta tio n :

a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m , symbolism an d f a n t a s y .

A l t e r n a t i v e term s f o r " p r e s e n t a t i o n " a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n , c o m p o s itio n , and o r g a n i s a t i o n .

I t a l l depends upon what

r o o t a e s t h e t i c m etaphor you p r e f e r . The second k in d o f ty p o lo g y i s b ased upon d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f l i t e r a r y to n e and atm o sp h ere o r a t t i t u d e and sc o p e: d r a m a tic , and e p i c .

ly ric a l,

I employ t h e s e te rm s i n t h i s c o n n e c tio n a s

130 r e f e r e n t to th e p ro b lem s o f " p o i n t o f view" an d " f o c u s o f n a r r a t i o n " r a t h e r th a n a s g en re. The t h i r d k in d i s b a s e d upon d i f f e r i n g f o rm a l e le m e n ts common to a l l l i t e r a t u r e , b u t o f o u t s t a n d i n g i n t e r e s t an d im por­ ta n c e i n a d r a m a tic t r a g e d y : la n g u a g e , s e t t i n g ,

s t o r y , c h a r a c t e r , p l o t , them e,

to n e , a tm o s p h e r e , s c a l e , and p a c e .

Each o f t h e s e t y p o l o g i e s i s i d e a l . c o n c e iv e d a s l i m i t i n g c a s e s ,

The ty p e s a r e t o be

Many w orks— i n f a c t a l l ,

e v e r y , an d

any work o f l i t e r a t u r e — combine them i n a l l manner and d e g r e e o f in te rm in g lin g .

M oreover th e y sh a d e o f f i n t o one a n o t h e r , and t h e r e

i s a lw a y s t h e m a t t e r o f l e v e l , s t a g e , a n d d e g r e e o f em p h a sis. The h i s t o r y o f i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e e x h i b i t s f o u r gen­ e r a l k in d s o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n : an d f a n t a s y .

a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m , sym bolism ,

They d i f f e r i n s u b j e c t m a t t e r , m o tiv e o r a im , method

o r s t r u c t u r e , and in e f f e c t . A lle g o r y By a l l e g o r y I mean t h a t k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e re in m eanings a r e p r e s e n t e d a p a r t from e v e n t s .

The s u b j e c t

m a tte r o f a lle g o r y i s a s e t o f e t e r n a l tr u t h s o r a sy ste m a tic scheme o f i d e a s .

The t r u t h s may be t h e o l o g i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,

a e s t h e t i c , m o ra l, s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l .

But i n

a n y c a s e th e aim i s to p r e s e n t a m u tu a lly I m p l i c a t i v e scheme o f c o n c e p ts i n s k e l e t a l f a s h i o n a p a r t from , o r a s s e p a r a b l e from th e f l e s h and b lo o d o f e v e n t s .

W ith in t h e i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c ­

t u r e o f th e work composed, t h e em ph asis i s upon a b s t r a c t , g e n e r a l , u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s — upon m eanings t h a t r e c u r r a t h e r th a n upon e v e n ts t h a t o c c u r o r I n d i v i d u a l i t i e s t h a t e n d u r e .

The e v e n ts and

131 t h e p e r s i s t e n t I n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro u p s a r e i n c i d e n t a l , n e g l i g i b l e , an d f o r t h e most p a r t i n d i f f e r e n t .

Any o t h e r e v e n ts and an y

o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro u p s would have s e r v e d J u s t a s w e l l .

The

s t r e s s i s upon t h e u n i v e r s a l q u a l i t i e s an d r e l a t i o n s o f w hich p a s s i n g e v e n ts an d e n d u r in g i n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro u p s c o n s i s t .

The

g e n e r a l s e n s o r y , e m o tio n a l, a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t o f a l l e g o r y i s th e s e n s e o f e n c o u n t e r i n g a s e t o f e t e r n a l t r u t h s , u s u a l l y sim p le i n c h a r a c t e r and l i m i t e d i n number, w hich a r e a p p l i c a b l e no m a t t e r where o r when o r w hat o r w hich o r who.

The c h a r a c t e r s ,

th e s e t t i n g s , t h e th em es, and t h e la n g u a g e i l l u s t r a t e a h i g h l y g e n e r a l imposed scheme.

T h is i n v a r i a n t s e t o f q u a l i t i e s and

m eanings may be d i s c l o s e d i n th e c o n t e x t o f what h ap p en s an d what e n d u r e s , b u t t h e fo c u s o f i n t e r e s t an d a t t e n t i o n i s upon th e m e a n in g s, th e fo rm s , th e s t r u c t u r e s I n h e r e n t w i t h i n o r im p o sin g th e m s e lv e s upon w hat happens a n d what e n d u r e s . A lle g o r y I s th e a n a lo g u e o f th e d e d u c t i v e method o f a n a l y s i s and p r o o f i n p h ilo s o p h y .

A lle g o r y a s a l i t e r a r y method

i n f a c t sh a d e s o f f i n t o p h ilo s o p h y and cosm ology—a s i n D a n t e 's D iv in e Comedy.

And r a t i o n a l i s t i c k in d s o f p h ilo s o p h y an d cosmology

sh ad e o f f I n t o a l l e g o r y a s a l i t e r a r y method—a s i n P l a t o ' s T im aeu s. The c r i t i q u e o f a l l e g o r y from a r e a l i s t i c p o i n t o f view i s t h a t th e e v e n ts o f l i f e a r e r e s t r i c t e d w i t h i n a b a r e , a b s t r a c t , an d f o r m a l scheme o r sy stem , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t o m is s io n s and d i s t o r ­ tio n s .

The c h a r a c t e r s an d s i t u a t i o n s a r e t y p e s o r p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s

r a t h e r t h a n f u l l - b l o w n an d rou n d ed i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s . little

sto ry , n a rra tio n , or a c tio n .

T h ere i s

The te c h n i q u e s a r e th o s e o f

132 summary, e x p o s i t i o n , and d i s c u r s i v e a r g u m e n ta tiv e d ia lo g u e * c h a r a c t e r s a r e a lm o s t i d e a s a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s and moments.

The At

th e most c o n c r e te th e y a r e s t a t e s o f mind. The v i r t u e o f a l l e g o r y i s t h a t i t s t r e s s e s th e r e c u r r e n t , i n v a r i a n t , and c o n s t a n t f e a t u r e s o f e x p e r ie n c e . th e e le m e n ts r e q u i r e d to c o n s t r u c t a w o rld . p l i c i t not t a c i t , d ire c t not In d ire c t.

I t p r o v id e s a l l

The meanings a r e ex­

Even i f th e y be d e t a c h a b le

from e v e n t s , t h e i r c o n t e n t i s c l e a r , d i s c i p l i n e d and g e n e r a l . There i s a trem endous e p ic g e n e r a l i t y , r a t h e r th a n a l y r i c a l immediacy o r a d ra m a tic i n t e r p l a y . For th e most p a r t , th e modern w o rld c o n s id e r s a l l e g o r y to be a b le m is h , an im p e r f e c t method o f l i t e r a r y p r e s e n t a t i o n . For th e dom inant modern I d e a l , u n t i l v e ry r e c e n t l y , h as been r e a l ­ i s t i c — th e extrem e and i d e a l o p p o s i t e o f a l l e g o r y .

We have l i t t l e

t a s t e f o r th e a l l e g o r i c a l o r d i s c u s s i o n p la y , j u s t a s we have little

t a s t e f o r a wholly r a t i o n a l o r d e d u c tiv e k in d o f p h ilo s o p h y .

We do no t l i k e d i d a c t i c l i t e r a t u r e where th e t h e o l o g i c a l , moral an d p o l i t i c a l d e m o n s tr a tio n s a r e e x p l i c i t — w hether th e y be C h r i s t i a n , F re u d ia n o r M a r x is t.

We have a l i k i n g f o r e v e n ts , c h a r a c t e r s , and

s i t u a t i o n s a lm o st a p a r t from th e p r i n c i p l e s , m eanings, id e a s o r d o c t r i n e s th e y i l l u s t r a t e . tu re .

We do not ad m ire a t h e s i s i n l i t e r a ­

We ad m ire a theme. R e alism By r e a l i s m , I mean t h a t k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n

w h e re in e v e n ts a r e p r e s e n t e d a p a r t t h e i r m eanings. m a t t e r o f r e a l i s m i s common, o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e . a r e th e themes o f lo v e and war.

The s u b j e c t The themes

The fo c u s o f i n t e r e s t and a t t e n -

133 t l o n i s upon s im p le , s o l i d , s tu b b o r n , and p l a i n f a c t s .

The i d e a l

i s to h o ld a m i r r o r up to l i f e an d n a t u r e , to r e c o r d w hat men i n f a c t f e e l , p e r c e i v e , t h i n k , im a g in e , remember, dream , s u f f e r and do, r a t h e r th a n upon what men m ig h t, c o u ld , s h o u ld , w ould, o r must d o .

R e alism i s th e p i c t u r e - t h e o r y i d e a l o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y .

The s t r e s s i s upon d e t a i l s r a t h e r t h a n g e n e r a l i t i e s — upon d e t a i l s a lm o s t a p a r t from an d a s d e t a c h a b l e from g e n e r a l i t i e s . th e re b y th e i d e a l o p p o s ite o f a l le g o r y . pens.

I t is

What h ap p e n s, j u s t hap­

I n s o f a r a s t h e r e a r e m eanings, th e y a r e a s p e c t s o f th e

h a p p e n in g s .

The em phasis i s upon t h i s a c t u a l w o rld , p a s s i n g i n

sp a c e -tim e .

The aim I s a p u r e and co m plete d e s c r i p t i o n , a s h e e r

d i s c l o s u r e o f w hat i n f a c t o c c u r s , a p a r t from q u a l i t i e s and r e l a ­ t i o n s t h a t r e c u r o r t h i n g s , p e r s o n s , s o c i e t i e s and s i t u a t i o n s t h a t e n d u re .

The i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f a s t o r y t o l d from a

r e a l i s t i c p o i n t o f view o r i n a r e a l i s t i c way c o n s i s t s o f a s t r i n g o r s e r i e s o f e v e n t s , d e v o id o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from an y s p e c i f i c p h i l o s o p h i c , t h e o l o g i c a l , m o ra l, p o l i t i c a l o r s o c i a l p o i n t o f v iew . T h ere a r e e v e n t s , a p a r t from m eanings t h a t r e c u r o r s u b s t a n c e s t h a t endure.

We a r e p r e s e n t e d w ith a n im m ediate and c o n c r e t e f l u x

o f u n iq u e a n d d i s c o n n e c t e d e v e n t s , so m e th in g t h a t h a s n e v e r happen­ ed b e f o r e an d w i l l n e v e r happen a g a i n . chance and n e c e s s i t y .

T here i s a s t r o n g s e n s e o f

The do m in an t s e n s o r y , e m o tio n a l, and i n ­

t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t i s p a t h o s — t h i n g s happen an d a r e gone.

The o n ly

t e s t s a r e p r o b a b i l i t y an d v e r i s i m i l i t u d e . The w eakness o f r e a l i s m i s th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a mass o f d e t a i l s u n illu m in e d by any g e n e r a l c o n c e p ti o n . n o t come to a n y t h i n g i n th e end.

The s t o r y does

M oreover, th e c la im o f th e

r e a l i s t to have p r e s e n t e d a p i c t u r e , a l i t e r a l copy, a r e p r o d u c t i o n

134 o f t h e w o rld i s i n p a r t p r e t e n s e r a t h e r th a n r e a l i t y .

R e alism

c a n be an d i s j u s t a s a r t i f i c i a l an d c o n v e n t i o n a l a s a n y o f th e o t h e r ways o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y .

And a p a r t from v ig o r o u s c la im s to

t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e r e a l i s t u s u a l l y has a theme o r a p o i n t to make. The r e a l i s t i c f e a r o f a p r i o r i i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o f im p o s in g s t r u c ­ t u r e s upon th e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s , and o f p r e d e t e r m i n i n g outcom es i s in p a rt u n ju s tifie d .

He i s i n f a c t p r e s e n t i n g a t a c i t l y o r

c o v e r t l y a t o m ic , p l u r a l i s t i c , and d i s c o n t i n u o u s t h e o r y o f t h e world*

M oreover, i t must b e s a i d t h a t th e ex trem e r e a l i s t i c i d e a l

i s in c a p a b le o f r e a l i s a t i o n .

Even r e a l i s m t e l l s th e human s t o r y

from a c e r t a i n p o i n t o f view .

H is s t o r y r e p r e s e n t s "une tr a n c h e

de v i e , " a somewhat a r b i t r a r y s e l e c t i o n from a more c o m p lic a te d c o n g e ry o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

I t i s i n f a c t im p o s s i b l e to r e p r o d u c e

c o n c r e t e n e s s — th e u n iq u e , a p a r t from th e r e c u r r e n t and t h e e n d u r­ in g .

And no man can view l i f e an d h i s t o r y a p a r t from I n t e r e s t ,

a p a r t from s t a n d p o i n t , a p a r t from i n t e r p r e t a t i o n — p h i l o s o p h i c , t h e o l o g i c a l , m o ra l, a n d p o l i t i c a l . The s t r e n g t h o f r e a l i s m a s a method i s i t s i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e man o f l e t t e r ' s f a i t h — t h a t some k in d o f g e n e r a l i t y can be a t t a i n e d by p r o b i n g p a r t i c u l a r i t y , u n iq u e n e s s and c o n c r e t e n e s s t o t h e v e ry end. e n d u r in g .

P h ilo s o p h y and s c i e n c e s t r e s s th e r e c u r r e n t a n d th e

I n s o f a r a s th e y s t r e s s what o c c u r s — th e y s t r e s s th e

s o r t o f th in g s th a t o ccu r.

B ut u n l e s s some m eaning can be d e r i v e d

from a s i n g l e c o n c r e t e e v e n t o r s e r i e s o f e v e n t s — i r r e s p e c t i v e o f k in d , l e v e l , o r s t a g e — no t h e o r y o f any k in d can e v e r be c o n firm e d an d c o n f u t e d .

The l i t e r a l q u a l i t y o f r e a l i s m i s m oreover a s a f e ­

g u a rd a g a i n s t I n f e r e n c e , c o n j e c t u r e , a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n .

P h ilo so p h ic

an d t h e o l o g i c a l m eanings must a r i s e o u t o f , i l l u s t r a t e , and i s s u e

135 In to c o n c re te e v e n ts .

They m ust h o ld f o r a l l e v e n t s — no m a t t e r

where o r when o r what o r who— and t h e r e f o r e h e r e and now.

The

t e s t o f r e a l i s m i s o b s e r v a t i o n , d e v o id o f t h e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f th o u g h t . Symbolism By sym bolism , I mean t h a t k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e re in th e e v e n ts o f l i f e a r e p r e s e n t e d a s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e mean­ i n g o r m eanings o f l i f e , and w h e re in th e m eanings o f l i f e a r e r e p ­ r e s e n t e d a s s u g g e s te d by an d embodied w i t h i n c o n c r e t e e v e n t s . Symbolism i s I n t e r m e d i a t e b e tw e e n th e g e n e r a l i t i e s o f a l l e g o r y and th e d e t a i l s o f r e a l i s m .

I t s i d e a l i s to combine th e v i r t u e s

o f ea c h a p a r t from t h e i r w e a k n e sse s.

The s u b j e c t n a t t e r o f sym­

b o lis m a r e t h o s e p o i n t s an d moments I n l i f e w h e re in e v e n t s and m eanings come t o g e t h e r .

I n s t e a d o f t u r n i n g to e v e n ts a p a r t from

t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n a p a r t from e v e n t s , sym bolism t u r n s t o th o s e complex c o n j u n c t i o n s w h e re in th e t h i n g s t h a t o c c u r , t h e t h i n g s t h a t r e c u r , and t h e t h i n g s t h a t en d u re come t o g e t h e r . Symbolism s e e k s to f u s e what i s a c t u a l and p a s s i n g w ith th e form a­ t i v e e le m e n ts j o i n t l y c o n s t i t u t i n g w hat h as r e c u r r e n t and e n d u r in g c h a ra c te r.

The i n n e r c o n t e n t an d s t r u c t u r e o f a work o f l i t e r a ­

t u r e c o n s t r u c t e d from a sy m b o lic p o i n t o f view c o n s i s t o f a s e r i e s o f e v e n t s and m eanings w hich c a n n o t be t o r n a p a r t b e c a u s e th e y e x is t to g e th e r.

T h ere i s a r e a l i s t i c s e r i e s o f e v e n t s , and t h e r e

i s a n a l l e g o r i c a l s e r i e s o f m e an in g s.

But th e m eanings a r i s e o u t

o f , a r e e x p r e s s e d w i t h i n , an d i s s u e i n t o t h e e v e n t s ; and t h e e v e n ts a r i s e o u t o f , e x p r e s s , an d i s s u e i n t o th e m e an in g s. a r e n o t d e t a c h a b l e from t h e e v e n t s . a b l e from th e m e a n in g s.

The m eanings

And th e e v e n ts a r e n o t d e t a c h ­

The I n t e r p l a y o f c h a r a c t e r an d s i t u a t i o n

136 h a s a f u l l - b l o w n t h e o l o g i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c , m o ra l and p o l i t i c a l s tr u c t u r e in th e a l l e g o r i c a l se n se.

D i s t i n c t i o n s b etw e en good

and e v i l , t r u e a n d f a l s e ,

J u s t and u n j u s t an d betw een God, man

and n a t u r e a r e d e e p en e d .

But we a r e n o t c o n s c io u s o f them a p a r t

from t h e i r immanence i n e v e n t s .

The c h a r a c t e r s a r e ro u n d r a t h e r

th a n ty p e d , an d y e t th e y have s p e c i f i c t h e o l o g i c a l an d m oral im­ p lic a tio n s .

The d i a l o g u e i s so c o n c r e t e t h a t

i t c o u ld n o t be

s a i d by anyone e l s e i n a n y o t h e r s i t u a t i o n o r

i n any o t h e r way,

and y e t we have a f e e l i n g t h a t i t i s t h e s o r t

o f t h i n g anyone

would s a y i n t h a t k in d o f s i t u a t i o n no m a t t e r where o r when.

The

g e n iu s o f sym bolism i s t h e f u s i o n o f a n i n s i s t e n t p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f d e t a i l w ith a h a u n t i n g s e n s e o f g e n e r a l i t y .

M oreover, t h i s

f u s i o n o f th e p a r t i c u l a r and th e g e n e r a l h o ld s f o r a l l th e p o l a r i ­ t i e s and t e n s i o n s o f w hich l i f e an d l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t :

th e id e a l

an d th e a c t u a l , th e s u b j e c t i v e an d th e o b j e c t i v e , th e b o d i l y and th e m e n ta l, th e a p p a r e n t and t h e r e a l , th e m o r ta l and th e im m o rta l, t h e g r e a t an d t h e t r i v i a l , th e n e c e s s a r y and th e f r e e .

The t e s t s

a r e c o h e re n c e a n d a d e q u a c y . F a n ta s y The f o u r t h and f i n a l way o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y i s f a n t a s y . I do n o t t h i n k t h a t f a n t a s y i s r e a l l y a n in d e p e n d e n t mode.

I

t h i n k i t i s a c o n c e a le d r e f in e m e n t o f one o r more o f t h e o t h e r s . F a n ta s y d e a l s w i t h a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o rld , f o r i t s own s a k e , o r f o r th e sak e o f c r i t i c i s m i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h i s o n e. may be s a t i r i c a l ,

e s c a p ist, o r p la y fu l.

The aim

At i t s w o rst, f a n ta s y

p resum es some s o r t o f s p e c i a l c l a i r v o y a n o e on th e p a r t o f p o e t , t r a g i c h e r o , an d a u d i e n e e .

The aim i s to p i e r c e beyond t h e v e i l ,

137 i n a m y s t i c a l o r a n i m i s t i c way.

I n t h i s s e n s e , f a n t a s y c la im s

t o have a s p e c i a l a c c e s s to a s p e c i a l k in d o f t r u t h o r r e a l i t y , t o have a h i g h e r m ethod, and to a t t a i n h i g h e r r e s u l t s — th e se n se o f th e i n e f f a b l e , t h e b e a t i f i c v i s i o n , o r some g lo r y n o t o f t h i s w o rld .

A t i t s b e s t f a n t a s y i s no t m a g ic a l, r i t u a l i s t i c , r o m a n tic ,

o r m y th o l o g ic a l. sh o ck .

I t goes beyond l o g i c and f a c t f o r th e sake o f

I t se e k s t o p r e s e n t t h e f a m i l i a r i n an u n f a m i l i a r a s p e c t ,

o r th e u n f a m i l i a r i n a f a m i l i a r a s p e c t .

I n t h i s se n se f a n t a s y i s

s e r i o u s r a t h e r th a n p l a y f u l , and i s a r e f in e m e n t o f one o r more o f th e c o n v e n tio n a l modes. Modes o f N a r r a t i o n and D e s c r i p t i o n The second k in d o f ty p o lo g y i s b ased upon d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f a t t i t u d e o r to n e and atm o sp h ere o r sc o p e . l y r i c a l , d ra m a tic a n d e p i c .

The t h r e e k in d s a r e

I am em ploying t h e s e te rm s i n connec­

t i o n w ith t h e problem s o f " p o i n t o f view" a n d " fo c u s o f n a r r a t i o n * r a t h e r th a n i n th e s e n s e t h a t th e y a r e employed i n g e n re th e o r y . I n t h i s s e n s e th e y a r e a p p l i c a b l e to th e p o e t , to th e c h a r a c t e r s , o r to t h e a u d ie n c e . L y rical A man o f l e t t e r s w r i t e s l y r i c a l l y when he t e l l s th e s t o r y — t a c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y — from th e p o i n t o f view o f h i s own l i f e o r h i 8 own f e e l i n g s and c o n v i c t i o n s .

S im ila rly a c h a ra c te r in a

n o v e l o r p la y sp e a k s l y r i c a l l y when he e x p r e s s e s h i s p e r s o n a l r e ­ a c t i o n s to an e v e n t o r a meaning.

And a n a u d ie n c e r e a c t s l y r i c a l l y

when i t i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f v e ry im m e d ia te ly w ith what happens on th e s t a g e o r i s s a i d .

F or exam ple, Hamlet a p p e a r s to be th e most

l y r i c a l o f a l l S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s :

t h e r e seem to be good r e a s o n s

138 f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t Hamlet I s I n some s e n s e S h a k e s p e a r e , a n a s p e c t o f S h a k e s p e a re , o r an i n t i m a t e f r i e n d — he comes more im m e d ia te ly o u t o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's l i f e ; Hamlet r e a c t s l y r i c a l l y to h i s s i t u a t i o n a g a i n and a g a i n a s i n th e s o l i l o q u i e s and i n t h e a s i d e s t o H o r a t i o ; an d we i d e n t i f y o u r s e l v e s l y r i c a l l y w ith H am let, e s p e c i a l l y i f we a r e young. D ra m atic The man o f l e t t e r s w r i t e s d r a m a t i c a l l y when th e f o c u s o f i n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n i s upon th e i n t e r p l a y o f c h a r a c t e r an d s i t u a t i o n o r c h a r a c t e r an d c h a r a c t e r , a p a r t from h i s own p o i n t o f view and a p a r t from any a t t e m p t to p o i n t up a meaning a p a r t from t h a t I n t e r p l a y .

S i m i l a r l y , when th e c o m p o s itio n o f a p l a y

o r n o v e l i s d r a m a tic i n p o i n t o f view an d fo c u s th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts an d m eanings a p a r t from any s p e c i a l l y l y r i c a l r e s p o n s e an d a p a r t from a n y a t t e m p t to d i s ­ c e r n o r to s t a t e m e a n in g s.

J u s t s o , we i n th e a u d ie n c e r e a c t to

a p l a y o r n o v e l d r a m a t i c a l l y when o u r a t t e n t i o n an d i n t e r e s t a r e c a p t u r e d by so m e th in g o u t s i d e o u r l y r i c a l r e a c t i o n s on t h e one hand o r o u r a t t e m p t to p l a c e th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eanings i n some l a r g e r fram e o f r e f e r e n c e o r s e t t i n g . E p ic A man o f l e t t e r s w r i t e s e p i c a l l y when t h e f o c u s o f i n t e r ­ e s t an d a t t e n t i o n i s upon g e n e r a l i t y , a p a r t from h i s l y r i c a l f e e l ­ i n g s o r h i s c o n c ern f o r dram a.

S i m i l a r l y , c h a r a c t e r s t a k e on an

e p i c q u a l i t y when th e y d e t a c h th e m s e lv e s from t h e i r l y r i c a l i n t e n ­

s i t y o r from t h e i r d r a m a tic in v o lv e m e n ts an d make s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f man, God o r t h i n g s .

And we r e a c t e p i c a l l y when we

139 p e r c e i v e some trem en do u s g e n e r a l i t y b e in g r e e n a c t e d b e f o r e o u r eyes.

F or exam ple, S h a k e s p e a r e 's King L e a r i s h i g h l y d r a m a tic

i n c o m p o s itio n f o r t h e most o f t h e p l a y , b u t when L e a r i s o u t on t h e h e a t h we b e g i n to f e e l a s o r t o f e p i c g e n e r a l i t y — L e a r I s r e e n a c t i n g th e p a s s i o n s o f O e d ip u s , o f Jo b an d o f C h r i s t .

I n th e

mad sc e n e an d t h e mock t r i a l we f e e l t h a t u n io n o f s u f f e r i n g and m a je s ty w hich makes men g r e a t . E le m e n ts f o r L i t e r a r y A n a ly s is The t h i r d k in d o f ty p o lo g y i s b a s e d upon g e n e r i c fo rm a l e le m e n ts a p a r t from w hich im a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e c a n n o t e x i s t , an d s p e c i f i c f o r m a l e le m e n ts o f w hich d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i n p a r t i c u ­ l a r c o n s ists. d iv id e d .

Each elem e n t I s h a l l s p e c i f y can be d i v i d e d an d sub ­

M oreover, I do n o t t h i n k t h e r e i s any good r e a s o n to

c o n s i d e r my l i s t o f ite m s e x h a u s t i v e .

M oreover, t h e r e a r e many

p o s s i b l e c o n c r e t e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f ea ch e le m e n t.

I sh a ll stre ss

t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t i s m ost i n t e r e s t i n g and I m p o r t a n t f o r my p u r p o s e and from my p o i n t o f view . S to ry S t o r y i s t h e moat e le m e n ta r y a s p e c t o f a d r a m a tic t r a g e d y . I t i s t h e n a r r a t i v e seq u en ce o f e v e n ts sim p ly a r r a n g e d c h r o n o l o g i ­ c a l l y I n p h y s ic a l sp a ce -tim e .

The s t o r y e le m e n t a p p e a l s to o u r

s e n s e o f c u r i o s i t y to know w hat happened.

S to rie s c o n s ist o f a

s t r i n g o f e v e n t s — t h i s happened o r was d o n e, and th e n t h i s and t h i s an d t h a t .

S t o r i e s a r e s e t i n m otion an d s u s t a i n e d by th e

f a c t o r s o f suspense and s u r p r is e . fo r l i t e r a r y a n a ly s is .

S to r y i s th e s i m p l e s t elem ent

I t i s t h e elem e n t o f w hich m y ste ry s t o r i e s

and a d v e n t u r e s t o r i e s l a r g e l y , i f n o t e x c l u s i v e l y , c o n s i s t .

140 C h a r a c te r The c h a r a c t e r s a r e th e p e r s o n s o r p e o p le to whom th e e v e n ts o f th e s t o r y happen o r by whom th e y a r e d o n e.

The s t o r y

I s b u i l t up a ro u n d them, and i s i n p a r t a f u n c t i o n o f them. a c t e r i s a more com plex t o p i c t h a n s t o r y .

A p a r t from p l o t , c h a r ­

a c t e r i s th e m ost im p o r ta n t e le m e n t f o r l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s . d r a m a tic t r a g e d y , t h e r e a r e m a jo r an d m inor c h a r a c t e r s . c h a r a c t e r i s th e t r a g i c h ero o r p r o t a g o n i s t . th a n o n e .

Char­

The m inor c h a r a c t e r s a r e th e f o i l s .

In a

The m ajo r

T h ere may be more T here a r e a l s o

G ho ral and d r a m a tic p a r t s , and i n a s e n s e God and f a t e ca n b e a g e n t s i n th e drama. in d iv id u a ls. on e.

C h a r a c te r s can be f l a t o r ro u n d , ty p e s o r

F l a t , o r d i n a r y , a n d t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r s c o u ld be an y­

Not v e ry much c a n be s a i d a b o u t them t h a t c o u ld n o t a l s o be

s a i d a b o u t anyone o r any o t h e r c h a r a c t e r . more f u l l - b l o w n .

Very much can b e s a i d abo ut them, t h i n g s t h a t

cannot be s a id ab o u t o th e r c h a r a c te r s . a e sth e tic ,

Round c h a r a c t e r s a r e

M oreover, i n te rm s o f

i n t e l l e c t u a l , m oral a n d r e l i g i o u s v i r t u e s , c h a r a c t e r s

can be good o r b a d .

They can be a l l good o r a l l b a d , o r th e y can

in v o lv e a m ix tu re o f good an d bad q u a l i t i e s .

T here i s m oreover

a m a t t e r o f s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y o r l e v e l — from King to Commons. C h a r a c te r s can be c o n s i s t e n t o r i n c o n s i s t e n t ; more o r l e s s i n t e r ­ n a l l y com plex; an d more o r l e s s s t a t i c o r c h a n g in g an d e v o l v in g . We s h a l l s e e t h a t Greek t r a g i c h e r o e s te n d to be t y p e s r a t h e r th a n In d iv id u a ls.

They a r e b e t t e r th a n th e a v e r a g e man.

They a r e

e s s e n t i a l l y u n q u a l i f i e d by and u n r e l a t e d to m inor c h a r a c t e r s . And t h e y a r e s t a t i c r a t h e r th a n c h a n g in g o r d e v e lo p in g .

In th e se

r e s p e c t s , Greek t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e a r i s t o c r a t i c , w h erea s S hakes­ p e a r e ’ s t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e d e m o c r a tic :

th e re i s th e r e l a t i o n o f

142 A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c e p ts o f h a m a r tla o r t r a g i c f la w ; a n a g n o r i s i s o r t h e r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e ; p e r i p e t y o r th e r e v e r s a l o f f o r t u n e .

T h ere

a r e many k in d s o f f la w , many k in d s o f r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e , and many k in d s o f r e v e r s a l .

I n s h o r t , t h e r e a r e many k in d s o f p l o t . Theme

The theme o f a d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s th e dom inant m o t i f . p o i n t o r i d e a a r o u n d w hich a l l t h e o t h e r e le m e n ts i n one way o r a n o t h e r may be s a i d to r e v o l v e .

I t i s p r i m a r i l y by means o f th e

theme a n d i t s v a r i a t i o n s t h a t we can i n f e r th e m o tive o r i n t e n t o f th e d r a m a t i s t .

And i t i s p r i m a r i l y th e theme t h a t c r e a t e s

th e dom in ant e m o tio n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t upon th e a u d i e n c e . Theme i s i n t e r m e d i a t e betw een w hat A r i s t o t l e r e f e r r e d to a s " t h o u g h t 1* and " d i c t i o n . "

Thought i s to o c o g n i t i v e and p o e t i c

la n g u a g e — im a g ery , m e tap h o r, symbol and myth— i s to o n o n - c o g n i t i v e . The them es o f l i t e r a t u r e a r e i n t e r m e d i a t e betw een t h e schemes o f c o n c e p ts c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f s c i e n c e o r p h ilo s o p h y and th e schemes o f p e r c e p t s w ith t h e i r q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e a r t s .

F a m i l i a r themes o f l i t e r a t u r e a r e :

su b je c t-o b je c t,

body-m ind, a p p e a r a n c e - r e a l i t y , m o r t a l ! t y - i m m o r t a l i t y , g r e a t n e s s t r i v i a l i t y , fin ite n e s s -s in -p e rv e rs io n -fix a tio n -in e rtia -w e a rln e s s , and God-man-good and e v i 1 - n a t u r e - d e v i l p ro b le m s .

T hese p ro b lem s

a r e n o t s t a t e d i n a n a b s t r a c t , f o r m a l, o r s y s t e m a t i c way.

They

a r e p o rtra y e d w ith a h au n tin g ly i n s i s t e n t p a r t i c u l a r i t y . S e ttin g S e t t i n g i s th e a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n a lo g y i n l i t e r a t u r e . i s w hat A r i s t o t l e r e f e r r e d to a s " s p e c t a c l e . "

It

T here i s a l s o a

p a i n t i n g a n a lo g y — s e t t i n g i s w hat g iv e s c o m p o s itio n to a s c e n e .

143 T here a r e O edipus a t C o lonus, Hamlet a t E l s i n o r e , and L e a r on th e h e a t h .

I n H ardy s e t t i n g I s a lm o s t a n a g e n t I n th e dram a.

In

H a w th o rn e 's S c a r l e t L e t t e r s e t t i n g g iv e s a k in d o f f r e s c o com posi­ t i o n to th e n o v e l .

The t h r e e m a jo r s c e n e s i n th e n o v e l, a t th e

b e g i n n in g , i n th e m id d le , a n d a t th e end o c c u r a g a i n s t th e b ack ­ ground o f th e v i l l a g e g re e n and i t s p i l l o r y . Language Language i s th e most complex o f t o p i c s .

I n t h e drama

t h e r e i s th e sym bolism o f w ords, o f s i g n s , an d o f b e h a v i o r .

The

use o f words c o n n e c ts l i t e r a t u r e w ith s c i e n c e and p h ilo s o p h y . The use o f s i g n s and b e h a v io r c o n n e c t l i t e r a t u r e w i t h th e a r t s , r i t u a l and myth.

I n s o f a r a s t h e d r a m a t i s t employs words i n o r d e r

to d e s c r i b e , a b s t r a c t and s t a t e he employs words i n a p h i l o s o p h i c an d s c i e n t i f i c way.

I n s o f a r a s he employs words i n o r d e r t o sug­

g e s t a n d embody he employs words i n an a e s t h e t i c way.

The e l e ­

m ents o f euphony, m e tre , a n d rhythm i n h i s la n g u a g e c o n n e c t i t s n a t u r e and f u n c t i o n w ith m u sic .

The e le m e n ts o f im a g ery , m etap h o r,

symbol an d myth c o n n e c t i t s n a t u r e and f u n c t i o n w ith th e v i s u a l a rts.

The sym bolism o f s ig n and b e h a v io r a l s o a p p e a l to t h e eye

and th e e a r — th e s i g n o f g e s t u r e , mime, and d eed . A tm osphere and Tone A tm osphere and to n e a r e vague ways o f r e f e r r i n g to th e I n t e n t o f th e a r t i s t an d t h e e f f e c t on th e a u d i e n c e .

Tone i s th e

e m o tio n a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l p o i n t o f view o r s t a n d p o i n t from w hich th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eanings I s r e g a r d e d .

A tm osphere i s t h e

e m o tio n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and mean­ i n g s e f f e c t s i n th e a u d i e n c e .

P r i n c e H al to h i s s o l d i e r s and to F a l s t a f f ; o f L ear to P o or Tom, th e F o o l, and K ent; o f Macbeth to t h e P o r t e r ; and o f H am let to th e G ra v e d ig g e rs .

S h a k e s p e a r e 's t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e more i n d i v i d ­

u a l i z e d , more e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and r e l a t e d to m in o r c h a r ­ a c t e r s , and c h a n g in g a n d e v o l v in g r a t h e r th a n s t a t i c . P lo t P l o t i s t h e s o u l o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y , A r i s t o t l e s a y s . P l o t i s an e v o l v in g s e t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een c h a r a c t e r and c h a r a c t e r , and c h a r a c t e r and c ir c u m s ta n c e .

P l o t i s s t o r y and

c h a r a c t e r r e l a t e d i n a d e f i n i t e p a t t e m o f d evelo p m en t. what have a b e g in n in g , a m id d le , and a n end.

P lo ts are

In p l o t s , c h a ra c te rs

c r e a t e c irc u m s ta n c e an d c ir c u m s ta n c e c r e a t e s c h a r a c t e r . a p p e a l s to th e f a c u l t i e s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e a n d memory.

P lo t

T here i s a

s t r e s s upon c a u s a l i t y — upon n e c e s s a r y and p r o b a b le c o n n e c tio n s between e v e n t s .

The p a r t s o f a p l o t a r e b ac k g ro u n d , i n i t i a l s i t ­

u a t i o n , e x p o s i t i o n , c o m p lic a tio n s o f th e l i n e o r l i n e s o f a c t i o n , c risis,

c a t a s t r o p h e , an d d eno&ment.

There may o r may n o t be con­

flic t.

I f t h e r e i s c o n f l i c t , t h e c o n f l i c t can o c c u r w i t h i n v a r i ­

o us p a r t s o f a s i n g l e c h a r a c t e r o r betw een an d among v a r i o u s i n ­ d i v i d u a l s an d g r o u p s .

The s p e c i f i c methods o f p r e s e n t i n g a p l o t

a r e summary, n a r r a t i o n , e x p o s i t i o n , d i a l o g u e , a n d s c e n e .

The

more g e n e r a l methods a r e two: s ta te m e n t o f a dom inant them e, and th e n p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e d e t a i l s t h a t d e f i n e and a r e in v o lv e d i n i t ; o r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d e t a i l s , i s s u i n g i n t o a c lim a c tic c r i s i s . I n e i t h e r case t h e r e i s a g r a d u a l summation o f e f f e c t s .

The b a s i c

u n i t s i n a p l o t a r e e v e n ts and d e e d s , o r a c t s an d s i t u a t i o n s . The most p ro fo u n d a s p e c t s o f p l o t were d e f i n e d and d e s c r i b e d i n

144 S c a le and P ace S c a le a n d p ac e a r e among t h e more i m p o r ta n t p h y s i c a l r e ­ la tio n sh ip s in lit e r a tu r e .

They a r e m a t t e r s o f q u a n t i t y , d e g r e e ,

m a g n itu d e , a n d e x t e n s i o n . Works o f l i t e r a t u r e c a n be lo n g o r s h o r t , o f g r e a t e r o r s m a lle r scope.

T h is i s s c a l e .

Works o f l i t e r a t u r e

can move q u i c k l y o r s lo w ly — t h e r e i s t h e m a t t e r o f tem po. h a s more s c a l e th a n a dram a, a drama th a n a l y r i c .

An e p i c

S h a k e s p e a r e 's

M acbeth moves w i t h i n c r e d i b l e sp eed a f t e r t h e t r a g i c d eed i s c o m m itted .

L e a r moves s w i f t l y an d th e n s lo w ly .

I n A ntony and

C l e o p a t r a t h e r e i s a c o n s t a n t ebb and flo w o f b o th sp a c e and tim e . T hese e le m e n ts o f s c a l e and p a c e a r e i n t e g r a l l y c o n n e c te d w ith m eaning.

The sp e e d o f M acbeth f o llo w s from th e c o n c e p t o f e v i l

b e i n g s u g g e s te d an d embodied— th e N e o - P la to n ic c o n c e p t o f e v i l a s s e l f - d e f e a t i n g n o th in g n e ss.

The s w i f t n e s s a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f

L e a r f o llo w s from t h e e s s e n t i a l l y Greek n o t i o n o f h y b r l s b e i n g f o llo w e d by n e m e s is — L e a r ’ s s p i r i t u a l p r i d e i s

rid in g fo r a f a l l .

The slo w n e ss l a t e r i n th e p la y i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e r i s i n g C h r i s t i a n m o t i f —L e a r i s g r a d u a l l y b e in g p u r i f i e d and e x a l t e d even a s he i s b e in g c r u s h e d a n d humbled.

And th e ebb an d flow

i n A ntony an d C l e o p a t r a i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e c o n t r a s t b etw een Egypt a n d Rome, and b etw een t h e i m p e r i a l theme o f power and th e r o m a n tic theme o f l o v e .

PART V:

AFFINITIES AND ANTIPATHIES BETWEEN VARIOUS KINDS OF THEOLOGY AND VARIOUS KINDS OF LITERATURE S ta te m e n t o f t h e P rob lem P r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e S o l u t i o n I d e n t i t i e s an d D i f f e r e n c e s Between a G r e e k - S k e p t i c a l an d a n H e b r a ic C h r i s t i a n Kind o f D ra m atic T ragedy

My g e n e r a l e o n c e rn i n t h i s p a r t i s to p r e s e n t a t h e o r y o f some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t a f f i n i t i e s a n d a n t i p a t h i e s b etw e en t h e v a r i o u s k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and th e v a r i o u s k in d s o f l i t ­ e r a r y s t r u c t u r e d i s c u s s e d i n P a r t s I I I and IV. The k in d s o f th e o lo g y w ere G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , and sk e p tic a l.

The k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e w ere a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m ,

sym bolism , an d f a n t a s y . The g e n e r a l t h e o r y t o b e p r e s e n t e d i s t h a t t h e r e h ave b ee n an d a r e d e f i n i t e a f f i n i t i e s o f some k in d o r o t h e r b e tw e e n Greek th e o lo g y an d a l l e g o r y a s a l i t e r a r y method, b etw een H e b ra ic th e o lo g y an d r e a l i s m , b e tw e e n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y and sym bolism , a n d b etw een s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y a n d f a n t a s y . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , my c o n c e rn i s to compare and c o n t r a s t th e v a r i o u s k in d s o f d r a m a tic t r a g e d y to w hich c o n j u n c t i o n s b etw een t h e s e d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e have c h a r a c t e r ­ i s t i c a l l y g iv e n r i s e . By v i r t u e o f th e f a c t t h a t P a r t s VI a n d VII w i l l s e e k to docum ent t h i s th e o r y a t l e n g t h by r e f e r e n c e to t h e p l a y s o f t h e G reek t r a g e d i a n s an d S h a k e s p e a r e , I s h a l l employ a s i l l u s t r a t i o n i n t h i s p a r t works w hich a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i s e d to be drama­ t i c tra g e d ie s:

nam ely, P l a t o ' s a c c o u n t o f th e d e a th o f S o c r a t e s

i n th e A po lo gy . C r l t o . a n d P h a e d o . and th e G o s p e ls . t h e sa k e o f s c o p e .

I do so f o r

And y e t I am n o t em p lo ying t h e s e docum ents f o r

w ant o f o t h e r e x a m p le s. a s d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s .

I t h i n k t h e s e w orks may b e s t be u n d e r s to o d The p u r e s t o f d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s a r e n o t 146

147 sim p ly t r a g i c ; an d th e p u r e s t o f t h e o l o g i c a l form s a r e n o t s im p ly above and beyond t r a g e d y .

In s h o r t , I c o n s id e r d ra m a tic tra g e d y

to be t h e g e n e r i c t h e o l o g i c a l an d l i t e r a r y form . N o n e th e le s s , th e d i s c u s s i o n o f d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y a s a l i t e r ­ a r y form i n t h i s p a r t i s p r i m a r i l y i n te n d e d to be p r e l i m i n a r y t o t h e f u l l e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f Greek an d S h a k e s p e a re a n d r a m a t i c t r a g ­ edy i n P a r t s VI an d V I I .

Many o f my I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n t h i s p a r t

w i l l n o t become f u l l y i n t e l l i g i b l e u n t i l th e y have r e c e i v e d more c a r e f u l and e x t e n s i v e d o c u m e n ta tio n i n P a r t s VI and V II . I n term s o f th e t o t a l arg u m e n t o f t h i s e s s a y , I s h a l l r e ­ main l o g i c a l l y a t th e c r i t i c a l l e v e l and t e m p o r a l l y a t t h e c r i t i c a l sta g e in t h i s p a r t .

By t h i s I mean t h a t I am n o t s e e k i n g to demon­

s t r a t e th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f any one k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o ti f o r lite r a r y stru c tu re .

I sim p ly i n t e n d to a c c o u n t f o r and to e x p l a i n

th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e h av e been and a r e d e f i n i t e a f f i n i t i e s an d a n t i p a t h i e s o f some k in d o r o t h e r b etw een c e r t a i n f a m i l i a r k in d s o f th e o lo g y and c e r t a i n f a m i l i a r k in d s o f l i t e r a r y m ethod; an d t h a t t h e r e a r e s p e c i f i c i d e n t i t i e s and c o n t r a s t s b e tw e e n t h e v a r i o u s k in d s o f d r a m a tic t r a g e d y to w hich c o n j u n c t i o n s b etw e en t h e s e v a r i o u s k in d s o f th e o lo g y an d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e have i n an e q u a l l y f a m i l i a r way g iv e n r i s e . And y e t I s h a l l have g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y s u p p r e s s i n g my p e r ­ s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a d r a m a tic t r a g e d y w h e re in a C h r i s t i a n k in d o f t h e o l o g y and a sy m b o lic k in d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e come t o g e t h e r i s by f a r th e more i n t e r e s t i n g and p ro fo u n d . a n t e r i o r b i a s c o m p le t e ly to be r e g r e t t e d .

Nor i s t h i s s t r o n g

I t i s j u s t a s im p o s sib le

an d u n n e c e s s a r y to c u l t i v a t e a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m a p a r t from a s e n s e o f e v a l u a t i o n a s i t i s to c u l t i v a t e a s e n s e o f c r i t i c i s m

148 a p a r t fro m a s e n s e o f h i s t o r y .

These t h i n g s , a l t h o u g h i n t e l l e c t u a l ­

l y s e p a r a b l e f o r p u r p o s e s o f a n a l y s i s a n d e m p h a sis, a r e i n f a c t not u n re la te d . p e rv e rt. see.

Norms do n o t o f n e c e s s i t y b l i n d , d i s t o r t o r

Noras c a n i n f a c t g i v e u s t h e e y e s w i t h w hich we can

M oreover, norms can be c u l t i v a t e d — " i n due s e a s o n " — a s

d is p a s s io n a te ly a s a sense o f c r i t i c i s m o r a sense o f h i s t o r y . S ta te m e n t o f th e P roblem The g e n e r a l th e o r y to b e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a r t , an d to b e docum ented i n d e t a i l i n th e two f o l l o w i n g p a r t s , r e p r e s e n t s a n e n d e a v o u r on my p a r t t o an sw e r a s e r i o u s pro blem t h a t p e r e n ­ n i a l l y h a u n t s t h a t domain w h e r e in th e o lo g y an d l i t e r a t u r e c o n v e rg e . I s h a l l b e g i n w ith a n a t t e m p t to s t a t e t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s pro blem from t h r e e p o i n t s o f view :

t h e o l o g y a s su c h , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

a s s u c h , an d t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m . From a p u r e l y t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view th e p ro b lem i s th is :

i f a t h e o l o g i a n h a s a p a s s i o n f o r one o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

k in d s o f th e o lo g y , w hat k in d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e may b e s t e n a b le him t o keep i t s c r u c i a l e v e n ts and m eanings c l e a r an d d i s c i p l i n e d ? The t h e o l o g i c a l p ro b le m i s to s p e c i f y th e k in d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s most c o h e r e n t w i t h an d a d e q u a te t o a g iv e n k i n d o f th e o ­ lo g ic a l m o tif. From a p u r e l y l i t e r a r y p o i n t o f view , t h e p ro b le m i s t h i s : i f a man o f l e t t e r s h a s a p a s s i o n t o employ a c e r t a i n k in d o f l i t e r a r y m ethod, w hat k in d o f th e o lo g y i s he a p t o r bound to ex­ press?

The l i t e r a r y p ro b lem I s t o s p e c i f y t h a t k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l

p o i n t o f view t h a t i s most c o h e r e n t w i t h an d a d e q u a te to a g iv e n k in d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

149 From t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c i s m , t h e p ro b lem i s t h i s :

g iv e n a w ork o f l i t e r a t u r e , f o r exam p le, a

d r a m a tic t r a g e d y , how c a n one o b j e c t i v e l y d e te r m in e t h e r e l a t i o n b etw een i t s t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e ?

The

c r i t i c a l p rob lem i s to s p e c i f y c o n j u n c t i o n s b etw een g iv e n k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f a n d g iv e n k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e . By v i r t u e o f t h e e x tr e m e ly d i f f i c u l t , c o m p lic a te d , and c o n t r o v e r s i a l c h a r a o t e r o f t h i s p ro b lem , an d t h e many f a t a l ob­ j e c t i o n s t o c l a s s i c a l a t t e m p t s t o r e s o l v e i t , I do n o t e x p e c t v e ry many t h e o l o g i a n s o r men o f l e t t e r s to c o n s i d e r my t h e o r y t o b e a v e r y happy o r s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t .

T h e o lo g ia n s a r e a p t t o be d i s ­

tu r b e d by th e o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f th e o l o g y .

Men o f l e t t e r s

a r e a p t to be d i s t u r b e d by t h e o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s o f l i t e r a t u r e . I must a l s o c o n f e s s t h a t I am m y s e lf somewhat u neasy a b o u t th e i n g e n u i t y an d n e a t n e s s o f my own s o l u t i o n .

And y e t I am p e r s u a d e d

t h a t t h i s p ro b lem e x i s t s , t h a t i t i s s e r i o u s , and t h a t some k in d o f s o l u t i o n o f i t — p e r h a p s n o t my s p e c i f i c s o l u t i o n — i s p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a r y . P e r h a p s t h e most f o r c e f u l way to e x h i b i t how s e r i o u s t h i s p ro b lem i s i s to r e h e a r s e some o f th e c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t f o l l o w i f i t d o es n o t p e r m it o f an y s o l u t i o n . I n t h e r e a lm o f th e o lo g y , co m p lete f a i l u r e w ould mean t h a t th e C h r i s t i a n s t o r y c a n b e t o l d an d r e - t o l d i n an y way i n w h ich i t i s p o s s i b l e to t e l l a s t o r y . an y o t h e r .

No one way i s b e t t e r o r w orse th a n

A l l ways a r e e q u a l l y good and e q u a l l y b a d .

I do n o t

t h i n k t h a t th o s e C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s who a r e s k e p t i c a l a b o u t r e s o l v i n g t h i s p ro b le m a r e i n f a c t w i l l i n g to a c c e p t t h e s e con­

150 sequences.

M oreover, X t h i n k m ost C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i a n s con­

s c i o u s l y o r u n c o n s c io u s ly presum e t h a t th e C h r i s t i a n s t o r y c a n n o t be t o l d i n J u s t t h e same way a s a n y o t h e r s t o r y ; t h a t c e r t a i n ways a r e more c o h e r e n t an d a d e q u a te t h a n c e r t a i n o t h e r s ; and t h a t t h e r e i s one an d o n ly one way, o r a t l e a s t a l i m i t e d number o f w ays, o f t e l l i n g th e C h r is tia n s to r y . I n t h e re a lm o f l i t e r a t u r e , c o m p le te f a i l u r e would mean t h a t t h e s e l e c t i o n o f o r em p h asis upon a g iv e n way o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y h a s no c o n n e c tio n w h a ts o e v e r w ith t h e k in d o f s t o r y one h a s to t e l l .

The q u a l i t a t i v e c o n t e n t and t h e e m o tio n a l e f f e c t w i l l be

th e same r e g a r d l e s s a s t o t h e manner o f t e l l i n g ; and t h e method w i l l have t o be th e same r e g a r d l e s s a s t o th e s t o r y one h a s i n mind.

I do not t h i n k m ost men o f l e t t e r s a r e r e a d y to a c c e p t t h e s e

consequences,

I t h i n k most men o f l e t t e r s i n t u i t i v e l y r e c o g n i s e

t h a t some ways o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y commit t h e c r e a t o r t o a c e r t a i n k in d o f c o n t e n t , and t h a t a c e r t a i n k in d o f c o n t e n t r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n k in d o f t e l l i n g . I n th e r e a lm o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , f a i l u r e would mean t h a t a l l k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e e x p r e s s th e same o r v e ry s i m i l a r k in d s o f th e o lo g y , a n d t h a t a l l k in d s o f th e o lo g y e x p r e s s them­ s e l v e s i n th e same o r v ery s i m i l a r k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e .

I do

n o t t h i n k t h a t l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s o r c r i t i c s a r e w i l l i n g to a c c e p t t h e co n seq u en c es o f t h i s Im p asse.

I th in k th e y i n t u i t i v e l y

r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e r e a r e i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o r t a n t c o n t r a s t s and d i f f e r e n c e s a s w e l l a s i d e n t i t i e s and a n a l o g i e s b etw een v a r i o u s k in d s o f th e o lo g y an d v a r io u s k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e . P e rh a p s th e most p e r s u a s i v e way to e x h i b i t t h a t a s o l u t i o n o f th e k in d I s e e k i s p o s s i b l e i s to show how l i t t l e one may i n

151 f a c t be committed to by such a th e o r y .

Many q u a l i f i c a t i o n s can

be a c c e p te d w ith o u t v i t i a t i n g th e th e o ry .

Moreover, I t h i n k many

o f th e o b j e c t i o n s to p a s t s o l u t i o n s a r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t th e f a i l ­ u re to a c c e p t p r e c i s e l y th e s e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , o r th e fo rw a rd in g o f e x c e s s iv e c la im s f o r th e s o l u t i o n o f f e r e d . F i r s t o f a l l , no s o l u t i o n has to c la im to be v a l i d f o r a l l k in d s , l e v e l s , and s ta g e s o f any one o r a l l o f th e c l a s s i c a l k in d s o f th e o lo g y o r l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

There a r e many p o s s i b l e

c o n c r e te I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f what i s g e n e r l c a l l y Greek, H eb raic , C h r i s t i a n , and s k e p t i c a l by way o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t; and o f what i s g e n e r i c a l l y r e a l i s t i c , a l l e g o r i c a l , sym bolic, o r f a n t a s t i c by way o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

A s o l u t i o n need o n ly c la im t h a t a

c e r t a i n f a m i l i a r k in d o f each g e n e r ic k ind o f th e o lo g y has and can en joy an i n t i m a t e c o n n e c tio n w ith a c e r t a i n f a m i l i a r ty p e o f each g e n e r ic k in d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e . S econdly, no c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e a f f i n i t i e s and a n t i ­ p a t h i e s between v a r io u s k in d s o f th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e needs to cla im t h a t a g iv e n work o f l i t e r a t u r e o r a g iv e n genre e x h i b i t s one and only one k in d o f th e o lo g y o r l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

For ex­

am ple, th e n o tio n o f a work o r a genre w ith a dominant k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o tif o r l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e i s s t i l l p o s s i b l e . T h ir d ly , I do n o t t h i n k t h a t th e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e o f t i l l s a tte m p t to c o r r e l a t e k in d s o f th e o lo g y and k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e i s a f u n c tio n o f any s p e c i f i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f what th e n a t u r e , f u n c t i o n , and s t a t u s o f th e s e a f f i n i t i e s and a n t i ­ p a th ie s a re .

Some may p r e f e r to i n t e r p r e t th e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s

and c o n n e c tio n s n o m i n a l l s t l c a l l y — t h a t i s , a s r e l a t i v e to tim e, p la c e , person, f a c u lty , o r b e l i e f .

From t h i s n o m i n a l ! s t i c p o i n t

152 o f view th e a f f i n i t i e s an d a n t i p a t h i e s a r e sim p ly o b s e r v a b l e e m p iric a l c o r r e la tio n s .

T here i s n o th in g a b s o l u t e a b o u t them.

T h e ir o c c u r r e n c e i s l i k e l y r a t h e r th a n n e c e s s a r y an d i n v a r i a n t . I n a n ag e i n w hich th e p r e v a i l i n g tem p er and o u tlo o k a r e s k e p t i c a l , s k e p t i c a l k in d s o f th e o lo g y may w e l l employ a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m , o r sym bolism ; and G reek, H e b r a ic , an d C h r i s t i a n k in d s o f th e o lo g y a r e a p t to employ some k in d o f f a n t a s y .

From a n o m i n a l i s t l c p o i n t o f

v iew , t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s and c o n n e c tio n s a r e m a t t e r s o f em phasis an d d e g r e e .

T h ere i s a lw a y s th e q u e s t i o n o f more o r l e s s domin­

a n c e , a n d t h e r e i s v e ry l i k e l y c o n s i d e r a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y an d p l u r a l ­ ism such t h a t th e same k in d o f t h e o l o g i c a l s t o r y can be t o l d i n one o f s e v e r a l l i t e r a r y ways, a n d such t h a t th e same k in d o f l i t e r ­ a r y s t r u c t u r e can s u g g e s t and embody more t h a n one o f t h e s e v e r a l k in d s o f c l a s s i c a l th e o lo g y .

N o m in a lis tic a lly in t e r p r e t e d , th e se

a f f i n i t i e s and a n t i p a t h i e s a r e weak, r e l a t i v e an d p r o b a b l e . From a " r e a l i s t i c " p o i n t o f view ( i n th e c l a s s i c a l and m e d ie v a l s e n s e s ) t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s and c o n n e c tio n s have s o l i d o n t o l o g i c a l , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l , m e th o d o lo g ic a l, and c a u s a l c h a r a c t e r s , g ro u n d s, an d c o n s e q u e n t s .

They a r e e i t h e r immanent o r im posed i n

s t a t u s an d c h a r a c t e r , r a t h e r th a n mere d e s c r i p t i o n s o f o b s e r v a b l e p a t t e r n s o r c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r e l a t i v e to p e r i o d , p e r ­ so n , f a c u l t y , o r b e l i e f . rig id ly .

R e alism i n t e r p r e t s them m o n i s t i c a l l y an d

T here i s one and o n ly one c o r r e l a t i o n and c o n n e c ti o n b e­

tw een a g iv e n k in d o f th e o lo g y and a g iv e n k in d o f l i t e r a t u r e . I sh o u ld p e r s o n a l l y a t t e m p t to weave my way i n betw een t h e s e two extrem e p o s i t i o n s , h o l d i n g t h a t t h e s e a f f i n i t i e s and a n t i p a t h i e s a r e I n v a r i a n t i n t h e r e a l i s t i c s e n s e by v i r t u e o f

153 t h e n o m i n a l i s t i c c a p a c i t y o f b o th th e o lo g y a n d l i t e r a t u r e to r e ­ l a t e th e m s e lv e s to s h i f t i n g c i r c u m s ta n c e s a n d p o i n t o f view . That i s ,

t h e r e i s an a b s o l u t e n e s s w i t h i n and by v i r t u e o f th e

re la tiv ity .

B ut I do n o t t h i n k t h a t my ty p o lo g y i s a f u n c t i o n

o f th is "o b je c tiv e r e l a t i v i s t " in te r p r e ta tio n .

I th in k th e ques­

t i o n o f th e e x a c t n a t u r e , f u n c t i o n and s t a t u s o f t h e s e a f f i n i t i e s an d a n t i p a t h i e s c a n be l e f t u n d e c id e d w i t h o u t v i t i a t i n g e i t h e r t h e power o r t h e I m p o rta n c e o f t h e t h e o r y .

T h a t i s , I am more

c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e m eaning and t r u t h o f my t h e o r y t h a n I am con­ ce rn in g i t s c o n c re te i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . P r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e S o l u t i o n F or t h e sa k e o f c l a r i t y , I s h a l l r e c a p i t u l a t e th e m eanings I t e c h n i c a l l y a s s i g n t o t h e d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f th e o lo g y and l i t e r ­ a r y s t r u c t u r e i n a f o r m a l way.

These a r e to my know ledge th e f o u r

g r e a t t h e o l o g i c a l s t o r i e s t h a t have b e e n t o l d a n d r e - t o l d .

And

t h e s e a r e t h e f o u r g r e a t ways o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y t h a t h av e a g a i n and a g a i n b e e n em ployed. I t i s t o be remembered t h a t t h i s ty p o lo g y may o r may n o t e x h a u s t th e a c t u a l o r p o s s i b l e k in d s o f th e o lo g y o r l i t e r a r y stru c tu re .

J u s t s o , my f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n s may o r may n o t e x p r e s s

t h e b e s t a c t u a l o r p o s s i b l e c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e v a r i o u s k in d s o f th e o lo g y an d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s e l e c t e d f o r a n a l y s i s and e m p h a sis . My o n ly c la im i s t h a t a h o p e l e s s k in d o f c o n f u s io n a r i s e s i n my own mind i f a n d when I f a i l to d i s t i n g u i s h an d r e l a t e t h e s e k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f an d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , an d t h a t I have d e r i v e d them from an d t e s t e d them by t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y

154 h isto ry .

They have p ro v e n to be u s e f u l f o r my p u r p o s e s and from

my p o i n t o f view . g e n e ra l.

I have fo u n d them to be c l e a r , s t r u c t u r e d and

I have n o t d i s c o v e r e d a n y i n s t a n c e s o r any k in d s o f

i n s t a n c e s o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b etw e en th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e w hich a r e n o t i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n te rm s o f them.

I have found many i n ­

s t a n c e s an d k in d s o f I n s t a n c e s c a p a b le o f such i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . And th e y have had t h e i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o r t a n t m e th o d o lo g ic a l outcome o f p r o v i d i n g a t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y b a s i s f o r th e h i s t o r i c a l , c r i t i c a l , an d c o n s t r u c t i v e e f f o r t s in which I am con­ c e rn e d a s a t h e o l o g i c a l c r i t i c .

I f th e y a r e i n f a c t b o t h t r u e

and im p o r t a n t , i t becomes p o s s i b l e an d n e c e s s a r y to I n t e r p r e t th e te rm s a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n a n e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o ­ l o g i c a l way. By a Greek k in d o f t h e o lo g y , I mean a k in d o f th e o lo g y w h e re in th e m eaning o r m eanings o f l i f e a r e c o n c e iv e d a s s u b s i s t ­ i n g a p a r t from th e e v e n ts o f l i f e , and a s e s s e n t i a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f co m p le te e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e form o f e v e n t s . By a n H e b r a ic k in d o f t h e o l o g y , I mean a k in d o f th e o lo g y w h e re in t h e e v e n ts o f l i f e a r e p e r c e i v e d a s i n p a r t f u l f i l l i n g an d a s i n p a r t n e g a t i n g t h e m eaning o r m eanings o f l i f e i n such a way t h a t l i f e i s i n e s s e n c e re d e e m a b le b u t may o r may n o t b e f u l l y redeem ed i n f a c t . By a C h r i s t i a n k in d o f th e o lo g y , I mean a k in d o f th e o lo g y w h e re in th e e v e n ts o f l i f e a r e p e r c e i v e d a s i l l u s t r a t i n g th e mean­ in g o r m eanings o f l i f e , and t h e m eanings o f l i f e a r e c o n c e iv e d a s b e i n g c a p a b le o f b e i n g c o m p le te ly e x p r e s s e d i n t h e fo rm o f e v e n t s , an d a r e a t c e r t a i n c r u c i a l p o i n t s an d moments c o m p le te ly i l l u s ­ tra te d in fa c t.

155 By a s k e p t i c a l kin d o f th e o lo g y , I mean a k in d o f th e o lo g y w h e re in t h e r e i s a r a d i c a l d i s j u n c t i o n b etw e en t h e e v e n t s o f l i f e a n d t h e m eanings o f l i f e i n su c h a way t h a t th e o n ly hope i s to remember o r dream o f a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o rld whose e v e n t s and mean­ i n g s b e a r l i t t l e o r no re s e m b la n c e to t h i s o n e . By a r e a l i s t i c k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n , I mean t h a t k in d o f s t o r y w h e r e in t h e e v e n ts o f l i f e a r e p r e s e n t e d a p a r t from an y c l e a r o r d i s c i p l i n e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i r m eaning o r mean­ in g s . By a n a l l e g o r i c a l k in d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n , I mean t h a t k in d o f a s t o r y w h e r e in th e m eanings o f l i f e a r e s t a t e d a p a r t from e v e n t s an d a s e s s e n t i a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f co m p lete e x p r e s s i o n in ev e n ts. By a sy m b o lic kin d o f l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n , I mean t h a t k in d w h e r e in t h e r e i s a co m p lete f u s i o n o f e v e n ts an d m e an in g s, w hereby e v e n ts e x h i b i t t h e m eanings o f l i f e , and t h e m eanings o f l i f e a r e e x h i b i t e d i n th e form o f a c o n c r e t e e v e n t o r e v e n t s . By a f a n t a s y , I mean t h a t way o f t e l l i n g a s t o r y w h e re in some o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o rld i s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h i s one. I n te rm s o f t h e s e f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n s ,

th e re a re d e f in ite

a f f i n i t i e s o f some k in d o r o t h e r betw een Greek th e o lo g y an d a l l e ­ g o r y , H e b ra ic th e o lo g y a n d r e a l i s m , C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y an d symbol­ ism , and s k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y a n d f a n t a s y .

C o n v e rs e ly , t h e r e a r e

a f f i n i t i e s b etw een a l l e g o r y a n d G reek th e o l o g y , r e a l i s m and H e b ra ic t h e o l o g y , symbolism an d C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y , an d f a n t a s y and s k e p t i ­ c a l th e o lo g y .

J u s t so t h e r e a r e a n t i p a t h i e s betw een a n d among th e

d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f an d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

These

156 a f f i n i t i e s a n d a n t i p a t h i e s f o l l o w a l m o s t a n a l y t i c a l l y fr o m t h e d e fin itio n s. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e o l o g i e s — God, man,

in

t e r m s o f t h e t h e m e s common t o a l l

good and e v i l ,

and n a tu r e — th e a n sw ers ch a r­

a c t e r i s t i c o f G reek t h e o l o g y t e n d tow ard a l l e g o r y ,

o f C h r istia n

t h e o l o g y tow ard sy m b o lism , o f H e b r a ic t h e o l o g y tow ard r e a l i s m , and o f s k e p t i c a l t h e o l o g y tow ard f a n t a s y .

G reek t h e o lo g y con­

c e i v e s o f God a s e s s e n t i a l l y

as e s s e n tia lly

q u a l i f i e d by and r e l a t e d c o n c e i v e s o f man i n

tra n scen d en t,

to t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s .

G reek t h e o lo g y

t e r m s o f m in d , a m ind t h a t c a n e n v i s a g e mean­

in g s in c a p a b le o f r e a l i s a t i o n

in

t h i s w o r ld and l i f e .

o l o g y c o n c e i v e s o f g o o d n e s s a p a r t fr o m p o w e r . in g n o b i l i t y in

un­

G reek t h e ­

G oodness i s

t h e f a c e o f c h a n c e and n e c e s s i t y .

su ffer­

G reek t h e o lo g y

c o n c e i v e s o f n a t u r e a s th e rea lm o f f a t e and c h a n c e ,

fr u str a tin g

t h e n o b l e p u r p o s e s o f b o t h God a n d man.

th e o n ly

A lle g o r y i s

p o s s i b l e a n d t h e o n e n e c e s s a r y way t o t e l l th e o lo g y p e r c e iv e s life

and h i s t o r y ,

t h a t God i s

n o t do i t .

term s o f w i l l .

p o litic a l

H e b ra ic

H e b r a ic t h e o lo g y

Man c a n know t h e g o o d , a n d

H e b r a ic t h e o lo g y c o n c e iv e s o f th e

o f m oral e a r n e s t n e s s , n ess.

sto ry .

i n p a r t an a g e n t v i s i b l e w it h in

and in p a r t d eu s a b s o o n d ltu s .

c o n c e i v e s o f man i n s till

th is

J u stic e ,

good i n term s

and r e l i g i o u s

r ig h te o u s­

What God m ean s b y good a n d w h a t man m eans b y g o o d a r e p a r t l y

id e n tic a l, p a r tly d if f e r e n t . as e s s e n tia lly

H e b r a ic t h e o lo g y c o n c e iv e s o f n a tu r e

good, b u t a c c id e n t a lly

o r t h e b e s t w ay o f t e l l i n g

th is

sto ry .

e v il.

R e a lism i s

C h r i s t i a n t h e o lo g y con­

c e i v e s o f God a s e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d b y a n d r e l a t e d course o f e v e n ts.

Man i s

th e o n ly

to th e

c o n c e iv e d i n term s o f th e h e a r t ,

th e

157 a f f e c t i o n s and th e I n c l i n a t i o n s .

What God means by good i s

e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h o r a n a lo g o u s to what man means by good, an d a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s and moments th e y a r e i n f a c t t h e same*

C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y c o n c e iv e s o f n a t u r e a s good b o th i n

p r i n c i p l e and i n f a c t .

The o n ly and th e b e s t way to t e l l t h i s

s t o r y i s by sym bolism .

S k e p t i c a l th e o lo g y c o n c e iv e s o f God a s

e i t h e r a b s e n t from l i f e and h i s t o r y o r a s an e v i l a g e n t i n i t . For th e a t h e i s t , God i s d e f i n i t e l y n o t p r e s e n t . th e problem i s u n d e c id a b le .

For t h e h u m a n is t, God i s p r e s e n t a s

a human memory and a human i d e a l . and m eanings a r e e v i l . i s by means o f f a n t a s y .

F or t h e a g n o s t i c ,

For t h e n i h i l i s t , a l l e v e n ts

The o n ly an d b e s t way t o t e l l t h i s s t o r y J u s t so , i f you t e l l a s t o r y i n a way

t h a t presum es o r I m p l i e s t h a t l i f e i s red ee m ab le i n p r i n c i p l e b u t n o t i n f a c t you w i l l te n d tow ard Greek t h e o l o g i c a l m eanings; i f you t e l l a s t o r y i n a way t h a t s u g g e s ts and embodies t h a t l i f e i s re d ee m ab le i n p r i n c i p l e and redeem ed i n f a c t , you w i l l be em­ p lo y in g symbolism and w i l l te n d tow ard C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts and m ean in gs; i f you t e l l a s t o r y t h a t e x h i b i t s t h a t l i f e i s red ee m ab le i n p r i n c i p l e b u t o n ly i n p a r t redeem ed i n f a c t you w i l l be em ploying r e a l i s m and w i l l be t e n d i n g tow ard H e b ra ic th e o lo g y ; and i f you t e l l a s t o r y t h a t e x h i b i t s t h a t o n ly a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e w o rld i s good o r c a p a b le o f b e i n g r e a l you w i l l be em­ p l o y i n g f a n t a s y and w i l l be t e n d i n g tow ard s k e p t i c a l t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts an d m eanings. I d e n t i t i e s an d D i f f e r e n c e s Between a G r e e k - S k e p tic a l and a n H e b r a l c - C h r l s t l a n Kind o f D ram atic T ragedy Having come to an end o f my b r i e f su rv e y o f t h e g e n e r a l

158 k in d s o f a f f i n i t y and a n t i p a t h y betw een th e v a r io u s k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and t h e v a r i o u s k in d s o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , I sh o u ld now l i k e to make t h i s h i s t o r i c a l and c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s more p o in te d by c o n s i d e r i n g th e d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y to w hich th e s e c o n ju n c ti o n s have c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y g iv e n r i s e . From a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t o f view, th e g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n s an d c o n n e c tio n s a r e what i s o f i n t e r e s t and Im p o rta n c e .

In so far

a s my p r e s e n t a t i o n o f them i s t r u e and o f v a lu e , th e c l a r i t y , th e d i s c i p l i n e , and th e g e n e r a l i t y o f a e s t h e t i c s i s a p p ro a c h e d .

From

th e p o i n t o f view o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , t h e o r y , and c r i t i c i s m , such a g e n e r a l ty p o lo g y , no m a tte r how t r u e and im p o r ta n t from a p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l p o i n t o f view , r e q u i r e s d o cu m en ta tio n in term s o f s p e c i f i c g e n re and s p e c i f i c works o f l i t e r a t u r e .

I f th e ty p o lo g y i s n o t

d e r i v e d from and i n t u r n t e s t e d by th e d e t a i l s o f l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , i t i s o f sm a ll o r o f du b io u s v a l u e .

A e s t h e t i c s i s c o n c ern ed w ith

th e p r o p e r t i e s common to e v e ry , and a l l l i t e r a r y works o r g e n re ; o r w ith g e n e r ic c o n t r a s t s betw een h ig h ly g e n e r a l k in d s o f l i t e r a ­ tu re .

L i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , th e o r y , and c r i t i c i s m a r e c o n c e rn e d w ith

s p e c i f i c c o n t r a s t s between s p e c i f i c a l l y l i t e r a r y g en re and w orks— f o r exam ple, betw een th e d ra m a tic tr a g e d y and th e e p ic o r th e l y r i c , o r betw een t h e v a r io u s s p e c i e s o f d ra m a tic t r a g e d y .

L ite r­

a r y c r i t i c s f e e l a t sea a p a r t from i n s i s t e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l — q u ite r ig h tly , I th in k .

And y e t t h e r e a r e "oceans o f d e t a i l . "

M oreover, i t i s J u s t a s ea sy to be w h ir le d a b o u t and to become l o s t i n a sea o f d e t a i l a s i t i s to become w h ir le d a b o u t and l o s t i n a se a o f a b s t r a c t i o n s .

L i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i s h e l p l e s s and can

come to naught a p a r t from som eth in g a p p r o a c h in g th e g e n e r a l i t i e s of a e sth e tic s .

And a e s t h e t i c s i s h e l p l e s s a p a r t from som ething

159 a p p r o a c h in g g en re th e o ry and t h e a n a l y s i s o f th e i n t e g r i t y o f s p e c i f i c w orks. I n p r e s e n t i n g a th e o r y o f th e i d e n t i t i e s an d d i f f e r e n c e s betw een a G r e e k - s k e p t i c a l and a n H e b r a l c - C h r i s t i a n k in d o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y , I s h a l l be s t r e s s i n g th e g e n e r i c co n t r a s t betw een Greek and C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic tr a g e d y .

I s h a l l b e d o in g so b e c a u s e t h e r e

a r e many i d e n t i t i e s an d a n a l o g i e s between Greek an d s k e p t i c a l d ra m a tic tr a g e d y on t h e one hand and betw een H e b ra ic and C h r i s t i a n d ra m a tic tr a g e d y on th e o t h e r .

The modern s k e p t i c s have d eep en ed

many o f th e i n s i g h t s o f Greek th e o lo g y .

And C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y

h as a g a i n and a g a in deepened th e i n s i g h t s o f H e b ra ic th e o lo g y . I n b o th c a s e s a newer th e o lo g y f u l f i l l s w ith o u t c o m p le te ly n e g a t ­ in g a n o l d e r th e o lo g y .

I n b o th Greek and s k e p t i c a l d r a m a tic

t r a g e d y , th e tr a g e d y i s s u e s from th e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s f o r th e most p a r t e x t e r n a l to c h a r a c t e r o r any s p e c i f i a b l e m o ral g u i l t or re lig io u s sin .

Greek and s k e p t i c a l d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s a r e

th e re b y t r a g e d i e s o f c ir c u m s ta n c e , o f f a t e , o f chance an d o f n e c ­ e s sity .

I n s o f a r a s th e tr a g e d y i s s u e s from c h a r a c t e r , i t i s s u e s

from som eth in g i n c h a r a c t e r to w hich t h e r e i s no a l t e r n a t i v e , from so m eth in g o v e r which th e c h a r a c t e r has no c o n t r o l , d o es n o t u n d e r s ta n d , and c a n n o t e n jo y .

I t is ro o te d in f i n i t e n e s s , ig n o r­

ance, f ix a ti o n , in e r tn e s s , p e rv e rsio n , o b se ssio n , o r w e a rin e ss, C h r i s t i a n and H e b ra ic d ra m a tic t r a g e d i e s a r e t r a g e d i e s o f freedom and o f s i n , w h e re in th e tr a g e d y I s s u e s from c h a r a c t e r o r from some s p e c i f i a b l e m oral g u i l t and r e l i g i o u s s i n .

The tr a g e d y i s r o o t e d

i n o u r s e l v e s , o r i n a s p e c t s o f o u r s e l v e s o v e r w hich we have c o n t r o l and c o n c e r n in g w hich we have knowledge and s a t i s f a c t i o n .

The

tr a g e d y i s s u e s e s s e n t i a l l y from p r e t e n s i o n , i d o l a t r y , o r p r i d e .

160 The movement o f tr a g e d y i s from knowledge to s i n and from s i n t o Judgment and r e p e n t a n c e , r a t h e r th a n from ig n o r a n c e to knowledge and from knowledge to a doom t h a t i s

p i t i a b l e and t e r r i f y i n g .

One o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t h a u n ts any d i s c u s s i o n o f th e v a r i o u s k in d s o f d ra m a tic tr a g e d y i s t h a t t h e r e h a s b een one and o n ly one r e a l l y g r e a t work i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m i n th e w e s t— th e P o e t i c s o f A r i s t o t l e .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n s o f a r a s c o m p a ra tiv e

th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e a r e co n c e rn e d , A r i s t o t l e ' s te rm s and p r i n ­ c i p l e s f o llo w from th e p re m is e s o f Greek th e o lo g y and from an a n a l y s i s o f Greek l i t e r a t u r e .

They t h e r e f o r e do n o t do J u s t i c e

to a l l k in d s o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y .

Moreover, A r i s t o t l e ' s s p e c i f i ­

c a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e p r o p e r t i e s o f a good o r b e t t e r d r a m a tic tr a g e d y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y v a l i d from o t h e r t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t s o f view . T h is s i t u a t i o n h as n o t b e e n a l l e v i a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t many l o v e r s o f Greek d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i n s i s t upon r e a d i n g b ack i n t o Greek drama an d i n t o A r i s t o t l e ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f i t e s s e n t i a l l y H eb raic and C h r i s t i a n term s and p r i n c i p l e s .

And c o n v e r s e ly , many

C h r i s t i a n s have p e r m i t t e d e s s e n t i a l l y Greek te rm s an d p r i n c i p l e s to i n s i n u a t e th e m s e lv e s i n t o a C h r i s t i a n th e o r y o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y , even i n t o a t h e o r y o f th e G ospels th e m s e lv e s .

M oreover, many

C h r i s t i a n d i s c u s s i o n s o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d i s ­ t i n c t i o n betw een a Greek and a C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s n o th in g more th a n th e c o n t r a s t betw een f a t e and freedom , doom and s a l v a t i o n , chance and p r o v id e n c e .

From t h i s p o i n t o f view , Greek

and s k e p t i c a l d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s a r e t r a g e d i e s o f c irc u m s ta n c e a s su ch w hereas H eb raic and C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s a r e t r a g e d i e s o f c h a r a c t e r a s su c h .

I n some s e n s e and t o a d e g re e t h i s is, th e

161 g e n e ric c o n t r a s t .

And y e t a l l s o r t s o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n s must be

i n tr o d u c e d , becau se t h e p la y s o f A eschylus and E u r ip id e s a r e i n a profo un d sen se t r a g e d i e s o f c h a r a c t e r , and t h e freedom a t th e c e n t e r o f an H e b r a lc - C h r i s tia n d ram a tic tr a g e d y i s n o t sim ply u n c o n d itio n e d o r beyond c irc u m s ta n c e .

I t must a ls o be s a i d t h a t

A r i s t o t l e ' s term s and p r i n c i p l e s a p p ly e s s e n t i a l l y and c o m p le te ly o n ly to Sophoclean d ra m a tic tr a g e d y .

The p la y s o f A esch ylus and

E u r ip id e s do n o t s ta n d up under a n a l y s i s a s models o f h i s p o i n t s . J u s t so , t h e r e have been much g r e a t e r models f o r a C h r i s t i a n *

th e o ry o f d ra m a tic tra g e d y i n t h e form o f s p e c i f i c works o f l i t ­ e r a t u r e th a n t h e r e have been i n th e form o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . K a n t's form ula c o n c e rn in g "God, freedom, and im m o r t a lit y ," H e g e l's d i s c u s s i o n o f " c o n f l i c t " and " r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , " A. C. B r a d l e y 's The S u bstan ce o f S h ak esp earean Traaed.v. M i l t o n 's p r e f a c e to Samson A g o n ls te a . and many s h o r t c r i t i c a l essay s by Matthew A rno ld , T. S. E l i o t , and W. H. Auden j u s t a b o u t ex h a u st th e c r i t i c a l models. And y e t th e g r e a t f a c t rem ains t h a t i t i s p ro fo u n d ly n ec­ e s s a r y to d i s t i n g u i s h between th e s to r y o f m an's f a t e and s u f f e r ­ in g n o b i l i t y a s t o l d by the G reeks, and a s deepened by th e modern s k e p t i c s i n t h e i r theme o f m an's m elancholy, w e a rin e s s , and p i t e o u s a b n o r m a lity , and th e s t o r y o f m an's freedom and c o n sc io u s o r un­ c o n s c io u s I d o l a t r y a s t o l d by C h r i s t i a n d r a m a t i s t s .

The meaning

o f Greek and modern p la y s i s d e s p a i r , v i r t u a l l y com plete and un­ m i t i g a t e d , whereas th e meaning o f a C h r i s t i a n d ra m a tic tr a g e d y i s t h a t l i f e and h i s t o r y a r e redeem able i n p r i n c i p l e and a r e redeemed a t many c r u c i a l p o i n t s and moments i n f a c t . The o n ly way to keep im p o rta n t t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y d i s t i n c t i o n s c l e a r i s to say t h a t th e p r o t a g o n i s t s on th e s ta g e

162 o f A e s c h y lu s , S o p h o c le s , an d E u r i p i d e s a r e Greek t r a g i c h e r o e s , e x e m p li f y in g many o f th e f u n d a m e n ta lly p e s s i m i s t i c p a t t e r n s o f G reek t h e o lo g y ; w h erea s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s on t h e s t a g e o f S h a k e s p e a re , C h au cer, D an te , M ilto n , M e l v i l l e , Hawthorne, and D ostoyevsky a r e i n a v e r y deep s e n s e C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o e s , r e e n a c t i n g th e P a s s i o n o f C h r i s t and i l l u s t r a t i n g some o f th e more o p t i m i s t i c p a t t e r n s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y *

Of c o u r s e , I do n o t mean to im ply

t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e 's t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e i d e a l o r even c o n s c io u s C h r i s t i a n s , an y more t h a n th e G reek t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e c o n s c io u s o r model G re e k s.

I sim p ly mean t h a t t h e e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n s o f

t h e i r l i v e s r e s p e c t i v e l y e x h i b i t and f u l f i l l th e c r u c i a l m o t i f s o f G reek a n d C h r i s t i a n t h e o lo g y .

Nor do I presume t h a t e i t h e r

S h a k e s p e a re o r h i s a u d ie n c e w ere s e lf- c o n s c io u s C h r i s t i a n s — C a t h o l i c , P r o te s ta n t, o r o th e rw ise .

Nor do I w ish to o v e r lo o k S h a k e s p e a r e 's

wondrous c a t h o l i c i t y a s a d r a m a t i s t —h i s c a p a c i t y f o r s e t t i n g f o r t h a l l th e u l t i m a t e l y c o n f l i c t i n g t h e o l o g i c a l i n t u i t i o n s t o w hich mankind i s s u b j e c t ,

I s im p ly mean t h a t th e f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e

o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s — e s p e c i a l l y when p l a c e d o v e r a g a i n s t Greek and modern s k e p t i c a l p l a y s — c a n n o t be f u l l y u n d e r s to o d a p a r t from some r e f e r e n c e t o t h e n a t i v i t y ,

th e l i f e and t e a c h i n g s , th e

P a s s i o n , t h e d e a t h , and th e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s C h r i s t and to some o f th e p r o f o u n d e r i n s i g h t s o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o lo g y .

The t r a g i c

h e r o e s i n th e n o v e l s o f H aw thorne, M e l v i l l e , and D o stoy ev sk y a r e C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o e s i n th e same s e n s e , w h ereas t h i s c a n n o t be s a i d so q u i c k l y

o r so j u s t l y f o r th e p l a y s an d n o v e ls o f I b s e n ,

Shaw, H ardy, P r o u s t , an d J o y c e .

Modern s k e p t i c a l d r a m a tic tr a g e d y

i s , w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , a n echo o r a d e e p e n in g o f what i s s p e c i f i ­ c a l l y G reek— i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t s

t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e i n no need o f

163 re d e m p tio n by v i r t u e o f t h e i r n o b i l i t y o r a r e in c a p a b l e o f redem p­ t i o n by v i r t u e o f t h e i r p i t e o u s a b n o r m a lity .

I n th e r e c o g n i t i o n

sc e n e th e y a r e a p t t o a c c u s e th e v e ry c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e and h i s t o r y , and t h e o n ly r e s o l u t i o n o f tr a g e d y o f w hich th e y a r e c a p a b le was b e s t e x p r e s s e d by S o p h o cle s i n th e p i c t u r e o f O edipus p u t t i n g o u t h i s e y e s — nam ely, i n t h e v i o l e n c e o f s e l f - m o r t i f i c a t i o n o r i n d e a th .

Greek t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e c r e a t u r e s o f f i n i t e n e s s , I g n o ra n c e

an d m o r t a l i t y .

Modern s k e p t i c a l t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e v i c t i m s o f p e r ­

v e r s i o n , I n e r t n e s s , w e a r in e s s an d m e lan c h o ly .

C h ristia n tr a g ic

h e r o e s a r e c r e a t u r e s o f freedom an d o f s i n . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , I s h a l l t r y to deepen

t h i s g en e ric

c o n t r a s t betw een G reek and C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d y by means o f a c o m p a ra tiv e r e f e r e n c e to th e problem s o f " t r a g i c h e r o , " " fo ils ,"

"C h o ru s," " p l o t , " and " e f f e c t upon th e a u d i e n c e ." A Greek t r a g i c h e ro i s a sim p le and s u b s t a n t i a l e n t i t y

who c o u ld be r e a l a n d e x c e l l e n t on h i s own, r e q u i r i n g no o t h e r e n t i t l e s to e x i s t o r t o be g r e a t .

He happens to be q u a l i f i e d by

and r e l a t e d to h i s s i t u a t i o n by f a t e .

He th e r e b y becomes i m p l i ­

c a t e d i n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , t h i n g s , and th e ch a n ce s and n e c e s s i t i e s o f n a t u r e , l i f e , and h i s t o r y .

What i s s u b s t a n t i a l , good an d g r e a t

a b o u t him i s h i s " c h a r a c t e r " o r p e r s o n a , a n e s s e n t i a l l y d i s p a s s i o n ­ a t e and u n in v o lv e d e s s e n c e i t i s h i s i d e a l a b s t r a c t l y t o s u s t a i n . T his e s s e n c e o r p e r s o n a in v o l v e s c e r t a i n v ery fo rm a l k in d s o f ex­ t e r n a l r e l a t e d n e s s to o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s and to th e g e n e r a l c o u rs e o f l i f e and h i s t o r y , b u t no r e a l o r c o n s t i t u t i v e i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s . He i s p r i m a r i l y a s im p le , s u b s t a n t i a l , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , unmoving and unmoved e s s e n c e , a p a r t from c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s a n d r e l a t i o n s he a c c i d e n t a l l y a n d d e r i v a t i v e l y i s f o r c e d a g a i n s t h i s d e s i r e t o

164 ta k e on.

He I s e s s e n t i a l l y d e f i n e d by m ind— b y t h e e n v is a g e m e n t

o f i d e a l m e a n in g s a p a r t from p e r c e i v e d e v e n t s .

He i s a t h i s w i s e s t

a n d a t h i s b e s t when t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h o u g h t , a l o n e w i t h h i m s e l f a n d I n d i f f e r e n t t o w h at i n f a c t comes t o p a s s .

H is t r a g e d y a r i s e s

b e c a u s e h e i s i n f a c t n o t so c o m p l e t e l y u n q u a l i f i e d b y anu. u n r e l a t e d t o t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s a s h e m ig h t w is h .

By v i r t u e o f f i n l t u d e

an d m o r t a l i t y , h e i n f a c t d e s t r o y s t h a t w h ic h h e l o v e s and o u t o f i g n o r a n c e a t t a i n s t h e o p p o s i t e o f w h at h e i n t e n d s .

I n th e

a n a g n o r i s i s o r r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e h e moves fro m i g n o r a n c e to t h e b itte rn e ss of tru th , th a t is

s u f fe rin g a p e r ip e ty o r r e v e rs a l o f fo rtu n e

stu b b o rn , r e m o rs e le s s , and i r r e v e r s i b l e .

H is o n l y c o n s o ­

l a t i o n l i e s i n h i s d e v o t i o n t o e t e r n a l fo rm s o f t r u t h a n d b e a u t y , fo rm s i n te r m s o f w h ic h he d e f i e s c i r c u m s t a n c e s , an d d is e m b o d ie d m e a n in g s t h a t h e s h o u l d hav e known from t h e b e g i n n i n g t o h a v e b e e n e s s e n t i a l l y I n c a p a b l e o f c o m p le t e e x p r e s s i o n i n th e form o f e v e n t s . H is p e r s o n a o r " s u b s t a n t i a l fo rm " s u f f e r s no r a d i c a l ch an g e o r d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e p r o c e s s .

A l l ch an g e i s s u b j e c t i v e n o t o b j e c t i v e ,

m e n ta l n o t p h y s i c a l , a p p a r e n t n o t r e a l .

O th e r i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s —

God, man, o r t h e p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s — a r e n o t r e a l c a u s e s . a r e n o t members o f him .

And h e i s n o t a member o f th em .

t r a g i c h e r o , he i s a lo n e w ith h im s e lf , a t th e m id d le , and a t th e end.

They As a

u n a f f e c te d a t th e b e g in n in g ,

He i s I n d e p e n d e n t o f a n y r e a l i n t e r ­

p e n e tr a tio n o f, by, o r f o r o th e r s . By v i r t u e o f t h i s t r a n s c e n d e n c e , a G reek t r a g i c h e r o i s e n v i s a g e d u n d e r t h e im age o f G reek d i v i n i t y .

The G re e k d e i t y i s

s i m i l a r l y above an d beyond th e c o u rs e o f e v e n ts , c o n te m p la tin g m e a n in g s t h a t a r e s e p a r a b l e f r o m , e x t e r n a l l y r e l a t e d t o , a n d o n ly

165 d e r i v a t i v e l y c a p a b le o f e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts i n n a t u r e , l i f e , and h i s t o r y .

H is Immanence a r i s e s o u t o f , i s ex­

p r e s s e d w i t h i n , and i s s u e s i n t o h i s tr a n s c e n d e n c e .

The Greek God

i s e s s e n t i a l l y a l o n e w ith h i m s e l f , th e "unmoved mover" who " t h i n k s a b o u t th o u g h t."

Only a c c i d e n t a l l y i s he r e l a t e d to o t h e r s , and

to th e c o u rs e o f l i f e and h i s t o r y .

He a l s o r e f u s e s to y i e l d h i s

memories and h i s dreams to f a t e f u l chance o r n e c e s s i t y .

He i s

s im p le , s u b s t a n t i a l , d e v o id of p a r t s , and u n q u a l i f i e d by and un­ r e l a t e d to h is fo rm er o r f u t u r e s e l v e s .

O edipus i s t h e r e b y th e

p e r f e c t Greek t r a g i c h ero by v i r t u e o f th e way he m i r r o r s th e d i v i n e elem ent i n th e w o rld .

H is l i f e i s h a u n te d by a b e a u ty i n

p r i n c i p l e which i s n e v e r r e a l i s e d I n f a c t .

He r e c o l l e c t s t h i n g s

t h a t w ere, and dreams o f t h i n g s t h a t m ight be w hich h e, o t h e r s , and God a r e p o w e rle s s to be o r do.

As a young man i n O edipus

th e King, he becomes f i x e d and s i g h t l e s s .

As a n o ld man i n

O edipus a t C olon us. he i s s t i l l h e r o i c a l l y d e f i a n t , c u r s i n g th e b ro k en w re tc h e d n e ss and m ise ry o f m an's m o r ta l l i f e .

I n b o th

r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e s he a c c u s e s th e v e ry c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e r a t h e r th a n h i m s e l f , o t h e r s , o r God. him.

T here i s m oreover no p r e t e n s e i n

He i s th e p i c t u r e o f m an's s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y , f a l l i n g from

l a c k o f u n d e r s ta n d in g an d I n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e e v e n ts o f l i f e and h isto ry . A C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e ro i s a c o n c r e t e and e x i s t e n t i a l l y I n v o lv e d i n d i v i d u a l , i n t e r n a l l y complex w ith a f l u x o f e x p e rie n c e t h a t i s a l i v e — b o d i l y and e m o tio n a l a s w e ll a s m e n ta l, w ith a l l k in d s o f f e e l i n g s , p e r c e p t i o n s , t h o u g h t s , h o p e s , f e a r s , memories and dreams d e r iv e d from o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s and i s s u i n g i n t o

166 o th e r I n d iv id u a litie s .

G reek t h e o l o g y an d l i t e r a t u r e s t r e s s t h e

a b s t r a c t s t r u c t u r e a c h a r a c te r fo rm a lly s u s ta in s ; C h r is t ia n th e o lo g y a n d l i t e r a t u r e t h e c o n c r e t e p r o c e s s i n w h ich a c h a r a c t e r i s i m p l i ­ c a te d .

The p r o c e s s i s i n f a c t h i s r e a l i t y , an d t h e r e l a t e d n e s s

h is c h a ra c te r.

He i s i n t e r n a l l y r e l a t e d to h i s own p a s t a n d to

t h e p a s t o f o t h e r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p l a y , and a t t h e end o f th e p l a y he i s i n some s e n s e i n t e r n a l l y r e l a t e d to t h e f u t u r e o f h i m s e l f an d o t h e r s .

I n m ed iae r e s , t h e r e i s r e a l fre e d o m ,

w h ereb y t h e t r a g i c h e r o i s i n t e r n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d a n d e x t e r n a l l y free.

B ut t h i s fre e d o m a r i s e s o u t o f a n d I s s u e s i n t o t h e j o u s t

o f l i f e and h i s t o r y — th e p r o c e s s o f i n f l u e n c i n g a n d b e i n g i n f l u ­ enced.

I n th e r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e a n d a t t h e r e v e r s a l t h e r e i s

t h e r e b y much more t h a n t h e G reek movement fro m i g n o r a n c e t o know l­ ed ge a n d from co m p la c e n c y to doom.

The t r a g i c h e ro i s t r a n s f o r m e d

i n h i s w h o le b e i n g , m oving from know ledge to s i n an d from s i n t o Judgm ent and from Judgm ent to f o r g i v e n e s s .

The theme i s n o t

s im p ly t h e theme o f m a n 's s u f f e r i n g in n o c e n c e an d n o b i l i t y . theme i s t h e theme o f m a n 's fre e d o m and m a n 's s i n .

The

By v i r t u e o f

t h e r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s immanence, a C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o i s p r o j e c t e d i n t h e im age o f t h e C h r i s t i a n d i v i n i t y — e s s e n t i a l l y im m anent w i t h i n l i f e a n d h i s t o r y , and o n ly a c c i d e n t a l l y t r a n s c e n ­ d e n t.

T h i s i s t h e w h o le p o i n t and m eaning o f t h e b a s i c them es o f

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y — t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f God o v e r th e c o u r s e o f l i f e and h i s t o r y ,

J u s t i f i c a t i o n by f a i t h , t h e s a c r i f i c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f

l o v e , t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s , and t h e r e d e m p tio n o f t r a g e d y . The f l a w o r h a m a r t l a i n a G reek d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y i s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e r r o r i n ju d g m e n t.

Reason i s w h at i s w i s e s t an d

167 b e s t i n m a n 's n a t u r e .

T ragedy i s b o rn o f t h e e r r i n g Judgm ents

made w i t h i n th e i m p e r f e c t i o n s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s b o d i l y , e m o tio n a l, and m o r ta l w o rld .

The r e c o g n i t i o n sc e n e o r a n a g n o r i s i s

i n a Greek p la y t h e r e f o r e i s a p t to come a f t e r th e t r a g i c d eed r a t h e r th a n b e fo re i t .

I n a C h r i s t i a n p l a y , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n sc e n e

u s u a l l y comes b e f o r e th e t r a g i c d e e d , b e c a u s e t h e t r a g i c f la w i s n o t s im p ly a n e r r o r i n Judgm ent. re lig io u s sin .

I t i n v o l v e s m oral g u i l t and

M oreover, th e e r r o r can be c o n s c io u s a n d w i t t i n g

a s w e l l a s u n c o n s c io u s and u n w i t t i n g .

J u s t so, a C h ris tia n tr a g ic

h ero i s a p t to blam e a n a s p e c t o f h i m s e l f o r o t h e r s r a t h e r th a n h i s own e s s e n c e o r t h e v e r y c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e .

H is r e v e r s a l can

t h e r e b y in v o lv e a movement from t r a g e d y to p e a c e a s w e l l a s from h a p p i n e s s to m is e r y . C o n c ern in g f o i l s and t h e C h orus, th e g r e a t f a c t i s t h a t a Greek t r a g i c h e ro a lw a y s s t a n d s o l i t a r y an d a l o n e , ab o v e and beyond a l l th e r e s t . a r e a p t to be " f l a t . "

He o n ly i s " r o u n d ."

The m inor c h a r a c t e r s

And t h e r e i s no r e a l i n t e r p l a y b etw een th e

t r a g i c h e ro and t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s .

In a C h ris tia n p la y , a l l

th e c h a r a c t e r s , l a r g e and s m a l l , become t e r r i b l y r e a l a n d moving a t some p o i n t and moment, u n d e r g o in g t h e i r own tr a g e d y o r f i n d i n g t h e i r own p e a c e .

The most i n c i d e n t a l f i g u r e s i n C haucer, S h a k e s p e a r e ,

o r D o sto y ev sk y a r e g iv e n a to u c h o f l i f e .

M oreover, t h e f o i l s a r e

e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by an r e l a t e d to th e t r a g i c h e r o , an d he i s e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and r e l a t e d to them .

F or exam ple, I n

S h a k e s p e a re th e h i g h l y a r i s t o c r a t i c f u n c t i o n o f th e Chorus I n Greek t r a g e d y i s tr a n s f o r m e d i n a C h r i s t i a n and d e m o c r a tic way. The G reek C horus, a p a r t from i t s more t e c h n i c a l d r a m a tic f u n c t i o n s

168 o f h a n d l i n g th e p ro b lem s o f e x p o s i t i o n , fo re s h a d o w in g , and a tm o s p h e r e , i s e i t h e r an i d e a l s p e c t a t o r v ie w in g th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eanings w ith o u t p a s s i o n o r s t a n d p o i n t from w i t h o u t — i n s h o r t a m i r r o r o f Greek d i v i n i t y — o r e l s e i s a common s p e c t a t o r who becomes too p a s s i o n a t e l y and m e a n in g l e s s l y i m p l i c a t e d i n th e c o u rs e o f e v e n t s .

I n th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e , • th e Chorus i s abo ve and

beyond th e t r a g i c h e r o , even more l i k e and c l o s e r to God th a n h e . I n th e second i n s t a n c e , th e Chorus i s a p i c t u r e o f human im p er­ f e c t i o n , w eakn ess, an d f r a i l t y , l e s s n ob le and g r e a t t h a n th e t r a g i c h e ro b e c a u s e th e y a r e even l e s s d e ta c h e d and d is e n g a g e d th a n h e .

But i n S h a k e s p e a re th e many m inor f i g u r e s a n d g ro u p s

who p erfo rm th e C h o ra l f u n c t i o n i n a C h r i s t i a n p la y a r e g iv e n t h e i r own to u c h o f l i f e — t h e P o r t e r i n M acbeth, th e F o o l i n L e a r. th e G ra v e d ig g e rs i n H am let, and th e s o l d i e r s i n Henry V.

The

o r d i n a r y and th e common man— th e man o f s m a ll o r no a c c o u n t — i s p i c t u r e d a s i n a s e n s e more e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d k i n g l y th a n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l and k i n g l y man.

T h is i s n o t sim p ly a s o c i a l o r a

p o l i t i c a l c o n t r a s t betw een a n a r i s t o c r a t i c and a d e m o c r a tic o r d e r . T here i s som ething w id e r an d d e e p e r h e r e th a n th e c o n t r a s t b etw een th e A th e n ia n n o l l e w i t h i t s h i e r a r c h y o f c l a s s e s b a s e d upon th e s l a v e r y o f men an d women on t h e one hand an d th e b r o a d e n in g dem­ o c r a c y o f an E l i z a b e t h a n E ng land e v o lv in g o u t o f a f e u d a l i n t o a m e r c a n tile order.

I t i s th e c o n t r a s t ,

th e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t , b e ­

tween Greek th e o lo g y and C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y and b etw een a Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y an d a C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d y .

I n a Greek

p l a y , th e key t o a m an's e x i s t e n c e and th e m easure o f h i s e x c e l l e n c e — a e s t h e t i c a l l y , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , m o r a lly , p o l i t i c a l l y o r r e l i g i o u s l y —

169 i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e one a s o v e r a g a i n s t th e many w h erea s i n a C h r i s t i a n p l a y b o th a m an's e x i s t e n c e and h i s e x c e l l e n c e a r e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e many who a r e o f s m a ll a c c o u n t.

The common, th e

o r d i n a r y , and th e f a m i l i a r a r e p e c u l i a r l y c h i l d r e n o f God.

And

th e y a r e c h i l d r e n o f God b e c a u s e t h e y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and r e l a t e d to t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eanings o f w h ich l i f e an d h i s t o r y c o n s i s t . The p l o t o f a Greek p l a y I s e s s e n t i a l l y c l o s e d a t th e b e g i n n i n g , a t th e m id d le , and a t th e en d .

The p l o t o f a C h r i s t i a n

p l a y i s e s s e n t i a l l y open a t t h e b e g i n n in g , a t th e m id d le , an d a t th e e n d .

I n t h i s s e n s e a Greek tr a g e d y i s a f u n c t i o n o f c irc u m ­

s t a n c e , f a t e an d doom, w h erea s a C h r i s t i a n tr a g e d y i s a f u n c t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r , fre ed o m , a n d r e d e m p tio n .

A Greek t r a g e d y i s a lm o s t

a l l end i n th e s e n s e o f b e i n g c l o s e d b e f o r e o r v e r y s h o r t l y a f t e r th e p l a y b e g i n s .

P a r t o f th e d ee p i r o n y o f a Greek p l a y d e r i v e s

from t h i s f a c t t h a t th e i n i t i a l s i t u a t i o n may a p p e a r t o be open— w i t h a penumbra o f a l t e r n a t i v e s ,

some r i g h t an d some wrong— when

i n f a c t t h e s i t u a t i o n i s c l o s e d an d th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n good and e v i l i s vague a n d am biguous.

A t th e m id d le o f a Greek p l a y ,

t h e t r a g i c h e ro I s i n t e r n a l l y f r e e b u t e x t e r n a l l y d e te r m in e d . H is i n n e r freedom t h e r e b y comes to n a u g h t. t h a t w hich he s e t o u t to c o n s e r v e o r c r e a t e . Greek p l a y i s a l l end.

He i s f o r c e d to d e s t r o y And th e end o f a

As A r i s t o t l e s a i d , t h e end i s so m e th in g

a f t e r w hich t h e r e i s n o t h i n g . The p l o t o f a C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d y has a r e a l b e ­ g in n i n g , a r e a l m id d le , an d a r e a l end.

The b e g in n in g i s r e a l

b e c a u s e th e i n i t i a l s i t u a t i o n i s f i l l e d w i t h r e a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s

170 b o t h f o r good an d f o r e v i l . o f th e p a s t .

The s i t u a t i o n i s i n p a r t in d e p e n d e n t

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e r e a l l y t h e r e .

They a r e o r d e r ­

ed i n r e l e v a n c e by God.

And some a r e d e t e r m i n a t e l y good an d o t h e r s

a re d e te rm in a te ly e v i l .

There i s a r e a l m id d le b e c a u se a t c e r t a i n

p o i n t s and moments t h e t r a g i c h e ro i s i n t e r n a l l y d e te r m in e d and e x te rn a lly fre e .

He i s f r e e to s e r v e o r to r e s i s t t h e p o s s i b i l i ­

t i e s , f r e e to p r e s e r v e o r to o b l i t e r a t e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s b etw een good and e v i l , a n d f r e e to s e r v e o r to b e t r a y h i m s e l f , o t h e r s , n a t u r e , and God.

And t h e r e i s a r e a l end i n

end i s a l s o a

new b e g i n n in g .

a lw a y s a r i s e s

o u t o f th e o l d l i f e .

an d an i s s u e . reb o rn .

th e s e n s e t h a t the

I n a C h r i s t i a n p l a y , a new l i f e There i s a datum, a d e c i s i o n ,

A t th e b e g in n in g o f t h e p l a y , th e p a s t d i e s and i s

I n th e m id d le , th e p r e s e n t s ta n d s o u t f o r i t s own sa k e ,

i n p a r t a n e f f e c t f a e i n g th e p a s t , and i n p a r t a c a u se f a c i n g th e fu tu re .

What h ap p en s i s r a d i c a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f a c a u se i n t e r n a l

to th e I n d i v i d u a l .

I n Greek t r a g e d y w hat happens i s i n l a r g e

p a r t a f u n c t i o n o f a c a u se e x t e r n a l to th e i n d i v i d u a l . i s no new l i f e a r i s i n g o u t o f th e o ld l i f e .

And t h e r e

A e s c h y lu s 1 t r a n s f o r m a ­

t i o n o f th e F u r i e s i n t o th e Eumenides a t th e end o f t h e O r e s t e l a . w ith i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f th e o l d o r d e r o f b lo o d - f e u d s i n t o a new o r d e r o f p e a c e w i t h i n th e p o l l s , i s r a r e i n Greek t r a g e d y . s t r i k i n g because i t i s r a r e .

The d e s p a i r o f O edipus a t Thebes

and a t Colonus i s more t y p i c a l . Greek t r a g e d y i s f a t e .

The God o f l i f e and h i s t o r y i n

And f a t e i s m a n 's enemy, n o t m an 's f r i e n d .

The i d e a l God i s a t r a n s c e n d e n t God. id e a l.

I t is

He i s a v o id o r a p o w e r le s s

O edipus t h e r e b y d i e s d e f i a n t an d u n r e c o n c ile d to th e r e a l

God o f l i f e and h i s t o r y .

And a modern t r a g i c h ero o f th e s k e p t i c a l

171 ty p e a l s o d i e s d e f i a n t , w eary, o b s e s s e d , o r m elanch oly, c u r s i n g th e day w h erein he was b o rn o r "sq u a n d e rin g h i s l i f e w a n to n ly a s i f I t were im m o rta l."

There i s no n o tio n o f r e b i r t h , o f r e s t o r a ­

t i o n , o f a new c r e a t u r e and a new l i f e , o f red em p tio n w i t h i n l i f e and h i s t o r y , and o f any e s s e n t i a l l y good news a t th e h e a r t o f Greek o r s k e p t i c a l d ra m a tic tr a g e d y .

There i s no r e a l b e f o r e an d no

r e a l a f t e r t h a t a r e a p a r t o f l i f e and h i s t o r y . hero does n o t even have one r e a l chance. h as a t l e a s t one r e a l chance. and y e t be born a g a in .

A Greek t r a g i c

A C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c hero

And In a s e n s e , he can s i n and s i n

I n f a c t , i n C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y mankind

c o n s t i t u t e s th e s h i f t i n g c h a r a c t e r o f God’s l i f e I t s e l f .

The b e ­

g in n in g s , th e m id d le s , and th e ends o f o u r l i v e s a r e th e b e g in n in g s , th e m id d les and th e ends o f G od's l i f e .

T h is i s th e r e a l t h i n g ,

n o t a copy o f th e r e a l th in g .

God's p r o c e s s i s h i s r e a l i t y .

re la te d n e ss Is h is c h a ra c te r.

I n C a th o lic th e o lo g y , th e em phasis

i s upon th e l a s t p a r t o f th e p r o c e s s . when a l l i s s a id and done. th e o lo g y .

G od's

The b e a t i f i c v i s i o n comes

T his i s th e Greek elem ent I n C h r i s t i a n

P r o t e s t a n t th e o lo g y i s more H e b ra ic .

The em phasis i s

upon th e sense o f h e r o i c c a l l i n g and m is sio n w ith in th e c e n t e r o f l i f e an d h i s t o r y .

And th e s t r u g g l e i s to g e t beyond th o s e t r a g i c

v i s i o n s which overwhelm a l l h e r o i c i d e a l s .

And y e t b o th C a th o lic

and P r o t e s t a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y s t r e s s t h a t t h e r e i s and can be som ething beyond tr a g e d y w i t h i n l i f e an d h i s t o r y . The f i n a l f a c t i s n o t a r e l a p s e i n t o m a tte r on th e one hand a s i n modern s k e p t i c a l p la y s o r an e l e v a t i o n beyond l i f e and h i s t o r y to some o t h e r w orld a s i n Greek p l a y s .

There I s an embrace o f t h i s

l i f e , an enchantm ent o f th e h e a r t i n t h i s w o rld , and a se n se o f

172 p ea ce h e r e and now even a s one sta n d s deep i n tr a g e d y .

T his I s th e

f o r c e and meaning o f b o th th e C ro ss and t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n . and pow er, mercy and j u s t i c e ,

G race

judgment and f o r g i v e n e s s a r e con­

j o in e d a s a s p e c t s o f one ev e n t o r s e r i e s o f e v e n ts and o f one mean­ in g o r one s e r i e s o f m eanings.

F i n i s and t e l o s . e f f i c i e n t cause

and f i n a l c a u s e , e v e n ts and m eanings come t o g e t h e r . g in n in g i s an en d .

And e v e r y end i s a b e g in n in g .

i n o r d e r t h a t you may be b o rn . b o rn a g a i n .

E v e ry b e­ Someone d i e s

And you must d i e i n o r d e r to be

T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s more th a n a denoument a t t h e end

o f a C h ris tia n p la y .

T here i s a r e a l c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e w ith l i f e ,

and a r e c r e a t i o n o f l i f e o ut o f l i f e .

We a r e i n t e r n a l l y , n o t J u s t

e x t e r n a l l y , r e l a t e d b o th b e f o r e and a f t e r . P e rh a p s th e most p o i n t e d way t o deepen t h i s g e n e r i c con­ t r a s t betw een a Greek and a C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s to com­ p a r e t h e u l t i m a t e e m o tio n a l, s e n s o r y , and I n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t s th e y have upon t h e i r a u d i e n c e s .

As A r i s t o t l e c o r r e c t l y o b s e rv e d

and r e a s o n e d , th e e f f e c t s o f a Greek p la y a r e p i t y and t e r r o r , b e c a u s e th e co n seq u en ces o f th e t r a g i c deed a r e alw ays i n e x c e s s o f an y s p e c i f i a b l e m oral g u i l t o r r e l i g i o u s s i n , an d y e t a t th e same tim e a r e r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e .

The e f f e c t s o f a

C h r i s t i a n p l a y a r e judgment and f o r g i v e n e s s , f o r th e r e a s o n t h a t th e co n seq u en c es o f t h e t r a g i c deed a r e o f t e n l e s s th a n th e s p e c i ­ f i a b l e m oral g u i l t o r r e l i g i o u s s i n , and a t th e same tim e a r e r e n d e r e d s u f f e r a b l e and m e a n in g fu l by v i r t u e o f th e t r a n s f i g u r i n g and re d e m p tiv e w ork in g o f m an's f a i t h and God's r e v e l a t i o n .

More­

o v e r , t h e c a t h a r s i s o r p u r i f i c a t i o n o f th e em otions by th e under­ s t a n d i n g o f which A r i s t o t l e spoke i s s h i f t e d i n a C h r i s t i a n p la y

173 from th e a u d ie n c e to th e i n n e r an d r i s i n g p u r g a t o r i a l movement w i t h i n t h e s o u l o f t h e t r a g i c h e ro h i m s e l f .

In t h i s sen se, a

C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o w i t n e s s e s h i s own s a l v a t i o n and h i s own t r a g i c b e a u ty .

By v i r t u e o f t h i s f a c t , a C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e ro

can f o r g i v e h i m s e l f a s w e l l a s o t h e r s , w h erea s a Greek t r a g i c h e ro f i r s t a c c u s e s n a t u r e , th e n o t h e r s , th e n God, and f i n a l l y b r i n g s t h e whole I n s u f f e r a b l e b u r d e n o f t r a g i c m is e ry down upon h i s own e s s e n c e .

A Greek p la y t h u s ends upon a n o te o f h o p e l e s s

and u n m it ig a t e d doom— deep and d a r k and p i t i f u l —w h erea s a C h r i s t i a n p l a y ends upon a n o t e o f f a i t h , hope, an d t r u s t . and th e r e a s s e r t i o n o f t h e h e a r t to new l i f e .

T h ere i s E a s t e r

T h ere i s p e a c e i n

t h e m id s t o f t r a g e d y by v i r t u e o f th e t r a n s f o r m i n g l i g h t and power o f g r a c e , w i t h i n and w i t h o u t . I n summary, Greek t r a g e d y p r e s e n t s l i f e a s u nredeem able i n p r i n c i p l e , an d a s unredeemed a t e v e ry p o i n t and moment i n f a c t . The f la w o f t h e t r a g i c h ero i s i n th e v e ry n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , w i t h i n an d w i t h o u t .

The n em esis o f doom i s som ething from w hich t h e r e

i s no e s c a p e an d som ething o v e r w hich n e i t h e r man n o r God have c o m p le te c o n t r o l o r ca n u n d e r s ta n d and e n jo y .

The movement i n

th e r e c o g n i t i o n sc e n e and th e r e v e r s a l i s from th e com placency o f ig n o r a n c e to th e b i t t e r n e s s o f t r u t h , from th e h e r o i c i d e a l to t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n .

But t h e r e i s no p e a c e .

T h is f a c t o f doom

i s v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e Greek t r a g e d i a n s .

A e s c h y lu s

s t r e s s e s th e heavy hand o f th e p a s t , th e I n h e r i t e d p r o p e n s i t i e s t o m o ra l, p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s e v i l , an d th e w o rking o u t o f a c u r s e r e l e n t l e s s l y by means o f t h e i n h e r i t e d h y b r i s o f a r u l i n g f a m il y .

S o p h o cle s s t r e s s e s t h e i r o n i c and p i t i f u l c o n j u n c t i o n s

o f m a n 's s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y w i t h i n , an d th e b l i n d c a p r i c e s and

174 n e c e s s i t i e s o f n a t u r e w ith o u t.

Sophocles a l s o s t r e s s e d th e

te n d e n c y o f th e human s p i r i t to have memories and dreams too v i v i d , to o c o m p lic a te d , and to o deep f o r l i f e to e x p r e s s them and m a in ta in i t s o r d e r to o .

And E u r ip id e s f o c u s e s upon th e s u b -

r a t i o n a l v i t a l i t y a t th e h e a r t o f human m o ti v a ti o n , a r e s t l e s s en e rg y t h a t t w i s t s and d r i v e s t h e human s p i r i t madly t h i s way and t h a t a p a r t from any s p e c i f i a b l e a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , m o ra l, p o l i t i c a l , o r r e l i g i o u s o r d e r .

But a l l t h e G reeks a g r e e

upon th e e s s e n t i a l h e l p l e s s n e s s o f th e human s p i r i t and o f i t s God,

God i s e i t h e r f a t e and th e r b y an enemy, o r a m e a n in g le ss

v o id and p o w e rle s s i d e a l .

I n any c a s e , what i s g iv e n w i t h i n th e

n a t u r e o f t h i n g s d oes not s u f f i c e to answ er th e c ry o f th e human sp irit.

At i t s e x tre m e , t h i s n o te o f doom a t th e h e a r t o f Greek

tr a g e d y l e a d s to th e p e s s i m i s t i c c o n c lu s io n t h a t i t i s b e t t e r f o r a man n e v e r to have been b o rn , o r t h a t "No man i s happy ' t i l l he d ie ."

Or i t can l e a d to th e b a n a l c o u n s e l o f p ru d e n c e — "N othing

too m uch,"

I t can a l s o le a d to th e v io le n c e and d e s p a i r o f

P ro m e th e u s ' "I am wronged.'" o r th e v i s i o n o f Oedipus s t a n d i n g f i x e d , s i g h t l e s s , and maimed.

Only by d raw in g what W hitehead

lias term ed th e " lo n g bow o f m y stic ism " — P l a t o n i c o r N e o - P l a to n ic — can th e s e n s e l e s s l y t r a n s i e n t e v e n ts and m eanings o f t h i s l i f e be tra n s m u te d i n th e name o f a n o t h e r n a t u r e , a n o t h e r l i f e , and a n o t h e r h i s t o r y where t h e r e " i s no u n r e s t , no t r a v e l , no s h i p ­ w reck:

'T h e re s h a l l be no more s e a ' , "

But th e p l a y s o f Shake­

sp eare and th e n o v e ls o f D ostoyevsky a r e i n a p ro fo u n d s e n s e C h r i s t i a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s .

T h e ir t r a g i c h e ro e s come to t r u s t

th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s l i f e , God’ s l i f e .

There i s a t h r u s t beyond

175 t r a g e d y to some " b r a v e new w o r l d ," and to a new God who i s n e i t h e r enemy, v o id o r I d e a l b u t f r i e n d .

T h is i s t h e s h i f t from L e a r ’ s

"What c a u se i n n a t u r e makes t h e s e h a rd h e a r t s ? " and "More s in n e d a g a i n s t th a n s in n i n g " to E d g a r 's " R ip e n e ss i s a l l . "

The movement

i s n o t from ig n o r a n c e to t h e b i t t e r n e s s o f t r u t h , b u t from knowl­ edge to s i n and from s i n to judgm ent and f o r g i v e n e s s .

T h e ir

t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e summoned to so m e th in g much more th a n d e f i a n c e , a c q u ie sc e n c e , o r r e s ig n a tio n .

They a r e summoned to th e good news

t h a t i s r e v e l a t i o n and f a i t h .

Even a s th e y s ta n d deep i n t r a g e d y ,

th e y come to lo v e th e t e n d e r n e s s o f l i f e i t s e l f , t r a n s p o r t e d by Joy even a s th e y s u f f e r t e r r i b l y i n f a c e o f ago ny .

They come to

a s a d n e s s and to a p e a c e t h a t i s beyond t r a n s i e n t p a i n o r t r a n s i ­ e n t p l e a s u r e , and beyond th e p r u d e n t s o b r i e t y o f f a c t o r r e a s o n . They a r e summoned to come f u l l c i r c l e from t h e s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y o f G reek t r a g e d y th r o u g h t h e c o n s c io u s o r u n c o n s c io u s i d o l a t r y o f C h r i s t i a n tr a g e d y to th e p e a c e and f o r g i v e n e s s th a n can come o f c o n t r i t i o n , r e p e n t a n c e an d f a i t h .

They a r e summoned to r e e n a c t

so m e th in g more th a n th e p a s s i o n and doom o f O edipus o r S o c r a t e s . They a r e summoned t o r e e n a c t t h e P a s s i o n and t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f Jesus C h rist.

PART VI :

THE THEOLOGICAL CONTENT AND LITERARY STRUCTURE OP GREEK DRAMATIC TRAGEDY P r e l i m i n a r y Remarks on Method and P o i n t o f View A r i s t o t l e 's P o e tic s A esc h y lu s S o p h o cles E u rip id e s I d e n t i t i e s an d D if f e r e n c e s Between and Among th e Greeks

P r e l i m i n a r y Remarks on Method and P o i n t o f View My p u rp o se i n t h i s and th e f o llo w in g p a r t i s to document t h e g e n e r a l theme an d th e o r y o f t h i s e s s a y by means o f c o n c r e te r e f e r e n c e to th e t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e o f Greek an d S h a k e s p e a re a n d r a m a tic tr a g e d y . P e r l c l e a n A th ens and E l i z a b e t h a n London en jo y ed th e two u n q u e s tio n a b ly g r e a t t h e a t r e s i n t h e W estern w o rld .

T h ere have

b een t h r e e o t h e r g r e a t t h e a t r e s , i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o r ta n t In d e e d , and y e t a p p a r e n t l y n o t so u n q u e s tio n a b ly g r e a t :

th e F re n ch Neo-

G l a s s i c drama o f R o stan d , M o lie r e , C o r n e i l l e , and R a c in e ; th e Abbey t h e a t r e o f th e modern I r i s h r e n a i s s a n c e , w h e re in th e names o f C a r r o l l , Synge, O 'C asey, and Y eats s ta n d o u t ; an d th e drama o f t h e r e s t o f t h e moderns— I b s e n , Shaw, Chekhov, E l i o t , J o y c e , P i r a n d e l l o , and L o rc a .

The Roman t r a g e d i e s and com edies o f S eneca,

P l a u t u s , and T ere n c e w ere, I u n d e r s ta n d , h i g h l y i m i t a t i v e o f and d e r i v a t i v e from th e G reek s.

The m e d iev a l m y stery and m o r a l i t y

p l a y s and i n t e r l u d e s w ere, I a l s o u n d e r s ta n d , more l i t u r g y and f e s t i v a l th a n t h e a t r e . The g r e a t f a c t o f s i m i l a r i t y betw een th e Greek and th e E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e s i s t h e i r wide s o c i a l b a s e .

They w ere b o th

p o p u la r t h e a t r e s — t h e a t r e s o f t h e many r a t h e r th a n o f t h e few. One g r e a t f a c t o f d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t th e Greek drama had a p r o ­ f o u n d ly r e l i g i o u s , m o ra l, and p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r , w h ereas th e E l i z a b e t h a n drama was more e x c l u s i v e l y s e c u l a r and a e s t h e t i c i n ap p e a l.

The Greek drama was c o n n e c te d from b e g in n in g to end 177

178 w ith t h e F e s t i v a l o f D io n y s iu s , e n j o y in g s a n c t i o n and s u p p o r t from th e p o l l s , t h e Greek c i t y - s t a t e .

The E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e ,

i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t , was q u i t e d is e n g a g e d from b o t h c h u r c h and s t a t e , a n d e v e n t u a l l y was i n f a c t c l o s e d by Cromwell d u r i n g t h e P u r i t a n r e v o l u t i o n a s b e in g d a n g e ro u s t o b o t h f a i t h an d m o r a ls . And y e t t h i s p r o v id e s a v ery s u p e r f i c i a l c o m p a riso n an d c o n t r a s t i n th e en d .

A wide s o c i a l b a s e ca n s t i l l in v o l v e a v e ry

a r i s t o c r a t i c view o f l i f e .

Greek d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s , i n th e

b e s t s e n s e , h i g h l y a r i s t o c r a t i c i n p o i n t o f view .

I do n ot mean

to r e f e r to sim p le t h i n g s l i k e t h e s t a t u s o f women, s e r v a n t s , o r s l a v e s upon th e s t a g e .

I mean th e more g e n e r a l h e r o i c an d h i e r ­

a r c h i c a l c o n c e p tio n o f human e x c e l l e n c e an d i t s r e v e r s e .

M oreover,

S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s a r e n o t q u i t e d e m o c r a tic i n th e modern s e n s e , even th o u g h th e y a r e q u i t e d e m o c r a tic when compared w ith th e G re ek s.

S i m i l a r l y , Greek r e l i g i o n i s n o t v e r y r e l i g i o u s i n th e

modern s e n s e —w h e th e r y o u r p o i n t o f view b e H e b r a l c - C h r i s t i a n o r sk e p tic a l.

And t h e E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e was h i g h l y t h e o l o g i c a l

and r e l i g i o u s i n c h a r a c t e r i n a n i n d i r e c t way and even q u i t e d i ­ r e c t l y , e x p l i c i t l y , and o p e n ly a t c e r t a i n c r u c i a l p o i n t s and moments.

The d i v i s i o n b etw een s a c r e d and s e c u l a r d ep en d s i n th e

l a s t r e s o r t upon y o u r own p o s i t i v e t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v iew . To a modern h u m a n ist o r a g n o s t i c b o t h t h e G reek and th e E l i z a b e t h a n t h e a t r e s a r e i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n c o m p le te ly n o n - t h e o l o g i c a l , i f n o t a n t i - t h e o l o g i c a l te r m s .

To C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n s ,

b o t h c a n a p p e a r a s e i t h e r v e ry r e l i g i o u s o r v e ry i r r e l i g i o u s , d ep e n d in g upon what k in d o f C a th o li c is m o r P r o t e s t a n t i s m i t i s from w hich you en deavo u r to s p e a k .

M oreover, t h e r e i s j u s t a s

179 g r e a t a d a n g e r I n r e a d i n g what happened i n l a t e r E n g l i s h s o c i a l an d r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y h a c k I n t o t h e E l i z a b e t h a n p e r i o d a s i t i s to r e a d a n H e b r a i e - C h r i s t i a n k in d o f th e o lo g y and r e l i g i o u s n e s s b a c k i n t o th e G re e k s. Be th e e e p u r e l y h i s t o r i c a l t h i n g s a s th e y may, I t h i n k i t i s b o th p o s s i b l e an d n e c e s s a r y to e l a b o r a t e a t h e o r y o f d r a ­ m a tic t r a g e d y t h a t i s b a s e d upon e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o l o g i c a l p r i n ­ c i p l e s an d d i s t i n c t i o n s .

Any such th e o r y must a p p e a l to th e

G reeks an d t o S h a k e s p e a r e a s i t s models i f i t i s t o b e c l e a r an d g e n e r a l .

M oreover, i t i s my own p e r s o n a l b e l i e f t h a t one o f

t h e g r e a t keys to th e e v o l u t i o n o f W estern th e o lo g y I t s e l f l i e s i n t h e I d e n t i t i e s an d d i f f e r e n c e s betw een G reek and S h a k e s p e a re a n d ra m a tic tra g e d y .

From a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view , th e c o n t e n t

o f Greek drama i s G reek, and t h e c o n t e n t o f S h a k e s p e a re a n drama i s a t o n ce G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , and s k e p t i c a l .

S h a k e s p e a re

t h e r e b y e n b r a c e s a l l t h e many t h e o l o g i c a l e le m e n ts t h a t have d o m in a te d r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r a n d m e n t a l i t y i n b o th t h e c l a s s i c a l and th e modern w o r l d s .

I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t i t becomes so

I n t e r e s t i n g an d I m p o r t a n t t o compare and t o c o n t r a s t t h e th e o ­ l o g i c a l c o n t e n t an d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e o f Greek an d S h a k e s p e a r e a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d y . The p l a y s o f t h e G re ek s—A e s c h y lu s , S o p h o c le s , and E u r i p i d e s — a r e to be remembered a s one o f th e g r e a t a c h ie v e m e n ts i n I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e o f a n y k in d .

And i n th e r e a lm o f d r a ­

m a tic t r a g e d y , a p a r t from S h a k e s p e a r e , t h e y rem a in u n s u r p a s s e d . And w h a t i s s t i l l more I m p o r t a n t , i n te rm s o f t h e theme an d th e o r y o f t h i s e s s a y , t h e y r e p r e s e n t one o f t h e f i r s t and one o f th e

180 g r e a t e s t e f f o r t s to e x p r e s s t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts and m eanings by means o f th e a e s t h e t i c symbolism l i t e r a t u r e can p r o v i d e . M oreover, to th e s e Greeks we owe n o th in g l e s s th a n th e c r e a t i o n o f one o f th e most fu n d a m e n ta l k in d s o f l i t e r a r y sym­ b o lis m human g e n iu s has e v e r d e v i s e d — t h e t h e a t r e , and t h e r e ­ e n a ctm en t o f t h e human drama b e f o r e an a u d ie n c e upon i t s s t a g e . And w hat i s more, th e y c r e a t e d th e k in d o f p l a y f o r t h i s medium t h a t h as p ro ven a g a i n and a g a in t o be th e most p ro fo u n d i n i t s r e n d e r i n g o f t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts and m eanings— t h e t r a g i c p l a y . The t r a g i c p l a y , a t i t s b e s t , has alw ay s b ee n t h e o l o g i c a l i n m o tiv e , t h e o l o g i c a l i n i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , and t h e o l o g i c a l in e ffe c t.

As a n a e s t h e t i c symbol I t h a s spoken from , a b o u t , and

to o u r d e e p e s t m oral and r e l i g i o u s i n t u i t i o n s .

The e s s e n c e o f

any d ra m a tic t r a g e d y i s tw o - f o ld i n c h a r a c t e r .

A ll th a t i s r e a lly

g r e a t i n men i s e x h i b i t e d a s f i n i t e , p r e t e n t i o u s , p e r v e r s e , weary o r i n e r t a p a r t from a d iv i n e r i g h t n e s s t h a t i s p r e s e n t e d to them, d i s c l o s i n g a v i s i o n t h a t men p a r t l y r e g a r d an d p a r t l y d i s r e g a r d , a v i s i o n i n te rm s o f w hich th e y a r e bo rn and l i v e and d i e .

In so ­

f a r a s th e y r e g a r d t h e e t e r n a l v i s i o n , th e y a t t a i n p e r f e c t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e i r n a t u r e s .

I n s o f a r a s th e y d i s r e g a r d i t ,

th e y

b e t r a y th e m s e lv e s , o t h e r s , n a t u r e , and God. I n th e hands o f A e s c h y lu s , S o p h o cle s an d E u r i p i d e s d ra m a tic tr a g e d y was a t i t s b e s t .

I n t h e i r a c h ie v e m e n ts , a l l t h a t i s g r e a t

a b o u t Greek th e o lo g y r e a l i z e d i t s e l f and was shown f o r t h i n a most v i s i b l e , i n t e l l i g i b l e , and a f f e c t i n g way.

T h e ir a t t a i n m e n t

s t i l l in fo rm s t h e w o rld i n b o th th e t h e o l o g i c a l and t h e l i t e r a r y dom ains.

From few men have we l e a r n e d more a b o u t e i t h e r th e o lo g y

181 or lite ra tu re .

F o r what i s b e s t w i t h i n and w ith o u t us i s s t i l l

i n l a r g e p a r t H e l l e n i c , A th e n ia n , and G reek.

T h ere have been

few er h i g h e r i d e a l s o f human e x c e l l e n c e , and few p r o f o u n d e r t h e o l o g i e s th a n th e le g a c y o f G reece. I do n o t want to be m is u n d e rs to o d .

I am n o t s a y in g t h a t

t h e b e s t o f what h a s been th o u g h t t h e o l o g i c a l l y o r s a i d d r a m a t i c a l l y was th o u g h t and s a i d by t h e s e t h r e e men.

I do t h i n k t h a t t h e r e

i s good r e a s o n f o r b e l i e v i n g t h i s to be i n p a r t o r v e ry n e a r l y th e c a s e .

The th e o lo g y and drama o f th e Greeks i s c a p a b le o f

im provem ent.

I t h i n k i t h a s i n f a c t been s u r p a s s e d , b o th i n

t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , by S h a k e s p e a re .

What

I mean to say i s t h a t th e s o r t o f d ra m a tic tr a g e d y th e G reeks c r e a t e d and en jo y e d i s c a p a b le o f e x p r e s s i n g one o f t h e w o r l d 's g r e a t e s t k in d s o f th e o lo g y .

I t h i n k t h i s k in d o f th e o lo g y i s im­

p o r t a n t an d t r u e , i n s o f a r a s i t g o e s . w hole t r u t h .

I do n o t t h i n k i t i s th e

And c o m p le te ly a p a r t from th e q u e s t i o n o f t r u t h ,

t h e r e i s th e p e r f e c t i o n o f a ty p e . T h is way o f lo o k in g a t Greek t r a g e d y , a s a form o f em­ p h a s i s , r u n s c o u n t e r to many p r e v a i l i n g n o tio n s c o n c e r n in g t h e s e p l a y s i n p a r t i c u l a r and c o n c e r n in g a l l t h a t i s Greek.

A ttic

d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s g e n e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, and what we owe to th e Greeks i s u s u a l l y c o n f in e d to what i s p u r e l y a e s t h e t i c o r i n t e l l e c t u a l .

The G reeks a r e s a i d

to have g iv e n us l i t e r a t u r e , p h ilo s o p h y , s c i e n c e and t h e a r t s . But i n m o r a ls , p o l i t i c s , and th e o lo g y th e y a r e f e l t t o have g iv e n us n o t h i n g .

The l e g a c y o f Greece i s th e l e g a c y o f b e a u ty and o f

t r u t h — n o t o f g oodness o r o f p i e t y .

M o r a li ty a n d r e l i g i o u s n e s s

182 ws owe t c th© C h r i s t i a n s an d t h e Jew s, E g y p tia n s and th e Romans.

T echnology we owe to t h e

I do n o t t h i n k t h i s i s w h o lly t r u e .

I t i s n o t my p u rp o s e a n d my h op e, how ever, to add to th e p e r s u a s i v e n e s s o f t h i s k in d o f th e o lo g y . u s e l e s s and u n n e c e s s a r y .

Such a n aim would be

T h at i n f l u e n c e i s h e r e and now.

I t is

w i t h i n us a n d a b o u t u s, more o r l e s s , i n e v e r y t h i n g we t h i n k and f e e l and d o .

My p u r p o s e i s sim p ly to e l u c i d a t e th e t h e o l o g i c a l

i n s i g h t s and i d e a s th e p l a y s c o n t a i n .

I s h a l l t r y to do so by

f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n upon th e way t h e i r l i t e r a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n en­ a b l e s t h i s c o n t e n t to show f o r t h i n a c l e a r s t r u c t u r e d , an d emo­ t i o n a l l y e f f e c t i v e way.

F or i t i s o n ly by means o f t h e i r l i t e r a r y

s t r u c t u r e t h a t th e t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts a n d m eanings o f t h e p l a y s can be known.

T h e ir l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s ts and em bodies th e

t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n ts an d m eanings to which th e p l a y s a l l e g o r i c a l l y refer. Of c o u rs e t h i s i s i n i t s e l f a most complex t o p i c — th e i n n e r c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e o f G reek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y .

I do n o t

i n t e n d to t r e a t o f even t h i s d e l i m i t e d t o p i c w ith a n y t h i n g l i k e th e p r e c i s i o n i t s d i f f i c u l t y an d Im p o rta n c e r e q u i r e .

I sim p ly

w ish to s t r e s s s e v e r a l p o i n t s a b o u t t h i s i n n e r c o n t e n t an d s t r u c ­ t u r e w hich s t a n d o u t i n my own mind a s most e s s e n t i a l f o r em phasis i f t h e y a r e n o t to be s e r i o u s l y m is u n d e r s to o d . not p r e f e r r e d w ith a u t h o r i t y .

My a n a l y s i s i s

T h at i s , t h e r e i s n o t meant to be

a n y th in g le a rn e d o r s c h o la r ly ab o u t i t .

I t may b e s t b e u n d e r s to o d

a s s u g g e s t i o n s o f f e r e d to th o s e i n a p o s i t i o n to be a b l e to r e f u t e o r t o c o n f ir m them.

My problem h a s b een t h e human p ro b le m .

What

do t h e s e Greek p l a y s come to i n a t h e o l o g i c a l and a l i t e r a r y way? I have so u g h t t o an sw e r t h i s human q u e s t i o n .

T here i s so m e th in g

183 b o l d a b o u t even su c h a human q u e s t i o n .

My o n ly hope i s t h a t I

have b e e n b o ld i n a d i f f i d e n t s o r t o f way. P e rh a p s t h e most c o n c r e t e way to in v o k e my method and p o i n t o f view i s to s t a t e c l e a r l y what i t i s n o t .

F o r exam ple,

i t would be v e ry i n t e r e s t i n g an d im p o r t a n t , f o r a c e r t a i n p u rp o s e and from a c e r t a i n p o i n t o f view , t o examine t h e v a s t s o c i a l , m o r a l, p o l i t i c a l , an d r e l i g i o u s i s s u e s , t e n s i o n s and c o n d i t i o n s i n te rm s o f w hich t h e s e p l a y s w ere w r i t t e n , from w hich th e y came, and to w hich t h e y may be s a i d i n some f a s h i o n o r o t h e r , however o b l i q u e and i n d i r e c t , t o a d d r e s s th e m s e l v e s .

The d e e p e n in g o f

o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and enjoym ent o f th e p l a y s th e ac c o m p lish m e n t o f su ch a n aim would make, an d th e

e x e rc is e o f th e p a r t i c u l a r

m ethods and s k i l l s o f s o c i a l - c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s i t s p e rfo rm a n c e would r e q u i r e , m ust n o t be o v e r lo o k e d o r u n d e r e s tim a te d .

T h e ir

a c h ie v e m e n t e x p l a i n s th e p e n e t r a t i o n o f Werner J a e g e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f A t t i c drama i n P a l d e l a . f o r h i s th o ro u g h m a s te r y o f t h e f u l l sweep o f Greek c u l t u r e an d c i v i l i s a t i o n e n a b le s him to see i n t h e s e p l a y s th e m ost p o w e rfu l and co m p lete r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h a t c u l t u r e ' s m a n y -sid e d and I n t e g r a l i d e a l . S i m i l a r l y , we m ig h t v e ry w e l l co n c e rn o u r s e l v e s w ith t h e way t h e s e p l a y s f u n c t i o n e d d y n a m ic a lly , i n t h e i r own r i g h t , a s s o c i a l o rg a n is m s i n th e c u l t u r a l sc e n e t h a t was H e l l e n i c A th e n s , s h a p in g and i n f l u e n c i n g anew th e c u l t u r e from w hich th e y had come, i n w hich th e y s t o o d , and f o r w hich th e y s e r v e d a s a c r i t i ­ cism a s w e l l a s a summing up.

F o r one o f t h e m a rv e ls o f A t t i c

dram a, a m arv el o n ly E l i z a b e t h a n drama has come c l o s e t o r i v a l l i n g o r s u r p a s s i n g s i n c e , was t h e o r g a n i c c o n n e c t i o n o f th e t h e a t r e

184 w ith th e common l i f e ,

su ch t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n an d enjoym ent o f

th e p l a y s in v o lv e d n o t m e re ly th e r e a l i s a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l d r a m a t i s t s and o f t h e i r s p e c i a l a u d i e n c e s , b u t t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f s o c i e t y i t s e l f , r e p r e s e n t i n g th e a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f a wide an d r i c h community, e x p r e s s i n g i t s c o n d i t i o n s , t e n s i o n s , p ro b le m s , I s s u e s , hop es an d f e a r s , and em bracin g th e w hole ex p an se o f i t s s u f f e r i n g and jo y , and o f i t s f a t e and d e s t i n y .

The m a s te ry o f

t h i s a s p e c t o f Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y i s th e a t t a i n m e n t o f w hich th e p e n e t r a t i o n o f George Thom son's A e sc h y lu s and A th e n s c o n s i s t s . Or we m ig h t s h i f t our1 i n t e r e s t and a t t e n t i o n from th e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e s e p l a y s a s s o c i a l o rg a n ism s t o t h e i r e x c e l l e n c e p u r e l y a s a e s t h e t i c a c c o m p lis h m e n ts , t h a t i s , to a c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f th e e v o t l o n , p a r t l y by c o l l e c t i v e i n h e r i t a n c e , p a r t l y by i n d i ­ v i d u a l i n n o v a t i o n and g e n i u s , o f t h e d r a m a tic c o n v e n t i o n s , s t y l e s , d e v i c e s , them es, a n d p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n w hich t h e s e drama­ t i s t s had to work, l i m i t a t i o n s and r e s t r i c t i o n s w hich d i s c i p l i n e d , r e l e a s e d , an d gave r a n g e an d v a r i e t y o f form and c o n t e n t to t h e i r p la y s.

T h is i s th e g r e a t n e s s o f w hich Roy F l i c k i n g e r ' s The G reek

T h e a t r e and i t s Drama, an d K i t t o ' s Greek T rag ed y :

A L ite ra ry

S tu d y c o n s i s t s . The d a n g e r o f t h e s e many aim s and m ethods f o r my p u rp o s e and p o i n t o f view h a s r e s i d e d i n th e f a c t t h a t th e y c o u ld have p r e p a r e d me f o r t h e a c t and t h e a r t o f r e a d i n g , b u t ta k e n a l o n e , c o u ld n o t have a c c o m p lis h e d i t .

V iew ing t h e s e p l a y s a s s o c i a l

o r g a n is m s , w h e th e r a s p r o d u c t s o r a s f o r m a tiv e a g e n c i e s , o r a s works o f a r t i n a p u r e l y f o rm a l o r t e c h n i c a l s e n s e on th e o t h e r , sim p ly h a s b e e n i n c a p a b l e o f bringing me to t h e p o i n t w here I

185 c o u ld re c k o n w ith th e p la y s f o r what I t h i n k th e y most I n t e r e s t ­ i n g l y and I m p o rta n tly a r e —pro fo u n d d i s c l o s u r e s o f th e human s i t u a ­ t i o n from th e p o i n t o f view o f one o f th e w o r l d 's g r e a t k in d s o f th e o lo g y , a kind o f th e o lo g y t h a t i s a s r e l e v a n t h e r e and now a s t h e r e and th e n .

For such a p u rp ose and from such a p o i n t o f view,

I have b een d r iv e n to do no more and no l e s s th a n t r y to e n c o u n te r th e p la y s a s th e y have come down to us and s ta n d b e f o r e us, t h a t i s , a s documents w ith s u f f i c i e n t I n t e g r i t y to speak f o r them selv es u n a id e d .

What I have sought to en c o u n ter i s th e kin d o f th e o lo g y

f u l l y p r o j e c t e d and embodied i n t o them, a q u a l i t y o f t h e o l o g i c a l d e p th t h a t can a lo n e c o n s t i t u t e t h e i r cla im to be Im m ediately, r e c u r r e n t l y , and p e r s i s t e n t l y r e v e a l i n g .

I have sought to r e c a l l

and ta k e s e r i o u s l y once a g a in th e f a c t t h a t th e c o n d i t i o n i n g o f a t r a d i t i o n , o f a c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n , and o f a s o c i e t y , may e x p la in a v i s i o n o f l i f e b u t can no t e x p la in i t away.

The kind of

r e c k o n in g a modern c r i t i c h as i n s i s t e d upon i n c o n n e c tio n w ith a n o th e r profound r e a d e r o f m an's r e l i g i o u s n a tu r e and d e s t i n y , N a th a n ie l Hawthorne, i s th e one I t h in k must be sought f i r m l y everywhere and t h e r e f o r e h e r e , l e s t l i t e r a r y documents become mere v e h i c l e s o f w hat p e r i s h e s and has i t s day r a t h e r th a n d i r e c t d i s c l o s u r e s o f what rem ains e v e r l a s t i n g l y i n v a r i a n t w ith in s h i f t ­ in g g u is e s : T h is re c k o n in g can be made o nly i f we s t a r t from i n s i d e , so to speak—o n ly i f , i n s t e a d o f d is c o u n tin g h is views a s p a r t o f a w o rld gone by, we t r y to e x p e rie n c e to th e f u l l what he th o u g h t and f e l t about human d e s t i n y . For o n ly th en w i l l we be i n a p o s i t i o n to t e s t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a g a i n s t o t h e r s , and a g a i n s t what we o u r s e lv e s may b e l i e v e to be prim­ a r y f o r c e s In th e u n iv e r s e .

186 A r i s t o t l e 's P o e tic s And y e t we a r e f o r t u n a t e i n h a v in g i n h e r i t e d a c l e a r , d i s c i p l i n e d and g e n e r a l s ta te m e n t by a co n tem p o rary o f th e k in d o f G reek th e o lo g y w hich im p e lle d th e Greek t r a g e d i a n s to c r e a t e d r a m a tic t r a g e d i e s , and t h e s p e c i a l kin d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e t h a t k in d o f th e o lo g y r e q u i r e d an d sh ap ed .

I r e f e r o f c o u r s e to

th e c l a s s i c te rm s an d p r i n c i p l e s o f A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s , f o r w hich t h e p l a y s o f th e Greek t r a g e d i a n s p r o v id e d t h e c o n c r e t e m odels. I n s p e a k in g o f A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s a s c l a s s i c , by " c l a s s i c " we must mean more th a n f i r s t o r o l d , namely among th e f r e s h e s t an d th e b e s t , f o r t h e P o e t i c s c o n t a i n s l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , a n a l y s i s and c r i t i c i s m o f t h e f u l l e s t p r o p o r t i o n , g i v i n g a s th e y do a n ex­ p l a n a t i o n o f th e t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t an d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e o f Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y t h a t does c o n s i d e r a b l e J u s t i c e to th e i n ­ t e r n a l p r i n c i p l e s o f m o r a l i t y an d r e l i g i o u s n e s s t h a t a r e so f u l l y th e re . And y e t one h a s to be c a r e f u l , l e s t i n c o n s u l t i n g t h i s docum ent, one comes s l a v i s h l y to p o s s e s s m erely p r e c o n c e iv e d i d e a s c o n c e r n in g what Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y was in te n d e d to be and do. Some have i n s i s t e d upon t a k i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s t h i s s e r i o u s l y , a s i f i t i n f a c t c o n t a i n s a u n i v e r s a l d e f i n i t i o n o f e v e ry k in d o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y t o w hich th e o lo g y can g iv e r i s e , o r a s i f h i s p r i n c i p l e s a r e a p p l i c a b l e to a l l d r a m a tic t r a g e d y — C h r i s t i a n , H e b r a ic , and s k e p t i c a l — a s th e y a r e to t h e G reek.

A ris to tle , or

more e x a c t l y h i s f o l l o w e r s , may i n s i s t upon b e in g t h i s p resu m p tu o u s, b u t i n many I n s t a n c e s th e f a c t s sim p ly r e f u s e to b e a r them o u t . We s h a l l d i s c o v e r t h a t t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n p r i n c i p l e s e s s e n t i a l l y

18? and c o m p le te ly a p p l y to o n ly one o f t h e G reeks:

to th e p l a y s o f

S o p h o c le s, b u t n o t a t a l l e s s e n t i a l l y o r c o m p le te ly t o th o s e o f A esc h y lu s o r E u r i p i d e s .

N o n e th e le s s , th e in ad eq u ac y o f many o f

A r i s t o t l e ’s o b s e r v a t i o n s and r e a s o n i n g s , b o r n a s th e y a r e o f a s p e c i f i c k in d o f Greek th e o lo g y , ca n n o t o b s c u re from us t h e im­ p o r ta n c e o f h i s aim t h a t a s k s a l l th e more i n s i s t e n t l y to be a d e q u a t e l y p erfo rm e d — t h e t a s k o f s e e in g t h e Greek p l a y s under th e a s p e c t o f t h e i r I d e n t i t i e s and a n a l o g i e s r a t h e r th a n m erely under th e a s p e c t o f t h e i r c o n t r a s t s and d i f f e r e n c e s .

The p r o j e c t

i s e x t r a v a g a n t and ru n s c o u n te r to th e aim s o f much c r i t i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p , t e x t u a l o r h i s t o r i c a l , b u t i t i s th e en deav ou r to which we s h a l l have to r e t u r n and f o r w hich e v e r y t h in g e l s e t h a t must be s a i d i s b u t p e r i p h e r a l and a p r e p a r a t i o n . A r i s t o t l e a t t e m p t s to u n d e r s ta n d Greek d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i n term s o f i t s m otive o r i n t e n t , i t s I n n e r e o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , and i t s e f f e c t .

These a r e h i s f o u r c a u s e s — e f f i c i e n t , m a t e r i a l ,

f o rm a l, an d f i n a l . I t i s alw a y s I m p o rta n t to remember t h a t A r i s t o t l e i s n o t sim p ly a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i n th e modern s e n s e .

He i s a t h e o l o g i a n ,

a p h i l o s o p h e r , a s c i e n t i s t , a p o l i t i c a l and m oral t h i n k e r a p p ly ­ in g a f u l l - b l o w n cosmology to t h e a n a l y s i s o f a s p e c i f i c k in d o f l i t e r a r y work. A r i s t o t l e says t h a t th e m otive o r i n t e n t o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s m im etic.

L ik e th e o t h e r a r t s and l i k e th e o t h e r l i t e r a r y

»

g e n re — th e l y r i c and th e e p i c — d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s a r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n o r a n i m i t a t i o n o f l i f e an d n a t u r e .

U n lik e th e l y r i c and

th e e p i c , th e t r a g e d y i s e n a c te d r a t h e r th a n sung o r n a r r a t e d .

188 T h ere i s some l a c k o f c l a r i t y and c e r t a i n t y c o n c e r n in g w hat m im esis p r e c i s e l y means.

To my mind i t does n o t mean t h e

r e a l i s t i c i d e a l o f h o l d i n g a m i r r o r up t o n a t u r e .

I t means t h e

a t t e m p t to p r e s e n t w hat i s a c t u a l i n l i f e w ith what I s p o s s i b l e f o r i t — to c a p t u r e t h e e s s e n c e , th e t e l o s r t h e f i n a l p r i n c i p l e o f calm a n d o f u n r e s t — i n s h o r t , th e a l l e g o r i c a l i d e a l . The e f f e c t I s th e a r o u s a l o r p i t y and t e r r o r an d t h e i r c a t h a r s i s , p u rg a tio n , o r c le a n s in g in th e a u d ie n c e . t h e r e i s some v a g u e n e ss and u n c e r t a i n t y .

Once a g a i n ,

In g e n e ra l, I th in k I t

i s s a f e to sa y t h a t A r i s t o t l e i s a t t e m p t i n g to a s s e r t t h a t drama­ t i c t r a g e d y sh o u ld n e i t h e r d e p r e s s i n a r e a l i s t i c way o r e x a l t i n a f a n t a s t i c way.

T h is a g a i n i s t h e a l l e g o r i c a l i d e a l — th e a t t e m p t

to e x h i b i t th e m eanings o f l i f e a s n o t c o m p le te ly c a p a b le o f f u l l e x p r e s s i o n i n th e e v e n ts o f l i f e . I n s o f a r a s i n n e r c o n t e n t an d s t r u c t u r e a r e c o n c e rn e d , A r i s t o t l e sa y s t h a t th e p u r p o s e o f a d r a m a tic tr a g e d y i s to r e v e a l a c o m p lic a te d human c h a r a c t e r I n a d e v e lo p in g seq u en ce o f s i t u a ­ t i o n s o r p l o t t h a t com bines t h e p r e s s u r e o f c i r c u m s ta n c e a n d a d e f e c t o r h a m a r tla i n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i n s u c h a way a s to w ork h i s ru in , p e rip e ty o r r e v e rs a l o f fo rtu n e .

I n th e r e c o g n i t i o n sc en e

o r a n a g n o r i s i s t h e t r a g i c h e ro must move from ig n o r a n c e to knowl­ ed g e , r e c o g n i s i n g h i s f u l l I m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m e an in g s.

A s e n s e o f i r o n y m ust d o m in a te t h i s c r u c i a l p o i n t

an d moment i n th e dram a, f o r t h e tr a g e d y I s s u e s from a p u r e l y i n ­ t e l l e c t u a l e r r o r I n Judgment by v i r t u e o f w h ich t h e t r a g i c h e ro h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e d e f e a t o f t h e v e r y t h i n g he I n t e n d e d . The f u n d a m e n ta l e le m e n ts I n A r i s t o t l e ' s scheme a r e a

189 t r a g i c h e r o who i s e s s e n t i a l l y l i k e u s, n e i t h e r a v i l l a i n n o r a s a i n t , f o r t h i s i s th e meaning o f a c h a r a c t e r a s o p p o sed t o a mere f i g u r e , o u t l i n e o r ty p e on t h e one h an d , o r a f u l l y d e t a i l e d i n d i v i d u a l i t y on t h e o t h e r ; a f la w o r h a m a r tla i n a c r e a t u r e o t h e r ­ w ise p e r f e c t , a fla w t h a t i n v o l v e s no e x p l i c i t m o ral o r r e l i g i o u s g u i l t , a f la w o f w h ich th e e s s e n c e I s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e r r o r i n Judgm ent, a f a i l u r e to t a k e t h e w i d e s t p o i n t o f view , a f a i l u r e to t a k e th o u g h t a n d lo o k b o th b e f o r e and a f t e r ; a p l o t i n v o l v i n g b a c k g ro u n d , i n i t i a l s i t u a t i o n , e x p o s i t i o n , c o m p l i c a t i o n s , c r i s i s , c a t a s t r o p h e , a n d d e n o u m e n t , w hereby th e t r a g i c h e r o ' s h i g h f o r t u n e o r e s t a t e s u f f e r s a p e r i p e t y o r r e v e r s a l fro m h a p p i n e s s to m is e r y ; a p e r i p e t y b r o u g h t on n e i t h e r by th e s h e e r p r e s s u r e o f u n u s u a l o u t e r c i r c u m s ta n c e a l o n e o r by th e e n g u l f i n g w eakness o f a n o v e r ­ m a s t e r i n g s i n o r a b n o r m a l i t y ta k e n s i n g l y , b u t by t h e c o m p lic a te d i n t e r w e a v i n g o f a f la w i n a c r e a t u r e o t h e r w i s e p e r f e c t and a p r e s ­ s u r e i n a c i r c u m s ta n c e o t h e r w i s e , n a t u r a l , n o rm a l, " p r o b a b le " and n e c e s s a r y ; a r e c o g n i t i o n sc e n e o r a n a g n o r i s i s w h erein t h e t r a g i c h e ro comes f u l l c i r c l e from h ig h t o law e s t a t e , and w h e re in he a c c u s e s th e v e ry c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e f o r s u g g e s t i n g m eanings i n p r i n c i p l e t h a t a r e i n c a p a b l e o f co m p lete embodiment i n f a c t .

Im­

p o r t a n t i n n e r w o rk in g p r i n c i p l e s f o r th e d r a m a t i s t become th e la w s o f n e c e s s a r y and p r o b a b le r e s u l t i n t h e a c t i o n , and th e a r o u s a l o f p i t y and f e a r and t h e i r e v e n t u a l c a t h a r s i s o r c l e a n s i n g i n th e e f f e c t on th e au d ien ce .

We f e e l p i t y b e c a u s e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f

t h e t r a g i c d eed a r e i n e x c e s s o f any s p e c i f i a b l e m oral o r r e l i g i o u s g u i l t ; an d f e a r b e c a u s e th e c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s re m o rs e ­ l e s s and I r r e v e r s i b l e .

We f e e l c l e a n s e d by c a t h a r s i s b e c a u s e t h e

s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y o f th e t r a g i c h e r o , v i s i b l e , i n t e l l i g i b l e , and

190 a f f e c t i n g by v i r t u e o f th e l a c k o f p o e t i c J u s t i c e , e n a b le s us to a p p re h e n d a r i c h n e s s o f p o t e n t i a l i t y t h a t i s i n c a p a b l e o f com plete e x p r e s s i o n i n f a c t — a r i c h n e s s i n term s o f w hich th e t r a g i c h ero and we can s u f f e r and f o r e b e a r . The o n ly way to a c c o u n t f o r A r i s t o t l e ' s b a s i c te r m s , p r i n ­ c i p l e s , and t e s t s , i s to s e a r c h o u t th e k in d o f Greek th e o lo g y from w hich th e y w ere ded uced , and i n term s o f w hich th e y were s e l e c t e d , e m p h asised , and sh ap ed .

A r i s to tle 's s p e c ific a tio n of

th e m o tiv e , i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , an d e f f e c t o f Greek d r a m a tic tr a g e d y f o l l o w s I n e x o r a b l y , I t h i n k , from t h a t k in d o f Greek th e o lo g y w hich had a fu n d a m e n ta l se n s e f o r human im p e r f e c ­ t i o n , f i n l t u d e and l i m i t a t i o n such t h a t i t must be s a i d t h a t no man i s so good a s to be p e r f e c t ,

s in c e e v e ry man has a f la w w hich

can c o n j o i n w ith t h e b u rd e n o f c irc u m s ta n c e to b r i n g on h i s r e ­ v e r s a l from h ig h e s t a t e ; and y e t a se n se o f i m p e r f e c t i o n and f i n l t u d e n o t so r a d i c a l a s to c a n c e l o u t a s c o m p e llin g a s e n s e o f human g ra n d e u r an d s t r e n g t h , a n i m p e r i s h a b i l i t y t h a t I n some f a s h i o n o r o t h e r r e s o l v e s th e t r a g i c c o n f l i c t and t r a n s f i g u r e s th e f a l l e n hero i n th e nane o f a p e r f e c t i o n e n v is a g e d i n p r i n c i p l e t h a t he i s not In f a c t .

F or o n ly when a c o m p lic a te d t r a g i c h e ro

o f such mixed d im e n sio n s i s b ro u g h t low a r e we e n a b le d t o come to te rm s w ith th e m in g led g l o r y an d h o r r o r a t th e h e a r t o f l i f e .

We

a r e c r e a t u r e s f a t e d on th e one hand to stu m b le and f a l l , and on th e o t h e r hand d e s t i n e d to r i s e d e s p i t e th e f a l l an d th e i m p e r f e c t i o n i t re v e a ls.

I n r i s i n g we can p i t th e i n t e g r i t y o f o u r s t r e n g t h

a g a i n s t th e r e s i s t a n c e o f c ir c u m s ta n c e w ith o u t and w eakness w i t h i n . The d r i v i n g f o r c e o f t h i s a p p r e h e n s io n i s n ot p e s s i m i s t i c , f o r i t

191 does n o t e n v is a g e th e d e s t i n y o f man e x c l u s i v e l y i n te rm s o f m e a n in g le s s d e f e a t .

Nor i s i t o p t i m i s t i c i n th e s e n s e o f a f f i r m ­

in g a v i c t o r y above and beyond th e s tu b b o r n n e c e s s i t i e s and cap ­ r i c e s w ith o u t and t h e w eak nesses w i t h i n .

An in e x o r a b l e b a l a n c e ,

p r o p o r t i o n o r harmony i s s u s t a i n e d betw een u n m itig a te d d e s p a i r and u n d i s c i p l i n e d op tim ism .

The deep t h e o l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s

te n sio n in e x iste n c e i s p rese rv e d .

The l a s t word and th e n o te

o f f i n a l i t y a r e s to p p e d s h o r t o f e i t h e r u n su rm o u n ta b le f r u s t r a t i o n or e x p e c ta tio n o f a b s o lu te f u lf illm e n t.

The s e n s e o f hope i s

tem pered by th e n o te o f f a t e d d e s t r u c t i o n i g n o r a n t l y e n a c te d and know ingly e n d u red , w ith trem endous p i t y and t e r r o r f o r t h e re m o rse ­ l e s s n e s s o f th e f a l l and th e i r r e v e r s i b i l i t y o f th e r e v e r s a l .

The

se n se o f d e s p a i r i s tem pered by t h e ch o rd o f more i d e a l h arm on ies h a u n t in g and ju d g in g th e in c o m p le te n e s s o f a c t u a l i t y w ith v i s i o n s of deeper p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

The r e a l se n se o f d e s p a i r d e r i v e s from

th e p o ig n a n t r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t th e v i s i o n , th e l u r e , t h e memory and th e dream o f u n r e a l i s e d p o s s i b i l i t y i s f e l t t o im p in g e, h o v e r , and h a u n t o v e r l i f e , b u t e s s e n t i a l l y l a c k i n g i n power to e f f e c t i t s own r e a l i s a t i o n .

N a tu re — n e c e s s i t y and chan ce— w ith o u t w i l l

n o t w ith d raw i t s c h a l l e n g e , f o r i t cann ot re sp o n d to th e p e r s u a ­ s iv e n e s s o f any l u r e .

And human

l i f e w i t h i n , even when to u c h e d ,

k i n d l e d , an d h a u n te d by a v i s i o n o f i d e a l p e r f e c t i o n s beyond any a c t u a l I n t h i s w o rld , d i s c l o s e s a w eakness, an i m p e r f e c t i o n , and a fin ltu d e .

And y e t t h e p e r s u a s i v e v i s i o n o f i d e a l p o s s i b i l i t y

can t r a n s f i g u r e f i n l t u d e w i t h th e glow o f w hat m ight have b een and y e t i s n o t .

By v i r t u e o f the s e a r i n g s u g g e s t i v l t y o f t h i s flam e

th e human s p i r i t can p i t i t s s t r e n g t h h e r o i c a l l y and a lm o s t i n

192 d e f i a n c e a g a i n s t w hat i s immovable w i t h i n and w i t h o u t .

And y e t —

and t h i s i s t h e p i t y a n d t h e t e r r o r o f i t a l l — t h e r e i t i s b r o k e n . I n s o f a r a s A r i s t o t l e in v o k e s t h i s m y s t i c a l v i s i o n o f i d e a l p o s s i ­ b i l i t y he i s H e l l e n i c , a n d i n s o f a r a s he i n v o k e s t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e o n l y way to win i s to become e s s e n t i a l l y u n q u a l i f i e d by and u n r e l a t e d to t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s and meanings he i s H e l l e n i s t i c . The m y s t i c a l s e n s e o f p l e n i t u d e p o i n t s b a c k to P l a t o and some o f the P r e - S o c r a ti c s .

The p e s s i m i s t i c s e n s e t h a t "no man i s happy

u n t i l he d i e s " and t h a t t h e o n l y way to win i s t o make few demands upon l i f e p o i n t s f o r w a r d to t h e S t o i c s an d t h e E p i c u r e a n s . A e s c h y lu s The d i f f i c u l t y I have w i t h A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s , f o r a l l t h a t i s c l e a r , s t r u c t u r e d , and deep a b o u t i t ,

i s t h a t A e s c h y le a n

d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y p r o v i d e s example s o f a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r i n g k i n d o f Greek t h e o l o g y .

Many l a t e r c r i t i c s have so u g h t t o surmount

t h e d i s c r e p a n c y w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t A e s c h y le a n t h e o l o g y i s p r i m i t i v e and c r u d e , and t h a t h i s l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s a r e s i m i ­ l a r l y s h o r t o f S o p h o c le a n m a s t e r y .

But t h e d i f f i c u l t y r e a f f i r m s

i t s e l f w i t h even a c a s u a l r e - r e a d i n g o f t h e A e s c h y le a n p l a y s .

A

p r o f o u n d k in d o f Greek t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e l i e s b e f o r e , w i t h i n , and a f t e r them.

We have no g r e a t e r Greek p l a y s t h a n

P rom etheus Bound o r t h e f i r s t and l a s t p o r t i o n s o f t h e O r e s t e l a : Agamemnon and Eumenldes.

And even t h e e a r l i e r and more minor

Septem. P e r s i a n s , a n d The S u p p l i a n t s e x h i b i t a r e m a r k a b l y c o h e r e n t a n d p e n e t r a t i n g k i n d o f u n i t y o f c o n c e p t i o n , e x e c u t i o n , and e f f e c t . A e s c h y lu s i s i n a s e n s e t h e f a t h e r o f Greek d r a m a t i c trag edy .

I n a s e n s e he i s t h e g r e a t e s t o f them a l l .

He does

193 s t a n d n e a r e r to i t s o r i g i n s i n p r i m i t i v e em o tio n , r i t u a l , b e l i e f , p o l i t y , a n d myth.

And y e t t h i s d o es n o t mean t h a t e i t h e r h i s

th e o lo g ic a l m otifs o r l i t e r a r y s tr u c t u r e s a re p r im itiv e , a r c h a ic , or in ep t.

Once you s e t t h e i r a u s t e r e k in d o f c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c ­

t u r e o v e r a g a i n s t t h e b ac k g ro u n d o f t h e o l d P r e - h o m e r i c t h e o l o g i e s a n d r e l i g i o n s , and even o v e r a g a i n s t t h e k in d o f t h e o l o g y and r e ­ l i g i o u s n e s s Homer r e p r e s e n t s , A e s c h y lu s b e g i n s to t a k e on h i s proper s ta tu r e .

F a r from b e i n g t h e more o r t h o d o x , c o n v e n t i o n a l ,

a n d t r a d i t i o n - b o u n d o f t h e Greek d r a m a t i s t s , he becomes t h e most r a d i c a l o f them a l l .

H is t r a g i c h e r o e s

t e a r to p i e c e s t h e a r i s ­

t o c r a t i c Homeric gods o f th e Olympian p a n t h e o n , no l e s s t h a n t h e vague daemonss and l o c a l t r i b a l , a g r a r i a n , and p h a l l i c d e i t i e s . They a r e i n p a s s i o n a t e s e a r c h o f a God w orthy o f t h e w o r s h ip he inspires.

A e s c h y lu s s t a n d s a t t h e dawn o f H e l l e n i s m , f r e s h from

t h e v i c t o r i e s a t Marathon and S a l a m i s , and f i l l e d w i t h p a t r i o t i c re lig io u s fervor.

His t a s k i s to t r a n s f o r m t h e gods t h a t were

i n t o t h e God t h a t i s t o b e . o f c r i t i c i s m and p r o p h e s y . w ider h o riz o n .

H is p l a y s a r e do m in a te d by a s e n s e No o t h e r Greek t r a g e d i a n swept a

H is v i s i o n i s sw eeping and m a n y -s id e d .

When

s o p h o c l e s d e l i m i t s t h e seope o f h i s t h e o l o g i c a l a n d m o ral m o t i f s i n t h e name o f i n n e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y , and when E u r i p i d e s a d d s t r a g i - c o m e d y , romance, s a t i r e , and melodrama to t h e p r i m o r d i a l A e s c h y le a n s e v e r i t y so m e th in g i s l o s t a s w e l l a s g a i n e d .

Moreover,

by way o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , when S o p h o c le s a d d s t h e d i a l o g u e and i n t e r p l a y o f drama to t h e l y r i c i n t e n s i t y a n d e p i c g e n e r a l i t y o f A e s c h y l u s ; and when E u r i p i d e s r e n d e r s t h a t drama more and more d o m e s t i c and c o n c e r n e d w i t h im m edia te p o l i t i c a l , m o r a l, s o c i a l

194 and economic i s s u e s so m e th in g i s a l s o l o s t a s w e l l a s g a i n e d . Moreover, A e s c h y lu s s h a r e s w i t h P l a t o t h e c l a i m o f b e i n g among t h o s e G reeks who most f u l l y f ore shadow ed i n p r i n c i p l e some o f t h e p r o f o u n d e r I n s i g h t s o f H e b r a i c - C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . "Prom etheus c h a i n e d t o h i s rock" i s t h e one image we c a n in v o k e to p l a c e b e ­ s i d e t h e Book o f J o b ; a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e F u r i e s i n t o t h e Eumenides a t t h e end o f t h e O r e s t e l a I s t h e most l u c i d , s t r u c ­ t u r e d , and a f f e c t i n g a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e symmetry o f t h e C h r i s t i a n sto ry .

F or t h e t h e o l o g i c a l movement a t t h e end o f A e s c h y l u s '

g r e a t e s t a n d s i n g l e e x t a n t co m p le te t r i l o g y i s from j u s t i c e to mercy, and from t h e t r a g e d y o f doom, d a r k , p i t i f u l and d e e p , to so m e th in g r e d e m p t i v e and beyond t r a g e d y . Even t h e t h r e e e a r l y A e s c h y l e a n p l a y s we h a v e , t h e P e r s i a n s . The S u p p l i a n t s , a n d Septem b e lie a n y a t t e m p t t o m inimize th e t h e o ­ l o g i c a l c l a r i t y a n d power o f t h e i r m a s t e r .

E s p e c ia lly the P e r s ia n s

s t a n d s o u t , somewhat above and beyond t h e o t h e r two.

T h is i s th e

one Greek t r a g e d y t h a t f r a n k l y employs c o n tem p o rary e v e n t s and meanings r a t h e r t h a n l e g e n d a n d myth a s i t s m a t e r i a l .

The s u b j e c t

m a t t e r i s t h e r e c e n t V i c t o r y o f t h e Greeks o v e r t h e P e r s i a n h o s t a t M arathon and S a l a m i s , a trem endous m i l i t a r y and n a v a l v i c t o r y i n w hich A e s c h y lu s h i m s e l f had p l a y e d a d i s t i n g u i s h e d r o l e .

And

y e t A e s c h y l u s , f o r a l l h i s n a t i o n a l Joy and p r i d e , d o e s not sim p ly s t a g e a l e g e n d o r t e l l a s t o r y o f t h e g r e a t n e s s o f G reece f o r i t s own sa k e a t a l l . Q u i t e o t h e r w i s e , he t r a n s f o r m s h i s g i v e n m a t e r i a l s i n o r d e r t o d r a m a t i s e by means o f them t h e p r o fo u n d k i n d o f Greek t h e o l o g y i t was h i s p u r p o s e t o d ee pen a n d e x p r e s s .

I n h i s hands,

f a r from b e i n g a mere n a r r a t i v e o f n a t i o n a l tr i u m p h i n t o a p r o f o u n d

195 t h e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g o f t h e p r e t e n s i o n s ele m e n t i n human e x i s t e n c e , namely, t h e t e r r i f y i n g drama w h e re in P e r s i a n h y b r l s ( p a s s i o n , ex­ c e s s iv e p r i d e , o v e r-e o n fid e n c e , and a rro g a n c e ) o v e r - re a c h e s I t s e l f t o b r i n g d i v i n e n e m e sis r e m o r s e l e s s l y and i r r e v e r s i b l y upon I t s e l f . Moreover t h e I d e a o f n e m e sis i s n o t d e p i c t e d a s t h e Homeric j e a l ­ ousy o f t h e Gods o r even H erodotus* a r b i t r a r y d e i t y who b r i n g s men low sim ply b e c a u s e t h e y a r e h i g h .

The n e m e sis i s p r e s e n t e d

a s t h e r e t r i b u t i o n o f a j u s t m oral and d i v i n e o r d e r , r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e , y e t j u s t ; more c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n men can u n d e r ­ stan d , and y et j u s t .

Moreover t h e id e a o f h y b r l s . I n t e r p r e t e d

by A r i s t o t l e a n d S o p h o c l e s i n p u r e l y I n t e l l e c t u a l te r m s i s g iv e n s p e c i f i c m oral and r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t by A e s c h y l u s , a l m o s t i n t h e H e b r a ic s e n s e .

The P e r s i a n s t h e r e b y f a l l , n o t sim ply b e c a u s e

they a r e high and because they a r e b l in d , b u t because th e y claim to s e e f a r t h e r th a n t h e y i n f a c t s e e and b e c a u s e t h e y r e s i s t a f u l l e r v i s i o n t h a t i s p r e s e n t e d t o them I n t h e i r m i d s t . a d e e p e r k in d o f i r o n y t h a n S o phoele an i r o n y ,

T h is i s

fo r i t I s rooted

i n p rid e r a th e r than in f in ltu d e .

The t r a g i c hero i s no l o n g e r

t h e image o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y .

He i s t h e image o f p r e t e n s i o n

u n w i t t i n g l y b r i n g i n g t h e w r a t h o f God down upon h i m s e l f .

T h is

i s s t i l l H e b raic r a t h e r t h a n C h r i s t i a n , f o r t h e m o ral and r e l i g i o u s s i n i s u n w i t t i n g r a t h e r th a n c o n s c i o u s a n d b e c a u s e no mercy q u a l i ­ f i e s th e j u s t i c e of divine nem esis.

God I s s t i l l t h e enemy man­

k in d must f e a r a n d c o n c i l i a t e r a t h e r t h a n t h e f r i e n d mankind can love and i m i t a t e . I n A e s c h y le a n d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y , t h e p r o f o u n d t h e o l o g i c a l f a c t i s n o t t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n and S o p h o ele an v i s i o n o f an i m p e r f e c t

196 c r e a t u r e u n e q u a l to a sudden demand made by c i r c u m s t a n c e even when he i s a t h i s b e s t , b u t t h e v i s i o n o f a r a d i c a l l y i m p e r f e c t c r e a t u r e — m o r a l l y a n d r e l i g i o u s l y i n a d e q u a t e — whereby a m oral b l i n d n e s s o r a s i n f u l p r e t e n s i o n can l e a d a man to overw helm ing catastrophe.

I n t h a t c a t a s t r o p h e t h e d i v i n e and moral o r d e r I n

th e w o r l d v i o l e n t l y r e c o v e r s o r d e r o u t o f c h a o s a t h i s c o s t .

The

r u b d o es n o t come b e c a u s e man i s s t r o n g and y e t can s t i l l be b r o u g h t low by even s t r o n g e r c i r c u m s t a n c e .

Nor does t h e p e r i l

r e s i d e I n t h e f a c t t h a t man can be so f i n e a n d y e t s t i l l be r u i n e d by v i r t u e o f a s i n g l e g l a r i n g f a u l t in a make-up o t h e r w i s e p e r f e c t . Nor a r e we moved e s s e n t i a l l y by t h e way p o e t i c j u s t i c e i s u n f u l ­ f i l l e d - - n a m e ly , by t h e way t h e "bad" men e s c a p e n e m e sis and t h e "good" men a r e undone.

N e i t h e r c a p r i c e , n e c e s s i t y , n o r mere e r r o r s

I n judgm ent h o n e s t l y e n t e r t a i n e d p r e o c c u p y o u r m inds.

Not p i t y o r

t e r r o r b u t judgment and awe i s t h e f e e l i n g t h a t g o v e r n s our r e a c ­ t i o n s i n t h e en d .

And t h a t judgment a n d t h a t awe a r e f o c u s e d upon

a n d stem from t h e way t h e w o r l d i s seen to c o n t a i n a n I n e x o r a b l y h a rm o n io u s and j u s t way o f c r a c k i n g down on sim p le w ic k e d n e s s o r b lind fo lly .

F or A e s c h y l u s , w hat i s p o i g n a n t i n t r a g e d y , r e s i d e s

i n a chasm i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s , a chasm b etw een t h e fundamen­ t a l l y d i v i n e a n d m oral o r d e r i n t h e w o r l d a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m a n 's b e i n g so i n f a t u a t e , f o o l i s h , w icked o r b l i n d a s t o s e t him­ s e l f a t c r o s s - p u r p o s e s w i t h i t a n d be d e s t r o y e d .

The t e n s i o n i s

n o t b e tw e e n man and man, b u t betw e en man and God.

The movement

o f t h e p l o t i s from a n o p e n i n g s i t u a t i o n and i t s b a c k g ro u n d , t h r o u g h a c r i s i s to t h e c a t a s t r o p h e . i n th e c h a r a c te r o r i n the s i t u a t i o n s .

T here a r e few c o m p l i c a t i o n s A e s c h y lu s employs t h e

197 Chorus a n d one o r two a c t o r s f o r t h e most p a r t — i n o r d e r t o g a i n a s o r t o f l y r i c a l and epic g e n e r a l i t y .

When P rom etheus sp e a k s

th e q u a l i t y i s l y r i c a l b e c a u s e we f e e l t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s c o u l d n o t p r o p e r l y be s a i d by a n y o t h e r f i g u r e i n a n y o t h e r s i t u a t i o n ; and t h e q u a l i t y i s e p i c i n g e n e r a l i t y b e c a u s e we f e e l t h a t he i s i n t h e s o r t o f s i t u a t i o n a l l men o r any man e n c o u n t e r s no m a t t e r where o r when o r what o r how.

The c o m p l i c a t e d i n t e r p l a y o f c h a r ­

a c t e r a n d c h a r a c t e r a n d c h a r a c t e r and s h i f t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e S o p h o le s employed i s i r r e l e v a n t t o A e s c h y l u s ' p u r p o s e and p o i n t o f view, a s i s t h e d i a l o g u e , f o r which E u r i p i d e s i s n o t e d .

The

p l o t , i n s o f a r a s t h e r e i s a n y , i s employed t o deepen t h e s o l i t a r y drama of a s i n g l e s o u l c o n v e r s i n g w i t h God.

Sometimes t h e h v b r l s

and t h e c o n s e q u e n t d e e d have happened b e f o r e t h e p l a y o p e n s , a s i n P rom e theus Bound, a n d a l l we w i t n e s s i s n e m e s i s .

The p l a y opens

w i t h a s e n s e o f im minent doom a n d t h e movement i s from p o s s i b l e p r o b a b i l i t y to d r e a d f u l a c t u a l i t y , c r a c k i n g down upon t h e t r a g i c hero a t the very c e n te r of h is being.

The i r o n y I s an a u s t e r e

i r o n y , moving from uneasy f o r e b o d i n g to sweeping d i s a s t e r .

The

t r a g i c h e r o s u f f e r s a s e r i e s o f b lo w s, ea ch more s e v e r e t h a n t h e la st. The t y p i c a l A e s c h y le a n p l a y p r e s e n t s a s o l i t a r y f i g u r e , a t t h e o u t s e t s u r r o u n d e d by a n a t m o s p h e r e o f im pending doom b e i n g s e n t by God to p u n i s h an e v i l deed p r e v i o u s l y com m itted.

The

a c t i o n on t h e s t a g e —what t h e r e i s o f i t — i s c o n s t r u c t e d i n such a way a s t o i n t e n s i f y o u r i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e m o r a l f o l l y and r e ­ l i g i o u s s i n f u l n e s s o f t h e deed i n te rm s o f w h ich t h e heavy a t ­ mosphere o f doom r e c e i v e s i t s e x p l a n a t i o n and t a k e s on th e c h a r ­ a c t e r o f aw eful e x p e c ta tio n .

The one c e r t a i n t y s h a p i n g e v e r y t h i n g

198 i s t h a t t h e d i v i n e a n d moral s t r u c t u r e o f th e w orld w i l l wreak s w i f t and v i o l e n t r e t r i b u t i o n .

The a c t i o n r e v e a l s v e r y l i t t l e

c o n c e r n i n g t h e m o t i v a t i o n g i v i n g r i s e to t h e deed o r t o t h e mean­ i n g o f t h e deed t o th e c h a r a c t e r i m p l i c a t e d i n a n d r e s p o n s i b l e for i t .

The c o u r s e o f e v e n t s sim p ly r e i n f o r c e s o u r s e n s e o f t h e

f a c t t h a t a t r a g i c deed has been committed i n o r d e r t h a t o ur se n s e o f im pending c a t a s t r o p h e w i l l become d e e p e r and more o p p r e s s i v e . There i s n o t a s e r i e s o f s i t u a t i o n s .

There i s o n l y one s i t u a t i o n .

There i s no i n n e r c o m p le x i ty o f c h a r a c t e r . l i n e , a fig u re , a type.

T here i s o n l y an o u t ­

The problem i s to u n d e r s t a n d why A e s c h y lu s

was d r i v e n to such a n a u s t e r e method o f p r e s e n t a t i o n when he was e m i n e n t l y c a p a b l e o f t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f S o p h o c le s o r E u r i p i d e s . The b a s i c t h e o l o g i c a l I n s i g h t u n d e r l y i n g A e s c h y le a n d r a ­ m a tic t r a g e d y i s t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between h y b r l a . m a n's i r ­ r e s i s t i b l e te n d e n c y t o become i n f a t u a t e d by some p a s s i o n b o r n o f good o r bad f o r t u n e , a n d n e m e s i s , t h e i n e x o r a b l e d i v i n e and moral j u s t i c e o r d i k e i n t h e w orld t h a t w i l l p e r m i t o f no suc h v i o l a t i o n . Man's f a t e i s to be tem pted u n w i t t i n g l y by a p a s s i o n which he c a n n o t r e s i s t a n d y e t a t t h e same time b r i n g s upon h i m s e l f .

Man's

d e s t i n y i s to s u f f e r a r e v e r s a l a n d f i n a l c a t a s t r o p h e a t t h e hands o f a s e v e r e and y e t i m p l a c a b l e d e i t y .

For God p e r m i t s o f no i n ­

d i s c r e t i o n , re g a rd le s s of i t s source or c h a ra c te r.

Even i f t h e

misdeed be b o rn o f s h e e r m i s f o r t u n e , i t can be d e a l t w i t h a s i f i t were c o n s c i o u s a n d r e s p o n s i b l e .

The whole t e n s i o n o f A e s c h y le a n

d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y d e r i v e s from and i s s u e s i n t o t h i s o v e r a r c h i n g c o n f l i c t between t h e r e m o r s e l e s s working o f h y b r i s i n man w i t h i n and t h e working o f a n i n e x o r a b l e d i v i n e judgment w i t h o u t .

Man

199 i s f a t e d from t h e p a s t o r from b e h i n d to v i o l a t e t h i s d i v i n e harmony.

Man i s d e s t i n e d from t h e f u t u r e o r from i n f r o n t to

b r i n g on a c a t a s t r o p h e whereby t h e d i v i n e o r d e r may be f o r c e f u l l y and s w i f t l y r e e s t a b l i s h e d .

The t e n s i o n , to p u t i t a n o t h e r way,

was between a f u n d a m e n t a l l y moral and a f u n d a m e n ta ll y t h e o l o g i c a l i d e a , between t h e power and p u r p o s e s o f God and t h e weakness and p u r p o s e s o f man.

The one c a l l s f o r t h o u r judgment and awe, t h e

o t h e r o u r com passion and sympathy.

Moreover t h e s e powers and

p u r p o s e s a r e f e l t to be i n c a p a b l e o f l i v i n g p e a c e f u l l y s i d e by s i d e i n t h e same w o r l d .

They a r e f a t e d and d e s t i n e d to c o l l i d e .

The meaning o f t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f f a t e and d e s t i n y f o r A e sc h y lu s r e s i d e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t man's h y b r l s i s not bounded, knows no l i m i t s , and i s i n f i n i t e even th o u g h l i m i t s a r e I n f a c t s e t to i t by God, l i m i t s which c a n r e l e a s e and redeem r a t h e r t h a n r e s t r i c t and doom i n p r i n c i p l e b u t f a i l to do so i n f a c t . and God i s not a c c e s s i b l e .

For man i s b l i n d

A e s c h y l u s ' God h a s no c l e a r o r c e r t a i n

way o f r e n d e r i n g h i s p u r p o s e s c l e a r , and man a p p r e h e n d s t h o s e p u r ­ poses, i f a t a l l ,

too l a t e .

And y e t A e s c h y lu s , j u s t a s S o p h o c le s , p e r c e i v e s a k i n d o f g l o r y a s w e l l a s a k in d o f h o r r o r a t t h e h e a r t o f l i f e .

A e sc h y lu s

p e r c e i v e s b e a u t y i n t h e c h a r a c t e r t h a t i s b orn o f s u f f e r i n g In the f a c e o f an e x t e r n a l d e i t y commanding awe, w hereas S o p h o c le s saw i t i n t h e p l e n i t u d e e n v i s a g e d by an d w i t h i n human c h a r a c t e r I t s e l f , The w o rld does p o s s e s s a harmony, a b a l a n c e , a p r o p o r t i o n o r an e q u i l i b r i u m t h a t i s v e r y e a s i l y u p s e t , and y e t an o r d e r so con­ s t i t u t e d a s to r e e s t a b l i s h i t s e l f w i t h tremendous r a p i d i t y and power.

There i s a k i n d o f t r a g i c b e a u t y i n t h i s p i c t u r e o f a

200 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e human f i g u r e c o m m ittin g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e human crim e and b e i n g d i s c i p l i n e d by a c o r r e c t i v e t h a t i s s w i f t , v i o l e n t , and com plete.

The g r e a t n e s s o f A e s c h y lu s a s a t h e o l o g i a n and a s a

d r a m a t i s t r e s i d e s i n t h e b r i l l i a n t l y a u s t e r e economy w i t h which he p r e s e n t e d t h i s p l a i n and s im p le p o i n t .

His t r a g i c h e r o e s a r e

r i g h t l y n o t c h a r a c t e r s b u t f i g u r e s o r t y p e s —a u s t e r e l y drawn o u t ­ l i n e s , b l u n t I n c a r n a t i o n s o f s i m p le b u t m ajor human e r r o r s and s i n s upon which a n e q u a l l y f a m i l i a r k i n d o f nem esis r e m o r s e l e s s l y and i r r e v e r s i b l y f a l l s .

The p l o t b r i n g s w i t h i t l i t t l e c h a r a c t e r

developm ent f o r we must be give n t h e t r a g i c h e r o i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y and c o m p le t e .

We must se e him a s a l r e a d y doomed by h i s c h a r a c t e r

and by h i s s i t u a t i o n .

The t r a g e d y must u n f o l d b e f o r e o u r eyes i n

such a s t a t i c a l l y l y r i c a l and e p i c a l f a s h i o n a s to i n v o l v e no a l ­ t e r n a t i v e s a n d no s u g g e s t i o n o f e s c a p e . Only such a t e r r i f y i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e o l o g i c a l I m a g i n a t i o n can e x p l a i n th e way A e s c h y l u s ' most mature work, t h e O r e s t e i a n t r i l o g y , c e n t e r s upon t h e s im p le b u t d r e a d f u l f a c t t h a t th e s i n s o f t h e f a t h e r can b e a n d a r e i n h e r i t e d a s t h e s i n s o f t h e son. The whole t r i l o g y i s h a u n t e d by t h i s s e n s e o f an i n h e r i t e d c u r s e and p r o p e n s i t y f o r e v i l h e a v i l y b u r d e n i n g a n e n t i r e f a m i l y o r o t h e r s o c i a l group from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n .

T h is p e r c e p t i o n ,

s u g g e s t e d by myth and l e g e n d , b u t n o t e x p l a i n e d o r e x p l a i n a b l e away by them, p r o v i d e d A e sc h y lu s w i t h p r e c i s e l y t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r p r o j e c t i n g t h e k i n d o f t h e o l o g y he had i n mind.

For such

m a t e r i a l r e a d i l y became t h e a l l e g o r i c a l v e h i c l e f o r h i s i d e a o f a n e a s i l y o u t r a g e d d i v i n i t y and an e s s e n t i a l l y p r e t e n s i o u s k i n d o f t r a g i c hero, a s w e ll a s f o r the b a s ic s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e th a t

201 I d e a r e q u i r e d —- th e i n e v i t a b l e ,

sudden, s w i f t , and f i n a l f a l l o f

human d e s t i n y to overw helm ing c a t a s t r o p h e .

I n t h i s way he c o u l d

f o c u s upon what u l t i m a t e l y p r e o c c u p i e d him— n o t a p e r s o n o r a c h a r a c t e r , a movement o r a way o f l i f e , b u t a doom— a f a t e d t h r u s t to c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t i s a l l th e more a p p a r e n t when i t f a l l s upon a whole f a m i l y o r s o c i a l o r d e r i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y r a t h e r t h a n upon a sin g le in d iv id u al p o intedly.

By means o f t h e p a r a d o x e s , i r o n i e s ,

a n d a m b i g u i t i e s o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , A esohylu s c o u ld do f u l l j u s t i c e to h i s deep c om passion f o r t h e human problem on th e one hand, and h i s trem e nd ous awe b e f o r e t h e t e r r i f y i n g p r e c i s i o n , c o m p l e t e n e s s , a n d f i n a l i t y w i t h w hich t h e d i v i n e and m o ral s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w o rld d e a l s w i t h th e s l i g h t e s t d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s sway.

The s i n a r i s e s

f o r t h e most p a r t o u t o f m i s f o r t u n e and i n h e r i t a n c e , i n any c a s e from t h e p a s t .

I t i s a deed whose o r i g i n s and outcome, humanly

c o n s i d e r e d , s h o u l d n o t a c t u a l l y be so s e v e r e .

But t h e s i t u a t i o n

i s n o t ambiguous o r p a r a d o x i c a l i n t h e s e n s e o f bein g m y s t e r i o u s , vague o r i n s c r u t a b l e .

I t i s am biguous, p a r a d o x i c a l and i r o n i c a l

o n l y i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g d e f i n e d by a v i v i d , c o m p l i c a t e d and u n r e s o l v a b l e c o n f l i c t o r t e n s i o n between c o n t r a s t i n g p r i n c i p l e s or r e a l i t i e s . The O r e s t e l a ends on a n o t e o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ,

t o be s u r e ,

and s c h o l a r s have i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e P rom etheus t r i l o g y , o f which we have o n l y t h e o p e n i n g p a r t , a l s o ends on a n o t e o f co n c o rd and peace.

But I f o r one have not found A e s c h y l u s ' r e s o l u t i o n s a s

moving a s h i s p r o b l e m s .

His r e s o l u t i o n s have t h e f l a v o r o f a

f a i t a c c o m p l i o r a d e u s ex m a ch in a.

They t u r n f i n a l l y upon an

a p p e a l t o m y s te r y o r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p o l l s —o f a s p e c i f i c

202 s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d m o ral o r d e r .

From a h i g h l y g e n e r a l t h e o ­

l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view A e s c h y lu s d o e s i n a s e n s e a n t i c i p a t e o r f o re sh a d o w t h e m a jo r mot i f o f C h r i s t i a n theology-— t h e s e n s e o f p e a c e , t h e embrace o f l i f e a f t e r and beyond t r a g e d y , t h e R e s s u r e e t i o n a f t e r t h e C r o s s , and t h e meaning o f a s a c r i f i c i a l l o v e t h a t i s more t h a n a n a c t o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y , and t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f power a n d g o o d n e s s, j u s t i c e and mercy.

And y e t A e s c h y l u s ,

even a s he e n v i s a g e s t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i n p r i n c i p l e , f a i l s to ex­ h i b i t I t s attainm ent in f a c t p ersu asiv ely .

H is d r a m a t i c t r a g e d i e s

a r e s t i l l do m in a te d by t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e p a s t i s a c u r s e r a t h e r t h a n a b l e s s i n g , t h a t what God means by good a n d e v i l i s n o t what man means by good a n d e v i l , t h a t men a r e e x t e r n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d and i n t e r n a l l y f r e e , and t h a t t h e r e i s no r e d e m p t i o n i n h i s t o r y i n fact.

H is t r a g e d i e s a r e a l l end.

new b e g i n n i n g .

There i s no r e a l s e n s e o f a

Of c o u r s e , even C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y h a s had d i f f i ­

c u l t y making i t s p r i m a r y m o t i f c r e d i b l e .

Even i n t h e G o s p e l s ,

w hat h appens b e f o r e E a s t e r i s more c o n v i n c i n g t h a n what h appens a f t e r ; D a n t e ' s I n f e r n o a n d P u r g a t o r l o seem more i m p r e s s i v e l y r e a l t h a n h i s P a r a d l s o : M i l t o n ' s S a t a n i s more r e a l t h a n M i l t o n ' s God; and T. S. E l i o t ' s W a s te la n d i s more c o n v i n c i n g t h a n h i s Four Q uartets. F o r S o p h o c le s God i s an i d e a l . void.

F o r A e s c h y lu s God i s an enemy.

God i s a f r i e n d .

F or E u r i p i d e s God i s a For C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y

The most p e r s u a s i v e o f A e s c h y l e a n im a g e s, f o r

w hich he i s remembered, i s t h e image o f P rom e theus c h a i n e d t o h is rock.

His f i n a l e x c l a m a t i o n i s " I am wronged."'

The t r a n s ­

f o r m a t i o n o f t h e F u r i e s i n t o t h e Eumenides a t t h e end o f t h e

203 O r e s t e i a —and i t s s h i f t from t r a g e d y to p e a c e , from doom to r e ­ d e m p tio n , from j u s t i c e to mercy, from power to p e r s u a s i o n , a n d from s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y to s a c r i f i c i a l l o v e — a n t i c i p a t e s t h e themes o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y i n p r i n c i p l e b u t f a i l s to e x e m p li f y t h o s e themes c l e a r l y and c o m p le t e ly i n f a c t .

In t h i s sen se, both

i n t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e A e sc h y lu s r e m a in s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e l y G reek.

The meaning o r meanings o f l i f e a r e ex­

h i b i t e d a s e s s e n t i a l l y I n c a p a b l e o f com plete e x p r e s s i o n w i t h i n t h e e v e n t s o f l i f e ; and t h e e v e n t s o f l i f e a r e e x h i b i t e d a s e s s e n ­ t i a l l y I n c a p a b l e o f e x e m p l i f y i n g th e meanings o f l i f e .

The o n l y

s o l u t i o n s to t h e p ro b lem s o f Greek t h e o l o g y a r e t h e r e f o r e e i t h e r t h e C h r i s t i a n s o l u t i o n , t h e a p p e a l to m y s t e r y , o r t h e a p p e a l to i m m o r t a l i t y —a n o t h e r w o rld , a n o t h e r l i f e where t h e r e i s no u n r e s t , no t r a v e l , no sh ip w r e c k :

"There s h a l l be no more s e a . " S ophocles

The p l a y s o f S oph ocle s p r o v i d e t h e most t e l l i n g examples in f a c t of A r i s t o t l e ' s form ulations i n theory.

T h is c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e same o r a t l e a s t a v e r y s i m i l a r k i n d o f Greek theology d e fin e d th e d i f f e r i n g e x p ressio n s,

t h e one by means o f

the p r o p o s itio n a l statem ents of the c r i t i c ,

t h e o t h e r by means

o f t h e a e s t h e t i c symbols o f t h e man o f l e t t e r s . I n ea ch o f t h e S ophoelean p l a y s w i t h which I am a c q u a i n t e d , A n t i g o n e . Oedipus t h e King, and Oedipus a t C o lo n u s. most o f A r i s t o t l e ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e f u l f i l l e d i n a very v i s i b l e , i n t e l ­ l i g i b l e and a f f e c t i n g way.

Nor have I d i s c o v e r e d a n y t h i n g i n

what I have l e a r n e d a b o u t th e o t h e r t h r e e e x t a n t p l a y s , A.lax. T r a c h l n i a . an d E l e c t r a . t h a t would v i o l a t e t h e P o e t i c s v e r y severely.

204 I n s a y i n g t h a t t h e s e Theban p l a y s o f S o p h o cle s a r e A r i s t o t e l i a n , I mean t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g what i s d e s i r a b l e and p r o fo u n d i n a d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y , by way o f m otive o r I n t e n t , literary

by way o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and

s t r u c t u r e , an d by way o f e f f e c t r e c e i v e a r a t h e r l u c i d ,

i n d u b i t a b l e , and f u l l e x e m p l i f i c a t i o n t h e r e i n .

What i s f o r m a l

a n d a b s t r a c t i n t h e P o e t i c s —i n s o f a r a s i t I s i n f a c t c l e a r , s t r u c ­ t u r e d , a n d g e n e r a l — c a n n o t o f c o u r s e f a i l to be p r e s e n t .

The

f o r m a l a n d a b s t r a c t a n a l y s i s i n t h e P o e t i c s s p e c i f i e s what can n e v e r f a i l to be p r e s e n t w i t h i n a d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y , what d i s t i n ­ g u i s h e s a d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y f ro m a n e p i e o r a l y r i c , and a work o f l i t e r a t u r e from a work i n p h i l o s o p h y , h i s t o r y , o r s c i e n c e . T h i s p a r t o f t h e P o e t i c s sh o u ld be a s a p p l i c a b l e to t h e Book o f Job, the

G o sp e ls, t h e p l a y s o f S h a k e s p e a r e , M i l t o n , I b s e n o r

Joyce a s

i t i s to t h e p l a y s o f t h e Greeks, and a s a p p l i c a b l e to

t h e p l a y s o f A e s c h y lu s a n d E u r i p i d e s a s to t h e p l a y s o f S o p h o c le s . The c o n c r e t e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n t h e P o e t i c s r e p r e s e n t A r i s t o t l e ' s s p e c i f i c d e c i s i o n s on s p e c i f i c t h e o l o g i c a l a n d l i t e r a r y i s s u e s i n t h e same s e n s e and t o t h e same d e g r e e a s what i s c o n c r e t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n h i s M e t a p h y s i c s . P h y s i c s , and Organon r e p r e s e n t h i s s p e c i f i c d e c i s i o n s on s p e c i f i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c , an d l o g i c a l i s s u e s .

T h is s i d e o r a s p e c t o f t h e P o e t i c s s p e c i f i e s

what must be p r e s e n t t o have t h i s k in d o f a d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y r a t h e r t h a n t h a t w i t h r e s p e c t t o c h a r a c t e r and a good o r b e t t e r r a t h e r t h a n a b a d o r w orse k i n d o f d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y w i t h r e s p e c t t o ex­ cellence. I n ea ch o f t h e Theban p l a y s t h e t r a g i c h e r o o r h e r o e s

205 ( f o r t h e r e would a p p e a r to h e two I n A n t i g o n e ) i s a complex human c h a r a c t e r i n whom a f la w o r h a m a r t l a o f an e s s e n t i a l l y i n t e l l e c ­ t u a l r a t h e r t h a n a s p e c i f i c a l l y m oral o r r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r , c o n j o i n e d w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e o f c i r c u m s t a n c e i n a n e q u a l l y complex s e r i e s o f s i t u a t i o n s , b r i n g s on t h e r u i n o f a c r e a t u r e o t h e r w i s e perfect.

The r e c o g n i t i o n sc e n e o r a n a g n o r i s i s i s d e f i n e d by a

t r a n s i t i o n from I g n o r a n c e to knowledge; t h e p e r i p e t y

or re­

v e r s a l o f f o r t u n e c a l l s f o r t h t h e em otions o f p i t y and t e r r o r by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t s t h a t th e c a t a s t r o p h e i s i n e x c e s s o f a n y s p e c i ­ f i a b l e m o ral o r r e l i g i o u s g u i l t , a n d y e t a t t h e same tim e i s r e ­ m o r s e l e s s and I r r e v e r s i b l e ; a n d t h e s e em otions r e c e i v e a c a t h a r s i s o r c l e a n s i n g by v i r t u e o f t h e p o i g n a n t c o n t r a s t b etw e en t h e i n ­ t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l an d r e l i g i o u s g r a n d e u r o f t h e human s o u l and t h e b a f f l i n g compound o f n e c e s s i t y a n d c a p r i c e o f which circ u m ­ stance c o n s is ts .

The p u r p o s e i s mim etic i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e

c h a r a c t e r and h i s s i t u a t i o n a r e " l i k e " us and o u r w o r l d , a n d i n t h e s e n s e t h a t what i s p r e s e n t e d on t h e s t a g e r e p r e s e n t s , i m i ­ t a t e s , m i r r o r s , o r c a p t u r e s i n a n a l l e g o r i c a l o r I d e a l manner the essence o f l i f e ,

d i s e n g a g e d from what i s i n c i d e n t a l .

Each t r a g i c h e r o — O edipus a t Thebes, A n tig o n e a n d Creon, and Oedipus a t C olonus— h a s a f l a w , a w e a k n e ss, a n i m p e r f e c t i o n , a b lin d n ess, a fin ltu d e , or lim ita tio n .

O therw ise, both A r i s t o t l e

a n d S o p h o c le s would a r g u e , we would be c o n f r o n t e d by a s a i n t i n whom o n l y p e r f e c t i o n i s i n s i g h t . h a m a r t l a a s such c o n c e r n s u s.

But more th a n t h e f l a w o r

We a r e g i v e n a s c o m p e l l i n g , p e r h a p s

s t i l l more c o m p e l l i n g , a c c e s s t o h i s s t r e n g t h s , h i s v i r t u e s , h i s arete.

F o r o t h e r w i s e we would be l e f t c o n f r o n t i n g a v i l l i a n i n

206 whom o n l y e v i l I s i n s i g h t .

I n e i t h e r i n s t a n c e , we would not be

p r o f o u n d l y i n t e r e s t e d o r a f f e c t e d , f o r t h e t r a g i c h ero would n o t be " l i k e u s , H a n d h i s f a l l would be e i t h e r e d i f y i n g o r r e v o l t i n g , but not purely t r a g i c .

L i f e would be r a r e f i e d o r r e d u c e d , i n

e i t h e r c a s e d i s t o r t e d r a t h e r th a n h e i g h t e n e d .

The p l a y w orld

would be more r e a l o r l e s s r e a l t h a n r e a l i t y , i n e x c e s s o f o r d e f ic ie n t before th e f a c t s .

Every f o rm a l e l e v e n t a t th e drama­

t i s t ' s command— t h e l y r i c i s m o f t h e Chorus, t h e m y t h i c a l s u b j e c t m atter, rhyth m ,

t h e theme o r " t h o u g h t , 8 t h e d i c t i o n and i t s euphony, a n d rime o r "melody," and t h e s e t t i n g o r " s p e c t a c l e " —

a r e employed i n such a way a s to r e n d e r j u s t i c e to t h i s i n n e r c o m p le x i ty o f c h a r a c t e r .

For o n l y by v i r t u e o f such com plete

d i s c l o s u r e can we be moved by p i t y and t e r r o r to sy m p a th ise w i t h one g e n u i n e l y l i k e o u r s e l v e s .

E v e r y t h i n g i s shaped so a s to l a y

b a r e more and more o f t h e d e p t h o f a c h a r a c t e r e s s e n t i a l l y a s mixed i n i t s g r e a t n e s s and l i m i t a t i o n a t t h e end a s a t t h e be­ ginning.

No new s t r e n g t h and no new w eakness, t h a t i s no change

o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a f u n d am e n tal k in d can be i n t r o d u c e d , f o r t h a t would succeed o n ly i n r a r i f y i n g o r d e b a s i n g a c h a r a c t e r from b e g i n n i n g to end d e f i n e d by e s s e n t i a l grandeur and e s s e n t i a l weak­ n e s s , by e s s e n t i a l p e r f e c t i o n and i m p e r f e c t i o n , by th e i n f i n i t u d e o f h e r o i c envisagem ent and by t h e f i n l t u d e o f I g n o r a n c e , n e c e s s i t y and c h a n c e .

J u s t so t h e sequence o f s i t u a t i o n s i s so c o n s t r u c t e d

a s to b r i n g t h e t r a g i c hero i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a d i v e r s i t y o f peo­ p l e i n o r d e r t h a t t h e i r b e h a v i o r i n r e l a t i o n to him and h i s be­ h a v i o r i n r e l a t i o n to them may i l l u m i n a t e h i s c h a r a c t e r from many p o i n t s o f view.

S i m i l a r l y t h e web o f c i r c u m s t a n c e i s made e x t r a ­

o r d i n a r i l y complex and i r o n i c a l , i n o r d e r t h a t e v e n t s may draw t o

207 t h e f u l l upon t h e I n t e l l e c t u a l , m o r a l and r e l i g i o u s g r a n d e u r t h a t a r e t h e t r a g i c h e r o ' s s t r e n g t h , a n d th e f l a w s o f e r r i n g judgment, m i s c a l c u l a t i o n , i g n o r a n c e , and Im p u lse t h a t a r e h i s w ea k n ess.

Nor

i s t h e web o f c i r c u m s t a n c e g o v e r n e d by chan ce a l o n e , f o r more t h a n a mere u n lu c k y t a n g l e o f c i r c u m s t a n c e i s r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g a S o p h o c le a n t r a g i c h e r o low.

L i k e w i s e , th e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e

t r a g i c h e r o i s e l a b o r a t e l y r e f i n e d i n te r m s o f " t h o u g h t " a n d p e r c i p i e n c e , f o r th e co m p licated in te rw e ak en in g o f circum stance w ith h i s c h a r a c t e r must n e v e r l e a d us t o b e l i e v e t h a t he i s n o t d i r e e t l y i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s and meanings t h a t d e f i n e and b r i n g on h i s doom.

And y e t t h i s f u l l d i s c l o s u r e o f i n n e r and

o u t e r c i r c u m s t a n c e i s n o t p r e s e n t e d by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e t r a g i c hero i s e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by o r r e l a t e d to t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s a n d meanings o f t h i s l i f e , o f t h i s w o rld a s s u c h . T h i s would be C h r i s t i a n n o t Greek.

The f u n c t i o n o f i n n e r and

o u t e r c o m p l e x i t y i s q u i t e o t h e r w i s e t o e x h i b i t t h e t r a g i c hero a s b ec k o n ed by a v i s i o n o f t r u t h and b e a u t y to o g r e a t f o r t h e e v e n t 8 a n d meanings o f t h i s l i f e t o c o n t a i n . What i s I m p o r t a n t h e r e i s t h e way S o p h o c l e s ' a t t e m p t to c o n s t r u c t a drama o f c h a r a c t e r and s i t u a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f a c e r t a i n k in d o f Greek t h e o l o g y .

That i s , t h e r e i s n o th in g a c c i ­

d e n t a l i n t h i s f a c t t h a t S o p h o c le s t h u s p r o j e c t s e v e r y t h i n g i n t o a s i n g l e complex c h a r a c t e r whose i n t e r n a l l t y becomes a microcosm. T hat p r o j e c t i o n f o l l o w e d l o g i c a l l y from t h a t k i n d o f Greek t h e o l o g y t h a t f i x e d i t s e l f upon t h e c o m p l e t e l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d I n d i v i d u a l a s a key to t h e w o r l d , a n i n d i v i d u a l f u l l y d e f i n e d by b o t h t h e g r e a t n e s s a n d t h e l i m i t a t i o n o f b e i n g human, b u t e s s e n t i a l l y

208 u n d e f i n e d and u n i n f l u e n c e d by a n y e x t e r n a l d i v i n e power, a s i n A e s c h y l u s ' k i n d o f t h e o l o g y , o r by any i n n e r p r i m i t i v e v i t a l i t y , as in E u rip id e s ' kind o f theology.

By v i r t u e o f S o p h o c l e s ' p r o ­

found humanism, h i s t r a g i c h e r o e s must be man a s a l l e g o r i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d ; a b i t b e t t e r t h a n we u s u a l l y i n f a c t a r e r a t h e r t h a n t h e same o r w orse.

From t h e S ophoclean p o i n t o f view, t h e

A e s c h y l e a n t r a g i c h e r o i s t o o much o f a t y p e , t h e E u r i p i d e a n to o much a f i g u r e .

P a r t s and a s p e c t s a r e l e f t o u t , and t h e i n d i v i d u a l

i s n o t h e i g h t e n e d by b e i n g w r i t t e n l a r g e .

S o p h o c le s r e q u i r e s a

t r a g i c h e r o who i s a w o n d e r f u l l y complex b e i n g who i s f a t e d by t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f i g n o r a n c e w i t h i n and p o w e r f u l c i r c u m s t a n c e w i t h o u t t o be t u r n e d from t h a t w e l l - b e i n g to which h i s a s rem a rk­ able greatness p o in ts.

S o p h o c le s t h e r e f o r e c a r e f u l l y s o u g h t t o

a v o i d A e s c h y l u s ’ p i c t u r e o f a s o l i t a r y f i g u r e p lu n g e d a t t h e v e r y o u t s e t by p r e v i o u s m oral a n d r e l i g i o u s s i n i n t o an a tm o s p h e r e o f im pending n e m e s i s .

For such a drama o f r e l i g i o u s p a s s i o n w i t h i n ,

a n d d i v i n e judgment w i t h o u t , was a l i e n t o t h e I n v o l v e d i n n e r move­ ment o f t h o u g h t and f e e l i n g h i s d e e p l y m oral u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t r a ­ gedy r e q u i r e d .

Nor c o u l d he p u r s u e E u r i p i d e a n d i s c l o s u r e o f

p e r v e r t e d r em n a n ts o f men, l a i d w a s t e by t h e r e l e a s e o f u n d i s c i ­ p l i n e d p a s s i o n and i n f l e x i b l y p r i m i t i v e v i t a l i t y , a r e l e a s e t h a t t e a r s t h e s o c i a l o r d e r a s s u n d e r w i t h o u t and t h e o r d e r o f t h e s o u l w i t h i n , f o r what b o t h e r e d S o p h o c le s was an a s p e c t o f a n excep­ t i o n a l l y autonomous i n d i v i d u a l , a n d t h e meaning o f d e f e a t d e t e r ­ m i n a t e d f o r him r a t h e r t h a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e l y f o r h i m s e l f o r o t h e r s . The t r a g i c v i s i o n a n i m a t i n g S o p h o c le a n d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y i s one t h a t p e n e t r a t e s b o t h t h e b e a u t y and t h e m i s e r y o f m an's life .

S o p h o c le s m ust s u s t a i n a b a l a n c e d v i s i o n o f b o t h t h e h o r r o r

209 and t h e g l o r y I f he i s to r e n d e r c o m p lete j u s t i c e tothe m in g l e d q u a l i t i e s o f good and e v i l , s t r e n g t h and w e a k n e ss, d e f e a t and victo ry d efin in g h is subject.

P i t y must be a r o u s e d o v e r t h e f a c t

t h a t p a r t o f th e s t o r y i s th e s t o r y of undeserved d e f e a t ; over the f a c t th a t p a r t of the s to r y i s

fear

l o s s b ro u g h t on by t h e

f r a i l t y , f i n i t u d e a n d weakness o f b e i n g human, w h i l e t h e o t h e r p a r t c o n s i s t s o f an a l l i a n c e o f f r a i l t y w i t h t h e m a n i f o l d n e c ­ e s s i t i e s and c h a n c e s o f n a t u r e . lim ita tio n s w ithin or

I n s o f a r a s t r a g e d y i s s u e s from

n e c e s s i t i e s and c h a n c e s w i t h o u t , p i t y and

t e r r o r a r e th e a p p r o p r i a t e e m o tio n s .

For t h e t r a g e d y i s m o r a l l y

and r e l i g i o u s i n c a l c u l a b l e , i n e x p l i c a b l e , and w i t h o u t c o m p e n sa to ry m eaning.

I t i s s im p ly o f t h e e s s e n c e o f m a n 's l i f e ,

standing as

i t d o es w i t h i n t h e n e c e s s i t i e s and c a p r i c e s o f n a t u r e ,

t h a t tem­

p e r a m e n t and c i r c u m s t a n c e can a r b i t r a r i l y c o n j o i n t o b r i n g on m a n '8 doom w h i c h e v e r way he t u r n s and no m a t t e r what he may t h i n k o r f e e l o r do.

Even when man i s a p p a r e n t l y most s e c u r e and un­

c h a l l e n g e d by n a t u r e , d i s a s t e r c a n s t i l l f i n d him o u t : th r o u g h t h e f i n i t e n e s s o f w hich h i s f r a i l t y c o n s i s t s ,

sometimes sometimes

th r o u g h h i s v e r y p e r f e c t i o n o f wisdom, g o o d n e s s , and s t r e n g t h . Man may even a c t f o r t h e b e s t and a c c o m p l i s h t h e w o r s t .

The com­

b i n e d w o rk in g o f t h e power o f c i r c u m s t a n c e a n d t h e f r a i l t y o f b e i n g human— i n s h o r t , m a n 's in v o lv e m e n t i n n a t u r e , e v ita b ility of suffering.

guarantee the i n ­

I t i s f o r t h i s reason t h a t s u f fe rin g

n o b i l i t y i s S o p h o c l e s ' g r e a t e s t and most r e c u r r e n t theme. But t h e r e i s a n o t h e r s i d e to t h e human e q u a t i o n — t h e s i d e of s e r e n i t y , f e a r l e s s n e s s , and peace.

I n s p i t e o f the f i e r c e

w o rk in g o f p i t y and t e r r o r , t h e r e must a l s o b e t h e c a t h a r s i s o r

210 p u r g a t i o n o f t h e s e em otions.

Man's l i f e i s tr a n s m u te d by a mag­

n i f i c e n c e even a s i t p lu n g e s o r i s plu nged i n t o p i t e o u s d e s p a i r . Merely to have been a man and to have become a man i n ev e ry e s s e n ­ t i a l way such a becoming r e q u i r e s i s enough to s u s t a i n th e human sp irit.

We have p i t y f o r Oedipus n o t sim ply because he i s weak

and s u f f e r s .

The p i t y i s mixed w i t h a r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e n o b i l i t y

o f the s u f fe rin g .

We even have a touch o f f e a r i n c o n n e c t i o n w ith

him, n o t simply b e c a u s e we a r e a l s o i m p e r f e c t and must a l s o t h e r e b y f a l l , b u t b ec au se h i s h e r o i c s t r e n g t h o f d e f i a n c e i s so even and unbroken i n s p i r i t — even i f not tr iu m p h a n t i n f a c t- —t h a t we f i n d o u r s e l v e s judged and w a n tin g .

The d e f e a t we Im m ediately r e c o g n i z e

and p o s s e s s a s our own; but t h e v i c t o r y s u g g e s t s a harmony more deep t h a n our eyes can see o r our deeds a r e u s u a l l y f i x e d to w i t ­ ness.

I n a profo u n d s e n s e , t h e Oedipus a t Thebes and t h e Oedipus

a t Colonus defy t h e r e m o r s e l e s s and I r r e v e r s i b l e c h a r a c t e r o f c i r ­ cumstance to a s s e r t t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e i r s o u l . I n a somewhat l e s s p ro fo u n d s e n s e , t h e r e a r e t h e compen­ s a t i n g f a c t s and t h o u g h t s t h a t e v e n t s , had t h e y been o t h e r w i s e , c o u ld have s t r e n g t h e n e d r a t h e r t h a n weakened O e d ip u s ' p o s i t i o n , and t h a t A n t i g o n e ' s i d e a l i s m might have s t i f f e n e d l e s s I n f l e x i b l y had t h i n g s been j u s t a b i t o t h e r w i s e th a n a s th e y were.

In th is

s e n s e , Oedipus and A ntigone had every r i g h t to be prou d and c o u ra g e o u s, even though c i r c u m s t a n c e could undo them p r e c i s e l y a t t h a t p o i n t w h e r e in t h e i r s t r e n g t h became p a r t o f t h e i r weakness, w h e r e in an unguarded s t r e n g t h i n Oedipus became o v e r c o n f i d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n s o b e r a s s u r a n c e , and i n Antigone where c o u r a g e became a w i l d and b r a z e n f a i t h r a t h e r t h a n a humble d e t e r m i n a t i o n .

211 The p r e s e n c e o f t h i s s e n s e o f p r u d e n t s o b r i e t y and i t s judgment t h a t one s h o u ld l i v e q u i e t l y and w i t h o u t g i v i n g o f f e n s e h a s e n a b l e d some to a r g u e t h a t i t c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c e n t e r o f Sophocles' v is io n .

I t c e r ta in ly i s a chapter o f h is s to r y , but

n o t t h e whole o f i t o r t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r .

The more s e a r c h i n g

t h r u s t and t h e more s e a r i n g f lam e o f d e p t h i s S o p h o c l e s ' i n t u i t i o n t h a t O ed ip u s a n d A n tig o n e a r e d r i v e n f o r t h by h a u n t i n g e n v i s a g e ments o f i d e a l h a r m o n ie s t h a t c a n n o t f i n d r e a l i s a t i o n i n t h i s w o rld — i m a g i n i n g s t h a t endow t h e i r l i v e s w i t h a n h e r o i c q u a l i t y t h a t i s to o g r e a t t o l a s t l o n g i n a v a s t l y more I m p e r f e c t w o r l d . S o p h o c l e s ' l a s t word, t h a t f i n a l l o o k o f f i n a l p e n e t r a t i o n i n h i s p l a y s , i s — I th in k — t h i s profoundly p o l a r c o n t r a s t a t the h e a r t o f Greek t h e o l o g y :

on t h e one han d , th e i n s i g h t t h a t s e e s th e

human s p i r i t to be a n i m a t e d by a c o u rag e t h a t i s not o f t h i s w o r l d , a s i f i t were d e s t i n e d to s o a r abo ve t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h i s l i f e , a n d y e t i s i n f a c t f a t e d to d i e . the

For O edipus i n

l a s t r e s o r t i s s o l i t a r y , t r a g i c , and v u l n e r a b l e to b r e a k i n g

i n t h i s w o rld ; and y e t he i s f i n a l l y a n i m a t e d b y a v i s i o n t h a t r e f u s e s to be p r u d e n t o r t o succumb to u n m i t i g a t e d d e s p a i r . A l l t h i s comes very c l o s e to t h e c e n t e r o f S o p h o c le a n d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y —a k i n d o f d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y t h a t r e s i s t s easy c h a ra c te ris a tio n as e ith e r p e s s im is tic or o p tim is tic .

The f a c t

t h a t c r i t i c s have o f f e r e d b o t h a s h i s f i n a l word, a n d w i t h good r e a s o n , a d d s f o r c e to what I t h i n k I s i n f a c t t h e c a s e —a f irm h o l d i n g o f a b a l a n c e b etw e en b o t h a n d i n t h a t way a t t a i n i n g th e s t r e n g t h a n d a v o i d i n g t h e w eakness o f e a c h .

I f the d e f i n i t i o n

o f p e s s im is m i s t h a t man u l t i m a t e l y and r a d i c a l l y g o e s down to

212 unredeemable a n d unredeemed d e f e a t , SophocleB would I n s i s t t o t h e end t h a t t h e r e i s a n o t h e r theme t o t h e human s t o r y a s w e l l . p le te tragedy,

Com­

deep a n d d a r k and p i t i f u l , i s p a r t o f t h e s t o r y *

T e r r o r i s r o o t e d , n o t i n i l l u s i o n o r morbid f a n t a s y , b u t I n t h e very c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e a s w e l l .

I f t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f o ptim ism

i s t h a t man u l t i m a t e l y and r a d i c a l l y d e f i e s m e a n i n g l e s s d e f e a t and by t h e r a d i a n c e o f h i s l i f e c a n r e f u s e t o have t h e l a s t word r e s i d e i n t r a g e d y * S o p h o c le s would a g r e e t h a t t h i s m i r r o r s h i s v i s i o n o f r e a l i t y , p r o v i d i n g you p l a c e b e s i d e i t s p e a c e t h e i n ­ e x t r i c a b l e h o r r o r w i t h which i t i s mingled a n d w i t h i n which *

e s p e c i a lly i t s r e s t l e s s l y h e ro ic urgings a r e b e s e t. The f i n a l key to S ophoclean d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y i s , 1 t h i n k , th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c h a r a c te r with d e s tin y a s w ell a s w ith fate.

I n a l l Greek t r a g e d y , a s Whitehead has o b s e r v e d , t h e r e i s

a ' v i s i o n o f f a t e , r e m o r s e l e s s and i n d i f f e r e n t , u r g i n g a t r a g i c i n c i d e n t to i t s i n e v i t a b l e i s s u e * s u c h t h a t " t h e a b s o r b i n g I n t e r ­ e s t i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r h e r o i c i n c i d e n t s * becomes *an example a n d a v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e w o rk in g s o f f a t e , "

He goes on to say con­

c e r n i n g t h i s f u r t h e r f a c t o f d e s t i n y t h a t at h e e s se n c e o f d r a m a t i c tra g e d y I s not unhappiness.

I t r e s i d e s i n t h e s o l e m n i t y o f th e

r e m o r s e l e s s w ork in g o f t h i n g s .

The i n e v i t a b l e n e s s o f d e s t i n y c a n

o n l y be I l l u s t r a t e d i n te rm s o f human l i f e by i n c i d e n t s which I n f a c t Involve unhappiness.

For i t i s o n l y by them t h a t th e f u t i l i t y

o f e s c a p e c a n be made e v i d e n t I n t h e d r a m a . 81 A e s c h y l u s , S o p h o c le s , and E u r i p i d e s come t o g e t h e r i n t h e i r d r a m a t i c t r a g e d i e s upon t h i s p ercep tio n o f rem orseless i n e v i t a b i l i t y ,

But t h e y p a r t ways i n

te rm s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f l i f e w h e r e i n th e y se e t h i s com­ p l e x f a c t o f f a t e a n d d e s t i n y to r e s i d e .

There i s an i d e n t i t y i n

213 terms o f t h e "what" h u t n o t i n te rm s o f t h e "where" and "how." Of c o u r s e t h e s e a r e somewhat a r t i f i c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s b e c a u s e f a t e and d e s t i n y a r e "what" th e y a r e i n p a r t by v i r t u e o f "where" t h e y are.

F o r E u r i p i d e s , f a t e and d e s t i n y r e s i d e d i n th e d e e p l y p a s s i o n ­

a t e n a t u r e o f m an's l i f e , a p a s s i o n a t e n a t u r e d e f i n e d by p r i m i t i v e energy and u n c o n t r o l l e d p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s .

For A e s c h y l u s , f a t e

and d e s t i n y r e s i d e i n t h e o p p o s i t i o n o r t e n s i o n between man’ s h y b r l s . o r r e c k l e s s p r i d e , a n d n e m e sis , o r t h e i n e x o r a b l e moral and d i v i n e o r d e r i n t h e w o rld .

For Sopho cles b o t h f a t e an d d e s t i n y

were f e l t to r e s i d e w i t h i n t h e i n n e r c o m p le x ity o f human c h a r a c t e r i t s e l f , a p a r t from a n e x t e r n a l d i v i n e o r moral o r d e r im posing i t ­ s e l f from above, and a p a r t from any su b c o n s c io u s o r s u b - r a t i o n a l v i t a l i t y p u s h i n g i t s e l f up from below.

Both th e h o r r o r o f f a t e

and t h e g l o r y o f d e s t i n y were f e l t t o r e s i d e i n human c h a r a c t e r o r a r e t e i t s e l f a t t h e peak o r summit o f i t s r e a l i s a t i o n .

The

h o r r o r i s n e v e r s h e e r h o r r o r , to be s u r e , f o r i t i s h e i g h t e n e d , lifted ,

e l e v a t e d , a n d i d e a l i s e d by b e i n g en v e lo p ed i n t h e l a r g e r

emotion o f t r a g i c p i t y .

And t h e g l o r y i s n e v e r s h e e r g l o r y , f o r

i t i s min gled w i t h t h e m is e ry and th e t e r r o r .

And y e t t h e r e i s

a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n beyond t h e w orking o f s h e e r p i t y and t e r r o r — t h e c a t h a r s i s , p u r g i n g , c l e a n s i n g , o r q u i e t i n g o f t h e s e e m o tio n s . These emotions f i n d r e l i e f and r e l e a s e t h r o u g h p e r c e p t i o n o f a grim b u t m a j e s t i c p r i n c i p l e o f f a t e and d e s t i n y t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s the u l t i m a t e meaning o f l i f e and s u s t a i n s t h a t meaning.

But t h i s

working does n o t r e s i d e above human c h a r a c t e r o r below human c h a r a c t e r f o r S o p h o c le s , a s i t does f o r A e sc h y lu s and E u r i p i d e s . I t r e s i d e s w i t h i n c h a r a c t e r i t s e l f —w i t h i n i t s v e r y s t r u c t u r e a n d

214 depth.

There I s a n I d e a l e r o s o r harmony t h a t summons f o r t h and

d e f i n e s i t s w o rt h ,

The s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n f o r r u i n i s a f l a w , a

t r a g i c m i s c a l c u l a t i o n , a n i r o n law o f b l i n d n e s s , f i n i t u d e , o r i g n o r a n c e w i t h i n c h a r a c t e r by v i r t u e o f i t s in v o lv e m e n t i n the n e c e s s i t i e s and c a p r i c e s o f n a t u r e , l i f e , and h i s t o r y .

T h is i s

f a t e — t h e working o f n a t u r a l l i m i t a t i o n t h a t c h a r a c t e r s h a r e s w i t h c i r c u m s t a n c e a s p a r t o f n a t u r e , l i f e and h i s t o r y .

The t r a g i c a l l y

f a t e f u l elem ent i s t h e n o t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r w ith d e s t i n e d s t r e n g t h b e i n g n u l l i f i e d by f a t e d w eakness.

By v i r t u e o f t h i s f a c t o f f a t e

i n c h a r a c t e r s u f f e r i n g i s r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e .

C atharsis

o r c l e a n s i n g comes o n l y when we a r e a v i c t i m o f a s u f f e r i n g r o o t e d in ourselves.

And y e t t h i s working o f c a t h a r s i s i n S o p h o cle s i s

i n a s e n s e a s o b j e c t i f i e d , a s i m p e r s o n a l , a s e x t e r n a l , and a s p h i l o s o p h i c a v e r s i o n o f f a t e a s t h o s e e x e m p l i f i e d i n A e sc h y lu s and E u r i p i d e s .

What Sophocles a s k s o f us i n r e f e r e n c e to Oedipus

i s n o t r e a l l y p i t y o r t e r r o r , ta k e n a l o n e , b u t a r e v e r e n t u n der­ s t a n d i n g t h a t o u r c h a r a c t e r i s f a t e d and d e s t i n e d t h u s .

C haracter

i s s e e n t o be i n g r i p s o f som ething g r e a t e r and l a r g e r t h a n i t s e l f — p e r f e c t i o n s o f which i t f a t e f u l l y f a l l s s h o r t and to which o n l y p a r t o f i t s e s s e n c e p o i n t s , p e r f e c t i o n s shaped by t h e h a u n t i n g v i s i o n o f harmony o r d e s t i n y .

I n t h e m i d s t o f a l l S ophoclean

d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y t h e r e i s t h i s deep se n s e o f th e p e r i s h a b l e n a t u r e o f human c h a r a c t e r a s f a t e d which a l s o e x h i b i t s an i m p e r i s h a b l e grandeur a s d e s tin e d . O e d ip u s ' f i n a l a c q u i e s c e n c e i s t o t h e d o u b le n e s s o f p e r ­ c e p t i o n i n v o l v e d i n h o l d i n g on a s f i r m l y t o f a t e a s to d e s t i n y a n d to d e s t i n y a s t o f a t e .

The n o t i o n o f f a t e b reaks th e human

215 s p i r i t , t h e o t h e r h e a l s and u r g e s i t fo rw ard and onward. e n t a n g l e d working i s i n e x o r a b l e and I n e x t r i c a b l e . t h e one a p a r t from t h e o t h e r .

Their

You c a n n o t t a k e

A man ca n n o t c a t c h a glim pse o f

d e s t i n y and become t r a n s f i g u r e d by i t s r a d i a n t harmony u n t i l he i s b r o k e n by f a t e d l i m i t a t i o n , r e c o g n i z e s h i s i m p l i c a t i o n i n th e b r o k e n n e s s o f l i f e , and moves from

i g n o r a n c e to knowledge— f o r i t

i s p r e c i s e l y a t t h e moment o f r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t he i s h e a l e d and s t e p s beyond, h e a l e d , r e l e a s e d by and urged fo rw ard to s t e p beyond i n t h e name o f e t e r n a i l t i e 8 t h a t a r e e n v is a g e d i n p r i n c i p l e even i f n u l l i f i e d in f a c t.

The human s i t u a t i o n t h u s has b o t h l i m i t a t i o n

and l i m i t l e s s n e s s , a c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s and an u n c o n d i t i o n e d n e s s , a c o n f i n e d l a c k o f c o m p le t e n e s s and an u n c o n fln e d f u l l n e s s o f un­ realised asp iratio n .

The f a t e and the d e s t i n y o f man i s to r e c o g ­

n i s e t h e i m p e r f e c t i o n on t h e one hand and to d i s c o v e r t h e p e r f e c t i o n on t h e o t h e r .

Both p e r f e c t i o n and i m p e r f e c t i o n r e s i d e i n c h a r a c ­

t e r , i n i t s f i n i t u d e and i n i t s d e p t h .

The r e a l i s a t i o n o f c h a r ­

a c t e r , ambiguous, vague, u n c e r t a i n and in c o m p le te a s i t may be c a r r i e s t h e s o l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n , t h e s o l e c o n s o l a t i o n , and th e sole r e c o n c ilia tio n .

I t i s t h e o n l y meaning and t h e o n ly rew ard.

The c u l t i v a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t h e o n l y hope, even though i t i s i m p e r i l l e d a t e v e r y p o i n t and moment by c i r c u m s t a n c e w i t h o u t and im perfection w ithin. I n S ophoclean d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y , t h e n o t i o n o f f a t e t h r e a t e n s to g i v e r i s e to t h e H e l l e n i s t i c i d e a l o f s e l f - e n c l o s e d p e a c e a s t h e o n l y s u s t a i n i n g human i d e a l .

The aim o f l i f e i s a l m o s t i n t e r ­

p r e t e d a s a s e r e n e calm r o o t e d i n i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y to th e storm s of f o rtu n e w ithout o r passion w ith in ,

I m p e r f e c t i o n i s t r a c e d to

216 e r r o r s I n ju dgm ent, f a i l u r e to t a k e t h e w id e r p o i n t o f view and t o be p r u d e n t .

And y e t t h i s H e l l e n i s t i c c o u n s e l o f d e s p a i r , and

i t s S o p h o c le a n f o r e s h a d o w in g a r e s c a r c e l y a r e s o l u t i o n .

They

m e re ly v o i c e a deep s e n s e o f f u t i l i t y t h a t warns t h e human s p i r i t n o t to s t a n d up to f a t e o r to p i t I t s s t r e n g t h i n d e f i a n c e a g a i n s t t h e l i m i t a t i o n t h a t i s p a r t o f i t s own e s s e n c e .

Mere r e s i g n a t i o n

t o n e c e s s i t y a n d c a p r i c e w i t h i n o r w i t h o u t i s no r e s o l u t i o n o f a n y human p ro b le m .

I t i s t h e p r o b le m ,

S o p h o c le s s t i r s t h e p r o f o u n d e r

H e l l e n i c d e p t h s when he p l a c e s f i r m l y b e s i d e t h i s p e s s im is m a r o u s e d by f a t e t h e v i s i o n a r o u s e d by d e s t i n y .

D e s t i n y i s f e l t to b e a s

p r o f o u n d l y a n e le m e n t i n c h a r a c t e r a s f a t e .

The s e n s e o f d e s t i n y

b e f o r e a n d w i t h i n mankind sounds t h e p r e s e n c e o f an unknown immen­ s i t y o f p o s s i b l e r e a l i s a t i o n , a n im m ensity t h a t can be e n t e r t a i n e d i n p r i n c i p l e even i f n o t f u l l y r e a l i s e d i n f a c t .

The f i n a l s o u r c e ,

c e n t e r a n d end o f human l i f e i s s e e n t o r e s i d e i n so m e th in g more t h a n Hellenistic f a t e , ananke o r t y o h e f t h a n I n E u r i p i d e a n p a s s i o n q u a l i f i e d and d i s c i p l i n e d by r e a s o n , o r A e s c h y le a n h y b r i s o r m oral and r e l i g i o u s b l i n d n e s s q u a l i f i e d by d i v i n e j u s t i c e a n d p e r s u a s i o n . D e s t i n y r e s i d e s i n a d e p t h b e f o r e and w i t h i n human c h a r a c t e r I t s e l f , a d e p t h t h a t m e a su r e s i t s own l i m i t a t i o n s a s f i n i t e and i t s own greatness as g reat.

I n t h i s r e s o u n d i n g n o t e o f d e s t i n y , S o p h o c le s

e x p r e s s e s most p o i g n a n t l y t h e H e l l e n i c v i s i o n o f a d e s t i n y w i t h i n human l i f e , whereby t h e meaning o f l i f e can n e v e r f i n d co m p lete e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e e v e n t s o r meanings o f h i s t o r y o r l i f e a s s u c h . I n t h i s H e l l e n i c v i s i o n , m an's l i f e i s s e e n to be to u c h e d t a n g e n t i a l l y , a l b e i t i n a way t h a t i s v i v i d , c o m p l i c a t e d and d e e p , by a p l e n i t u d e o f p o s s i b i l i t y whose c o m p l e t e n e s s f i l l s man w i t h t h e

217 r e s t l e s s n o b i l i t y o f d i s c o n t e n t even a s i t f i l l s h i s s p i r i t w i t h a c a p a c i t y to s u f f e r and to f o r e b e a r . E uripides F i n a l l y t h e r e i s E u r i p i d e s to c o n s i d e r .

He i s t h e l a t e s t

o f t h e t h r e e i n s p i r i t , i f n o t s t r i c t l y o r w h o lly i n t i m e . S o p h o c le s was a b o u t h i s c o n te m p o r a r y .

But S o p h o c le s a p p a r e n t l y

s t o o d more and more a p a r t from t h e "form a n d p r e s s u r e " o f h i s t i m e , an d t h e r e b y s t o o d i n t h e end f a r t h e r from o u r own.

In

A e s c h y l u s we c a n s e e t h e dawn o f t h e sun o f H e l l e n i s m , i n S o p h o c le s t h a t sun a t noon, a n d i n E u r i p i d e s t h e t w i l i g h t and s e t t i n g . There i s a s im p le and w i d e s p r e a d f e e l i n g , s h a r e d a l i k e by g e n e r a l r e a d e r s and by s c h o l a r s , t h a t E u r i p i d e s r e p r e s e n t s a k in d o f f a l l i n g o f f from what had so g r e a t l y b e e n b e f o r e i n t h e o t h e r s . I t i s h a r d to v a r y from t h i s judgment when a l l i s s a i d and done. Something l i k e t h i s must be p r e s e n t i n any f i n a l o r b a l a n c e d e s ­ tim ate.

But a l o t e l s e needs to be s a i d b e f o r e you can r e a c h a

Judgment a n y t h i n g l i k e t h i s i n c h a r a c t e r . s u r e s o f t h e man a n d o f h i s drama.

There a r e o t h e r mea­

Moreover, be t h e s e t h i n g s a s

t h e y may, E u r i p i d e s p e r f e c t l y e x p r e s s e s a c e r t a i n k i n d , l e v e l , and s t a g e o f Greek t h e o l o g y and t h e r e b y can n e v e r f a i l t o be b o t h i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t . Both th e man E u r i p i d e s and h i s p l a y s p r o v i d e complex t o p i c s . We know a l m o s t n o t h i n g f o r s u r e a b o u t t h e man.

And a l t h o u g h we

know a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t h i s p l a y s , b e c a u s e we have so many o f them, we a r e n o t s u r e t h a t we r e a l l y know what we do know a b o u t them.

Moreover, b o t h what we know, and t h e v a g u e n e s s , u n c e r t a i n t y ,

an d p a r t i a l i t y c o n c e r n i n g what we know and w h e th e r we i n f a c t know

218 It,

s u p p o r t t h e p r e v a i l i n g n o t i o n t h a t i t would be f a r more

i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t to know more a b o u t th e man and a b o u t h i s p l a y s t h a n i n t h e c a s e o f A e s c h y lu s and S o p h o c le s .

There

i s f a i r l y g e n e r a l a g ree m en t a b o u t t h e p l a y s o f A e sc h y lu s and S o p h o c le s — b o t h c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l p l a y s and t h e o v e r - a l l k in d s o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e they r e p r e s e n t.

But t h e r e i s no g e n e r a l agree m ent

a b o u t t h e i n t e n t , i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , o r e f f e c t o f E u rip id ean dram atic trag ed y .

There i s a c u r i o u s i r o n y i n a l l

t h i s , n o t sim ply b e c a u s e we have more o f h i s p l a y s , b u t a l s o by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t E u r i p i d e s a p p a r e n t l y had more em phatic and d e f i n i t e t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y c o n v ic tio n s th a n the o th e r two.

Moreover, E u r i p i d e s seems to have spoken h i s mind upon th e

s t a g e more d i r e c t l y an d unam biguously th a n A e sc h y lu s o r S o p h o c le s . He employs t h e Chorus more f r e q u e n t l y f o r d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e s ; h i s t r a g i c h e r o e s and f o i l s i n r h e t o r i c a l d e b a t e s and f l o u r i s h e s ; h i s p l o t 8 o f more e x p l i c i t t h e o l o g i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l i r o n i e s s u g g e s t e d and embodied i n them; h i s e p i l o g u e s and p r o l o g u e s a r e more p o i n t e d i n p u r p o s e and e f f e c t ; h i s use s and a b u s e s o f t h a t "n o b le q u a r r y , " Greek mythology an d l e g e n d , a r e more d r a s t i c and o b v i o u s ; and h i s a f f i n i t i e s a n d a n t i p a t h i e s w i t h contem p o rary and w ell-know n movements, and f i g u r e s i n Greek t h e o l o g y , p h i l o s o p h y , and s c i e n c e can b e p in n e d down w i t h f a r g r e a t e r c l a r i t y and c e r ­ t a i n t y t h a n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r two; a n d some o f th e most d i d a c t i c and a l l e g o r i c a l d e v i c e s i n a l l Greek t r a g e d y a r e most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f E u r i p i d e s - —t h e " p a r a b a s i s " w h e r e in th e c h o r u s sp e ak s t h e p o e t ' s mind, t h e "agon" w h e r e in t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s

218 q u a r r e l f o r m a lly i n a r h e t o r i c c o n t e s t , and t h e "theophany" w herein t h e Chorus makes a f i n a l comment upon the c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and meanings.

And y e t t h e r e i s s t i l l no agreem ent on

h i s s p e c i f i c p l a y s , on h i s v a r i o u s kinds o f p l a y s , and h i s o v e r ­ a l l t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y t o n e and atm o sp h ere. On t h e b a s i s o f s t o r i e s and l e g e n d s , f o r t h e most p a r t a p o c r y p h a l , i t i s p o s s i b l e to p r o j e c t many images o f E u r i p i d e s . He seems to have been th e b l a c k sheep o f Greek t r a g e d y , t h e p ro d ­ i g a l son, th e bad boy. th e t r a g i c p o e t s . " cism.

A r i s t o t l e c a l l s him th e "most t r a g i c o f

And y e t he comes under t h e s e v e r e s t o f c r i t i ­

Moreover, E u r i p i d e s a p p e a r s to have been a s k e p t i c —a t

once h u m a n i s t i c , a g n o s t i c , r o m a n ti c , and b i t t e r . t h a t s k e p t i c s a r e s m a ll o f s o u l .

He s u f f e r e d th e f a t e o f th o se

who c o n f r o n t th e w orld w i t h b r i l l i a n c e : a f t e r he was dead.

And we a l l know

no l a u r e l s came u n t i l

And i t i s p e c u l i a r l y t h a n k l e s s to mar th e

f a c e o f Greek g e n i u s .

He seems not to have been a v e r y a m iab le

man— i f we a r e to a c c e p t t h e many s t o r i e s a b o u t h i s stormy p r i ­ vate l i f e .

There i s something p o ig n a n t a b o u t t h e f i n a l s t o r i e s

c o n c e r n in g t h e y e a r s d i r e c t l y b e f o r e h i s d e a t h — s p e n t i n e x i l e , broken by A thens, b i t t e r and sad, w i t h a heavy h e a r t . Be t h e s e b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t t e r s a s th e y may, " t h e p l a y ' s th e t h i n g , "

Of t h e n i n e t y p l a y s E u r i p i d e s a p p a r e n t l y c r e a t e d ,

we have e i g h t e e n .

They f a l l r o u g h l y i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s :

o r h i g h o r pure t r a g e d i e s , t r a g i - c o m e d i e s , and melodramas.

real Of

th e h ig h t r a g e d i e s I s h a l l c i t e Medea. H lo o o ly tu s and The T ro ja n Women: o f t h e t r a g l - c o m e d l e a A l o e s t l s : o f t h e melodramas,. E l e c t r a . I s h a l l a l s o r e f e r t o th e B a cc h ae. h i s l a s t p l a y w h erein a l l h i s

220 m a jo r t h e o l o g i c a l themes and h i s most p r o f o u n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e a r e r e c a p i t u l a t e d w i t h overwhelm ing f o r c e . The k in d o f th e o l o g y o f which E u r i p i d e s I s p o s s e s s e d f o r c e s him to d e p a r t ' i n a d i f f e r i n g way from th e A r i s t o t e l i a n p o i n t o f view a n d method.

His p l a y s e x h i b i t a s v i v i d and com­

p l i c a t e d a u n i t y a s can be found i n t h o s e o f S ophocle s o r A e s c h y lu s , b u t t h e u n i t y i s o f a d i f f e r i n g c h a r a c t e r b e c a u s e t h e k in d o f Greek t h e o l o g y o r t h e a s p e c t o f Greek t h e o l o g y u n d e r l y i n g them and g iv in g them shape i s o f a c o n t r a s t i n g c h a r a c t e r .

A risto tle

im p lies in s c a tte r e d passages throughout h is P o e tic s th a t E u r i p i d e a n d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y I s i m p e r f e c t and l a c k i n g i n u n i t y o r power.

T h is I s most a s s u r e d l y t h e c a s e from h i s p o i n t o f view.

And y e t t h e p l a y s o f E u r i p i d e s a s k to be f e l t , s e e n , and u nder­ s t o o d a s no l e s s p o w e r f u l l y c o m p e l l i n g e x p r e s s i o n s o f a n o t h e r k in d o f Greek t h e o l o g y t h a t a t once p r o v i d e d t h e motive f o r t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n , and g i v e s r i s e t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e f f e c t o r effects.

I t h i n k t h a t A r i s t o t l e f a i l s to u n d e r s t a n d and a p p r e c i ­

a t e t h e i r i n n e r c o m p l e x i t y by v i r t u e o f h i s f a i l u r e t o c l a r i f y t h e k in d o f t h e o l o g y from w hich a n d i n t o which t h e y I s s u e . For E u r i p i d e s , t h e f u n d a m e n ta l t h e o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i o n i s t h a t t r a g e d y becomes b o t h p o s s i b l e and a c t u a l by v i r t u e o f m an's d e e p l y p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l n a t u r e .

T hat i s , man i s s e e n to be

p o s s e s s e d o f a c a p a c i t y f o r p h y s i c a l e n e rg y and e m o tio n a l v i t a l i t y th a t i s uncontrolled.

R e g a r d l e s s o f what s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r t h i s

p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l c a p a c i t y may assume—w h e th e r i t be o f l o v e o r o f h a t e , o f r e v e r e n c e o r o f I r r e v e r e n c e — i t i s bound o r a p t t o d r i v e mankind t h i s way and t h a t u n t i l i t has r u n i t s c o u r s e .

221 T ragedy i s s u e s from t h e i n c r e d i b l y s im p le way i n w hich em o tio n can become s t r o n g e r t h a n r e a s o n , r i s i n g up from below t h e mind to t e a r r a tio n a l c o n tro l assunder.

The p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l

component i n m an's n a t u r e i s se en to have much more d i r e c t n e s s , power, and c o n c r e t e n e s s t h a n t h e r a t i o n a l a s p e c t .

The p h y s i c a l

and e m o t i o n a l a s p e c t o f man c a n i n f a c t c o m p l e t e l y d o m i n a t e m a n 's s i t u a t i o n to t h e p o i n t o f p e r v e r s i o n , f i x a t i o n , and o b s e s s i o n . Tragedy o c c u r s i f and when men a r e d r i v e n to d r a s t i c e x t r e m i t i e s by t h e u n c o n t r o l l e d r e l e a s e o f t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y p h y s i c a l a n d emo­ tio n a l capacity. The p l a y s o f E u r i p i d e s a r e t h e r e f o r e p r e o c c u p i e d f o r t h e most p a r t w i t h t h e way men can be governed by a s i n g l e a n d o v e r ­ m astering passion or d e s ire .

The s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r p l a y o f c h a r ­

a c t e r a n d s i t u a t i o n , and c h a r a c t e r and c h a r a c t e r , i s no more i n ­ v o lv e d t h a n i s r e q u i r e d t o e x h i b i t t h e way s u c h e x t r e m i t i e s can occur.

The whole theme i s th e r e m o r s e l e s s and I r r e v e r s i b l e work­

i n g o f e l e m e n t a l p a s s i o n s i n mankind—p a s s i o n s t h a t c u t o f f e v e r y p o s s ib ility for fu lfillm en t. G reeks, i s n o t s t u f f y .

F or E u r i p i d e s , u n l i k e many o f t h e

His whole p o i n t i s t h a t what i s p h y s i c a l

and e m o t i o n a l i n l i f e i s t h e most c r e a t i v e a s p e c t o f l i f e , t h a n a n d even a s i t i s t h e most d e s t r u c t i v e .

no l e s s

E uripides i s , in

t h i s sense, the f i r s t g r e a t n a t u r a l i s t i c o r r e a l i s t i c d r a m a t i s t . His c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t t h e h i g h e r l e v e l s o f l i f e r e s t upon t h e lo w e r. higher.

The lo w e r can d e s t r o y , p e r v e r t , and weaken t h e

But t h e h i g h e r a r e h e l p l e s s a p a r t from t h e lo w e r and d e ­

r i v e t h e i r en e rg y from them.

T h is i s t h e s o u r c e o f t h e t e n s i o n

a t the h e a r t o f every E uripidean pla y :

t h e s o u r c e o f human

222 v i t a l i t y i s a t one and t h e same tim e t h e s o u rc e o f human d e f e a t and f r u s t r a t i o n . to human l i f e :

Two c h o i c e s , and two c h o ic e s o n ly , a r e p r e s e n t e d r e l e a s e p a s s i o n and be d e s t r o y e d by th e fla m e s o f

p e r v e r s i o n , f i x a t i o n o r o b s e s s io n ; o r r e s t r a i n p a s s i o n and be d e s t r o y e d by a t r o p h y , a p a th y , boredom, com placency, and i n d i f f e r ­ en c e. F o r a d r a m a t i s t w ith such a sim ple and r e l i e v e d t h e o l o g i ­ c a l v i s i o n , i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y , p o s s i b l e , o r d e s i r a b l e t o employ th e A r i s t o t e l i a n o r S op h o clean k in d o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e — th e i n n e r c o m p l e x i t i e s o f c h a r a c t e r and p l o t , w h e re in th e fla w i s p r i ­ m a r i l y I n t e l l e c t u a l and th e r e v e r s a l i s b ro u g h t a b o u t by a com­ p l i c a t e d m in g lin g o f r e s p o n s i b l e c h o ic e w i t h i n and a t a n g l e d web o f ch an ce and n e c e s s i t y w i t h o u t .

Nor c o u ld he employ th e a u s t e r e

A e sc h y le a n d e c l e v l t y o f s t r u c t u r e , w h e re in th e fla w i s p r i m a r i l y m o ral and r e l i g i o u s an d w h e re in t h e r e v e r s a l i s b r o u g h t a b o u t by n e m e s is .

His k in d o f Greek th e o lo g y r e q u i r e d t h a t th e human s i t u a ­

t i o n be d i s c l o s e d s t i l l more a b s t r a c t l y .

He f e l t t h a t tr a g e d y

a r o s e from a d i s a s t r o u s elem ent r e s i d i n g i n common h u m an ity w hich l e a d s i n e v i t a b l y to s u f f e r i n g b u t i n w hich th e g u i l t y may o r may n o t s h a r e , and i n w hich g u i l t i n an y c a se h a s a s o u rc e an d a d r i v e o t h e r th a n th e c o n s c io u s an d p u r p o s iv e l i f e o f an autonom ous i n ­ d iv id u a l.

E u r i p i d e s c o u ld n e v e r be co n cern ed w ith c r e a t i n g c h a r ­

a c t e r o r c ir c u m s ta n c e i n a s u s t a i n e d , f u l l - b o d i e d f a s h i o n f o r i t was n o t h e r e t h a t t r a g e d y made i t s e l f f e l t most d e e p ly f o r him. He c o u ld h o n e s t l y c r e a t e o n ly extrem e f i g u r e s , g r a v e l y d i s t o r t e d re m n a n ts o f men a s we sh o u ld l i k e them to be o r a s we c o n v e n tio n ­ a l l y t h i n k th e y a r e .

F or he was most im p re s s e d by th e way d e e p l y -

223 l a i d p h y s i c a l , e m o tio n a l an d p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s can t a k e e n t i r e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e i r v ic tim s and d r i v e them r e l e n t l e s s l y where th e y w ill.

What was c a l l e d f o r i n a d r a m a tic t r a g e d y was n o t th e con­

f l i c t w i t h i n t h e c o m p lic a te d s o u l o f a complex c h a r a c t e r , b u t s e n s e l e s s com pulsion o f a s i n g l e p a s s i o n .

The fla w i s n o t a fla w

i n a c r e a t u r e o th e r w i s e p e r f e c t , b u t th e t o t a l w a rp in g o f th e human f i g u r e i n t o a grim s p e c t r e th ro u g h th e o v e r m a s te r in g p h y s i c a l and e m o tio n a l p o s s e s s i o n o f a s i n g l e , c o n c e n t r a t e d f o r c e .

N e ith e r

J a s o n , Medea, o r P h a e d ra I s a f u l l - p r o p o r t i o n e d human b e i n g . w ere n o t meant to b e .

They

They were meant to b e p r e c i s e l y w hat th e y

a r e — p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f th e w ild e x t r e m i t i e s to w hich p a s s i o n can d r i v e and re d u c e men when i t s p o s s e s s i o n o f them becomes co m p le te . The b a s e n e s s o f J a s o n , th e r u t h l e s s n e s s o f Medea, and th e p e r v e r ­ s io n o f P h aed ra a r e n o t f la w s i n c o m p lic a te d i n d i v i d u a l s f u r t h e r d e f i n e d by q u a l i t i e s f a r more n o b le and a d m ir a b le . o n ly q u a l i t i e s t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e seen to p o s s e s s .

These a r e th e The p o i n t i s n o t

t h a t t h e y a r e m e lo d ra m a tic v i l l i a n s , co m p lete i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s who a r e from th e o u t s e t c o m p le te ly b a d .

The p o i n t i s r a t h e r t h a t th e y

a r e a l l t h a t i s l e f t o f a human b e i n g a f t e r p a s s i o n h a s had i t s sa y .

The i n e x o r a b l e w orking o f t h i s d i s a s t r o u s l y c o m p u lsiv e f o r c e ,

n o t th e s t r e n g t h o r w eakness— i n t e l l e c t u a l , m oral o r r e l i g i o u s — o f th e c h a r a c t e r d i r e c t s t h e a c t i o n .

A l l t h i s was a s I t sh o u ld

b e , f o r t h e sim p le r e a s o n t h a t f o r E u r i p i d e s tr a g e d y was a t e r r i ­ f y i n g l y o b j e c t i v e an d o u t e r r a t h e r th a n an in w ard t h i n g .

Men

overwhelm ed by p a s s i o n were l i t e r a l l y v i c t i m s , and th e d e v a s t a t i o n f o l l o w i n g i n t h e wake o f r e l e a s e d p a s s io n had to be e x h i b i t e d a s s u f f e r e d by many p e r s o n s i n d i f f e r e n t l y even a s i t was p r e c i p i t a t e d by one i n d i v i d u a l I r r e v o c a b l y .

224 I n s o f a r a s t h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g o f E u rip id e a n th e o lo g y i s e x a c t , A r i s t o t l e ' s c r i t i c i s m s o f h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n become I r r e l e v a n t , f o r he I s ju d g in g E u r i p i d e s from th e p o i n t o f view o f a n o t h e r k in d o f Greek t h e o l o g i c a l I n s i g h t and system .

E u r i p i d e s ' use

o f deus ex m ach in a. h i s v i o l a t i o n o f th e law o f n e c e s s a r y and p r o b a b le r e s u l t , h i s p r e o c c u p a ti o n w ith v i o l e n c e , p e r v e r s i o n , o b s e s s i o n , f i x a t i o n , and o t h e r a b n o r m a l i t i e s , and th e m u t i l a t e d k ind o f c h a r a c t e r s t h a t p e o p le h i s s ta g e a r e in d e e d I r r a t i o n a l and r e v o l t i n g i f we assume t h a t he was d r i v e n by th e same kind o f th e o lo g y and by th e same k in d o f d r a m a tic p u rp o s e a s m o tiv a te d S o p h o c le s .

But t h a t a s s u m p tio n i s u n w a rra n te d by th e f a c t s .

The

f a c ts p re se n t a t e l l i n g d isc lo su re of as te r r if y in g a tr a g ic e le ­ ment i n human n a t u r e a s S o p h o cle s o r A r i s t o t l e knew, a t r a g i c th a t i s

no l e s s re m a rk a b le f o r b e in g d i f f e r e n t .

id e a

What may be im­

p u re from an A r i s t o t e l i a n p o i n t o f view, t h a t i s , to o c l o s e l y b o r d e r i n g upon th e p a t h o s o f s h e e r melodrama, may n o n e t h e l e s s f o llo w from an e q u a l l y I n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r ta n t k in d o f Greek th e o lo g y .

Som ething may have been g a in e d a s w e l l a s l o s t by

l e a v i n g o u t o r d e s t r o y i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y o f th e human s o u l . I t h i n k t h a t som ething was g a in e d .

E u r i p id e s h a s ex­

p r e s s e d som ethin g i t i s n e c e s s a r y , p o s s i b l e , and d e s i r a b l e to ex press.

And i t c o u ld have been e x p r e s s e d i n no o t h e r way.

What

was g a in e d was a d i s c l o s u r e o f what can and d o es s t r i p th e human s o u l o f i t s I n t e g r i t y — th e h a u n te d and d a r k r e c e s s e s l y i n g below and d e e p e r th a n th e mind, th e h e a r t , o r th e w i l l .

What i s to be

a d m ire d i n E u r i p i d e s i s a n u n f l i n c h i n g h o n e s ty , a f e a r l e s s f a c i n g up to what he p e r c e i v e d to be th e c a s e .

L e s s e r men can r e s t s a t -

225 i s f l e d w ith e a s i e r s o l u t i o n s and can f a l s e l y I d e a l i s e l i f e i n th e name o f what i t i s n o t— o r i n th e name o f what th e y sh o u ld l i k e o r f e e l somehow o u g h t to be th e c a s e .

But E u r i p id e s h a s a n a iv e

k in d o f e m o tio n a l i n t e g r i t y t h a t r e f u s e s to s to p s h o r t o f th e f u l l h o r r o r and weakness he d i s c o v e r s a t th e h e a r t o f l i f e .

No

m o rb id n ess o f c u r i o s i t y o r p e r v e r s i t y o f th e im a g in a tio n o r i r r a ­ t i o n a l i t y o f th e mind i s in v o lv e d i n h i s d e p i c t i o n o f th e b e a s t l y d e g r a d a t i o n to which th e n o b l e s t o f human b e in g s can be s w i f t l y thrown by s e x u a l d e s i r e i f t h a t d e s i r e rem a in s u n f u l f i l l e d , a s i n th e o ase o f Medea; o r i f s u f f e r i n g , too lo n g en d u red , t w i s t s and t o r t u r e s a man and f a i l s to ta k e on meaning, a s i n th e ca se o f Jason.

R a th e r , i t was an u r g e n t r e a d in g o f t h e f e a r f u l r e a l i ­

t i e s o f h i s e x p e r ie n c e t h a t had f o r c e d him to f o llo w to w h ate v er d a r k e m o tio n a l chaos and c o n f u s io n th e y might have i n s t o r e . What i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y a b o u t E u r i p id e s i s th e way t h e work­ in g o f h i s t h e o l o g i c a l im a g in a tio n was governed by a se n se o f tr a g e d y re m a rk a b ly c l o s e to what h as r a p i d l y become i n th e modern w o rld o u r own.

E u r i p i d e s h as a f l a v o r o f c o n te m p o ra n e ity which

i n A esc h y lu s and S o p h o cles we somehow m is s— E u r i p id e s i s l e s s s te e p e d i n t r a d i t i o n , more s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , s o p h i s t i c a l , and p o s s e s s e d a k in d o f n ervo u s b r i l l i a n c e . le g e n d i n a c r i t i c a l , i r o n i c a l way.

He employs myth and

He c o n jo in s a deep lo v e f o r

mankind w ith a s p i t e o u s a se n se o f th e way i t s hopes a r e d e f e a t e d , A f a s c i n a t i n g s t o r y i n p a r a l l e l i s m co u ld be made betw een th e i n ­ s i g h t s E u r i p id e s was com pelled to w itn e s s i n h i s own ag e w ith th o s e many have f e l t i n c r e a s i n g l y a s o u r own.

Werner J a e g e r ' s

d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e problem s and i s s u e s o f th e ag e i n te rm s o f

w hich E u r i p i d e s c o n s t r u c t e d h i s dram as, and to w hich t h e y i n some f a s h i o n r e f l e c t a n d to w hich th e y a d d r e s s th e m s e lv e s , have a n i n c r e d i b l e a tm o s p h e re and to n e o f c o n te m p o r a n e ity a b o u t them . What i s d e p i c t e d i s a n a g e o f g r a v e c r i s i s and u n r e s t , w here th e v e r y f o u n d a t i o n s o f c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n seem to b e c ru m b lin g o r th e r o o t s d r i e d up and t o r n away; where s o p h i s t i c a l d o u b t and c o n f l i c t f l o u r i s h to k i l l v i v i d immediacy an d e v e ry e l e m e n t a l f e e l i n g o f I n t e r e s t , wonder and c u r i o s i t y becomes s u s p e c t o r i s k i l l e d ; where good a p p e a r a n c e seems to be f a l l i n g ev e ry w h e re b e­ f o r e e v i l r e a l i t y ; where d e c i s i v e words s h i f t and s u f f e r i r o n i c a l r e v e r s a l s i n m eaning; where th e I n d i v i d u a l i s t o r n from t h e c o l l e c t i v e l i f e and th e c o l l e c t i v e l i f e i s t o r n from th e i n d i v i d u a l l i f e b o th o b s e s s e d a l i e n s , d i s t o r t e d and p e r v e r t e d by f r e n z i e d f a n t a s y ; and w h e r e in th e f i e r y f a i t h s t h a t once a n im a te d mankind and gave d i g n i t y , s t a t u r e , an d p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r e x i s t e n c e sound h o llo w , w i s h f u l , o r th e o b j e c t s o f n o th in g more th a n a p o i g n a n t o r p u r e l y a e sth e tic In te re s t.

I n E u r i p i d e s , we t r u l y have t h e p r e c u r s o r

to th e r h e t o r i c a l a n d s a t i r i c a l drama o f I b s e n and Shaw, and o f th e e a r l y T. S. E l i o t .

The I m a g in a tio n o f t h e s e moderns h a s a l s o

c u t th r o u g h th e s u r f a c e glow to c a t c h p r e f i g u r i n g s o f b l e a k n e s s , boredom, and h o r r o r ; t o engage i n r h e t o r i c a l f l o u r i s h e s and sub­ t l e t i e s t h a t i r o n i c a l l y l e a d now here; an d to e x h i b i t l i f e a s a w a s t e la n d d e v o id o f e m o tio n a l r i c h n e s s , s t a r v e d o f communal i n ­ t e g r i t y , and h a u n te d by an u n s a t i s f i e d c r a v i n g f o r a t r a d i t i o n , a n a u t h o r i t y , a f a i t h and a r e v e l a t i o n .

T h is s u g g e s t s t h a t th e

k in d o f Greek th e o lo g y to w h ich E u r i p i d e s was a d d r e s s i n g h i m s e l f may be e x p l a i n e d b u t c a n n o t be e x p l a in e d away by th e p e c u l i a r

227 p r e s s u r e s o f e i t h e r Greek o r modern e x i s t e n c e ,

^he i n t e n s i t y

w i t h w hich b o th have p ro b ed t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f a " h e r e and now" have e n a b le d them to t r a n s f o r m Images i n t o sym bols o b j e c t i f y ­ in g

r e a l i t i e s f o r which an y tim e h a s i t s e q u i v a l e n t . I n th e end, how ever, E u r i p id e a n d r a m a tic t r a g e d y must b e

ju dg ed i n term s o f i t s l i m i t a t i o n s a s w e l l a s i n te rm s o f i t s scope.

I t s l i m i t a t i o n s r e s i d e i n th e p a r t i a l i t y o f p e n e t r a t i o n

th e e a r l y E l i o t h as come to r e c o g n iz e a s h i s own and h a s so u g h t to r e c t i f y i n h i s l a t e r s e l f — th e f a i l u r e to r e a l i s e t h a t a c o m p le te d r a m a tic tr a g e d y r e q u i r e s a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f more th a n t h e boredom and h o r r o r o f l i f e . w onder.

I t r e q u i r e s a s e n s e o f i t s b e a u ty an d i t s

E u r i p i d e s ' p r e o c c u p a t i o n w ith th e r a v a g e s e l e m e n t a l

p a s s i o n can b r i n g e n a b le d him to se e m is e ry a n d h o r r o r .

But th e y

f a i l e d to e n a b le him to e n v is a g e a d e q u a t e l y th e a s a c t u a l t r a n s f i g u r i n g s by b e a u ty and by g l o r y .

The scope o f E u r i p i d e a n drama­

t i c tr a g e d y , a p a r t from i t s f e a r l e s s h o n e s ty i n f a c i n g up to " s t u b b o r n f a c t s , " to t h e w eak n ess, f r a i l t y and h o r r o r t h a t must u n f l i n c h i n g l y be c o n f r o n te d , f a l l s s h o r t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f h ig h t r a g e d y .

And y e t h i s d r a m a tic tr a g e d y d o es p o i n t to a

c a t h a r s i s o f a k in d .

For th e v e r y i n t e g r i t y w ith w hich h o r r o r

i s d i s c l o s e d does more th a n o p p r e s s t h e r e a d e r w ith an i n s u f f e r ­ a b le burden.

I t s e x p i a t i o n i s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r and i n i t i a t e s

th e v e r y p r o c e s s o f r e l e a s e . A e sc h y lu s f i x e d b e f o r e t h e eyes o f th e w o rld a n image o f P ro m eth eu s c h a in e d t o h i s r o c k , f o r s a k e n by God*

S o p h o c le s

s e t b e f o r e th e eyes o f mankind t h e image o f O edipus i n th e a c t o f p u t t i n g o u t h i s e y e s — t h e image o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y .

But

228 E u r i p i d e s i s th e s k e p t i c , th e a g n o s t i c , th e r a t i o n a l i s t who c o u ld n o t f i n d e v id e n c e f o r th e p r e s e n c e o f any d i v i n e elem en t i n th e w o rld .

I n h i s g r e a t e s t tr a g i- c o m e d y , A l c e s t i s th e t r a g i c h ero

i s h o p e l e s s l y bad an d weak. t h e han ds o f God o r f a t e .

E v e r y th in g p o i n t s to h i s n em esis a t But i n s t e a d o f b e in g d e s t r o y e d f o r good

r e a s o n , he e s c a p e s — he e r r e d , he s in n e d , b u t God was n o t t h e r e . H lo o o ly tu s . t h e r e i s th e v i s i o n o f lo v e a s a w o n d e r f u lly n a t u r a l t h i n g , a n d y e t i t s w o rking s a r e w atched w ith h a w k -lik e p r e c i s i o n . Love i s b e n e f i c e n t when m o d e ra te , t e r r i b l e when s t r o n g .

I t can

tr a n s m u te Medea an d P h aed ra i n t o f la m in g f u r i e s — c u t t i n g them o f f from th e m s e lv e s a n d from o t h e r s .

His p u rp o s e i s to p aro d y

r a t h e r th a n to J u s t i f y t h e ways o f God t o man.

His p l a y s a r e

s t u d i e s i n co m p u lsio n and v i o l e n c e — com pulsion w i t h i n and v i o ­ le n c e w ith o u t.

The theme i s t h e theme o f th e s e n s e l e s s n e s s a t

th e h e a r t o f l i f e .

T here i s a deep com passion f o r th e u s e l e s s

an d u n n e c e s s a r y s u f f e r i n g men c a u s e th e m s e lv e s and o t h e r s .

There

i s th e dream o f a p o s s i b l e u n io n o f p a s s i o n and i n t e l l e c t a s cap­ a b l e o f making men g r e a t .

T here i s th e f e a r o f d e l i b e r a t e c r u e l t y ,

s e n s e l e s s co m p u lsio n w i t h i n and w i t h o u t , and o f r o m a n tic h e ro ism a s J o i n t l y e n d in g i n d i s a s t e r .

The image E u r i p i d e s h o ld s up be­

f o r e mankind i s th e image o f Medea f l y i n g i n th e f a c e o f n a t u r e , i n t h e f a c e o f h e r own t r u e s e l f , and i n th e f a c e o f o t h e r s i n th e name o f a s e n s e l e s s p a s s i o n and co m p u lsio n . i t s u l t i m a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n th e Bgeehae.

T hat image f i n d s

The dance o f th e Maenads

e x h i b i t s t h a t th e w ild n e s s a t th e h e a r t o f l i f e i s b o th b e a u t i f u l an d t e r r i f y i n g .

229 I d e n t i t i e s and D if f e r e n c e s Between, and Among th e Greeks Now t h a t th e k in d s o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y f o r w hich A e s c h y lu s , S o p h o c le s, and E u r i p i d e s a r e to he remembered a r e b e f o r e u s , we have a r i g h t to wonder w h eth er t h e i r p la y s ca n n o t be se e n a s s i g ­ n i f i c a n t l y In term s o f t h e i r u n i t y a s i n te rm s o f t h e i r v a r i e t y . They a r e many.

They a r e a l s o o n e.

The p u r s u i t o f t h i s common

ground must n e v e r o b s c u re o r b l u r th e d i f f e r e n c e s , and y e t some­ t h i n g t h e r e i s t h a t I n s i s t s t h a t i t i s b o th p o s s i b l e an d n e c e s s a r y to sp e ak o f a Greek t r a g i c v i s i o n d i v e r s e l y p r o j e c t e d and embodied by ea ch and a l l — a s o r t o f i n v a r i a n t t h e o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i o n l y i n g c o n s ta n t w ith in a l l t h e i r s h i f t i n g g u is e s . T h is q u e s t f o r i d e n t i t i e s and a n a l o g i e s h a s an a i r o f r e c k l e s s e x tra v a g a n c e a b o u t i t , and many who have v e n tu r e d b o l d l y , i f n o t p r e t e n s l o u s l y , a lo n g t h i s ro a d have f a l l e n by th e w ayside or a t le a s t fa r sh o rt of th e ir d e s tin a tio n . F or exam ple, many have spoken a s i f th e s h a re d n o te were n o th in g more th a n a v i s i o n o f r e m o r s e l e s s f a t e and i r r e v e r s i b l e doom— u n d e rsto o d i n n arro w ly f a t a l i s t i c te rm s , a s i f th e Greek s e n s e o f l i f e in v o lv e d n o th in g more th a n a f e e l i n g f o r th e e l e ­ ment o f n e c e s s i t y o r chance a t t h e h e a r t o f th e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s . There i s no d o u b t t h a t most o f th e t a l k a b o u t " f a t e " i n Greek tr a g e d y i s a l o t o f n o n se n se — e i t h e r a s h e e r m is ta k e , o r e l s e a l i t u r g i c a l r e f r a i n t h a t sa y s n o th in g b e c a u se I t sa y s e v e ry th in g .

We do n o t know i n w hat se n se t h e term f a t e i s b e in g

employed, o r where i t s meaning p r e c i s e l y b e g in s and e n d s . a r e many k in d s o f f a t e .

F a te i s a mere g e n e r i c te rm .

T here

And i t i s

230 n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s any such t h i n g a s f a t e i n g e n e r a l o r i n th e vague.

M oreover, ev e ry k in d o f th e o lo g y w orthy o f t h e name,

Greek, C h r i s t i a n , H e b r a ic , s k e p t i c a l o r o th e r w is e h a s s e t i t s eye upon th e c o e r c io n and i n s c r u t a b i l i t y b o th d i s c l o s e d and h id d e n by t h e s e f a c t s o f c a p r i c e and I n e x o r a b i l i t y .

The a p p r e h e n s io n

h a s a s i m p l i c i t y and n a i v i t e a b o u t I t t h a t c a r r i e s r e v e r b e r a t i o n s o f th e c h ild h o o d o f th e r a c e .

The s i m p l i c i t y i s p r i m i t i v e and

th e n a i v i t e i s sav ag e i n i t s t e r r o r , r e a c h in g b ack f a r b e h in d th e s u r f a c e glow o f c u l t u r e and c i v i l i s a t i o n to s t i r w a te r s o f e l e ­ m e n ta l f e a r .

The Greek s e n s i b i l i t y and I n t e l l e c t , w i t h t h e i r

d o c t r i n e s o f r e c o l l e c t i o n an d o f dream s, were bound to be a s con­ s c io u s a s we a r e o f t h e s e h id d e n and t u r g i d d e p th s w i t h i n an d b e ­ f o r e th e human s i t u a t i o n .

For th e g r e a t e s t o f t h e G reeks a n t i ­

c i p a t e d F reud i n l o c a t i n g th e p r i m i t i v e v e r t i c a l l y w i t h i n th e p r e s e n t a s w e ll a s h o r i z o n t a l l y i n th e p a s t — t h a t i s downward and w i t h i n a s w e l l a s backward an d w i t h o u t ; and e n v is a g e d th e M a rx is t th e o r y o f h i s t o r y a s d r i v e n by s e n s e l e s s f o r c e s and v i o ­ l e n t l y com pulsive a g e n c ie s man c a n n o t f u l l y u n d e r s ta n d o r c o n t r o l . T h is i s t h e su rd o f which P l a t o spoke; th e p o w e r f u lly overw helm ing s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o f w hich T hucydides w ro te ; th e dreams, th e h y b r 1s f and n em esis o f k in g s , c u l t u r e s , and c i v i l i s a t i o n s o f w hich H ero d o tu s n a r r a t e d ; th e c o n t r a s t betw een D io n y siu s and A p o llo t h a t d e f i n e s th e t e n s i o n o f a l l Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y ; and th e p o l a r i t y b etw een f l u x and perm anence, e r o s and nomos. an d r e s t l e s s n e s s and p e a c e o f w hich th e u n r e s o lv e d c o n f l i c t a t th e h e a r t o f Greek p h ilo s o p h y , e t h i c s and th e o lo g y c o n s i s t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e Greeks were p e r h a p s even more u rb a n e ,

231 c o s m o p o lita n , and c i v i l i s e d th a n we i n t h e i r s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . They i n s i s t e d upon h o ld in g a t a rm 1s l e n g t h what most d e e p ly h a u n te d them a s memory o r a s dream and to o k a r a t h e r i n t e l l i g i b l e lo o k a t what was t h e r e .

The p e c u l i a r d e p th o f Greek th e o lo g y con­

t a i n s b u t can n o t be c o n ta in e d by any sim p le i n t u i t i o n i n t o c a p r i ­ cio u sn ess o r n e c e s s ity as u n q u a lifie d as t h i s .

They h e l d some­

th in g f i r m e r i n t h e i r g ra s p th a n th e s e n o tio n s o f an e x t e r n a l l y c a p r i c i o u s f a t e o r a f o rm le s s i n n e r v i t a l i t y d r i v i n g men to t h e i r r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e doom.

For th e y re c o g n iz e d t h a t t h e r e

a r e a s p e c t s o f e x p e rie n c e o v e r w hich man i s more d i r e c t l y r e s p o n ­ s i b l e and i n some k in d o f c o n t r o l t h a t a r e n o t o n ly w o rth t a l k i n g a b o u t b u t c a p a b le o f more b e a u ty and more m is e ry . A more p ro fo u n d v e r s io n o f th e n o te o f f a t e o r doom i n Greek tr a g e d y must t o s s to one s i d e t h i s d e c e p ti v e s i m p l i c i t y o f p r i m i t i v e gloom.

I t must sp eak o f th e way e v e ry Greek se n se d th e

r e m o r s e l e s s w orking o f an i n e v i t a b i l i t y i n t h i n g s .

T h is v e r s io n

o f f a t e s e i z e s upon th e n o tio n o f n e c e s s i t y a s l y i n g a t th e h e a r t o f th e m a tte r f o r th e G reeks, a n o tio n t h a t i s d e t e r m i n i s t i c i n th e l a r g e r r a t h e r th a n i n th e s m a lle r s e n s e .

I t r e s t s upon and

a r i s e s o u t o f a se n se o f th e i n e x o r a b l e c o n n e x i t y and o r d e r i n th e w o rld , w h erein deeds more o r l e s s c o n s c io u s l y , b u t i n any ca se f u l l y , e n t e r e d i n t o a r e f o llo w e d I n e s c a p a b ly by c e r t a i n c o n seq u en c es. The w orking o f t h i s c o n n e c te d n e ss i s f e l t to be more r e m o r s e l e s s th a n c a p r i c i o u s i n c h a r a c t e r , b e i n g bo rn more o f n e c e s s i t y th a n o f c h a n ce .

Once t h i s happens o r i s done, no m a tte r where o r when

o r what o r whom o r how, t h a t f o llo w s w ith overwhelm ing c o n s is te n c y and f o r c e , w h eth e r t h e s o l i d i t y o f the c a u s a l im p a c t be f e l t a s an o utw ard c a t a s t r o p h e a s i n A e s c h y lu s , a s a n inw ard c a la m ity a s In

232 S o p h o c le s , o r a s a n o b s e s s i o n t e a r i n g th e w o rld a p a r t b o t h w i t h i n and w ith o u t I n d i f f e r e n t l y a s i n E u r i p i d e s ,

A esc h y lu s may have

s t r e s s e d th e o r d i n a r y , common, u n i v e r s a l a s p e c t of th e h ap p e n in g o r d e e d —a b l i n d n e s s b o r n o f a norm al ex c ess o f p a s s i o n , and f o r th e most p a r t th e b u rd e n o f i n h e r i t a n c e , and i n any c a s e q u i t e im p e r s o n a l, u n i v e r s a l , and common i n o r i g i n and i n n e m e s is ; S o p h o cles may have fo c u s e d upon th e p u r e ly i n t e l l e c t u a l e r r o r i n judgm ent q u i t e n o b ly e n t e r e d i n t o , a fla w o r w eakness t h a t comes to lo o k i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n te rm s o f more re m a rk a b le s t r e n g t h , s in c e a l e s s n o b le c r e a t u r e c o u ld not e r r so m a g n i f i c e n t l y , and s i n c e i t i s th e o r d e r of th e w o rld w hich c a n n o t s ta n d such g r e a t ­ n e s s r a t h e r th a n such g r e a t n e s s i n th e w o rld t h a t c a n n o t s ta n d such s m a lln e s s ; and E u r i p i d e s may have been d r i v e n by a v i s i o n o f a b ­ n o r m a li ty a s w id e ly and d e e p ly p r e s e n t i n l i f e a s n o r m a lity I t s e l f , But a l l se n se d i n u n iso n a r e m o r s e l e s s w o rk in g , a n e c e s s i t y , an i n e v i t a b i l i t y , an i n e x o r a b l e c o n n e x ity a t th e h e a r t o f t h i n g s . And y e t t h i s s e n s e o f f a t e d doom, d r i v i n g e a eh , c a n n o t be summed up a s an u n r e l i e v e d p essim ism and m elan ch o ly any more th a n i t can be d is m is s e d i n th e name o f a n a iv e f a t a l i s m ,

S o p h o c le s,

A esc h y lu s and E u r i p i d e s each were c a p a b le o f s u s t a i n i n g a v i s i o n o f g l o r y a s w e ll a s h o r r o r , a lo o k o f wonder, c u r i o s i t y and joy a s w e ll a s o f t e r r o r , and a n o te o f d e s t i n y a s w e ll a s f a t e : A esc h y lu s i n h i s c o m p a ssio n a te and awesome p e r c e p t i o n of th e k in d n e s s a s w e l l a s th e s e v e r i t y i n d iv in e judgm ent— r e s c u i n g man from h i s m oral f r a i l t y ;

Sophocles i n h i s i n s i g h t i n t o th e

u n fath o m a b le d e p th a t th e b a se o f human c h a r a c t e r , and i n t o th e i n t e g r i t y o f t h a t d e p th ; and E u r i p i d e s i n h i s s e n s e o f th e p o ig n a n t

233 b e a u ty o f l i f e d e s p i t e i t s t r a g e d y .

The Greek s e n s e o f l i f e was

t h u s f i r m l y b a l a n c e d b etw een a f r a g i l e o p tim ism and a n u n m it ig a t e d d e s p a i r , w hereby i t c o u ld a c c e p t l i f e d e s p i t e i t s t r a g e d y , a f f i r m ­ i n g t h a t b o t h th e s e e k in g o f good and th e sh u n n in g o f e v i l a r e good. N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e G reeks were i n a p e c u l i a r way c a u g h t s h o r t o f a f u l l n e s s o f a f f i r m a t i o n c la im e d by Jews and by C h r i s t i a n s , r a r e th o u g h th e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h i s c la im may be i n f a c t .

T h e ir

v i s i o n o f t r a g e d y d i d n o t d r i v e a man to f a l l so low a s a Jew means by d e s p a i r , an d y e t r e f u s e d to p e r m it him to r i s e so h ig h a s a C h r i s t i a n means by f a i t h , h o p e, and t r u s t .

What was f i n a l l y

p o s s i b l e f o r a Greek t h e o l o g i c a l l y was a r e s i g n a t i o n , a n a c c e p t a n c e o r a n a c q u i e s c e n c e t h a t f e l l s h o r t o f d r e a d , judgment and g u i l t on th e one hand an d below g l o r y , r a d i a n c e , and p ea ce on th e o t h e r . The r a n g e o f th e drama o f l i f e , and i t s d im e n s io n s , w ere somehow l e s s I n c l u s i v e th a n t h e drama o f t h e C h r i s t i a n o r t h e Jew, P a r t o f th e tig h tn e s s in t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s v ery l i k e l y d e r i v e s from t h e f a c t t h a t th e G reeks saw t h e f a c t o f l i m i t a t i o n an d f i n i t u d e c l o s e l y and in e x t r i c a b l y c o n j o in e d w i t h th e f a c t o f n e c e ssity .

T h at i s ,

even a s th e y e n v is a g e d th e w o rld a s e x h i b i t ­

i n g a n i n e x o r a b l e c o n n e x i t y o r o r d e r , th e y saw t h a t o r d e r was s e t t i n g bounds and l i m i t s to e v e r y t h i n g g e n e r a l l y , i n c l u d i n g a human r e s t l e s s n e s s t h a t i s f a t e d t o o ' e r l e a p and o v e r p l a y t h e s e bounds i n p a r t i c u l a r .

By v i r t u e o f t h e s e k in d r e d f a c t s , m a n 's

l i f e was f e l t to s t a n d e t e r n a l l y u n d er th e t h r e a t o f p e r i l and to d i s p l a y a v u l n e r a b i l i t y t h a t r e n d e r s i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y a t once th e c a r d i n a l v i r t u e an d t h e im p o s s i b l e i d e a l .

F or s u c h i n v u l n e r -

234 a b i l i t y was u n a t t a i n a b l e i n f a c t by v i r t u e o f t h e mixed an d lim ite d c h a ra c te r o f l i f e .

And y e t a k in d o f i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y

c o u ld be a c h ie v e d by e x p e c t i n g no ne.

The wisdom o f a c c e p t a n c e —

th e c l o s e s t c o n d i t i o n o r s t a t e to I n v u l n e r a b i l i t y th e y c o u ld c la im — l e f t an i m p r e s s i v e q u a l i t y on th e f a c e o f t h i n g s d i v e r s e l y e x p r e s s e d a s S o p h o cle an m a je s t y , A e sc h y le a n awe, and E u r i p id e a n p o ig n a n c e .

M an's te n d e n c y to d e f y n e c e s s i t y an d f i n i t u d e was f e l t

to be a s h e r o i c a s d e s t r u c t i v e . T h at i s a r e s t l e s s c r e a t i v i t y i n d e t e r m i n a t e l y on th e move tow ard h o r r o r o r g l o r y c o u ld n o t b e f e l t a t t h e h e a r t o f th e na­ t u r e o f t h i n g s by th e G re ek s, f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t a s e n s e o f i d e n ­ t i t y an d r e c u r r e n c e was most d e e p ly t h e r e . ta k e n by s u r p r i s e .

No Greek c o u ld be

No Greek had to f a c e up to r e a l n o v e l t y , a d ­

v e n t u r e , o r d i s c o v e r y , f o r he i n t e r p r e t e d e x p e r i e n c e a s th e r e ­ m o r s e l e s s an d i r r e v e r s i b l e u n f o l d i n g o f an i n v a r i a n t r e c o l l e c t i o n o r dream .

The G reeks e x p e c te d so m e th in g s t r i c t l y c o h e r e n t w ith

w hat t h e y a l r e a d y knew l i f e by n e c e s s i t y had i n s t o r e . e x p e c t what t h e y e x p e c te d .

They c o u ld

T h ere was n o th in g new un der t h e su n .

N o th in g m a l i c i o u s c o u ld p la y t r i c k s w ith f a t e o r d e s t i n y by day; n o th in g c a p r i c i o u s c o u ld s h i f t th e b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s by n i g h t . E x p e r ie n c e c o u ld t a k e no h o l i d a y s from w hat a lw a y s had and a lw a y s would h o ld i t s sway.

And b o th e x p e r i e n c e , and w hat i s g iv e n by

n a t u r e and God, command awe, m a j e s t y , and p o ig n a n t c o n c e r n . T h ere i s th e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r a d i s p a s s i o n a t e s e r e n i t y h e r e — a o a r i n g n e i t h e r to o l i t t l e

n o r to o much, th e s p i r i t o f a Greece

t h a t c o u ld f a s h i o n t h e n o t i o n o f harmony a s a t h i r d q u a l i t y r e ­ s i d i n g a p a r t from and a b o v e , n o t sim p ly b etw e en chao s and monotony

235 a s e x tre m e s ; t h a t c o u ld e n v is a g e th e n o t i o n o f th e mean a s a p o s i ­ t i v e t h i r d c h o i c e , n o t a mere compromise b etw e en th e e x c e s s o f a ffirm a tio n or d e n ia l.

M oreover, one h a s t o r e c a l l t h e b a s i c

f u n c t i o n o f d r a m a tic t r a g e d y f o r th e G reeks.

T h at iiin ct i o n was

s o c i a l i n c h a r a c t e r , a im in g a t t h e c a t h a r s i s o r c l e a n s i n g o f p a s s i o n i n th e a u d i e n c e .

P i t y and f e a r a r e a r o u s e d by r e l e a s i n g i n th e

t r a g i c h e r o upon t h e s t a g e a f la w o f p a s s i o n t h a t b r i n g s on h i s d e fe a t.

But t h e p u r p o s e o f th e t e l l i n g i s n e i t h e r to r e v o l t n o r

to e x c i t e th e a u d i e n c e .

The aim i s to p u r i f y t h e i r em o tio n s by

a r o u s i n g , th e n p u r g i n g what i s d e s t r u c t i v e o f com posure, o f b a l ­ a n c e , o f p r o p o r t i o n , o f harmony.

One i s p e r h a p s f a i r e s t to th e

G reeks when one ju d g e s w hat i s p r e s e n t e d on th e s t a g e i n te rm s o f t h e p u rp o s e o f i t s in t e n d e d e f f e c t upon th e a u d i e n c e . p u r p o s e o f th e e f f e c t was n o t to d e p r e s s o r to e x a l t : a r o u s e an d p u rg e p i t y and t e r r o r .

The

i t was to

[

And y e t one h a s to be c a r e f u l .

Most o f o u r p r e v a i l i n g

p r e c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e p u r p o s e o f Greek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y a r e medi­ a t e d t o us by A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s . i s n o t a lw a y s p e r f e c t .

The i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s m e d ia to r

I t s p r i n c i p l e s do c a s t away t h e n o t i o n

t h a t th e dramas were morbid o r e r o t i c i n te n d e n c y .

They r i g h t l y

s u g g e s t t h a t G reek d r a m a tic t r a g e d y e s t a b l i s h e d r a t h e r th a n d e s ­ t r o y e d t h e m e a n in g f u ln e s s o f e x i s t e n c e .

But A r i s t o t l e f a i l s to

r e c k o n w i t h w hat i s s t i l l more d e e p ly w i t h i n them— a p ro fo u n d k in d o f Greek t h e o l o g y w h e re in th e meaning o f t r a g e d y can s c a r c e l y be d e s c r i b e d i n te rm s o f a " p r o p e r p l e a s u r e . "

And A r i s t o t l e ' s

term c a t h a r s i s h a s no t p ro v e d to b e s tu n n i n g i n i t s c l a r i t y . M e d ic a l i n o r i g i n , i t h a s g iv e n r i s e to a s d i v e r s e m eanings a s

236 th e u n e d i f y in g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a l a x a t i v e on t h e one hand o r th e e q u a l l y u n e d if y in g d e l i v e r a n c e o f c o u n s e ls o f p r u d e n t s o b r i e t y on th e o t h e r .

T h is elem ent o f H e l l e n i s t i c d e s p a i r i n A r i s t o t l e

h a s r e n d e r e d i t f a r too easy to u n d e r e s tim a te th e t h e o l o g i c a l v i s i o n o f th e H e ll e n ic G reeks.

I t i s too n e a t to speak o f r e s i g ­

n a t i o n , a c q u ie s c e n c e , o r a c c e p ta n c e w ith r e f e r e n c e to e i t h e r A e s c h y lu s , S o p h o c le s, o r E u r i p i d e s .

T h e ir v i s i o n was e m p h a ti c a l ly

p o s i t i v e r a t h e r th a n n e g a tiv e o r a g n o s t i c i n c h a r a c t e r .

And th e

p o s i t i v e elem e n t i n t h e i r th e o lo g y i s d e s c r i b a b l e i n n e i t h e r sim­ p l y o p t l m i s t i e o r sim p ly p e s s i m i s t i c te rm s .

The k in d o f r e s o l u t i o n

i s more d e e p ly a p ro fo u n d p a t h o s , c a p a b le o f a r o u s i n g a t e n s i o n t h a t i s a lm o s t H eb raic and C h r i s t i a n i n c h a r a c t e r .

T h is k in d o f

th e o lo g y f i n d s i t s most c o n c r e te e x p r e s s io n i n S o c r a t i c i r o n y , i n A e sc h y le a n com passion and awe, i n E u rip id e a n p o ig n a n c e , and i n S oph o clean m a je s ty , and f i n d s i t s most f i t t i n g d r a m a tic e x p r e s s io n i n th e d e a th o f th e t r a g i c h e r o e s , w h erein d e a th a s t h e f i n a l a c t o f l i f e becomes th e o n ly way to r e s o lv e th e t e n s i o n betw een th e a c t u a l and th e i d e a l .

One alw ays has to be rem inded o f th e sp e c ­

t a t o r a t Oedipus Rex who p e r c e iv e d t h a t o f a l l th e a u d ie n c e he a lo n e w ept w h ile th e r e s t la u g h e d , f o r he was th e p u r e s t o f th e G reeks, th e n o b l e s t , th e w i s e s t , and th e b e s t .

He had w i t h i n him

Greek th e o lo g y a t i t s c l e a r e s t and w id e s t and d e e p e s t—a se n se o f l i f e t h a t f e l t betw een men g u l f s o f d im ensio n t h a t can n e v e r be crossed.

T his k in d o f th e o lo g y h as r a r e l y b een e q u a lle d s i n c e ,

f o r i t c o n j o in s a p o ig n a n t d e s i r e f o r i n t e r p l a y p r e c i s e l y w ith a p ro fo u n d r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e way th e I n e x o r a b le p r e s s u r e s o f th e f a c t s o f th e human s i t u a t i o n d e s t r o y ev e ry p o s s i b i l i t y o f i t s

257 r e a l i s a t i o n w ith in and w ith o u t.

Here i s a k in d o f i n s a t i a b i l i t y

o f f a i t h , hope and t r u s t , c o n j o in e d w ith a se n se o f tr a g e d y an d d e s p a i r a s f ir m ly a s t h e human s p i r i t can c o n j o i n them s h o r t o f d e a th .

C h r i s t i a n s a r e a p t and wont to sp e ak g l i b l y o f how t h e

Greeks were l a c k i n g i n t h e o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n and d e p th , a s i f t h e i r se n se o f l i f e f a i l e d t o come even c l o s e to t h e C h r i s t i a n i n s i g h t i n t o a r a d i c a l freedom a t th e h e a r t o f l i f e , a n im a tin g e x i s t e n c e w ith i n d e t e r m i n a t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r dam nation and th e s t a t e o f g race.

Bat C h r i s t i a n s sp e a k too q u i c k l y and c o m p la c e n tly .

They

sh o u ld ta k e a n o t h e r lo o k a t th e Greeks and a t th e s e a r c h i n g q u a l i t y o f t h e i r a l l e g o r i c a l im a g in a tio n f o r I t c o u ld a l s o s u s t a i n a v i v i d and c o m p lic a te d v e r s i o n o f b o t h r e s t l e s s n e s s and o f p e a c e .

PART V II:

THE THEOLOGICAL CONTENT AND LITERARY STRUCTURE OF SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMATIC TRAGEDY P r e l i m i n a r y Remarks O th e llo Macbeth Antony and C le o p a tra Hamlet King L ear S h ak esp eare and th e Greeks The C e n te r o f S hakespeare

P r e l i m i n a r y Remarks I n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e p l a y s o f S h a k e s p e a r e , I s h a l l presum e more know ledge an d a c q u a i n t a n c e th a n i n c o n n e c ti o n w i t h th e p l a y s o f th e G re e k s.

I h av e presum ed more o f t h e s e t h i n g s b e c a u s e o f

th e good f o r t u n e o f h a v i n g somewhat more o f t h e s e t h i n g s t o p r e ­ sume.

Of c o u r s e , f o r t h e same r e a s o n , I have had t h e bad f o r t u n e

o f b e i n g u n a b le to shak e m y s e lf q u i t e so f r e e o f them a s I s h o u ld o t h e r w i s e a t tim e s have l i k e d . What I presum e by way o f knowledge i s th e g e n e r a l way o f r e g a r d i n g S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s t h a t c e r t a i n g r e a t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s h av e d e v e lo p e d .

I r e f e r p r i m a r i l y to t h e s t u d i e s o f A. C. B r a d le y

an d G r a n v i l l e - B a r k e r .

To

B r a d le y I owe a s e n s e f o r th e p ro fo u n d

b u r d e n o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l th e o lo g y w i t h i n t h e f o u r m ajor t r a g e d i e s , i n s h o r t, a g rasp o f t h e i r th e o lo g ic a l c o n te n t.

To G r a n v i l l e -

B a r k e r , I owe a n a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r t h e c r a f t s m a n s h i p upon w hich t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e t h e o l o g i c a l e v e n t s and m eanings r e s t s , n am ely, a g r a s p o f t h e i r l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e .

But I a l s o mean to

r e f e r to t h a t w hole v a s t a r r a y o f e x a c t s c h o l a r s h i p w h ich h a s a way o f commanding a n i n t e r e s t p r o p e r o n ly to t h e p l a y s th e m s e lv e s : n o t a b l y th e c l a s s i c c r i t i c i s m o f D ryden, Dr. J o h n s o n , Lamb, and C o l e r i d g e ; a n d t h e modern c r i t i c i s m o f E. K. Chambers, S t o l l , Dover W ilso n , C a r o l i n e S p u rgeo n, T i l l y a r d , Theodore S p e n c e r, an d W ilso n K n ig h t. By way o f a c q u a i n t a n c e , I presum e a c l o s e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h e a c h o f th e f i v e p l a y s to be c o n s i d e r e d , l i n e - b y - l i n e a n d s c e n e 239

24G by-scene.

A p a r t from t h e s e two d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f u n d e r s ta n d in g

and en joym ent, many o f my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may seem i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c and i n c r y i n g need o f a u t h o r i t y — t h e a u t h o r i t y o f c r i t i c a l t r a d i ­ tio n o r o f th e t e x t s . I s h a l l b e g i n w ith c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f ea ch o f f i v e o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's m ajor p l a y s : C l e o p a t r a . Hamlet and King L e a r.

O t h e l l o . M acbeth. A ntony and I s h a l l p r o c e e d to a s ta te m e n t

o f th e i d e n t i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e drama o f S h a k e sp e a re and o f t h e G reeks.

X s h a l l end w i t h a c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f

what I have o b s e rv e d to be th e h e a r t o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s . The g e n e r a l th e o r y to be e n u n c ia t e d i s t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s may b e s t be u n d e r s to o d a s h i g h l y c a t h o l i c i n t h e i r em brace. By way o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t , S h a k e s p e a re b r i n g s t o g e t h e r e v e ry ­ t h i n g t h a t i s G reek, H e b r a ic , C h r i s t i a n , and s k e p t i c a l ; and by way o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , S h a k e s p e a re employs a l l e g o r y , r e a l i s m , sym bolism , and f a n t a s y i n h i s complex and s h i f t i n g m ethod. S h ak esp eare i s th e most m a s t e r f u l p e r c i p i e n t o f th e u l t i m a t e l y c o n f l i c t i n g t h e o l o g i c a l i n t u i t i o n s to w hich mankind i s s u b j e c t th e W estern w orld h a s known.

I s h a l l a l s o a r g u e t h a t S h a k e s p e a re

te n d s to w ard " C h r i s t i a n symbolism" when h i s p l a y s become most i n ­ t e r e s t i n g and p r o fo u n d , a s i n c e r t a i n c r u c i a l a s p e c t s o f Hamlet and King L e a r . T h is f i n a l p o i n t p r o v i d e s a t r a n s i t i o n to t h e c o n c lu d in g p a r t o f my e s s a y , w h e re in I s h a l l a t t e m p t to show t h a t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f S h a k e s p e a r e 's p l a y s p r o v id e one o f t h e b e s t models f o r a C h r i s t i a n th e o r y o f d r a m a tic tr a g e d y t h a t we p o s s e s s .

241 O th e l lo Of S h a k e s p e a r e 's f o u r m ajor t a g e d l e s —O t h e l l o . Macbeth. H am let, an d King L e a r —O th e llo I s by f a r th e most p a i n f u l l y con­ f i n i n g i n m o tiv e, i n i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e , a n d i n e f f e c t . H o rro r i s e n v isa g e d a p a r t from and a lm o s t w ith o u t g l o r y .

By way

o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t , O th e llo i s i n l a r g e p a r t s k e p t i c a l ; and by way o f l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e O t h e l l o i s f o r t h e most p a r t f a n t a s y . I t i s th e f a n t a s y o f madness r a t h e r th a n th e f a n t a s y o f a dream. The o t h e r p o s s i b l e w orld i s th e w orld o f chao s below and w i t h i n r a t h e r th a n th e more p e r f e c t w orld o f t r u t h an d b e a u ty t h a t i s ab o v e, beyond, and a p a r t .

And y e t p o w erfu l G reek, H e b r a ic , and

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l m o tif s q u a l i f y t h e m e a n in g le s s n e s s w ith m eaning, and i n th e end endow t h e e x c e ss o f m isery w ith a kin d o f b e a u ty . I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t O th e llo p r o v id e s su c h a n ex­ c e l l e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f S h ak esp earea n d r a m a tic tr a g e d y .

O t h e l l o i s a t once one o f th e f i r s t o f th e

g r e a t modern s k e p t i c a l t r a g i c h e r o e s , even a s he a p p ro a c h e s th e f u l l e r s t a t u r e o f h i s Greek, H e b ra ic , and C h r i s t i a n p r o t o t y p e s . The g e n iu s o f O th e l lo a s a p la y i s i t s p r o x im ity to th e melo­ drama o f s k e p t i c a l f a n t a s y w ith o u t b e in g j u s t m e lo d ra m a tic ; and i t s d i s t a n c e from th e r i c h n e s s o f h ig h Greek and H e b r a i c - G h r i s t i a n t r a g e d y w ith o u t f a l l i n g com plete s h o r t . The s t o r y o f t h e p la y h a s a n o p p r e s s i v e and h a r s h s i m p l i ­ c ity .

An uncommon man o f th e open a i r i s s w i f t l y re d u c e d by t h e

f e e d i n g o f an empty, p e t t y , and d im e n s io n le s s n a t u r e upon th e goodness o f h i s own.

He i s d r i v e n f i n a l l y to th e common an d

242 b e a s t l y a c t o f stra n g lin g and s u f f o c a t i n g , w i t h i n th e hushed c l o s e ­ n e s s an d s t i l l n e s s o f h e r b ed , one whom he lo v e s even more expan­ s i v e l y t h a n th e storm y sea i t s e l f .

E v e r y th in g t h a t i s l a r g e and

good i n him r e n d e r s th e c a t a s t r o p h e th e more s w i f t , c e r t a i n , and c o m p le te .

I n th e end, t h e r e i s no red em p tio n f o r him save i n

d e s t r u c t i o n and i n d e a th .

You f e e l cramped and ca u g h t i n a room

so f a l s e l y sm a ll a s to d i s c o v e r r e l i e f and r e l e a s e o n ly a f t e r th e c u r t a i n f a l l s , when you can r e t u r n to a n a c t u a l w o rld d e f i n e d once more by l a r g e r v i s t a s an d by ey es t h a t s e e . I n s o f a r a s t h i s s k e p t i c a l m o tif i s d o m inan t, O th e l lo a s a tr a g e d y I s u n r e l i e v e d and v i r t u a l l y w ith o u t meaning.

The r e a l i t y

o f e x p e r ie n c e i s h e ig h te n e d by a e s t h e t i c symbols o f th e im a g in a­ t i o n , b u t t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s im p ly endows t h e p a th o s w ith more h o r r o r and b r i n g s no r e l e a s e . s u f f e rin g in t h i s p la y .

At t h i s l e v e l t h e r e i s no p ro fo u n d

For s u f f e r i n g , u n lik e p a i n , commands

m eaning and p r o v i d e s a f o u n d a tio n whereby a k in d o f jo y can be founded upon th e ag on y.

O th e l lo a s a t r a g i c h ero u n d erg o es no

c a t h a r s i s o r p u r i f i c a t i o n o f th e em otions by h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g o r o f h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g by h i s em o tio n s, so t h a t i n c o n n e c tio n w ith him we can f e e l none.

S u f f e r i n g can c l e a n s e th e em o tio n s,

by g i v i n g them s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n o f p u r p o s e ; p a i n m erely maims them.

We an d O th e l lo can s t a n d o n ly so much p a i n p h y s i c a l l y

b e f o r e we b r e a k , an d o n ly so much p a i n f u l i n j u r y s p i r i t u a l l y be­ f o r e o u r p a i n g iv e s way t o d e s p a i r , v i o l e n c e , o r s t u p o r .

Shakes­

p e a r e t a k e s us r u t h l e s s l y to a p o i n t j u s t t h i s s i d e o f a l l b r e a k ­ in g p o in ts in t h i s p la y .

He c a n n o t ta k e us beyond them, f o r th e

a t t e m p t to do so would become g r o te s q u e and u n c o n v in c in g . n o t Medea s l a y h e r

c h i l d r e d upon th e s t a g e . "

T h is k in d o f

"Let

243 s k e p t i c i s m i s i m p o s s i b l e , i n t h e t h e a t r e , i n p h ilo s o p h y , o r i n l i f e . I t i s u n th in k a b le an d u n s p e a k a b le . p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o th e edge.

But S h a k e s p e a re can t a k e us

He g iv e s us a l l t h e p a i n we ca n

s t a n d , t h i s s i d e o f d e s p a i r , v i o l e n c e , and s t u p o r on t h e one hand, an d t h i s s i d e o f m e a n in g f u lly h e r o i c s u f f e r i n g o r g u i l t on th e o th e r.

He makes us shun r i g h t up to t h e p o i n t where t h a t sh u n n in g

would s t o p o u r s e e k i n g .

And he g iv e s t h a t s e e k in g s m a ll r e l e a s e .

At t h i s l e v e l , th e human s i t u a t i o n i s J u s t b a r e l y w o rth t a l k i n g a b o u t.

The f e e l i n g o f h o r r o r a lm o s t becomes overwhelmed by th e

f e e lin g o f re p u lsio n .

The f e e l i n g o f p i t y a lm o s t g i v e s way b e f o r e

t h e f e e l i n g o f b r u t a l l y s e v e r e d c o n n e c tio n .

But n o t q u i t e .

i s a l m o s t d e s t r o y e d by a n o m a lie s , w i t h i n an d w i t h o u t . q u ite .

O th e llo

But n o t

H is r e c o g n i t i o n s and d i s c o v e r i e s a r e n e v e r q u i t e d eep enough

to g iv e r i s e to m e a n in g fu l and b e a r a b l e s u f f e r i n g on h i s p a r t o r i n ­ t e l l i g i b l e com passion on o u r own. beyond r e c o g n i t i o n .

Nor a r e h i s f e e l i n g s t w i s t e d

Even a t t h i s s k e p t i c a l l e v e l t r a g i c b a l a n c e

i s f i r m l y k e p t , w hereby O t h e l l o i s n o t p e r m i t t e d to f a l l so f a r a s to s i n k b e n e a th a l l p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e c o v e r y , even a s he s k i r t s th e v e ry edge o f c h a o s .

His f a t e a lm o s t becomes p e c u l i a r an d h i s d e g r a ­

d a t i o n a l m o s t becomes b e a s tly — b u t a g a i n , n o t q u i t e . T h is s k e p t i c a l m o t i f o f p i t e o u s a b n o r m a l i t y d o m in a te s a la rg e p a r t o f th e p la y .

But t h e f e a r e o t h e r m o t i f s — Greek an d

H e b ra ic -C h rlstla n . T h is G reek m o t i f i s t h e theme o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y . T h is i s t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t betw een O t h e l l o ' s g r e a t n e s s and I a g o ' s t r i v i a l i t y .

A t t h i s l e v e l , we a r e o v e r ­

whelmed by a s e n s e o f O t h e l l o ' s s u f f e r i n g in n o c e n c e , by a s e n s e o f t h e way a l e s s e r man d e s t r o y s a g r e a t e r man.

At t h i s l e v e l , a r e

244 t o be fo u n d ech oes o f t h e m ajo r m o t i f s o f G reek tr a g e d y .

T here

i s S o p h o c le s ' i n s i g h t c o n c e r n in g th e way th e v e ry g r e a t n e s s o f th e l a r g e r man, however g r e a t , i s s t i l l marked by f i n l t e n e s s , w e a k n ess, and i m p e r f e c t i o n .

T h is i n s i g h t i s a l s o p a i n f u l by v i r t u e o f th e

f a c t t h a t i t p e r c e i v e s how t e r r i b l y s m a ll c a n be th e s m a lln e s s o f th e l e s s e r man, an d how g r e a t , y e t v u l n e r a b l e an d d e s t r u c t i b l e can be t h e g r e a t n e s s o f th e g r e a t e s t man.

The p l a y p a i n f u l l y e l a b o r ­

a t e s t h i s S o p h o c le a n theme c o n c e r n in g w hat happens when f r i g h t f u l p e t t i n e s s i n one n a t u r e h a s i t I n f o r i n c r e d i b l e n o b i l i t y i n a n ­ o t h e r , a n d th e f u r t h e r h o r r o r s t h a t e v i l p o s s e s s i o n b r i n g s . The f u r t h e r p o s s e s s i o n i s t h e E u r i p ld e a n theme o f p i t e o u s a b n o rm a lity .

For t h e tr a g e d y i s o n ly p a r t l y t h a t such ex trem e

n o b i l i t y can o f f e r no r e s i s t a n c e to such p e t t i n e s s , to become i t s i n s t r u m e n t and v e ry s l a v e .

The t r a g e d y i s a l s o t h a t when such

n o b i l i t y i s b ro k e n th r o u g h , p r i m i t i v e p a s s i o n i s so r e l e a s e d a s to r e v e a l t h e f r a g i l i t y o f c o n t r o l su c h g r e a t n e s s h a s , and th e s w i f t n e s s w i t h w hich even t h e b e s t o f men can be lo w e re d to th e b ru tis h n e s s o f a ra v in g b e a s t. awe makes I t s e l f f e l t .

M oreover, so m e th in g o f A e sc h y le a n

Namely, t h e l a r g e r man, b e i n g h i g h e r i n

e x is te n c e , has f a r t h e r to f a l l .

And t h e r u i n i s s u e s a s much fro m

th e c l o s e n e s s o f h i s d im e n sio n s to s m a lln e s s a s from t h e i r re m o te ­ n e s s o r l a c k o f c o n n e c ti o n w ith i t . I t was a lm o s t i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e c o n j u n c t i o n o f t h e s e s k e p t i c a l an d G reek themes s h o u ld f i n d t h e i r most t e l l i n g ex­ p r e s s i o n i n th e d e p r e d a t i o n o f s e x u a l lo v e betw een man and woman. For no human c a p a c i t y can p lu n g e a man so q u i c k l y from c i v i l i z e d n o b i l i t y to sav ag e b e s t i a l i t y .

No o t h e r em o tio n l a y s g r e a t n e s s so

245 w id e ly open to th e d e s i g n s o f s m a lln e s s .

I t is a lso not s u rp risin g

t h a t t h e i r c o n j u n c t i o n sh o u ld e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s i n th e w orking o f a r b i t r a r y c o n j u n c t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r and c ir c u m s ta n c e s , a s w e l l a s w ith s h e e r c h a n c e , c o in c id e n c e a n d c a p r i c e .

For t h e s e i n s i g h t s

d r i v e p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e to s a y in g t h a t t h e human s i t u a t i o n i s e s s e n ­ t i a l l y a n d i r r e v e r s i b l y d e f i n e d by q u i r k s w i t h i n and by a n o m a lie s w ith o u t. I n te rm s o f t h i s Greek theme o f s u f f e r i n g in n o c e n c e , O th e l lo m ust b e a trem endous f i g u r e ,

S h a k e sp e a re employs e v e ry r e s o u r c e

a t h i 8 command to make him loom l a r g e and g r e a t .

The e n t i r e f i r s t

a n d secon d s c e n e s a r e f o r t h e most p a r t g iv e n o v e r to i n t e n s i f y i n g our sense o f th e g re a tn e ss o f h is p ro p o rtio n s.

There i s th e f e l t

g r a n d e u r o f h i s p a s t w hich makes i t s e l f add to th e grandeur o f h i s p re se n t.

He i s s a i d t o come ( i n h i s own w ords) "from men o f r o y a l

s i e g e , 8 an d can sp e a k s p a c i o u s l y and w ith o u t p r e t e n s e o f " a s p ro u d a f o r t u n e a s t h i s t h a t I have r e a c h e d ."

He h a s a l l t h e b a la n c e

an d v i g o r o f a man o f a c t i o n , come from th e l a r g e n e s s of a d v e n tu r e s i n f a r l a n d s and p l a c e s t h a t t a k e on g ra n d e u r from t h e i r v e ry r e ­ m o te n e s s . coming.

The m a je s ty o f a s to rm and a b a t t l e a t se a p r e lu d e h i s And n o t h i n g l e s s th a n th e r o y a l b l a r e o f tru m p e ts announces

h is a r r i v a l .

H is p r e s e n c e a t once commands a c o n t r o l an d a s s u r ­

a n c e t h a t makes i t s e l f f e l t i n t h e v ery rhythm o f h i s sp e e c h ; "Keep up y o u r b r i g h t sw ords, f o r th e dew w i l l r u s t th em ."

S eason­

ed by t h e e le m e n ts , d i s c i p l i n e d by " c o u n t l e s s p e r i l s , " p r o p o r t i o n e d by a trem en do us r a n g e o f e x p e r i e n c e , O th e l lo h a s a s t a t e l i n e s s o f b e a r i n g an d o f s p e e c h t h a t b r i n g s a h u sh o f wonder and r e s p e c t i n t o a n y company, however d i s t i n g u i s h e d o r u n r u ly .

And c o n jo in e d w ith

246 t h i s g r a n d e u r , t h e r e i s most d e e p ly n o b i l i t y — i n c r e d i b l e c a p a c i t y f o r o p e n n e s s , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n e s s and t r u s t . n o b le Moor" an

T h is i s in d e e d " t h e

e p i t h e t o n ly la g o can bandy w ith d i s r e s p e c t .

No

o t h e r S h a k e s p e a re a n t r a g i c h e ro I s endowed w ith such g r a n d e u r and n o b ility . But th e Greek theme o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y r e q u i r e d more th a n g r a n d e u r an d n o b i l i t y o f O t h e l l o ,

I t r e q u i r e d a f la w — an

i m p e r f e c t i o n i n a c r e a t u r e o th e r w is e p e r f e c t .

S h a k e s p e a re e l a b ­

o r a t e s t h i s o t h e r s i d e , a s p e c t , o r strand i n h i s c h a r a c t e r w ith a s d e f t and d e l i b e r a t e s t r o k e s .

T h is i n s i g h t r e q u i r e d t h a t a l l

h i s g r e a t n e s s and n o b i l i t y , a l l h i s c a p a c i t y f o r o p e n n e ss and t r u s t , r e s i d e somewhere an d have i t s b o u n d s.

I t re q u ire d th a t

h i s n o b i l i t y s h o u ld consummate an d r e l e a s e I t s e l f i n lo v e f o r Deedemona.

A gain and a g a i n O t h e l l o c o n f e s s e s how c o m p le te ly he

h a s g iv e n o v e r h i s c a p a c i t y f o r l i f e to Desdemona.

She i s th e

p l a c e , he says Where I have g a r n e r ' d up my h e a r t Where e i t h e r I must l i v e o r b e a r no l i f e H is l i f e h a s become a l l o f a p i e c e i n Desdomona.

T h ere h i s e x i s t ­

ence f i n d s i t s i n t e g r i t y , i t s w h o le n e s s . H is open and g e n t l e n a t u r e , h i s g r e a t n e s s an d n o b i l i t y , h i s t r u s t and e x p e c t a t i o n f u l f i l l them­ s e lv e s in t h i s lo v e . ib le .

M oreover, th e lo v e i s co m p lete a n d i n f l e x ­

"When I lo v e th e e n o t ch ao s i s come a g a i n . "

c o n c e a le d i n th e b e g i n n in g .

The end l i e s

Even b e f o r e S h a k e s p e a re h u r l s t h e

s to n e t h a t w i l l sh ak e a f i g u r e a p p a r e n t l y so u n s h a k a b le , we p e r ­ c e iv e t h a t h i s g r e a t n e s s h as i t s bounds an d I t s f o u n d a t i o n . r e s t s upon, l e a n s , and d e r i v e s i t s en e rg y from Desdemona.

It In her

he f i n d s th e s o u r c e , t h e c e n t e r , an d th e end o f h i s e x i s t e n c e .

247 We can a lm o s t a n t i c i p a t e , p r i o r to th e e x p e rie n c e , th e r e m o r s e le s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e f a c t :

g iv e n a c e r t a i n c o n ju n c tio n o f t h i s c h a r ­

a c t e r w i t h c irc u m s ta n c e , a c r e a t u r e even so l a r g e and no b le w i l l be u n a b le to d e a l w i t h th e p e r i l s o f l i f e t h a t sooner o r l a t e r a r e bound to f i n d even t h a t g r e a t n e s s o u t .

And we have a l r e a d y seen

th e w eakness, th e I m p e r f e c ti o n , th e l i m i t a t i o n i n term s o f w hich th e f a t a l s t r o k e can work—a te n d en cy " to lo v e not w is e ly b u t too w e ll." The Greek elem ent I n th e tr a g e d y i s t h a t such n o b i l i t y i s r u in e d p h y s i c a l l y , p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , m o ra lly and r e l i g i o u s l y by such extrem e p e t t i n e s s o f n a t u r e a s Iago e x h i b i t s In c o n t r a s t .

The

Greek theme i s th e theme o f g r e a t n e s s undone by t r i v i a l i t y . And Iago i s c e r t a i n l y s m a ll. lo w e s t, most meagre ebb.

Iago i s hum anity a t i t s

Of c o u r s e , Iago i s a complex t o p i c .

f i g u r e i n S h ak esp eare i s more c o n t r o v e r s i a l .

No

For my p a r t , I t h i n k

S h ak esp eare makes h im s e lf r u t h l e s s l y c l e a r a b o u t Ia g o —ab o u t what he i s and ab o u t what he i s n o t.

And y e t i t i s very p o s s i b l e to

i n s i s t upon many o t h e r t h e o r i e s a g a i n s t th e p a l p a b le f a c t s . The t h r e e m is c o n c e p tio n s o f Iago a r e l i t e r a r y , p h i l o s o p h i c , and p o l i t i c a l .

A cc o rd in g to t h e l i t e r a r y t h e o r y , Iago must be

u n d e rsto o d i n term s o f c e r t a i n w ell-know n t h e a t r i c a l c o n v e n tio n s o r ty p e s :

th e sim p le v i l l a i n who m a n ip u la te s e v e r y th in g sm oothly

u n t i l he i s exposed I n th e end, v ery much l i k e th e a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e o f Vice i n th e m edieval m o r a li ty p la y s and I n t e r l u d e s ; th e more c o m p lic a te d M a c h ia v e llia n schemer w ith a gleam i n h i s ey e, who e n jo y s e v i l i n t r i g u e and egoism f o r i t s own sa k e ; th e Senecan v i l l a i n who i s i n a d d i t i o n a minor t r a g i c h ero b e n t upon

248 a v e n g in g h im s e lf a g a i n s t u n j u s t c ir c u m s ta n c e s and p e r s o n s who have o p p r e s s e d him an d done him wrong.

The p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r y s e e s

Iag o a s th e a b s t r a c t p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f I n t e l l i g e n t l y m a lig n a n t e v i l , th e embodiment o f p u r e l y e v i l en erg y a s su ch .

The most

famous v e r s i o n o f t h i s th e o r y i s C o l e r i d g e 's p i c t u r e o f Ia g o a s " m o tiv e le s s m a l i g n i t y . "

The p o l i t i c a l th e o r y s t r e s s e s th e con­

t r a s t betw een th e s t a t u s o f O t h e l l o an d I a g o , making Iag o a n i n ­ c i p i e n t "common man" o r p r o l e t a r i a n . T here i s an elem ent o f t r u t h i n each o f t h e s e t h e o r i e s . And y e t Iag o i s to o human and too I n d i v i d u a l i z e d to be l n t e r p r e t a b l e a s a mere t h e a t r i c a l ty p e , a n a b s t r a c t p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f an i d e a , o r th e p r o t a g o n i s t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c l a s s o r o r d e r . Ia g o a s c r e a t e d i s too sim p le t o w a r r a n t such complex d e­ p e r s o n a l i s e t i o n o r i d e a l i s a t i o n , a s i f he were a s o r t o f m inor t r a g i c h e ro on th e one hand, w i t h f u l l i n n e r c o m p le x ity i n h i s own r i g h t , o r a p ro fo u n d p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f one k in d o f power i n th e w o rld on t h e o t h e r . S h a k e s p e a r e 's p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Iag o i s th e one to keep f i r m l y i n mind. F i r s t o f a l l , t h e r e i s th e p e t t i n e s s t h a t i s c l e a r l y and unam biguously d i s c l o s e d .

I n th e f i r s t s o l i l o q u y he i s on th e

lo o k f o r i n s p i r a t i o n , s e e k in g e l a b o r a t e i n t e l l e c t u a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r h i s aim .

He f i n d s s e v e r a l m o tiv e s , b u t he does n o t r e a l l y b e ­

l i e v e any o f them.

H is h e a r t i s n o t r e a l l y I n any o f them a t a l l .

He does n o t i n f a c t know th e m eaning o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

I n th e

second s o l i l o q u y o u t e r show g iv e s way b e f o r e t h e b r u t a l i t y o f in n e r f a c t .

He f i n d s h i s i n s p i r a t i o n , b u t i t i s n e i t h e r I n t e l ­

249 l e c t u a l nor clev er.

I t i s sim p ly c ru d e a p p e t i t e — th e d e s i r e " to

use t h e i r v i r t u e s t o enmesh them a l l . "

The m o tiv e a n d p u rp o s e

lo o k c l e v e r l y d i a b o l i c a l a t f i r s t g la n c e .

But i f you lo o k more

c l o s e l y a n d c a r e f u l l y , th e y a r e abo v e a l l p e t t y , c h e a p , m eagre, and s m a l l .

The e m o tio n d r i v i n g b e h in d them i s n o t I n t e n s e .

q u a l i t y o f i m a g i n a t i o n i s a w f u l l y n a rro w ly gag ed.

And y e t th e

m o tiv e , f o r a l l i t s l a c k o f c o m p le x ity , i s s t r o n g . la c k in g in f e e lin g .

The

He i s n o t a n e m o tio n a l eunuch.

Ia g o i s n o t What i s im­

p r e s s i v e a b o u t him i s n o t l a c k o f f e e l i n g a s su c h , b u t th e s h a llo w ­ n e s s o f th e k in d o f f e e l i n g — and th e e n e r v a t i n g p r e s e n c e o f i t . You m iss Iag o c o m p le te ly i f you s t r e s s h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y o r r i c h ­ ness o f f e e lin g .

H is mind works an d h i s p a s s i o n s move— f o r he i s

no moron any more th a n he i s a eunuch.

What c o u n ts and h u r t s i s

th e a w f u l l y l i m i t e d way i n which they work and t h e t r i v i a l i t y o f th e ir e o n te n t.

H is mind i s n o t p o s i t i v e l y i n v e n t i v e o r s u b t l e .

He I s a n o p p o r t u n i s t o f th e s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e r a n g e . o t h e r p e o p l e to p e rfo rm h i s d e e d s . th e p la y .

He can u se

Thus h i s s u c c e s s f o r most o f

But he c a n n o t be c l e v e r h i m s e l f .

When he does have

to t a k e o v e r i n t h e end, he b u n g le s t h i n g s b a d ly and i s undone. And h i s p a s s i o n s move—b u t o n ly w i t h a s t u p i d r e p u l s i o n f o r good­ n e s s an d n o b i l i t y w hich he p r e t e n d s to u n d e r s ta n d b u t f i n a l l y d oes n o t u n d e r s ta n d a t a l l . i s s m a ll ch e ap , s e c o n d - r a t e .

I n e v e ry p o s s i b l e human s e n s e Iag o He i s r e a l l y n e i t h e r c l e v e r n o r w is e .

By n a t u r e he i s j u s t p e t t i l y e n v io u s an d s w a g g e rin g .

H is e l a b o r ­

a t e j u s t i f i c a t i o n s o f egoism an d s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y a r e s t a g e y and empty— th e y s t r i k e a h o llo w sound. th e M oor."

But he h as p a s s i o n — he " h a t e s

E v e r y th in g he i s i s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t o t h i s s p e c i f i c

250 h a tre d .

H is o n ly power d e r i v e s from th e economy o f t h i s concen­

t r a t i o n — n o t from th e i n t r i n s i c power o f h i s mind o r th e r i c h n e s s of h is p a ssio n . at a ll. him. it.

H is h a t r e d i s f i x e d , b u t n o t i n t e n s e o r m assiv e

T h is i s no p r i m i t i v e o r e le m e n ta l p a s s i o n t h a t d r i v e s

Nor i s t h e r e a n y t h i n g f i e n d i s h , o b s e s s e d , o r p e r v e r t e d a b o u t He i s sim p ly a n I n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o tio n a l p a r a s i t e .

s i t e i s n e i t h e r r i c h no r complex i n th o u g h t o r f e e l i n g .

A para­ He ca n n o t

d e e p ly h a t e , f o r he i s n e v e r i m p l i c a t e d i n l i f e t h a t much.

He

c a n n o t t h i n k i n a complex o r s u s t a i n e d manner, f o r he r e a l l y does n o t c a r e a b o u t th e c o u r s e o f e v e n ts and m eanings t h a t much.

Iag o

can t h u s a c t th e a c t o r f o r a tim e , d a r t i n g i n to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f e v e r y w eakness i n O th e l lo and e v e ry chance o f c i r c u m s ta n c e . But he r e a l l y c a n n o t c r e a t e c irc u m s ta n c e i n a s u s t a i n e d f a s h i o n . And i f he s e e s th r o u g h an d i n t o O t h e l l o , he does not se e th ro u g h and i n t o E m ilia , t h e one he s h o u ld have known most w e l l .

He r e a l l y

does n o t u n d e r s ta n d go o d n ess, f o r a l l h i s c la im s , and i t r i s e s up to exp o se him from th e p la c e he e x p e c te d i t l e a s t — from E m ilia . Thus t h e tr a g e d y o c c u r r i n g h e r e i s n o t t h a t O th e l lo i s l e d a ro u n d by a b r i l l i a n t l y m a le v o le n t c l e v e r n e s s o r p a s s i o n a t e envy, b u t t h a t he i s re d u c e d a lm o s t to th e l e v e l o f a b e a s t by one so s m a ll, so s h o r t - s i g h t e d , so empty, and so u t t e r l y l i m i t e d i n human im­ a g i n a t i o n and f e e l i n g . i s bad enough.

For n o b i l i t y to be b r o u g h t to b e s t i a l i t y

But to be b r o u g h t t h e r e by su ch p o v e r ty and w o rth ­

l e s s n e s s o f human f e e l i n g i s more d e e p ly t h e tr a g e d y o f I t a l l . We c o u ld s ta n d M a c h ia v e lli a n schem ing more e a s i l y .

We c o u ld th e n

a t l e a s t have some s u b t l e t y an d c o m p le x ity o f d e s ig n to a d m ire . T here w ould be a s e n s e o f symmetry, b r i l l i a n t l y e v i l .

We c o u ld

s t a n d a man so p o s s e s s e d by e v i l a s to b r i n g good down w ith

251 f i e n d i s h v i g o r a n d d e p ra v e d d e l i g h t .

And we c o u ld s t a n d a n emo­

t i o n a l eunuch— f o r he would be a q u i r k and a q u e e r .

But t h e i n ­

s u f f e r a b l e p a i n embodied i n Ia g o i s t h a t s u c h n o b i l i t y a s O th e l lo h as can be la y e d low so lo w ly .

I a g o do es n o t c l a s h w i t h O t h e l l o ,

We w i t n e s s , n o t a c o l l i s i o n o r a s t r u g g l e , b u t a s t u p i d h o v e r in g . And y e t I a g o ' s mind, f o r a l l i t s b e in g p r e s e n t , do es d o m in a te th e p la y .

And I a g o ' s em otio n d o es g i v e t h e a c t i o n i t s u n i t y .

But

t h a t mind and t h a t em o tio n a r e so p e c u l i a r l y l i m i t e d a n d empty o f i n t e r e s t t h a t we a r e a lm o s t r e p e l l e d by t h e e n c o u n t e r . we c a n n o t r u n away fro m , d i s m i s s , o r e s c a p e I a g o .

And y e t

His a p a th y ,

h i s I n d i f f e r e n c e , h i s boredom, h i s i n e r t n e s s a r e r e a l a n d v ery much w i t h i n us t o o .

They a r e n o t p a t h o l o g i c a l .

He i s a co m p lete

i n d i v i d u a l , and a s su c h s h a r e s q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s we f i n d v e r y much w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s .

The most p a i n f u l

an d c o n f i n i n g i n ­

s i g h t o f th e p l a y i s d r i v e n home h e r e — we a r e l i k e O t h e l l o , b u t we a r e a l s o t h u s . T h is i s one c e n t r a l t r a g i c theme: undone by i n c r e d i b l e m ean ness.

in c re d ib le n o b ility

T here i s t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t b e ­

tween O t h e l l o ' s g r e a t n e s s and I a g o ' s t r i v i a l i t y .

The w o r t h l e s s ­

n e s s o f t h e one d e s t r o y s t h e w o rth o f th e o t h e r .

I n s o f a r as

t h i s theme d o m in a te s th e p l a y , t h e th e o lo g y i s G reek an d s k e p t i c a l . The Greek elem e n t i s t h e theme o f s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y .

The skep ­

t i c a l e le m e n t i s th e theme o f s e n s e l e s s i n c o n g r u i t y . F or some tim e t h i s theme seems to d e f i n e th e p l a y . th e re i s an o th er. Iag o .

O t h e l l o i s f o r t h e most p a r t b r o u g h t down by

T h is f a c t i s c l e a r .

by h i m s e l f .

But

But he i s a l s o p a r t l y b r o u g h t down

Ia g o t w i s t s , d i s t o r t s an d d e c e i v e s h i s n a t u r e .

And

252 y e t , h i s f i n a l t r a g i c deed I s t r a g i c , and i s a d e e d , n o t b e c a u s e Iago p e r f o r m s i t th r o u g h him, b u t b e c a u s e he p e r f o r m s and does i t w i l l f u l l y on h i s own.

There i s a p o i n t where I a g o ' s c r e a t i o n

o f e v i l i s sim p ly n o t t h e whole s t o r y .

There i s a p o i n t where

h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r O t h e l l o ' s d e g r a d a t i o n ends and O t h e l l o ' s begins.

At a c e r t a i n c r u c i a l p o i n t and moment O t h e l l o becomes

i n t e r n a l l y d e t e r m in e d and e x t e r n a l l y f r e e .

At t h i s p o i n t a n d

moment t h e t r a g i c deed i s s u e s a s c l e a r l y , a s c e r t a i n l y , a n d a s c o m p l e t e l y from h i s c h a r a c t e r a s from I a g o ' s .

Moreover, i t i s a t

t h i s e r u c l a l p o i n t and moment t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y H e b r a ic a n d C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s b e g i n to q u a l i f y t h e Greek an d th e s k e p t i c a l . The s k e p t i c a l i n s i g h t t u r n s upon O t h e l l o ' s p e r v e r s i o n , a b n o r m a l i t y , and p i t e o u s w ea k n ess.

The Greek i n s i g h t r e v o l v e s

a b o u t h i s f i n i t e n e s s , h i s I g n o r a n c e , and h i s l i m i t a t i o n s .

The

H e b r a i c - C h r i s t i a n themes c o n c e r n O t h e l l o ' s p r e t e n s i o n , I d o l a t r y , and s i n .

I n s o f a r a s O t h e l l o i s d e s t r o y e d by a b e a u t i f u l memory

o f Desdemona a s she was, o r by a b e a u t i f u l dream o f Desdemona a s she was to be, and i n s o f a r a s O t h e l l o i s c u t o f f from l i f e by n e c e s s i t y o r a c c i d e n t — i n n e r o r o u t e r i n s o u r c e —and i s f o r c e d to p e o p l e t h e w o rld w i t h m i r r o r s , i l l u s i o n s , m i r a g e s , a n d dreams h i s t r a g e d y i s s k e p t i c a l and Greek.

The t a l e i s t h e n t h e o d y s s e y

o f t h e b r o k e n and shipw rec ked h e a r t , a h e a r t t h a t i s e a t e n by t h e worm o f m o r t a l i t y , a h e a r t t h a t i s d e s t r o y e d by i t s a t t a c h m e n t to t h i n g s t h a t a r e f i n i t e , p e r i s h a b l e , I m p e r f e c t , and d e s t r u c t i b l e * O t h e l l o a s a t r a g i c h ero becomes sim ply s u f f e r i n g and a l o n e . i s the p ic tu re of in ju re d n o b ili ty —troubled, b a ffle d ,

He

so litary ,

253 and h a u n t e d by a v i s i o n o f som ething which i n t h i s w o rld and i n t h i s l i f e sim ply can n e v e r b e .

For t h e whole p o i n t o f Greek and

s k e p t i c a l t h e o l o g y i s t h i s — t h a t l i f e c a n n ever keep s t e p w i t h o u r hopes and i s d r i v e n s e n s e l e s s l y t h i 6 way an d t h a t by o u r l o v e s and by o u r f e a r s .

I n any c a s e we end up blasphemed and l o n e l y ,

d e e p l y and r a d i c a l l y a t c r o s s - p u r p o s e s w i t h t h e w o r l d . God, n a t u r e , o t h e r s — b u t not o u r s e l v e s .

We a c c u s e

Or i n s o f a r a s we a c c u s e

o u r s e l v e s we a c c u s e o u r e s s e n c e — som ething we were g i v e n and f o r which we a r e not r e s p o n s i b l e .

Moreover we rem ain e s s e n t i a l l y un­

q u a l i f i e d and u n r e l a t e d to t h e e v e n t s and meanings o f t h i s l i f e , o f t h i s w o rl d .

The o n l y way o u t , t h e o n l y e s c a p e , t h e o n l y e x i t

i s boredom, v i o l e n c e , o r d e s p a i r .

But i n s o f a r a s O t h e l l o i s

dom in ated by a n H e b r a ic and C h r i s t i a n k in d o f th e o l o g y t h e whole p o i n t i s t h a t l i f e I s good— t h e r e i s a r i g h t n e s s p r e s e n t e d i n te rm s o f which we can t r u l y l i v e and t r u l y d i e . we who b e t r a y o t h e r s , God, n a t u r e and o u r s e l v e s .

Moreover, i t i s A p a r t from o u r

p r e t e n s i o n , o u r i d o l a t r y , and o u r s i n , t h e r e a r e i n d e t e r m i n a t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r good.

By our own a c t s , a c t s by which we a r e

e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d and to w hich we a r e e s s e n t i a l l y r e l a t e d , we c u t o f f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s a l v a t i o n t h a t a r e o f f e r e d t o us i n o u r m i d s t .

I n s o f a r a s O t h e l l o i s H ebraic and C h r i s t i a n ,

O t h e l l o i s n o t s im p ly a c t e d upon— he a c t s a n d has g u i l t .

More­

o v e r , we f e e l judgment and f o r g i v e n e s s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h him, n o t s im p ly p i t y and t e r r o r .

We p i t y a Greek o r s k e p t i c a l t r a g i c

hero b e c a u s e t h e t r a g e d y i s a lw a y s i n e x c e s s o f any s p e c i f i a b l e moral o r r e l i g i o u s g u i l t .

We f e e l t e r r o r i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a

Greek o r s k e p t i c a l t r a g i c hero b e c a u s e t h e t r a g e d y i s alw ays

254 r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e .

But i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a n H e b r a ic

o r C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c hero we f e e l judgment and f o r g i v e n e s s :

ju d g ­

ment b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a s p e c i f i a b l e g u i l t and a s p e c i f i a b l e s i n , and f o r g i v e n e s s b e c a u s e we a r e f o r g i v e n even a s we a r e ju dged by God. I t h i n k t h e H e b r a ic and C h r i s t i a n m o t i f s a r e a s c l e a r a n d un­ ambiguous a s t h e s k e p t i c a l and Greek.

The s k e p t i c a l a n d Greek

m o t i f s c o m p le t e ly dom inate t h e e a r l y p a r t o f O t h e l l o . and re m a in p o w e r f u l to t h e v e r y end.

But v e r y e a r l y i n t h e p l a y t h e H e b r a ic

and C h r i s t i a n m o t i f s b e g i n t o make th e m s e lv e s f e l t .

And by t h e

end o f t h e p l a y , no judgment c o u l d r e n d e r a d e e p e r i n j u s t i c e to i t s c o m p l i c a t e d t e x t u r e th a n a judgment t h a t p i n s a l l t h e t r a g e d y upon I a g o , and e n t e r t a i n s t h e b e l i e f t h a t O t h e l l o i s sim p ly and o n l y d e p i c t e d a s a g r e a t and n o b le man p a t h e t i c a l l y an d I n n o c e n t l y undone by d e c e p t i o n from w i t h o u t and by p e r v e r s i o n from w i t h i n . The one d i s t i n c t i o n S h a k e s p e a r e w i l l n e v e r r e l a x o r b l u r i s t h e H e b r a l c - C h r i s t i a n d i s t i n c t i o n between good and e v i l .

T hat d i s ­

t i n c t i o n i n s i s t s t h a t no human c o n f l i c t can be w h o lly c a s t i n terms o f b l a c k and w h i t e — I n n o c e n c e and g u i l t .

T h at c o n f l i c t

can be p r o j e c t e d c o n v i n c i n g l y o n l y i n term s o f a m i x t u r e o f g r e y s , w h e r e in r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and g u i l t c u t I n a l l d i r e c t i o n s and b o t h ways, a n d moral and r e l i g i o u s d e t e r m i n a n t s remain c l e a r and un­ ambiguous d e s p i t e t h e g r e y n e s s .

F or no man i s so p e r f e c t a s n o t

to be i n v o l v e d i n g u i l t and s i n ; and no man i s so r i d d e n by g u i l t and s i n a s to have no p o s s i b i l i t y f o r goodness r e m a i n i n g i n him. Above a l l I a g o ' s scheming m a c h i n a t i o n s , th e d e e p e s t human f a c t re m a in s u n c h a l l e n g e d , t h a t th e y c o u ld n e v e r have worked O t h e l l o ' s

255 r u i n so q u i c k l y o r so w e l l h ad h e n o t been p a r t l y p a r t i c i p a n t i n them. O t h e l l o has p r e t e n s i o n , i d o l a t r y , and s i n .

He h a s a

s t r e n g t h which he o v e r p l a y s a n d whose bounds he does n o t r e c o g ­ n i z e , r e s i s t s , and does n o t f e a r .

T h is f a c t i s d e e p e r and more

a c c o u n t a b l e th a n f i n i t e n e s s , l i m i t a t i o n , i g n o r a n c e , o r a b n o r m a l i t y . For t h e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h i s f a c t can f a l l

can use t h i s f a c t , it.

o n l y upon him.

Iago

t h i s r e a l i t y . But he d i d n o t and c a n n o t c r e a t e

The i d o l a t r y o f O t h e l l o i s t h e unguarded i n f l e x i b i l i t y and

p r e t e n s l o u s c o m p le t e n e s s o f h i s l o v e f o r Desdomona,

He can o n ly

l o v e h e r so i n f l e x i b l y and f u l l y b e c a u s e he i s n o b le , g e n t l e , open a n d good i n n a t u r e .

T h is i s h i s s t r e n g t h , and i t i s good.

There i s n o t h i n g e v i l , i n i t s e l f , a b o u t t h i s l o v e . i s not everything.

But t h i s l o v e

I t i s n o t i n e x h a u s t i b l e o r th e whole o f l i f e .

And y e t O t h e l l o t h i n k s and f e e l s and a c t s an d

l i v e s a s i f i t w ere.

Thus he i s b l i n d to t h e p r e t e n s e i n h i s l o v e .

I n t h i s s e n s e and

to t h i s e x t e n t h i s l o v e I s more t h a n i m p e r f e c t , more t h a n l i m i t e d , more t h a n f i n i t e .

I t i s proud, p r e te n s lo u s and i d o l a t r o u s .

It

i s a s i n , f o r which he sh o u ld have f e a r , g u i l t , a n x i e t y and d r e a d . But O t h e l l o f e e l s no f e a r , no g u i l t , no a n x i e t y , no d r e a d .

He

lias o v e r p l a y e d h i s s t r e n g t h a n d a bused h i s g i f t and h i s freedom. I n h i s l o v e f o r Desdemona he h a s f o r g o t t e n a l l human i n s e c u r i t y and l o n e l i n e s s .

He has become b l i n d to h i s own I n c o m p l e t e n e s s .

He h as come to t r u s t h i s own i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . He h a s g i v e n more to Desdemona, a n d d i s c o v e r e d more i n Desdemona, t h a n one human b e i n g can e v e r g i v e o r r e c e i v e i n c o n n e c t i o n w ith a n o th e r — h is l i f e , h i s very b ein g , h is s ta y a g a i n s t chaos.

256 Desdemona has become t h e o n ly s o u r c e , c e n t e r , and end o f h i s ex­ istence.

I n h e r O t h e l l o has f o r g o t t e n h i s own f r a i l t y a s w e l l a s

h e r own, and h a s s e v e r e d a l l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e v e r y o t h e r s o u r c e o f good.

Even i f t h e r e had b e e n no I a g o , l i f e v e r y l i k e l y , a n d

i n o t h e r d e v i o u s ways, would have found t h i s i d o l a t r y o u t , and d e a l t w i t h i t a s k i n d l y and s e v e r e l y . a cataly st,

But Iag o i s s u f f i c i e n t a s

even i f he i s i n s u f f i c i e n t a s a c a u s a l a g e n t .

Once

Desdemona1s f a i t h f u l n e s s to O t h e l l o i s b r o u g h t i n t o s l i g h t e s t d o u b t , O t h e l l o l o s e s more t h a n Desdemona.

He l o s e s h i s god, h i e

o n l y s t a y a g a i n s t i n s e c u r i t y , f e a r , a n x i e t y , d r e a d , and g u i l t . Not o n l y h i s l o v e , b u t h i s w orld t o t t e r s .

His v ery t r u s t i n , and

h i s v e r y c a p a c i t y f o r l i f e have l o s t t h e i r f o o t i n g . The Greek, s k e p t i c a l , and H e b r a i c - C h r l s t l a n m o t i f s a r e so i n t e r t w i n e d and f u s e d i n O t h e l l o . a s i n most o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s plays,

t h a t t h i n g s b e g i n to sound a r t i f i c i a l and f o r c e d i f and

when you s e p a r a t e t h e s t r a n d s f o r p u r p o s e s o f emphasis and a n a l y s i s . M oreover, t h i s d o es n o t mean t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e i s vague, u n d i s c i ­ p l i n e d , and e c l e c t i c . heart of life " i t s e l f .

The m o t i f s a r e i n t e r t w i n e d i n " t h e w i l d They a r e a s c l o s e l y meshed a s t h e f a c t s

o f f i n i t e n e s s , p r e t e n s i o n , p e r v e r s i o n , f i x a t i o n , and w e a r i n e s s . Moreover, t h e r e I s no good r e a s o n to suppose t h a t any o f t h e s e i n s i g h t s a r e l o g i c a l l y i n c o n s i s t e n t o r e m p iric a lly w anting.

They

a r e p o i n t e r s to d i f f e r i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e same complex u n i t y — t h e u n i t y o f t h e w o rld and o f l i f e . suspicious.

For example, O t h e l l o i s n o t e a s i l y

His p r e t e n s i o n , i d o l a t r y and s i n a r e m ild i n them­

s e lv e s , and c l o s e l y fused w ith f i n i t e n e s s , p e r v e r s io n , f i x a t i o n and w e a r i n e s s .

P a s t and p r e s e n t s e c u r i t i e s have p r o t e c t e d him

25? from t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r b e i n g more d i s c i p l i n e d i n h i s l o v e s , h as alw ays been a b l e to t r u s t h i m s e l f and h i s l o v e s .

fie

And he has

been a b l e to a v o i d d i s a s t e r by v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Gform and p r e s s u r e 11 o f l i f e have always p r o t e c t e d and s o l i d i f i e d h i s s t r e n g t h s , but have never t h r e a t e n e d o r invaded h i s w eaknesses. I n t h e g r e a t n e s s o f h i s m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l e x i s t e n c e , he has been accustomed by h a b i t and i n e r t i a to f o r g e t h i s own i n s e c u r i t i e s and h i s l a t e n t c a p a c i t i e s f o r v i o l e n c e . larg ely external

I n the f a c e o f t h e s e

e x l g e n c i e s — t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f t h e s o l d i e r and

o f t h e s ta t e s m a n —he has develo ped a p o i s e and b a l a n c e i n h a n d l i n g t h e im p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t s and t e n s i o n s o f man’ s s o c i a l e x i s t e n c e . But l i f e has simply n e v e r developed o r t e s t e d h i s c a p a c i t y f o r >

h a n d l i n g th e more dynamic and ambiguous c o n f l i c t s o f I n t i m a t e , p e r s o n a l , p r i v a t e , f a c e - t o - f a c e e x i s t e n c e w ith equal candor and nob ility .

I n th e s o c i a l realm O t h e l l o may be s t r o n g and i n v u l n e r ­

a b l e , b u t i n t h i s p r i v a t e realm

there

n o t prove to be f r i g h t f u l l y v u l n e r a b l e .

i s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t he may This f a c t o f f i x a t i o n and

i n e r t i a i s t h e kind o f f i n i t e n e s s to which many s k e p t i c a l elem e nts i n modern th e o lo g y r i g h t f u l l y can p o i n t .

In so far as th is fa c t is

c r u c i a l , h i s f a l l i s p a i n f u l and undeserved, f o r i n th e a r e a o f t h e s u b j e c t i v e and th e p r i v a t e O t h e l l o i s n o t a man b u t a c h i l d .

And

y e t , im m ediately one must o b s e rv e how Shakespeare e x h i b i t s O t h e l l o a s i n p a r t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e s o f t n e s s and d i s p r o p o r t i o n o f h i s early l i f e .

He has p o s s e s s e d and a c c e p t e d t h i s s t r e n g t h a s h i s

own and has o v e r - p l a y e d i t .

At t h i s p o i n t , we s h i f t o v e r i n t o

t h e a r e a o f d i r e c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and g u i l t .

O t h e l l o has p e r ­

m itted h is

n a t u r a l and t u t o r e d g i f t s

to become unguarded and p r e -

tensious.

His f a l l i s slow to come,

b u t when i t comes i t i s s w i f t

258 and s t e e p , f a r to o s w f i t and s t e e p t o be e i t h e r I a g o ' s d o i n g o r purely necessary or a c c id e n ta l.

I n t h e f a e t t h e v e r y power o f h i s

r e s i s t a n c e t o I a g o comes i n p a r t from h i s a t t e m p t s to r e s i s t i n ­ s e c u r i t y i n t h e name o f a c o m f o r t a b l e v e n e e r c i r c u m s t a n c e h a s en­ a b l e d him to a c q u i r e a n d e n j o y .

His j e a l o u s y i s n o t q u i c k l y

a r o u s e d , b e c a u s e l i f e h a s p r o t e c t e d him from su c h v i o l e n t e m o t i o n s . And y e t h i s c a p a c i t y f o r suc h e m o tio n s r e m a in s f u l l y a n d a c t u a l l y t h e r e , a s i t i s i n e v e r y man, and h i s s o f t n e s s h as i n f a c t r e n d e r e d him even more v u l n e r a b l e to i t .

Once l i f e r e a l l y h a s i t i n f o r

him, he i s found weak a n d w a n t i n g . The c a s e f o r O t h e l l o ' s p r e t e n s i o n , I d o l a t r y , a n d s i n may be b r i e f l y a r g u e d and summarized a s f o llo w s - r- a n d i t i s S h a k e s p e a r e ' s c a s e , n o t mine!

had O t h e l l o ' s l o v e f o r Desdemona been a s c o m p le t e ,

a s d i s p a s s i o n a t e , a n d u n s h a k a b le a s he p r o c l a i m s p u b l i e l y

in the

e a r l y s c e n e w i t h h e r f a t h e r and t h e s e n a t o r s , he c o u l d n e v e r have s u s p e c t e d h e r , l a t e o r soon.

And y e t he d oes

and f a r more q u i c k l y t h a n he i s wont to a d m i t

come t o s u s p e c t h e r , even t o

h im self. I f

O t h e l l o had i n f a c t been l i v i n g — a s he c l a im e d to b e l i v i n g — a s i f t h e r e c o u l d be no l u s t i n h i s l o v e f o r Desdemona, he would n o t have come so q u i c k l y to f e e l l u s t i n h e r and f o r h e r .

But he d o e s .

I f O t h e l l o had bee n f u l l y h o n e s t i n s a y i n g t h a t he h a s employed no w i t c h c r a f t t o win h e r , and had found n o t h i n g b u t jo y i n t h e f a c t t h a t she l o v e d him sim ply " f o r t h e d a n g e r s I have p a s s e d , " he would n o t have come t o a c c u s e h e r so v i o l e n t l y and p r e c i p i t o u s l y f o r b e i n g a t t r a c t e d o n l y by h i s s p e l l , and to d e s i r e so o b s e s s i v e l y t h a t she l o v e more t h a n h i s s p e l l . crave evidence and to crave j u s t i c e .

Moreover,

O t h e l l o comes to

But one does n o t e x a c t l y

259 " c ra v e " e i t h e r evidence o r j u s t i c e .

And t h e r e i s t h e i r o n y o f

i r o n i e s — t h e c o n t r a s t between h i s a b s o l u t e t r u s t i n h e r word a g a i n s t h e r f a t h e r ' s i n t h e e a r l y s c e n e , and h i s im m e d ia te d i s ­ t r u s t o f h e r word o v e r a g a i n s t I a g o ' s .

I n f a c t , h e r words v e r y

r a p i d l y become t h e o n l y words he does n o t l i s t e n to a n d c a n n o t hear.

He f i n a l l y e x e r c i s e s j u s t i c e , n o t d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y , b u t o u t

o f e l e m e n t a l p r i d e , p a s s i o n a t e j e a l o u s y , and deep p e r s o n a l i n s e ­ c u r i t y — e m o t i o n a l a m b i g u i t i e s t h a t o b s e s s and shake him w i t h a d e s i r e t o " t e a r h e r a l l t o p i e c e s " and " t o ehop h e r i n t o m e s s e s . " The d e p t h o f h i s d e g r a d a t i o n i s a t t a i n e d when he t h i n k s m urder a n d sa y s " t h e j u s t i c e o f i t p l e a s e s . " The e a r l y O t h e l l o i s f i n i t e and d e c e i v e d . i s " i n f i n i t e " and depraved.

The l a t e r O t h e l l o

And a s t i l l l a t e r O t h e l l o i s p r e t e n ­

s i o n s , i d o l a t r o u s , and s i n f u l .

H is t r a g e d y i s a complex compound

o f Greek, s k e p t i c a l , and H e b r a i c - C h r i s t i a n f a c t s and p r i n c i p l e s . The f i n a l O t h e l l o , d e l i v e r e d a t l a s t from t h e web o f b l i n d n e s s , p e r v e r s i o n , f i x a t i o n , and s i n , p a r t l y spun by l a g o and p a r t l y by him self,

s u b j e c t a t l o n g l a s t to f e e l i n g s o f r e m o r s e , c om punction,

a n d g u i l t , can o n l y a d m i n i s t e r j u s t i c e f a i r l y where he i s n o t e n t i r e l y m is ta k e n i n f e e l i n g i t must be r e n d e r e d most— by t a k i n g h i s own l i f e , a l i f e t h a t h a s become a p r o f a n a t i o n o f i t s meaning. Macbeth Macbeth d i s c l o s e s t h e s e l f - d e f e a t i n g and s e n s e l e s s c h a r ­ a c t e r o f e v i l more c l e a r l y and c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a n a n y o t h e r S hak es­ pearean p lay.

The i n s i g h t i s g i v e n w i t h g r e a t b r e v i t y , b r i l l i a n c e ,

and f o r c e . The s t o r y b e h i n d and w i t h i n Macbeth— t h e s i m p le m e d ie v a l

260 t a l e p r o v i d i n g t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r S h a k e s p e a r e ' s a r t - —i s melo­ d r a m a t i c i n t h e e x tre m e . D u n c a n 's w h i t e i n n o c e n c e .

M a c b e t h 's b l a c k g u i l t i s p i t t e d a g a i n s t The a c t i o n o f t h e s t o r y r e v o l v e s a b o u t

t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f a v i l l a i n and a s a i n t .

Vice i s o v e r p o w e r in g

f o r a t i m e , b u t t h e r e i s a f i n a l v i c t o r y o f t h e good o v e r t h e ev il. S h a k e s p e a r e n e v e r c o m p l e t e l y v i o l a t e s t h e moral and r e ­ l i g i o u s s i m p l i c i t y I n v o l v e d i n such an I n t e n s e and m a ssiv e t a l e . He r e t a i n s i t s e l e m e n t a l s i m p l i c i t y even a s he t r a n s m u t e s i t s l a c k o f i n n e r t e n s i o n and c o m p le x i ty i n t h e name o f t h r e e p r o ­ founder m o ti f s :

t h e Greek theme o f M a c b e t h 's s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y ,

t h e C h r i s t i a n theme o f M a c b e t h 's moral g u i l t and r e l i g i o u s s i n , and t h e modern s k e p t i c a l theme o f M a c b e t h 's p i t e o u s a b n o r m a l i t y . The p o i n t o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p l a y , a s tr a n s f o r m e d from melodrama i n t o h i g h t r a g e d y , i s t h a t e v i l i s d e s t r o y e d by e v i l no l e s s t h a n by good.

Every e lem e n t i n t h e p l a y i s shaped to

deepen t h i s f o c a l m o t i f . F i r s t o f a l l th e re a r e the w itch es.

Once a g a i n , a s a l ­

ways i n S h a k e s p e a r e , t h e o p e n i n g sc e n e i s d e c e p t i v e l y s i m p l e . C l o s e n e s s o f s c r u t i n y u n c o v e rs the way i t f u n c t i o n s dou b ly :

first,

a s a p r e l u d e , a n o v e r t u r e , a n a t m o s p h e r i c s u g g e s t i o n o f what i s to come; b u t a l s o and s e c o n d ly a s a key, a s a commentary and a summing up, s t a t i n g n o t so much what i s to happen a s how, when a l l I s s a i d and done, i t I s to be ta k e n . These a r e n o t j u s t o r d i n a r y w i t c h e s , b e n t upon d e t a i l e d c a p r i c e , c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t a g e a t the o u t s e t , and p o r t e n d i n g t h e a c t i o n o f a l l s c e n e s to come.

Nor a r e t h e y e x a c t l y E l i z a b e t h a n

261 c o u n t e r - p a r t s t o t h e Greek d r a m a 's f a t e s and f u r i e s , m e ssenge rs and p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f a m a s s iv e ly e x t e r n a l f a t e and d e s t i n y above and beyond and b e n e a t h t h e human s c e n e .

They a r e no t even

v a r i a t i o n s upon H a m l e t 's f a t h e r ' s g h o s t, who i s i n t e r m e d i a t e b e ­ tween c r e d i b i l i t y and I n c r e d i b i l i t y , and p a r t l y i f n o t w h o lly o r unambiguously good, and a t l e a s t n o t w h o lly s e v e r e d from connec­ t i o n w i t h th e p u r s u i t s o f t h e l i v i n g . These w i t c h e s a r e above a l l w e ir d , d e v l l l i s h , a n d s a t a n l c . T h e i r r i t e s a r e p r e s e n t e d a s u n q u a l i f i e d l y e v i l , a s w h o lly s i n ­ ister,

s u g g e s t i v e o f i n f e r n a l I l l u s i o n and d i a b o l i c d a r k n e s s .

What i s most i m p o r t a n t a b o u t them I s th e way t h e y f u n c t i o n a s symbolic e x p r e s s i o n s o f e v i l a s p e c t s o f r e a l i t y , r a t h e r th a n a s a l l e g o r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f mere i d e a s i n t h e mind, i n t h e mind o f S h a k e s p e a re o r t h e mind o f Macbeth.

You miss t h e i r im­

p r e s s i v e l y d r a m a t i c q u a l i t y i f you i n t e r p r e t them a s b a r e p e r s o n i ­ f i c a t i o n s o f s u p e r - o r s u b - n a t u r a l f o r c e s c o n t r o l l i n g Macbeth ex­ t e r n a l l y and to which he i s p o w e r le s s to r e s i s t , a s i f he were sim p ly t h e v i c t i m o f a n e v i l d i s o r d e r th e y sp o n s o r a n d c o n t r o l . For w h a te v e r p r o p h e s i e s t h e y g i v e f o r t h , Macbeth p o s s e s s e s q u i c k l y , i f n o t p r l o r l y , a s h i s own.

He y i e l d s to t h e f a s c i n a t i n g e v i l

t h e y s u g g e s t a s a r e s p o n s i b l e f i g u r e and y i e l d s c o u n t e r to i n ­ s i s t e n t f e e l i n g s o f d r e a d and g u i l t . Macbeth i s a f r e e a g e n t .

From b e g i n n i n g t o end,

The o u t e r e v i l c a l l s f o r t h h i s inw ard

e v i l , b u t does n ot c r e a t e i t s en e rg y o r c o e r c e i t s d r i v e .

As

A, C, B r a d l e y has n o te d so p o i n t e d l y , t h e y p r o p h e s y e v e n t s , n o t deeds.

Every a c t i o n i s p r o v i d e d by Macbeth a utono m ously, and i n

no i n s t a n c e does t h e i r p r o p h e sy i n s e r t a t e n d e n c y t h a t was n o t a l -

262 r e a d y v e r y much a t work w i t h i n him.

On t h e o t h e r hand, I t h i n k

you m iss t h e mark a s w id e ly i f you i n t e r p r e t t h e w i t c h e s a s mere f ig m e n t s o r c r e a t i o n s o f M a c b e t h 's o b s e s s e d i m a g i n a t i o n , a s i f th e y were meant to be n o t h i n g more s u b s t a n t i a l th a n i l l u s o r y r e ­ f l e c t i o n s o f h is d iseased im agination.

These w e ir d s i s t e r s a r e

symbolic p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f an e v i l i n t h e world t h a t has more a c t u a l i t y th a n a n i d e a o r a mind a s such can comprehend o r f a s h i o n out o f nothing.

I n t h i s symbolic f a s h i o n , t h e y f u n c t i o n a s s e t ­

t i n g and i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e e v i l r e a l i t i e s w i t h which t h e p l a y i s to d e a l — tremendous f o r c e s tr em e n d o u sly r e l e a s e d . n e ith e r fa te s or g u ilt-rid d e n phantasies.

They a r e

They a r e o l d women,

h a g s , immersed i n c r u e l t y and f i l t h , who g a i n power, l i k e Macbeth, i s to g a i n power, by i n w a r d ly i d e n t i f y i n g th e m s e lv e s w i t h e v i l f o r c e s o f d a r k n e s s t h a t w i l l work t h e i r w i l l f o r a t i m e . a l s o f u n c t i o n a s a commentary and a summing up: i s a c o n f u s i n g m ix t u r e o f good and i l l ; a m b i g u i t y o f f a i r and f o u l .

They

f o r t h e i r brew

t h e i r p r o p h e sy bodes

They t e l l us t h a t o r d e r w i l l g iv e

way to c h a o s , t h a t r e a l i t y w i l l s u f f e r b e f o r e d e l u s i o n .

They

come to c a r r y t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t dom inates th e p l a y — t h e v i s i o n o f t h e b l a c k n e s s o f an e v i l t h a t d e s t r o y s e v i l a s I n e x o r a b l y a s i t destroys lig h t .

They a r e i n f a c t so s t r o n g

and u n n a t u r a l a s

to s u g g e s t t h a t any y i e l d i n g to t h e energy o f e v i l p o s s e s s i n g them can b r i n g no man good.

T h e i r very b l a c k n e s s t e l l s us t h a t

o r d e r a s w e l l a s c h a o s , r e a l i t y a s w e l l a s d e l u s i o n w i l l come again.

F or e v i l i s se en to have a n I n o r d i n a t e c a p a c i t y not o n l y

f o r d e s t r o y i n g good b u t a l s o e v i l . T h is v i s i o n o f th e s e l f - d e f e a t i n g c h a r a c t e r o f e v i l , p r o ­ j e c t e d a n d embodied I n t o t h e w i t c h e s a t th e o u t s e t , i s t h e n r e i n ­

263 f o r c e d by e v e r y e le m e n t I n t h e p l a y . I n s e p a r a b i l i t y o f e v i l from good.

The b a s i c i n s i g h t i s t h e

Human n a t u r e i s s e e n t o be d e­

f i n e d by a n e q u i v o c a l d u a l i t y , p o t e n t i a l l y g iv e n o v e r to e i t h e r good o r e v i l .

The e s s e n t i a l c o n t r a s t betw een good and e v i l i s

f u r t h e r e n v i s a g e d a s one b etw een o r d e r and d i s o r d e r , c r e a t i o n and d e a t h , r e n e w a l and p e r i s h i n g , between s u s t a i n e d a n d c o m p l i c a t e d e x i s t e n c e and n o t h i n g n e s s .

E v i l i s s e e n a s p o s i t i v e and o r g a n i s e d ,

p o t e n t i a l l y t h e p o s s e s s o r o f tremendous power i n b o t h t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e human s i t u a t i o n .

But i t i s a l s o

s e e n a s b e n t upon d e s t r o y i n g I t s e l f a s w e l l a s good.

Therefore

t h e o n l y q u a l i t y w hich e n a b l e s man to endure o r to c r e a t e o r to be a n y t h i n g i n a s u s t a i n e d f a s i o n i s t h e elem e nt o f good i n him. I n s o f a r a s he becomes I d e n t i f i e d o r d e r i v e s h i s i n s p i r a t i o n from e v i l , he i n e v i t a b l y f a c e s and s u f f e r s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n .

He i s a s

doomed to d e f e a t a s t h e good he s e t s o u t t o d e s t r o y .

And i n h i s

d e s t r u c t i o n e v i l a s w e l l a s good w i l l p l a y a p a r t .

For t h e p o i n t

h e r e i s n o t t h a t t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t good I n t h e w o rld to r i s e up a g a i n s t t h e e v i l i n tim e t o b r i n g on i t s d e f e a t by p i t t i n g t h e g r e a t e r a g a i n s t t h e l e s s e r power, b u t t h a t t h e very c h a r a c t e r o f e v i l i t s e l f c a r r i e s a violence th a t f i n a l l y guarantees th e d is ­ i n t e g r a t i o n o f e v i l no l e s s t h a n good.

For e v i l u l t i m a t e l y d e r i v e s

power a n d o r d e r a n d s u s t a i n e d I n f l u e n c e o n ly from good.

By n a t u r e

e v i l f i g h t s t h e v e r y s o u r c e o f i t s s t r e n g t h and I m p o v e r i s h e s t h e very sp rin g s o f i t s v i t a l i t y .

Of i t s e l f i t has no p r i n c i p l e o r

power f o r c r e a t i o n , f o r r e n e w a l . than d i s i n t e g r a t i o n ,

I t can p u sh i n no d i r e c t i o n o t h e r

s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n , and e v e n t u a l n o t h i n g n e s s .

The r e m a r k a b l e f a c t c o n c e r n i n g t h i s p l a y l i e s p r e c i s e l y here.

E v i l i s d i s c l o s e d i n t h e most c l e a r and v i v i d t e r m s .

The

264 The f o r c e s o f e v i l a r e tr e m e n d o u s a n d a r e g i v e n tr e m e n d o u s r e l e a s e . Good i s p a s s i v e a n d h e l p l e s s ;

e v i l i s a g g re s siv e , pow erful, o r­

g a n i z e d , a n d commands e v e r y r e s o u r c e a c c e s s i b l e .

And y e t nowhere

d o e s e v i l a p p e a r so p o w e r l e s s a n d b a n k r u p t i n t h e end.

This i n ­

s i g h t i n t o t h e i n e s c a p a b l e f a c t t h a t e v i l i s l i m i t e d n o t so much by good a s by e v i l I t s e l f , I n t o t h e u n a v o i d a b l e way t h a t e v i l i s b e n t upon i t s own d e s t r u c t i o n a s f u l l y upon t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f good, i s

the u n d e rly in g i n s i g h t t h a t g iv e s r i s e to th e c r e a t i o n

o f th e p la y , shapes i t s i n n e r c o n s t r u c t i o n and governs i t s

sensory,

e m o tio n a l and I n t e l l e c t u a l e f f e c t s . This fundam ental I n s i g h t governs th e envisagem ent o f th e c h a r a c t e r s o f M a cbeth a n d Lady M a cb eth, t h e p l a y ' s movement, p l o t o r a c t i o n , and th e f u n c t i o n i n g o f th e h e a r t o f th e p l a y ' s atm osphere and to n e — th e p o e t i c im agery t h a t d e p i c t s th e h au n ted and h e i g h t ­ ened a c t i o n o f t h e mind.

P a r t i c u l a r l y the l a t t e r ,

the p o e tic

Im agery o f t h e min d, s u s t a i n s i m a g i n a t i v e l y t h i s v i s i o n o f t h e b l a c k n e s s o f e v i l a s th e d r i v i n g f o r c e s h a p in g th e developm ent o f c h a r a c t e r and th e r e m o r s e l e s s working o f t h e a c t i o n tow ard a n n i h i l a t i o n o f e v i l no l e s s t h a n good. The c h a r a c t e r o f M acbeth a n d i t s d e v e l o p m e n t a r e t h e c h i e f e x e m p lific a tio n of th is u nderlying p erc e p tio n . t h e more commanding f i g u r e a t t h e o u t s e t . the a c t i o n .

Lady M a c b e th i s

F o r a t i m e she c o n t r o l s

I t i s s h e who d i r e c t l y i n v o k e s t h e pow ers o f e v i l .

And y e t M a c b e t h ' s y i e l d i n g i s more d e e p a n d c o m p l i c a t e d .

It

g a t h e r s f o r c e a n d t e n s i o n w i t h r i s i n g tem po, w here h e r s c a n s c a r c e l y keep i t s i n i t i a l l y e x a l t e d and s t r a i n e d i n f l e x i b i l i t y . I t su ddenly b re a k s under p r e s s u r e s she can n e i t h e r w i t h s t a n d nor

265 sustain,

Macbeth*s p a s s i o n f o r e v i l i n c r e a s e s w i t h a c c e l e r a t i n g

speed to add v i o l e n c e upon v i o l e n c e , and, un ab le to p ause o r to c a l l a h a l t , goes down f i g h t i n g to the very end. e v e n t u a l l y dom inates t h e p l a y .

I t i s he who

I n him we can hope to se e t h e

v i s i o n o f e v i l most t e l l i n g l y e x p r e s s e d . We a r e t o l d i n th e o p en in g scenes t h a t he i s a man o f n o b le d im e n s io n s , w i t h a g r e a t n e s s o f n a t u r e p e r h a p s p o t e n t i a l l y e q u a l t o t h e one O t h e l l o p o s s e s s e s a t t h e o u t s e t . se e t h a t g r e a t n e s s a p a r t from i t s f a l l .

But we n e v e r

Macbeth has been tempted

by e v i l b e f o r e th e p l a y b e g i n s , and i t s a e t i o n i s a l l end, th e u n f o l d i n g o f h i s r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e doom.

Hamlet may

n o t have been g iv e n f u l l d i s c o v e r y , and may n o t have d ev e lo p ed from s m a l l e r to l a r g e r te r m s , b u t h i s p r o c e s s e s o f r e c o g n i t i o n and d i s ­ covery a r e a s deep and a l i v e a s th e y a r e d r e a d f u l and s u s p e n d in g . Lear may s t a r t w i t h an a c t o f t e r r i f y i n g v i o l e n c e , b u t t h e r e a f t e r he i s one who s u f f e r s r a t h e r t h a n one who a c t s , more " s i n n e d a g a in s t than s in n in g ."

And h i s s o u l

by a k i n d o f p u r i f i c a t i o n .

i s p r o g re s s iv e ly enlarged

But Macbeth d e v e l o p s , I n s o f a r a s he

d e v e lo p s a t a l l , o n l y i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f d e g r a d a t i o n . t h e r e l e n t l e s s dam nation o f h i s s o u l . I t must be n o te d t h a t i t

We w i t n e s s

S te p by s t e p we se e i t .

i s a f a l l t h a t we a r e w i t n e s s i n g .

Macbeth i s not c o m p le t e ly bad a t t h e o u t s e t .

Nor does h i s badne ss

f i x I t s e l f s t a t i c a l l y upon one l e v e l o r a t one s t a g e .

T hat i s ,

t h e r e i s no r i g i d l a c k o f human f e e l i n g a s i n t h e c a s e o f l a g o . Macbeth h a s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r good a s w e l l a s f o r e v i l , in the

And y e t

c o u r s e o f e v e n t s , what i s e v i l i n him becomes worse and

worse, b l a c k e r and b l a c k e r , u n t i l h i s

very c a p a c i t y f o r goodness—

266 c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t h e b e g i n n i n g — i s a l m o s t completely d e s t r o y e d , o r a t l e a s t becomes i r r e l e v a n t , by th e end.

A ll t h i s i s very coher­

e n t and a s i t s h o u ld be, f o r what a p p a r e n t l y p r e o c c u p i e d S h a k e s p e a re i n Macbeth was n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e w ork in g o f e v i l a s a f o r c e . He saw t h a t working a s f i e r c e b u t b r i e f .

For t h e p a r a s i t i c c h a r ­

a c t e r an d s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i n g te n d e n c y o f e v i l was seen to b r i n g on i t s own d e f e a t even a s i t d e s t r o y s goo dness. The most v i v i d d i s c l o s u r e s o f what happens to Macbeth and o f what he does a r e t h e r e f o r e a t t h e same tim e v ery l u c i d r e v e l a ­ t i o n s o f an a s p e c t o f e v i l i t s e l f .

For e v i l comes to c o n t r o l h i s

t h o u g h t and f e e l i n g w ith i n c r e a s i n g dominance, u n t i l one can a l ­ most say t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g b u t e v i l l e f t . The s t e p s o f M a c b e th 's d e g r a d a t i o n a r e c l e a r . sc e n e e x h i b i t s a s t a g e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s c e n t .

Every major

We s e e him

f i r s t th r o u g h t h e a d m i r i n g eyes o f o t h e r s , a s t h e b r a v e a n d n o b le Macbeth who i s a s v a l i a n t a s t h e e a g l e o r t h e l i o n i n h i s d i s d a i n for fortune.

T h is i s our o n l y g l a n c e a t t h e Macbeth t h a t was and

might o t h e r w i s e have re m a in e d .

Our f i r s t e n c o u n t e r w i t h him i n

t h e f l e s h f i n d s t h e t e n s i o n s and a m b i g u i t i e s o f t e m p t a t i o n a l r e a d y a t work.

The i r o n y o f h i s e c h o i n g t h e w i t c h e s ' f o r e b o d i n g "So f o u l

and f a i r a day I have n o t s e e n , " i s a l m o s t S ophoclean t o be s u r e . T h at i s , i t i s more c u t t i n g f o r u s , t h e a u d i e n c e , t h a n f o r him. And y e t som ething very much a s t i r w i t h i n Macbeth c a l l s f o r t h from Banquo t h e w o r r i e d t h r u s t ,

"Good s i r , why do you s t a r t and seem

to f e a r t h i n g s t h a t do sound so f a i r ? "

We j o i n Banquo i n h i s q u e r y ,

and w i t h i n th e mounting t e n s i o n o f a few r a p i d sc e n e s a r e giv e n a f o r c e f u l answ er to o u r q u e s t i o n by Macbeth h i m s e l f .

His s o l i l o ­

q u i e s say e v e r y t h i n g t h e r e i s to be s a i d c o n c e r n in g him.

Lady

267 Macbeth makes a few t e l l i n g a d d i t i o n s , and h e r o p p o s i t i o n and c o n t r a s t throw h i s i n n e r n a t u r e i n t o s h a r p e r r e l i e f .

But she

dom inates the a c t i o n on ly b e f o r e t h e deed, and i s a s r e v e a l i n g f o r h e r m is r e a d in g s o f h e r h u s b a n d 's p a s s i o n and c h a r a c t e r a s she i s f o r h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s p u r r i n g o f i t .

She i s c a p a b l e o f

p r o v o k in g w i t h i n him some o f t h e r u t h l e s s and r e l e n t l e s s w i l l f o r th e t r a g i c deed she c la im s to p o s s e s s more f u l l y .

But she com­

p l e t e l y f a i l s to a n t i c i p a t e t h e consequences o f th e deed upon h i s mind— consequences t h a t r o c k M a cb eth 's s o u l even p r i o r to t h e ex­ perience.

Once t h e energy o f e v i l has been r e l e a s e d to a c c o m p l is h

t h e o b j e c t o f h e r p a s s i o n , t h a t p a s s i o n I s emptied and h e r e n t i r e n a t u r e c o l l a p s e s b e f o r e th e t e r r o r t h a t a t t e n d s each consequence. Only Macbeth can embody t h e f u l l v i g o r o f e v i l and p u r s u e i t s v i o ­ l e n c e and d e s p e r a t e f u r y to t h e end. The op en in g t e m p t a t i o n scene d i s c l o s e s t h e c o m p le x i ty o f M a c b e th 's n a t u r e and i n i t i a t e s t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s c e n t .

We have

a l r e a d y note d how th e w i t c h e s ' words f a i l to f a l l on c o m p le te ly Innocent e a rs.

I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o Banquo, who i s s im p le , d i r e c t

and h o n e s t , Macbeth s t a r t s and seems to f e a r t h e i r words.

For he

im m ediately adds to t h e i r b a r e o u t e r s u g g e s t i o n the c o n c r e t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a m b i t i o n , and th e s p e c i f i c deeds r e q u i r e d to b r i n g i t s fulfillm ent.

Banquo can calm ly and I n d i f f e r e n t l y a s k o f the

w e ir d s i s t e r s t h e i r prophesy o f e v e n ts i n s t o r e f o r him, becau se he l a c k s th e p a s s i o n to t r a n s f o r m t h e i r a b s t r a c t and vague o u t l i n e a t once i n t o a c o n c r e t e and d e t a i l e d sequence o f e v e n t s .

Banquo

can t o e s t h e i r p r o p h e s i e s g l i b l y from h i s mind i n t h e name o f a sim p le doubt a s to w hether t a l e s t o l d by " I n s t r u m e n t s o f d a r k n e s s "

268 may n o t I n v o l v e i n t h e end more e v i l t h a n good.

But M a c b e t h 's

n e rv o u s b r i l l i a n c e must h e a r more and more o f t h e i r p r o p h e c i e s , and t o each he r e a c t s w i t h complex f e e l i n g s , a c u r i o u s m in g l in g o f a t t r a c t i o n and d r e a d .

On t h e one hand, he h e a r s t h e s o u n d in g

o f " t h e i m p e r i a l th e m e."

I t s a t t r a c t i o n becomes t h e c o n t r o l l i n g

fa c t in h is s e n s ib ility .

He y i e l d s d e e p ly t o i t s f a s c i n a t i o n —

"Dark a s t h e swoon o f s i n . "

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e v e r y s o u n d in g

o f t h e i m p e r i a l theme a r o u s e s w i t h i n Macbeth a tremendous f e a r , d read, and a n x i e t y .

These e m otions s e t l o o s e t h e w orking o f a n

I m a g i n a t i o n c a p a b l e o f c r e a t i n g h o r r o r s t h a t make a c t u a l i t y l o o k p a l e and tame: why do I y i e l d to t h a t s u g g e s t i o n Whose h o r r i d Image d o t h u n f i x my h a i r And make my s e a t e d h e a r t knock a t my r i b s , A g a i n s t t h e use o f n a t u r e ? P r e s e n t f e a r s Are l e s s t h a n h o r r i b l e i m a g in in g s These words a r e i n t e n s e l y r e v e a l i n g , coming a s t h e y do d i r e c t l y a f t e r M a c b e t h 's e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e i m p e r i a l theme.

They d i s c l o s e

how d e e p l y the p a s s i o n o f a m b i t i o n can grow w i t h i n him and how v i o l e n t l y t h a t p a s s i o n w i l l be c o n j o i n e d , opposed, and r e s i s t e d by o t h e r more complex q u a l i t i e s i n h i s f e e l i n g s .

For th e f e e l i n g s

o f f e a r , d r e a d and g u i l t t h a t b e g i n to make th e m s e l v e s i n t h e s e e a r l y l i n e s a r e what

w i l l keep Macbeth h a u n t e d , s l e e p l e s s , and

r e s t l e s s the r e s t o f

t h e days o f h i s l i f e .

Of c o u r s e M a c b e t h 's f e a r M a c b e t h 's a n x i e t y i s

i s not f e a r o f d a n g e r , and

not a n x ie ty over d e te c tio n o r r e p r i s a l .

He

i s a man o f enormous c o u rag e a n d i n c r e d i b l e i n d i f f e r e n c e to ex­ t e r n a l consequences. a m o ralist.

Nor i s M a c b e th 's g u i l t th e compunction o f

He i s a m b i t i o u s , and d e s e r v e s to be so .

The m a t t e r

269 i s more c o m p l i c a t e d and d eep.

S h a k e s p e a r e makes i t so.

What i s

most f u l l y p r e s e n t i s a man c a p a b l e o f f e e l i n g the d e s p e r a t i o n and h o r r o r b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e glow o f h i s own

am bition.

one hand Macbeth i s c a p a b l e

o b s e s s i v e and i n ­

satiab le.

o fpassion th a t is

On t h e

On t h e o t h e r hand Macbeth i s c a p a b l e o f s e n s i n g good­

n e s s — t h e goodness he must go o u t to d e s t r o y .

His t r a g e d y r e s i d e s

i n t h i s unambiguous a m b i g u i t y — t h e t e n s i o n between a n image o f e v i l and an image o f g o o d n e s s.

No i n n e r m is e r y can d e f l e c t him from

t h e d e e d ; a n d no o u t e r r e a l i s a t i o n o f h i s p a s s i o n can p o s s i b l y d e l i v e r him from th e w r e t c h e d n e s s o f t h e c o n s e q u e n t rem orse and g u ilt.

The c o n f l i c t i s deep a n d i n d i s s o l u b l e .

I t i s t h i s deep

f u s i o n o f a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n t h a t f i r s t makes i t s e l f f e l t i n t h i s opening s o lilo q u y .

There i s t h e i m p e r i a l theme, and t h e r e

a r e the h o r r id im aginings. The s t r u c t u r e and c o n t e n t o f t h i s s o l i l o q u y p o i n t b o t h backward and f o r w a r d :

backward t o t h e l a t e n t se e d s o f a m b i t i o n

t h a t a r e h i s w ea k n ess, a n d f o rw a r d to t h e t r a g i c s t r i n g o f deeds born o f t h a t p a s sio n .

But most marked o f a l l i s t h e i n t e r p l a y

o f a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n .

The i m p e r i a l theme i s t h e a p o t h e o s i s

o f f a s c i n a t i o n ; t h e h o r r i b l e im a g in in g s a r e t h e ap o th eo sis o f f e a r . "N o th in g i s b u t what i s n o t" i s M a c b e t h 's f o r e b o d i n g , f o r the e s s e n c e o f f e a r i n i t s most d e v a s t a t i n g form i s t h e i m p a l p a b l e — f e a r i n g a n d not knowing p r e c i s e l y what i s f e a r f u l and what i s n o t . T h is i s t h e r e f o r e t h e f i r s t s t e p i n M a c b e t h 's s w i f t and i r r e v e r s i b l e descent.

I t r e v e a l s how c o m p l e t e l y Macbeth s u r r e n d e r s h i s freedom

to t e m p t a t i o n . complex o f w i l l .

His mind has become e n s l a v e d and s i c k e n e d by one And what i s s t i l l more h o r r i b l e , t h e r e i s th e

c o n f l i c t o f f e e l i n g — t h e f i e r c e p o l a r i t y o f hope and d r e a d .

270 A f t e r t h i s e a r l y s o l i l o q u y , we f e e l t h a t no good and no e v i l can swerve h i s c o u r s e . sp u r him where she w i l l .

We e x p e c t l a d y Macbeth to be a b l e to

He c r a v e s t h e crown.

He a l s o f e a r s i t .

And t h e f e a r i s t h e f e a r o f t h e I m p a l p a b l e , t h e end o f a l l p e a c e . And y e t Macbeth c a n n o t s e v e r h i s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l i g h t , w i t h go o d n ess, w i t h o r d i n a r y human f e e l i n g s o f k i n d n e s s and t r u s t so easily .

When Lady Macbeth In v o k e s th e powers o f e v i l , d a r k n e s s ,

and t h e n i g h t , w i t h o u t f e a r a n d w i t h o u t t r e m b l i n g , Macbeth a l m o s t overwhelms h e r v i s i o n .

For even a s he s ta n d s deep i n e v i l , he i s

a l s o d e e p l y h a u n t e d by good. easily .

He w i l l n o t p e r m i t p e a c e t o d i e so

Peace w i l l i n f a c t p l a g u e and w rack him to h i s g r a v e . The t e n s i o n w i t h i n t h e s o u l o f Macbeth can be i n f e r r e d

from t h i s f i r s t s o l i l o q u y .

I t b u r s ts f o r th in to d ir e c t d is c lo s u re

i n t h e n e x t one, w h e r e i n Macbeth comes t o s e a r c h i n g r e c o g n i t i o n s o f t h e dilemma on h i s own.

T h is second s o l i l o q u y i s i n e x h a u s t i b l e

to m e d i t a t i o n , f o r w i t h i n i t Macbeth s t r i k e s a t t h e v e r y a x i s o f t h e p l a y ' s p o l a r movement. goodness and f o r

The f u l l r e a c h o f h i s c a p a c i t i e s f o r

e v i l , f o r g r e a t n e s s and f o r t r i v i a l i t y , f o r

tr iu m p h and f o r d e f e a t ,

f o r b e a u t y and f o r m is e r y a r e l a y e d b a r e .

The v i t a l d o u b le n e s s o f h i s p a s s i o n sh a p e s t h e v e r y rhythm cadence o f h i s w o rd s .

and

P a s s i o n a t e hope and p a s s i o n a t e f e a r b e a t

i n upon him a l m o s t i r r e s l s t a b l y , and o c c a s i o n us to wonder f o r how lo n g b o t h can d w e l l so s t r e n u o u s l y w i t h i n one s o u l w i t h o u t eventually te a rin g i t s unity assunder: I f i t were done when ' t i s done, t h e n ' tw e re w e l l I t were done q u i c k l y : i f the a s s a s s i n a t i o n Gould trammel up t h e c o n s e q u e n c e , and c a t e h , With h i s s u r c e a s e , s u c c e s s : t h a t b u t t h i s blow Might be t h e b e - a l l and t h e e n d - a l l h e r e ,

271 But h e r e , upon t h i s bank and s h o a l o f tim e , We’I d Jump t h e l i f e to come. But i n t h e s e c a s e s We s t i l l have judgment h e r e ; t h a t we b u t t e a c h Bloody i n s t r u c t i o n s , w h ich b e i n g t a u g h t r e t u r n To p l a g u e t h e i n v e n t o r : t h i s even -handed j u s t i c e Commends t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f o u r p o i s o n ' d c h a l i c e To our own l i p s . H e 's h e r e i n d o u b le t r u s t : F i r s t , a s I am h i s kinsman and h i s s u b j e c t , S t r u n g b o t h a g a i n s t th e dee d ; t h e n , a s h i s h o s t , Who sh o u ld a g a i n s t h i s m u r d e r e r s h u t t h e d o o r , Not b e a r t h e k n i f e m y s e l f . B e s i d e s , t h i s Duncan Hath b o r n e h i s f a c u l t i e s so meek, h a t h been So c l e a r i n h i s g r e a t o f f i c e , t h a t h i s v i r t u e s W ill p le ad l i k e a n g e ls trum pet-tongued a g a i n s t The deep dam n atio n o f h i s t a k i n g - o f f ; And p i t y , l i k e a new-born babe, S trid in g th e b l a s t , or heaven’s cherubln horsed Upon t h e S i g h t l e s s c o u r i e r s o f t h e a i r , S h a l l blow t h e h o r r i d dee d i n e v e ry eye, T h a t t e a r s s h a l l drown t h e wind. I have no s p u r To p r i c k t h e s i d e s o f my i n t e n t , b u t o n ly V a u l t i n g a m b i t i o n , which o ' e r l e a p s i t s e l f And f a l l s on t h e o t h e r . What i s r e m a r k a b le a b o u t t h i s s o l i l o q u y i s th e way Macbeth s e e s w i t h s t u n n i n g c l a r i t y t h e f u l l c h a r a c t e r o f h i s own s i t u a t i o n . He u n d e r s t a n d s b o t h t h e e m o t i o n a l p o l a r i t y o f hope a n d f e a r t h a t a r e d r i v i n g him t o t h e d ee d , and he a n t i c i p a t e s c o m p l e t e l y t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t e r r o r a n d r e m o r s e to which t h e deed w i l l r e m o r s e ­ l e s s l y a n d i r r e v e r s i b l y g iv e r i s e . T h is i s i n f a c t one o f t h e most p r o f o u n d l y G h r i s t i a n s o l i l o q u i e s i n the E n g lish language. to

Macbeth a n t i c i p a t e s , p r i o r

t h e e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t we a r e ju d g e d h e r e on e a r t h , l e t a l o n e i n

the l i f e h e r e a f te r .

The movement i s n o t from i g n o r a n c e to knowl­

edge, a s i n Greek d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y , b u t from knowledge to s i n and id o latry .

U n lik e a Greek t r a g i c h e r o , Macbeth i s n o t t o r n by a

p a s s i o n he does n o t u n d e r s t a n d o r toward c o n s e q u e n c e s to which he i s b l i n d and c a n n o t p r e d i c t . Duncan i s good.

Macbeth knows from t h e o u t s e t t h a t

He f e e l s t h e s e r e n i t y and g r a c i o u s n e s s o f h i s

272 goodn ess, undimmed.

The v i s i o n o f goodness now makes him a c h e ,

and i t w i l l c o n t i n u e to keep him w r e tc h e d , den y in g him p e a c e o f mind and s l e e p .

And y e t a t t h e same tim e he c r a v e s th e i m p e r i a l

crown no l e s s d e e p l y t h a n he r e v e r e s g oodness. t h e r e may o r may n o t come f o r g i v e n e s s . the deed.

A f t e r such knowledge,

He s e e s t h e f u l l h o r r o r o f

Yet s t i l l he y i e l d s to th e "swoon o f sin ."

Not even t h e

h o r r o r o f s l e e p l e s s n e s s , o f b l o o d , o f d a r k n i g h t , f e a r , d r e a d , and g u i l t can s t a y h i s sword.

T h is i s th e C h r i s t i a n r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e ,

p r i o r t o th e t r a g i c deed, n o t a f t e r i t .

The dag g e r s o l i l o q u y

c a r r i e s M acbeth’s p r o c e s s o f s e l f - k n o w l e d g e and dam n ation one s t e p further: I s t h i s a d a g g e r which I s e e b e f o r e me, The h a n d l e toward ray hand? Come, l e t me c lu tc h theej I have t h e e n o t , and y e t I see t h e e s t i l l . A r t th o u n o t , f a t a l v i s i o n , s e n s i b l e To f e e l i n g a s to s i g h t ? o r a r t t h o u But a d a g g e r o f t h e mind, a f a l s e c r e a t i o n , P r o c e e d i n g from t h e h e a t - o p p r e s s e d b r a i n ? I see t h e e y e t , i n form a s p a l p a b l e As t h i s w hich now I draw. Thou m a r s h a l l * s t me t h e way t h a t I was g o in g , And such a n i n s t r u m e n t I was to use. Mine eyes a r e made t h e f o o l s o* t h ’ o t h e r s e n s e s , Or e l s e w o rt h a l l t h e r e s t . I see th e e s t i l l ; And on thy b l a d e and dudgeon g o u ts o f b l o o d , Which was n o t so b e f o r e . T h e r e ’ s no such t h i n g . I t I s t h e b lo o d y b u s i n e s s which In form s Thus to mine e y e s . Now o ’ e r t h e one h a l f - w o r l d N ature seems dead, and w icked dreams a b u s e The c u r t a i n ’d s l e e p . Now w i t c h c r a f t c e l e b r a t e s P a l e Hecate* s o f f e r i n g s ; and w i t h e r ' d m u r t h e r , A la r u m 'd by h i s s e n t i n e l , t h e w o l f , Whose h o w l ' s h i s w atc h, t h u s w i t h h i s s t e a l t h y p a c e , With T a r q u i n ' s r a v i s h i n g s t r i d e s , tow ard s h i s d e s i g n Moves l i k e a g h o s t . Thou s u r e and f i r m - s e t e a r t h , Hear n o t my s t e p s which way t h e y w a lk , f o r f e a r Thy v e r y s t o n e s p r a t e o f my w hereabout And t a k e t h e p r e s e n t h o r r o r from t h e tim e , Which now s u i t s w i t h i t . While I t h r e a t , he l i v e s ; Words to t h e h e a t o f d e e d s to o c o l d b r e a t h g i v e s .

273 The d a g g e r i s , however, s t i l l t h e h a l l u c i n a t i o n o f a t o r t u r e d mind.

A f t e r t h e murder, i m a g i n a t i o n becomes c o n c r e t e a c t u a l i t y .

H o r r o r , c o n j o i n e d w i t h a s e n s e o f g u i l t , ta k e s o v e r c o m p l e t e l y . T here i s a t e r r i f y i n g q u a l i t y o f compunction and r e m o rse a l r e a d y a t work i n M a c b e t h 's , "T h is i s a s o r r y s i g h t . "

Lady M a c b e t h 's

d i s m i s s a l o f h i s t o r t u r e d p h r a s e a s " a f o o l i s h th o u g h t" can no more e r a s e i t th a n t h e r e a l b lo o d t h a t c a l l e d i t f o r t h .

The f e e l i n g s

o f com punction i n Macbeth become savage i n t h e i r w o rk in g , f o r c i n g Macbeth to f e e l o n l y h o r r o r a n d m is e r y i n what s h o u ld n o r m a ll y e l i c i t s e r e n i t y and p e a c e o f s o u l — t h o s e who l a u g h , who s l e e p , and say t h e i r p r a y e r s .

" I c o u ld n o t say 'A m en,1 when t h e y d i d

say 'God b l e s s u s i ' " i s com punction come most d e e p l y . f o r e c o u l d not I p ro n o u n c e 'Amen1? and 'Amen* s t u c k i n my t h r o a t . "

"But where­

I had most need o f b l e s s i n g ,

And th e n t h e r e i s t h e P o r t e r ' s

k n o c k i n g — no a e s t h e t i c symbol c o u l d p i e r c e a c t u a l i t y more d e e p l y . I t s sound, and a t t e n d a n t f e a r ,

s e v e r s M a c b e t h 's c o n n e c t i o n w i t h

n o r m a l i t y once and f o r a l l . Lady Macbeth d e s p e r a t e l y a t t e m p t s to a l l a y t h e s e ways o f t h o u g h t and f e e l i n g t h a t l e a d to madness. h a s s u f f e r e d one more d e s c e n t . t h a t one d e a t h i s n o t enough.

But i n v a i n .

Macbeth

Almost Im m e d ia te ly he r e c o g n i z e s A l l he can f e e l i s a f e a r t h a t

w i l l d r i v e him t h i s way and t h a t to p i l e one a c t o f v i o l e n c e upon another.

The crown i s h i s , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o t h e bad dreams,

s l e e p l e s s n e s s , and b lo o d c a l l i n g f o r more b l o o d — t h i s i s t h e b o r e ­ dom, and t h e h o r r o r . Had I b u t d i e d an h o u r b e f o r e t h i s chance, I had l i v e d a b l e s s e d t i m e ; f o r from t h i s i n s t a n t Therms n o t h i n g s e r i o u s i n m o r t a l i t y ;

274 A l l i s b u t t o y s : renown and grace i s dead; The wine o f l i f e i s drawn, and th e mere l e e s I s l e f t t h i s v a u l t to b r a g o f . The b a t h o f blood i s h o p e l e s s and c e a s e l e s s , and Macbeth knownsit w ith no s u r p r i s e .

"We a r e b u t young i n dee d ," he s a y s .

For he

knows t h a t a f t e r more k i l l i n g he w i l l become calloused to t h e a e t and not so so re d i s t r e s s e d .

Only momentarily does he e n t e r t a i n

th e th o u g h t t h a t p e rh a p s j u s t one more murder w i l l d i s p e l h i s i n ­ f e r n a l f e a r and b r i n g peace back a g a i n . dashed:

The i l l u s i o n i s q u i c k l y

"There comes my f e a r a g a i n . " The f i n a l s t e p i n M a cb eth 's t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b r i n g s upon and

f o llo w s a f t e r t h e most t e r r i b l e o f a l l h i s deeds— th e s e n s e l e s s s l a u g h t e r o f Lady Macduff and h e r c h i l d r e n .

Banquo's d e a t h was

p a r t l y j u s t i f i e d i n terms of c irc u m s ta n c e and prophecy. d e a t h s a r e born o f r e c k l e s s v i o l e n c e .

But t h e s e

So com placently has he

y i e l d e d to e v i l now t h a t he knows no h e s i t a t i o n , no w av ering, no compunction, no rem o rse. have been d r i e d up.

Even h i s c a p a c i t y f o r f e a r and g u i l t

He r e a c h e s th e f i n a l b a n k ru p tc y o f

She should have d i e d h e r e a f t e r ; There would have been a time f o r such a word This i s n o t h i s r e s p o n s e to t h e d e a t h of Lady Macduff, r e a c t i o n to t h e d e a t h o f h i s w i f e . o f one so f a m i l i a r .

He cannot even f e e l t h e d e a t h

The whole p r i n c i p l e a t " th e w ild h e a r t of

l i f e " has gone out o f him. of salv atio n .

He i s now c u t o f f from every p o s s i b i l i t y

There i s n o th in g l e f t o f e v i l .

come o f n o t h i n g . "

I t is his

And " n o th i n g can

There i s t h e f i n a l s o l i l o q u y , appended to th e

"She should have d i e d h e r e a f t e r . "

There i s a c r y o f d e s p a i r

u n l i k e any b e f o r e o r s i n c e i n a l l l i t e r a t u r e :

275 Tomorrow, a n d tomorrow, a n d tomorrow C reeps i n t h i s p e t t y p a c e from day to day To t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e o f r e c o r d e d tim e ; And a l l o u r y e s t e r d a y s have l i g h t e d f o o l s The way to d u s t y d e a t h . Out, o u t , b r i e f c a n d l e . L i f e ' s b u t a w a l k i n g shadow, a p o o r p l a y e r , T h a t s t r u t s a n d f r e t s h i s hour upon th e s t a g e and t h e n i s h e a r d no more. I t i s a t a l e T old by a n i d i o t , f u l l o f sound and f u r y , S ig n ify in g nothing. L ik e G l o u c e s t e r i n King L e a r , he i s a man o f c o u r a g e , w i t h s c a r c e l y a n o unce o f c o u r a g e l e f t .

I n t h e end, Malcolm i s f o r e e d to d e s c r i b e

him a s " a dead b u t c h e r , " f o r he h a s become n o t o n l y l e s s t h a n a k i n g ; he has become l e s s t h a n a man. no l o n g e r f i t . h i m .

The r o b e s f o r w h ic h he c r a v e d

A l l t h a t rem ains i s th e a c t of "dying w ith

h a r n e s s upon my back.'"

M a c b e t h 's s o u l i s damned, and t h e d e g r a d a ­

t i o n o f i t i s d ee p , Lady M a c b e t h 's c h a r a c t e r s u g g e s t s a n d embodies t h e same underlying p erce p tio n in to the s e n se le ssly s e lf - d e f e a tin g char­ ac te r of ev il.

More p o i n t e d l y , s h e f u n c t i o n s a s a v a r i a t i o n on

t h e same theme, f o r S h a k e s p e a r e i s n o t one to i n d u l g e i n d u p l i c a ­ tio n o r needless r e p e t i t i o n .

Searching c o n t r a s ts a s w e ll a s id en ­

t i t i e s and a n a l o g i e s b etw een h e r c h a r a c t e r and M a c b e t h 's add s o l i d i t y to t h e i r i n t e r p l a y and o p p o s it io n . y i e l d s to t e m p t a t i o n .

Lady Macbeth a l s o

But she d o es more t h a n y i e l d .

i t w i t h o u t a m b i v a l e n c e o f thought o r f e e l i n g .

She welcomes

I n one o f t h e more

a p p a l l i n g s o l i l o q u i e s i n t h e p l a y , she a c t u a l l y I n v o k e s t h e f o r c e s o f e v i l t o e x o r c i s e a l l p r o t e s t s from g o odness w i t h i n h e r n a t u r e : Gome, you s p i r i t s T h a t t e n d on m o r t a l t h o u g h t s , u n se x me h e r e , And f i l l me, from t h e crown to t h e t o e , t o p - f u l l Of d i r e s t c r u e l t y j Make t h i c k my b l o o d ; S to p up t h ' a c c e s s and p a s s a g e t o r e m o r s e , T hat no co m p u n ctio u s v i s i t i n g s o f n a t u r e

276 Shake ay f e l l p u r p o s e n o r keep p e a c e between Th' e f f e c t and i t j Come to my woman's b r e a s t s And t a k e my m i l k f o r g a l l , you m u r t h ' r i n g m i n i s t e r s , Wherever i n your s i g h t l e s s s u b s t a n c e s You w a i t on n a t u r e ' s m i s c h i e f J Come, t h i c k n i g h t , And p a l l t h e e i n t h e d u n n e s t smoke o f h e l l , T hat my keen k n i f e se e n o t t h e wound i t makes, Nor heaven peep th r o u g h t h e b l a n k e t o f th e d a r k To c r y "Hold, HoldJ" I n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , t h i s s o l i l o q u y p o i n t s back to E u r i p i d e s ' Medea a n d fo rw a r d t o M e l v i l l e ’ s C a p ta i n Ahab— " I am madness maddened— t h a t w i l d madness t h a t i s o n l y calm to comprehend i t s e l f * an d " 'N o n i n nomine P a t r l s , sed i n nomine d i a b o l l * I b a p tis e thee." And y e t f o r a l l t h i s w i l d m a g n i f i c e n c e , Lady Macbeth i s much s m a l l e r th a n h e r husband i n s t a t u r e .

She l a c k s h i s i n n e r

c o m p l e x i t y o f t h o u g h t and f e e l i n g , h i s p e r c i p i e n c e , and h i s t r e ­ mendous i m a g i n a t i v e and i n t e l l e c t u a l power. head a n d t h e h e a r t ,

Being weak i n th e

she i s e n a b le d to become a l l w i l l and i n ­

f l e x i b i l i t y o f purpose.

Y i e l d i n g t o t e m p t a t i o n i s f o r h e r an

e s s e n t i a l l y u n c o m p lic a te d p r o c e s s . c l a s h o f f a s c i n a t i o n and d r e a d .

There i s no v i o l e n t inward

M a c b e th 's i m a g i n a t i o n r e a c h e s

o u t to t h i n k n o t o n l y upon t h e deed and i t s s u r f a c e c o n s e q u e n c e s , b u t a l s o upon t h e p r o f o u n d e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f dam nation and i d o l a ­ try, ment.

Lady Macbeth t h i n k s o n ly upon t h e s u r f a c e glow o f f u l f i l l ­ She can t h i n k o n l y o f t h e crown and the p r e c i s e ways to

reach i t .

Her s e n s i b i l i t y i s r e l i g i o u s l y a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y b l i n d

to t h e b e a t i f i c symbol t h a t i s D u n ca n 's f a c e .

She h a s a w i l l t h a t

c a n n o t know t h e meaning o f h e s i t a t i o n a n d w i l l n o t q u i c k l y l e a r n t h e meaning o f d e f e a t .

Those who have se en i n h e r , a l o n g w i t h

Malcom, n o t h i n g more t h a n t h e m e lo d ra m a tic " f i e n d - l i k e Queen,"

277 a r e not co m p le te ly wrong, a l b e i t th e y do s t r i p h e r too r a s h l y o f a r e a l c la im to humanity.

And y e t I must say t h a t h e r r e l e n t l e s s

s i n g l e n e s s o f p urpose e x h i b i t s an a lm o s t h y s t e r i c a l e x a l t a t i o n . There i s an a b n o r m a l i t y o f e x c i t a t i o n t h a t d r i v e s h e r a l o n g a p a t h i n the name o f some im p a lp a b le g r e a t n e s s t h a t w i l l no t be s t a y e d , and a t any c o s t must have i t s way.

T his i s t h e gleam o f

madness—- th a t w i l d madness o f a b e i n g so o b s e s s e d by a s i n g l e thought o r purpose a s t o be b l i n d to a l l e l s e .

And y e t t h i s

s e i z u r e is. h e r c l a im t o humanity— f o r human n a t u r e i s p r e c i s e l y c a p a b le o f becoming thus p o s s e s s e d . Lady M a c b e th 's doom l i e s hidden i n h e r b e g i n n i n g , f o r a l l h e r f o r c e and s i n g l e n e s s o f p u rp o se . h e r q u i c k l y , f o r i t cannot l o n g endure.

Her p a s s i o n b e t r a y s There i s a n o te o f

f r a n t i c d e s p e r a t i o n even i n h e r e a r l y i n v o c a t i o n s , a s i f she were s t r i v i n g t o overcome a k in d o f c o n c ea led r e s i s t a n c e w i t h i n h e r ­ self.

Moreover i t i s she, not Macbeth, who has to s t e e l h e r s e l f

w i t h wine b e f o r e t h e deed.

Her p a s s i o n has a t r o p h i e d h e r p e r c i p i -

ence to t h e p a l p a b l e and o b v io u s . e s t i m a t e a c t u a l i t y i n t h e end.

She i s f a t e d to miss and under­

She f a l l s s h o r t i n l i t t l e t h i n g s

l i k e b u n g l i n g t h e fram e-up o f t h e g u a r d s .

But she above a l l f a l l s

s h o r t i n t h e b i g t h i n g s —a s i n m is s in g th e d e p t h o f h e r h u s b a n d 's hopes a n d f e a r s .

She s u f f e r s much f o r h a v in g been t h u s b l i n d to

him; b u t she s u f f e r s most f o r h a v i n g been so b l i n d and f a l s e to herself.

I n the end, she pays a b i t t e r p r i c e f o r h e r b a n i s h i n g

o f moral d i s t i n c t i o n s , her t w i s t i n g o f human k in d n e s s i n t o r e b u k e , and h e r s a c r i f i c e o f h e r f e m i n i n i t y i n p a r t i c u l a r . e x c e s s i v e and a l m o s t i r r e p a r a b l e .

The damage i s

No more th a n Macbeth can she

278 move from d e s p a i r and rem orse t o f a i t h and r e p e n t a n c e . o n l y s t a n d t o b e b r o k e n and t o f a l l .

She can

The flam e o f s i n h a s s e a r e d

to o d e e p l y to p e r m i t t h e r e c o v e r y o f h e r s p i r i t .

Her l e s s o n i s

t h e l e s s o n o f m i s e r y , d a r k and p i t e o u s and deep:

"What need we

f e a r who knows i t , when none c a n e a l l o u r power t o a c c o u n t ?

Yet

who would have t h o u g h t t h e o l d man to have had so much b l o o d i n him?" The theme o f s e l f - d e f e a t i n g e v i l g o v e r n s t h e movement and s t r u c t u r e o f the p l o t as w e ll. "the so u l o f trag e d y ."

And a s A r i s t o t l e s a i d , t h e p l o t i s

The f i r s t movement o f t h e a c t i o n d r i v e s

s w i f t l y t o t h e dee d; t h e second movement c a r r i e s Macbeth, d r i v e n by r e m o r s e , hope, and f e a r , t o heap a c t upon a c t o f v i o l e n c e ; th e t h i r d a n d f i n a l movement i s t h e e n v e l o p i n g c a t a s t r o p h e , s w i f t , b r i l l i a n t , and c o m p le t e .

U n u s u a l ly minor a n d I n e f f e c t u a l i n t h i s

p l a y i s t h e o t h e r k in d o f movement c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f S h a k e s p e a r e a n d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y — t h e c o u n t e r - a c t i o n aimed a t r e s t o r i n g o r d e r w i t h i n t h e s t a t e a n d t h e r e a s s e r t i o n o f th e c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e w ith l i f e .

What d o m in a te s t h e end o f t h e t r a g e d y , no l e s s t h a n

i t s b e g i n n i n g and i t s m id d le , i s t h e s o l i t a r y f i g u r e o f Macbeth, alone w ith h is obsession.

S h a k e s p e a r e does g iv e c o n s i d e r a b l e

tim e a n d sp a c e t o t h e r i s e o f Macduff a s a k in d o f c o u n t e r t r a g i c h e r o , b u t he i s f o r t h e most p a r t c a r e f u l n o t t o b u i l d him up a s a r e a l l y im pressive c o u n te r-fo rc e .

The o n l y way to a c c o u n t f o r

t h i s p e c u l i a r f a c t o f s t r u c t u r e I s to remember t h e u n d e r l y i n g i n s i g h t i n t o t h e way e v i l i s n e g a t i v e and p a r a s i t i c i n c h a r a c t e r — namely e v i l w i l l be d e s t r o y e d n o t so much by good a s by I t s e l f , T h e r e f o r e Macbeth must be d e s t r o y e d by Macbeth, n o t by M acduff.

279 Macduff must n o t become a n e x t e r n a l agency o f goodness r i s i n g up to d e s t r o y e v i l .

Moreover, S h a k e s p e a r e i s v e r y c a r e f u l t o e x h i b i t

t h e way t h i s c o u n t e r - a c t i o n i s s e t i n motion and g a t h e r s f o r c e and momentum more from e v i l t h a n from good.

I t a r i s e s p r im a r il y be­

c a u s e M a c b e t h 's r e c k l e s s a c t s o f v i o l e n c e s e t l o o s e d i s o r d e r , f e a r , and I n s e c u r i t y i n t h e s t a t e .

The c o u n t e r - p l o t i s p r i m a r i l y

d o m in a te d by t h i s a c c e l e r a t i n g movement o f f e a r sweeping th r o u g h ­ o u t t h e kingdom, a movement t h a t i s s p r e a d i n i t i a l l y by e v i l . F i n a l l y t h e r e i s t h e la n g u a g e o f Macbeth— t h e s o u r c e and power o f i t s un iq u e i m a g i n a t i v e w o rl d .

A p a r t from t h e w o n d e r f u l

euphony, r im e , and rhythm o f t h e s o l i l o q u i e s ,

th e re i s the m aster­

f u l compound o f r e a l i s m , symbolism, a l l e g o r y , and f a n t a s y o f which th e Im agery c o n s i s t s .

I n s o f a r a s Macbeth i s shaped by e s s e n t i a l l y

C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g i c a l I n s i g h t s and i d e a s t h e g e n e r a l l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e i s symbolic; I n s o f a r a s Macbeth t e n d s tow ard s k e p t i c a l f a n t a s y o f a m e lo d ra m a t ic s o r t t h e method i s t h e method o f f a n t a s y . But t h e s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n o f im a g e ry i s a w o n d e r f u l compound o f a l l t h e many p o e t i c f u n c t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e — from t h e r e a l i s m o f t h e P o r t e r ' s k n o c k in g a t t h e g a t e , on t h e one hand, to t h e h y p e r b o l e o f t h e w i l d d i s o r d e r I n t h e s t a t e on t h e o t h e r . t e n s i f i e s , h eig h ten s, extends. p l a y would be l e s s g r e a t .

The im agery i n ­

A p a r t from i t s f u n c t i o n i n g , th e

Not o n l y would t h e p l a y w o rl d be l e s s

r e a l r a t h e r t h a n more r e a l t h a n a c t u a l i t y ; i t would be g r o t e s q u e w i t h t h e b lo o d y h o r r o r r e f l e c t e d b u t n o t i l l u m i n a t e d .

Nor i s t h e

p o e t i c im a g ery s e p a r a b l e from c h a r a c t e r , s i t u a t i o n , a n d theme. I n no o t h e r p l a y a r e c h a r a c t e r , p l o t , theme, and la n g u a g e so p e r ­ f e c t l y fused.

280 More g e n e r a l l y , the p a t t e r n o f t h e Imagery f u n c t i o n s i n two ways o r d i r e c t i o n s :

one moves outward to th e o r d e r o f n a t u r e

and the s t a t e ; t h e o t h e r moves inward to r e c o r d t h e s e n s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s to p r i v a t e h o r r o r s .

The imagery o f b o t h re a lm s come

t o g e t h e r i n term s o f t h e theme o f v i o l e n t , s t r a n g e , u n n a t u r a l , d e c e p t i v e , and s e n s e l e s s l y s e l f - d e f e a t i n g e v i l :

t h e r e i s th e

imagery o f f e a r a s im p a lp a b le , o f b lood a s c e a s e l e s s and f u t i l e i n i t s flo w , o f s l e e p l e s s n e s s and bad dreams, and th e se n s e o f time a s gone awry. S c h o l a r l y judgment g e n e r a l l y h o l d s t h a t Macbeth i s v e r y l i k e l y t h e l a s t - w r i t t e n of t h e f o u r g r e a t t r a g e d i e s . can have come a f t e r .

Only Lear

I t t h e r e f o r e comes d i r e c t l y b e f o r e Antony

and C l e o p a t r a , t h e p l a y t h a t c l o s e d t h e t r a g i c and opened t h e p e a c e f u l phase o f S h a k es p earea n drama, t h e tim e he a p p e a r s to have bee n a t th e h e i g h t o f h i s t h e o l o g i c a l and l i t e r a r y powers. I t i s n o t s t r a n g e t h e r e f o r e t h a t e v e ry element i n t h e p l a y should be shaped w i t h suc h e x t r a o r d i n a r y economy to a s i n g l e e f f e c t . S h a k e s p e a r e i s I n complete m a s te r y o f h i s medium and i t s r e s o u r c e s . Nor i s i t s t r a n g e t h a t t h e theme should e n a b le him to e x p r e s s one a s p e c t o f e v i l w i t h such overwhelming c l a r i t y and f o r c e .

Nor i s

i t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t we can a l r e a d y d i s c o v e r i n Macbeth, d e s p i t e i t s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h e v i l , s t i r r i n g s o f t h e f i n a l gaze upon the good.

Foreshadowings o f t h i s f i n a l v i s i o n a r e s t r o n g e r i n L e a r ,

and they b u r s t f o r t h i n t o even more a c t u a l g l o r y i n Antony and C leooatra.

And y e t t h e y b e g in to make th e m se lv e s f e l t even h e r e ,

a t t h e v e r y consummation o f h i s t r a g i c p h a s e .

A se n se o f a r a d i ­

ance t h a t can redeem l i f e , d e s p i t e i t s t r a g e d y and w i t h i n i t ,

281 breaks th r o u g h n o t o n ly upon t h e f a c e o f Duncan— p a s s i v e and h e l p ­ l e s s th ough h i s goodness b e —b u t w i t h i n t h e very r e c e s s e s o f M a c b e t h 's d a r k , damned and d e g r a d e d s o u l I t s e l f ,

T here I s a good­

n e s s a s w e l l a s an e v i l w i t h i n Macbeth t h a t i s d e n i e d o n l y w ith extrem e d i f f i c u l t y and i n t h e end w i t h s m a l l s u c c e s s .

This l a t e n t

flame o f goodness i s e x t i n g u i s h e d o n ly a f t e r i t has s e t l o o s e t h e working o f h a u n t i n g f e a r and g u i l t .

These f e e l i n g s r a v a g e and

d e s t r o y him a l m o s t a s d e e p l y a s th e o b s e s s i v e e v i l i t s e l f .

By

v i r t u e o f t h i s d r i v i n g com punction and r e m o r s e , goodness may be s a i d t o make a d e c i s i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n to h i s f a l l .

For t h e b e a u t y

o f Duncan s t r i k e s som e thing w i t h i n Macbeth t h a t makes him a c h e and cry o u t.

T h is s o m e th in g , c a l l i t c o n s c i e n c e o r t h e i n n e r l i g h t i f

you w i l l , w i l l n o t l e t h i s o b s e s s e d i m a g i n a t i o n r e s t .

Duncan

s h i n e s w i t h a b r i l l i a n c e t h a t f o r c e s i t s way i n t o t h e d a r k e s t r e c e s s e s o f M a c b e t h 's s o u l t o f i n d something k i n d r e d t h e r e t h a t c a n n o t be d e n i e d .

A lth o u g h Duncan i s c u t down and c a n n o t r i s e

a g a i n , and a l t h o u g h f o r c e s o f goodness f a l l t o r i s e i n h i s name w i t h any i m p r e s s i v e f o r c e , n o n e t h e l e s s goodness does come a g a i n . The c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e , which i n c l u d e s e v i l no l e s s t h a n good, c o n v u l s i v e l y d r i v e s o u t e v i l w i t h e v i l more f o r c i b l y t h a n good. And y e t t h e f i n a l s t o r y i s t h a t e v i l i s d e s t r o y e d more c e r t a i n l y i n t h e end.

Goodness a l o n e s u r v i v e s , and w i t h a p rom ise o f r e n e w a l . Antony and C l e o p a t r a

A. C. B r a d l e y does n o t I n c l u d e Antony and C l e o p a t r a i n h i s monumental s t u d y o f t h e s u b s t a n c e o f S h a k e s p e a r e a n t r a g e d y . O t h e l l o . M acbeth. H am let, and King Lear a r e t h e r e , b u t no Antony and C l e o p a t r a .

282 F o r t h i s o m is s io n t h e r e i s some j u s t i f i c a t i o n .

However,

I do n o t t h i n k th e r e a s o n i s t h e one t h a t B r a d le y g i v e s — t h e f e e l ­ i n g t h a t Antony and C l e o p a t r a do not f u l l y a r o u s e o u r sympathy o r adm iration.

Too s t r o n g a case can be made f o r t h e t r a g i c c h a r ­

a c t e r o f t h a t l o v e t o go a l o n g w i t h B radley h e r e . The r e a s o n r e s i d e s r a t h e r i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s p l a y comes a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f i n a l p hase o f S h akespearean d r a m a t i c trag ed y . .

I n t h a t f i n a l phase he speaks not so much o f t r a g i c

d i s c o r d a s he does o f p e a c e f u l harmony.

Antony and C l e o p a t r a

announces t h i s mood o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h l i f e , an u n d i s t u r b e d p r e o c c u p a t i o n w ith t h e e s s e n t i a l goodness o f l i f e , f i n e s The Tempest and the o t h e r l a t e r p l a y s .

t h a t a l s o de­

This mood i s c e r ­

t a i n l y something e l s e a g a i n from t h e p r e v a i l i n g doom o f t h e t r a g i c p h a s e , where t h e atm osp here and t o n e i s p r e d o m in a n tly d a r k , and p i t i f u l , and deep.

This element o f r i p e n i n g i s c r u c i a l f o r any

a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s u b s t a n c e o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s t h e o l o g y . I n h i s th e o l o g y t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n i s o n l y an e le m e n t, a n a s p e c t or a phase.

B e fo re t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n t h e r e was the h e r o i c v i s i o n

o f P r i n c e H al, and a f t e r t h e r e i s t h i s v i s i o n o f p e a c e .

B r a d le y

i s t h e r e f o r e j u s t i f i e d i n o m i t t i n g Antony and C l e o p a t r a from a s tu d y o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s d i s t i n c t i v e l y t r a g i c v i s i o n o r v i s i o n o f tragedy. T his f i n a l phase can a l s o be f e l t i n King L e a r .

For

King L ea r s t a n d s a t t h e c e n t e r o f S h a k e s p e a r e ’ s development. lo o k s b o t h backward and fo rw a r d .

It

The t r a g i c p hase and t h e p e a c e ­

f u l p h a s e l i t e r a l l y r e v o l v e a b o u t i t and w i t h i n i t .

There i s on

th e one hand a t r a g i c p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n o f t h e most

283 v i o l e n t and d r e a d f u l k in d .

Good ap p e a ra n c e s a r e r u t h l e s s l y

s t r i p p e d away, u n t i l on ly a d a r k and naked r e a l i t y r e m a in s. On th e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s a se n se o f uncanny detachment from t r a g i c l o s s , an a t t a c h m e n t to t h e s t u f f o f l i f e t h a t goes beyond t r a g e d y even a s i t goes th rough and p a r t l y becau se i t has p a s s e d th ro u g h i t —a r a d i a n t r e a l i t y t h a t i n t u r n b r e a k s t h e s h e l l o f dark appearance.

L e a r ’ s h e a r t c r a c k s , b u t i t c r a c k s i n t h e end

a s much from unspeakable joy f o r t h e f u l l n e s s o f l i f e a s from un­ b e a r a b l e agony f o r t h e em ptiness and d e s p a i r o f i t . I f t h i s r i s i n g sense o f t h e f u l l n e s s and r i c h n e s s o f l i f e , t h i s n o te o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and embrace, w i t h i n , a f t e r and beyond t r a g e d y , i s p a r t l y a s t i r i n Macbeth, comes more markedly to t h e f o r e i n King L ea r, i n Antony and C l e o p a t ra i t b u r s t s f o r t h i n t o a c tu a l glory.

I t h i n k you can r e a l l y come to terms w i t h i t s

s i g n i f i c a n c e only t h e r e .

And i t demands e n c o u n t e r .

O th e rw ise ,

you s t a n d I n danger o f u n d e r e s t i m a t i n g how i n t e g r a l t h i s r e a s s e r t l o n o f th e h e a r t was to S h a k e s p e a r e 's t h e o l o g i c a l v i s i o n , how c o m p le te ly I t was a q u ic k e n in g and deepening and n o t a t a l l a s l a c k e n i n g o r a s h a llo w in g o f h i s p r o b in g i n t o l i f e .

I t may be

p o s s i b l e to a rg u e t h a t The Tempest, o r the o t h e r l a t e r p l a y s l i k e Cymbellne o r The W i n t e r ’s T a le , r e f l e c t the s e n t i m e n t a l mellowness o f o l d age ( a lth o u g h t h i s argument must o f n e c e s s i t y miss the t r a g i c undertow t h a t p e r s i s t s even t h e r e ) .

You can a l s o a r g u e i f

you w ish t h a t t h e h a r v e s t o f peace merely c a n c e l s out and f o r g e t s the h a r v e s t o f t r a g e d y even h e r e .

But I t h i n k t h a t i n King Lear

and i n Antony and C l e o p a t r a Shakespeare i s s t i l l u n q u e s tio n a b l y a t t h e peak o f h i s powers.

You c o n f r o n t t h e f i e r c e n e s s o f t r a g e d y

284 undimmed, and y e t a s c o n j o i n e d now w i t h a s s e a r i n g a v i s i o n o f radiance as w ell.

You f e e l u n d e n ia b ly t h a t S hakespeare was a b l e

to say yes to l i f e , even a s he s t o o d deep i n t r a g e d y — t h a t t h e r e was a r a d i a n c e a t t h e h e a r t o f l i f e t h a t r e f u s e d to have th e l a s t and f i n a l word r e s i d e w i t h t r a g i c d e s p a i r , an e n e rg y , a v i t a l i t y , a power o f goodness t h a t p r o c l a i m s t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n t o be p a r t i a l i n i t s d e s c r i p t i o n o f what i n f a c t goes i n l i f e .

You can I g n o r e

t h i s r e a f f i r m a t i o n o f t h e h e a r t , t h i s r e a s s e r t i o n of a fundam ental sympathy w i t h l i f e , o n l y a t th e p e r i l o f l i s t e n i n g to on ly p a r t o f th e s t o r y t o l d by one whom Joyc e has s a i d to have “c r e a t e d o n ly l e s s th a n God.*

Antony and C l e o p a t r a , w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , s p r i n g s

from e x p e r i e n c e m a s t e r e d — b o t h from s u f f e r i n g and from j o y .

It

t h e r e b y has a s p ro fo u n d a c l a im to be r e v e a l i n g a s t h e o t h e r major trag e d ies. Nor i s t h i s m erely a q u e s t i o n o f o p p o sin g what S hakespeare f e l t t o be th e s u b s t a n c e o f l i f e i n g e n e r a l o r i n t h e end a s o v e r a g a i n s t what he f e l t to be th e s u b s t a n c e o f t r a g e d y a s an a s p e c t o f l i f e o r a s t a g e on l i f e ' s way I n p a r t i c u l a r .

For t h e n , you

would have to l e a v e o u t not o n l y Antony and C l e o p a t r a b u t a l s o a n a l o g o u s e lem e n ts i n King Lear a s b e i n g beyond th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f S h ak esp eare's s t r i c t l y t r a g i c v is io n .

F u rth e rm o re you would

f a l l j u s t s h o r t o f h a v i n g to say t h a t t h e argument f o r l e a v i n g Antony and C l e o p a t r a o u t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s o f a p i e c e w i t h th e argument f o r p u t t i n g t h e comedies to one s i d e .

A ctually, th is

r i s i n g se n s e o f a r i p e n e s s a t t h e h e a r t o f l i f e i s p a r t o f the tra g ic vision. whole.

I t i s not sim ply something added o r a l a r g e r

I t i s not j u s t an a f f i r m a t i o n beyond t r a g e d y o r a s e n t i -

285 m ental y e a r n i n g t o deny t r a g e d y .

Q uite o t h e r w i s e , t h i s v i s i o n

o f peace r e t a i n s w i t h i n i t s e l f a v i s i o n o f t r a g e d y a s deep a s t h e one e l a b o r a t e d i n t h e major d r a m a t i c t r a g e d i e s .

Namely, i t I s

dominated by a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t th e world can g iv e b i r t h t o p e r f e c ­ t i o n s too p e r f e c t f o r th e i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f t h i s w orld to s t a n d . As l o n g a s the world p r o d u c e s — even a s i t must d e s t r o y — such g r e a t ­ n e s s we can s t a y and embrace l i f e , f o r the b i r t h and r e b i r t h a r e as f i n a l f a c ts as the p erish in g .

The f i r m n e s s w i t h which Shakes­

p e a r e h o l d s t h e b a l a n c e between h i s v i s i o n s o f t r a g e d y and o f peace p r o v id e a b e a u t i f u l d e m o n s tr a ti o n of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o l o g i ­ c a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e goodness o f l i f e and w i t h t h e so u r c e o f t h a t goodness can deepen, n o t a t r o p h y o r s e n t i m e n t a l i z e your se n se o f t r a g i c l o s s .

For even a s Shakespeare e n v i s a g e s and i n ­

vokes a r e a l i t y and a power t h a t can tr a n s m u te and redeem l o s s , he s t i l l i n s i s t s upon t h e l o s s n o n e t h e l e s s . sequences o f s i n re m a in undimmed.

Tragedy and t h e con­

But a s we shun l i f e f o r i t s

t r a g e d y we have to s e e k i t f o r i t s r a d i a n c e .

This r e a s s e r t l o n

o f th e h e a r t r e n d e r s t r a g e d y s u f f e r a b l e by c o n j o i n i n g a se n se o f l i f e ' s b e a u ty w i t h a se nse o f l i f e ' s t e r r o r . T his d o u b le n e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n f in d s docum entation i n the f a c t t h a t Antony and C l e o p a t r a i s t h e l a s t o f th e Roman h i s t o r i c a l t r a g e d i e s and t h e f i r s t o f th e l a t e r p l a y s .

That i s ,

i t I s the

l a s t p l a y p r e o c c u p ie d w i t h t r a g i c l o s s born o f moral and s o c i a l c o n f l i c t , and t h e f i r s t announcing th e power o f a v i t a l i t y which t r a n s c e n d s t h a t c o n f l i c t t o d e c l a r e t h a t t h e problem a s to who i s I n o r o u t a s k in g i s n o t what m a t t e r s most.

What has gone between

them i s t h e d ark and d e s p e r a t e p r o b i n g o f inward s p i r i t u a l a n g u i s h

286 t e a r i n g t h e i n n e r more t h a n t h e o u t e r w orld a p a r t . T r a g i c l o s s on th e s o c i a l dim e nsion makes I t s e l f f e l t i n t h e i m p e r i a l theme o f A n t o n y 's demise a s a w orld f i g u r e , and r e d em p tio n o f t h a t t r a g e d y on th e I n d i v i d u a l d im e n sion i s p r o j e c t e d i n t h e theme o f Antony and C l e o p a t r a ' s l o v e .

Only t h e d e s p e r a t e l y t o r n i n n e r

s p i r i t u a l c o n f l i c t —pro b ed I n t h e f o u r major t r a g e d i e s — i s m is s­ ing here.

I t had to b e , f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t S hakespeare h as

moved on to c o n s i d e r o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t r a g e d y and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e i r re d e m p tio n . s t a l k g r im ly even h e r e .

And y e t t h e s t a r k r e a l i t i e s o f t h a t p hase The s p i r i t u a l p o v e r t y o f e v e r y t h i n g and

e v e ry o n e —a p a r t from the theme o f lo v e and t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h a t l o v e — echo t h e t r a p p e d d e s p a i r and h o llo w n e ss o f M a c b e th 's v i s i o n o f l i f e ' s p e t t y p a c e ; t h e d i s i l l u s i o n t h a t came to Lear o u t upon t h e h e a t h ; t h e w e a r i n e s s o f H am let’ s " s t e r i l e p ro m o n to ry "; and t h e l i v i n g d e a t h la g o h e l p e d c r e a t e f o r O t h e l l o , t h e theme o f lo v e has i t s element o f s q u a l o r .

And even

A kind o f b i t t e r

d i s i l l u s i o n p e r v a d e s even i t —a g i f t from t h a t p a s t to t h i s p r e s e n t . The b e s t way to u n d e r s ta n d the i n n e r c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e o f Antony and C l e o p a t r a i s to keep i n mind t h a t two fundam ental i n s i g h t s — one t r a g i c and t h e o t h e r r e d e m p tiv e — g iv e r i s e t o i t s creation.

Both govern and shape i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n .

p r e s e n t i n th e f i n a l e f f e c t .

And each i s

On t h e one hand, t h e r e i s t h e d e e p ly

t r a g i c r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t men have a way o f becoming too gran d , too n o b l e , too i n t e n s e and v i v i d f o r t h e world to c o n t a i n t h e i r energy and m a i n t a i n i t s o r d e r t o o .

On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s t h e

e q u a l l y f i n a l r e a l i s a t i o n t h a t t h i s v e r y e n e rg y o f l i f e has a goodness t h a t can redeem t h e t r a g i c l o s s .

287 The development o f t h i s double theme g i v e s th e p l o t s t r u c ­ t u r e o f t h i s p l a y a v e r y s p e c i a l symmetry.

The o p p o s i t i o n and

i n t e r p l a y o f c h a r a c t e r s a r e d e f i n e d n o t so much by c o n t r a s t i n g m o t i v e s , ca u g h t I n a mesh o f moral and r e l i g i o u s a m b i g u i t y , a s th e y a r e by c o n t r a s t i n g f o r c e s .

There i s t h e power o f t h e Empire

w h e re in o r d e r w i l l r e q u i r e A n to n y ’ s p u b l i c d e f e a t by C a e s a r, and t h e r e i s t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f Antony f o r C l e o p a t r a t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e w orld o f Egypt and t h e E a s t w hich w i l l b r i n g on h i s p r i v a t e tr iu m p h . These two themes d r i v e t h e c o m p l i c a t e d movement o f t h e p l a y ' s a c ­ t i o n s w i f t l y to and f r o , w i t h a k in d o f ebb and flow , u n t i l th e i n e x o r a b l e p a t h o f s o c i a l n e c e s s i t y b r i n g s to an end one h a l f o f t h e movement.

A n t o n y ' s d e f e a t t h e r e b y b r i n g s to a c l o s e t h e u s u a l

movement o f a d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y ' s a c t i o n from c r i s i s t h r o u g h c a t a s ­ trophe.

But t h e theme o f l o v e , p a r t i a l l y submerged by t h e o u t e r

p r e s s u r e s o f t h e I m p e r i a l theme and moving i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , a t a n o t h e r l e v e l , and a t a d i f f e r i n g tempo, sudden ly b u r s t s f o r t h to f u l l c o n t r o l o f t h e s t a g e .

I n s t e a d o f th e u s u a l r i s e and f a l l

o f t h e a c t i o n to more o r l e s s r e m o r s e l e s s and i r r e v e r s i b l e c a t a s ­ t r o p h e , w i t h o n l y an upward t w i s t a t th e end to r e a s s e r t th e con­ t i n u i t y o f l i f e w i t h l i f e , you have a r i s e , a f a l l , and t h e n a s u s t a i n e d r i s e upward t h a t does n o t f a l l b u t sim ply ends w ith death.

And i n te rm s o f i n n e r s p i r i t u a l meaning even d e a t h becomes

a s o r t o f a c t o f l i f e , n o t so much a m a t t e r o f d i s s o l u t i o n a s i t i s a m a tte r o f renew al.

A n t o n y 's p u b l i c g r a n d e u r i s f o r c e f u l l y

d e g r a d e d , o n ly to have a p r i v a t e m a g n ific e n c e r a i s e t h e a c t i o n to a s t i l l more noble p i t c h .

C l e o p a t r a i s r u d e l y f r u s t r a t e d and

b l o c k e d by eve ry a t t e m p t to r e s c u e h e r l i f e from A n t o n y 's f a l l ,

288 o n l y t o d i s c o v e r i n d e a t h t h e o n l y way o u t o f h e r t r a p — a s o r t o f t r i u m p h t h a t l i f t s h e r a l s o from s m a l l to l a r g e r t e r m s . Macbeth and Hamlet a r e c a u g h t and f i n d no way o u t .

O thello,

Bat Antony and

C l e o p a t r a a r e c a u g h t a n d b e a t e n , o n l y to r i s e a g a i n .

The o n l y way

t h i s s t r u c t u r e becomes i n t e l l i g i b l e i s i n te r m s o f t h e d o u b l e n e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n t h a t g i v e s r i s e to i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n . The f i r s t i n s i g h t , embodied i n t h e i m p e r i a l theme, s t a t e s a c o n f l i c t o f power w i t h i n a w o rl d s t a t e whose im p o r ta n c e r e q u i r e s t h e d e f e a t o f Antony and y e t endows t h a t d e f e a t w i t h a m a g n i f i c e n c e t h a t a s s u r e s h i e p r i v a t e tr i u m p h .

The u rg en cy o f t h e c o n f l i c t

p r o j e c t e d w i t h i n t h e s t a t e c a n n o t be e x a g g e r a t e d .

Shakespeare

employs images o f g i g a n t i c s i z e a n d sweep t o d r a m a t i s e t h e t r e ­ mendous p r e s s u r e and d e c i s i v e n e s s o f t h i s c o n f l i c t .

We s e n s e a n

u n p r e c e d e n t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power, t h e l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f power e v e r to o c c u r i n human

h isto ry .

We s e n s e t h e t r a g e d y

o f A n t o n y ' s l o s s a s i t s g r e a t l e a d e r even a s we s e n s e more d e e p l y the h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y f o r i t . s o c ia l value i s p reserv ed . for so ciety .

A human v a l u e i s l o s t b u t a

A n tony's d e s t r u c t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l

O c t a v i u s , n o t A ntony, i s t h e p r o t a g o n i s t o f s o c i a l

d e s t i n y , f o r A n t o n y ' s i m p u l s i v e n e s s b r i n g s on o n l y a n i n s t a b i l i t y th e o r d e r o f t h e s t a t e s im p ly c a n n o t a f f o r d o r s t a n d . needed A n t o n y ' s sym bolic g r a n d e u r . ment and s e r v i c e t h e more now. s o c ia l peace.

The s t a t e

But i t needs O c t a v i u s ' ju d g ­

He i s more t r u l y t h e a g e n t o f

A trem endous h i s t o r i c a l n e c e s s i t y r e q u i r e s A n t o n y 's

dem ise— t h e a d v e n t o f u n i v e r s a l p e a c e i s to o heavy a p r i c e f o r t h e w o rld to pay o r f o r Antony to sq u a n d e r.

The t r a g e d y i s t h a t

A n tony's d e s t r u c t i o n i s s o c i e t y ' s lo s s a s w e ll a s s o c i e t y ' s gain .

289 The c h o i c e i s not between good and e v i l so much a s i t two k i n d s o f good.

C a e sa r i s i n one

i s between

se n s e t h e l a r g e r good.

judgment and c i r c u m s p e c t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l .

His

He i s a b l e t o manipu­

l a t e t h e f o r c e s o f one h a l f t h e w o rld i n s e r v i c e o f t h e l a r g e r p art.

He embodies a c o l d , c a l c u l a t i n g r a t i o n a l i t y t h a t s u b s e r v e s

i t s own b r i l l i a n c e to th e i m p e r s o n a l s t a t e c r a f t o f t h e s t a t e . i n a l a r g e r s e n s e , Antony i s t h e l a r g e r good.

But

I f Caesar c o n tr o ls

o n e - h a l f t h e w o rl d , Antony .is o n e - h a l f th e w o rld .

His p e r s o n a l

g r a n d e u r f u l f i l l s s o c i e t y even a s i t s s p o n t a n e i t y and r e s t l e s s n e s s s p e l l s o c i e t y ' s doom. t h a t must be c o r r e c t e d .

There i s a g e n e r a l i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e s t a t e Antony p r o v e s c o m p le t e ly i n c a p a b l e o f

e n v i s a g i n g h i s s t a t e s m a n s h i p i n t h e name o f t h a t u n i t y .

F or he

cannot p u t the l a r g e r s e t t i n g o f the s t a t e ' s requirem ents b efo re h i s own.

He se e k s t o govern by v i r t u e o f s h e e r p e r s o n a l f o r c e .

And y e t , f o r a l l t h i s he i s t h e l i v i n g embodiment o f t h e E m p i r e ' s g r e a t n e s s i n a way C a esa r i s n o t and The e s s e n c e o f t h i s c o n f l i c t

can n e v e r be. comes o u t i n t h e d r a m a t i c

b a n q u e t s c e n e , where t h e s o c i a l t e n s i o n r i s e s to t h e b r e a k i n g p o in t.

There i s a s h a r p o p p o s i t i o n o f l e a d e r a g a i n s t l e a d e r .

In

t h e c o n f l i c t s o c i e t y f o r c e s I t s r e s o l u t i o n th r o u g h t h e hand o f C a esa r a t th e c o s t o f Antony.

L e p i d u s ' w e a k n e ss, whereby he be­

comes a mere pawn i n th e middle o f t h e c h e s s b o a r d , i s l i t e r a l l y ground i n t h e "jaw s" o f w orld power.

His r i d i c u l o u s weakness c a s t s

l i g h t by c o n t r a s t upon t h e tremendous power C aesar and Antony j o i n t l y w i e l d —and th e c o n t r a s t i n k in d o f power t h e y p o s s e s s . Reduced to a clown by h i s in a d e q u a c y , L epidus n o n e t h e l e s s p l a y s up th e l a t e n t c o n f l i c t a t i s s u e .

His I n c o n g r u i t y a c c e n t u a t e s the

290 e s s e n t i a l i n c o n g r u i t y o f t h e l a r g e r s i t u a t i o n i n which a l l must stand. deepens

L ik e w is e , Pompey's a p p a r e n t and y e t n o t r e a l b i d f o r power our sense o f am biguity.

Only C a e s a r and Antony c a l power.

Pompey can o n ly t u r n to d r i n k .

behave i n a way symbolic o f a c t u a l p o l i t i ­

Antony i s s p o n ta n e o u s and r e l a x e d , c o n j o i n i n g h e r o is m

and s h r e w d n e s s .

And y e t h i s h e a r t i s n o t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n .

His

h e a r t , h i s e n e rg y , and h i s l i f e a r e e l s e w h e r e — i n E gypt—and h i s m a g n if i c e n c e does n o t r e v o l v e a r o u n d o r t u r n upon t h e i s s u e a s to w h e th e r he i s p o l i t i c a l l y i n o r o u t a s k i n g . and b u s i n e s s - l i k e .

But C a e sa r i s c o o l

He i s t h e man o f t h e h o u r , s e n s i t i v e to and

d i s t u r b e d by t h e I n s t a b i l i t y o f a s t a t e t h a t p e r m i t s l e a d e r s to r e v e l so w h i l e men work and I t s v e r y o r d e r I s i n p e r i l and a t stake.

And y e t C a e s a r ' s own s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r must n o t be

underrated.

S h a k e s p e a r e does not t e a r C a e sa r down i n o r d e r to

b u i l d up Antony.

C a e s a r t a k e s on a n i m p r e s s i v e d i g n i t y i n t h i s

scene t h a t i s a l l h i s own.

I t r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n kind o f g r e a t­

n e s s to survey so d i s o r d e r e d a sc ene w i t h such d i s p a s s i o n a t e n e s s and l a c k o f s e l f - r i g h t e o u s n e s s . The end l i e s c o n c e a l e d i n t h i s b e g i n n i n g .

C a e sa r i s th e

more p a l e and r a t i o n a l ; Antony t h e more s p o n ta n e o u s and a l i v e . P e r s o n a l power w i l l have to g iv e way b e f o r e i m p e r s o n a l power. Only C a e s a r can e n v i s a g e the d r i f t o f t h i n g s to come tow ard t h e "tim e o f u n i v e r s a l p e a c e " and implement I t s r e a l i s a t i o n .

Antony

w i l l be d e f e a t e d i n th e o u t e r p u b l i c w orld by t h e w orking o f s o c i a l n e c e s s i t i e s o f which C a e s a r i s t h e r e s p o n s i b l e i n s t r u m e n t and s l a v e . And y e t why i s Antony d e f e a t e d ?

One t h e o r y i s t h a t he had

291 a f la w o r weakness t h a t chose l o v e when l o v e c o n f l i c t e d w i t h honor.

The m a t t e r i s more s u b t l e and S h a k e s p e a r e makes i t so .

I f t h i s theme o f t h e w orld w e l l o r i l l l o s t f o r l o v e had been th e whole s t o r y , A n to n y ’ s p o l i t i c a l d e f e a t would have i n v o l v e d p e r ­ sonal d e fe a t as w ell. sonal degradation.

P u b l i c h u m i l i a t i o n would have meant p e r ­

But th e d e c i s i v e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l

c o n f l i c t a t t h i s l o s s i s f o l l o w e d im m e d ia te ly by a p r i v a t e r e s o l u ­ tio n th a t i s h is gain.

T his redeems h i s l o s s .

Antony had been

o s c i l l a t i n g between t h e p o l i t i c a l and t h e p r i v a t e from t h e p l a y ' s opening.

The movement o f t h e p l o t i s one lo n g p o l a r i t y o f a t t r a c ­

t i o n and r e p u l s i o n . b a c k to E gypt, liv ed ,

P a s s i o n f i n a l l y has i t s way.

Antony r u s h e s

But t h i s o u t e r h u m i l i a t i o n i s a b r u p t a n d s h o r t ­

Antony i s i n f a c t d i g n i f i e d , calm, and n o b le a s h i s f o r t u n e s

go to p i e c e s .

U n lik e O t h e l l o o r Macbeth he n e v e r l o s e s c o n t r o l

of h is fa c u ltie s .

I n h i s f i n a l r e c o n c i l i a t i o n sc ene w i t h C l e o p a t r a

he i s a b l e to r e a f f i r m h i s t r u s t i n t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p , p r e s s e s , f u l f i l l s a n d renews h i s e l e m e n t a l v i t a l i t y .

f o r i t ex­ I n t h i s , he

had l o v e d b o t h w i s e l y and w e l l . The q u a l i t y o f t h i s l o v e must n o t be I d e a l i s e d , human a n d ambiguous enough.

His lo v e f o r C l e o p a t r a c a l l s f o r t h

a c u r i o u s m i n g l i n g o f a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n . a y o u th fu l o r rom antic b u t a d i s i l l u s i o n e d lo v e. P la to n ic about i t .

I t Is

We have h e r e n o t There i s n o t h i n g

I t i s fra n k ly sexual in i t s f a s c in a tio n .

t h i n g i s to be p o s s e s s e d .

Some­

And y e t i t i s more th a n m e re ly s e n s u a l .

For i t i s t h e b a s i s f o r A n t o n y ' s h e r o i c s t a t u r e .

I t i n c r e a s e s our

se n s e o f a d m i r a t i o n f o r and com passion w i t h him.

Nor does Shake**

s p e a r e e v e r p e r m i t us to l o s e s i g h t o f i t s s o c i a l a s w e l l a s p r i v a t e

292 grandeur,

A n t o n y ' s p e r s o n a l g r e a t n e s s — a g r e a t n e s s t h a t Is, o n e -

h a l f t h e w o rld — i n v o l v e s t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s th e f u l f i l l m e n t o f h i m s e l f . he has p o s s e s s e d .

He has d e s e r v e d a l l t h e a l l e g i a n c e

Moreover, u n l i k e C a e s a r , t h i s a l l e g i a n c e has

been a f u n c t i o n o f t h e b r i l l i a n c e o f h i s p e r s o n a l l i f e r a t h e r t h a n a f u n c t i o n o f h i s r o l e a s a n I n s t r u m e n t and s e r v a n t .

In h is

personal l i f e ,

In re­

s o c i e t y has found I t s supreme a c h i e v e m e n t .

l a t i o n s h i p to C l e o p a t r a , Antony d i d much more th a n throw away h i s power and p u t h i s i n d i v i d u a l good b e f o r e t h e common good.

His

w eakness i s h i s s t r e n g t h — t h a t v e r y v i t a l i t y upon which t h i s power r e s t s .

With C l e o p a t r a Antony had sim p ly l i v e d more f u l l y

t h a n a t any o t h e r t i m e ,

His l o v e i s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s Rome; and

h e r l o v e i s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s E g y p t, The theme o f l o v e sh a p e s t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of C l e o p a t r a ' s c h a r a c t e r , and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e p l o t , no l e s s f u l l y t h a n A n to n y 's.

Her l o v e i s a lo v e t h a t w i l l n o t be d e n i e d .

I t sweeps

p a s t e v e r y f r u s t r a t i o n , even d e a t h , to i n s i s t upon i t s f u l f i l l m e n t . The end f o r C l e o p a t r a , a s f o r Antony, I s s a c r i f i c e . f e a t e d i n h e r moral s t r u g g l e and she d i e s . comes n o t

60

She i s de­

But h e r e t h e f a i l u r e

much from I n n e r weakness a s from i n n e r s t r e n g t h ,

n o t so much from a m oral d e f e c t o r e x c e s s a s from a su p e ra b u n d an ce o f a m o r a l l y i n t e n s i f i e d energy t h a t t r a n s c e n d s moral i s s u e s by I t s v e r y e n e rg y .

And h e r s a c r i f i c e , a l t h o u g h s t i l l f a i l u r e and

a s a c r i f i c e , p r o v i d e s a k in d o f triu m p h a s w e l l — a consummation i n te rm s o f what i s g r e a t a b o u t h e r . e n t to m o r a ls and s t i l l be s a v e d .

She can be a b i t i n d i f f e r ­

T h is r e s i l i e n c e f o l l o w s upon

h e r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s o u r c e s of en e rg y t h a t c o n t a i n m o r a l i t y b u t

293 a r e not c o n t a i n e d by i t .

She e a r n s and d e s e r v e s h e r t r a n s c e n d e n c e

o f m o r a l i t y f o r she e x p r e s s e s a form o f e n e r g y t h a t I s l e s s s p e c i a l a n d t h e r e f o r e i n a p o s i t i o n to ju d g e i t . However, i t i s i m p o r t a n t to i n s i s t t h a t S h a k e s p e a r e ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C l e o p a t r a ' s l o v e f o r Antony i s not s e n t i m e n t a l . He f i r m l y h o l d s a b a l a n c e o f p e r c e p t i o n t h a t aim s a t s e e i n g t h a t lo v e a s n o t h i n g l e s s and n o t h i n g more t h a n what i t i n f a c t i s . He i s a s c a r e f u l to make no c l a i m s f o r i t s p u r e n o b i l i t y an d d i s ­ i n t e r e s t e d n e s s a s he i s to a v o i d a s u n f a i r c h a r g e s c o n c e r n i n g i t s ignoble, re p u ls iv e o r e g o is tic q u a lity .

In a sense, her love i n ­

v o l v e s b o t h b e a u t y and m i s e r y , a s a s p e c t s o r s i d e s o f i t s n a t u r e . F or C l e o p a t r a i s d e e p l y human, a n d t h e r e b y a compound o f " f a i r and f o u l . "

On t h e o t h e r hand, h e r l o v e i s n e i t h e r f a i r o r f o u l

I n a n o r d i n a r y way, f o r i t i s above a l l e x c e p t i o n a l i n i t s

scope.

I t i s n e i t h e r common I n a n a r r o w l y v u l g a r way, nor uncommon i n a s e l f l e s s d e v o t e d way. T h is p o i n t can f i n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n i n t h e way S h a k e s p e a r e h a n d l e s t h e s e x u a l e le m e n t i n C l e o p a t r a ' s r e l a t i o n to A ntony. He l e t s n o t h i n g s t a n d i n t h e way o f d e p i c t i n g i t a s c r u c i a l . There i s n o t h i n g P l a t o n i c a b o u t h i s l o v e . v e r y marrow o f i t .

S e x u a lity i s o f the

Not even t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s hamper him—

t h e f a c t t h a t C l e o p a t r a had to b e p l a y e d upon h i s s t a g e b y , o f a l l t h i n g s , a boy.

He makes c a p i t a l ou t o f t h i s v e r y l i m i t a t i o n ,

i n g r e l e a s e r a t h e r t h a n r e s t r i c t i o n w i t h i n i t s b o u n d s.

find­

The dynamic

e f f e c t o f d i a l o g u e a n d t h e p o e t i c im agery o f t h e mind makes up f o r and goes f a r beyond w hat t h e s t a t i c e f f e c t o f c o u n t e n a n c e , g e s t u r e o r s c e n e t a k e n a l o n e c o u l d have a f f o r d e d .

The s e x u a l s o u r c e ,

c e n t e r a n d end o f h e r l o v e i s c l e a r e r t h i s way t h a n by d i r e c t

294 encounter.

I f Antony and C l e o p a t r a ca n n o t be l i t e r a l I n t h e i r

b e h a v i o r on t h e s t a g e , t h e y can be even more e x p l i c i t t h r o u g h t h e e y e s a n d words o f o t h e r s :

t h e baudy t a l k o f C l e o p a t r a ' s

m aids; t h e s a t u r a t e d s e n s u a l i t y o f E n o b a r b u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f C l e o p a t r a i n t h e b a r g e ; t h e f r e q u e n t co m p ariso n s o f C l e o p a t r a to t h e N i l e , r i g h t down to i t s ooze and s l i m e , u n c h a s t e l y a s w e l l a s r i c h l y w et. pressive.

But a l l t h i s baudy t a l k i s n o t r e p u l s i v e o r op­

A s e n s e o f tremendous s e x u a l e n e r g y a n d power comes

through i t — not a sense o f sexual p e r v e r s it y o r excess.

The N ile

i s n o t s im p ly w e t.

I t over­

I t i s a l s o th e source o f f e r t i l i t y .

f lo w s w i t h r e c r e a t i v e s t r e n g t h .

C l e o p a t r a n e v e r becomes r e p u l s i v e

in the play— u n n atu ral or p e rv e rte d in her se x u ality o r s e n s u a lity . Her s e n s u a l i t y i s t o t a l , n o t a n o v e r - r e f i n e m e n t o f one a s p e c t o f h er n a tu re a t the c o s t of a n o th e r.

Her s e n s u o u s n e s s i s more

l a r g e l y an e x p r e s s i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g she i s , and o f a l l t h a t l i f e is fo r her.

I t s y m b o l iz e s t h e I n t e n s i t y and s p a c i o u s n e s s o f t h a t

embrace— above a l l i t s u n a f f e c t e d and u n b l u s h i n g c h a r a c t e r .

She

c o u l d n o t l e a r n t h e meaning o f t h e word r e t r e a t , f o r she i s alw a y s on t h e a t t a c k — s a u n t e r i n g f o r t h b o l d l y , n o t b a u d i l y , she s e e k s and what she knows w i l l f u l f i l l h e r .

to t a k e what

Nor I s she a mere

p a r a s i t e , s u c k i n g t h e l i f e - b l o o d o f Antony i n t h e name o f some de­ praved d e s ir e . plenishes,

She g i v e s even a s she t a k e s .

she r e f r e s h e s h i s l i f e

She r e n e w s, she r e ­

even a s he I n t e n s i f i e s h e r own.

As a s h e e r s e n s u a l i s t , she would have l o s t h e r s e l f i n wanton o r g i e s long s in c e .

They would have s t r i p p e d h e r o f h e r r i c h n e s s and o v e r ­

whelmed h e r v i t a l i t y w i t h boredom o r v i o l e n c e . s p e n t h e r s e l f and him.

She would have

But she i s n o t t i r e d , weary, i n e r t o r

295 w ithered.

Her s e x u a l i t y has n o t sim p ly become a p a r t o f h e r .

I t h a s come t o command h e r e n t i r e t y in such a way t h a t s h e c l e a v e s the s t u f f o f l i f e d e s p i t e every l o s s .

I t enables h er to face the

d i s s o l u t i o n o f even d e a t h i n t h e name o f new s e a r c h i n g s f o r a r e s t o r a t i o n of sensuousness. A l l t h i s r e c e i v e s a f i n a l and s t u n n i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e end. crisis,

She l o s e s h e r Antony and goes t h r o u g h h e r own t r a g i c c o n f l i c t and d e f e a t .

But t h e t e n s i o n i n h e r s o u l i s not

f o r one moment a s s i m p l e a t e n s i o n a s betw een b e i n g f a i t h f u l o r f a i t h l e s s to Antony— a n y more t h a n Antony e v e r e n v i s a g e d h i s con­ f l i c t a s between l o y a l t y o r d i s l o y a l t y to Rome. is tic attitu d e.

That i s a m oral­

She was w o n d e r f u l l y I n c a p a b l e o f t h a t , p a r t l y

b e c a u s e she i s too d i s i l l u s i o n e d and r e a l i s t i c , b u t m o s t l y b e c a u s e she owed Antony more t h a n t h a t k i n d o f a l l e g o r i c a l r e s p e c t c o u l d ever e x h ib it o r ex p ress. Antony.

She i s c o m p l e t e l y a m o ra l i n r e f e r e n c e to

She w i l l be f a i t h f u l to him o n l y i n s o f a r a s so l o n g a s

he g i v e s h e r what she w ants and n e e d s .

I f he f a l l s h e r o r becomes

i n a c c e s s i b l e , she w i l l be Im m e d ia te ly i n s e a r c h f o r a n o t h e r , and w i t h no compunction o r r e g r e t .

Before b ein g f a i t h f u l ,

she w i l l

s e a r c h a r o u n d f o r some o t h e r r e m a r k a b l e f i g u r e to t a k e h i s p l a c e — i f she ca n .

She w i l l be a b l e to f a c e d e a t h o n l y i f d e a t h i s t h e

o n l y enjoym ent l e f t —a n d she w i l l n o t a c c e p t even d e a t h u n l e s s i t d e l i v e r s some s a t i s f a c t i o n , o r t h e p rom ise o f i t .

For h e r lo v e

f o r Antony was b a s e d upon t h e en e rg y o f A n t o n y 's l i f e — upon i t s en e rg y a n d m a g n i f i c e n c e . usual sense.

She had no l o v e f o r h i s p e r s o n i n t h e

When t h e g l o r y i s gone, she w i l d l y and d e s p e r a t e l y

se e k s a f i g u r e t h a t w i l l g iv e h e r a n o t h e r chance to go on l i v i n g

296 w i t h su c h i n t e n s i t y a s she had known w i t h A ntony, have l i f e i f i t d o e s n o t have a n Antony.

She would n o t

But she i s w i l l i n g to

t r y a n y t h i n g i n t h e hope o f f i n d i n g a s u c c e s s o r when he i s gone. T h i s p a s s i o n r e v e a l s t h e deep e x t e n t o f h e r a t t a c h m e n t t o l i f e — t h e a c t u a l d e p t h o f w hat she had d i s c o v e r e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h A ntony, and th e c h a r a c t e r o f t h a t r e l a t i o n .

I t wa6 o f t h e e s s e n c e

o f t h a t l o v e to d r i v e h e r to s t o o p to so low a s t r a t e g y a s t r y i n g to make even C a e s a r . be ta k e n i n . A ntony.

But t h a t s t r a t e g e m f a l l s .

Nor would she f o r l o n g t a k e him.

And she w an ts a man.

Caesar w i l l not F or C a e s a r i s no

Only t h e n , when t h e l a s t d o o r i s

c l o s e d , does she t u r n to f i n d t h a t t h e o n l y consummation f o r h e r i s t o be i n d e a t h . as th is . h im s e lf .

Nor c o u l d a s e n s u a l i s t f i n d such a consummation

For a s e n s u a l i s t t a p s no s o u r c e o f r e p l e n i s h m e n t beyond And h i s o n l y e n e r g y i s q u i c k l y e x p e n d a b l e . Shakespeare d ram atises C le o p a tr a 's d e a th a s an a c t o f

l i f e consummating e v e r y t h i n g she was: much a woman.

very much a Queen and v e r y

And y e t f o r a l l h e r g r a n d e u r a s a Queen a n d a l l

h e r d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t a s a woman, r e t a i n i n g a n o t e o f c h i l d i s h n a i v e t e a n d p l a y f u l n e s s a b o u t h e r t o t h e end, a s she h a s t e n s to f i n d h e r p l a c e b e s i d e Antony i n t h e n e x t w o r l d .

She i s a l m o s t —

o f a l l t h i n g s — a n image o f Eve w a i t i n g f o r Adam b e f o r e t h e y had e a t e n f r u i t o f t h e t r e e o f knowledge o f good a n d e v i l .

The a s p

f u n c t i o n s s y m b o l i c a l l y a s t h e v e r y marrow o f h e r a c t — s u g g e s t i n g how r i c h l y s e x u a l i s t h i s consummation and how f u l f i l l i n g i s h e r sexual love. From a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view, t h e meaning o f t h i s l a s t s c e n e i s t h a t C l e o p a t r a ' s s h e e r l o v e o f l i f e h a s e n a b l e d h e r to

297 v a u l t beyond t r a g i c l o s s and

s a c r i f i c e t o l a y cla im to th e power

t h a t redeems a n d renews l i f e

itself.

This i s a r a t h e r s t r a n g e

p l a c e and a r a t h e r odd k in d o f f i g u r e w h e r e in t o discover* a r a d i a n c e t h a t can redeem l i f e by v i r t u e o f b e i n g t h e v e r y s o u r c e o f i t s e n e rg y .

But t h e r e i s som ething v e r y , very human and v e r y Shake—

qoearean c o n c e r n i n g t h i s f a c t t h a t th e u n e a r t h l y glow should f o r c e i t s way

t h r o u g h i n t h e most e a r t h l y of p l a c e s . For S hakespeare

was n o t

one to c o n f i n e re d e m p tio n to a s a i n t o r to see i t s o p e r a ­

t i o n a p a r t from t h e p r o c e s s e s o f o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e * C l e o p a t r a ' s r e a s s e r t i o n o f th e t h e r i p e n e s s o f t h e aged L e a r, who was agony a n d more t r a n s p o r t e d by jo y .

h e a r t i s r a t h e r f a r from indeed more r a v a g e d by

But th e f i n a l g e s t u r e s wherein

t h e y Invoke som e thing beyond t r a g e d y a r e more to g e t h e r than a p a r t , Both s y m b o lise an uncanny d e tach m en t

from th e uses and a b u s e s o f

t h i s w o rld even a s t h e y embrace i t s r i p e n e s s a s a l l , h a s o f c o u r s e n o t known e i t h e r agony o r j o y .

Cleopatra

But sh e has had h e r

own l i t t l e v e r s i o n o f t h e way a k in d o f joy can m e lt a kin d of agony w i t h a l o v e t h a t h e a l s a l l s c a r e and makes of* l i f e som ething more t h a n a b a t t l e g r o u n d w h e r e in t h e r e a r e o n l y t h e s i c k , maimed, t h e d e f e a t e d , a n d t h e wounded.

the

The s k e p t i c may c o u n t e r —

C l e o p a t r a i s f o o l e d by t h e l a s t upsurge o f h e r human v i t a l i t y . The r e s o u r c e s o f t h e human s i t u a t i o n have n o t y e t f a i l e d h e r * But t h e y w i l l w i t h e r and b e t r a y h e r i n t h e e n d . course.

P e r h a p s and o f

But I do n o t t h i n k you a r e r e a l l y f a i r to e i t h e r C l e o p a t r a

o r l i f e i f you say t h a t C l e o p a t r a sim ply q u ic k e n e d in r e f e r e n c e t o A ntony.

L ife quickened.

S im ila r ly i n h er death th e re is a

r a d i a n c e t h a t redeems more th a n C l e o p a t r a , a r a d i a n c e t h a t redeems life.

298 HaaL €fc HamXst t g without; d o u b t t h e a o j t l a t e r e a t i n g a n d I m p o r t a n t of a l l S h a k e s p e a j r e 's p l a y s .

'Jher*© la

aomethlng i n t e n s e l y l y r i c a l

a f p * it itemlet? tte.-!; somehow I n a l l "the o t h e r p l a y s i s

m issed.

It

a c t a senseHemle t; a n d h i s " j r o b l e m j " a r e S h a k e s p e a i e and h i s p r o b ­ lems*

F o r eve ry

F o r t h i s reason, In terested I t aii

man has M s E L s in o r e , even I f he l e no p r i » C 8 . Hamlet i s apt; to remind, us of o u r s e l v e s ,

t so

Samlet bees, u s e t be p l a y t e m i t d s me o f Shafcespe?are

of t i i s L ife;

and I aim i n t e r e s t e d i n ay own L i f e became e i t

reminds a e o f Sifa kespeaie

and o f H am let.

Tron tie p o i n t of view of t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t ait.d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , Samlet; s t a n d s i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h e a n d an t a n d t h e mod e r n w c r l i ^

I t i s a t o xicea G-re ate-s Kept l e a l

Chrl s ti a r i k l n i or dTamatlc t r a g e iy . forward,

and a n H e b r a i c -

I t p o i n t s back and i t p o i n t s

e n L r a c i a g t h e whole st^eep o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e a n d c i v i l i s a ­

t io n w i t h i n ! t s s c o p e .

E v e r y th in g t h a t i s Greek, H e b r a i c , Chalc-

t l a h , or s k e p t i c a l by way o f t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t i s em piesaad Uajressl v e l l t e r a r * y c l a r i t y a n d f o r c e , What

i s Lr*eek befaare i s and. w i t h i n

us p e r c e i v e s and r e -

spends Inttmediately to Hamlet a s t h e p i c t u r e o f m a n 's s u f f e r i n g roll M ty*

From a Greek p o i n t o f view, H a m l e t 's s t o r y i s t h e

s t o r y of anstlinorfc p e r f e c t l y p o d a n d n o b l e ®aa who i s d e s t r o y e d 1)/ a v a s t l y a o n e i j n p e r f e c t

world,

and t e r r i f y i n g ,

fond f a r e w e l l ,

H o ra tio 's

His t r a g e d y i s t h e r e f o r e p i t i f u l 'Good might sweet p r i n c e

* * . 1 is a p e r f e c t co ns a i m tic? a of t h i s G reek tno t l f . Wfcat Ha rule t is not

la

H ebraic In

ils

p e r c e i v e s the p a s s io n o f J'o'b,

a ski mg f o r girace o r f o r (tercy.

the p r e s e n c e o l

299 p i e t / a r ig f c te o u a m e s s , a n d . J u s t i c e would s u f f i c e ,

Fiom an H e b r a ic

p o i n t o f v i e n , H a m l e t ' s problem La te b a n i s h his feelings! o r s e l f p i t y a n d to go f o r t h to meet l i f e □acral f o r c e .

with overw helm ing r e l i g i o u s a n d

Be i s w i l l i n g , a n d y e t somehow unable*

f h a t I s C h r i s t i a n i n us s e e s Hamlet r e e o & c t i n g t h e P a s s i o n o f C h r i s t , coming f u l l

c i r c l e f r o m t i e h e r o i c I l e a l , throu gh, t i e

t r a g i c v i s i o n , t o a s e m e o f p e a c e even ae h e s u a r d s l n t h e m i d s t o f th e ard o u rs o f y o u th and t i e

h arv est c f tragedy.

And what i s s k e p t i c a l i n us i n t e r p r e t s Hamlet a s t h e f i r s t am! p e rh a p s th e g r e a t e s t of a lL the modern s k e p t i c a l t r a g i c

heroes

who cLoubt the v e r y c h a r a c t e r o f l i f e , who a r e overwhelmed by a s e n s e o f I n n e r d e s p a i r and m e lan c h o ly , a n d who are d e s t r o y e d a s mush by a n i n w a r d boredom a n d v i o l e n c e a s by n e s t f o r l i f e ,

From

a s k e p t i c a l j o i n t o f view, i t can be s a i d t h a t H e l v l L l g ' s l i e r r e * D o s t o y e v s k y 's I v a n , E l i o t ' s P r a f r o c k , a n d J o y c e ' s S te p h e n SaadaLus a n l Hi chard Bowan r e e n a c t t h e p a s s i o n of H a n l e t , The t e n s i o n between. G r e e t - s k e p t i c a l a n d H e b r a l c - f l h r i s t l m m o t i f s p r o v i d e s t h e p r o b le m s o f and s u g g e s ts the d i f f i c u l t i e s which d e f i n e t h i s p l a y .

the s o l u t i o n s f o r

Hamlet "begins with th e

C r L n ity —a l m o s t l i t e r a l l y f r a m e d by l a t h e r , Sen, a n d Holy Ghost, Hamlet ends Viitk the melancholy d e s p a i r o f the G r a v e d i g g e r ' b s c e n e . Che whole s t o r y o f / e s t e r m t h e o l o g y and l i t e r a t u r e I s r e - t o l d a t s o ae p o i n t amd oaonent i n "between, fin ally

And i t i s

not c l e a r w hich m o t i f

d e f i n e s t h e e v e n t s a n d m eanings o f E a i l e t ' s s t o r y . I n a n y c a s e Hamlet i s % most complex t o p i c .

t o remove the many d i f f i c u l t i e s to understand t h i s play,

I do not hope

t h a t h a v e alw a ys a t t e n d e d e f f o r t s

I s h a l l simply endeavour t o r e s t a t e t i e

pro*bless a n d t h e t h e o r i e s t h a t have a r i s e n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e n ,

300 wit;}) P.XS1 oulu? e u p l t s i s - u p n c e r tain s e l e c t s t h a t r f e e l a r e aof&efciaee n e g l e c t e d tu? 1 gnofed, a s p e c t s vilileli. s u g g e s t , t t h i n k , a. g e i e r a l line

of s o l U t i c a ,

I

s h a l l b cgi.i Kith a s t a t e o e i i b o f

"tie p r c b l e a s t h a t her ©ami. e m l m c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t i e p i t y ,

I

sh all

that

prccesdbc a sta tejen t

have been p r o je c ts !

of th e

in. a n a t tempt to- r e s o l v e t h e n .

w i t h my own e o n c r e t e i nfcsrpreta tlo n L i f e c-cti f ile t s ,

many k in d s o f t h e o r i e s

These t h r e e s t s p ) .

cf w h e r e in i t s p r i n c i p l e c f

are fro® d e t a i l

Baa l e t I s o n e p l a y hiia t d e s e r v e s h c tii c l o s e n e s s l i t e r a r y s e n s e , and

genera 1 f t j f of

1 etaa.ll emi

gaze ira t i e

to g e n e r a l i t y *

of s c r u t i n y I n t i e

theo l o g i c a l ami

ph iX o sc p H c sense* 3 il the E l i a tettistt w i t h o u t "breaks.

g iv e n

The f i r e a c t i i v l s l c i i s a n e m e n d a t io n o f

' S h a k e s je a r e ' s e d i t o r s , the jLsy b r e a h

t h s k t r s , la. ml a t m & o l cou rse

so n e v te t

F o r p u rp o s es o f a n a l y s i s a n i em phasis, none n a. tuna 11 y i n t o t h r ce aove merits,

The f i r s t mevemeub I s fro® t h e b e g i n n i n g through. H a m l e t's a c c e p t ­ ance o f t h e G-ho s t 1 a eo a i a n d , assumption c f l i s England,

"a n tic

!he second movement i s

disposi ticn * t o h i s f o r c e d d e p a rtu re

T ie th ir d a i d f i l i a l

fo*

to venent i s from h i s r e t u r a t o t h e

tr«gl(* duel t h a t 1 e t h e c a t a s t r o j h i c cf the

frcia H a m l e t's

end.

Some o f the probleme

pl*y i r l s e in co nnocatio n vL bl the p l a y a s a i h c l e ,

O thers

a r i s e i n coresect ion w i t l e i i e o r more cf t h e s e i a n e r movements c r pa arte,

S « n e t h e c r i e s a ire r l t i a t e i by fck® f a c t fcba t t i e y speak

a b o u t t i e pXa y a s a ■*»!©le a p a r t f r o a t h e s e t h r e e pa.it sp o t h e r s hy s p e a k in g about t l e s e t h r e e a w hole,

I n n p r p a r t s a p a r t from t h e p l a y a s

Phe cr ftica.1 jroblem. I s to ho Hi the Tba-lance s f whole

a i d p a r t a h i t m o re eiem ly,

I s h a l l jroc-eed f r o m t h e problems

301

s p e c i a l to e a c h p a r t to the t h e o r l es t h a t h a v e a r i s e n to e x p l a i n the v b c i e ,

B a t a b r i e f nummary n a r r a t i o n and l e s c r l p t l o n o f each

o f t h e s e t h r e e I n n e r m»veiaen.t6 i s n e c e s s a r y h e r e a t t h e o u t s e t In order t h a t some o f t h e more c r u c i a l d e t a i l s o f t i e p l a y may b e l a view, T i e o p e n i n g scene of t h e f i r s t movement p r e s e n t s Bo r a t i o and H t r c e l l c s eneoimt e r l ng t h e Ghost. is elkeat,

visible,

and armed,

2n t h i s s c e n e , t i e (Ghost

Moreover, he i s

seen and d e s c r i b e d .

TIhese d e t a i l s are? i m p o r t a n t [email protected] t h e y pro-ve t h a t t h e Ghost I s r e a l and i s Hanle-t1e f a t h e r .

These f a c t s are in t u r n I m p o r t a n t

b e c a u se H a m l e t ' s c a u t i o u s a n d t e s t i n g b e h a v i o r l a t e r i n t h e p l a y meaa.s v e r y d i f f e r e a t t h i n g s 1! vie do o r r**Miy be com a to ll to Hamlet1 e s l e p t ! ! sea.

But

It

n on stlielssa reminds u s tba t H am let 1 s a young dharl stl-sa. as hreLX

as

a j^gan pirinca ,

an

itmsaras weLl s s an outer world » f Ix ileri tea dream c o n c e r n e d w i t h some p o s s i b l e w o r l d o t h e r t h a n t h i s g i v e n one.

The p l a y p r e s e n t s what i s a c t u a l I n t h i s l i f e and

h i s t o r y w i t h what i s p o s s i b l e f o r i t and what i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h i s l i f e a n d h i s t o r y w i t h what i s a c t u a l i n i t .

There i s a r e a l f u s i o n

and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f e v e n t s and meanings i n such a way t h a t t h e meanings o f t h i s l i f e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a s i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h i n t h e e v e n t s o f t h i s w o r l d and t h i s l i f e and i n such a way t h a t t h e e v e n t s o f t h i s l i f e a r e p r e s e n t e d a s e x e m p l i f y i n g t h e meanings o f t h i s life.

By v i r t u e o f t h i s m i n g l i n g o f e v e n t s and meanings i n a symbol,

a C h r i s t i a n p l a y can p u r i f y t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g by t h e e m o tio n s even a s i t p u r i f i e s t h e em o tio n s by t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

J u s t so, a

C h r i s t i a n p l a y i n t e r n a l i s e s o b j e c t i v e a n d e x t e r n a l f a c t s even a s i t e x t e r n a l i s e s s u b j e c t i v e and i n t e r n a l f a c t s .

O b jectiv ity is

transform ed in to s u b j e c t i v i t y ; and s u b j e c t i v i t y i s transform ed Into o b je c tiv ity .

The h o p e l e s s d u a l i s m b etw e en s u b j e c t and o b j e c t ,

mind a n d body, a p p e a r a n c e and r e a l i t y , and t h i s w o r l d a n d a n o t h e r w o r l d a t t h e h e a r t an d c e n t e r o f Greek t h e o l o g y i s overcom e.

T h is

g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y f o l l o w s from what a C h r i s t i a n means by t h e r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f G od's immanence a n d t r a n s c e n d e n c e , by t h e r a d i c a l c h a r ­ a c t e r o f man's freedom a n d m a n 's s i n , a n d by t h e r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r

380 o f t h e r e d e m p tio n and t h e d a m n a tio n which can an d do o c c u r w i t h i n l i f e and h i s t o r y .

A harmony b etw e en t h e e v e n t s o f l i f e a n d t h e

meanings o f l i f e i s p o s s i b l e i n p r i n c i p l e by v i r t u e o f God's imman­ e n c e , i s sometimes l a c k i n g i n f a c t by v i r t u e o f m an's c a p a c i t y to s i n and be damned, a n d y e t i s r e a l i s e d i n f a c t a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s and moments by v i r t u e o f t h a t r e d e m p tio n which can come o f th e c o n j u n c t i o n s betw e en t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t w orking o f G od's g r a c e and m a n 's f a i t h . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n te r m s o f t r a g i c h e r o , t r a g i c f l a w , p l o t , a n d imm edia te e f f e c t upon t h e a u d i e n c e ,

th e p r o p e r t i e s o f a

C h r is tia n play a re a s fo llow s. A C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c hero i s a more o r l e s s c o n s t a n t s u b j e c t o f c h a n g i n g q u a l i t i e s and r e l a t i o n s .

U n lik e a Greek t r a g i c h e r o ,

he i s n o t a s im p le s u b s t a n c e , r e q u i r i n g n o t h i n g but h i m s e l f I n o r d e r t o e x i s t a n d t o be g r e a t ,

A C h r is t ia n t r a g i c hero endures

i n a manner t h a t i s e v e r more v i v i d , c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d deep i f and o n l y i f he becomes more and more e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and r e ­ l a t e d t o t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s a n d meanings i n l i f e and h i s t o r y . A C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o i s I n t e r n a l l y r e l a t e d t o and e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by o t h e r I n d i v i d u a l s , from t h e s i m p l e s t o f f o i l s to God, a n d i n c l u d i n g h i s f o rm e r an d f u t u r e s e l v e s .

He i s o n l y a c c i d e n t a l l y ,

d e r i v a t i v e l y , and s e c o n d a r i l y abo ve and beyond t h e s e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and t h i s r e l a t e d n e s s .

His p r o c e s s is, h i s c h a r a c t e r .

a c t e r is. h is r e l a t e d n e s s .

And h i s c h a r ­

And y e t a t c e r t a i n c r u c i a l p o i n t s and

moments he s t a n d s o u t by and f o r h i m s e l f a l o n e — a s o l i t a r y causa s u l — u n i n f l u e n c e d and u n i n f l u e n c l n g , I n t e r n a l l y d e t e r m i n e d and ex­ te rn a lly free.

At t h e s e p o i n t s and moments he i s r a d i c a l l y f r e e :

381 f r e e t o b e t r a y o r to s e r v e h i s f o rm e r and f u t u r e s e l v e s , f r e e t o b e t r a y o r to s e r v e o t h e r s , n a t u r e , and even God.

Such r a d i c a l l y

autonomous freedom i s o f c o u r s e o n l y i n t e r m i t t e n t and i n a n y c a s e i s a l w a y s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e g e n e r a l m e t a p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h i n and w i t h o u t to w hich he a s w e l l a s God i s s u b j e c t .

Nor c a n a

C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h ero c o m p l e t e l y s e v e r o r d is e n g a g e h i m s e l f from t h e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n from w hich he h a s come and i n t o which he w ill issu e.

And y e t , a p a r t from t h e d a t a which have b e e n r e c e i v e d

and t h e i s s u e s which a r e a b o u t t o be s u f f e r e d , so m e th in g i s l e f t o v e r t h a t i s open a n d rem a ins to be d e c i d e d .

By v i r t u e o f t h i s

o p e n n e s s and fre edom , t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s and even G od's l i f e a r e a t h i s mercy.

By v i r t u e o f t h e r a d i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s freedom ,

a C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c hero has b o th r i g h t s and d u t i e s , b o th r e s p o n s i ­ b i l i t i e s and po w ers.

And by v i r t u e o f t h i s freedom, a C h r i s t i a n

t r a g i c h e r o i s c a p a b l e o f m oral g u i l t and r e l i g i o u s s i n . A C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o ' s ham artla o r t r a g i c flaw i s a f u n c t i o n o f h i s a b u s e o f t h i s r a d i c a l freedom.

The f la w i s s u e s

from h i s moral g u i l t and h i s r e l i g i o u s s i n r a t h e r t h a n from h i s ignorance, f i n i t e n e s s , p e rv e rsio n , obsession, f ix a ti o n , I n e r tn e s s , o r w eariness. sk ep tical.

He i s s u b j e c t t o a l l t h e s e o t h e r f l a w s — Greek and

But a t c e r t a i n c r u c i a l p o i n t s and moments b o t h h i s

e x is te n c e and h is ex c e lle n c e o r t h e i r re v e rs e a r e f u n c tio n s o f h i s freedom and o f h i s s i n .

He i s f r e e to r e s p o n d to God, to

o t h e r s , and to h i s own c o n s c i e n c e .

But he i s i n f a c t r e s p o n s i b l e

t o so m e th in g l e s s t h a n God, o t h e r s , o r h i s c o n s c i e n c e . id o latry .

T h is i s

Or he c l a i m s to be r e s p o n d i n g more c o m p l e t e l y a n d un­

am b ig u o u sly to God, t o o t h e r s , and t o h i s own c o n s c i e n c e t h a n he

t

382 in fact is.

This i s p r e t e n s i o n .

He t h e r e f o r e moves i n t h e

a n a g n o r i s i s o r r e c o g n i t i o n sc e n e from knowledge, t h r o u g h t e m p t a t i o n , to s i n .

And i n t h e p e r i p e t y o r r e v e r s a l he moves to Judgment and

to fo rg iv e n e s s .

He i s jud g e d b e c a u s e he h a s i d e n t i f i e d h i s c r e a -

t u r e l y p u r p o s e s w i t h God’ s p u r p o s e s .

He i s f o r g i v e n b e c a u s e God’s

immanence p r e s e n t s him w i t h t h e b a s i s f o r a new l i f e ,

and because

God’ s t r a n s c e n d e n c e redeems t h e o l d l i f e he had f o r s a k e n d e s p i t e a n d even o v e r a g a i n s t h i s s i n .

A C h r is t ia n t r a g i c h e r o ’ s opening

s i t u a t i o n I s f i l l e d w i t h p o s s i b i l i t i e s , o r d e r e d i n r e l e v a n c e and d e t e r m i n a t e l y good a n d e v i l b e c a u s e o f God’ s immanence. he i s f r e e t o r e g a r d o r t o d i s r e g a r d them.

And y e t

And even i f he d i s ­

r e g a r d s them, t h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d to him a g a i n and a g a i n .

F or no

f i n i t e n e s s , no s i n , no p e r v e r s i o n , and no w e a r i n e s s can c u t him o f f c o m p l e t e l y from t h e p a t i e n t k i n d n e s s a n d power o f God’ s g r a c e . He i s n e v e r so p e r f e c t a s t o b e beyond t h e need f o r f u r t h e r p e r f e c ­ t i o n o r t h e c a p a c i t y f o r s t a s i s o r r e v e r s i o n , and he n e v e r f a l l s so f a r a s t o be beyond t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r a n s m u t a t i o n i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f a new c r e a t u r e and a new l i f e .

And a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s

and moments t h i s i s p r e c i s e l y what happens i n f a c t .

Even i f he

r e s i s t s t h e good t h a t i s p r e s e n t e d , t h e good i s a t t a i n e d i n p a r t d e s p i t e a n d even i n d i r e c t o p p o s i t i o n to h i s c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t s . He t h e r e f o r e i s a p t , i f n o t bound, to move from t h e h e r o i c i d e a l , t h r o u g h t h e t r a g i c v i s i o n , t o r e l i g i o u s l o n g i n g and r e l i g i o u s peace.

I n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n s c e n e he a c c u s e s o r c a n a c c u s e God,

o th e rs , nature or him self.

But he f i n a l l y a c c u s e s h i m s e l f .

"Ahab,

beware o f A h a b . 9

And y e t , i n a c c u s i n g h i m s e l f , he d o e s n o t a c c u s e

h i s own e s s e n c e .

He a c c u s e s a n a s p e c t o f h i m s e l f w hich can be and

383

i s f o r g i v e n even a s i t i s judged i n g ra c e and power by v i r t u e o f a c o n j u n c t i o n between God’ s a c t of r e v e l a t i o n and h i s own a c t o f r e p e n t a n c e and f a i t h . The p l o t i s to some e x t e n t open a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , a t th e m id d le , and a t t h e end.

By b e i n g open, I do n o t mean t h a t t h e

c o u r se o f e v e n t s i s u n c o n d i t i o n e d .

They a r i s e o u t o f a d e f i n i t e ,

g iv e n , a n d l i m i t e d s i t u a t i o n .

And th e y i s s u e i n t o a d e f i n i t e ,

g iv e n , and l i m i t e d s i t u a t i o n .

I mean t h a t a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s and

moments a l l i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s I m p l i c a t e d i n a C h r i s t i a n p l o t a r e i n t e r n a l l y d e t e r m in e d and e x t e r n a l l y f r e e ,

I a l s o mean t h a t th e

p l o t o f a C h r i s t i a n p l a y has a r e a l b e g i n n in g , a r e a l m id d le , and a r e a l end. By a r e a l b e g i n n i n g , X mean t h a t t h e r e a r e r e l e v a n t p o ssib ilities.

T h is c a n happen o r t h a t can happen.

t h e r e to be d e c i d e d .

There a r e r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

b i l i t i e s a r e o r d e r e d i n r e l e v a n c e by God. chaos.

Something i s And th e p o s s i ­

They a r e n o t a mere

Some a r e c o m p a ti b le and some a r e i n c o m p a t i b l e .

Any c o u r se

o f e v e n t s and meanings w i l l have to s e l e c t among them, d e c i d i n g f o r t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e r a t h e r th a n f o r t h a t o r t h a t .

But the p o s s i b i l i ­

t i e s a r e r e a l l y t h e r e , some a r e more i n t e r e s t i n g and r e l e v a n t th a n o t h e r s , and some a r e c l e a r l y good and some a r e c l e a r l y e v i l . s h o r t t h e r e i s no d e v i l — w i t h i n o r w i t h o u t . making the worse a p p e a r t h e b e t t e r c a u s e .

In

There i s no e n t i t y Or a t l e a s t t h e d e v i l

i s n o t an a c t u a l e n t i t y i n t h e same sense and t o th e same d egree t h a t God i s an a c t u a l e n t i t y . By a r e a l m id d le , I mean t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i t i e s i n v o l v e d i n a C h r i s t i a n p l o t b e g i n a s e f f e c t s f a c i n g t h e p a s t and end a s

384 B e t w i x t and b etw e en t h e r e i s r e a l f r e e ­

causes facin g the f u tu r e .

dom,,. r e a l c h o i c e , and r e a l g u i l t and s i n . e f f i c a c y and a r e a l d i r e c t i o n .

There i s r e a l c a u s a l

The c a u s a l l i n e s a r e s e p a r a b l e ,

and y e t t h e y a r e a l s o r e l a t e d a n d i n t e r t w i n e d . i s v a c u o u s, v o i d , u n q u a l i f i e d and u n r e l a t e d .

No i n d i v i d u a l i t y Each s t a n d s o u t a t

some p o i n t and moment and makes r e a l d e c i s i o n s .

Every d e c i s i o n

a r i s e s o u r o f a c o n d i t i o n e d s i t u a t i o n and I s s u e s i n t o a c o n d i t i o n e d situ atio n .

And y e t d e c i s i o n s a r e made by e v e r y e n t i t y a s w e l l a s

f o r i t o r to i t .

T h at i s ,

t h e r e a r e p o i n t s and moments where e v e r y

e n t i t y t a k e s t h e whole o f l i f e i n t o h i s own h a n d s — i n c l u d i n g God’s l i f e and o th e r l i v e s .

For t h e most p a r t we a r e a t G od's mercy.

But i n t h e s e p o i n t s a n d moments God i s a t o u r mercy. By a r e a l end I mean t h a t t h e r e i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e dead by t h e l i v i n g .

What i s d i v e s t e d o f l i v i n g Immediacy becomes

i m m o r t a l by p r e s e n t i n g i t s e l f to what f o l l o w s .

In t h i s sense every

b e g i n n i n g i s an end, and every end I s a b e g i n n i n g . d e s c r i b e d i n te rm s o f d e a t h . of l i f e .

L i f e must be

And d e a t h must be d e s c r i b e d i n te r m s

T h erefo re the p a s t b e f o r e a C h r i s t i a n play p ro v id e s as

w ell as lim its .

I t Is a b le s s in g as w ell a s a curse.

And t h e

f u tu r e a f t e r a C h r is t ia n p la y i s in a sense Im p lic a te d i n the p re se n t of the play. life.

There i s a r e a l c o n t i n u i t y o f l i f e w i t h

The end i s more t h a n a d^noument o r so m e th in g a f t e r w hich

th e re i s nothing.

I n l o s i n g o u r l i v e s , we f i n d them.

Cross, th e re i s E a s te r .

A f t e r the

And a f t e r E a s t e r t h e r e i s t h e Holy S p i r i t .

I n t h i s way t h e C h r i s t i a n l i f e t a k e s on an I n t e n s i t y and a m a s s i v e ­ n e s s d e r i v e d from t h e “b e f o r e " a n d I s s u i n g i n t o t h e " a f t e r " o f w hich l i f e and h i s t o r y c o n s i s t .

T h is i s t h e "communion o f t h e

s a i n t s " a n d t h e "m u tu a l m i n i s t r y " o f p a s t , p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e b eliev ers.

No man i s an i s l a n d .

We a r e members, one o f a n o t h e r .

385 The e f f e c t o f a C h r i s t i a n p l a y upon i t s a u d i e n c e i s a s e n s e o f J u d g n e n t and f o r g i v e n e s s r a t h e r t h a n a s e n s e o f p i t y and te rro r.

We f e e l Judgment b e c a u s e t h e t r a g i c deed h a s i n v o l v e d

m o ral g u i l t and r e l i g i o u s s i n , a n d b e c a u s e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the t r a g i c d e e d a r e o f t e n l e s s th a n t h i s s p e c i f i a b l e g u i l t and s i n . We f e e l f o r g i v e n e s s b e c a u s e a c o n j u n c t i o n b etw e en God's g r a c e and m a n 's r e p e n t a n c e a n d f a i t h redeem t h a t w hich h a s b e e n b e t r a y e d and forsaken. Summary I n summary, a C h r i s t i a n d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y i s b o t h p o s s i b l e and n e c e s s a ry because C h r i s t i a n th e o lo g y a s a theology i s not s im p ly o r a t i t s b e s t beyond t r a g e d y a n d b e c a u s e a d r a m a t i c t r a g e d y a s a l i t e r a r y form i s n o t s im p ly o r a t i t s b e s t m e re ly t r a g i c . As a symbol, a C h r i s t i a n p l a y b r i n g s t o g e t h e r th e e v e n t s and m eanings a l l e g o r y and r e a l i s m would keep a p a r t , :i

I n a C h r i s t i a n p la y , c r e a t i v i t y r a t h e r than f a t e i s th e u l t i m a t e m e t a p h y s i c a l p r i n c i p l e to which b o t h God and man a r e subject, God i s a n a c t u a l a s w e l l a s a n i d e a l e n t i t y . A C h r i s t i a n t r a g i c h e r o i s e s s e n t i a l l y q u a l i f i e d by and r e l a t e d to t h e e v e n t s and meanings o f t h e p l o t . The p l o t i s a f u n c t i o n o f freedom , s i n , a n d p r o v i d e n c e r a t h e r t h a n o f n e c e s s i t y , f i n i t e n e s s , and f a t e . The r e c o g n i t i o n sc ene i n v o l v e s a movement from knowledge t o s i n r a t h e r t h a n from i g n o r a n c e t o knowledge. The r e v e r s a l i s from d e s p a i r to f a i t h r a t h e r t h a n from h a p p i n e s s to m i s e r y .

386 The Chorus c o n s i s t s o f t h e l i t t l e

p e o p l e who a r e o f s m a l l

o r no a c c o u n t . The theme c o n c e r n s m a n 's c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s i d o l a t r y r a t h e r t h a n m a n 's s u f f e r i n g n o b i l i t y o r p i t e o u s a b n o r m a l i t y . The l a n g u a g e o f a C h r i s t i a n p l a y s u g g e s t s a n d e m b o d ie s . I t d oes n o t j u s t p r e s e n t o r s t a t e . The e f f e c t o f a C h r i s t i a n p l a y i s judgm ent a n d f o r g i v e n e s s r a t h e r than p i t y and t e r r o r . These a r e t h e p r o p e r t i e s I f i n d t o be r e q u i r e d b y t h e e v e n t s a n d m e an in g s o f w h ich t h e h e a r t o f C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y c o n s i s t s and to which t h a t h e a r t r e f e r s .

T h ese a r e a l s o t h e p r o p e r t i e s I f i n d

t o be f u l f i l l e d w i t h i n t h e c o n c r e t e models o f C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a r y h isto ry .

And t h e s e a r e t h e e v e n t s a n d m e a n in g s o f w h i c h my f a i t h

i n God'8 r e v e l a t i o n o f h i m s e l f i n J e s u s C h r i s t c o n s i s t s .

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE The o n l y p u r p o s e I c o u l d t h i n k o f f o r a b i b l i o g r a p h y a t t h e end o f a n e s s a y o f t h i s s o r t , h a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d t h e n a t u r e o f i t s them e a n d t h e o r y , a n d t h e k i n d o f t r e a t m e n t g i v e n , was t o t e l l s o m e t h i n g i n a g e n e r a l way a b o u t w h a t b r o u g h t t h e w r i t e r t o t h i s p l a c e , a n d how h e came t h e r e , i n s o f a r a s t h e a g e n c i e s w e re o t h e r m in d s a n d b o o k s , o r t h e i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n o r s u g g e s t e d b y them. Thus a n i n t e r p r e t a t i v e a n d e v a l u a t i v e n o t e , r a t h e r t h a n a listin g . For t h i s r e a s o n , I have chosen to c o n fin e m yself to c i t ­ i n g a few e x a m p le s o f t h e s o r t o f boo ks I f o u n d most i n t e r e s t i n g a n d i m p o r t a n t a s I s o u g h t t o come t o t e r m s w i t h , a n d r e n d e r f u l l e r j u s t i c e t o , w hat I h a d i n mind. T his has in v o lv e d e x p l i c i t r e f e r ­ ence t o o n ly t h r e e k in d s o f volum es: (a) t h o s e i n f l u e n t i a l i n s h a p i n g my g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c p o i n t o f vie w ; (b) t h o s e e n a b l i n g me t o d e f i n e t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e o l o g y a n d I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e w i t h w h a t I hope h a s b e e n i n c r e a s i n g c l a r i t y a n d s c o p e ; a n d (c) t h o s e m ost h e l p f u l i n s e a r c h i n g o u t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l c o n ­ t e n t a n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p l a y s o f t h e G re e k t r a g e d i a n s and o f Shakespeare. About a l l t h e v o lu m e s m e n t i o n e d , I hav e f e l t g r e a t e x c i t e ­ ment f o r a l o n g t i m e , f o r t h e y h a v e b o t h i n s p i r e d and i n f o r m e d my ardour. But t h e r e have b e e n many o t h e r s . More s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n t h e p a r t i c u l a r b o o k s I h a v e l i k e d t o m e n t i o n are t h e g e n e r a l t y p e s ex h ib ited . The t y p e s s u g g e s t t h e k i n d o f mood a n d o u t l o o k t h a t d e v e l o p e d , a n d t h e way toy o p i n i o n s g a t h e r e d s t r e n g t h t h r o u g h d i s c i p l i n e and re in fo rc e m e n t. The g e n e r a l t y p e s a l s o c o n t a i n t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f b a c k g r o u n d , te m p e r a m e n t , t r a i n i n g , i n t e r e s t , a n d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t s e l e c t e d a n d o r d e r e d t h e r e l e v a n c e o f my o t h e r reading. The g e n e r a l t y p e s a r e i n s h o r t my b i a s , my p o i n t o f v i e w . Of c o u r s e , I w a n d e r e d f a r a n d w id e b e y o n d t h e c o v e r s o f t h e b o o k s , a n d ev e n o f t h e k i n d s o f b o o k s , whose i n f l u e n c e I h a v e m e n t i o n e d . But I d i d n o t w a n d e r v e r y f a r b e y o n d t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l ty p e s , and o f t h e i r i m p l i c i t judgm ents. Or a t l e a s t i f I d i d s o , I was n o t a p t t o be p e r s u a d e d o r d i s s u a d e d , a s t h e c a s e m i g h t b e .

(a) The b o o k s t h a t h a v e b e e n most I n f l u e n t i a l i n s h a p i n g my g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c p o in t; o f view a r e t h e w r i t i n g s o f A l f r e d N orth W hitehead. I r e f e r p r i m a r i l y to h i s m ajor w orks: The P r i n c i p l e s o f N a t u r a l Know ledge. The C o n c e p t o f N a t u r e . The F u n c t i o n o f R e a s o n . Symbolism: I t s Meaning a n d E f f e c t . S c i e n c e a n d t h e Modern W o r l d . R e l i g i o n i n t h e M a k in g . P r o c e s s a n d R e a l i t y . A d v e n t u r e s o f I d e a s , a n d Modes o f T h o u g h t . B ut 1 mean t o i n c l u d e ' a l l of h is w ritin g s as w ell: t h e p e r s o n a l memoirs i n E s s a y s i n 387

388 S c i e n c e and P h i l o s o p h y , t h e h u m a n i s t i c e s s a y s I n Alms o f E d u c a t i o n , h i s l a s t two g r e a t l e c t u r e s c o n c e r n i n g I m m o r t a l i t y and Mathematics, a n d t h e Good, h i s many a r t i c l e s and a d d r e s s e s c o n c e r n i n g t o p i c s i n p h i l o s o p h y , s c i e n c e , a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l l o g i c , a n d h i s An I n t r o d u c t i o j a t o M a th e m a t i c s . These f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l w r i t i n g s p r o v e d t o be more i n t e r e s t i n g a n d i m p o r t a n t i n e v e ry way t h a n many o t h e r books d e a l i n g c o n s c i o u s l y and t e c h n i c a l l y w i t h my t o p i c — p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e problem o f d e f i n i n g t h e i d e n t i t i e s , and con­ t r a s t s b e tw e e n t h e l o g i c a l o r e m p i r i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d s c i e n c e , a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c symbols o f I m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e . I have p o n d e r e d W h i t e h e a d ' s s h o r t a u t o b i o g r a p h y f o r a l o n g tim e a s a w o n d e r f u l m i n g l i n g o f l i t e r a r y and p h i l o s o p h i c e x p r e s s i o n , w h e r e i n d e t a i l s a r e r e n d e r e d so a s t o s u g g e s t and embody g e n e r a l i ­ t i e s , a n d w h e r e in g e n e r a l i t i e s a r e r e n d e r e d so a s to s u g g e s t and embody d e t a i l s . I have a l s o found t h e P l a t o n i c D ia l o g u e s t o be p r o f o u n d l y r e l e v a n t a t e v e r y p o i n t , f o r t h i s and many o t h e r r e a s o n s . I n t h e r e a l m s o f t h e o l o g y , p h i l o s o p h y , and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e , t h e s p i r i t o f P l a t o must s t a n d o u t a t t h e end no l e s s th a n a t t h e beginning. The o n l y o t h e r s i n g l e w r i t e r who h a s assumed t h i s k i n d o f p e r v a s iv e p h i l o s o p h i c a l in f l u e n c e has been B e rtra n d R u s s e ll . I have r e a d many o f h i s b ooks, from h i s P ro b le m s o f P h i l o s o p h y and I n t r o d u c t i o n t o M a t h e m a t i c a l P h i l o s o p h y to h i s H i s t o r y o f W estern P h i l o s o p h y and Human Knowledge: I t s Scope and L i m i t s , f o r R u s s e l l has e x h ib ite d th e o th e r kind o f p h ilo s o p h ic m e n ta lity I profoundly adm ire. Both o f t h e s e men and t h e i r w r i t i n g s , i n d i f f e r i n g ways, t h e one w ise a n d t h e o t h e r b r i l l i a n t i n te m p e r, t h e one s p e c u l a ­ t i v e a n d t h e o t h e r c r i t i c a l i n method and p o i n t o f view , i l l u s ­ t r a t e d t h a t k i n d o f b a l a n c e b etw e en i n t e l l e c t u a l c o u r a g e and h u m i l i t y which I t h i n k makes men and t h e i r t h o u g h t g r e a t . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , I s h o u l d n o t l i k e to have t o c a p t u r e t h e e s s e n c e o f what t h e s e men have t a u g h t me i n a s i n g l e p h r a s e . But I im­ a g i n e t h a t i t h a s so m e th in g to do w i t h a s e n s e f o r t h e i m p o r ta n c e o f e n t e r t a i n i n g n o tio n s w ith a r e a l l y c l e a r g e n e r a lity . There i s a l s o t h e s e n s e o f t h e I m p o r t a n c e f o r d i s c e r n i n g such g e n e r a l i t i e s a s i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h i n i n s i s t e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l , and a s em­ bedded i n common s e n s e i n t u i t i o n . R u s s e l l a p p e a r s to be most con­ c e r n e d t h a t t h e i d e a s be r e a l l y c l e a r and d i s c i p l i n e d ; W hitehead t h a t t h e i d e a s be r e a l l y g e n e r a l . R u s s e l l has a l s o i m p r e s s e d me a s b e i n g more c a u t i o u s a n d more w o r r i e d a b o u t l a n g u a g e and a b o u t error. T here i s a l s o t h e c o n t r a s t between a s k i n g , What can o r do we know? Or, How i s knowledge p o s s i b l e ? And t h e a t t e m p t to fram e a f u l l - b l o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i v e scheme o f a d j u s t e d c o n c e p t s i n a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n , What do we i n f a c t and i n p r i n c i p l e know? T h e r e i s a l s o t h e p r o b le m a s to w h e th e r " e x p e r i e n c e " i s o r i s n o t a f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t . I n g e n e r a l , e x p e r i e n c e i s so m e th in g w i t h w h ic h R u s s e l l i s f o r c e d , somewhat u n h a p p i l y , t o b e g i n a n d end. I n m e d ia s r e s , e x p e r i e n c e i s s o m e th in g from w hich he s e e k s w i t h g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y t o shake h i s t h o u g h t f r e e . In sharp c o n t r a s t, e x p e r i e n c e a s g e n e r a l i s e d i s so m e th in g w i t h which W hitehead i s v e r y c o n c e r n e d t h a t p h i l o s o p h y s h o u l d b o t h b e g i n and end. But

589 a p a r t from t h e s e a n d many o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s , p e r h a p s v e r y s e r i o u s and g r a v e , I have a lw a y s f e l t t h a t t h e y w ere s a y i n g h i g h l y s i m i l a r t h i n g s . I have a l s o f e l t t h a t t h e y were s a y i n g t h e two s o r t s o f t h i n g s t h a t a r e most w o r t h s a y i n g . (b) Beyond t h i s g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l s e t t i n g , a n d more d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o my theme a n d t h e o r y , I t h i n k i t i s r e v e a l i n g to b e a r i n mind t h a t I p e r s o n a l l y l e a r n e d t o t h i n k a b o u t i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a ­ t u r e a t H arvard C o l l e g e , and a b o u t t h e o l o g y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago. Among many o t h e r t h i n g s , t h i s h a s meant t h a t t h e g r e a t name i n l i t e r a r y t h e o r y and c r i t i c i s m was i n i t i a l l y C o l e r i d g e r a t h e r t h a n A r i s t o t l e , and t h a t t h e r e a l l y I m p o r t a n t t h e o l o g i c a l I n s i g h t s and i d e a s were to be fo u n d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f d o g m a tic , con­ f e s s i o n a l , p r o p h e t i c , o r a p o l o g e t i c t h e o l o g y . I have s i n c e come t o r e g r e t b o t h o f t h e s e p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . I have g a i n e d i n c r e a s i n g r e s p e c t f o r A r i s t o t l e a s a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , and f o r t h e " t r a d i t i o n " i n t h e o l o g y . And y e t l a r g e emphases o f t h i s k i n d — ev e n a f t e r th e y have r e c e i v e d a h o s t o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n s — s t i l l have a way o f d i r e c t ­ i n g o n e ' s r e a d i n g and t h i n k i n g . The i n i t i a l s t r e s s upon t h e B l o g r a p h l a L i t e r a r i a a s opposed to t h e P o e t i c s c a u s e d me to shy away from g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c s and most f o r m a l l i t e r a r y t h e o r y a n d c r i t i c i s m when I f i r s t began to t h i n k t h r o u g h my i d e a s c o n c e r n i n g what i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e and i t s c r i t i c s may b e s t be and do. I was more a c cu sto m ed to d w e l l upon t h e s c a t t e r e d i n s i g h t s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s made by men o f l e t t e r s t h e m s e l v e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r own t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e : f o r example, D a n t e ' s De Nuova V i t a : M i l t o n ' s p r e f a c e to Samson A g o n l s t e s ; K e a t s ' L e t t e r s ; G o e t h e ' s C o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h Eckermann; H a w t h o r n e 's N oteb ooks, a n d t h e p r e f a c e s to The S c a r l e t L e t t e r and The M arble F aun; Henry Ja m es' N otebooks, p r e f a c e s , and c r i t i c a l e s s a y s ; M e l v i l l e ' s random r e m a rk s n e a r t h e b e g i n n i n g o f Moby D ick a n d t h r o u g h o u t P i e r r e ; D. H. L a w r e n c e 's L e t t e r s , and S t u d i e s i n C l a s s i c a l A merican L i t e r a t u r e ; S h a k e s p e a r e ' s comments on p l a y s and p l a y e r s i n H a m l e t, t h e P r o l o g u e to Henry I V . and i n The T e m p e s t; J o y c e ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f S te p h e n D a e d a l u s ' a e s t h e t i c p h i l o s o p h y i n P o r t r a i t o f t h e A r t i s t a s a Young Man. S te p h e n Hero, a n d t h r o u g h ­ o u t U l y s s e s andH F ln n e g a n 1s Wake; Thomas Mann's r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e a e s t h e t i c way o f l i f e i n Tonlo K roger a n d t h r o u g h o u t Magic Mountain and Dr. F a u s t u s ; S y n g e ' s p r e f a c e t o t h e Pla.vboy o f t h e W e ste rn World; S h a p i r o ' s E ssa y on Rime; V i r g i n i a W o l f f ' s The Moment and O t h e r E s s a y s , and The Death o f t h e Moth; Ts S. E l i o t i s Four Q u a r t e t s ; Yeats* I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Oxford Book o f Modern V e r s e , and The " V i s i o n . Moreover my f a v o r i t e c r i t i c s were a l l men o f l e t t e r s : Ben J o n s o n , Dr. J o h n s o n , Dryden, P ope, C o l e r i d g e , Matthew A rn o l d , T. S. E l i o t , E. M. F o r s t e r , and G r a n v l l l e - B a r k e r . The i n i t i a l s t r e s s upon p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o l o g y l e a d me t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e g r e a t men i n t h e o l o g y to be r e a d were t h e P r e S o c r a t i c s , P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e , L u c r e t l u s , P l o t i n u s , t h e more p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l o f t h e P a t r i s t i c s a n d Schoolmen, D e s c a r t e s , Hume, Locke,

390 B e r k e l e y , Kant, S p in o z a , L e i b n i z , Hegel, W i llia m James, C h a r l e s P e i r c e , B e rg s o n , S. A le x a n d e r , Dewey a n d W hitehead, r a t h e r t h a n t h e Old and New T e s t a m e n t l i t e r a t u r e s , A u g u s t i n e , t h e t h e o l o g i c a l s i d e o f t h e F a t h e r s and the Schoolmen, C a l v i n , L u t h e r , P a s c a l , Edwards, S e h l e i e r m a c h e r , H i t a c h i , K i e r k e g a a r d , N ie b u h r , T i l l i c h , B a r t h , B r u n n e r , B e rdayev, Buber, G i l s o n , o r M a r l t a i n . In sig h ts were a p t to abound i n t h e l a t t e r , b u t n o t t h e o l o g i c a l i d e a s t h a t a r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c l e a r , d i s c i p l i n e d and g e n e r a l . As a c o r r e c t i v e to t h i s s u b j e c t i v i t y and e x t r a o r d i n a r y l a c k o f b a l a n c e , I have s t r i v e n t o r e a d r a t h e r w i d e l y and w i t h g r e a t c a r e and i n t e r e s t i n a e s t h e t i c s ; i n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , t h e o r y , and c r i t i c i s m ; a n d i n t h e o l o g y . I n a e s t h e t i c s , t h e r e have been t h e g r e a t p h i l o s o p h e r s , a n d t h o s e who have made t h e a n a l y s i s o f b e a u t y t h e i r s p e c i a l c o n c e r n : P l a t o ' s Symposium. P h a e d r u s . I o n . The R e p u b l i c . Book X t h e Laws p a s s i m , a n d the Gor g l a s . i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e commen­ t a r i e s o f T a y l o r , C o r n f o r d , Demos, and Cooper; A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s and R h e t o r i c , w i t h t h e com m entaries by B u t c h e r , Cooper, and Bywater; Hume*s On T a s t e . Of T ra g e d y , and o t h e r e s s a y s ; K a n t ' s C r i t i q u e o f A e s t h e t i c Judgm ent; S a n t a y a n a ' s Sense o f B e a u t y ; S. A l e x a n d e r , Beauty and O t h e r Forms o f V a l u e : B e r g s o n 's On L a u g h t e r : Mead's Mind. S e l f , and S o c i e t y , and P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e A c t ; W h i t e h e a d ' s Symbolism. P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y . A d v e n tu r e s o f I d e a s , and Modes o f T h o u g h t; C a s s i r e r * s Language and Myth: B o n s a n a u e t ' s T h re e L e c t u r e s on A e s t h e t i c s : P e p p e r ^ s A e s t h e t i c Q u a l i t y and The B a s i s o f C r i t i c i s m i n th e A r t s ; G r e e n e 's A r t and A r t C r i t i c i s m : C o l l i n g w o o d 's P r i n c i p l e s o f A r t : P r a i l ' e A e s t h e t i c Judgment and A e s t h e t i c A n a l y s i s : L a n g e r ' s P h i l o s o p h y i n a New Key: N o r t h r o p ' s Logic o f t h e S c i e n c e s and t h e H u m a n i t i e s : B l r k h o f f ' s A e s t h e t i c M e a s u r e : M o r r i s ' S i g n s , l a n g u a g e and B e h a v i o r : R e i d ' s A Study i n A e s t h e t i c s : R i c h a r d s . Ogden a n d Woods. The F o u n d a tio n s o f A e s t h e t i c s : C l i v e B e l l ' s A r t ; C r o c e ' s A e s t h e t i c s and The Defense o f B e a u t y ; T. E. Hulm e's S p e c u l a t i o n s ; P a r k e r ' s The P r i n c i p l e s o f A e s t h e t i c s ; and M a r l t a i n 1s A r t and S c h o l a s t i c i s m . In l i t e r a r y c r itic is m , A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e tic s ; C o le rid g e 's B l o g r a p h l a L l t e r a r l a . i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h R i c h a r d s 1" C o l e r i d g e on t h e I m a g i n a t i o n : L o n g i n u s !0n t h e S u b lim e : A r i s t o p h a n e s ' F r o g s : H o r a c e 's E p i s t l e s and Ars P o e t l c a : D a n t e ' s De V u l g a r l E l o q u e n t l a and E p l s t o l a X; S c a l l g e r ’ s P o e t i c s ; B a c o n 's The N a tu r e o f P o e t r y ; S i d n e y ' s A p o lo g le f o r P o e t r l e ; B o l l e a u ' s A r t o f P o e t r y : D a n i e l ' s A D efense o f Ryme: Campion's O b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e A r t o f E n g l i s h P o e s y ; Ben Jo n s o n '.s Tim ber; D r y d e n 's An E ssay o f D ra m atic Poesy and P r e f a c e to F a b l e s A n c i e n t a n d Modern: P o p e 1s An E ssa y on C r i t i c i s m ; Addison and S t e e l e ' s S p e c t a t o r P a p e r s : Dr. J o h n s o n ' s P r e f a c e to S h a k e s p e a r e ; Lamb's On th e T r a g e d i e s o f S h a k e s p e a r e C o n s i d e r e d w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r F i t n e s s f o r S ta g e R e p r e s e n t a t i o n : t h e c o l l e c t e d e s s a y s o f De Q uincey, H a z l i t t , L ow ell, and Emerson;" W o r d s w o r th 's P r e f a c e a n d Appendix to t h e L y r i c a l B a l l a d s : S h e l l e y ' s A D e f e n se o f P o e t r y ; W hitm an's D em ocratic ? l s t a s : S c h i l l e r ' s A e s t h e t i c and P h i l o s o p h i c a l E s s a y s ; L e s s i n g ' s Lspcoon: A. S c h l e g e l ' s

391 U b er d r a m a t l s c h e K u n st und L l t e r a t u r ; F . S c h l e g e l 1s G e a c h l o h t f t d e r a l t e n und n e u e n L l t t e r a t u r ; N i e t z s c h e ' s The B i r t h o f T r a g e d y ; S c h o p e c h a e u r ' s The W orld a s W i l l a n d I d e a ; C a r l y l e ' s The H ero a s P o e t ; P o e ' s The P o e t i c P r i n c i p l e ; R u s k l n 1s O f t h e P a t h e t i c F a l l a c y ; R e y n o l d s ' D i s c o u r s e s ; M e r e d i t h ' a E s s a y o n Comedy; M a tth ew A r n o l d s E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m ; S a i n t e - B e u v e ' s C r i t i c a l E s s a y s ; J . S . M il l 's t h o u g h t s o n P o e t r y a n d I t s V a r i e t i e s ; Edward Young.' s Con . l e c t u r e s on O r i g i n a l C o m p o s i t i o n o f P o e t r y ; S a n t a y a n a ' a T h r e e Ph i l o s o p h i c a l P o e t s ; M o r e ' s S h e l b u r n e E s s a y s ; A . C. B r a d l e y ' s O x fo r d L e c t u r e s on. P o e t r y ; B a b b i t t ' s R o u s s e a u a n d R a m a n t i c i s m ; H o u sm a n 's The Name_ a n d N a t u r e o f P o e t r y ; A b e r c r o m b i e ' s The I d e a o f G r e a t P o e t r y , a nd P r i n c i p l e s o f L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m a nd P o e t r y ; I t s M u s ic a n d Mean­ i n g ; P e r c y Lubbockfe The C r a f t o f F i c t i o n ; B r o o k s and W a r r e n 's U n d e r s t a n d i n g P o e t r y a n d U n d e r s t a n d i n g F i c t i o n ; J o h n Crowe R an som ' s The New C r i t i c i s m , a n d The W o r l d ' s B o d y ; A l l e n T a t e ' s R e a c t i o n a r y ; E s s a y s o n P o e t r y an d I d e a s ; Edmund W i l s o n ' s A x e l ' s C a s t l e . The T r i p l e T h i n k e r s . The Wound and t h e Bow, a n d The S h o c k o f R e c o g n i t i o n ; G r a n v i l l e H i c k s ' The G r e a t T r a d i t i o n : S t e p h e n S p e n d e r ' s The D e s t r u c t i v e E l e m e n t . Fo r w a r d from L i b e r a l i s m ; H. R. L e a v i s 1 R e v a l u a t i o n a n d The G r e a t T r a d i t i o n ; R. P . B l a c k m u r ' s The D o u b le A g e n t a n d E s s a y s i n C r a f t and E l u c i d a t i o n ; W i n t e r s ' M a u l e 1s C u r se a n d P r i m i t i v i s m a n d D e c a d e n c e : T. E. H u lm e 'e S p e c u l a t i o n s ; C olum *s F r o m t h e s e R o o t s ; J . W. K r u t c h ' s The Modern T em p er; D a v i d D a i c h e s ' The N o v e l a n d t h e Modern W o r ld . P o e t r y and t h e Modern W o rld a n d f e e S t u d y o f L i t e r a t u r e ; K e n n e th " B u r k e ' s The P h i l o s o p h y o f L i t e r a r y Form a n d The Grammar o f M o t i v e s ; Z a b e l ' s L i t e r a r y O p i n i o n I n A m e r i c a ; L u c a s ' T r a g e d y ; E. M. F o r s t e r ' s A s p e c t s o f t h e N o v e l ; M u i r ' s The S t r u c t u r e o f t h e N o v e l ; W arren a n d W e l l e k ' s T h e o r y o f L i t e r a t u r e : R ic h a r d s' P r a c t i c a l C r it ic is m . P r in c i p l e s o f C r it ic is m a n d P h i l o s o p h y o f R h e t o r i c ; E m p son ' s S e v e n T y p e s o f A m b i g u i t y ; T. 3~. E l i o t ' s C o l l e c t e d E s s a y s . The S a c r e d Wood. P o i n t s o f V iew E s s a y s A n c i e n t an d Modern a n d A f t e r S t r a n g e G o d s; S t a l l m a n ' s C r i t i q u e s a n d E s s a y s i n C r i t i c i s m ; B e n t l e y ' s The I m p o r t a n c e o f S c r u t i n y ; S c h o r e r , M i l e s a n d M c K e n z i e ' s The F o u n d a t i o n s o f M odern L i t e r a r y J u d g m e n t; S . E. Hym an's The Armed V i s i o n ; F. 0 . M a t t h i e s s e n 8s The A c h i e v e m e n t o f T. S . E l i o t a n d A m e r ic a n R e n a i s s a n c e . I n t h e o l o g y , a p a r t from r e a d i n g t h e c l a s s i c a l t h e o l o g i a n s t h e f o l l o w i n g h a v e b e e n m o st i n f l u e n t i a l : W h ite h e a d 's R e l i g i o n in t h e M a k in g a n d P r o c e s s a n d R e a l i t y ; H. N. W lem an's The S o u r c e o f Human Good a n d The D i r e c t i v e i n H i s t o r y ; H a r t s h o r n e ' s B ey o n d Humanism. M an 's V i s i o n o f God, a n d The D i v i n e R e l a t i v i t y ; N i e b u h r ' s The N a t u r e a n d D e s t i n y o'f Man. B eyon d T r a g e d y . M o ra l Man a n d Im m oral S o c l e t y . An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n E t h i c s , a n d F a i t h an d H i s t o r y ; R ich a rd N ie b u h r ' a R e v e l a t i o n ; T i l l i c h ' s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f H i s t o r y a n d The P r o t e s t a n t E r a ; M a c i n t o s h ' s T y p es o f Modern T h e o lo g y ; K ie r k e g a a r d 's P h i l o s o p h i c a l F ragm en ts. C o n c lu d in g U n s c i e n t i f i c P o s t s c r i p t . F e a r a n d T r e m b l i n g . S i c k n e s s U n to D e a t h , a n d The C o n c e p t o f D r e a d ; N y g r e n 1s A g a p e . Nom os. a n d E r o s ; A u l e n ' s C h r i s t u e V i c t o r ; a n d J o h n K n o x 's t h r e e l i t t l e b o o k s on C h r i s t o l o g y : The Man C h r i s t J e s u s . C h r i s t t h e L ord and The M ea n in g o f C h r i s t .

And y e t my t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e o l o g y and i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e has t e n d e d to become a b s t r a c t

392 and f o r m a l i n a d i f f e r i n g way from what may be s u g g e s t e d by t h i s g e n e r a l r e a d i n g i n a e s t h e t i c s , l i t e r a r y t h e o r y and c r i t i c i s m , and t h e o l o g y . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , my t h e o l o g i c a l t y p o l o g y i s d e r i v e d from W h i t e h e a d ' s R e l i g i o n i n t h e Making: f o r Greek and s k e p t i c a l t h e o l o g y t h e r e i s "God t h e v o i d , " f o r H e b r a ic t h e o l o g y "God t h e enemy," and f o r C h r i s t i a n th e o l o g y "God t h e f r i e n d " ; my l i t e r a r y t y p o l o g y i s d e r i v e d from P. 0. M a t t h i e s s e n ' s A merican R e n a i s s a n c e , w h e r e in r e a l i s m , a l l e g o r y , symbolism, and f a n t a s y a r e d i s c u s s e d . My t h e o r y o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s and con nec­ t i o n s betw e en d i f f e r i n g k in d s o f t h e o l o g y and d i f f e r i n g k i n d s o f l i t e r a t u r e i s , 1 t h i n k , f o r t h e most p a r t my own. I n a l l t h r e e t y p o l o g i e s — t h e o l o g i c a l , l i t e r a r y , and c o n n e c t i v e — I have so u g h t t o a p p l y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f W h i t e h e a d 's a e s t h e t i c s a n d p h i l o s o p h y t o t h e problem s I n v o l v e d . Something o f t h e method and p o i n t o f view o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s h a s a l s o made i t s e l f f e l t i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . Thus my p r e f e r e n c e f o r s i m p l e r e x p l a n a ­ t i o n s i f more complex ones a r e n o t r e q u i r e d ; my s k e p t i c i s m con­ c e r n i n g many t h e o l o g i c a l and a e s t h e t i c d o c t r i n e s w i d e l y e n t e r ­ t a i n e d ; my f e e l i n g t h a t d e f i n i t e knowledge c o n c e r n i n g my theme and t h e o r y must rem a in f o r some tim e vague, u n c e r t a i n , I n c o m p l e t e , a s e n s e f o r c e r t a i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l and e m o tio n a l f a c t o r s t h a t have a way o f p u t t i n g a n end to t h o u g h t u n l e s s t h e g r e a t e s t o f c a u t i o n i s e x h i b i t e d ; t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between a b s t r a c t and c o n c r e t e s y s ­ tems; t h e em phasis upon “ s t r u c t u r e " and upon " f o rm a l" d e f i n i t i o n s o f t e r m s , p r i n c i p l e s , methods, and t e s t s ; and my g e n e r a l hope t h a t l i t e r a r y t h e o r y and c r i t i c i s m can become a s c l e a r and g e n e r a l a s any o t h e r s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r d i s c i p l i n e . By v i r t u e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i e s o f Whitehead a n d R u s s e l l , I found s m a l l c o m fo r t from t h e work done by c o n t i n e n t a l t h e o l o g i a n s , p h i l o s o p h e r s , and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s on im a g ery , symbolism, m e tap hor, and myth. T h is work i m p r e s s e d me a s too n a r r o w l y dog m a tic and o n e s i d e d , and a s e r r o n e o u s a n d p r e t e n s i o u s t h e o l o g i c a l l y , p h i l o ­ s o p h i c a l l y , and a e s t h e t i c a l l y . The t h e o l o g y of Neo-Orthodoxy, and i t s N eo-K antia n p h i l o s o p h y and a e s t h e t i c s , s t r u c k me a s i n e v e r y way l e s s c a p a b l e o f r e s o l v i n g my problem s t h a n more n a t u r a l ­ i s t i c , r e a l i s t i c , and p r o c e s s modes o f t h o u g h t . T h e i r a p p r o a c h seemed e i t h e r too m y s t i c a l , t h a t i s d e f i c i e n t i n e x p l a n a t o r y i n ­ s i g h t ; o r a s to o u n c r i t i c a l l y s y s t e m a t i c , t h a t i s a s more e l a b o r a t e a n d complex t h a n t h e f a c t s r e q u i r e d o r r e a s o n a b l e c l a i m s c o u l d demand o r J u s t i f y . What I have so u g h t to r e t a i n and r e s c u e from t h i s k in d o f m e n t a l i t y i s t h e a b i d i n g i m p o r ta n c e o f t h e P l a t o n i c D i a l o g u e s and o f t h e B i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e s — t h a t i s , t h e g e n e r a l meaning o f th e B i b l i c a l "Lo and B e h o ld J " i n te rm s o f which a l l o u r t h e o r i e s a r e judged a n d found w a n tin g . F i n a l l y , I s h o u ld l i k e t o r e f e r b r i e f l y to t h e k i n d o f books I s h o u ld l i k e to p u r s u e f u r t h e r w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f d ee p en ­ i n g t h e theme and t h e o r y o f t h i s e s s a y . From a t h e o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view, I s h o u ld l i k e to r e v ie w some o f t h e m ajor t h e o l o g i c a l pro b lem s o f t h e m a jo r p e r i o d s i n C h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y i n s o f a r a s t h e s e th ro w l i g h t upon t h e problem o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a s p e c i f i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n P o e t i c s t h a t i s a t once h i s t o r i c a l l y , c r i t i c a l l y , and c o n s t r u c t i v e l y c o h e r e n t and f u l l - b l o w n . I am t h i n k i n g e s p e c i a l l y

393 o f t h e i n i t i a l g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between J e s u s and P a u l ; t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and t h e t e n s i o n s between Greek, H e b r a i c , and C h r i s t i a n e le m e n ts i n t h e G o sp els; t h e o r t h o d o x i e s and h e r e s i e s o f t h e P a t r i s t i c , S c h o l a s t i c , and R e fo r m a tio n p e r i o d s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s betw e en A r i u s and A t h a n a s i u s , O rl g e n and C e l s u s , A u g u s tin e and P e l a g i u s , a n d t h e l i k e ; and th e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between th e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f P r o t e s t a n t , C a t h o l i c and "ecu m e n ica l" t h e o l o g i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t day. From a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p o i n t o f view, I s h o u ld l i k e to work o u t i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between t h e o l o g i e s con­ s t r u c t e d from N eo -K an tia n o r Neo-Humean p r e m i s e s , t h e g e n e r i c con­ t r a s t b etw een t h e o l o g i e s c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e p o i n t o f view o f " s u b s t a n c e " o r " p r o c e s s " p h i l o s o p h y , and t h e g e n e r i c c o n t r a s t between t h e a l t e r n a t i v e modern c osm ologie s p r e s e n t e d by W hitehead i n P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y and by R u s s e l l i n Human Knowledge; I t s Scope and L i m i t s . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , I sh o u ld l i k e to work o u t i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e r e l e v a n c e o f W h i t e h e a d 's g e n e r a l a e s t h e t i c s t o l i t e r a r y t h e o r y and c r i t i c i s m , e s p e c i a l l y t h e c h a p t e r s on "The S u b j e c t i v i s t P r i n c i p l e , " "Symbolic R e f e r e n c e , " and " P r o p o s i t i o n s " i n P a r t I I , a n d a l l t h e c h a p t e r s o f P a r t I I I on "The Theory o f P r e h e n s i o n " I n P r o c e s s and R e a l i t y ; and t h e r e l e v a n c e o f R u s s e l l ' s method o f a b s t r a c t and c o n c r e t e system s or l o g i c a l and e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s I n Human Knowledge: I t s Scope and L i m i t s . From t h e p o i n t o f view o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , I s h o u ld l i k e to d ee pen my theme and t h e o r y by d o c u m e n ta tio n from o t h e r genres—l i k e t h e e p i c and t h e n o v e l — and by a more f o r m a l s tu d y o f t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s betw een t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t e n t and l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e . I m p o r t a n t works i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n would be C a s s i r e r , P h i l o s o p h l e d e r s.vmbollschen Formen. F r e l h e l t und Form. I d e e and G e s t a l t , and many o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f D i l t h e y , R i c k e r t , a n d Windelband. But t h e r e r e a l l y a r e no b i b l i o g r a p h i e s f o r t o p i c s a s f a r f l u n g a s my theme and t h e o r y . There a r e some g r e a t p r o b le m s , i d e a s , t r a d i t i o n s , a n d grounds f o r d i f f e r e n c e i n emphasis a s w e l l a s f o r d o w n rig h t d i s a g r e e m e n t o r a s s e n t . There a r e some g r e a t i n s t i t u t i o n s , g r e a t g e n r e , and g r e a t p e r i o d s , w orks, a n d men. T here a r e a l s o a few g r e a t m i s t a k e s , o f t h e l o g i c a l , o f t h e e m p i r i c a l , and o f t h e human v a r i e t y . But t h e r e i s n o t h i n g so t i d y o r e x a c t a e a l i s t . Moreover c l a s s i f i c a t i o n I s a p h i l o s o p h i c , n o t a b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l t a s k . One does n o t c o n s u l t a l i s t o f g r e a t books o r i d e a s . One sim p ly ende avours to c o n s i d e r t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s once a g a i n and a f r e s h , w i t h Immense d i f f i c u l t y and some s u c c e s s . The p r o c e s s i s m e d ia te d by t h e b e s t t h a t h a s b e e n t h o u g h t and s a i d i n t h e p a s t , a l t h o u g h l e s s by books and t h e i r i d e a s t h a n by more i n t i m a t e and p e r v a s i v e k i n d s o f i n h e r i t a n c e l i k e la n g u a g e and p r e m i s e s f o r t h o u g h t . But t h e r e a r e a l s o h i n d r a n c e s i n too g r e a t a reverence f o r such m e d i a t o r s . And t h e r e rem a in i n any c a s e t h e n e c e s s i t i e s a n d th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d i r e c t n e s s o f i n s i g h t , f o r s p e c u l a t i v e b o l d n e s s , and f o r t h e r i g o r s o f l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s and e m p i r i c a l g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , p r o c e d u r e s t h a t r e q u i r e a somewhat r a d i c a l in d e p e n d e n c e o f I n h e r i t e d modes o f t h o u g h t and f e e l i n g , symbolism and b e h a v i o r a s such.

394 (c) S in c e I r e c e i v e d a p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n , I have had t o r e a d t h e Greek p l a y s I n t r a n s l a t i o n . For th e most p a r t , I was f o r c e d to b e g i n w i t h t h e r e n d e r i n g s i n t h e Random House Complete. Greek Drama e d i t e d by O ate s and O ' N e i l l . The p r im a r y m e r i t o f t h i s two-volume e d i t i o n was i t s a c c e s s i b i l i t y . Happy e x c e p t i o n s were t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s o f A e s c h y l u s 1 Agamemnon by Louis MacNeice, and R i c h a r d L a t t i m o r e ; o f E u r i p id e s * A l c e s t l s and S o p h o c l e s ’ A n tig o n e by Dudley F i t t s and R o b e rt F i t z g e r a l d ; o f A e s c h y l u s ’ Prometheus Bound by E d i t h H amilton; o f E u r i p i d e s ’ Medea by F r e d e r i c k P ro k o sc h ; o f S o p h o c l e s ’ King Oedipus by W illia m B u t l e r Y e a ts ; o f E u r i p i d e s ' The T r o i a n Women by R ic h a r d L a t t l m o r e ; o f A e s c h y l u s ’ Eumenldes by George Thompson; o f S o p h o c l e s ’ E l e c t r a by F r a n c i s F e r g u sso n ; o f S o p h o c l e s ' Theban Cycle by E. K. W a tlin g ; o f S o p h o c l e s ’ Oedipus Rex. E u r i p i d e s ’ H l p p o l y t u s . and A e s c h y l u s ' Prometheus Bound by David Grene i n Three Greek Dramas. The b e s t o f t h e modern t r a n s ­ l a t i o n s have r e c e n t l y been c o l l e c t e d i n t o a n e x c e l l e n t one volume e d i t i o n by Dudley F i t t s , Greek P l a y s i n Modern T r a n s l a t i o n . The most h e l p f u l books i n s o f a r a s d e v e lo p in g a g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e Greek t h e a t r e , and o f i t s d r a m a t i s t s and p l a y s , were Roy F l i c k i n g e r ' s The Greek T h e a t r e and I t s Drama; K i t t o ’ s Greek Traged.v: A L i t e r a r y S t u d y ; A r i s t o t l e ' s P o e t i c s ; and L u c a s ' T ragedy . Books t h a t have i n f l u e n c e d my g e n e r a l way o f r e g a r d i n g Greek l i f e , c u l t u r e , and c i v i l i s a t i o n a r e B u r n e t ' s E a r l y Greek P h i l o s o p h y ; Werner J a e g e r ' s P a i d e a ; Theodore Greene*s Moira: F a t e . G o o d a n d E v i l i n Greek T h o u g h t; E d i t h H a m i l t o n ' s , The Greek Way; M u r r a y 's Four S t a g e s o f Greek R e l i g i o n : C o r n f o r d ' s , From R e l i g i o n to P h i l o s o p h y ; J , E. H a r r i s o n , Prolegomena to t h e Study o f Greek R e l i g i o n . Lovejoy, The G re a t Chain o f B e in g ; N l l l s o n , The H i s t o r y o f Greek R e l i g i o n ; Whitehead, A d v e n tu r e s o f I d e a s : R u s s e l l , H i s t o r y o f W estern P h i l o s o p h y ; Nygren, E r o s . Nomos and Agape; N ieb u h r, The N a tu r e and D e s t i n y o f Manf Beyond T ra g e d y , and F a i t h and H i s t o r y ; Cochrane, C h r i s t i a n i t y and C l a s s i c a l C u l t u r e . I c o n s u l t e d many o t h e r volumes c o v e r i n g r e l a t e d t o p i c s c o n c e r n i n g t h e G reeks, f o r I was somewhat o f a s t r a n g e r i n th e a n c i e n t w orld, and w anted a f i r m e r f o o t i n g . But t h e s e were t h e volumes t h a t im­ p r e s s e d me a s b e i n g most i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o rta n t* S h a k e s p e a r e i s a more complex t o p i c . I d i d n ot come a t him naked an d a f r e s h . His p l a y s were p a r t o f my l i f e b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e y were c o n s c i o u s l y e n t e r t a i n e d a s p a r t o f my e d u c a t i o n . T h is a l s o h o l d s f o r many books a b o u t h i s p l a y s , and even f o r some books a b o u t books a b o u t h i s p l a y s . I t i s t h e r f o r e h a r d to know j u s t where to b e g i n and end. For r e a s o n s o f f a m i l i a r i t y and f on d­ n e s s , I have g e n e r a l l y used t h e K i t t r e d g e e d i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e have b e e n many e x c ep tio n s,, The two c r i t i c a l works t h a t have most p r o f o u n d l y shaped my g e n e r a l way o f r e a d i n g S h a k e s p e a re a r e A. C. B r a d l e y ' s S h a k e s p e a r e a n T ra g e d y , and H a r le y G r a n v i l l e - B a r k e r ' s P r e f a c e s t o S h a k e s p e a r e . I n t h e background t h e r e a r e Dr. J o h n s o n ' s P r e f a c e to S h a k e s p e a r e . D r y d e n 's An Essay on C r i t i c i s m , and Lamb's On th e T r a g e d i e s o f S h a k e s p e a re C o n s id e re d w i t h R e f e r e n c e to t h e i r F i t n e s s f o r S ta g e R e p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n t h e f o r e g r o u n d t h e r e a r e E. K. Chambers8 A Sheaf o f S t u d i e s . C a r o l i n e S p u r g e o n 's S h a k e s p e a r e ' s I m a g e r y . S t o l l ' s A r t and A r t i f i c e i n S h a k e s p e a r e and From

395 S h akespeare to Joyoe . Dover W i ls o n ’ s What Happens I n ’Hamlet* and The E s s e n t i a l S h a k e s p e a re . T l l l y a r d ’ s s tu d y o f t h e l a t e r p l a y s , and Wilson K n i g h t ’ s The Wheel o f F i r e . The I m p e r i a l Theme, and o t h e r s t u d i e s . But once a g a i n , one does not q u i t e c o n s t r u c t b i b l i o g r a p h i e s c o n c e r n in g th e Greek t r a g e d i a n s and S h a k e s p e a re . They a r e t h e r e — a c c e s s i b l e to everyman. One j u s t r e a d s a s c a r e f u l l y a n d w id e ly a s one can. A nything more r e q u i r e s y e a r s o f d i s c i p l i n e and medi­ tatio n . I n c o n c l u s i o n , I must say t h a t I have no p a r t i c u l a r f o n d ­ n e s s f o r th e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l b r e v i t y and i n f o r m a l i t y which t h i s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l p r o c e d u r e has i n t r o d u c e d . By b r e v i t y I r e f e r to th e s m a ll number o f books e x p l i c i t l y t a l k e d a b o u t ; by i n f o r m a l i t y , to t h e d i s c u r s i v e n e s s o f t h e manner o f p r e s e n t a t i o n . These q u a l i t i e s r e a l l y g i v e me more d i s c o m f o r t t h a n d e l i g h t . The d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t t h e s e v i r t u e s assume an i n t e l l e c t even more c a p a c i o u s and d i s c e r n i n g th a n would have been s u g g e s t e d by g r e a t e r l e n g t h and f o r m a l i t y . They a r e t h e r e b y Im proper. I s h o u ld a l s o have l i k e & to have r e c o r d e d i n some more a u s t e r e way t h a t I had worked out o f g r e a t r e v e r e n c e an d w i t h g r e a t th o r o u g h n e s s a s w e l l a s i n t h e name o f a g r e a t hope.