The World Meets Asian Tourists 9781785602191

Table of contents :
Front Cover
The World Meets Asian Tourists
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists
Introduction
Asia and Asian Tourists
Examining the Data
The Visibility of Asian Tourists
Theoretical Perspectives
Conclusion
Chapter 2 Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism: The Case of China
Introduction
Evolution of Tourism Policies/Regulations
Tourism Legislation
The Tourism Law
Visa Facilitation
Conclusion
Chapter 3 Making Sense of Seasons
Introduction
Tourism Seasonality in Asia
Impacts of Seasonality on Destinations
Research Method
Institutional Holidays in Key Asian Countries
Outbound Seasonality Patterns
Key Holidays and Festivals
Conclusion
Chapter 4 Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior
Introduction
Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior
Being Good Tourists
Social Representations Theory
Research Methods
Research Results
Conclusion
Chapter 5 Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists
Introduction
Learning from Outbound Tourism
The Cultural Legacy of Chinese History and Confucius
Research Methods
Blog Studies
Interview Studies
Questionnaire Studies
Research Results
Blog Studies
Interview Studies
Questionnaire Studies
Forces Influencing Learning Outcomes
Conclusion
Chapter 6 Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights
Introduction
Understanding and Managing Cultural Differences
Study Methods
Study Results
Chinese Passengers
Incident Analysis
Indian Passengers
Incident Analysis
Japanese Passengers
Incident Analysis
Korean Passengers
Incident Analysis
Commonalities and Cultural Diversity
Crew Perspectives
Qualities to Manage Cultural Situations
Conclusion
Chapter 7 Thai Tourists on Tour: The Practice of Designing Successful Tours
Introduction
Thai Group Tourists
Thai Tourists and Itineraries
Research Methods
Study Results
Whisky Tour in the United Kingdom
Holocaust Memorial Tour in Poland
King Bhumibol’s Childhood in Lausanne
Conclusion
Chapter 8 Enclave Resorts in Mauritius: Modifying Services for Chinese Tourists
Introduction
Tourism Development in Mauritius
Promoting Mauritius in China
Enclave Resorts Model
Study Methods
Study Results
Cultural Behavior
Food and Beverage
Language
Facilities and Service Experiences
Conclusion
Chapter 9 Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists: Management Implications
Introduction
The China Link to Europe
Research Methods
Research Procedures
Study Results
Conclusion
Chapter 10 Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market
Introduction
Trends in Australia’s Food Tourism
Korean Tourism Markets to Australia
Korean Tourists’ Preferences and Perceptions
A Sense of Landscapes
A Sense of Local Food Experience
Multicultural Food and Ethnic Restaurants
Health Conscious Markets and Healthy Food Shopping
Challenging Issues for Food Tourism Development
Conclusion
Chapter 11 Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists
Introduction
Managing Theme Parks
Guest Satisfaction in US Theme Parks
Guest Satisfaction in Chinese Theme Parks
Florida Context and Visitor Trends
Research Methods
Study Results
Conclusion
Chapter 12 Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks: Asian Tourists in South Central Europe
Introduction
Asian Tourists to South Central Europe
Study Methods
Guidebooks’ Representation of Iconic Sacred Sites
St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna
Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Zagreb
St. Stephen’s Basilica in Budapest
St Nicolas’s Cathedral in Ljubljana
Conclusion
Chapter 13 Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia
Introduction
Factors Influencing Chinese Tourism to Croatia
China’s Interest in the CEE Countries
Chinese-Croatian Relations through History
Chinese Tourism in Croatia
Chinese Tourist Behavior in Croatia
Conclusion
Chapter 14 Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists
Introduction
Landscape Perceptions and Preferences
Interpreting Landscapes in Tourism
Chinese Tourism in Natural Areas
Interpreting Landscapes for Chinese Tourists
Chinese Perceptions of Australian Landscapes
Conclusion
Chapter 15 Talking About New Chinese Tourists: Managers’ Perspectives
Introduction
Stakeholders’ Attitudes to New Chinese Tourism
Context of the Study
Study Methods
Study Findings
Stakeholders’ Perspectives towards Chinese Outbound Tourism Management
Stakeholders’ Attitudes toward Different Chinese Futures
Conclusion
Chapter 16 Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad
Introduction
Japanese Outbound Tourism in Review
Brief History of Japanese Outbound Tourism
Screen-Based Images of Places
Anime Pilgrimage in Japan
Miyazaki Anime Films and Nature
World Masterpiece Theater
Commonality between Miyazaki Anime and World Masterpiece Theater
Cases of Anime
“Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” (Kazeno Tanino Naushika)
“Laputa: Castle in the Sky” (Tenkuno Shiro Raputa)
Hybrid Cases: “Anne of Green Gables” and “A Dog of Flanders”
Conclusion
Chapter 17 Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans
Introduction
Tourism Patterns and Future Plans
Sampling and Instrumentation
Sample Characteristics
Multi-Destination Preferences
Trip Length
Prospective Travel Trajectory
Factors Affecting Trip Choices
Conclusion
Chapter 18 Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World
Introduction
Indian Student Travel
Study Methods
Study Results
Previous Travel Experience
Conclusion
Chapter 19 Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations
Introduction
Theoretical Lenses
Applying the Theoretical Lenses
Technological Assistance
Strategic Issues
Direction
About the Authors
References
Further Reading

Citation preview

Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice Volume 7

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice Series Editors: Jafar Jafari Department of Hospitality and Tourism, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, WI 54751, USA. Tel +1 (715) 232 2339; Email Liping A. Cai Purdue Tourism and Hospitality Research Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA. Tel +1 (765) 494 8384; Email Recognizing the increasing gap between what is researched in academic community and what is practiced in industry, this series aims to bring together academic and industry leaders in their respective fields to discuss, exchange, and debate issues critical to the advancement of tourism. The book series intends to not only create a platform for academics and practitioners to share theories and practices with each other, but more importantly, to serve as a collaborative venue for meaningful synthesis. Each volume will feature a distinct theme by focusing on a current or upcoming niche or “hot” topic. It shows how theories and practices inform each other; how both have evolved, advanced, and been applied; and how industry best practices have benefited from, and contributed to, theoretical developments. Volume editors have both strong academic credentials and significant consulting or other industry engagement experiences. Chapter contributors will be identified through professional conferences and trade conventions. In general, the book series seeks a synergy of how concepts can inform actions, and vice versa. The book series will inspire a new generation of researchers who can translate academic discoveries to deliverable results valuable to practitioners.

Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice Volume 7

The World Meets Asian Tourists

EDITORS PHILIP L. PEARCE James Cook University, Australia

MAO-YING WU Zhejiang University, China

United Kingdom • North America • Japan India • Malaysia • China

Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2017 Copyright r 2017 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permissions service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-78560-219-1 ISSN: 2042-1443 (Series)

ISOQAR certified Management System, awarded to Emerald for adherence to Environmental standard ISO 14001:2004. Certificate Number 1985 ISO 14001

Contents

Preface

ix

Chapter 1 Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists Philip L. Pearce and Mao-Ying Wu

1

Chapter 2 Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism: The Case of China Songshan (Sam) Huang Chapter 3 Making Sense of Seasons Tingzhen Chen

21

39

Chapter 4 Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior Mao-Ying Wu

57

Chapter 5 Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists Huan Lu and Philip L. Pearce

73

Chapter 6 Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights Andrea Grout

93

Chapter 7 Thai Tourists on Tour: The Practice of Designing Successful Tours 111 Vorawan Kanlayanasukho and Philip L. Pearce

vi

Contents

Chapter 8 Enclave Resorts in Mauritius: Modifying Services for Chinese Tourists 127 Perunjodi Naidoo and Prabha Ramseook-Munhurrun Chapter 9 Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists: Management Implications Mao-Ying Wu and Philip L. Pearce

149

Chapter 10 Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market Aise KyoungJin Kim

169

Chapter 11 Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists Janice Scarinci and Gene Jeffers

187

Chapter 12 Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks: Asian Tourists in South Central Europe 199 Miha Koderman and Anton Gosar Chapter 13 Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia Nevenka Cˇavlek

213

Chapter 14 Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists Karen Hughes

231

Chapter 15 Talking About New Chinese Tourists: Managers’ Perspectives Amy M. Osmond Chapter 16 Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad Chiemi Yagi and Philip L. Pearce

247

267

Chapter 17 Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans 287 Kim Ieng Loi Chapter 18 Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World Jenny H. Panchal

305

Contents

vii

Chapter 19 Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations Philip L. Pearce and Mao-Ying Wu

325

About the Authors

345

References

351

This page intentionally left blank

Preface

A seismic shift has occurred in the 21st century. It is not so much a shift of the continental plates which organize the world’s surface, but a shift in the relationships among the people of those land masses. These relationships were previously forged by the view that the many citizens of Asian countries were hard working but relatively poor. In the countries beyond Asia, the products of this hard work were familiar with such manufacturing designations as “Made in Japan,” “Made in Korea,” and “Made in China” adorning many household and industrial items. In the middle of the 20th century, the notion that the citizens of these countries would become the tourists of the 21st century was barely conceivable. By the end of the millennium, it was apparent that this was an old fashioned view. The world had indeed begun to welcome Asian tourists. Regrettably, the welcome given to the new Asian tourists was at best haphazard. The world meeting Asian tourists was not very well prepared for their arrival. Any examination of the 20th century curriculum of schools in the continents outbound Asian tourists started to visit—whether that be schools in Europe, North America, or Australia—will quickly reveal a missing agenda. Most citizens outside Asia had not learned about or studied Asian history, geography, politics, or culture. Meeting Asian tourists, both in earlier decades, and to some extent in contemporary times, was and may be enacted in a spirit of goodwill, but such welcomes are set against a background of ignorance and unfamiliarity with the customs, needs, and cultures of the visiting tourists. The editors of this volume, one Australian Professor and one younger Chinese scholar, can relay one recent small encounter illustrating this unfamiliarity. At a conference in Australia, they acted as hosts to two Chinese colleagues who were on their first visit to a Western country. The party drove to a remote rural landscape on a very hot summer’s day and stopped at a small roadside cafe´ for lunch. The Chinese guests asked for hot water to accompany their meal (the need for hot water to drink being a common

x

Preface

Chinese practice). Somewhat confused by the request, the young teenage waiter serving at the table looked at his Australian compatriot, glanced outside at the heat charred landscape, and said conspiratorially, “They want what? Isn’t it damn well hot enough already! Crazy Asians! Ok I will get some.” For some time and in some different ways, the editors of this work have identified and seen a need to provide a focus in tourism research on Asian tourists traveling out of Asia. As a Chinese scholar educated in Australia, Mao-Ying Wu, has traveled to Europe, America, and around Australia and seen many Asian faces in the locations visited. She has wondered about their motivations, their experiences, and the effects of such tourist experiences on their lives. Philip Pearce has been fortunate to visit many Asian countries, and for some time he has tried to understand the problems and possibilities in cross-cultural and cross-continental encounters. These combined interests stimulated their desire to cooperate and source papers from a range of colleagues on the challenge of meeting Asian tourists. This work brings together original contributions exploring these themes. For the editors, and no doubt many of the authors of this volume, there is a lot more to do, more countries and forms of contact to be explored, but the sheer scale of out of Asia tourism suggest that the need to conduct these sorts of studies will be necessary and required in the evolution of tourism studies. Both editors would like to thank Professor Jafar Jafari for supporting the project and being a friend as well as a diligent Series editor. Mao-Ying Wu would like to thank Australian Endeavour Award, which enabled her Australia academic trip. With the sponsorship, she made her first out-of Asia travel, which inspired more ongoing trips in and out of Asia. She is also grateful to Philip Pearce, her academic mentor, as well as his family and friends, who offered unconditional support. Philip Pearce expresses his appreciation to all the chapter authors and his internationally minded friends, near and far, who have combined to generate his ongoing interest in the meeting and mixing of people thorough tourism. Philip Pearce Townsville, Australia Mao-Ying Wu Hangzhou, China March 2016

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION Meeting Asian Tourists Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Mao-Ying Wu Zhejiang University, China

Abstract: This introductory chapter defines and notes the development of tourism out of Asia as a new force in global human communication. The complexities and some efficiencies in defining Asia are reviewed. The chapter considers dispersal patterns from a number of Asian countries and notes the chief destinations as provided by current statistical counts. Key issues arising from attempts to interpret these data are noted. The importance of out of Asia tourists is confirmed through the material presented. The visibility of Asian tourists is considered and the subtleties of recognizing intra-Asian differences are noted. Some select theoretical approaches focussing on societies in contact are introduced. These theories offer pathways to bring academic and managerial insights to this evolving phenomenon. Keywords: Asia outbound; history; patterns; interaction; challenges

INTRODUCTION International tourism has many consequences. Through tourism, some become rich. Tourists themselves may enjoy special and privileged

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 1 19 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007001

2

The World Meets Asian Tourists

experiences. In most places, tourism brings a confusing mix of local advantages and disadvantages. But, above all, tourism produces encounters among people from different continents on a scale that is unsurpassed in human history. Yes, civilizations have met in past times, but typically in battle and warfare (Huntington, 1998; Maoz, 2009). In terms of peaceful encounters among citizens, tourism has stimulated the widest and most extensive intercontinental contact ever seen (Ferguson, 2012). The growth of outbound tourism from Asia is a major part of this intercontinental contact. These large scale encounters emerged predominantly in the late 20th century and have continued to flourish in the early 21st century. It is this topic of outbound Asian tourism and how the rest of the world meets and manages these tourists which is at the forefront of the book. This chapter introduces and frames this interest. The present work has some companion volumes. Some authors have considered how Westerners visit the rest of the world including Asia (Van Egmond, 2007). Asian domestic tourists who travel specifically within their own countries have been considered (Ghimire, 2001). Others have studied and pursued the topic of Asian tourists traveling within the wider Asian region (Winter, Teo, & Chang, 2009). Recently, Li (2016) edited a book about Chinese outbound tourism with a focus on tourism trends and travel patterns from this single Asian country. Although these various encounters and approaches are interesting, they are not the same as the direction taken in this book. Instead, it will be argued that for many Asian tourists, domestic and regional journeys are stepping stones in a pathway taking them outside of their own continent. In this book our main concern is with how people outside the region welcome, interact with, and manage the new groups of out of Asia tourists. The focus on interacting with and managing Asian tourists requires several lines of introduction. One necessary pathway is to understand what authors and stakeholders in the tourism management space mean when the expression Asian tourists is employed. This set of points highlights some of the major and lesser Asian markets. Other tracks to be explored include specifying the various types of Asian tourists. Holiday tourists, or pleasure vacationers as they are labeled in some North American contexts, are the group of primary interest but the roles that the other segments (business travelers, international Asian students, those who visit friends and relatives) have played in shaping views of Asian people generally will be reviewed. A broad canvas of the routes and directions taken out of Asia by continental tourists will be considered, though the authors are aware that these data are dynamic and have been and will continue to change rapidly,

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

3

not just in numbers but also in patterns. Some major tourism linked conceptual schemes and approaches, notably those which help explain how groups in contact view one another, provide some integrative considerations to inform the interaction challenges inherent in these new mobilities. In essence, the aim of this chapter and the whole book is to discuss key touch points framing and understanding what is happening and what could happen when the world meets Asian tourists.

ASIA AND ASIAN TOURISTS Most continents are easy to define. Africa, Antarctica, and Australia are “island” continents. North and South America are easily categorized due to the shape of their landforms and the demarcation line provided by the Panama Canal. Distinguishing Europe from Asia is a little more complex. For those who travel from Turkey into Europe, there is a road sign on the outskirts of Istanbul which announces “You are now leaving Asia and entering Europe.” The Asian-European border here is the River Bosphorus, a part of modern day Istanbul. This imposing feature has literally been an important watershed in the history of the world, but few now reliably refer to eastern Turkey and the Middle East as Asia. Russia too, is arguably geographically linked to Asia but represents an anomaly in any easy global classification scheme. Clearly, simple geography is helpful but not a complete solution to the issue. It is important to turn to other administrative measures, as well as historical views and contemporary imagery to construct a useful approach when thinking about Asian tourists. The standard cartographic representation of Asia can be juxtaposed with the statistical subdivisions of global tourism movements used by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). The approach is one of a number of administrative links and classifications but is of particular interest because the statistics about global tourism arrivals and departures follow these UNWTO groupings. Western and central Asia are not considered in this work for multiple reasons. At this time, countries in these sub-regions require separate analysis due in different cases to current unrest, powerful travel restrictions, the small volumes of outbound tourists, and markedly different cultural histories. The UNWTO subdivision as indicated in Table 1 releases Turkey and the Middle East from the Asian family. It also excludes the countries which have emerged following the disintegration of the former USSR. These divisions and separations will be followed in this book, not only because

4

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 1.

UNWTO Classification of Countries Designated as Asia

North-East Asia China Hong Kong (China) Japan Korea, D P Rp Korea, Republic of Macao (China) Mongolia Taiwan (PR China)

South-East Asia Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao P.D.R. Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Timor-Leste Vietnam

South Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka

Source: UNWTO (2015a).

the UNWTO figures are organized in this way but also other scholarly accounts tend to adopt this view of Asia as a relatively well integrated designation (Blainey, 2004; Morris, 2011). The present interest in these Asian countries lies in the extent to which they are currently providing outbound tourists. This orientation provides a more concentrated list of special interest; in effect a strategic top 10 which provides tourists to the rest of the world. The selected members of the list which will be the focus of interest in this book are China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Taiwan (People’s Republic of China), the Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and India. Hong Kong and Macao, as the two special administrative regions of China, are of importance in this book because they offer a first window to the Western world for so many Chinese tourists. The division of South East Asian, North East Asian, and South Asian countries into those of greater and lesser interest for this book is largely due to matters of scale, economic development, and their relative position in the statistical information provided by UNWTO (2015c). Countries such as the Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, and Timor-Leste with small populations are already or may become key destinations but in terms of scale they are unlikely to ever be important source locations. Select citizens of Brunei Darussalam have the money to travel but again the sheer impact of a country with a population of less than one half of million is relatively minor. Several countries with larger populations are on the cusp

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

5

of becoming important in the outbound tourism statistics, bearing in mind that these numbers include domestic workers, students, and strong Visiting family and friends (VFR)-linked travel. Vietnam and Pakistan head the list of these emerging players. Poverty, political restrictions, and unrest limit the current role of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, the Lao Republic, Cambodia, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Before presenting fuller documentation justifying and elaborating on the selection of these key Asian locations, it is important to consider any unwanted intellectual baggage being incorporated into this select discussion. In particular, the designation of these Asian countries as being of special interest needs to be set in the context of a reflexive and critical theory account of the research and researchers’ interests (Tribe, 2008, 2009). Therefore, it is important to consider the extent to which the very terms Asia and Asian tourists are Western-centric and possibly offensive. Bowring (1987) suggests the term “Asia” was invented by Europeans. It was indeed the European explorers who provided the terms now used to view the globe (Ferguson, 2012). Consequently, the concept Asia did not originally exist among its people. Even now, the Chinese use a character for Asia which simply denotes the sound “A.” Terms used in China during its history, such as the middle kingdom, denoted a different view of the organization of the planet and its peripheries (Morris, 2011). Instead, the concept of Asia has been propagated by European geographers, politicians, and textbook authors. Thus, the term Asia is an external nomenclature, one imposed by those outside the region. Nevertheless, and importantly, Asia and Asians do not appear to be terms which are deeply offensive (Sheridan, 1999). There are no advocacy movements suggesting that the expressions should be discarded. The terms are perhaps so inclusive that until one deliberately attaches pejorative adjectives to them, few are troubled by their rather neutral connotations. The more detailed documentation of the influence of the strategic 10 Asian countries and their importance in shaping outbound tourism beyond that continent are considered through examining six regions of the world in Table 2. Hong Kong data are added to the strategic 10 to make special points about Asian outbound travel. The data were extracted from the most recent compilation of world tourism statistics at the time of writing (UNWTO, 2015c). The information missing in the tables was not available or not defined for the relevant country. Some locations simply do not report or have not made their data available at this level. A country of some interest to this discussion, the United Arab Emirates, is a special case and will be considered further presently. In Table 2, the Asian source

6

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 2.

Destinations Source Countries

China India Indonesia Japan Philippines Thailand South Korea Malaysia Taiwan Hong Kong

Asian Tourists to Selected Key Countries (Year 2013) Mediterranean

Western Europe

Northern Europe and Russia

Italy

Egypt The Germany Switzerland Russia United Kingdom

289,682 199,253 17,919 454,465 27,922 22,843 68,403 19,742 15,175 31,944

55,453 67,401 25,885 31,181 25,297 10,528 22,558 32,809 7,242 N/A

196,000 375,000 26,000 221,000 22,000 75,000 202,000 171,000 37,000 163,000

870,748 189,534 N/A 711,529 N/A N/A 223,782 N/A 114,864 N/A

704,945 212,960 42,154 286,681 8,334 77,341 133,184 35,413 61,433 64,833

Oceania

Finland Australia New Zea

1,071,515 79,379 95,542 16,083 21,088 3,450 102,408 106,769 149,213 1,151 23,919 8,926 94,922 15,855 16,127 2,018 15,767 8,182 20,099 10,291

Source: UNWTO (2015c). Note: Due to the availability of data, some of the key destinations (e.g., France, Sweden, Spain, Austria, and Greece) for Asian tourists are not listed in the current table.

countries are ordered in terms of their total population as available in 2015 (Population Reference Bureau, 2015). The relevant statistics for this ranking in terms of millions of inhabitants are China 1,364, India 1,296, Indonesia 251, Japan 127, Philippines, 100.1, Thailand 66.4, South Korea 50.4, Malaysia 30.1, and Singapore 5.5. By ordering the source Asian countries according to population, it is immediately apparent whether or not the pattern of outbound figures follows or departs from this population based ranking of the countries. Another kind of highly relevant information about Asian tourists and their role in non-Asian destinations lies in considering their proportion compared to those from other places. Table 3 considers the percentage of Asian tourists from the three regions in Asia under consideration as a percentage of all tourists to the host country.

Examining the Data There are some key points in the preceding Tables which form a useful context for the aims of this book. It is clear from all the data assembled that

708,770 168,880 141,610 324,320 66,760 75,300 197,520 278,140 107,680 183,460

228 30 13 74 10 20 50 28 21 28

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists 013)

Table 2.

rthern Europe and Russia ia

Oceania

Africa

Finland Australia New South Zealand Africa

1,515 79,379 5,542 16,083 1,088 3,450 2,408 106,769 9,213 1,151 3,919 8,926 4,922 15,855 6,127 2,018 5,767 8,182 0,099 10,291

708,770 168,880 141,610 324,320 66,760 75,300 197,520 278,140 107,680 183,460

228,928 151,053 30,976 112,100 13,712 6,254 74,560 41,099 10,432 17,011 20,704 9,103 50,992 21,756 28,976 10,544 21,776 11,700 28,080 N/A

(Continued) South America

Mauritius Brazil Chile

41,913 57,255 1,852 1,768 1,821 331 2,778 3,174 N/A 1,449

7

Peru

North America

The United States

Canada

60,410 11,289 12,884 1,474,408 352,597 22,719 N/A N/A 859,156 147,099 N/A 723 1,891 88,652 18,487 87,225 14,704 67,639 3,698,073 224,858 N/A 838 2,597 200,521 65,373 N/A 649 1,316 88,163 17,663 44,339 10,796 14,000 1,251,432 144,583 N/A N/A 1,556 76,247 11,937 N/A 1,626 3,243 290,000 62,038 N/A N/A 1,455 122,134 129,068

ain, Austria, and

China, Japan, South Korea, and, where the information is available, India, are the key markets driving the Asian outbound wave. The data from these individual countries are also reflected in the regional data provided in Table 3. The North East Asian region consistently provides the highest figures for relative market share among the three Asian sub-regions being considered. In many destinations, China dominates the tables of figures although the highest number in the whole set is occupied by the 3.69 million Japanese tourists venturing to the United States. The importance of these dominant source countries is reflected in the chapters in this book where more specific studies about meeting and managing Chinese, Japanese, and Korean tourists are a feature of the work. Nevertheless, Indian tourists are emerging as important for some regions, notably Africa (and Saudi Arabia), and dominate the South Asia outbound figures. There are special linkages in terms of employment as well proximity which make these travels to the workplaces of the Middle East and Africa noteworthy for the sub-continent market and diaspora. There are also some solid figures representing a middle tier of Asian outbound tourists with Malaysia, Taiwan, and Thailand providing cohorts of

8

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Table 3.

Total Inbound Tourism and Proportions of Asians in Key Markets

Host Country and Total Tourists (Millions)

Asian Regions-Percentage of Total North East Asia

South South Asia East Asia

Asian Tourists (Total)

Countries boarding the Mediterranean Spain (60.6) 3.28 Italy (47.7) 1.81 Israel (2.96) 2.60 Egypt (9.46) 1.16

0.17 0.62 1.47 0.92

1.55 0.26 2.29 1.04

5.00% 2.69% 6.36% 3.12%

Northern Europe and Russian Federation Norway (4.96) 5.76 Sweden (18.81) 4.08 Finland (7.63) 4.02 Russia (30.79) 5.10

1.72 0.33 0.45

4.62 1.79 1.72 1.02

10.38% 7.59% 6.07% 5.57% 5.17% 4.03% 9.56% 19.61%

Western Europe United Kingdom (32.8) France (84.72) Germany (28.12) Switzerland (8.96)

2.50 2.84 6.55 13.95

0.60 2.37

1.34 1.19 2.41 3.34

Africa and Saudi Arabia South Africa (9.53) Mauritius (0.99) Saudi Arabia(13.38)

2.37 4.99 0.39

1.52 6.01 24.62

0.65 1.00 2.50

4.44% 12.00% 25.51%

23.97 14.95

3.50 1.28

15.08 4.49

42.55% 20.72%

1.09 3.30 3.14

0.09 0.39 0.14

0.03 0.92 0.31

1.21% 4.61% 3.59%

5.51 10.62

1.16 1.41

0.95 0.98

7.62% 13.01%

Oceania Australia (6.38) New Zealand (2.71) South America Chile (3.57) Brazil (5.81) Peru (3.16) North America Canada (16.59) The United States (69.76) Source: UNWTO (2015b, 2015c).

1.33

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

9

tourists to Europe. These source countries are featured in specific studies of Asian outbound tourists in this book as their cultural and historical connections generate some distinctive needs and operational challenges. Included among these challenges is the simple process that in many contexts they are mistaken for Chinese tourists. This is a non-trivial theme which will be considered further in a later section of the present chapter. Another highlight of the set of Tables lies in understanding that two of the smaller source countries, Hong Kong and Singapore, consistently provide relatively large numbers of tourists compared to some of the more populous countries. These relatively high rates of outbound travel by Singaporeans, and those from Hong Kong, are not confined to Oceania or the United Kingdom, but penetrate across many destinations, notably the United States, Canada, Russia, Finland, and most of Western Europe. There are several kinds of information not provided in these snapshot tables. The actual increase in the arrival figures across recent years as well as the percentage growth for any market both matter to countries and sub regions. Dynamic data of these kinds assist destination planning concerns. Still, many reports commenting on tourism activity tend to be overly concerned with percentage growth, missing at least three points of pivotal concern. First, it is the actual number of tourists arriving who matter. Small source countries are unlikely to generate large increases in percentage growth but, as already highlighted for Singapore and Hong Kong, they may provide steady numbers for predictable planning. Second, countries with high growth percentages may be doing so from a low base so their relative importance to a region may still not be considerable. Additionally, focusing exclusively on issues of growth frequently overlooks what kinds of tourists are arriving and fails to consider how experienced they are as tourists, whether or not they are repeaters, what sorts of holiday they seek, and what amounts of money they are likely to spend. It is to some extent the province of tourism forecasters and econometricians to provide dynamic and forward looking data. Inevitably they must build their models with assumptions about the broader economic climate and the continuing appeal of specific locations (PATA, 2015). This kind of work is not the province of this book, but there is a clear recognition that outbound forecasts are regularly seen as keys to global tourism wellbeing and very likely to be driven by China, India, and the continuing roles of Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, and Taiwan (PATA, 2015). Indonesia is also seen as having a considerable future in the longer term as a provider of tourists but is often not predicted to be a major player for at least another decade.

10

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Some select figures for the 15-year time period of forecasts for 2030 buttress the importance of this book and add to the snapshot of data already described. The UNWTO document “Tourism towards 2030 Global Overview” predicts 541 million Asian outbound tourists by 2050, a figure which represents a major growth compared to 204 million in 2010 (UNWTO, 2011). Nevertheless, in terms of actual outbound participation, there is still much room for even longer term growth with the 2030 figures built on 12/100 persons traveling in 2030. By way of contrast, the involvement in international travel for Europeans is predicted to be 89/100 at that time. Inevitably, some years into the future the numbers will be updated. Perhaps some will figures have changed dramatically but the core purpose of building this initial framework will remain unchanged. The data identify multiple countries outside of Asia where there are solid numbers of outbound Asian tourists. Further, the forecasters from various sources agree that this presence is likely to increase rather than stabilize or decline. Several academic commentaries on these kinds of data help inform this review. Hall (2009) provides an extensive catalogue of organizations linked to the analysis of information and concerned with Asian tourism. Some of these organization offer reports and data different from those of UNWTO reported in this chapter. The variability in the figures can often be accounted for by attending to distinctions between estimates and actual arrivals, between tourists with different trip purposes and arrival numbers versus bed nights. The preceding figures attended to either the total inbound arrivals to the locations of interest or proportions of total arrivals from the Asian source countries. None of these data address the effects of repeat or indeed multiple destination travels. For example, Zoltan and McKercher (2015) remind analysts that that there are many touring patterns. Several of these involve multicountry tours on the one holiday. Chinese and Japanese tourists on their first trip to Europe are likely to be going not just to France but quite possibly also to Germany, Switzerland, and elsewhere. Some of the patterns in the data are also heavily influenced by what Thirumaran (2009) has labeled affinity tourism; that is travel to places where through religion, ethnic links, or colonial ties there are well defined connections between the citizens and culture of a specific pair of countries. Hong Kong tourists to the United Kingdom and Indian tourist to Mauritius are examples of these links. One way to express the complexities in these data is to view the explanation of the arrival statistics as overdetermined. That is, in seeking explanation of the flows, a suite of factors operate in conjunction with one another, varying for any pairing of source and destination countries.

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

11

In essence, this is a wicked problem. The term refers to topics and issues where four major reasons create interpretation difficulties: incomplete or contradictory knowledge; the large number of people and opinions involved; the economic importance of the issue; and the interconnected nature of the problem with other problems (Rittel & Webber, 1984). One approach to a wicked problem lies in modestly recognizing that solving a part of it is an achievement. In this book, the flow of out of Asia tourists in all its diversity and complexity is in many ways like a wicked problem. Nevertheless, through a set of chapters and small attacks on the whole, some promise of new insights rather than a total model or formula for the task at hand is a modest but worthwhile effort. The data are also inherently noisy because for the interest in holiday tourists there are confounding groups of people arriving at international borders. The figures record the flow of seasonal workers, those engaged in cross border shopping and those undertaking focused VFR tourism. Further, the conflicts and tensions in some countries and the attempt of many refugees and abused communities to relocate themselves challenges the orderly collection of arrivals data and figures. It is not the intent of this book to scrutinize all these intercontinental travel figures in further detail; instead the value of reporting these data lies in correcting views built on personal experiences with tourist groups in particular places and on specific occasions. As an example of these processes, one of the editors of this book has visited Rotorua, the center of the thermal sites and volcanic activity in New Zealand’s North Island. On the days of visiting that city in summer 2013, it appeared that Indian tourists were everywhere—in the hotels, luxuriating in the spas, at the shops, walking around the attractions and participating in the adventure activities. In another part of the world, when both editors book visited the Swarovski tourist center near Innsbruck, again Indian tourists seemed to be everywhere. It is easy to overgeneralize from immediate personal experiences and think that Indian tourists are abundant, even dominant, in New Zealand and Austria (Kahneman, 2011). These views are corrected by the broader data which reveal that there were almost 10 times as many Chinese and more than twice as many Japanese who spent time in New Zealand that year compared to their Indian counterparts. Further, in Austria, tourists from India constitute a tiny market share of 0.17%. Of course one specific implication deriving from the personal experiences lies in recognizing that specific sites may have very concentrated tourist numbers; quite literally nearly all those who are from that nationality may go to a small number of key sites. One of the chapters

12

The World Meets Asian Tourists

explores this kind of site specific impact by focusing on Chinese tourists to the cathedrals of Florence and Milan. In another chapter, the special appeal of anime to Japanese tourists may see a large number of people of that nationality at a site where imagination and fantasy elements developed in their contemporary media draw popular culture enthusiasts to a specific location.

The Visibility of Asian Tourists There is a rich vein of tourism humor which mocks the dress and appearance of some tourist groups (Cohen, 2011). The more aggressive forms of wit are explained by superiority theory where one group seeks to establish its status, appearance and codes of conduct as more sophisticated and discerning than the other (Pearce & Pabel, 2015). More engaging forms of host self-deprecatory humor, which are better appreciated by many tourists, eschew these superiority driven jokes and remarks. Still, irrespective of the humor employed, the jokes are often built on quickly being able to identify a group of tourists in terms of their nationality or origins. Beer drinking, sports loving Australians are one stereotype, but so too are socks and sandal wearing, pale skinned Englishmen and loud, abrasive Americans. In the Asian context, camera toting groups of older, often over-dressed Japanese group tourists are a further classification, but so too are smartly dressed, young Chinese couples sometimes sporting expensive matching outfits (Tran, 2011). The classification of people during encounters is inevitably a part of human exchange and the importance of understanding the other has had a firm place in anthropology, sociology, and psychology studies in tourism (Pizam, 1999; Reisinger & Moufakkir, 2013; Van den Berghe, 1994). There is often a strong commercial imperative among tourism personnel, such as taxi drivers, tour guides, and shop owners prompting these hosts to identify the national identity of the tourists and gauge their spending power. Issues concerned with the classification of Asian tourists border on concerns about stereotyping, racism, and prejudice. Some time ago, Dann (1993) suggested that the concept of nationality was obsolete and a more fine-grained approach to understanding arriving tourist groups was needed. The basis of this argument was built on the heterogeneity of people within countries, the mobility of tourists transferring among countries as a part of their lives, and perhaps above all, a fear of superficial generalizations and mistreatment when people are assigned and then viewed in routine ways

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

13

due to the one label. Respecting individual differences is an important and valued approach to any interaction. Nevertheless, there is a homogeneity among subgroupings of people from some parts of Asia which promote the ready use of standard classifications. The point can be illustrated by the experience of one of the editors when providing a first guest lecture in Xi’an, China. When asked to describe a particularly enthusiastic student, who was not present at the event, to a Chinese colleague the following account was offered: “the young lady was slim, petite, with long black hair, a round face and glasses.” It took a minute before the Chinese colleague stopped laughing. The story, though, has a positive ending; the young lady is the author of one of the chapters in this book. Morris (2011) has pointed out that the limited in-migration to many Asian countries over at least the last 1,000 years has meant a narrower range of physical characteristics among the citizens than is typically viewed in the relatively newly settled continents, such as North and South America and Australia. In Europe too, the diversity of people’s physical appearance is often marked. Still, Dann’s original points remain valid in the Asian context. There is a significant Chinese diaspora and an influential Indian out-migration affecting several countries in the region. Therefore, it is very likely that a Chinese face in Europe may in fact belong to a Singaporean, or a Malaysian citizen, or yet again, due to different historical circumstances, the person may be from Taiwan or Hong Kong. It is particularly noteworthy that many Westerners, including those who work in tourism locations, do not easily decipher the country codes and characteristics of those arriving from Asia. This may be a bad start to a social encounter. Chinese tourists, for example, usually do not like being thought of as Japanese, nor do Koreans. The residual effects of conflicts and at times ongoing hostilities remain influential among these groups. Hong Kong tourists typically see themselves as more worldly and interconnected to the currents of global thought than their mainland Chinese counterparts (Loi & Pearce, 2015). Such sentiments are, of course, not confined to those from Asian countries. For those operators, citizens and managers faced with the challenge of co-producing and managing Asian outbound tourist experiences, care, and attentiveness are needed to identify the nationality base of those on holiday. One way to conceptualize the distinctions and similarities among people is offered by Gould (2004). He suggests that in general using dichotomies to describe human affairs and characteristics invariably results in exaggerating differences rather than identifying commonalities. In this view, the present book should not be about the world meeting Asian tourists, since

14

The World Meets Asian Tourists

the dichotomy is too simple; a better simile to express the variety of within and among continental differences is to view the encounters as recognizing the different stems of a richly vegetated tree where the varied but interconnected branches have their own place in the sun. That approach would, however, make for a rather longer book title. Nevertheless, the point of recognizing variation is well made. It is easy, as Galani-Moutafi (1999) once suggested, to commit the sin of homogenization when discussing tourists, and an awareness of this issue permeates the present book.

Theoretical Perspectives The consideration of cultures in contact and more specifically the topic of interpersonal encounters with Asian tourists can be advanced by accessing a range of theories and conceptual schemes. Each of the approaches has a range of convenience; that is, the theoretical lenses deal with select aspects of overall interest with different degrees of precision and applicability. A succinct account of the main approaches of interest follows. (1) Comparative history A number of detailed contemporary scholarly works use historical and archival sources to understand the long traditions of cultures in contact and the rise and fall of civilizations. This kind of work offers the broadest historical and contextual commentary on the current interest of Western cultures and the developed world meeting tourists from Asia by placing these interactions in the trajectory of past centuries of conflict and trade. Key authors writing about culture in contact in this detailed historical tradition include Diamond (2005a), Morris (2011), Huntington (1998), Maoz (2009) and Ferguson (2012). (2) Critical pragmatism Harrill, Li, and Xiao (2016) advocate a specific theoretical lens of critical pragmatism. The approach links the insights of Habermas and his theory of open communication action and the darker insights of Foucault where power and control are central elements. Harrill et al. consider that by adopting a critical approach to data about how Chinese/Asian tourists see the world, it is possible to appreciate their power as individuals to exert pressure for change. (3) Social representations theory Social representations theory proposes that groups of people in a society hold common higher order explanations about key topics in

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

15

their world. These explanations or mini-theories are built on a set of interlocking attitudes and are shared among members in a group through the media, conversation and in various artistic forms. The representations may change over time and there are three types of organizing mini-theories in a community about any topic; the hegemonic or dominant view, a contested alternative view referred to as polemical and the emancipated case where multiple representations happily co-exist. The work derives from the writing of Moscovici (1984, 1988) and has been used in tourism studies for some time to explain views of key tourism topics such as impacts and conceptions of destinations. It is useful for understanding the views a community holds of other groups and how they explain the conduct of that group both nationally and internationally. (4) Adapted mobilities paradigm Cohen and Cohen (2015b) provide an example of the mobilities paradigm approach tailored for tourism The mobilities approach, broadly conceived stresses the diversity and potential insights to be gained from considering tourism in the context of a range of movement styles and types. In their revision of the broad approach, Cohen and Cohen stress the need to understand representations, activities and motivation, and types of travel. (5) Social situation analysis The approach described using this label recognizes a set of eight interlocking forces which are in operation during a social or cross-cultural encounter. The forces are the goals of the personnel, the environmental setting, the roles and rules each party bring to the interaction, language, the cognitive understanding of each participant, the repertoire of skills and behaviors available to the parties, and the sequences of behaviors they employ. The work was summarized by Argyle, Furnham, and Graham (1981) and has been used to understand tourist guide encounters and tourists interacting with others in informal settings. (6) Culture shock-culture confusion This is more of a common term used in the field rather than a full theory or conceptual scheme. At core, its founder Oberg (1960) described culture shock as the difficulties of adjusting to another culture; these difficulties involve both physical challenges and issues of meaning and interpretation. In a refinement of the approach for tourists Hottola (2004) suggested that unlike any involvement in long term cultural relationships, tourists could find the differences interesting and were prone

16

The World Meets Asian Tourists

to confusion rather than the full debilitating effects of being dysfunctional when encountering unfamiliar others. The concept has widespread popular currency and if married with other approaches—such as social situation analysis—can be linked to many studies of cultural interchange in both tourist and non-tourist contexts. (7) Mindfulness-mindlessness The work of Langer (1989, 2009) on the social psychology construct of mindfulness stresses openness to learning and attentiveness to situations. Mindlessness involves carrying out behavior in a routine well-scripted manner which may be useful in many situations but maladaptive if truly new experiences are encountered. The ideas have been used to understand tourist attention, learning, and responses to interpretation, and are linked to the attitudinal constructs of deep and shallow processing of material. The work also has links to the more meditative construct of mindfulness but is less concerned with achieving desired deep mental states of awareness and is more oriented toward how people treat information and others. (8) Travel career pattern The travel career pattern approach to tourist motivation makes the case that tourists’ motives change with travel experience. It depicts these as consisting of a common core, typically involving escape, relationships, and relaxation, surrounded by two further layers, one of moderate importance including an interest in personal fulfilment, host peoples and environments, and one of lesser importance including motive items such as autonomy, nostalgia, and romance. With greater experience, such as multiple international holidays, tourists tend to emphasize a pattern of middle layer motives more but still retain strong needs for the core motive. Together with other approaches to tourist motivation recent interest in the motives of outbound Asian and Chinese tourists represent potentially useful studies for this book. Statements describing the travel career pattern can be found in Pearce and Lee (2005) and Pearce (2011). The use of these approaches in this book reflects the diverse ways encounters can be conceptualized and investigated. There are some important supplementary ideas beyond those already highlighted which have also been applied to the processes and outcomes of hosts and tourists interacting. There is a spectrum of work concerned with identity and identity management, resting in part on the ability of people to classify one another with very little information (Tajfel, 1981). Further, there is considerable

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

17

work in the sphere of cross-cultural psychology where the efforts of researchers are directed toward understanding the commonality and variability in the way people think and the values they hold (Nisbett, 2003; Schwartz, 2007). This work is noted here for its partial relevance to the current interests, though it can be observed that these researchers rarely consider tourists in contact with their hosts as they develop these interests. It might be surprising to some readers that one set of approaches (the work on cultural values and cross national differences in values) as discussed in the much cited work of Hofstede, Trompenaars, and colleagues (Hofstede, 1984; Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010; Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1997) do not feature in this book. Two explanations for bypassing these approaches can be noted. First, none of the authors explicitly used these sets of ideas to inform their studies, often preferring more fine-grained context specific appraisals of values and interests. Second, the work in its original forms was not directed toward tourists in contact with others and a sound argument exists that those who venture out of their country may be a special subset of their community, not necessarily adhering to core and common values in their quest to explore the world. Similarly, those hosts who meet the outbound tourists and manage and serve them may be professionally and personally atypical of their culture. For these reasons and perhaps also because of the rapid economic and social changes being witnessed across Asia since these assessments, the approaches are not featured in this book. The authors of the following chapters do, at times, use most of the theoretical lenses reported previously when considering Asian outbound travel. It is not a competition as to which is the best approach, but rather each lens offers one way of accessing some of the interesting and at times mysterious information characterizing the wicked problem. Much of the following work seeks to understand the desired tourists’ experiences and the demands facing managers to provide these experiences. One discussion of interest in several of the following chapters pertains to the need and desirability of providing the resources and services to which Asian outbound tourists might be accustomed. Examples of this kind of provisioning include familiar foods, drinks, language access, and marks of respect and civility. The contrasting views on this topic oscillate between viewing this challenge as inevitable to meet expressed needs versus a direction to be resisted to avoid changing the character of the host setting. Those with a strong commitment to the latter view highlight the need to respect the interests of other groups of non-Asian tourists. This topic will be revisited in the final chapter of this book where it will be

18

The World Meets Asian Tourists

linked to the pervasive tourism study topic of strategic issues in marketing and development.

CONCLUSION The current mobility of Asian tourists out of their own continent has been recorded in some detail in the body of this chapter. It is possible, however, to overemphasize this phenomenon since it still must be recognized that much international tourism is generated from Europe and North America. Nevertheless, due to their current experiences and their potential to travel more widely in the near future, the numbers of Asian tourists are very likely to increase in many of the world’s destinations. This mobility seems assured due to the massive change and investment which has taken place across Asia in terms of rising wages, personal affluence, new airports (notably in Inchon, Shanghai, Beijing, and Bangkok), and the power of high speed trains to provide easy links to these departure points. Additionally, there are now numerous international air carriers and budget airlines which have extended the reach of Asian outbound tourists. The diaspora of Asian professionals working in out of Asia contexts, supplemented by students studying at the world’s institutions of higher learning, build a contact base for many Asian tourists. The central interest of this book is with those who travel for a holiday or vacation, but it is also clear that hybrid forms of travel where business trips, visiting friends and relatives, and educational goals create diverse and variable matrices of trip purposes. It is also increasingly clear that independent travel is growing at comparable rates to group and package tour activity. One consequence of this dual expansion of modes of travel lies in recognizing that some in the new waves of Asian tourists have experience of previous destinations (Arlt, 2013). The image of senior Japanese tourists traveling in groups as the iconic representation of Asian tourists is no longer central to the contemporary tourism scene. The chapters in this book pursue a set of themes describing how Asian tourists are perceived, treated, and evaluated in the global marketplace. To achieve these goals, they adopt a variety of approaches. Some are directed at understanding demand and the shaping of it through organizational and social pressures. From this information, several kinds of planning and strategy issues emerge. Other work seeks to see the implications for managers from the studies of tourists’ onsite behavior and learning experiences. A third category of work directly considers

Introduction: Meeting Asian Tourists

19

how managers think about and have taken initiatives to work with and plan for Asian outbound tourists. Many of the researchers contributing to this book grew up in Asian countries and have encountered some of the issues they discuss both personally and professionally. For other authors, extensive travel within the diverse parts of Asia of interest to this work has provided some preparation for reviewing the issues managers face. It is perhaps important to note that 40% of the world’s population lives in Asia. That alone seems like a statistic which should motivate research investigating how the world meets those who travel outside of the Asian continent.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 2

LAWS AND REGULATIONS SHAPING OUTBOUND TOURISM The Case of China Songshan (Sam) Huang University of South Australia, Australia

Abstract: Laws, regulations, and policies, including specific intergovernmental visa agreements, exert significant influences on people’s mobility and cross-border travels. Such forces are powerful in shaping the emerging Asian tourism market. This chapter provides a critical review and analysis of the laws and regulations that have shaped Chinese outbound tourism. It first reviews the evolution of China’s policies and government attitude toward outbound tourism. The three tourism administration regulations promulgated by the State Council are then reviewed and their implications for outbound tourism are discussed. The Tourism Law enacted in 2013 is reviewed and discussed separately due to its significance and supreme power in China’s legal system. Finally, the chapter discusses the impact of intergovernmental visa facilitation arrangements on Chinese outbound tourism. Keywords: Tourism law; regulations; outbound tourism; China

INTRODUCTION Politics, political institutions, government laws, and policies are among the many forces that shape tourism in Asia (Parnwell, 2008; Suntikul,

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 21 38 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007003

22

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Butler, & Airey, 2008). The relatively short history of Asian tourism provides evidence of the ways national government policies have spurred citizens’ outbound travels, first in Japan (Nozawa, 1992), and then in South Korea (Lim, 2004) in the late 1980s. Government relaxation of restrictions and/or encouragement for its citizens to undertake outbound trips promoted sharp increases in numbers. For instance, after the Japanese government announced its “Ten Million Program” to encourage its nationals’ outbound travel in 1987, the number of Japanese outbound tourists jumped from 5.5 million in 1986 to 10 million in 1991 (Nozawa, 1992). Similarly, in South Korea, after a complete government relaxation of restrictions on its nationals’ pleasure travel overseas in 1989, outbound travels by its citizens had enjoyed an annual average growth rate of 21.3% until the Asian financial crisis in 1998 (Lim, 2004). Undoubtedly, when Asian outbound tourism is examined, government regulations and policies are a critical factor. Unlike most Western countries where liberalism permeates government thinking dealing with citizens’ cross-border mobility, many Asian countries have more dominating governments which closely regulate their citizens’ overseas trips. Government policy-related issues that influence this movement may be in different forms and types. These include, but are not limited to, role of laws, visa arrangements, approved destination status (ADS), code of conduct in the industry, and specific regulations on tourists as consumers. With the emergence of China as the most influential Asian outbound market in the world, these issues can be analyzed and evaluated in specific contexts. Outbound tourism from China has emerged to be the most influential force shaping international tourism in the world. In 2014, China recorded 109 million outbound departures from its nationals (Li, 2015). China has been the fastest growing outbound tourism source market and the world’s top spender in international tourism since 2012. In 2014, Chinese outbound tourists spent a record of US$165 billion, an increase of 27% over the previous year; currently, China contributed about 13% of the global tourism receipts, benefiting many destination countries around the globe, especially those around the Asia-Pacific region (UNWTO, 2015a). The lucrative Chinese outbound market has not only been in the spotlight of attention from tourism business operators in many destination countries, but has also been the subject of a significant amount of dedicated research. So far, three research journal special issues (Journal of China Tourism Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, 2011; Tourism Planning & Development, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2013; Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, Vol. 32, No. 1 2, 2015) have focused on Chinese outbound tourism. In a meta-review

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

23

article, Keating, Huang, Kritz, and Heung (2015) identified that over 200 articles relating to outbound tourism from mainland China had been published in English-language journals from 1983 to 2012. A wide range of topics have been covered in this body of research. Keating et al. (2015) submitted that the majority of these articles address the themes of marketing, economics, business/management, psychology, and experience. The current state of Chinese outbound tourism research indicates that except for a limited number of research attempts (Airey & Chong, 2010; York & Zhang, 2010), very little research has revealed the impact of relevant laws and regulations on the evolution and development of China’s outbound tourism. China has been implementing a “government-led” national tourism development strategy (Kuang, 2001). Be it domestic or outbound tourism, the government plays a significant role in policymaking and directing the development paths. Understandably, laws and regulations pertaining to tourism are the major governance tools for tourism development (Dredge & Jenkins, 2007). In terms of outbound tourism, the Chinese government has the ultimate authority to control its nationals’ mobility. While lessening passport control has been regarded as one of the key factors enabling the growth of the outbound tourism (Guo, Kim, & Timothy, 2007; Sparks & Pan, 2009), the government’s influence can also be demonstrated in its tourism-related regulations and laws (Huang, 2010a). Therefore, examining the relevant laws and regulations offers an in-depth understanding of China outbound tourism and its further development. All importantly, a major tourism law was enacted in China in 2013. As a national level law passed by the highest legislative body, the National People’s Congress, it represents the most significant legislation regulating tourism related issues in the history of the country. The law’s impact on Chinese outbound tourism is also believed to be far-reaching. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the laws and regulations that have influenced Chinese outbound tourism and offers critical comments on the implications of these regulations on its development. It also goes beyond regulations to discuss the effects of bilateral visa facilitation arrangements between China and destination countries on its outbound tourism development.

EVOLUTION OF TOURISM POLICIES/REGULATIONS In China, tourism did not have a substantial industry until the country’s reform and augmenting policies were initiated by its paramount leader Deng Xiaoping in 1978 (Huang, 2010b). Before 1978, tourism was regarded

24

The World Meets Asian Tourists

as part of foreign affairs, and managing the reception of political delegations was the main focus of its activities (Guangrui, 2003). After 1978, in the early years of Deng’s reform and opening up (1978 1985), tourism was treated as both a part of foreign affairs and an economic activity (Guangrui, 2003). In 1978 and 1979, Deng gave a series of talks regarding tourism’s roles in bringing in much needed foreign exchange to facilitate the country’s development; these talks were believed to lead to the views that tourism can be an economic contributor (Huang, 2010b; Xiao, 2006). In 1986, the central government declared tourism to be a comprehensive economic activity with the capacity of earning foreign exchange in the country’s modernization process (Guangrui, 2003). In this specific historical context, inbound tourism became a priority (domestic tourism was in its fledgling stage). Subsequently, in China’s seventh five-year planning period (1986 1990), the State Council confirmed the industry status of tourism (He, 1999). In the period between 1991 and 1995, China witnessed rapid development in both its inbound and domestic tourism. It was listed as a key industry in the tertiary sector; many provincial level governments also identified tourism as a “pillar,” “key,” or “leading” industry in their economic development (He, 1999). China’s outbound tourism did not take shape until 1983 when the Guangdong Provincial Travel Corporation began organizing tours for residents in Guangdong to visit relatives in Hong Kong and Macau (Huang, 2007; Zhang, Pine, & Lam, 2005). Outbound trips organized by tour operators, however, did not start until 1990 when the Chinese government developed a ruling for its nationals who were then able to undertake visiting friends and relatives’ tours to Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand (He, 1999). This early stage of Chinese outbound tourism saw arrivals concentrated in Asian countries and regions. In 1998, outbound trips to Asian countries and regions reached 7.1 million, accounting for 84.37% of the total outbound departures; the top 10 outbound destinations were Hong Kong, Macao, Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Singapore, Malaysia, Russia, North Korea, and the Philippines (He, 1999). After the turn of the century, the macro-environment of China’s tourism development changed dramatically. With its continuous economic boom and further integration into the global economic community through World Trade Organization membership in 2001, a different situation in developing the tourism industry unfolded. Notably, due to the rising household disposable income and government policy support, both domestic and outbound tourism gained momentum. In 2001, in response to the rapid development of outbound tourism, the State Council promulgated the “Administrative

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

25

Measures on Chinese Citizens’ Outbound Tourism.” This regulation constitutes one of the three significant legislations issued by the State Council. The other two are the “Regulation on Travel Agencies” proclaimed by the State Council in 2009 which replaced the previous “Administrative Regulation on Travel Agencies” first issued in 1996 and later revised in 2001, and the “Administrative Regulation on Tour Guides” promulgated in 1999. As noted by Huang (2010b), while in the last two decades of the 20th century, tourism in China had increasingly been treated as an economic contributor to the national economy in the course of government reform and opening-up, after the turn of the century, the government’s views on tourism have gone beyond the economic perspective and transitioned into a “pluralism” perspective. One notable change in the overall tourism development environment is that the role of inbound tourism as earning foreign exchanges became obsolete. Due to its fast economic development and international trade surplus over years, China had accumulated a significant amount of foreign exchange reserves. In 2007, international tourism receipts accounted for only 2.7% of the total foreign exchange reserve of the year (Huang, 2010b). Apparently, from the government perspective, inbound tourism would not be as important as it was in earning foreign exchanges for the country’s development. On the contrary, due to China’s entrenched trade surplus with some countries, especially the United States, the Chinese government faced tremendous pressure from the international community to appreciate its Renminbi. While the government might never have satisfied its international trade counterparts in appreciating its currency, it seems by further lessening the control of its nationals’ outbound holidays, the Chinese government can at least appease some countries with which trade surplus is an issue in trade relations (Alterman, 2009). On the outbound front, the government has been implementing the ADS policy with outbound destination countries. Under this agreement, Chinese tourists can travel to an approved destination country (region in some cases) by joining a package group organized by tour operators approved by both governments. An approved tour group will be received by approved inbound tour operators in the destination. Tourist visas under this scheme are only available to people traveling in approved groups and can be bulk-processed by approved outbound tour operators in China with destination country embassy/consulate services. The ADS arrangements represent a unique policy for outbound tourism. The initial impetus for such a policy framework was not without political considerations. In the start-up stage in the 1990s, approved destinations were selected on a number of criteria including a positive orientation toward

26

The World Meets Asian Tourists

the country and its government. The full list of criteria were as follows: A country or region could be selected for China’s inbound tourism market if it was politically friendly to China, had attractive tourism resources with appropriate reception system and service facilities for Chinese tourists, did not impose any discriminatory or constraining legislative and administrative policies toward Chinese tourists, guaranteed Chinese tourists’ personal safety, and had good accessibility for Chinese tourists (He, 1999). The policy is believed to have had a significant impact on Chinese tourists’ visits to ADS countries. Applying an econometric analysis with empirical data, Arita, Edmonds, La Croix, and Mak (2011) confirmed that the ADS status has increased Chinese arrivals substantially in approved countries; in three years after receiving the designation, the number of Chinese tourists to a destination would increase by an average rate between 35% and 52%. By September 2014, the total number of ADS destination reached 117 in the Asia-Pacific, Europe, South and North America, the Middle East, and Africa (Guangdong Tourism Administration, 2014). Huang (2010b) observed that with the number of regulated destinations increasing to such an extent with virtually all possible destinations to Chinese citizens being granted the status, the policy’s political functionality is effectively at an end. Furthermore, while the increase of Chinese number in a destination could be phenomenal after the ADS was granted, in the long-term market forces will eventually determine the global dispersal of Chinese outbound tourists and the role of the policy will recede.

Tourism Legislation China has been executing a government-led tourism development strategy; therefore, government regulations play a significant role in the country’s tourism development, including outbound travel (Huang, 2010a; Kuang, 2001). In the legislation and administration system, laws and regulations follow a hierarchical structure. The highest level of legislation, in the form of national laws, including the Labor Law, are made by the National People’s Congress, the supreme legislative body. In the central government system, the State Council has the authority to issue the highest level administrative laws and regulations. Under this council, ministries in their administrative territories can issue ministry-level decrees and administrative regulations which should comply with the administrative regulations. In the administration system, the China National Tourism Administration (CNTA), together with many other central government agencies (Ministry

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

27

of Public Security, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Commerce, etc.), make relevant policies and regulations in relation to tourism (Airey & Chong, 2010). Currently, the State Council has promulgated three administrative regions directly applied in tourism. In April 2013, President Xi Jinping signed off the first ever Tourism Law in China, passed by the 12th National People’s Congress Standing Committee. The Tourism Law took effect in October, 2013. Table 1 lists the current tourism laws and regulations issued by the State Council and National People’s Congress. All of

Table 1. Title of Law/ Legislation

Major Tourism Laws and Administrative Regulations in China Tourism Law

Regulation on Travel Agencies

Administrative Regulation on Tour Guides

State Council

State Council

Date of issuance April 25, 2013

February 20, 2009 May 27, 2002

May 14, 1999

Effective date

October 1, 2013

May 1, 2009

July 1, 2002

October 1, 1999

Main contents

10 chapters (112 clauses): general principles; tourists; tourism planning and promotion; tourism operation; tourism service contract; tourism security; tourism monitoring and administration; tourism disputes resolving; legal responsibilities; supplementary items.

33 clauses: requirements for outbound tour operation; administrative procedures of outbound tourism; passport and border management; itinerary and outbound tourist service contract; requirements on ground operators in the destination; tourist safety; penalty clauses.

7 chapters (68 clauses): General principles; setup of travel agency; foreign invested travel agency; travel agency operation; supervision and inspection; legal responsibilities; supplementary items.

27 clauses: Definition of tour guides; tour guide qualification examination; tour guide licensing; professional development and grading; guiding service delivery; safety, restrictions on tourist shopping and tipping; penalty clauses.

Legislative authority

National People’s Congress

Source: Compiled by the author.

State Council

Administrative Measures on Chinese Citizens’ Outbound Tourism

28

The World Meets Asian Tourists

them have an overarching impact on China’s tourism development and exert some influence on its outbound tourism. In this section, the three regulations promulgated by the State Council are critically reviewed by considering their implications for outbound tourism. The impact of the Tourism Law is discussed in the next section. By its title, AMCCOT is more relevant to outbound travel activity than the other two State Council-issued regulations. It should be noted that this regulation replaced the “Provisional Measures on the Administration of Chinese Citizen’s Self-financed Outbound Travel” (Provisional Measures hereafter) jointly issued by the CNTA and the Ministry of Public Security in July 1997, which exerted a tighter control on the administrative procedures a tourist should fulfill when taking a self-financed outbound trip. According to the Provisional Measures, the CNTA would implement a “quota management” on outbound group tours organized by approved operators based on the principle of total scale control. A quota would be assigned to each approved outbound operator in China based on their inbound tourism reception sales in the previous year. An “audit proof” form with a serial number was produced by the CNTA to record the details of each tourist’s trip itinerary, personal data, fees due, and the amount already paid. The tour operator shall comply with the quota assigned by the CNTA to deal with tourists’ registration and charging fees for joining a group tour. They should fill in the audit proof form with all the necessary details. Every form has three copies. Once completed by the tour operator, it should go to the CNTA or the provincial authorities where the tour operator is located for approval with the authorities’ seals. The tourism authority shall retain one copy of the form as a record. A copy is given to the tourist to show to the public security agency for passport application; and another is kept by the tour operator. Once the tourist has registered with the tour operator and fully paid the fees, she/he shall follow relevant policies prescribed by the “The Exit and Entry Administration Law,” and submits an application for a passport with the applicant’s personal identification proof hukou (household registration) or other proof of identity; consent of the applicant’s employer; the audit proof copy approved by the tourism authority; and the full payment invoice for the tour prescribed by the tour operator. Clearly, from the tourist’s perspective, such administration procedures are laborious and very unwieldy. However, one should bear in mind these procedures were instituted in the early stage of outbound tourism when the government was exercising tight control on Chinese nationals’ mobility and outbound tourism had to be shidu fazhang (proper) according to the dictates of the government discourse.

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

29

The AMCCOT promulgated by the State Council represented a leapforward in terms of government management of the Chinese nationals’ outbound tourism. It is oriented more toward industry management than controlling Chinese nationals’ mobility and tourist consumption. Accordingly, the laborious procedures for a tourist to get a passport when joining an outbound group were removed. In this approach a tourist does not need to provide proof documents from a tour operator in order to get a passport. However, the “Chinese Citizens outbound Travel Group Name List Form” was inherited from the “Provisional Measures,” and preserved as an administration tool in outbound tourism. Approved tour operators should prepare the “Name List Form” for each of the tour groups they organize. The form has four copies, designated for the use of exiting the home country, re-entering the home country, for the auditing of tourism administration, and for tour operators’ own records, respectively. The list of requirements is dauntingly long and formal. The points are reproduced as follows to indicate the government’s implicit concerns and controls over outbound travel. In summary, the AMCCOT prescribes tours only to destinations approved by the government (visits to other locations are strictly prohibited); tour operators meeting requirements can apply for operating outbound tours to provincial level tourism administrations; outbound group tours can only be conducted by approved outbound tour operators; the national tourism administration confirms with provincial level administrations before the end of March each year the total outbound numbers for each province; tourism authorities use the unified “Outbound Travel Group Name List Form” as a tool for macro-industry management and cross-border management; outbound tour operators should arrange a qualified tour leader for each group and preserve tourists’ legal rights; outbound tour groups exit and re-enter the country on group basis through state open ports; outbound tour operators should sign a service contract with every tourist and provide service according to the contract; outbound tour operators should choose ground operators with a good reputation in the destination, and sign a written contract before entrusting them for hosting tourists; outbound tour operators should request their partnered ground operators in the destination to follow the group itinerary plan in arranging tour activities; tour leaders should introduce to tourists relevant laws and customs in the destination and respect tourists’ dignity, religious faith, ethnic customs, and habits; tour leaders should explain truthfully and clearly warn tourists about any possible dangers or hazards to tourist safety; tour leaders should take pre-cautionary measures to prevent hazards; and finally tourists should abide by the laws of the destination

30

The World Meets Asian Tourists

country and respect local culture and customs, and also be subject to the management of the tour leader of the group. The “Regulation on Travel Agencies” formulated by the State Council in 2009 is the current administrative legislation regulating this business in China. Its preceding legislation was the “Administrative Regulation on Travel Agencies” promulgated in 1996 and revised in 2001 by the State Council. Huang (2010a) elaborated on the major policy changes from the 1996 to the 2009 travel agency legislation in China. These include several factors. While the 1996 legislation only generally states that travel agencies should not engage in unfair competition; the 2009 legislation explicitly states that “travel agencies should not entice tourists through a quoted price below the cost level,” and without consent from tourists, travel agencies should not provide any other paid services than those specified in the contract” (Clause 27; Huang, 2010a, p. 156). Further, while the 1996 legislation did not regulate travel agency behaviors in terms of modifying any itinerary, the 2009 legislation has a strict rule on itinerary change. “Agencies should not change the itinerary as agreed in the contract unless the change is caused by irreversible forces” (Clause 33). The 2009 legislation added specific clauses on tour guide remuneration. “The travel agency should sign a labor contract with the tour guide and pay the guide at a salary level no lower than the local minimal salary standard” (Clause 32); “Travel agencies should not request tour guides to receive package tour groups without a due fee payment or with a lower-than-cost payment; neither should they request tour guides to cover any cost of receiving tour groups” (Clause 34). Finally, the 2009 legislation lowered the entry requirement of the travel agency sector by stipulating registered capital of no less than RMB 300,000 for setting up a travel agency, compared to the requirements of no less than RMB 1.5 million for setting up an international travel agency. The malpractice of “zero package fee” (ZPF) or “negative package fee” (NPF) operation appears to be the key issue tackled by the 2009 travel agency legislation (Huang, 2010a). Travel agencies undertaking ZPF or NPF would usually advertise a quoted package tour price that can roughly cover the direct costs of the package tour components or is even below the cost level. Profits are sought through shopping commissions during the tour (King, Dwyer, & Prideaux, 2006; Zhang, Heung, & Yan, 2009). The ZPF/NPF problem is a persistent industry problem in association with Chinese outbound tourism and has been among hotspot debates in the industry. Some researchers assume that the popularity of such a common malpractice reflects the immature nature of the Chinese tourist market (Qi, 2005). Huang (2010a) argues that the ZPF/NPF operations reflect to a

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

31

certain degree a unique type of market failure in tourism. Chen, Mak and Guo conducted a content analysis on the media reports pertaining to ZPF/ NPF from 2003 to 2010. They disclosed that the problem had been portrayed with three fundamental elements: low package tour price in the source market; inferior quality at the destination; and the “zero fare” relationships and deals between outbound tour operators and inbound tour operators. Nevertheless, the ZPF/NPF problem has been an issue that the 2009 legislation on travel agencies has attempted to resolve. Huang (2010a) critically analyzed the possible impacts of the 2009 State Council regulations on travel agencies on the Asia-Pacific regional tourism. He noted that the legislation’s impacts would go across the border of China and affect practices outside China in destination countries. In the short term, outbound package tour prices may rise and the demand may be restrained for a while; however, in the long term, the Chinese outbound market demand could not be curbed. The market development trend in recent years since the legislation was put into place proved that the phenomenal growth of Chinese outbound tourism was not affected by the legislation. The Administrative Regulation on Tour Guides formulated by the State Council in 1999 was preceded by the CNTA-issued “Provisional Measures on Tour Guides Administration” developed in 1987 (Huang & Weiler, 2010). The regulation is intended to manage various issues with the substantial scale of the workforce of tour guides in China, which, according to available statistics, amounted to around 600,000 by the end of 2010 (Liu, 2011). Huang and Weiler (2010) provided a comprehensive review of China’s tour guide policy and administrative system, of which, the Administrative Regulation on Tour Guides (ARTC) serves as the overarching regulation. The ARTC defines the tour guides’ qualification examination and licensing system. It also specifies the rights and responsibilities of a tour guide when providing a tour group. According to ARTC, a guide should not provide service on her/his own without being entrusted by an operator. Any self-solicited work by the guide would be regarded as illegal. The ARTC has its relevance to outbound tourism as most of the tour leaders who are entrusted to perform the task would be qualified tour guides in the country; there is also a lower level CNTA issued policy document specifically dealing with outbound tour leading. In October 2002, the CNTA issued the “Administrative Measures on Outbound Tour Leaders” and officially started the licensing system on outbound tour leaders which resembles much of the licensing system of tour guiding. Similar to what is prescribed in the tour guiding licensing system, outbound tour leaders must get their license from tourism administrations and must be entrusted by an outbound tour operator to lead an outbound

32

The World Meets Asian Tourists

group. Responsibilities of an outbound leader are prescribed as follows: complying with relevant policies in the “Administrative Measures on Chinese Citizens’ Outbound Tourism,” and protecting tourists’ legal rights; coordinating with the ground operator to implement the itinerary, and providing assistance in resolving emergencies, disputes, and other problems in the tour; providing tour services to tourists and safeguarding national interests and ethnic dignity; and reminding tourists to resist any conduct that would harm national interests and ethnic dignity. Overall, all the three State Council’s legislations have exerted their impacts on the outbound tourism. The AMCCOT prescribes the administrative procedures for cross-border management of approved outbound tour operators. The Regulation on Travel Agencies tackles the ZPF/NPF as a central management issue. It also intersects with the Administrative Regulation on Tour Guides in its specifications on tour guide remuneration. It regulates the professional practices of tour guides as a significant workforce in China. Beyond the above-mentioned tourism legislations by the State Council, there are other relevant policies that are believed to have influenced tourism in China and its outbound tourism. Of special note is the “Golden Week” holiday system enacted by the Chinese central government in 1999 (Wu, Xue, Morrison, & Leung, 2012; York & Zhang, 2010). For more details see Chapter 3 of this book which documents the institutionalized national holiday systems in Asia and how they influence outbound markets in Asia. That chapter helps in understanding how the national holiday periods have influenced China’s outbound market development. For example, the Golden Week holiday system has reshaped not only the domestic tourism landscape, but also outbound travels for most nationals. For most Chinese citizens, a week-long public holiday allows them sufficient time to enjoy an outbound holiday. According to Tourism Australia (2015a, 2015b), the peak travel periods of the inbound market are recorded as October, January to February, and July to August. The first two peak periods correspond to the week-long “National Day” holiday and the “Spring Festival” week-long holiday, while the third corresponds to the summer vacation period in China’s school education system.

The Tourism Law While the three tourism legislations by the State Council focus on macromanagement, the Tourism Law, as the first ever comprehensive legal edict

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

33

on tourism in China’s history, explicitly puts tourists at the core of development and associated government policy efforts. It is possible to relate the enactment of the law and its focus on protecting tourists’ rights and interests to the transition within China to a more consumer oriented society and the growing political discourse that government should take people as the center of its policy concern (“以人为本，执政为民”). The Tourism Law was passed by the National Peoples’ Congress Standing Committee in April 2013 and took effect in October 2013. As stated in its General Principles (First Chapter of the Law), the purpose is to protect the legal rights of tourists and operators, regulate market order, protect and appropriately develop resources, and promote sustainable and healthy development in tourism. As shown in Table 2, the Tourism Law has in total 10 chapters with 112 clauses. Pertaining to outbound tourism, several specific clauses under the chapters “Tourists” and “Tour Operations” deserve some analysis and discussion. First of all, the law clarifies that tourists’ legal rights should be acknowledged and protected. Clause 9 states that they have the rights to choose products and services according to their own will, and to refuse any transactions imposed on them by operators. Furthermore, they have the right to know the truthful condition of the products and services they paid for and hold the right to request operators to provide products and services based on a contract. Clause 10 acknowledges that tourists’ personal dignity, ethnic customs and habits, and religious faith should be respected. Clause 11 prescribes the legal rights of disadvantaged groups, stating that disabled people, elderly people, and children as tourists should enjoy convenience and favorable treatment in activities according to relevant laws, regulations, and policies. Clause 12 clarifies that tourists have the right to ask for help and protection when their personal and property safety are endangered; they have the right to claim for compensation when they are injured or their property rights are infringed. It is believed that in China’s tourism development tourists have often been in a weak position compared to tourism operators. Oftentimes, the media highlight cases in which tourists are ripped off by operators. Therefore, it seems the State has the responsibility to protect tourists’ rights through its legislation machinery. On the other hand, the law also prescribes obligations and responsibilities for tourists. Some commentators would relate such clauses to China’s intention to change the reputation of its nationals traveling abroad (Barba, 2013). Indeed, disruptive and problematic behaviors shown by outbound Chinese have captured attention from both media and researchers (Loi & Pearce, 2015). There are several clauses

34

The World Meets Asian Tourists

which cover this issue: Clause 13, in tourism activities, the tourist shall abide by the social public order and social morality, respect local customs and habits, cultural traditions, and religion, take care of tourism resources, protect the ecological environment, and comply with the rules for civilized tourist behaviors; Clause 14, in tourism activities or when involved in disputes, the tourist shall not impair local residents’ legal rights, shall not disturb other people’s tourism activities, and shall not infringe on the legal rights of tourism operators and employees and Clause 15, when purchasing and receiving services, the tourist shall truthfully inform the operator of personal health information in relation to the tourism activity, and comply with the safety and warning notices in the activity. The tourist shall be cooperative to the temporary restrictive measures imposed by the State on tourism due to critical emergency events, and safety prevention and crisis management measures undertaken by relevant administrative departments and units on the tourism operator. The tourist shall take the legal liability in cases of violating safety warning regulations or disobeying the temporary restrictive measures and safety prevention and crisis management measures imposed by the State on tourism due to critical emergency events. Finally, there are two more directives and instructions which attempt to mandate responsible tourist behavior. Clause 16 provides this direction: “Outbound tourists shall not illegally stay overtime abroad; tourists in outbound tour groups shall not stay away from or leave the group by themselves and inbound tourists shall not illegally stay overtime in the country; tourists in inbound tour groups shall not stay away from or leave the group by themselves.” Like the 2009 “Regulation on Travel Agencies,” the Tourism Law has created extensive media and industry discussions. Tour operators both in China and in outbound destination countries seemed to have lamented the immediate drop of consumer demand due to the effect of the Law (Arlt, 2014; Huanqiu.com, 2013). This is understandable as business operators are mostly concerned with their profit levels. The most cited clause in the law concerning the industry was Clause 35 (Barba, 2013). The central issue still seems to be around the ZPF/NPF. The following is the excerpt of an online translation of the clause (Chinacontact, 2013): Article 35. Travel agencies “shall be prohibited from organizing tourism activities and luring tourists with unreasonably low prices, and obtaining illegitimate gains such as rebates by arranging shopping or providing tourism services that require additional payment.” When organizing and receiving tourists, “travel agencies shall not designate specific shopping places, or provide tourism services that require additional payment. This does not

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism

35

apply, however, to circumstances where both parties have agreed upon or the tourists themselves have requested such arrangements and such arrangements do not influence the itineraries of fellow tourists.” Further, “in the event of any violation of the above two paragraphs, tourists shall, within thirty (30) days from the end of their tour, have the right to require the travel agency to return their purchases on their behalf and provide refund in advance, or refund any payment made for tourism services requiring additional payment.” Upon close scrutiny, Clause 35 in the Tourism Law appears to deal with the same issue, the ZPF/NPF concerns, discussed by Huang (2010b) in analyzing the 2009 “Regulation of Travel Agencies” clauses. In effect, the impact of the law on the outbound tourism may not be dramatically different from the impact of the 2009 regulation on regional tourism: while in short term, market demand may be affected and drop, in the long term, the growth of outbound tourism is unlikely to be curbed. Like the 2009 regulation, the law is also intended to nurture a “quality”-driven model of tourism development and operation and promote more transparent, healthy, and sustainable business practices on different fronts, be it inbound, domestic, or outbound. In the long term, the positive impact of such a law in and outside China will gradually unfold. China’s Tourism Law, as a significant comprehensive national rule, also sets up an example for other (Asian) countries to follow in regulating and developing national and international tourism. Visa Facilitation Outbound tourism has always been affected by visa arrangements between source market and destination countries. For tourists from mainland China, traveling abroad has involved negotiating the constraints imposed by their own policies and constraints incurred by laws and policies designated by destination countries toward them, especially visa policies. Many studies have identified the “difficulty of getting travel documents” as one of the significant barriers for people from mainland China to have an outbound trip (Hsu & Lam, 2003; Huang & Hsu, 2005, 2009). As already discussed, the evolution of relevant policies is evidence of the Chinese government lessening the restrictions on its nationals for getting a passport, the key travel document indispensable for any outbound tourist. If laws and regulations within China are viewed as internal force that shape outbound tourism, visa policies in destination countries can be viewed as facilitators or even a pull motivation for a destination (Zhang & Lam, 1999).

36

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Globally, the impact of visa facilitation on international tourism is significant; visa facilitation represents an area of opportunity for many countries to benefit more from international tourism (UNWTO/WTTC, 2013). A report jointly published by the World Tourism Organization and World Travel and Tourism Council on the impact of visa facilitation in Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation economies indicates that more convenient visa arrangements could substantially increase international arrivals, receipts, and employment among its economies. In July 2006, Korea started to implement a visa waiver program for mainland Chinese tourists to visit Jeju Island, one of its important destinations. By 2009, Chinese arrivals to Korea grew by 64.5%, compared to the number in 2005. The waiver policy is believed to be one of the main factors that enabled such an increase of arrivals (UNWTO/WTTC, 2013). Academic studies also show that when the U.S. government introduced a 90-day visa-free policy to South Korean tourists in 2008, there was a big increase of visit arrivals from Korea to the United States (Han, Lee, & Lee, 2011). Goh and Law’s (2002) study showed that the easy visa arrangement between Hong Kong and South Korea significantly increased South Korean tourists’ travel demand to Hong Kong. Table 2 lists those countries and regions that have developed some visa exemption policies toward the Chinese passport holders. One observation from this list is that many of the visa exemption countries and regions are small or remote islands regions which may not be easily accessible or perceived as popular outbound destinations to Chinese tourists. In recent years, with the demonstrated tourist consumption power from the China outbound market and the perceived impact of outbound arrivals on destination economies, an increasing number of countries are considering visa facilitation arrangements with China to attract Chinese tourists. In 2014, in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation meeting, President Xi Jinping and President Obama announced that China and the United States will offer to each other visa facilitation arrangements that enable citizens from one country to get a multiple-entry visa from another country which will be valid for up to 10 years for business and tourism purposes, or for up to five years in the case of student visas. The lure behind Chinese tourists’ astonishing spending power in the United States is believed to be part of the reason for such a visa facilitation deal. In 2013, around 1.8 million Chinese tourists visited the United States, contributing about $21 billion to the U.S. economy (Associated Press, 2014). With the new visa policy in place, the U.S. tourism industry would expect 3.1 million Chinese tourists by 2019, a 172% increase over the 2013 figure (Willett, 2015). Following the United States, Canada signed an agreement with China enabling

Laws and Regulations Shaping Outbound Tourism Table 2.

37

Countries with Visa Exemption Policies for Chinese (2014)

Category

Number

Country/Region

Mutual Visa free arrangement

4

Mauritius; Bahamas; San Marino; Seychelles

One-way visa free arrangement to Chinese passport holders

8

Dominica; Haiti: Jamaica; Jeju Island (Korea); Northern Mariana Islands (the United States); Samoa; South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (the United Kingdom); Turks and Caicos Islands (the United Kingdom)

Tourist visa on arrival to Chinese passport holders meeting certain requirements

37

Bahrain; Bangladesh; Brunei; Cambodia; Cape Verde; Comoros; East Timor; Egypt; Fiji; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Indonesia; Iran; Ivory Coast; Jordan; Kenya; Laos; Lebanon; Madagascar; Malawi; Maldives; Mauritania; Myanmar; Nepal; Palau; Saint Helena (the United Kingdom); Sierra Leone; Sri Lanka; Tanzania; Thailand; Togo; Turkmenistan; Tuvalu; Uganda; United Arab Emirates; Vietnam

Source: http://www.mafenwo.cn/travel-news/220397.html (Retrieved on July 30, 2015).

a mutual visa arrangement for multiple-entry tourist visa up to 10 years in March 2015. Later in 2015, Singapore Immigration and Checkpoints Authority announced that starting from June 2015, qualified Chinese citizens could be granted multiple-entry visas valid for 10 years. In the same month, China and Australia signed a free trade agreement in which a more convenient visa policy arrangement between the two countries was designated, allowing Chinese nationals to get multiple-entry visas valid for 10 years. With major ADS destinations like the United States and Australia instituting visa facilitation arrangements with China, Chinese tourists’ perceived constraints due to visa restriction are being greatly reduced. These facilitation measures are predicted to have a very positive impact on

38

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Chinese outbound tourism. It is speculated that more countries may join the chorus to give Chinese tourists these convenient visa arrangements.

CONCLUSION This chapter provides a review of the major laws and regulations in China and analyzes their impact on Chinese outbound tourism. It is noted that the evolution of tourism policies in China is in line with the government’s discourse to lessen control over its citizens’ mobility, which is a critical factor for the rapid development of its outbound tourism. While the three administrative regulations by the State Council on outbound tourism, travel agencies and tour guides are generally oriented toward industry management issues and procedures, the Tourism Law passed by the National People’s Congress Standing Committee in 2013 focuses more on protecting tourists’ legal rights and addresses tourism development issues in a more inclusive way. All these laws and regulations have their impact on outbound tourism. Specific clauses in the Tourism Law and the “Regulation on Travel Agencies” in relation to the “zero dollar tour” issues are believed to have direct influences on industry practices. However, it is prudent to state that the full effects of the Tourism Law are yet to unfold. A key issue is to what extent the relevant clauses in the Tourism Law (such as Clause 35) will be abided by in the industry and whether the state machinery can effectively enforce the implementation of the law. Media exposure of the death of a mainland tour group member in Hong Kong in October 2015 due to shopping disputes (Xin Jing Bao, 2015) revealed that despite the enforcement of the Tourism Law, the ZPF/NPF practices have not come to a complete end. Effective law enforcement which matches the intention of the law is a key consideration to restrict unlawful practices. The chapter also discusses the impact of visa facilitation arrangements between China and ADS destination countries on the further development of its outbound tourism. With favorable policies from both China and destination countries, Chinese tourists are experiencing fewer restrictions and it is more convenient for them to arrange outbound travel. Chinese outbound tourism will continue to grow in such a welcoming global environment. The experience of instituting relevant laws, regulations, and intergovernmental visa arrangements in the context of Asia outbound tourism could be examined by countries like India and Indonesia which also see the surging demand for outbound travel by their citizens.

Chapter 3

MAKING SENSE OF SEASONS Tingzhen Chen James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: This chapter reviews the institutional seasonality phenomenon in Asian outbound tourism. Eight key Asian countries were selected for investigation. Secondary data and archives from official tourism authorities and government reports are used as the information sources for the holiday systems and the celebrations for the cultural festivals. Four categories of holidays shaping the outbound seasonality patterns (universal holidays based on Gregorian calendar, Chinese culture-based holidays, religious festivals, and school holidays) are identified across the eight countries. Particular observances for those key cultural and religious holidays are highlighted. The opportunities and challenges for destination managers and tourism businesses to capitalize on and support peak outbound Asian seasonality are discussed. Keywords: Seasonality; Asian outbound tourism; holidays; festivals; Golden Week

INTRODUCTION Seasonality is generally viewed as influenced by two major factors: natural factors and institutional practices. The term natural in this context refers specifically to weather and climate conditions. The complexity of institutional seasonality is based on variability in widespread national public

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 39 55 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007004

40

The World Meets Asian Tourists

holidays as well as school and regional holidays, and reflects social norms and practices. The two forces are not independent but interact with each other and together shape seasonality patterns. Hartmann (1986) states that the natural factor is predictable as the climate is relatively stable in a particular destination and follows broadly regular patterns. However, institutional seasonality is less predictable. It is the result of multiple human decisions, involving social, cultural, religious, and ethnic factors (Baum, 1999). These social decisions are often enshrined in legislation (Butler, 1994b). Time and money are two main factors influencing tourism consumption. In most developed countries, the time for holidays is well established through paid leave systems guaranteed by law. In many European countries four and five week holiday leave periods enable people to fit a holiday break into these comparatively generous time boundaries (International Labour Office [ILO], 2013; Ray, Sanes, & Schmitt, 2013; Richards, 1998). By contrast, paid annual leave in Asia is often short and not well supported by legal frameworks (ILO, 2013). These limited leave opportunities create obstacles—limited leisure time and lack of finance—thus restricting Asian tourists in the timing of their holidays. For example, although Japan is a rich country, the relative scarcity of leisure time is also observed there (Ray et al., 2013; Richards, 1998); a situation which has attracted the label for Japan of its citizens being “time poor and money rich.” Further, the leave arrangements in most Asian countries often depend on national festival holidays (ILO, 2013), resulting in a strong seasonality of tourism both within and beyond national borders. To date, most case studies on seasonality have been carried out in Western destinations, such as Denmark, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Norway, Canada, and New Zealand (Commons & Page, 2001; Douglas & Barden, 1999; Hinch, Hickey, & Jackson, 2001; Kennedy & Deegan, 1999; Lundtorp, Rassing, & Wanhill, 1999; Sorensen, 1999; Thor, 2001). Western destinations have well-known and well defined holiday and seasonal patterns associated with key occasions such as Easter, Christmas and, in the case of the United States, Thanksgiving (Grey, 2002; Lisle, 1984; Lundtorp et al., 1999; O’Halloran, 2002; Tervo-Kankare, Hall, & Saarinen, 2013). Other topics such as the school holiday season and sport tourism seasonality have also been considered (Higham, 2006; Klemm & Rawel, 2001). Despite the increasing number of outbound tourists from Asia (UNWTO, 2014a), the holiday periods and seasonality factors affecting Asian tourists are not so well-known and have not received substantial attention from scholars (Keating, Huang, Kriz, & Heung, 2015; March, 1997; Winter, 2009). For the present interests, and given the increasing importance of Asian

Making Sense of Seasons

41

countries in international tourism and the influence of seasonality, an opportunity exists to investigate facets of this phenomenon in Asian tourism. An understanding of the distinctive Asian patterns of holidays variously known as Golden Weeks, pan-Asian religious events and nationally important holiday festivals are all of interest in this chapter. The key source markets selected for investigation include China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and India (see also Chapter 1). According to UNTWO (2014b), these selected eight countries are in the top 50 markets in terms of international expenditure; in particular, the Chinese tourists have been reported as the group with the most expenditure among all the outbound tourists since 2012. The chapter begins with a brief review of the institutional seasonality phenomenon in Asian outbound tourism. This work is followed by an introduction to some key cultural and religious holidays in the selected countries, accompanied by an explanation of how they shape the seasonality patterns in outbound tourism. Some ways these key occasions are celebrated are highlighted. Suggestions for destination management personnel on how to accommodate those Asian tourists traveling at these times are offered. Implications for future research are highlighted in the conclusion section.

TOURISM SEASONALITY IN ASIA An important factor influencing seasonality is the institutional holiday. The holiday (including school holidays, industrial holidays, public holidays, Easter, Christmas) is one of the institutional forms that impacts most on seasonality. At the very beginning, public holidays were mostly single days but, since the early 19th century, they have been expanded into weekends and even longer breaks, and have become increasingly important for the tourism industry (Butler, 1994a). Nevertheless, institutional seasonality has some residual instability making it sometimes difficult for event organizers to coordinate surrounding annual activities and tourism opportunities. The dates of some public holidays, particularly Easter, fluctuate considerably from year to year (Bar-On, 1975; Frechtling, 2001; Hyllebert, 1992). School breaks have more impact on tourism seasonality than do public holidays. Extended ones normally take place in summer when there is a longer time to travel and when the weather is pleasant, both of which promote family tourism activities (Butler, 1994a; Hinch & Jackson, 2000). Hartmann (1986) argues that the fixed school holiday is the most difficult obstacle to overcome in reducing seasonality. One solution is to expand the

42

The World Meets Asian Tourists

customer base during the fixed holiday season, and this has been successfully adopted by Eurocamp, a tour operator (Klemm & Rawel, 2001). However, Lundtorp et al. (1999) point out that little research has been done on whether people actually seek to travel at certain times of the year or simply whether tourists have to travel in the peak season because of their children’s fixed school holiday times. Impacts of Seasonality on Destinations The impacts of seasonality are various and complex, but it is probable that these impacts have been exacerbated following the growth of mass tourism (Wall & Yan, 2003). There are some positive effects. For most tourismrelated sectors, the peak season generates considerable business. The large number of arrivals and activities significantly boosts the local economy, by creating jobs and income for residents (O’Reilly, 1986). A study of Australian tourists at Easter time revealed that the considerable tourist activity on this weekend generates high total tourist nights and high total expenditure (O’Halloran, 2002). Similarly, a study of Australian Christmas travel suggested that the longer duration trips taken over this period resulted in higher expenditures per trip over the Christmas time than that in the nonChristmas period (Grey, 2002). Recently, the remarkable expenditure by the Chinese tourists in some popular Western destinations during their Golden Week trips has also been reported (Pearce & Chen, 2012). It is also acknowledged that the peak seasons for the Chinese outbound tourism come in the off seasons in most Western destinations (Andreu, Claver, & Quer, 2013), which is an effective solution to the off season problem in many locations. Less positively, the concentration of tourist flows in short periods of the year tends to result in crowding at the destination, traffic congestion, overuse of infrastructure, and lower quality standards of service (Getz & Nilsson, 2004; Jin & Pearce, 2011; Koc & Altinay, 2007). Previous studies have observed crowding issues due to Asian tourists in international destinations (Du Cros, 2008; Olga, Wayne, & Margaret, 2003). It has also been pointed out that the facilities in the destinations are not often ready (Winter, 2007), and that their tourism personnel in some settings are not well prepared to manage the influx of Asian tourists, particularly Chinese during the Golden Weeks (Du Cros, 2008; Olga et al., 2003). A good starting point to welcome this emerging market lies in developing a good sense of when they come and an informed understanding of what they need at these specific holiday times. Chen and Pearce (2012) depicted seasonality issues in Asia in a rich descriptive style. They used archival data from seven Asian countries and

Making Sense of Seasons

43

found that there were six seasonality patterns. Basing their work on the figures for each month of the year, the variation in the seasonality were described as “rolling hills,” the “plain,” the “single-peak mountain,” the “multi-peak mountains,” the “basin,” and the “plateau.” They suggested that the rolling hills pattern is dominating the Asian outbound tourism, which indicates a variety of peak months across the year for the main Asian countries. This chapter offers a more specific investigation of the key institutional holidays within the selected Asian countries, and suggests how the non-Asian destinations can accommodate this diversified market. Research Method Secondary data and archival analyses are employed in the current study to map out the holiday systems and their associated celebratory traditions (Veal, 2005). The advantages of using secondary data in research are obvious: less expensive and obtained rapidly (Hakim, 1982; Zikmund, 2003) and suitable for the analysis of trends over time (Hakim, 1982). The data for this study were mainly extracted from official tourism websites which assure the trustworthiness of data. Eight key Asian countries— China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and India—were selected. Data were adopted from their national official tourism websites respectively: China National Tourism Association, Japan National Tourist Organization, Korea National Tourism Organization, Singapore Tourism Board, Tourism Authority of Thailand, Tourism Malaysia, Wonderful Indonesia, and Ministry of Tourism India. In detail, the national holiday calendars and their associated points about the celebrations were used to examine the institutional seasonality phenomenon across countries. In addition, secondary data of monthly outbound numbers from the year 2009 to 2014 were utilized to identify the patterns of outbound tourism for each selected country. A particular focus was given to observe the peak periods.

Institutional Holidays in Key Asian Countries Across Asia, many of the cultural and religious holidays are based on the lunar calendar, resulting the dates of those holidays varying each year. An example of the key holidays’ dates in 2015 for the selected eight countries is given in Figures 1, 2, and 3. These eight countries are key outbound sources of contemporary interest.

44

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 1. Public Holidays in Eight Key Asian Countries in 2015 (January April). Remarks: 1. Sundays are in light grey colour; 2. For India, only selected holidays marked

Making Sense of Seasons

45

Figure 2. Public Holidays in Eight Key Asian Countries in 2015 (May August). Remarks: 1. Sundays are in light grey colour; 2. For India, only selected holidays marked

46

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 3. Public Holidays in Eight Key Asian Countries in 2015 (September December). Remarks: 1. Sundays are in light grey colour; 2. For India, only selected holidays marked

Making Sense of Seasons

47

In the Chinese context, institutional seasonality is very important. The three most important holidays (Chinese New Year, May Day, and National Day) are typically three-day breaks combined with one or two adjacent weekends to form a week long period. The system is in flux and May Day was cut down to one day after 2008, but by leave days and the use of weekends many citizens can still use the time for a short holiday. These periods are known as three Golden Weeks. The establishment of the Golden Weeks in 1999 boosted domestic travel for Chinese citizens (Wu, Zhu, & Xu, 2000). In recent times and with the loosening of visa policies, improved economic well-being, and better connection with overseas countries, it is becoming increasingly common for Chinese to travel to the wide range of currently approved destination countries during these weeks (Wu & Pearce, 2014; Zhang, 2006). In Japan, the week around New Year’s Day, Golden Week, and Obon Week are the three busiest holiday seasons. Obon week in mid-August is an annual Buddhist event to commemorate ancestors (About Travel, 2015). In Japan, the term Golden Week is applied to the period containing individual one day holidays entitled Showa Day, Constitution Memorial Day, and Greenery Day from late April to early May. In combination with wellplaced weekends, the Japanese Golden Week has become one of the three major holiday seasons for overseas trips (Rosenbaum & Spears, 2006). South Korea was primarily an agricultural society before the middle of the 20th century. The seasonal rhythms of Korean daily life were arranged around the lunar calendar, and a variety of religious events were developed for appreciating a good harvest. The main public holidays include Korea New Year (also known as Chinese New Year), Buddha’s Birthday, Memorial Day, and Chuseok (mid-Autumn day). Additionally, there are four national holidays designated by the government: Independence Declaration Day (March 1), Liberation Day (August 15), National Foundation Day (the 3rd day of the 10th lunar month), and Hangeul Day (October 9). In total, there are 15 public holidays when all the businesses are closed by law and the employees are off work. A great mix of cultures is a distinctive feature of Singapore’s society, resulting in each culture with its own unique set of beliefs, values, and traditions. The majority of Singapore’s population fall into three primary ethnic groups: Chinese, Malay and Indian, with Chinese New Year, the Malay festival Hari Raya, and the Hindu festival Thaipusam seen as the three most important festivals celebrated in Singapore. In Thailand, there are countless cultural events and festivals. Some of them are celebrated nationwide while others are applied to specific regions

48

The World Meets Asian Tourists

or areas. A number of Thai festivals and Buddhist holidays vary each year, as they depend on the lunar calendar and the night of the full moon. Some of the well-known Thai public holidays and festivals are Chinese New Year, Songkran festival (Thai New Year) in April, Eidilfitri Day, Constitution Day, and New Year’s Eve. Malaysian society, like Singapore, consists of a complex mix of different ethnic groups, primarily Malay, Chinese, and Indian. And their numerous cultural festivals and events are good reflections of this mixture. Some of the most important public holidays and festivals in Malaysia include Chinese New Year, Thaipusam festival in January/February, Wesak Day in May, Hari Raya, and Deepavali. In Indonesia, a variety of festivals are celebrated by the various religions throughout the year, Events for the majority Muslim population predominate, but there are also Buddhist, Hindu, and Christian festivals. Independence Day in August is the most important national festival; however, many of the religious festivals give people the opportunity to come together and share something they have in common. Beside official holiday, there are so called “libur bersama” or “cuti bersama,” or joint leave(s) declared nationwide by the government. For example, in 2015, July 17 18 were official holiday days for Hari Raya Puasa, and then, July 16 and July 20 21 were extra holidays declared by the government. India is known for its many cultures and religions; and the Indian society consists of people of various religions notably Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Jain, Christian, and more. Therefore, it is a country of cultural and traditional festivals. In India, only the secular holidays of Republic Day (January 26), Independence Day (August 15), and Mahatma Gandhi’s Birthday (October 2) are observed nationally. Christmas Day and New Year’s Day are observed across the country although they are not official government holidays. Some of the public holidays and festivals tend to be celebrated on a strictly regional basis. Events and festivals in India can be categorized into following categories: Hindu festivals, Muslim festivals, Sikh festivals, Jain festivals, Christian festivals and Buddhist festivals. A summary of the key cultural and religious holidays across the selected Asian countries are listed in Table 1. Outbound Seasonality Patterns A review of monthly outbound tourist numbers from 2009 to 2014 from the tourism official websites of the selected countries reveals a relatively consistent pattern for each country. A particular focus was to observe the

Making Sense of Seasons Table 1.

49

Holidays and Festivals in Eight Key Asian Countries

Public Holiday/ Festival

When

Country (& Areab)

New Yeara

January 1

All the above countries

Chinese New Year

Late January ∼ early February (1st day of 1st lunar month)

China, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia

Thaipusam

January

Singapore, Malaysia

Easter

April

May Day

May

Singapore, Indonesia, India (Hong Kong) China, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, India South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, (Hong Kong)

Buddha’s Birthday May (1st full moon day of the 4th lunar month) Hari Raya Puasa

July

Mid-Autumn Day

September (15th day of the 8th lunar month)

Deepavali Christmas

10th November 25th December

Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, South Korea (known as Chuseok), Singapore, Malaysia Singapore, Malaysia, India Singapore, South Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, (Hong Kong)

a

Except New Year’s Day, Japan does not share any of the holidays above. As special zones in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan are also listed in the holidays that are not applicable to the whole China.

b

peak seasons for each country. A summary of the peak periods across the observed six years for each country is provided in Table 2. Combining information from Tables 1 and 2, it is clear that the key holidays and festivals listed in Table 1 are playing an important role in shaping the peak seasons in the selected countries’ outbound tourism. Previous

50

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Table 2.

Peak Months of Outbound Tourism in Eight Key Asian Countries

Country

Peak Months

China

January/February, May, July August (school holidays), October

Japan South Korea

March, August, December January, July August

Singapore

June, November, December

Thailand Malaysia

March May, October, school holidays January/February, December, school holidays

Indonesia India

June July, December Mid-April to end June, end-October to early-January, school holidays

Sources: UNWTO (2015b), CNTA, Japan National Tourism Organization, Korea Tourism Organization, Singapore Tourism Board, Tourism Authority of Thailand, Tourism Malaysia, Wonderful Indonesia, Ministry of Tourism India, Tourism Australia.

studies indicate that there are significant differences between Golden Week tourists and non-Golden Week tourists (Pearce & Chen, 2012; Rosenbaum & Spears, 2006), holiday tourists and non-holiday tourists, such as Easter and Christmas (Grey, 2002; O’Halloran, 2002), in terms of their demographic profiles and travel behaviors. Therefore, it is worthwhile to pay attention to these Asian tourists traveling in the peak holidays and festivals. In considering how to manage tourists enjoying their national holiday periods, the importance of the cultural issues surrounding holidays has prompted researches to recognize that relying on good standard service is not enough (Pizam, Uriely, & Reichel, 2000; Reisinger & Turner, 1998, 2002a). Rather, a consideration of specific cultural values and rules of social behavior will help generate Asian tourists’ satisfaction at these times (Reisinger & Turner, 2002b). Many destinations have been trying to impress their Chinese guests in various ways. For example, in 2015 a number of Australian hotels decorated public spaces with red lanterns, while the in-room towels and accessories were set in a “goat” shape to celebrate

Making Sense of Seasons

51

the year of “Goat” at Chinese New Year. In Japan, many shopping malls constructed large signs in Chinese announcing “Celebrating Mid-Autumn Day” and “celebrating National Day.” Similarly, Disneyland in California even arranged special Chinese New Year Performances, such as a lion dance, to welcome Chinese tourists. These practices reflect Pearce and Chen’s (2012) finding that the Chinese Golden Week tourists did appreciate the festival atmosphere in the destinations during their trip. Key Holidays and Festivals The New Year’s Day is an official public holiday in most of the countries considered in this chapter. However, there is no strong cultural orientation toward this day across most of the key Asian countries, except Japan. The most celebrated holiday in Japan is the New Year’s Day. Although most of the businesses are shut, the shopping malls and the streets are decorated with New Year’s displays. Three bamboo poles decorated with flowers and pines are very typical New Year’s displays in Japan. It is the time for the Japanese to make the New Year’s cooking (Osechi), visit shrines to pray for health and prosperity for the coming year, and send and receive New Year’s Cards (Nenga-Jo), a practice producing considerable profit for the post office. Despite its name, Chinese New Year, also known as Spring Festival, is celebrated in a lot of countries. Traditionally, the Chinese family will have their houses especially cleaned and beautifully decorated, and the shopping malls and city streets will also be embellished with bright red ornaments. The Chinese New Year Eve dinner is an important part of the celebration; it is the time for the whole family sitting together and enjoying the meal, in order to get rid of all the unwanted things in the past and welcome an exciting and prosperous new year. It is a rich meal with a variety of food, with fish being an essential dish for people from the south part of China, while dumplings are a must for people from the north. Replicating aspects of these traditions is one pathway for hotels and international restaurants to find favor with Chinese tourists. On the first day of the Chinese New Year, people will visit friends and relatives. During the visit, traditionally a New Year’s bow (known as Sebae in South Korea) is performed in front of the elders of one’s family and neighborhood; after the bow, the elders present New Year’s gift money (known as Hongbao in China) to their juniors. In today’s China, instead of the New Year’s bow, a greeting of “GongXiFaCai” is becoming popular.

52

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Thaipusam Festival is celebrated by the Hindus in honor of their Hindu god, Subramaniam, or Lord Murugan, generally in late January or early February. A feature of the festival is the carrying of a kavadi, a frame decorated with colored papers, tinsels, fresh flowers, and fruits as a form of penance. The practices and rituals performed for this day include piercing their body with large steel hooks and other sacrificial acts like walking on hot coal. Apart from the mortification of flesh, other forms of devotion are practised, such as honey or milk offerings. Buddha’s birthday is the most important day of the Buddhist calendar, though it has different names in different countries (Vesak Day, Singapore; Wesak Day, Malaysia; Waisak Day, Indonesia; Buddha Purnima, India). It is celebrated on the day of full moon in May and it marks the birth, enlightenment, and death of Buddha. Vegetarian food is served at Buddhist temples, where devotees flock to make offerings of flowers, incense, oil lamps, or lighted candles. Some even release captive animals like turtles and birds as offerings. In Thailand, drinking alcohol at this time is restricted. The practices on Buddha’s birthday are quite similar to those in Japan’s Obon Week, such as no meat and no alcohol; but instead of celebrating Buddha’s birth, the Japanese are commemorating their ancestors. Hari Raya Puasa, also known as Aidil Fitri, is a celebration marking the end of Ramadan, a Muslim month of fasting and abstinence. For Aidil Fitri, early in the morning the Muslims go to the mosque to attend sessions of prayers; and at noon, they wear their best outfits and go to visit friends and relatives for a thanksgiving feast. A recognition of the food requirements and the timing of meals (before dawn and after sunset) matter for Muslim tourists across this extended Ramadan period. The Mid-Autumn Day is celebrated in the 15th day of the 8th lunar month, generally in August or September. It is also known as Mooncake Festival in Singapore and Malaysia. Beside the Chinese New Year, it is another time for the whole family to get together, and appreciate the full and bright moon. To the Chinese, the full moon represents unity. Another specialty of the festival is the mooncake itself. These cakes are rich, round pastries filled with a mixture of sweet red bean paste, lotus nut paste, or salted egg yolk. South Korea’s Chuseok is very similar to the Mid-Autumn Day, during which families gather together and make songpyeon — half-moon shaped rice cakes. Deepavali, meaning the Festival of “Lights,” also known as Diwali in India, is celebrated during the 7th month of the Hindu calendar, usually in late October or early November. It lasts throughout the entire month. Hindus celebrate it by adorning their homes with dozens of lights or oil lamps, called vikku, to signify the triumph of good over evil, and light over

Making Sense of Seasons

53

darkness. It is a period of festive joy and Hindu people will visit each other, extend good wishes and partake in the feasting and jollity. They will have an area set aside for family altars where sweetmeats and flower garlands are placed as offerings. Beside the above important holidays and festivals that contribute to the peak seasons of outbound tourism in the selected countries, the school holidays, particularly the summer vacations, are another significant factor shaping the peak periods. School holidays, particularly summer vacations, alone explain a big part of the peak seasons for some of the Asian outbound tourism, especially Thailand, Malaysia, and India, as noted in Table 2, and China as well. School holidays are ideal time periods for the Chinese families to travel either within China or internationally. Basically, there are two school holidays per year in China, one is the winter holiday between mid-January and mid-February and the other is the summer holiday period in July and August. The latter one is the more preferred time as it lasts longer and it occurs in the season with good weather. A popular part of the school holiday trip in today’s China is to include a short visit to the local university campus or seminars with local schools’ students and staff, where the Chinese students are able to experience the university atmosphere in Western countries.

CONCLUSION Understanding when Asian tourists can visit overseas and their preferences and potential needs on trips during particular time periods defines the contribution of this chapter. The work discussed focused on the institutional holidays that shape the patterns of outbound tourism in eight key Asian countries. Archival information from each country’s official tourism website was the reference source to identify the holiday systems and observances. Secondary data of monthly outbound tourist numbers were then investigated to identify the seasonality patterns of their outbound tourism. Peak months varied across the observed countries, but were found to be quite consistent and consistently tied to their key institutional holidays. These key holidays shaping the seasonality patterns are grouped into four categories: universal holidays based on Gregorian calendar, such as New Year’s Day and Labour Day (May Day); Chinese culture-based holidays, such as Chinese New Year, and Mid-Autumn Day; religious festivals, such as Thaipusam, Buddha’s Birthday and Hari Raya Puasa; and, school holidays. The institutional seasonality of outbound tourism from these key Asian countries provides opportunities as well as challenges for the destinations.

54

The World Meets Asian Tourists

It can be proposed that destination managers and businesses plan for and integrate the peak outbound Asian seasonality into their year. First, having a good sense of these institutional holidays, including the practices customs and rules, will help the destination welcome and make the trip memorable at these holiday times. The adaptations may be relatively simple, for example, proper decorations for a festive atmosphere during Chinese New Year (such as red linen provided in the room and red lanterns hung in front of hotel), respect for religious observances by providing the right times and kinds of foods (such as no alcohol for Thai tourists during Buddha’s Birthday, careful selection of meats, the timing of meals for Muslim tourists during Ramadan), and special programs (such as whole of family activities) for groups during school holidays. Second, a systematic review of the Asian institutional seasonality revealed that the holidays have different patterns from the Western destinations. For example, considerable Chinese tourists flow into Australia during the Chinese New Year holiday (Wu & Pearce, 2014; Xinhua News Agency, 2006), which usually falls in late January or early February. This time of the year is usually the low tourism season in Australia, as well as in many other Western countries, because school holidays are over and people are back to work from the annual Christmas holiday season. This kind of complementarity also applies to the Asian countries celebrating the May Day holiday, including Japan’s Golden Week which is late April to early May (Rosenbaum & Spears, 2006), when most Western countries are back to work after the Easter break, with limited domestic tourism business. Being aware of this complementarity and making full use of it, should benefit the tourism businesses at non-Asian destinations. In addition to the opportunities, there are also the challenges of tight time schedules and over concentration in big cities. For the Asian tourists, a trip to most of the Western destinations is a long haul trip. The time spent on the way to the destinations and back home can be regarded as frustrating for some Chinese Golden Week tourists (Pearce & Chen, 2012). Asian tourists may concentrate in a limited range of destinations. An increasing number of Japanese people traveling abroad during Golden Week were reported to cause congestion in some big US cities on the west coast, such as Los Angeles, Seattle, and San Francisco (Rosenbaum & Spears, 2006). Regional dispersal thus becomes a big challenge for many Western destinations when they welcome the rising Asian tourists (Tourism Research Australia, 2012). It has been observed, however, that certain groups of Asian tourists, especially the emerging independent tourists behave

Making Sense of Seasons

55

significantly different from the familiar group package participants (Pearce, Wu, De Carlo, & Rossi, 2013; Xiang, 2013). The emerging group are found to be more experienced, more adventurous, more confident, social media empowered, and embrace visiting unexplored regions (Wu & Pearce, 2014). Regional destinations sound attractive to them. Considering the tight schedule and regional dispersal issues, future research is recommended to assess some specific ways to boost the regional access to experiences for Asian tourists in out of Asia destinations. Several research directions for further investigation of the seasonality issues can be outlined. The Chinese government has recently encouraged all the companies and institutions to adopt the paid holiday system: will these new practices change the Asian outbound tourists’ seasonality? As budget airlines provide more connections between well-known Asian source cities and Western destinations (such as Gold Coast, Perth in Australia, and Hawaii in the United States), will Asian tourists be able to visit less mainstream destinations at a slower pace, rather than in the current tight schedule? Further, how can the destination management organizations extend the length of tourists’ stay around these traditional holiday times and encourage them to visit regional areas or revisit a destination? For both tourists and businesses alike, single or even multiple peak mountain patterns of Asian outbound seasonality are arguably less desirable than attempts to build a rolling hills pattern which complements the arrival of tourists from other markets.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 4

MEDIA REPRESENTATIONS OF CHINESE OUTBOUND TOURISTS’ BEHAVIOR Mao-Ying Wu Zhejiang University, China

Abstract: This chapter assesses the portrayal in the online English media of mainland China tourist behavior. Social representation theory is used to classify and interpret the major themes being portrayed in recent online reports. The analysis suggested two emancipated representations, one which incorporated both “ugly” behavior and positive issues, while the second view highlighted the undesirable behaviors due to cultural clashes. Two minority representations also existed. The first offered a warm welcome toward the more sophisticated and well-educated market and the other stressed the potential damage to China’s national reputation of their unfavorable behavior. Implications and directions for future research and viewing outbound tourists are offered. Keywords: Chinese outbound tourists; tourist behavior; online English media; representations

INTRODUCTION The pivotal role of online communication represents a source of ideas about the way host communities view and engage with emerging tourist

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 57 71 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007005

58

The World Meets Asian Tourists

groups. This process of online meeting and greeting is arguably important in three ways (Tzanelli, 2012). First, these resources expand the information about tourists and tourism available to many citizens. Both academics and industry professionals are already familiar with the flows and trends within tourism markets. By way of contrast, the broader community has a more limited and localized experience of the emerging markets. The online and the print media are powerful information providers as they highlight broader trends and incidents of interest. Second, the online media has considerable power to circulate a single incident extremely quickly and widely, thereby providing conversational topics and examples to galvanize public views. Third, the media operates in a separate sphere of economic discourse to that of tourism (Nielsen, 2001). Positive stories and negative reports can coexist or one style can dominate, depending on the judgment of the reporters, media owners, and online writers as to the interest and commercial value of the story. By way of contrast, tourism interests downplay the difficulties of meeting and greeting new markets. As already emphasized throughout this volume, China has been prominent in the world tourism market, due to the rapid growth of its citizens taking holidays outside the country. China is now the first tourist generating country for a large number of destinations in the Asia Pacific region, including Australia, South Korea, Japan, and Thailand (UNWTO, 2015a, 2015b, 2015c). Due to the relaxed visa policy, considerable growth has also been observed in many key destinations, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada (see Chapter 2 for more details). Impressive numbers of mainland Chinese tourists are traveling overseas, often amazing the world with their purchasing power (Xu & McGehee, 2012). Shopping malls, department stores, retail outlets, and luxury boutiques in the United States, Europe, Hong Kong, and South Korea are quite often crowded with Chinese for whom the price is does not seem an object (Kai, 2014). However, media reports also document some unpleasant stories about Chinese tourists, especially about their bad manners and irresponsible behavior. By addressing such issues, this chapter aims to explore how the media represent Chinese outbound tourists’ behavior. This kind of study is critical to onsite tourist management and to China, which endeavors to build its soft power in the global community. In this particular study, some consideration is given to how mainland Chinese tourists are viewed within and outside Asia. This joint emphasis maximizes the scope of the study to understand the evolution and commonalities of the online media representations across countries.

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

59

CHINESE OUTBOUND TOURISTS’ BEHAVIOR Media and tourism are intertwined entities. Alongside relatives and friends’ advice and actually going to the destination, the media, including both traditional types (newspapers, magazines, TV, brochures, movies, guidebooks) and nowadays social media, are important information sources for tourists’ decision making (Gartner, 1993; Pearce, 2005; Sigala, Christou, & Gretzel, 2012). Media stories and images can shape tourists’ cognitive and affective responses and further influence people’s behavioral intentions. Importantly, media stories can stimulate their desire to travel to a specific destination (Bowen & Clarke, 2009). Due to the special role of media in decision making, there are several kinds of studies about media and tourism. A review of these studies suggests that most of the work falls into the tourism marketing area. Such studies are centrally about how certain media represent a specific destination. For example, Hsu and Song (2013) evaluated images of Hong Kong and Macau by analyzing the texts and pictures in the top six outbound magazines in Mainland China. A similar study was undertaken by Aramberri and Liang (2012), who analyzed how three Chinese travel magazines present Europe to their audiences. As another example, Xiao and Mair (2006) documented the representative narratives of major English newspapers about China as a destination. In addition to magazines and newspapers, other sources of mass media have also been studied. For example, Mercille (2005) examined tourism in Tibet as a case study. She assessed Western and Japanese tourists’ most popular information sources: two movies and a guidebook’s representations of Tibet. She also benchmarked the media representation with tourists’ actual perceptions, and indicated the congruence between the two. Further, films have been influential in motivating tourists’ visits. Filminduced tourism has become a significant study topic and a tool of promotional interest for many destination management organizations (Beeton, 2005; Iwashita, 2006). With the rise of social media, a phenomenon that has been considered as one of the “mega trends” significantly affecting the tourism system (Leung, Law, van Hoof, & Buhalis, 2013), the way tourists search, find, and trust information has changed significantly. Tourists not only receive information from various media, but also collaboratively produce information about tourism suppliers and destinations (Akehurst, 2009; Wu & Pearce, 2016). There are many forms of social media that tourists can adopt,

60

The World Meets Asian Tourists

including blogs, virtual communities, microblogs, reviews, emails, bulletins, newsgroups, and discussion board/forum (Litvin, Goldsmith, & Pan, 2008). Studies about media and tourism have built on these forms of communication. A number of studies have explored how a certain destination has been represented by the online user generated contents (Xiang, Wo¨ber, & Fesenmaier, 2008). For example, Choi, Lehto, and Morrison (2007) examined how Macau was represented on the web. Other examples include Wenger’s (2008) analysis of Austria, Tse and Zhang’s (2013) study of Hong Kong, as well as Tseng, Wu, Morrison, Zhang, and Chen (2015) work about China. Crouch, Jackson, and Thompson (2005) point out that many of these studies have been conducted by those with a pre-commitment to tourism; that is, they want to explore how the media works to fire the tourists’ imagination. A contrasting direction in the media tourism link can be identified. At times the media produces reports and stories which might be seen as highlighting the dark or negative sides of tourism, thus providing a position in opposition to the advocacy of the tourism industry (Nielsen, 2001). One component of these reports lies in the assessment of the characteristics of tourists from diverse places.

Being Good Tourists Ranking good/ugly tourists is a popular activity by the media. The ranking campaign has continued unabated since Expedia conducted a survey in which tourist offices from 17 popular destinations worldwide were asked to vote on their least favorite tourists in 2002 (BBC News, 2002). In these rankings, nationality is the central identifying construct. Tourists from the United States were one of the first groups to be targeted. The suggested attributes were loud, arrogant, demeaning, thoughtless, ignorant, and ethnocentric. Not surprisingly, they were often frowned on by the international community, earning the name “ugly Americans” which followed the title of a popular movie and book of the same title (Clark, 2006). The image was applied not just to US citizens traveling abroad, but also at home (Rosenow & Pulsipher, 1978). Other nationalities assigned some unfavorable labels have included the Japanese, German, British, and more recently the Chinese. With the increasing visibility of the Chinese, they are now considered to usurp the American tourists as possibly the world’s ugliest tourists, due to images of them as loud, uncouth, and culturally insensitive (chankaiyee2, 2013; Zhang, 2014).

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

61

Most of the academic research on good or bad tourists is about sustainable/responsible/environmental friendly/ecofriendly tourists, and tends to focus on the relationships between tourists and the natural or cultural environment (Dolnicar, Crouch, & Long, 2008; Goodwin & Francis, 2003). Studies on vacation etiquette have only attracted limited attention. Loi and Pearce (2012, 2015) have addressed this specific area. By adopting an emic approach, Loi and Pearce identified three categories of annoying tourist behavior, including some behaviors directly related to interacting with other people, some isolated individual behavior and some marginally illegal or scam behaviors. They further compared Hong Kong and mainland Chinese tourists’ perceptions toward annoying behaviors. Their study suggested that both groups of tourists are aware of behaviors which can cause offense. Significantly different perceptions emerged for five behaviors, but two behaviors, specifically breaking into a line, and smoking anywhere without considering those around them, were seen as very troublesome. Recently, Pearce and Wu’s (2015) study about international tourists’ experiences at a major outdoor entertainment show in China suggested that the international members of the audience can be upset with undesirable onsite etiquette by domestic Chinese tourists, for example, chatting during the show, taking photos/videos, leaving early before the end of the show, showing no respect to the performers, and pushing into queues.

Social Representations Theory Several of the perspectives already considered on this topic of bad tourist behavior may be understood by applying the insights and research approaches of social representations theory. In situations where the communication and the sharing of views on a clear topic of public importance is at stake, Moscovici and colleagues have identified the powerful role of social representations (Howarth, 2005; Moscovici, 1988). At core the theory can be thought of as emphasizing “cognitive headlines” in the sense that clear phrases provide an overview of how people are thinking of the world around them. Social representations typically consist of a constellation of linked attitudes and values which are often summarized by this key phrase or cliche´ (Jovchelovitch, 2002; Pearce, Moscardo, & Ross, 1996). In the present area of interest, “ugly American tourists” is exactly the kind of cognitive headline which summarizes a set of linked views and values. Importantly for the present study, social representations are built on socially produced and shared knowledge. Communication is core to

62

The World Meets Asian Tourists

understanding the spread and acceptance of the “cognitive headlines.” Social representations theory encourages researchers to see the commonalities in the way the media, and in this case the online media, portray such groups as Chinese outbound tourists. In the studies conducted within this framework, it is repeatedly argued that social representations can be found through exploring a range of communication forms including text, drawings, online messages, cartoons, songs, and art. There are several types of representations and the variety and categorization of the prevailing public views can be explored within these frameworks. Moscovici (1988) proposed three levels of consensus. “Hegemonic” representations are described as stable and broadly accepted by the whole community, “emancipated” representations exist when subgroups have somewhat differentiated opinions and ideas, and “polemical” perspectives exist in the context of group conflict, with subgroups having opposing outlooks. These social representations are afforded a degree of stability because of their prescriptive power, as well as the fact that they are reinforced socially. They do determine how people see the world, and are simultaneously determined by interaction and communication within the society. Thus, there are competing and sometimes contradictory versions of reality existing side by side in the same community, culture, and individual (Howarth, 2005). The multiple media reports about desirable/undesirable tourists indicate that tourists’ good behavior is a socially important issue, which is of interest to the vast global community. The research about media representation and tourism suggests that studying the topic through the lens of media reports and employing a social representations theory framework offer effective pathways to understand how certain groups of tourists are presented. Thus, the specific interest of the current chapter is about how Chinese tourists’ behavior is represented by the online media.

Research Methods Online English media reports about Chinese tourists were the data for the current chapter. In January 2015, the terms “Chinese tourists,” “Chinese tourists’ behavior,” and “ugly Chinese tourists” were explored from Google. Several hundred web pages were initially identified. For each keyword, the first 10 pages (100 items) of results were initially read by a team member. A filtering process was carried out. Reports selected for further use satisfied the following criteria: they were centrally about Chinese

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

63

outbound tourists’ behavior; they were recent reports, published between January 2010 and January 2015; they were original reports; and they were posted by the international media, rather than Chinese media who publish in English (such as Xinhua net and China Daily). Year 2010 was chosen because it was a pivotal year in the growth of Chinese outbound tourism. In that year, the number of Chinese outbound tourists reached 50 million, and their behavior attracted much global attention (Li, Zhang, Mao, & Deng, 2011). In all, 137 items were selected for further analysis. These 137 media reports constitute an impressive array of materials amounting to 11,321 words. A manual coding process was adopted in this study, because the data size was reasonable, the information in each report was complex, and the research team was experienced in coding. Each report can cover quite rich information, mostly with a key theme, but often with supplementary information. In this study, only the key ideas in each report were coded. A first set of 50 reports was reviewed by two different research team members. They developed their own thematic summaries of the issues, then compared them and reached an integrated view. The process was conducted over a one month period of accessing the reports, building draft category schemes, and together checking these schemes. After confirming the schemes, one of the researchers coded all the 137 reports. To enhance the reliability of the coding, coding by a second research team member was undertaken. Thirty percent (41) of the reports were chosen at random from the total set of 137. The agreement between the first and second coders was 93%.The approach is consistent with qualitative meta-analysis and manual coding approaches suggested in the contemporary tourism methods literature (Kozinets, 2010).

Research Results An analysis of the 137 media reports about Chinese tourist behavior suggested there were emancipated representations, that is, a range of well differentiated, overall perspectives prevail (Moscovici, 1988). In detail, there are three principal distinctive representations. They are given extended labels in keeping with the core ideas about social representations and the notion of defining phrases and cognitive headlines. One set of classifications (6.6%) reporting the comparisons and benchmarks with other source markets are not included in Table 1. A little more than half of the media reports (51.8%) revealed complex attitudes toward Chinese tourists. On the one hand, they realized that some

64

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Table 1.

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

Media Representations

Number (N = 137)

%

1. Bipolar attitudes: the double edged sword

71

51.8

Chinese tourists are a double edged sword. They are ugly but rich They bring both benefits and costs. Some of the Chinese tourists behavior badly. The Chinese government is actively involved to educate and regulate their citizens’ behavior.

23

16.8

20

14.6

Bad behavior exists but is unintentional. Tolerance and education are needed.

19

13.9

9

6.6

Some Chinese do behave badly, but it is a cross national issue. 2. Negative perspectives: the clash of cultures

44

32.1

Chinese tourists are annoying, and upset the hosts with specific acts.

44

32.1

3. Positive evolution; from unsophisticated to increasingly savvy

15

10.9

Chinese tourists are evolving and learning to behave better, especially considering the growth of a new generation. 4. Hurting the national image

15

10.9

7

5.1%

Chinese tourists’ bad behavior hurts China’s national image.

7

5.1%

behave poorly. Yet again, they identified substantial returns to the host community. Additionally, in the sub-categories in this representation, there were views reporting that the problem required tolerance and understanding as well as education through government and other means. Twenty three reports were very explicit in their view that Chinese tourists create clear positive and negative impacts to the community. All reports noted that they are the largest spenders in the world. They spent US$102 million in 2013, and overtook Americans and Germans. This trend is expected to keep growing (UNWTO, 2015a, 2015b, 2015c). These data

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

65

have been well-cited in the media reports, and made the international hosts rethink their impacts on the communities. In reporting these view the online nature of the comments make it impossible to report specific page numbers which is the usual convention in citing work. Nevertheless specific checking and validation of the reports offered here can be pursued through the referenced web sites and online sources. Yi (2014), a Korean editorial writer of the Joong Ang Ilbo reflected on the dramatic number of Chinese tourists in Korea: With so many Chinese people around us and supporting our economy, we clearly need to learn to live with them. The problem is that that Chinese people have two faces: ugly and rich. It would be great if we only got to see the rich side, not the ugly side. But such is not the way of the world …. But we can’t just turn them away. Tourism targeting Chinese tourists is one of the most promising businesses for our future. The number of Chinese to Korea is growing by 25 percent every year. This year, it will reach 5 million. The growing business created 240,000 jobs, four times the jobs created by the 47 largest Korean companies last year. Even more Chinese will visit Korea when a tourism industry reform plan announced by the government last week is implemented …. Twenty online media reports emphasized the Chinese government’s effort to educate and regulate their citizens’ behavior, and believed that positive change would occur in the future. In a report entitled “China tries to ‘fight’ bad tourist stereotype,” it was noted that “the problem (bad tourist behavior) has gotten so bad, the Chinese government is taking action to compel its citizens to be better guests abroad. While visiting the Maldives back in September (2014), Chinese President Xi Jinping asked his fellow visitors not to litter or damage the coral reefs. (Lipsey, 2014) Other Chinese government regulation and a senior official’s speech have also been recorded by the international media reporters. For example, a report in the Washington Post stated, Li Jinzao, head of China’s National Tourism Administration, was reported to have said that records would be kept of

66

The World Meets Asian Tourists problem tourists, with tourists “ranked” on the severity of their misbehavior. These tourists would receive messages reminding them to behave when they landed at their destination. If they disobeyed, they would be punished …. Li also announced a new tactic to improve tourists’ behavior: Public shaming. He encouraged Chinese tourists to take photos or video of bad behavior they spot and pass it on to authorities. The evidence would then be publicized. (Taylor, 2015)

In addition to the awareness of the Chinese government’s action, several international media reports also tried to be empathic, and endeavored to understand why the undesirable behavior took place. Li, a journalist for the South China Morning Post, reconsidered the “rude Chinese tourists theme, and suggested that most “bad” tourists do not intend to be “bad.” They are just being themselves: they are being Chinese. Further she indicated that ‘education makes a difference’” Not every Chinese tourist is a rude one, and educated people are usually better behaved than those who have had a lower standard of education. This could be why middle-aged or older tourists who have been deprived of or received little education during China’s politically tumultuous times tend to act more unruly. Many of them do not speak English, and some are not fluent Putonghua speakers. Their knowledge of the destination country and its culture is often at best outdated or non-existent. (2013) Additionally, many tourists are not skilled in foreign languages and also lack awareness of cultural nuances. A combination of these issues results in the disregard for local customs and rules. Nowadays, more and more Chinese can afford a trip overseas, but their knowledge remains deficient and many tourists are unaware, or claim to be unaware, that some of their habits are unacceptable to foreigners.… they lack cross-cultural communication skills. They assume things tolerated in China are also acceptable in other countries. In addition to the bipolar attitudes, 32% of the media reports were simply very upset with Chinese tourists’ behavior. Particular sources of disquiet include disrespecting the service personnel, exaggerating the power of money, and being lawless. These reports were generally Asia based (Thailand, Hong Kong, North Korea, etc.). For example, due to the

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

67

popularity of the movie, “Lost in Thailand,” tens of thousands of Chinese tourists have recently flowed into Chiang Mai, a relatively quiet historic and culturally rich city in northern Thailand. Some locals found some of the Chinese tourist behavior (driving speedily on the wrong side of the road, going against traffic on one-way streets, being loud in public, littering, spitting, smoking, queue jumping) disturbing and rude, and underpinned by what they defined as “cultural clashes.” Even Chinese living in Chiang Mai said they found the behavior of their fellow countrymen shocking and embarrassing (chankaiyee2, 2013). Other similar reports include “Chinese tourists upset North Koreans by treating children ‘like they’re feeding ducks’ ” (Grenoble, 2013) and “cultures clash as Mainland Chinese tourists flood Hong Kong” (The Huffington Post, 2013). Concerns were expressed about social and environmental stress on the local communities, which have been widely discussed in tourism community studies and among tourism sociologists and anthropologists (Smith & Brent, 2001; Wall & Mathieson, 2006). A select number of the online media reports were overwhelmingly positive toward Chinese tourists’ behavior. At only 10.9% of the total, this was a slim category in the overall set of representations. Reports in this cluster highlight the evolving nature of the tourism development, and express a clear view that Chinese tourists are learning to behave better. For example, Zhang (2014) from the South China Morning Post, a Hong Kong-based newspaper, wrote, American and Japanese tourists met with similar criticism when they first ventured abroad. Chinese tourists overseas, who numbered nearly 100 million last year, have to learn to behave. The Japanese have become very popular as tourists the world over, given their willingness to spend as well as their courtesy …. In the long run, with more money, higher education levels and more exposure to the outside world, I trust that my fellow citizens will also adopt appropriate manners. I myself have modified my speaking volume. I still spit, but mostly into a tissue. And I’ve learnt to refrain from spitting on the British ambassador’s lawn when I am invited to attend the Queen’s birthday party. (2014) Other media reports undertook interviews with industry officials. One set of typical remarks in this documentation of the representations include,

68

The World Meets Asian Tourists Han Zhijuan with Multipath Travel Services said ‘During the travel peak during the Chinese New Year, the May Day holiday and the National Day holiday, we did not receive any complaints from Greek hotels, car rental outlets or airline companies. I believe Chinese tourists are getting familiar with conditions and atmosphere in foreign countries and, generally speaking, are behaving better. (gbtimes Beijing, 2014)

The positive trends as predicted in this reporting are, in part, built on the growth of independent tourists, who tend to be young, well-educated, and globally aware. It has been suggested that the new generation might have a very different social impact on the hosts. For example, Startup China observed, Solo tourism is also growing in popularity meaning that the tour groups that have garnered such a bad reputation will slowly begin to decrease and a new type of Chinese tourist will emerge. Moreover, there has been a growth in the number of younger people who are able to travel abroad. These people have grown up with films, TV shows and books about other countries and are, therefore, more aware of cultural variations. The growth in a younger demographic of welleducated and cultured travellers should go a long way to repairing China’s reputation. (2014) In summary, this sub-representation, which is very positive in nature, represents a small group of media reporters’ voices. They do, however, indicate that Chinese tourists have the potential to behave better, particularly with the effects of increased income, tourism experience, and cultural awareness. This minor representation is different from the earlier three, as it focuses on concerns about China’s image as a country, rather than the direct behaviors of the tourists. More specifically, 5% of the reports believe that Chinese’s bad manners harm the country’s reputation. “Last year, the Chinese vice premier complained that loud talking, spitting, and other bad behavior by some Chinese tourists was hurting the country’s international reputation” (Lipsey, 2014). Certainly, China has been gaining in status in the global community through its improved economy, shifts in its political style, and new international relationships. To some extent, it is the focus of the world. China’s ordinary citizens’ behavior, has thus attracted more and more attention. Especially, “when it comes to public diplomacy, concrete

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

69

and specific stories of individuals, even ordinary tourists, can convey a nation’s image more directly and deeply than diplomatic rhetoric, particularly when there is a high frequency of exposure of inappropriate behaviors” (Kai, 2014). The same author continues, although these instances are not representative, some of the most egregious behaviors are thought-provoking …. Though in the minority, these Chinese tourists have seriously damaged the international image of China and the Chinese people. Reflection on these incidents can spark a further discussion of China’s position in the international community (Kai, 2014). As the world meets Asian tourists and Chinese tourists in particular, some believe there is more at stake than just the immediacy of the encounter with those specific individuals.

CONCLUSION The central theme of this chapter is that the media in general, and the online versions in particular, provide an array of representations which help define the way the world meets and greets Asian tourists. This chapter focused on the way Chinese outbound tourists’ behavior, and in particular their manners while overseas, were reported. This study chose online media reports as its data source. More specifically, 137 reports in English were manually coded and analyzed. Using the framework of social representations theory, the results revealed emancipated perspectives, or an array of coexisting views. The most commonly cited view was that the rise of Chinese tourists, and to some extent Asians more generally can be subsumed within this same argument, represents a double-edged sword for the host community. This slightly curious metaphor effectively means that the arrival of the Asian and Chinese tourists cuts in two directions: the positive benefits being largely seen as providing a financial boost while the less attractive consequences are behaviors seen as rude or inappropriate. Additionally, and not unimportantly, there was another large competing and alternate representation. This well reported view, defined here as “Negative perspectives: the clash of cultures,” largely consisted of reports about poorly behaved Chinese tourists. Specific examples of the problem behaviors tended to dominate these discussions and reports. In addition to these two more common representations, two minor overviews were also identified. One was very positive toward Chinese tourists’ behavior particularly considering the prospects for the rise of better educated and more

70

The World Meets Asian Tourists

culturally sensitive, younger tourists. The final representation adopted a wider view of the issue and expressed concern and reported instances of civic alarm about the influence of badly behaved tourists on China’s national image. One important theme (the evolution of behaviors) was consistently expressed in some reports. This view suggests that tourism experience in particular, as well as greater access to education about the wider world, improves tourists’ behavior. The issue is not confined to Chinese or to Asian tourists but instead can be traced through the trajectory of the growth of outbound tourists from a range of source markets including those from Western countries. For example, (The) fact is that tourists from many different countries behave badly. After a Chinese child etched his name on an ancient Egyptian artwork in 2013, an Egyptian guide pointed out that other languages like English, Russian, and Korean were also found on those ancient monuments. But China, as a rapidly emerging economy that promises to be a responsible great power but faces suspicions from its neighbors, is especially vulnerable to these incidents. Given the international climate, the behavior of Chinese tourists is ripe for media coverage and could even cause long-term damages to China’s national image and thus its national interests. (Kai, 2014) The concept of a trajectory of change over time is highlighted further by Yi: When Korea became economically prosperous in the 1990s, Korean tourists had bad manners abroad, especially in China. They drew graffiti on cultural assets, refused to wait in line, showed off money, shopped excessively and acted arrogant. The seed that the ugly Koreans planted in China 20 years ago may have come back to Korea. Sometimes, you do indeed reap what you sow …. It’s not the time to condemn others. Maybe we can help change the ugly Chinese by leading by example. (Kai, 2014) These approaches raise two questions. First, how quickly can these changes occur? A second critical question, yet to be addressed, is how effective are the measures and the efforts to ameliorate the worst of these undesirable

Media Representations of Chinese Outbound Tourists’ Behavior

71

behaviors? Arguably, the boorish behavior of any group of national citizens matters, but such acts are less important if the tourists from a source country number in the hundreds. When they can be counted in millions, the urgency of finding ways to shift from unacceptable behaviors to tolerable manners is a matter of considerable urgency. The tasks then for researchers, governments, and professionals are to identify, implement, and assess the tools which can modify the undesirable behaviors and to provide results about these practices in a short time frame. Some of these tools and associated research opportunities are discussed in the final chapter of this volume.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Social Science Foundation of China (No. 14CGL024). Thanks are also extended to Fei Tan who assisted in the data collection and data analysis.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 5

LEARNING BY AND LEARNING FROM OUTBOUND CHINESE GROUP TOURISTS Huan Lu Shaanxi Normal University, China

Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: This chapter considers Chinese tourists’ learning and skill acquisition through travel and contemplates these outcomes as insights for proving advice to those designing tourist experiences. A three-part classification is employed to document the self-reported learning of mainland Chinese tourists derived from blog, interview, and questionnaire data. The coding of the results focusses on the multiple facts assimilated, the array of skills attributed to their tourism experiences, and the many reflections generated about Chinese society. In documenting these outcomes, the study reviews the implications of the findings for host societies to sharpen their appreciation of how to provide tourism-linked learning experiences for Chinese tourists. Keywords: Chinese outbound; group tourists; learning; memory; facts; value INTRODUCTION The principal aim of this chapter is to consider how outbound Chinese tourists benefit from their travels in terms of a number of learning

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 73 91 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007006

74

The World Meets Asian Tourists

outcomes. Additionally, the implications of these findings for constructing a more diverse set of experiences for Chinese tourists using the concept of mundane authenticity are briefly developed. The outcomes of travel for tourists can take several forms. When they return home tourists may simply be happier, healthier, and more satisfied with their lives and their relationships (Etzion, 2003; Gump & Matthews, 2000; Pearce, Filep, & Ross, 2011; Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekcioglu, & Wolfgang, 2005). Unfortunately, some of these positive benefits of holidays have been shown to disappear quite quickly, and often last for less than one month (Westman & Etzion, 2001). As another type of outcome, returning tourists may learn about other places, acquire new skills, and possibly learn about themselves through their experiences. Some initial evidence for such learning has been generated in studies of Western tourists in a variety of contexts (Falk & Storksdieck, 2005; Gmelch, 1997; Hansel, 1988; Pearce & Foster, 2007; Roggenbuck, Loomis, & Dagostino, 1991). The two-fold questions of this chapter are what mainland Chinese tourists learn from their international experiences and how this record of learning is used to modify or augment the opportunities created for these and similar kinds of Asian tourists.

LEARNING FROM OUTBOUND TOURISM Falk, Ballantyne, Packer, and Benckendorff (2011) have suggested that research about “motivations, serious leisure, visitor experiences, educational tourism, studying abroad, situated learning and sustainable tourism provides many subtle references to the importance of education and learning in travel” (2011, p. 4). In developing their approach Falk et al. drew together many concepts scattered in different disciplines related to tourism, learning, and education. They assert that learning is a lifelong and broad process, its outcomes are highly individual, dependent on context, cumulative process, and can involve fun and evolve from tourism experiences (2011, pp. 6 8). Falk et al. (2011) provide a framework linking the studies about travel and learning. This framework is based on Aristotle’s concepts of phronesis, techne, and episteme to understand the role of tourism in learning. Table 1 presents the three-part classification which they have developed from Aristotle’s concepts. Following his terminology, episteme means theoretical knowledge, which is systematic and universal across particular contexts. Techne means practical skill, which refers to competence and techniques

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists Table 1. Learning Category

75

Conceptualizing How Tourism Contributes to Learning Passive

Practical Incidental development of skills (techne) generic skills and techniques (communication, organization, problem solving, navigation) Knowledge Serendipitous and (episteme) spontaneous acquisition of knowledge (incidental learning about sites, settings and species) Practical Accumulating “life wisdom experience” through (phronesis) exposure to varied situations and settings (self-awareness, social and cultural awareness)

Active

Active quest for control and mastery of physical or cognitive skills (golfing, sailing, photography) Deliberate search for knowledge and understanding (intentional learning about sites, settings, and species) Active pursuit of a good and virtuous life (consciously learning about sustainable and ethical behaviors and cultural perspectives)

Source: Falk et al. (2011, p. 10).

used when doing things. Phronesis means practical wisdom, which is about the development and application of the knowledge. This framework also provides researchers with a guide and opportunities to consider and research learning through travel. Another line of contemporary work on tourists and learning stems from studies of the effectiveness of interpretation. Ballantyne, Packer, and Falk (2011) identified those pre-dispositional factors and onsite experiences that are most important in facilitating tourists’ long-term environmental learning outcomes (knowledge, attitudes and adoption of environmentally sustainable behaviors). Working predominantly in tourism settings involving viewing wildlife, it was found that reflective engagement, which involved both cognitive and affective processing of the experience, was associated more directly with learning outcomes than the immediate but fleeting excitement of seeing the animals. This result highlights the importance of the

76

The World Meets Asian Tourists

cumulative nature of learning—it does not begin and end onsite, but is influenced by both previous and subsequent experiences. Working with the special market of backpackers, other researchers have identified further knowledge and skill gains arising from extended travel experiences. An example, which demonstrates the self-reporting of the learning outcomes, is provided in the work of Pearce and Foster (2007). Their study explored how young, international and independent backpackers rated their own learning in terms of skill development (decision making, dealing with pressures, emotions and stress, using information technology, effective communication with a range of audiences) as considerably improved by traveling. The research raised the question of how much these experiences contribute to the growth or development of generic skills. The Pearce and Foster study of backpackers confirmed that travel can be useful in developing generic skills such as problem solving, adaptability, social and cultural awareness, management of resources, and self-awareness. While studies of this nature are limited in the literature, the work of Pearce and Foster foreshadowed similar work dealing with educational travel and the study abroad experiences of students (Scarinci & Pearce, 2012). The backpacker research also revealed that people with different motivation patterns learn different kinds of skills (Pearce & Foster, 2007, p. 1295). The application of these frameworks and approaches to tourist learning in the broader context of Chinese outbound tourism will be further considered later. One valuable point of particular interest in this context is the amount of travel experience among the Chinese tourists. In an earlier treatment of the same themes, Roggenbuck et al. (1991), working in the broader area of leisure, provided a classification of learning outcomes and a diagram of the forces underpinning these kinds of gains in knowledge and skills. They identify key influences shaping leisure learning. A general model (Figure 1) developed by them identified the relationship between leisure learning and benefits. The strengths of the model include identifying a variety of learning outcomes. Seven of these outcomes seem to be the possible result of leisure engagements: behavior change and skill learning, direct visual memory, information (factual) learning, concept learning, schemata learning, metacognition learning, and attitude and value learning Roggenbuck et al., 1991, p. 197). This approach provides a broad framework for considering the types of learning which may be possible in tourism settings. It is, though, difficult to be confident about the direct application of all of these outcomes to tourist learning. For many tourists, unlike individuals engaged

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

77

(G) Leisure Learning Benefits Observed

(A) Personality

(B)

(C)

Social Expectations

Physical Environment

(D)

(E)

Interpretation of Setting

Basic Learning Processes

Uninterpreted Experience

Specific Learning Experiences

Behavior Setting

(F) Learning of Facts, Skills, Concepts, etc. Observed

No Benefits Observed

No Learning Observed

Figure 1. An Integrative Model of Leisure Learning Source: Roggenbuck et al. (1991, p. 196)

in a regular leisure activity, the context for the learning is a brief contact or encounter rather than a repeated and predictable set of personal activities. The key ideas of Roggenbuck and colleagues, plus the categories developed by Falk and his team, as well as the studies in interpretation and for backpacking markets, offer some ideas for the classification of learning outcomes among Chinese tourists. These ideas are, however, all formulated within a Western cultural epistemology and ontology. The applicability of these approaches and schemes to the world view of Chinese citizens needs to be considered.

The Cultural Legacy of Chinese History and Confucius In China, the traditions supporting learning, and the value of learning through travel are not identical with that found in Western culture. In Chinese thought there are powerful influences about learning and the view of the world from literature including the early poets. Indeed, the role of poetry endures as an important force. The great poets of the Tang dynasty, notably Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi, and Du Mu all emphasized learning through travel (Chen, 1990; Wang, 2009; Zhang, 2002). They wrote a great deal about the beauty of the nature, and what they learned from their travel. Later many other famous Chinese writers, including Xu Xiake, provided more literary material which has influenced the way modern Chinese

78

The World Meets Asian Tourists

view the locations they visit (Li, 2008; Ward, 2000; Xue, 2006). These structures of thought include appreciating landscapes with a necessary human presence in such settings. Persistent views emphasizing the harmony between humans and nature are zhonghuawenhua or Chinese common knowledge (Li, 2008, p. 493). There are some analogies here to the way early English poets such as Chaucer and later members of the Romantic poetry movement shaped Western thinking about how to view and learn from the natural environment (Urry, 1990). In the Western world, however, the environment is seen more as a stimulus to valuable thoughts and experiences rather than an entity to be integrated with human use and involvement. In addition to these enduring literary influences, links between travel and learning in the Chinese context can be understood by tracing a path access the broad span of Chinese history. There is an old and now very widely quoted Chinese saying that “Ten thousand scrolls are no better than ten thousand miles (of journey)” (Xu, 2003). This proverb led many early scholars to travel. Their efforts resulted in much poetry, many articles, and several key texts which in turn have influenced subsequent scholars and tourists. The documentation by the earliest scholars included definitions about destinations, patterns, and ways of life. In brief, they provided a compendium of what they learned from their traveling experiences (Chen, 1990; Creel, 1960; Fan, Zhang, & Wang, 2008; Li, 2007; Zhang, 2002; Zhao, 2013). Confucius (551 BC 479 BC) is a central figure in Chinese philosophy and his work continues to influence social relations in modern China. Travel experiences were very important in establishing the Confucian system of thought (Li, 2007). He not only placed considerable value on formal teaching traditions but also on learning by traveling (Creel, 1960). Although he started his actual travels when he was close to 60, Confucius used his journeys to put his principles into practice (Creel, 1960). Based on his idea of “travel following a right principle,” Confucius developed a set of tour thoughts (Li, 2007). In effect, he advocated developing both a distant travel and a local travel outlook, and encouraged a form of cultural tourism which consisted of listening to music and watching ceremonies. He also placed valued on travel to natural environments such as experiencing mountains and enjoying rivers (Fan et al., 2008). It is the Confucian ethic to seek ultimate truth from the landscape (Petersen, 1995). According to Confucius’ tour thoughts, travel is not only a process of practice, but also an efficient educational process. He also encouraged his students, such as the prominent figure Mencius, to undertake journeys throughout the country (Li, 2007).

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

79

The Confucian system of thought views travel as a learning process and citizens of modern China arguably still adhere to some of his tour thought principles. One legacy of these cultural and literary influences is that learning from travel is embedded in the way many Chinese think about their international experiences. It can be suggested that the opportunity to learn about the world is thus a powerful implicit motive and heightens the value of the present study on learning, because knowledge acquisition holds a distinctive value for Chinese tourists visiting unfamiliar destinations. In this chapter, all the leisure learning outcomes included by Roggenbuck et al. (1991), together with some of the concepts employed by Falk et al. and those present in the backpacker researcher of Pearce and Foster, are re-grouped into 3 categories.: factual knowledge, personal skills and values, and views of Chinese society. The purpose of the classification and the aim of this study were to permit respondents to report easily on their travel outcomes which were assessed as somewhat less complex and varied than those generated in diverse leisure settings and richly informed interpretive contexts.

Research Methods There were three steps applied in this research: blog studies, interviews, and questionnaires. The blogs were conducted first. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted as a second step to validate the content from the blogs and seek some explanations of the different learning outcomes. The third phase of the research used a self-administered questionnaire. In conjunction with the results from the previous blog and interview studies, it was used to provide some explanations of learning by Chinese outbound groups. Blog Studies. A study of tourists’ blogs was the first step in identifying how outbound Chinese perceived any learning outcomes. From this source, 120 blogs, which were in Mandarin, were accessed from a broadly based sample. Their accounts of their learning experiences were examined. As a social networking tool, blogs can provide a linkage between one’s personal life and the particular subject the author would like to report (Thevenot, 2007). Some researchers have considered blogs to be one type of digital word-of-mouth activity for destination marketing (Pan, MacLaurin, & Crotts, 2007). The analysis of blogs as a methodology has emerged within the past decade in the Western academic field. Kozinets

80

The World Meets Asian Tourists

(2010) suggest that as a consequence of the development of the digital world, to understand the society it is necessary to follow people’s social activities. These activities and thoughts can be encountered on the Internet as well as through other technology-based communications tools, such as the use of mobile phones. Pan et al. (2007), in particular, highlighted the utility of using travel blogs as a source of qualitative data. On the Internet, the people can hide their identity and put as much content as they choose in the blogs. This spontaneity and freedom may provide access to some of their traveling experiences and thoughts which would not be revealed in face-to-face interviews. This is especially important in China due to its political environment where prudent behavior may limit open communication. The sheer numbers of Chinese citizens online, 564 million netizens by the end of 2012 (China Internet Network Information Center [CNNIC], 2012), adds impetus to the view that exploring communication pathways such as blogs reaches many corners of the country. Using blogs as the first phase of this research was also seen as valuable to access material to guide the second and third phases of this investigation. The technique to select the blogs for this study attempted to ensure both insightfulness and representativeness (Kozinets, 1999, 2002; Pearce, 2012b, 2012c; Schaad, 2008; Shao, 2011). First, a diverse set of blogs was selected by searching “outbound travel stories” in Mandarin on Google. Those on the first page were recorded in this first step due to their recent posting and the number of times read by other netizens. Second, these were linked to different blog websites or forums. From those sources, other frequently read blogs were selected and recorded. Third, there was a process of filtering and coding the blogs into an Excel log sheet. It contained the title, accessed date, link, and the different learning outcomes the bloggers wrote for their outbound traveling experiences. These experiences were recognized as different phrases and topics. Fourth, the data were analyzed by SPSS and Excel. The justification for these procedures includes the following points. One, it is hard to tell whether the author of the blog had taken a group tour, or taken the trip through a travel agency, or organized the trip by himself from each blog’s title accurately. Hence it was important to read the whole blog carefully to see whether there was a keyword which indicated the blogger had joined an outbound group tour. Key words to illustrate this theme were “group,” “other group member,” “tour guide,” and “package.” This approach helped refine the broad sampling of cases but still considered diverse blogs drawn from a sample across mainland China. This first study was directed at sourcing ideas from group tourists access the breadth of the

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

81

country. Two, only stories written in Chinese (Mandarin) were selected. This approach maximizes the number of blogs which can be considered. It required the researcher to translate comments for communicating the content in this chapter. This blog selection process was adopted from the previous research using this medium (Bosangit, Dulnuan, & Mena, 2012; Carson, 2008; Crotts, Mason, & Davis, 2009; Kozinets, 2002; Pu¨hringer & Taylor, 2008; Schmallegger & Carson, 2008; Woodside, Cruickshank, & Dehuang, 2007). From the point of view of ethical considerations, the blogs accessed were posted in a public place and could be used in the same way as other public information (Langer & Beckman, 2005; Pearce, 2012c). Content analysis was used to review and code the stories. The blogs were coded into key broad topics, many of which were developed from the previous literature (Falk et al., 2011; Falk & Dierking, 2000; Falk & Storksdieck, 2005; Pearce & Foster, 2007; Scarinci & Pearce, 2012; Tsaur, Yen & Chen, 2010). At the same time, new topics and themes were recorded while reading the blogs. Hence the best description of the present approach is directed content analysis. Interview Studies. Semi-structure in-depth interviews were conducted during the second step in this study. The aim was to explore both content and seek some explanations of the different learning outcomes. The design of the interviews was shaped by data from the blog studies. The use of semistructured interviews enhanced the respondents’ roles in communicating in their own terms rather than being limited to the standard format of a questionnaire (Jennings, 2010). The interviews offered the ability to further explore the topics emerging from the blog studies. A snow-ball technique (Veal & Ticehurst, 2005) was used to select the participants. Their recruiting mainly involved travel agencies and the use of personal networks. When the snowball technique is employed, normally there is no sampling frame (DeCrop, 1999; Riley & Love, 2000). Hangzhou, Xi’an, and Chengdu cities were selected, justified on the basis of including some geographic diversity. Hangzhou is in the east, Xi’an is central, and Chengdu is in the south of the country. Their residents have an average per capita disposable income close to the average per capita disposable income level of China. Per person disposable income is a key influential factor influencing outbound tourism (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2012). The outbound groups from the three cities can be seen as somewhat representative of overall Chinese outbound. This area sampling of regional cities provides a reasonable basis for considering that

82

The World Meets Asian Tourists

the results have a broad representative value (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009). A total of 190 semi-structured interviews were conducted. The interviewees were evenly divided among the three cities: 33.7% from Hangzhou (n = 64), 40.5% from Xi’an (n = 77), and 25.8% from Chengdu (n = 49). The gender of the sample was evenly divided with 50.5% male (n = 96) and 44.7% female (n = 85). The important feature of this approach is that the interviews were constructed as relaxed, informal discussions in Mandarin, thus facilitating tourists’ free and spontaneous expression about their outbound experiences. The learning outcomes were again studied and some explanations of the data were pursued by examining the demographic differences among interviewees. Descriptive analysis by SPSS, integration tables using Excel, were used to explore the most popular learning outcomes. Questionnaire Studies. The third phase of the research employed a selfadministered questionnaire which was completed by 313 respondents based in the same three cities. The snowball technique was again used to recruit respondents. The first three parts of the questionnaire provided the chance to seek the detailed explanations for the different learning outcomes categories. In particular, the roles of demographic factors and other influential factors shaping the learning outcomes were examined. There were 110 respondents from Xi’an, 108 from Hangzhou, and 95 from Chengdu. Key profile information about them revealed that males and females were equally represented, most traveled with friends and family (85%) and many (30%) were relatively inexperienced in terms of going abroad (one or two trips), with some (19%) having five or more overseas trips.

Research Results Blog Studies. All blogs were read and coded into three themes developed from condensing the previous learning outcome categorization schemes. They were carefully examined and their contents were divided into 73 different topics. In turn, these were grouped into three areas: the facts they learned, personal skills and values acquired, and reflections on their home society. There were different subthemes in these major categories. In total, there were 73 topics across the three themes. Coding of the blogs identified a substantial list of facts, skills, and reflections about the tourists’ own society.

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

83

Items linked to cultural general knowledge, the natural environment, and food quality were recognized as the three most popular factual learning outcomes from the 120 blogs. The three most popular personal skills and values were subsumed under the subthemes of understanding another culture, adaptability in the new environment, and learning/using a foreign language. In addition, when the bloggers reflected on their home society, they tended to think most about their living environment, social environment, and national quality (civic and citizens’ behavior) as the top three topics. Tables 2 4 show the top 10 frequency scores ranked according to the frequency of the topics for the three key learning categories. This overview provides a general appraisal of common learning outcomes after the Chinese have gone abroad in groups. Interview Studies. The coding of the self-reported learning outcomes from the transcriptions followed the method used to code the blog information. There were two highlights First, the ordering and the importance of the items can be considered. Manners and politeness emerged as more frequently mentioned factual items than in the blogs, while food related facts were commented on less often. Understanding others and personal change were more prominent in the interviews, whereas adaptability and coping were more prominent value-oriented themes in the blogs. Further, Table 2. Ten Most Popular Factual Learning Outcomes from the Blogs Rank

Topics

Frequency

%

1

Cultural general knowledge

98

81.7

2

Natural environment

96

80.0

3 4

Food quality Shopping environment

83 80

69.2 66.7

5 6

Food value Food price

64 62

53.3 51.7

7

Hotel quality and services

62

51.7

8 9

Building styles Traffic condition

59 59

49.2 49.2

10

Friendliness

55

45.8

84

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 3.

Most Popular Personal Learning Outcomes from the Blogs

Rank

Topics

Frequency

%

1

Understanding another culture

76

63.3

2 3

Adaptability in the new environment Learning/using a kind of foreign language

49 43

40.8 35.8

4

Managing money

42

35.0

5 6

Being open-minded Managing time

38 29

31.7 24.2

7 8

Interpersonal understanding Communicating with people

26 23

21.7 19.2

9

Being independent

22

18.3

10

Building friendship while traveling

18

15.0

Table 4. Most Popular Reflections about Home Society from the Blogs Rank

Topics

Frequency

%

1

Living environment

18

15.0

2 3

Social environment National quality

17 12

14.2 10.0

4

Natural environment

10

8.3

5 6

Crowding Living cost

8 6

6.7 5.0

7 8

Traffic condition Governance

6 4

5.0 3.3

9

Social service

4

3.3

10

Service provider

3

2.5

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

85

for the learning about one’s home society, the results closely followed the items in the blog study. A second highlight was the analysis of the relationships between different demographic factors and the learning outcomes. These links were examined using chi square statistical analysis. Tourists from different cities learned dissimilarly in terms of some of the outcomes, (Chengdu residents learned the most), but their period of residence in their cities had no impact on any learning outcome. Respondents who had 2 3 overseas travel experiences reported that they learned more than those who had 4 16 overseas experiences, except for the items of national quality and using a foreign language. Tables 5 7 show the frequency of each topic for the three key learning categories, providing a general overview of the most popular topics from the interview study. Questionnaire Studies. The overall attitude toward the learning outcomes was assessed through noting the means reported from key questions in the survey. On this occasion the perception of how much respondents thought they had learned was assessed through overall questions. Considering the results from Table 8 and using a one-way repeated measure ANOVA, followed by comparing the sets of means with a post-hoc Scheffe test, it Table 5. Rank

Most Popular Factual Learning Outcomes from the Interviews Topics

Frequency

%

1

Cultural general knowledge

134

70.5

2 3

Natural environment Living style

113 85

59.5 44.7

4 5

Social environment Living environment

78 70

41.1 36.8

6

Manners and politeness

60

31.6

7 8

National quality Friendliness

60 45

31.6 23.7

9 10

Traffic order Food quality

43 41

22.6 21.6

86

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Table 6. Rank

Most Popular Personal Learning Outcomes from the Interviews Topics

Frequency

%

1

Understanding another culture

84

44.2

2 3

Interpersonal understanding Desiring to change life style

80 63

42.1 33.2

4

Being open-minded

63

33.2

5 6

Changing personality Communicating with people

62 58

32.6 30.5

7 8

Learning/using foreign language Protecting the environment

54 43

28.4 22.6

9

Adapting to a new situation

24

12.6

10

Learning social manners

24

12.6

Table 7. Rank

Most Popular Reflections about Home Society from the Interviews Topics

Frequency

%

1

Living environment

134

70.5

2 3

Social environment Natural environment

112 91

58.9 47.9

4

National quality

44

23.2

5 6

Traffic order Traffic condition

25 14

13.2 7.4

7 8

Crowding Living cost

12 12

6.3 6.3

9

Social service

9

4.7

10

Governance

7

3.7

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists Table 8.

87

General Attitudes of Extent and Importance of the Learning Outcomes

AVG STD The extent of different learning outcomes (6-point Likert scale: 1 = a great deal, 6 = none) Q1. Do you think you learned many facts about other cultures 2.94 and countries (e.g., weather, history, food, building, etc.) in your previous travel experience?

1.37

Q3. Do you think you learned any personal skills and values (e.g., cultural understanding, language, be open-minded, etc.) in your previous travel experience? Q5. Do you have any reflections about your own society (e.g., living environment, traffic, food, etc.) after your previous travel experience?

3.27

1.38

2.93

1.39

3.00

1.36

Q4. Overall how important is it to you that you learned skills and values in your previous travel experience?

2.99

1.39

Q6. Overall how important is it to you that you have some reflections about your own society after your previous travel experience?

2.94

1.30

The importance of different learning outcomes (7-point Likert scale: 1 = very important, 7 = at not all) Q2. Overall how important is it to you that you learned facts about other cultures and countries in your previous travel experience?

was established that that the respondents reported that they learned more about the reflections on their home society (M = 2.93) and facts (M = 2.94), and less about personal skills and values (M = 3.27). Forces Influencing Learning Outcomes The questionnaire sought a range of information on how the respondents prepared for their travels as well as recording demographic information about their characteristics. Factor analysis was used to understand how all influential elements were grouped together (Table 9). Three factors were

88

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 9.

Pattern Matrix of Factor Analysis

Attributes of Learning Outcomes

Component 1: Selfinitiated information

Interacting with locals

0.707

Traveling with friends

0.690

Making your own choice of the traveling package

0.685

Traveling with family members

0.633

The extent of free-time you had

0.594

Go to a country having beautiful nature resorts (Maldives, Fiji)

0.576

Your personal intention to learn while traveling

0.405

Go to a developed country (the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia)

0.394

Traveling with colleagues

0.356

Information from tourists’ blogs

2: Outsourced 3: Onsite information information

0.760

Information from TV programs

0.725

Information from random websites

0.721

Information from traveling books

0.715

Information from family and/or friends

0.508

Knowing Chinese culture (if the guide is not Chinese)

0.782

A guide who can speak Mandarin

0.763

Chinese signs in the tourists’ settings

0.722

Guide’s personality

0.708

Pictures (rather than words) in the tourists’ settings

0.634

Personal information about the guide

0.565

Money differences among different packages

0.539

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

89

identified: self-initiated information, outsourced information, and onsite information. The last step is the data analysis plan involved using multiple regression analysis to test whether and how the three influential factor components from the factor analysis affected the tourists’ general opinion about the extent and importance of the different learning outcome areas. Across all of the learning outcomes the self-initiated, information rather than the outsourced, and onsite information affected the amount of leaning achieved and its perceived importance. It appeared that the more the tourists prepared their own information about the setting visited, the more they learned.

CONCLUSION Taken together the empirical studies in this chapter offer a coherent view of the learning achieved by Chinese outbound tourists. The blog analysis revealed that cultural general knowledge, facts about the natural environment, issues of food quality and components of the shopping experience top the list of frequently reported factual gains. The interview data confirm these results but add an item that manners and politeness were issues they remembered from their travels. For the value oriented and personal development and skills material, understanding others and personal change were more prominent in the interviews, whereas adaptability and coping were more prominent value-oriented themes in the blogs. Finally, for the learning about their society, the results closely followed the items in the blog study with the additional notion from the interviews that travel made them reflect on the extent of polite and civilized public behaviors at home (Loi & Pearce, 2010). In the further analysis about the learning by Chinese outbound tourists conducted through the ANOVA and factor analysis procedures, it was demonstrated that the perceived highest levels of learning were for the factual items and reflecting on the home society rather than personal values and skills. Further, the biggest influences on these learning outcomes, and their importance, were shown to be the tourists’ own direct involvement and effort when visiting the foreign society. Possibly this self-initiated awareness made the tourists more mindful of the settings and incidents they encountered (Pearce, 2011). This assessment is consistent with the influential forces noted in the work by Roggenbuck et al. (Figure 1) and by the explanations advanced for effective learning from the interpretation literature.

90

The World Meets Asian Tourists

In the analysis of extended travel by backpackers, Pearce and Foster (2007) referred to the experience as providing a chaotic curriculum of information, in effect a “University of Travel.” For the Chinese outbound the expression fitting their exposure and learning might be adapted to be a “High school subject about countries and life outside China.” It is important to reflect that many of the Chinese tourists are relatively inexperienced in terms of international, over 50 % in both studies had gone abroad only once or twice. The impact of the travel on their basic knowledge of other societies and the conduct of civic life was developing a first level of direct understanding for them. It is possible to employ an emerging concept in the literature—namely, mundane authenticity—to link the results of this study most directly with the learning involved (Pearce, 2012b). The core idea of mundane authenticity is that the everyday places, activities, and behaviors matter as much to the tourist experience as the extraordinary ones. By seeing how other communities work and examining the lives of others, tourists learn new ways of thinking about their world (Binnie, Edensor, Holloway, Millington, & Young, 2007). Additionally, a focus on the ordinary activities and sights of visited places may actually assist tourists in uncovering deeper power and cultural features of the host community. There are some compelling examples of this suggestion in travel writing and photography, with some authors making a career out of being “connoisseurs of the mundane” (Allen, 2011). Pearce (2012a) suggests that mundane authenticity is evident when tourists pay attention to non-tourist settings, such as the supermarkets, street signs, the clothes of local people, the way roads are built, and a myriad of other small sights and social roles. The places and behaviors are authentic in the sense proposed by MacCannell (1976), in that they were not constructed for a tourism presence or purpose. Contents of the Chinese tourists’ learning discussed in this chapter offer one kind of evidence which fits with this attention to the mundane as well as the extraordinary. Importantly, for the overall theme of this volume, there are new initiatives which arise from this interest by the Chinese in learning about the society they visit. The present study asserts that they are learning from their travels, and the cultural legacy of Chinese history and literature suggest that they want to do so in the contemporary world. How then can destination managers and marketers meet the needs of Chinese tourists (and to some extent those of other Asian groups who may also want to learn about the places they visit in some detail)?

Learning by and Learning from Outbound Chinese Group Tourists

91

The following suggestions can build small viable businesses either in the form of guided tours or fees for service. The first notion involves an appreciation that social, business, and civic institutions (schools, day care centers, government offices, some factories, court rooms, and sports facilities) may have appeal and be venues of interest for Chinese and potentially other Asian tourists. Visits to such places might foster the learning about how another society works, this providing an illuminating contrast with home society affairs. The ways local people eat and approach meals in Western culture can be a source of learning and an opportunity to structure special occasions for Chinese tourists. In the Australian context, for example, traditional barbeques with seafood and steaks may be a novel experience in hotels and at attractions. Another layer of interest might be proposed, this time at the simpler level of how people live in their homes and how they manage daily life, including cooking, eating, gardening, owning pets, and leisure time. The final suggestion rests more in developing a richer array of skill building opportunities for international Chinese and Asian tourists. Some of these skill building options might be physical and sports related, including swimming, hiking, snorkeling, and surfing; for the less active, there might be other opportunities in the form of Western games and pastimes, such as chess, bingo, new card and gambling pursuits, and attendance at local fairs, markets, festivals, and events. As demonstrated empirically in this chapter, the driving imperative underlying these suggestions is that greater experience of the ordinariness of everyday Western life, mundane authenticity, as defined here, might capitalize on the Chinese interest in learning.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 6

MANAGING ASIAN TOURISTS ON LONG-HAUL FLIGHTS Andrea Grout James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: The voices of cabin crew on international air routes have scarcely been heard in tourism management studies. Using an autoethnographic account and interviews with cabin crew colleagues, this chapter presents some of the complexities in managing Asian tourists on long-haul flights. Typical and real incidents demonstrating problematic behaviors by Chinese, Indian, Japanese, and Korean passengers are documented and discussed. The results show that the aircraft environment can be a site of intensity, rich in contradictions and tension. Key challenges include cabin crew grappling with unfamiliar passenger values, facing their own and staff judgments, and status issues. Adjusting and developing training curriculum for cabin crew to enhance cultural awareness is a core resolution to optimize service delivery. Keywords: International air travel; Asian passenger behavior; cultural similarities and differences; incident analysis; in-flight management

INTRODUCTION Air travel remains a growing sector that has long been dominated by established markets in Europe and North America. Much of the enthusiasm for

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 93 110 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007007

94

The World Meets Asian Tourists

cultural awareness among airlines stems from the fact that now Asian passengers are said to account for a significant portion of the global air travel load, thus placing an interest in their well-being on flights near the heart of an airline’s management philosophy. Over the next 20 years, nearly half of the world’s air traffic growth will be driven by travels to, from, or within the Asian region (Boeing, 2015). The International Air Transport Association’s airline sector forecast expects to see a 31% increase in passenger numbers between 2012 and 2017. For example, routes connected to China will be the single largest driver of growth, accounting for 32.4 million new international passengers during the forecast period (International Air Transport Association [IATA], 2013). The implications for the airline sector are such that airline managers cannot rely on perceptions of traditional service alone to generate Asian passenger satisfaction, but must also consider specific cultural values and rules of social behavior (Reisinger & Turner, 2002a). In contrast to low cost carriers, the traditional airlines’ strengths are tied up in their network connectivity, service provision, and brand recognition (Amadeus, 2015). The peculiarities of Asian passengers require adjustments to the service. The management of Asian customers can be informed by key principles tailored to their specific needs and expectations. In order to maintain outstanding service concepts, this chapter aims to highlight the greatest challenges for airline employees when delivering service to culturally diverse passengers. The discussion also addresses the influential role of in-flight service on shaping passengers’ future purchasing decisions. The main objective here is to identify distinctive passenger needs and to support the evidence-based development of training tools that respond to those needs. The goal is to equip cabin crews with a clearly defined mission that works to support customer excellence. By considering what the author feels are the most compelling incidents and those that pose the most obvious management challenges, it is anticipated that this overview may be useful in supporting airlines in the evaluation and design of future-oriented marketing and training strategies for customizing or expanding their existing positions.

UNDERSTANDING AND MANAGING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Asia’s dynamic economies, powered by a rising middle class, are likely to spur future in- and outbound travel throughout the region. Indian and Chinese middle class populations have expanded dramatically, now ranking

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

95

among the world’s leading consumer markets (Kharas, 2011). Future passengers from a number of Asian countries may be more discerning, and attentive to an airline’s ability to recognize their new, more affluent status. While perks such as video-on-demand or meal choices in the economy class which passengers enjoyed in the 1970s are now taken for granted, future tourists are likely to seek services beyond current standards, pushing up the demand for tailored interaction and facilities. The degree to which airlines respond to these demands will affect customer satisfaction and loyalty, and ultimately their competitiveness and commercial viability (Kim & Lee, 2009). Maintaining an outstanding repertoire of service excellence is the first order business of airlines, but also one of their greatest challenges. To deliver better service to culturally diverse passengers, airlines need to understand those passengers’ needs and expectations (Aksoy, Atilgan, & Akinci, 2003). Successful airlines establish strong emotional connections with their customers. The creation of a total customer experience that resonates and differentiates the airline from the competition requires carriers to systematically manage passengers’ experiences. A variety of product and service studies support the view that for Asian passengers there is a direct and positive relationship between customer satisfaction and purchase motivation (Hellier, Geursen, Carr, & Rickard, 2003; Selnes, 1998). Experience indicates that passengers communicate their appreciation and dissatisfaction in different ways. To put this into context, Hofstede (2001) notes that complaint behavior may depend upon the person’s cultural upbringing. While passengers from collectivist nations, such as China, tend to refrain from verbal responses for the fear of losing face, they may be more likely to tell a compatriot crewmember about an inferior service (Kim & Lee, 2009). In related studies about nationality differences relevant to service, British tour guides perceived Japanese tourists, for example, as a distinctly homogeneous group with unique behavioral characteristics (Pizam & Sussman, 1995). Such cultural differences profoundly challenge the behavioral and managerial skills of cabin crew, but also enrich inflight service options and contribute to a sense of global interconnectedness in international air travel. Harmonization with culture-specific standards and personalization are indeed likely to be the keys to the future development of successful inflight service concepts and memorable long-haul flight experiences. A once-marginalized issue that has emerged from these developments is how Asians differ from Westerners in terms of socioeconomic,

96

The World Meets Asian Tourists

motivational, and attitudinal characteristics. For some flight attendants, the newer groups flying from Asia may conjure up images of the misbehaving or chaotic passenger epitomizing a “particular challenge,” involving “disobedience” or “unruliness” that inevitably invites mutual misunderstanding. For crews, some novel behaviors and unusual requests may leave them struggling with complicated dilemmas that seem insoluble. An examination of the cultural aspects of Asian tourists aims to alleviate misunderstandings and foster inflight service excellence, a concern that is of interest to those who work closely with these groups, and are able to appreciate the mutual benefits of a pleasant inflight experience. Despite these challenges, incident analysis also presents the opportunity to clarify the scope of customized services that are directly related to passenger satisfaction and purchasing behavior. Opportunities also exist in developing a “tandem system” that would permit multi-national service elements to co-exist, depending on regional preferences and needs. Capitalizing on the boom in Asia’s tourism, perhaps the most striking feature of air travel is the unique opportunity to attract new market segments by matching inflight service concepts to the respective passengers’ cultural identification with the product. Contradicting the assumption that people’s travel experience and satisfaction largely derives from buying motives, such as the level of service provision (Reisinger & Turner, 2003), Li (2014) notes how the ability to attract certain customer markets is actually more dependent on the tourists’ cultural interpretation of the product. Innovative service concepts, tailored to meet passenger demand, are beginning to take root at a rapid rate of growth (Lufthansa Airlines, 2015). Study Methods The preparation of this chapter was based on multiple sources of information. To illustrate the nuances of Asian passenger management, Chinese, Indian, Japanese, and Korean passengers were chosen, as these groups are four dominant but still distinctive Asian outbound groups (Hofstede, 2001). Their presence on aircraft is important to many carriers as these nationals represent a significant portion of all international passengers. Figures supporting the prominence of these four Asian tourist groups are reported in detail in introdution of this volume. As a way of better understanding the meaning that Asian passengers attach to experiences, this study uses a synthesis of the critical incident technique and autoethnography, stemming from the author’s personal journey as former member of the airline culture. She gained extensive

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

97

experience working as international flight attendant for two major European airlines, operating both scheduled and chartered flights to China, India, Japan, and Korea, and also served as part of the cabin training and recruitment team. By turning the work as a long standing and former crewmember to ethnographic advantage, the author attended to many well remembered instances and systematically re-examined their trajectory for the purposes of this study. The work is thus informed by the autoethnographic approach which seeks to assist in describing and analyzing personal experience in order to better understand real world issues (Ellis, 2004). Aside from using autoethnography as a methodological tool, the discussion follows similar studies where the views of others are incorporated into the descriptions and reflections (Ellis, Adams, & Bochner, 2011). The analysis of critical incidents enables researchers to identify similarities, differences, and patterns, with the aim of enhancing employee performance through practical problem solving. Flanagan regarded critical incident technique as a “flexible set of principles which must be modified and adapted to meet the specific situation at hand” (1954, p. 335). As training-related practical outcomes generally support the findings, such analysis can then assist airlines in investigating possible explanations for the source of the difficulty, corroborating performance appraisals, and developing innovative service and marketing concepts. The key advantages of this approach and its usefulness include a shift of the focus of critical incident technique to integrate behavioral and cultural influences that shape both cabin crews’ and Asian passengers’ experiences. This insight into individual real-life experiences provides an illumination of the topic based on selfnarrative reporting, and assists the identification of broader patterns and understandings (Chell, 1998). To expand the range of commonalities, the author’s observations are linked to findings from other tourism sectors, such as perceptions of Korean (Pizam & Jeong, 1966) and Dutch (Pizam, Jansen-Verbeke, & Steel, 1997) tour guides. These studies show clear relationships and patterns when connected with the “real-life” scenarios encountered on flights. The importance of acquiring a detailed understanding of passengers’ expectations for developing relevant services has been highlighted by acknowledging Park et al.’s view “Meeting these expectations would raise the level of passenger satisfaction and value perception, and presumably commercial viability” (Park, Robertson, & Wu, 2004, p. 437). Independently of writing this work, the author had collected data out of personal interest during her active flight years. As part of the team, she was

98

The World Meets Asian Tourists

attentive to and thus able to recognize aspects of situations that were memorable and important for the work context. The incidents discussed in this chapter span a four-year time period and focus on verbal behavior, actions, body language, and the relationships among passengers as well as crewmembers. For data analysis, notes were gathered in the form of the well-kept personal diaries and flight logs. These included recalled information, personal impressions, and interpretations. Diary documentation was used to chronologically record memorable incidents, enabling the author to review key behaviors. In addition, brief details about each crewmember were recorded in a flight log, usually after the behavior occurred. Studying the spontaneous behavior of passengers and crewmembers in a natural setting made it possible to observe the flow of behavior in the total inflight situation. In order to make sense of the interactions and situations observed, the collected data were screened for uniformity, then notes were organized into recurring themes. To help recall, the views of 10 colleagues were collected in informal conversations and periods of reminiscence. These colleagues all had extensive cabin crew experience on Asian routes. The selected incidents gleaned from these sources aim to highlight Asian cultural needs and behaviors and the role of crew training on the passengers’ experience. The incidents also provide scope to dissect the concept of “service excellence” from the perspective of those involved in the day-to-day realities of dealing with passengers.

Study Results The selected incidents were chosen based on frequency, marked similarities, and conformities in style. These incidents are real, but also common, confirmed by the author’s own experience and shared among colleagues.

Chinese Passengers Incident 1: A meal was served to an economy class passenger, without commenting on the lack of choice. The passenger could see that an alternative meal was still available in the row beside him. He was visibly irritated, but did not communicate his discontent. In a written complaint he expressed his dissatisfaction with the meal service because he was not being offered

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

99

a choice and felt “ignored,” the meal was “already cold,” and he was not offered chopsticks. Incident 2: An elderly passenger was stretching near an economy class door, putting his leg on the emergency slide case. A flight attendant rushed over saying “this is not allowed. You are breaking the slide.” He took his leg off the slide but remained in the area. The flight attendant then pointed to the passenger with her finger while talking to a colleague, who then approached him and said “you cannot stay here, you have to go back to your seat.” The passengers left the area and refused to accept service for the remainder of the flight, “waiving off” any offers and ignoring staff. Incident 3: Two economy class passengers pushed past other passengers and helped themselves with food from a trolley. Staff shouted at them from across the galley, “You cannot just take things, the food is intended for the upcoming service.” The passengers returned to their seats visibly embarrassed. One of the crewmembers then complained about the passengers’ “rude behavior,” “They are so pushy, just take without asking. No please or thank you either.” A third crewmember who was unhappy with the colleague’s “reprimand” later offered the passengers some snacks, apologized for the colleague’s “overreaction,” and softened the situation with a wisecrack story about her shortcomings in etiquette at a Shanghai restaurant. Both passengers laughed and seemed pleased for the remainder of the flight. Incident Analysis. These observations confirm some researchers’ suggestion that Chinese tourists retain the attitude of internalizing one’s feelings rather than displaying emotions publicly, and, because of their belief in Karma and harmony, tend to avoid showing their dissatisfaction (Reisinger, 2009). Younger generations seem to increasingly blend both traditional Chinese and contemporary Western elements, but aloofness and restraint still characterize some senior Chinese people. “Western” impatience, raising one’s voice, or pointing with fingers at someone is considered extremely impolite and disrespectful. While the operation of the concept of “face” may first and foremost resemble a matter of pride from a Westerner’s perspective, it is strongly connected to image and social standing in Chinese society. Publicly criticizing a passenger may thus induce a “loss of face” and is regarded as deeply humiliating. Chinese passengers desire genuine respect and hospitality from crews. For example, it is highly appreciated to proactively present and explain meal choices, or to make an effort to arrange a choice of meals. Rather than voicing their dissatisfaction immediately, Chinese passengers are more

100

The World Meets Asian Tourists

likely to engage in private complaints, and to refrain from repurchasing (Ngai, Heung, Wong, & Chan, 2007). In this sense, offering alternatives and finding a compromise for the sake of harmony and contentment is very important. Failure to conform to instructions or warnings is likely grounded in most Chinese tourists’ inability to speak, read, and write English. As international tourism is often a new or still unfamiliar experience, many Chinese tourists may have a limited awareness of the world outside the confines of their own society, or are overwhelmed by the idea of learning the basics of other languages. Similarly, one Chinese crewmember noted how pushing and cutting in line relates back to the notion that “if you aren’t willing to assert yourself, many Chinese have been conditioned to believe, you will miss out. We are very caring and hospitable with friends and guests, but can be extremely selfish in public areas.”

Indian Passengers Incident 1: An economy class passenger did not get an Asian vegetarian meal, but insisted that he had pre-ordered this meal option. A crewmember said, “Your name is not on our special meal list, but I will see if we have something vegetarian left over.” When being served a Western-style vegetarian meal, he was very upset that his booking request had not been recognized, that he was given a Western-style meal without further explanation, and that he had to take “what is left.” He complained about “racist treatment,” that crew behaved rudely, and that his needs were ignored. Incident 2: An Indian family of seven approached a crewmember in the economy class after boarding. “We need water.” After returning with seven cups of water, the family man said, “Also bring us a diaper for the baby and hot milk.” The crewmember replied that he will bring these items after take-off as he first needed to deal with other important pre-flight arrangements. The elderly woman walked to the washroom while the plane was already moving. A crewmember shouted, “Please sit down, we are taking off,” but the woman ignored the warning. During the meal service, the man placed two meal trays on the floor in the aisle. A crewmember later reported to a colleague, “That family is so demanding. They don’t listen, just order us around. A passenger nearly fell over the trays they had put in the aisle. I wish they would stop treating us like servants.” The family later

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

101

complained to the supervisor about “arrogant” and “negligent” behavior, and demanded an apology. Incident 3: During boarding, a business class passenger asked a crewmember for a complaint form, and was told he will have to wait until boarding is completed. The passenger angrily went to his seat and approached another crewmember about the form. The second crewmember inquired about the reasons for his complaint and provided the form. The passenger said he was “mistreated” by gate staff who promised him a window seat, and that reservations had “ignored” his initial request. He was very angry that the first crewmember failed to ask for the reasons as to why he was upset and insisted that the crewmember should have “provided a complaint form promptly.” Another crewmember eventually managed to ease his anger by paying extra attention to him throughout the flight. Incident Analysis. Indian norms and styles differ greatly from the Western world. While most crewmembers point to a noticeable difference between passengers from northern (e.g., Delhi) and southern regions (e.g., Chennai), an Indian crewmember explains, “An intriguing, yet tricky element to understand is India’s multi-faceted culture; characterized by diverse languages, regions, religions, economic, and social status. I don’t think there is a homogenous ‘Indian culture’ or ethnic majority in India as such, making it difficult to collectively refer to an ‘Indian’ culture.” Crewmembers frequently complained about the apparent impoliteness of Indian passengers, mainly expressed through the adoption of an imperious style, often expressed in a forceful fashion. The “lack of dignity of labor in Indian culture,” as an Indian colleague noted, may be a reason why some passengers treat cabin staff in a way similar to how maids, servants, or drivers are commonly treated in India. Indians have a curious non-verbal way of conversing. Stress and intonation, gesture, facial expression, and, above all, situation and context, can indicate whether the mood is friendly, angry, abrupt, impatient, or persuasive. The concept for expressing “thank you,” “please,” or “excuse me” verbally, generally does not exist in India. Instead, it is reflected in the tone of people’s voices and/or their gestures. The demeanor may be to nod or smile, twist and turn their body, or walk softly in tight spaces; extending their hand; or patting someone on the back instead of saying “sorry.” An Indian crewmember remarks, “It’s a cultural nuance that gets lost when interacting with people from other cultures. We may be easily offended if refused anything in a Western context, but we Indians don’t have this habit

102

The World Meets Asian Tourists

of being polite or apologetic in large strata of our society. We don’t do it and don’t expect it either.” Interestingly, passengers put great emphasis on “immediate apologies” in the case of mishaps, irregularities, or perceived unfair treatment, and also highlight the importance of flexibility and courtesy, as well as respect for a passenger’s status. Non-compliance by crews may be interpreted as discrimination, or as synonymous with a lack of respect. While some negative perceptions of Indians as a group grew from experiences on flights, most passengers seem merely oblivious of their surroundings. Or as one Indian crewmember put it, “What we lack in cultural finesse we make up with having a big heart.” It should be noted that the itineraries of many Indian passengers entail connecting flights, adding overwhelming stress and, more often than not, utter exhaustion for families, small children, and elderly people. This may easily lead to unfair complaints or high frustration levels. Behaviors such as not having commonly held international notions of interpersonal space may also be influenced by the different dynamics that prevail in large strata of Indian society, predominantly scarcity of goods, crowds, widespread poverty, and inequalities. In this context, certain behaviors may be predicated on the simple fact that some assertive and disruptive behaviors are standard and familiar in their home world.

Japanese Passengers Incident 1: Before take-off, a business class passenger complained to a Japanese colleague that (Western) crewmembers were “inattentive,” “oblivious,” and “grumpy” upon boarding, not greeting him respectfully, and also sending him to the wrong aisle where he had to “fight his way back” to his seat. He felt that, as a frequent customer, he had not been welcomed properly, and expressed a view that such “lack of attention” could only be excused if he were to travel on “cheap carriers.” The Japanese crewmember later said, “The passenger complained to me about my colleague. He had asserted ‘they said sorry not deeply and not with smile. It’s not funny and I am a frequent customer’. The passenger didn’t like this treatment.” Incident 2: In business class, a Western-style meal was served to a Japanese passenger due to a lack of choice. When the passenger requested a Japanese meal, the flight attendant just said “wait a moment,” and asked a Japanese colleague to deal with the customer. He later complained that the Western crewmember made him feel like his English was not sufficient. He

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

103

further said that (unlike other airlines) no one explained the range of wines to him and that crew failed to explicitly offer cheese and dessert. Although the Japanese attendant apologized deeply, he complained again about the Western colleague never offering an apology about the earlier meal. The passenger made a written complaint. Incident 3: An economy class passenger encountered problems with the entertainment system and pushed the attendant button. A crewmember assisted and promised that a reset will fix the problem, but forgot to get back to the passenger to see if the problem was fixed. The passenger made a written complaint about “negligent staff who promised help but never returned, and poor choice of movies and music in Japanese.” The passenger did not verbally address his dissatisfaction with the contents of the entertainment system and just said, “This is not working.” Incident Analysis. Japan is a highly traditional society with a strong sense of loyalty and group identity. Japanese nationals are perceived to be similar by outsiders and to behave in conformist ways (Pizam & Jeong, 1966). As a sign of personal sacrifice for the good of the larger group, and to celebrate conformity, a complete row of passengers may order the same drink in order “to please” or “not to break ranks.” A Japanese crewmember commented, “Japanese are taught to respect others, to be kind and courteous, and not cause inconvenience for others. This is our duty and responsibility. We stay in groups and don’t like to ask questions. Perfection is a priority in Japanese culture, and the Japanese do not like to expose any gaps in knowledge.” Language barriers may be one reason for passengers’ reluctance to express discontent verbally to Western crewmembers, but when their conversations in English start stumbling, they may also be worried about being humiliated and disrespected. An airline’s brand name is seen as symbol of tradition, quality, and trustworthiness. This image confers certain expectations. Professional demeanor and respectful conduct are qualities highly regarded in Japanese society, and so are expected of service staff. Being proactive in addressing passengers’ wishes, such as explaining the choice of food and beverage items, is seen as polite and expected of a host (Lufthansa Airlines, 2015). Short waiting times, continual cabin presence and honest endeavors to fulfill wishes are extremely important. Repeating apologies several times reinforces the importance of an apology and symbolizes honest conduct. Harmony is a fundamental value in Japanese culture (Zhang et al., 2005). The Japanese smile frequently, even if they are dissatisfied, which

104

The World Meets Asian Tourists

can lead to misunderstandings. In the strict honor-led culture, breaches of etiquette or public “misbehavior” reflect badly on a host. Hence, passengers may find it easier to address complaints to Japanese staff. As a Japanese crewmember noted, “Sometimes passengers talk to us when there is a problem, even though they do not say anything to a Western colleague. They request faster and more professional service, ask for newspaper, or call us to monitor troubles. Most of them can’t speak English or German. Or they may think that Japanese flight attendants can always bring them what they want.” As hierarchy is extremely important in Japanese culture, passengers may have trouble deciphering the hierarchical composition of the cabin team, thus bonding with Japanese staff in order to “avoid uncertainty” (Hofstede, 1980). The Japanese use an indirect way of speaking in order to avoid direct confrontation and problems are predominantly addressed in writing following a flight. Complaint analysis shows that a firm Western “No” is often seen as impolite, and should be avoided. The willingness to “try,” or paraphrasing a “No” with “this may not be possible” is highly appreciated. Korean Passengers Incident 1: An economy class passenger complained that he had been waiting too long for his meal while everyone else was already eating. The passenger’s English was slightly unclear, but he had made an effort to be articulate. He also wanted to know what the side dishes were, but the crewmember just said, “I am not sure, but I think it is rice. I can get my Korean colleague to explain.” The passenger was very upset and aired his complaint to a Korean crewmember. He felt the Western colleague treated him in a derogatory way by quickly resorting to a Korean attendant for help. Incident 2: In economy class, a family with two children requested a particular toy, but a crewmember gave them something different and explained that, “we just ran out of choices, so this is all we have.” The woman got very upset and the man later complained to a Korean crewmember that the (Western) colleague had not even offered an apology. Later, he also did not appreciate that only Western-style children meals were served. All of the complaints were made by the man. Incident 3: A passenger was caught smoking in an economy class lavatory. The crewmember scolded him in front of other passengers and reminded him of the seriousness of this offense, then called for the supervisor, who repeated the attendant’s claims and further “threatened” that this may

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

105

have serious consequences. Passengers in the immediate vicinity could listen in on the conversation. The passenger remained silent, but appeared embarrassed and angry. He did not speak to any crewmember for the remainder of the flight, and instead ordered meals and drinks through the passenger next to him. Incident Analysis. The East Asian concept of kibun (face) is taken very seriously in Korean culture. Losing face is closely linked to “honor” and may leave someone with a profound sense of shame and embarrassment. According to a Korean crewmember, “kibun means something like pride, feelings, face, and state of mind. For us it is important to not hurt someone’s kibun, and also to keep your own kibun. We very much care for our community and we don’t mind to sacrifice ourselves for the sake of others. It is more important than personal comfort.” Maintaining good face reflects a person’s social standing among other members of society and serves as a strong control mechanism which reinforces all other values (Hu, 2012). Korea’s authoritarian structure is reflected in most industries, including aviation, which explains the high regard aircrew enjoy in Korean culture. As a general point of reference, Koreans regard superiors as important and in authority. Calling in a manager in problematic situations is instrumental as it signals professionalism as well as the importance of the matter. Some Korean passengers may view prohibitions as “loose warnings that leave room for flexibility,” as one Korean crewmember noted, “We sometimes do not take prohibition signs very serious. Even if the passenger is aware of the legal implications, they build on the tolerance and communication with crew.” Korean crewmembers best assist as interpreters and mediators in addressing a problem in the most possible “indirect” way. In order to “not lose face,” criticizing someone in front of others should be avoided in all circumstances. While the expression of needs is generally discouraged, Korean passengers tend to be very direct communicators in contrast to other Asians passengers. Commonly cited traditional values, such as benevolence, cooperation, and humbleness, are nowadays often challenged by younger generations influenced by Western culture (Hur & Hur, 1999). Koreans appreciate a sense of humor and subtle forms of irony when interacting with crews. Efforts are made to smooth out awkward situations not only by showing empathy, but also by “having a laugh.” Complaining is seen as a sign of weakness, which is why passenger often do not express complaints verbally.

106

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Commonalities and Cultural Diversity At every significant juncture of inflight service, cultural issues are playing a pivotal role, creating powerful tensions between passengers and crews. While Asians share many commonalities, they are distinct from each other in food, language, and culture. The cited incidents reveal that there is a strong preference among Asian passengers for airlines to cater for their culture-specific needs. In comparing these specific nationality differences and highlighting commonalities, the question arises as to whether these are sets of isolated incidents, or whether there exist certain behavioral patterns among one group of passengers. These incidents are drawn from a body of very similar crewpassenger stories and accounts. Exaggerated or extreme incidents were not employed to characterize the cultural forces involved. The material cited is also given weight by its similarity to a set of points made in the literature. Previous evidence suggests that difficulties in passenger/service-team interaction are related to a certain aspect of passengers’ cultural practice. Research conducted by Otaki, Durrett, Richards, Nyquist, and Pennebaker (1986) shows how shared values and beliefs are subtly programmed into individuals from an early age. These findings perpetuate claims by Hofstede (1997) that value and belief systems prove resistant to change. When translated to the aircraft environment, passenger conduct thus seems to adhere to common, home-based, cultural rules of behavior. Distinct passenger behavior can have many causes ranging from age, gender, the stress of travel, the strict smoking ban, or alcohol and drug side effects. Passengers must acquiesce to the rigidity of narrow seats and small space, while different passenger groups harbor varied assumptions of what actions are deemed “acceptable.” For example, for many Chinese tourists, air travel is still a new and aspirational experience. Unaccustomed to the world of flying, these travel limitations may lead to tourists appearing “clueless,” “unaware,” or “egocentric” to both crews and fellow passengers. In the same way that a “sense of social discipline and respect for hard work” drove the economic growth in the Asian region (Aikman, 1986, p. 5), common traditions and cultural norms of Confucianism and Taoism play a significant role in the social activities and characteristics of Chinese, Japanese, and South Korean people. Within their Confucian framework, emotions must be discreetly controlled in public. Likewise, Hinduism and the cultural diversity in India have influenced the processes of social development and regional integration. Interestingly, this analysis revealed that passengers traveling in upper classes show negative feelings more freely

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

107

than those in economy class. Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman (1996) further describe how behavior intentions are conceptualized as consequences of service quality and will affect customers’ actual behavior. This may particularly hold for Japanese people whose actions are greatly restrained by social norms and who tend to be more private and reserved than most other Asians. Respect for hierarchy and superiors are important principles in Asian societies (Zhang, Lin, Nonaka, & Beom, 2005). These are especially pronounced in Japan and South Korea, where the position of a flight attendant is highly respected. In turn, certain “returning-the-loyalty” expectations are tightly knitted to this high regard, and best witnessed in passengers demanding respectful and courteous treatment themselves. Moreover, the newly-acquired wealth in some Asian groups may have further heightened passengers’ expectations. Traditionally, each Asian group is homogeneous in nature, however, certain age or social strata now increasingly appear to embrace Western influences, particularly with respect to food, luxury goods, and brand names. Passengers may view a particular airline as more prestigious than others for various reasons. For example, airlines may engage the symbolic significance of cultural aspects that carry a “cult” or “hero” status with themes such as their safety record or popularity among celebrities. The concept of “heroes,” which is highly prized in a culture, can shape perceptions (Hofstede, 1997, p. 8). “Heroes” may thus influence passenger behavior through their association with an airline’s products and brands, or its customer service philosophy as a whole. Cultural values are also reflected in the phrases used in passenger-crew interactions. Crews may project their own cultural norms as to what is “accepted” in an aircraft. For example, their sense of “rude” or “polite” is also contrived from a different social structure. The relation between crews and passengers might emerge as one characterized by suspicion and mistrust. While incidents are rarely elevated to levels unacceptable to crews, the atmosphere generated by these events may open up a distance between passengers and crews and increase the potential for misunderstanding. Chains of events are often what cause stereotypes and myths about specific passenger behavior to emerge and persist. The success of major airlines perhaps rests on insisting that crews behave in a manner acceptable to a specific customer segment on their Asian routes (Lufthansa Airlines, 2015). Honor, respect, and hospitality are anchored in the principle of reciprocity in most Asian societies, perhaps best witnessed in passengers’

108

The World Meets Asian Tourists

appreciation of professional conduct, the anticipation of needs, and the importance of the role of superiors. Whereas the reasons for problems or mishaps are second-tier and largely irrelevant, great importance is attached to repentance in the form of a prompt and ample apology. Within the honor-led world of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean passengers, social misconduct or outspoken dissatisfaction would reflect badly on the country as a whole. This can be taken as far as passengers “not wanting to tarnish the airline’s image,” as one Japanese flight attendant noted.

Crew Perspectives Air travel is often seen a stressful experience by both passengers and crews. The fatiguing effects of flying, such as time differences or lack of sleep, might deplete tolerance and increase the capacity for irritation and uncertainty to a point where maintaining manners can become a challenge. Categorizing passengers according to the three seating typologies of first, business, and economy class may affect the expectations of passengers, or prompt them to behave in certain ways. For example, experiences related to passenger expectancy might characterize the typical “entitlement attitude” as recounted by Indian crewmembers. Crewmembers frequently identified aspects of passenger management they found challenging. Their inventories included experiences that they found unacceptable or intrusive, such as a lack of manners, courtesy, or impatience, but also seemingly incidental acts such as passengers clearing their noses loudly, slurping, or jostling. While some of these behaviors undoubtedly present a challenge, they are in most part situations brought about by misunderstanding cultural practices. The demeanor of a fellow passenger, together with the confinement of the aircraft cabin, can generate an atmosphere that effectively primes passengers to act in a particular way. When certain cultures are together in close proximity and feel comfortable, the sense of unity may kick in and amplify typical behaviors they display in their homeland. It is important to highlight the differences in the concept of personal space, which varies in different countries and cultures. While Western passengers typically expect privacy, a fellow passenger’s private space may not carry any significance in Asian cultures, and may be seen as a synonym for intolerance and anti-social behavior. Incident analysis revealed that both passengers and crews often think that others need to conform to their own special social and cultural ideas of “good” behavior.

Managing Asian Tourists on Long-Haul Flights

109

Qualities to Manage Cultural Situations The diversity of Asian tourists means that employees need to acquire a sophisticated understanding of multiple cultures. Crewmembers have a high stake in embodying an airline’s philosophy on customer service. For the purposes of employee development and feedback, critical incidents are a valuable approach, because they provide specific examples of the employee’s actual behavior (Schermerhorn, Hunt, & Osborn, 2000). Exposure to different cultures is a strong asset in crew recruitment. For example, Lufthansa Airlines has capitalized on understanding the subsegments of Asian passengers’ needs, and not only designs products and services to meet those needs, but sustains a service culture through recruitment and training. Cultural awareness is an integral component of training curricula in basic and recurrent courses. Crewmembers are trained to interact with passengers from different cultures and learn to appreciate subtle issues, such as interpreting demeanor and gestures, or acknowledging status and hierarchies. As an element of personalized customer service, many airlines provide passengers with bilingual cabin crew who are sensitive to the East/West cultural differences, and who can help compatriots feel “at home” with the airline. Service processes in the airline sector are highly standardized. While this is favorable in leading to predictability, such as choice of items and default meal times, good service concepts should also incorporate personalization, which often arises from unexpected needs. Crew training thus focuses on internalizing standard service procedures to both ensure smooth service cycles and to allow scope for personalized care beyond standard concepts. Singapore Airlines note how, in this sense, “standardization actually enables personalization” (Harvard Business Review, 2010). Crewmembers carry a powerful charge, influencing the type of atmosphere that emerges in the cabin. Training is important in accommodating passengers’ needs while also considering how such charged atmospheres might be pacified in various ways. In the same way that wearing a uniform can act as shield to not take things personally, so the skills and knowledge gained through training provide a pillar of support to cabin crew. Situations may arise where crews feel unable to respond to passenger requests adequately, harming their ability to meet customer expectations consistently. Navigating the boundaries in the aircraft environment is challenging and requires skills beyond those taught in-class. Rhoden, Ralston, and Ineson (2008) found that only experiential learning will adequately train crews to apply their skills and increase confidence in dealing with

110

The World Meets Asian Tourists

critical situations. Consequently, it is imperative that crews acquaint themselves with the prevalent gestures and key behaviors in order not to be inadvertently offensive. Occasionally the presence of regional flight attendants may also create potential pitfalls, exacerbating problems endemic to a given culture. For example, local cabin crew may shy away from engaging in potentially divisive issues such as communicating a lack of meal choice, for fear of “losing face.”

CONCLUSION The reality of encountering Asian passengers’ cultural needs and behaviors presents crews with particular challenges. At the same time, it provides airlines with a huge opportunity to win over Asian customers with a clever and relevant marketing strategy that focuses on their cultural needs as a way of building loyalty. Broad similarities across Asian passengers have been found regarding behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes. While learning about the cultural differences and commonalities in Asian passengers represents a key factor in effective targeting and promotion of specific flight sectors, capitalizing on the cultural diversity of Asian passengers can be a major step to the future success of the airline sector. By setting themselves apart from competitors in desirable ways, airlines can excel in service excellence and prevail even in this highly competitive sector. Drawing from personal experiences and those of a range of aircrew, the incidents presented in this chapter are not infrequent. They reinforce the view that excellent service is difficult to define, but something each nationality group appreciates. Failures to observe cultural nuances and niceties in the delivering the experience can become substantial passenger concerns. The challenge lies in capturing the intangible and unquantifiable element of “good service,” as perceived by each group. Finally, beyond a cabin crew’s power to attract passengers’ approval through pre-fabricated service and training, the simple process of conceptualizing the flight as providing occasions to deliver moments of memorable cordiality is to be encouraged. If an entire crew is aligned on the single mission to delight their customers, it can become the powerful force that transforms a flight into a memorable travel experience. This kind of understanding is the hallmark of a successful airline. The payoff may not be immediately quantifiable, but there is a strong incentive for airlines to consolidate their position in the growing sector of Asian tourism.

Chapter 7

THAI TOURISTS ON TOUR The Practice of Designing Successful Tours Vorawan Kanlayanasukho Aya Thai Travel, Thailand

Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: This chapter explores the cultural interest and needs of Thai group tourists undertaking specific tours. The perspectives of a specialist Thai tour operator in choosing routes and conducting tours for these tourists in Europe provide the basis for the points identified. The special appeal of themes linked to Thai life is emphasized. The development of a group travel itinerary is documented as a pragmatic exercise in matching the expectations and the spending power of the participants with the business goals of the tour provider. The wider pan-Asian implications of the work include the need for a high level of personal care and the necessity to explain and interpret often little understood historical facts. Keywords: Tour guides; tour design; Thai tourists; preferences; emotional labor

INTRODUCTION Leisure and recreation pursuits have become a part of the status and social success for many affluent Thais (Thanksooks, 2015). In the last 20 years,

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 111 125 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007008

112

The World Meets Asian Tourists

solid numbers of middle and upper class Thais have developed a taste for tourism. Outbound travel in particular is a part of this portfolio of interests. As reported in the Introduction of this volume, Thai tourists are now to be found in many continents, but the appeal of traveling to Europe is powerful. Their presence outside of Asia has been overshadowed by the North East Asian markets of Japan, South Korea, and China. UNWTO (2015a, 2015b, 2015c) reveals that each year more than 30,000 Thai citizens visit France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, and this demand is rising. As with many developing markets where language issues and inexperienced international tourists prevail, the Thai outbound is characterized by a number of companies offering international tours. This chapter uses an intensive case study approach to explore some of the issues involved in managing and facilitating Thai outbound tourists. Two techniques are used to collect the material for this analysis. First, the owner, operator, and tour leader of one successful specialist outbound group provides an autoethnographic review of her planning of itineraries as participants experience three kinds of specialist products. The second part of the chapter considers the outcomes of an extended conversational interview between the present co-authors. The conversational points canvassed in detail incorporated key management points from the tour guide and tour operation literature. This set of discussion points complements and expands on the autoethnographic analysis and permits some broader generalizations about the management of Thai tourists by tour operators and those who host them in non-Asian destinations.

THAI GROUP TOURISTS Group tours and the outbound tour selection and management process have been studied for some time (Quiroga, 1990; Schmidt, 1979). Much of this work has been done in Asia where the group tour has been important for a range of reasons (Ap & Wong, 2000; Hongying & Hui, 2009). Five key features associated with package tours were identified in the early studies (Cohen, 1972; Enoch, 1996; Quiroga, 1990; Schmidt, 1979). First, package tours can save time and avoid potential problems in both the predeparture purchase process and the onsite activity choice of activities. Second, package tours are usually structured in a way that allows multiple sites and sometimes countries to be visited within a fixed amount of time. This intensive use of time has been of particular appeal to Asian outbound markets (Chang, 2006, 2007). Third, this type of trip provides psychological

Thai Tourists on Tour

113

and physical safety, as it reduces ambiguities due to cultural barriers, language difficulties, and unfamiliarity with new communities and locations. A fourth benefit lies in the advantage of traveling with similar others since a skilled tour leader with expert knowledge fosters group cohesion and facilitates fun within the group. The final reason for choosing a package tour is that the total price is typically lower than would be the case if the individual put together their own tour by purchasing the constituents of the whole trip separately. In the digital era, it seems that there are pressures on the continued future of group and guided tours (Kanellopoulos, 2008). Armed with their smartphones, laptops, and tablets, many younger consumers now have the capacity to overcome many of the previous challenges to international touring met by the group tour, the guide and the tour operator. Booking and organizing trips online has become within easy reach of many Asian tourists. Further, in the last decade, considerable effort has been expended in developing what are referred to as mobile recommender systems (Kramer, Modsching, ten Hagen, & Gretzel, 2007; Paganelli & Giuli, 2008; Tan, Foo, Goh, & Theng, 2009). The designs vary, but in essence the mobile recommender systems can provide locational information and interpretive commentary on the sites and services in many locations (Pearce, 2011). Clearly the new electronic guides perform many of the functions which were formerly filled by tourist guides. The literature suggests that tourists prefer the electronic guides to operate in what has been termed the planner mode, a form of information delivery which suggests routes to suit tourists’ interests rather than explorer mode which constantly updates the users with information in their immediate environment (Kramer et al., 2007; Modsching, Kramer, ten Hagen, & Gretzel, 2007). In a broad sense, the mobile recommender systems may be seen as answers to the classical tourist questions of where to go, what to see, and how to understand what the tourists are viewing. In considering the role of tour operators and escorted tours in the Thai outbound tourism, it is germane to ask what it is that “live” guides and tour companies offer which help define the success of their operations and their continued relevance to the market. Further analysis of the role of the tour guide who accompanies tourists can be built on revisiting some of the foundation studies about tour guides (Weiler & Black, 2015). The key studies which are of special value include the work of Schmidt (1979) who examined the situations where guided tours were seen as highly desirable; Holloway (1981) who observed the ways in which individual guides interpreted and responded to their role; Pearce (1984) who concentrated on the interactions between guides and the

114

The World Meets Asian Tourists

tourists; and Cohen (1985) who produced a comprehensive categorization of the guide’s roles. They were not the only foundation studies (Weiler & Black, 2015), and other contributions were made by Lopez (1980, 1981) on the communication style and personality of tour leaders, with Almagor (1985) highlighting the power relations which influenced the guide’s behavior in African wildlife trips. Three principal lines of work concerning the guided tour flow from these historical studies and shape the Asian group tour research which followed this primary work. The contributions of Schmidt (1979) and Cohen (1985) have directed attention to the generic concern with the role of guides in tourism. Topics of interest within this domain include when, where, and how guides operate. There have been extensions and refinements to the four core roles (the guide as an instrumental or location oriented leader, as animator, as interaction controller, and as information agent) which Cohen identified. Some representative examples of this continued interest in the multiple roles of the guide are apparent in the work of Howard, Thwaites, and Smith (1991) who emphasized cultural mediation and Haig and McIntyre (1992) who highlighted differences between ecotourism guides and other tourism communicators. For the present interest in Thai tours, the continuing relevance of the instrumental role of the tour leader will be closely reconsidered. A second tradition of work has focused on the qualities and skills of guides with a particular emphasis on their knowledge, accreditation procedures, and their effectiveness in influencing tourist behavior. The derivation of this work lies most clearly with the foundation studies of Holloway (1981) and to a lesser extent Pearce (1984) and the work of Lopez (1980, 1981). Clear examples of this continuing interest in the guides’ skills and effectiveness include Ballantyne and Hughes (1991) with their interest in learning through interpretation and guide communication and Black and Weiler (2005) who focus directly on accreditation and certification issues. In the Asian extension of these studies, there have been considerations of tour leaders’ performance (Wang, Hsieh, & Huan, 2000). The training of guides in Asian countries and the further understanding of what skills and content emphases are needed to interpret settings in multiple Asian destinations is a theme for consideration in this chapter (Hongying & Hui, 2009). A third subfield of inquiry is more directly concerned with tourist guide interaction and the way guides and tourists see one another. The derivation here springs in part from Pearce (1984), but the work of Almagor (1985) is an important addition to this study of interpersonal perception and behavior. Several small studies offer pathways to begin to explore this issue

Thai Tourists on Tour

115

about the quality of the interaction between guides and their tourists. In an account of the critical service features of international group tours made by over 300 Taiwanese tourists, Wang, Hsieh, and Huan (2000) suggested that creativity and compassion were winning features. By way of contrast, undisclosed charges and the addition of shopping locations not requested were low points. Ap and Wong (2001), working from a base in Hong Kong, suggest that making people happy is an overarching issue for guides, and the ability to engender wellbeing is achieved through communication skills as well as providing useful information. Zhang and Chow (2004) studied mainland Chinese tourists on guided tours to Hong Kong. Their study identified key informational abilities and communication as important but also noted the role of humor in making the guided tour experience a success. The emotional labor of guides has been considered in recent studies. Closely linked to intelligence, it is the ability to produce the right affective reactions consistently to foster positive interaction (Goleman, 1998; Harris, 2005). In developing studies of humor and its role in tourists-guide encounters, Pearce and Pabel (2015) emphasize that the skill of being amusing and entertaining involves emotional labor in choosing and delivering the right material for the right audience at the right time.

Thai Tourists and Itineraries The literature review suggest that the exploration of the interpersonal components of tourist guide interaction are worthy of close attention. Different nationalities have different concerns in their lives and lifestyles because of cultural differences. Thailand is renowned for its superior hospitality and its levels of service in the tourism industry. Thus, it is challenging to assess the level of service which Thai tourists would expect when traveling overseas. It is, therefore, very critical that Thai outbound tour operators can understand the perceptions and attitudes of outbound Thai tourists. These factors can be categorized into two main areas: the country’s culture and background and the tourist’s own experience and their lifestyle. To develop a successful itinerary for Thai tourists, these two perspectives need to be understood. The first perspective is to have some understanding of Thai culture and history since this can often link the destination with the tourism market source. For example, Thailand and Switzerland share an interest in the present monarch, King Rama IX, since Switzerland was a country in which the

116

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Thai king and his family spent time in the past. As a result, Switzerland is perceived by Thai tourists as a desirable destination. This is independent of its reputation for skiing and its mountainous resorts which do not appeal strongly to Thai tourists. The Swiss city of Lausanne is a popular destination because Thai tourists want to visit the place where King Rama IX spent time when he was young. Another example connects Thailand with France. Thai tourists want to visit the ballroom in the Palace of Fontainebleau in order to see a painting by the French artist, Jean-Leon Gerome, of Napoleon III. The painting depicts Napoleon receiving a historically important delegation from the King of Thailand in 1864. As a consequence, any Paris itinerary constructed by Thai tour operators needs to include a visit to the Palace of Fontainebleau. From these slightly obscure and small examples, it is apparent that culture and history affect how Thai tour operators should design itineraries for Thai tourists in Europe. The second perspective focuses on the tourist experience itself, and on an appreciation of their lifestyles which can help tour operators match individuals or small groups with travel destinations. One example is that a whisky lover might enjoy visiting a whisky distillery in Scotland, whereas a wine lover would prefer a tour of the vineyards in Bordeaux, France. Due to the professions and incomes of many Thai tourists who visit Europe, they are able to afford tours to desired destination which match their lifestyle and their leisure interests. Recent tours popular with Thai tourists have included distillery tours to Scotland, wine tours to Bordeaux, a cycling tour in Provence in the south of France, and a gastronomy tour in Italy. An understanding of individual experiences and lifestyle can help tour operators to design itineraries that closely match their needs. Other factors need to be considered in tour design include climate, the optimum duration of the trip, the age profile of the tourists, and the ultimate purpose of the trip. Three case studies in this chapter will document issues for tour operators in designing an itinerary for Thai tourists. They are Scottish Whisky Tour in the United Kingdom, Holocaust Memorial Tour in Poland, and the path of King Bhumibol’s childhood in Switzerland. The choice of these examples was motivated by the inherent diversity in the destinations and the associated subtly different planning processes needed to make them a success. Building on these propositions, the chapter seeks to demonstrate how three tours operated by Aya Thai Travel meet the requirements of Thai tourists in terms of interests and lifestyle. It argues that the success of these tours has depended partially on the quality of the interpersonal interactions

Thai Tourists on Tour

117

between the tour guide and the people they guide. The design of three tours is explored and the analysis is supplemented by answers from the operator to questions about the management of guests on these tours.

Research Methods Personal reflections about tourism topics, where those observations are systematically structured and reported, are increasingly valued as a rich research tool. The approach is formally labeled autoethnography and a small literature is building on its strengths and potential uses. The insider access available to researchers who belong to a work environment has been shown to be a vital tool in constructing a better understanding of the setting. Ellis (2004) notes that autoethnography allows the investigator to make personal experience meaningful. Consequently, the technique is one of the approaches that acknowledges and accommodates subjectivity, emotionality, and the researcher’s influence in the situation (Ellis, Adams, & Bochner, 2011). By taking field notes of events and reflecting on critical incidents, one is able to offer insights and document realities which external observers fail to appreciate (Goodall, 2000; Gomm, 2004). The contextual information about the Aya Thai Travel identifies the kinds of clientele and the style of the tours. This is an integrated travel and leisure company offering superior services to international destinations mainly to corporate, executive, and government clients. The key destinations are the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Eastern Europe, and India. From specification to delivery, the leadership of the executive directors attempt to combine Thai style with Swiss standards of hospitality to deliver a seamless high-quality product without intermediary or sub-contractors. “The World, Thai style” defines the spirit of the company which is seeking to be the leading executive travel provider in South-East Asia. With a UK licensed subsidiary in London, the company has a strong operational engagement in Europe. Operating directly without layers of intermediaries allows for truly unique customized travel without the cost premium usually associated with specialized services or uncommon destinations. In addition, all hotels and restaurants selected for a client’s program are inspected and evaluated first-hand by the company’s experienced managers. Having company staff always alongside the guests and in direct contact with the contracting client allows for last minute changes or even on the spot program choices that would be difficult or impossible to clear through

118

The World Meets Asian Tourists

a chain of suppliers at short notice. For example, guests can be offered the freedom to choose from restaurant menus instead of being served pre-set meals, a service level that cannot be provided with the meal vouchers used by operators. An extra benefit is that restaurants that do not cater to tourists with meal vouchers and require cash or bank card payment on the spot can be included in itineraries without any difficulty, opening up the choices to unknown restaurants serving authentic regional cuisine, including Michelin starred and renown chefs who traditionally do not cater to groups. The company staff accompanying the guests seek to be highly personable, know how to conduct themselves and follow dress codes to never be out of place in a five-star hotel or an executive conference room. Safety and security at the destination are integral considerations in the conception of a client’s program as the CEO of AyaThai Travel is also an author of academic papers and a book about crisis management for the tourism industry. In reviewing the operation of these tours, a detailed conversational interview built on interaction between the co-authors was also employed as a source of insider information. Armed with a set of questions and points from the academic literature, these conversational points supplement the itinerary design issues raised in study result reported in this chapter. Associated work on the role of humor and scams in guided tours by the same two authors preceded and partly informed the present set of interview topics (Pearce & Kanlayanasukho, 2012).

Study Results The selected tours provide a contrast incorporating itineraries to two different but appealing Thai themes and a tour to a less well known destination. As such they represent not just a sample of the pattern of Aya Thai Tours but reflect the broader ongoing efforts of Thai tourist companies to offer tours to mainstream and innovative destinations. Whisky Tour in the United Kingdom. People who are interested in whisky are the main target for this group. They are likely to be professionals, including executives of private organizations, academics, or well-paid health professionals. There are hundreds of different kinds of whisky in Scotland which cannot be experienced in Thailand. This market enjoys the chance to experience different distilleries and to sit in several whisky shops

Thai Tourists on Tour

119

for tasting sessions. One example is that Thai tourists enjoy trying smoked Scottish whisky which is hard to find in Thailand. They enjoy learning about the whisky making process and also hearing the stories about different distilleries. At Aya Thai selects the distilleries well known to Thai tourists, such as Glenfiddich and Glenlivet. Guests like the chance to taste different brands and to learn that some are smoky and some not. They can also visit whisky shops in Edinburgh and sit and taste a variety which they cannot experience in Thailand. Apart from the distillery visits, a cultural tour is offered. In order to design this itinerary, the choice of food and accommodation needs to match the participants’ expectations. These groups do not need luxury hotels, instead prefer city center hotel where they can walk at night to whisky bars and enjoy their evenings. Tourists who can afford to travel to the United Kingdom tend to be those with a medium to high income level. Accommodation catering to this demographic needs to be at least four star and to have an international brand. A recognizable hotel brand helps tour operators to counter complaints by customers. If tour operators choose a local brand or a family hotel, when guests have complaints, it seems to be considered to be the tour operator’s fault. But if an international brand is selected, guests who have complaints assume that the hotel chain has lowered its standards. Food is tricky for Thai tourists. As much as they want to enjoy local food, they do have limitations and the majority need to have one Thai meal out of every two or three meals. There are of course cultural differences, such as the way meals are arranged and presented. British normally have individual portions, whereas Thai people enjoy sharing different dishes at once. In addition, they may be unfamiliar with the duration of meals. In Europe, for instance, they have to wait for a starter to be finished before the main course. This approach to the timing of the sections of the meal means it takes more time to consume one meal. In contrast, they enjoy four or five dishes served at the same time. This can be one factor that Thai tourists need to understand in order to adjust to local culture. An interesting fact is that Thai whisky is also well known in the market, so that UK hosts are always pleased when they receive a Thai group in their distilleries. A rather challenging issue for Thai tourists is punctuality, as they are often not on time and the idea of a holiday is one of being relaxed. Thus, operating a tour in a European country where service hours are strict can be challenging, and this factor needs to be taken into further consideration. Knowledge about weather patterns is also critical, as Thailand only has

120

The World Meets Asian Tourists

a rainy and then a hot season. Thai tourists do not readily realize what the winter feels like in Scotland, as 26°C is the coldest it ever gets in Thailand. So they may be reckless in failing to prepare themselves with warm clothes. Also they may not appreciate that travel in Scotland in winter may be difficult if roads are closed by heavy snow. Holocaust Memorial Tour in Poland. To design a tour which includes the Holocaust Memorial site in Poland needs much careful preparation. It represents one instance of exploring European history and World War II sites. Thai tourists need to be informed of the importance of key sites and history before the visit. This tour suits professionals such as University lecturers and people who like history. It is designed to visit different cities in Poland and to learn about its culture, as well as to visit Holocaust sites. As this tour tends to attract professionals, they are provided with four-star hotels with international brands, coupled with local food. Potential participants are those who have international tourism experience, thus more eager to learn about local food and culture. This can be very different to a shopping tour where guests want to focus on acquiring designer brands. The difficult factor of this tour is that Thai tourists find it hard to relate to the Holocaust sites since Thailand’s history has not been linked with the Jewish people. Nevertheless, there may be those who have Jewish friends, who will be a little distressed during their visit. An unexpected outcome is that when guests cannot relate to a particular site, they may act inappropriately during their visit. They take photos, a jumping shot, or cheerful photos during their visit to Holocaust sites. This behavior can lead to the misapprehension that Thai guests did not respect the sites. There are very few links between Thailand and, for example, Poland in terms of history. Poland is well known as a Holocaust site during the World War II. But Thai history has no links with Poland’s tragic wartime history, so when Thai guests visit the place they cannot fully relate to it. In comparison, those visiting the Palace of Fontainebleau see a painting that shows Thai King Rama IV sending a group of diplomats to visit France. This makes Thai guests feel that they have a connection with the local place in the past and makes them feel inclined to learn more and to adapt more to local culture. However, given that Polish people are friendly and outgoing, it is easy for Thai people to communicate with them during their travels. There are expectations held by Thai tourists when visiting European countries or Schengen countries. When they hear the word Europe regardless of Western Europe or Eastern Europe, the cultural distance between the locations is large and while they may know that Poland is in Eastern

Thai Tourists on Tour

121

Europe, they may be less likely to know that the infrastructure in the provinces can be lacking (Crotts, 2004). The lesson for other tour operators is to be prepared to educate their customers before visiting unfamiliar heritage sites, especially with regard to those sites that do not have a history related to Thailand. King Bhumibol’s Childhood in Lausanne. Thai people know that their monarch, King Bhumibol, and his family grew up in Lausanne, Switzerland. That makes this country a high class destination for them, especially since it was chosen by King’s mother to be her domicile for some time. Since it has a high cost of living, tourists in this group need to be those who are relatively wealthy. To design this itinerary, the different places in which King Bhumibol spent his childhood need to be included, and these become the attractions of the tour. They include Flat No. 16, Tissot Road, Lausanne, where his family lived; Clinique de Montchoisi, where the elder princess was born; Flat No. 19, Avant Poste, where he lived with his queen; Villa Vadhan, Pully near Lausanne or [51 Chamblandes dessusv between Tour Haldimand Street and General Guisan Street] where his mother lived; and Ecole Nouvelle de la Suisse Romande and Lausanne University where he studied. Once the itineraries were designed according to the above places, then these are put together with other places that Thai people might like, such as mountain scenery and castles. Thai tourists can relate to Switzerland and their own history. Cold weather and different seasons, however, might be unexpected. Thailand and Switzerland have some social commonalities. The best Thai resorts are very clean and have high levels of service, and these features are prominent in Swiss life. There is also a bond in terms of Swiss neutrality and Thai distinctiveness in not being involved in problems associated with colonization. Further, Swiss people recognize that Thailand is a very attractive destination, so they like to talk with Thai people when they have a chance. Some issues for improvement involve designing an itinerary with fewer attractions so that the participants have more time to enjoy themselves and relax along the way. Walking distances can be an issue for executive level Thai tourists. Normally they are seniors who prefer not to walk too much. Other tips for tour operators include food issues. For example, a destination, such as Gruyere which is very popular with European tourists because of the renowned cheese, would not suit Thai tourists as they do not like to eat cheese or enjoy cheese fondue. A summary of the tours and key points from the autoethnographic perspective are highlighted in Table 1.

122

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 1. Thai Market Segments, Interests and Planning Issues

Three Case Studies

Scottish Whisky Tour in the United Kingdom

Holocaust Memorial Tour in Poland

King Bhumibol’s Childhood in Switzerland

Who was going

Senior lecturers and Professionals including executives of educated people private organizations, lecturers and medical doctors and people who are interested in whisky.

What they wanted

To experience different kinds of whisky. To obtain knowledge about whisky production. To enjoy the atmosphere of bars in town (such as Edinburgh).

To visit different cities in Poland and to learn about its history (e.g., visiting Holocaust sites).

To visit the different places in which King Bhumibol and his family spent time when living in Switzerland.

What was planned for them and why: food, accommodation, actual itinerary decisions.

A city centre hotel with the four star category. Prefer international brand hotel.

Four star category hotels. Prefer International brand hotel.

Chalet or four star category hotels.

What they experienced: the predictable and the unexpected.

Weather and different seasons

They were not able to relate to the Holocaust sites and Thailand’s history is not related to that of the Jewish people.

They can relate their home history to Switzerland. The unexpected thing would be cold weather and different seasons.

Social and relationship issues between tourists with the hosts.

Cultural differences

World War history

Clean and peaceful

How the Thai tourists were met, greeted, and managed by the European/ UK hosts.

Thai whisky is well known in the UK market, so hosts had a point of contact with Thai tourists.

As Polish people are very friendly, it is easy for Thai people to communicate during their travels

Swiss people recognize that Thailand is an attractive tourist destination, so they like to talk with Thai people when they have a chance.

High income earners

Thai Tourists on Tour Table 1.

123

(Continued )

Three Case Studies

Scottish Whisky Tour in the United Kingdom

Holocaust Memorial Tour in Poland

King Bhumibol’s Childhood in Switzerland

Satisfaction and issues for improvement.

Punctuality

Managing expectations for Thai guests when visiting European countries, the expectation between Western Europe and Eastern Europe.

Possibly fewer attractions. Walking distance is an issue for some Thai tourists.

Lessons for other tours.

Prepare for bad weather

Prepare to educate Thai guests before visiting memorial places.

Be cognisant of food preferences (e.g., Gruyere).

The second part of the results considers some further reports about Thai tourists in Europe based on questions and answers exchanged among the co-authors. The first theme to be explored was the nature of the relationship between the tour leader and the guests. The point was emphasized that Thai tourists can be described as high maintenance. They tend to presume that their tour leader is like doraemon, the all providing ever helpful character of Japanese anime (see Chapter 16 for an understanding of the pervasiveness of these anime images). The view is that that they are paying for a quality tour and the tour leader should solve all problems and meet their demands as a continuing, ever present facilitator of their experience. In suggesting that Thai tourists have very high expectations of being well looked after by their tour leader, it was noted that the expectations may exceed those from other nationalities. Affluent Thais who travel internationally have already experienced very high levels of service in Thai domestic tourism settings. Tour companies and guides may need to be devoted to providing sensitive and special customer care. The special care can, however, take on an almost friendship like quality blurring the boundaries of hospitality, friendship, and commercial services (Ateljevic & Doorne, 2000). It was noted that for guests who travel repeatedly with the same company and the same tour guide, then this blurring of the margins between hospitality and friendship is even stronger, even though the guests are still paying the commercial rate for the tour. It is clear from the importance of these high touch

124

The World Meets Asian Tourists

and high maintenance issues for Thai tourists that the role of electronic guides and mobile recommender systems which were considered in the literature review are not yet a desired style for this “out of Asia” group. A second theme to emerge from the conversational interviews was the result of investigating the cultural values and attitudes which might make Thai tourists distinctive. The dominant answer to this line of questioning identified the national value of sanuk (the desire to have fun and enjoy good times). This Thai liking for good times, laughter, and joking, sometimes over little incidents, was seen as in marked contrast to learning about other cultures and historical issues in detail as discussed for Chinese tourists in this volume (Chapter 4). It was noted that for some of these affluent Thai tourists, the enjoyment of alcohol, especially spirits, was a part of this fun and good times approach to international travel. Obviously there are no religious restrictions on alcohol consumption among Thais, unlike those limitations prevailing for Muslim tourists from nearby South-East Asia countries. An associated cultural value which was revealed through considering distinctive cultural characteristics was the enjoyment of the group as an interacting social support body while traveling. Thai tourists are likely to find new friends within the group and they often see others as a source of entertainment and amusement for mutual good times (see Chapter 9). This same characteristic of the social value of the group was identified in earlier rounds of tourism study of group tours for both Western and Asian tourists and continues to be a force shaping the enjoyment of the tourism experience (Weiler & Black, 2015). As is the case with many Asian cultures, a discussion of international out of Asia tourism in the Thai case did consider shopping, especially for luxury brands as a part of the requirements of the tour design. This interest was not disconnected from the membership of the group because much of the conversational rapport within the travel party was reported as consisting of comparing prices, brands, products, and deals which impress immediate contemporaries and possibly earn status credits among distant friends. One particular behavioral characteristic was also noted for the Thai tourists: a lack of enthusiasm for walking. It is important to contextualize this behavioral statement. The kinds of tourists being considered were affluent and often older individuals; nevertheless the desire not to walk too far was noted with sufficient frequency to warrant commentary. Studies of walking speeds and patterns among citizens of different countries have often noted the speed of movement, as well as the enthusiasm for hiking, walking, and strenuous leisure activities (Ball, 2004; Wiseman, 2007). Apart

Thai Tourists on Tour

125

from Singapore, it has been observed that walking speeds and an enthusiasm for this everyday behavior in Asian countries is less than in many Western countries. Thai tourists were described in the conversational interview as requiring cars to take them even short distances. The request for the transport convenience was one manifestation of the desire to be well looked after, even spoiled. To be treated with great care and courtesy may be due to the sense of being entitled because of the purchase price of the quality tour.

CONCLUSION This chapter considered the design of a set of tours by a specialist Thai tour operator for Thai tourists in Europe. A reflective, insider-based consideration of the important factors shaping the structure of several kinds of tours revealed a range of cultural and structural characteristics which shaped how the tours were organized for out of Asia tourist groups. Particular attention was given across all types of tours to the need to provide extensive pre-trip information to prepare tourists for novel settings. This preparation was seen as desirable in terms of some information about the places to be visited as well as warnings and advice about weather conditions and eating practices. The pragmatics of the tour design emphasized providing accommodation which matched the expectations of the group tourists, preferably in brand name hotels and with ample and regular opportunities for Thai food. A major theme in both the autoethnographic consideration of the tours and further conversational interviews was the high maintenance style of Thai tourists, especially among the affluent middle and upper middle class Thais who could afford specialist European travel. A special feature of Thai culture was the need to maximize the fun and entertainment value of the travel experience; this requirement was consistent with the broadly based cultural value of sanuk; that is a desire for good times in Thai culture. Integrating shopping opportunities into all tours was seen as a high priority and good tour design was seen as minimizing the walking of the group and being consistently available as a tour leader with a joint functional and friendship role. The findings reported in this chapter are arguably not all specific to Thai travelers, with some likely parallels to similarly affluent tourists in countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 8

ENCLAVE RESORTS IN MAURITIUS Modifying Services for Chinese Tourists Perunjodi Naidoo University of Technology, Mauritius

Prabha Ramseook-Munhurrun University of Technology, Mauritius

Abstract: Destination and resort managers have little knowledge regarding the Chinese outbound tourist market, yet its enormous potential cannot be overlooked. Providing services to this often unfamiliar segment can be difficult and may result in poor service delivery which can be detrimental to both enclave resorts and small island destinations, such as Mauritius. This study uses in-depth interviews among key informants from three- to five-star enclave resorts targeting Chinese tourists. The main challenges experienced by the resorts are cultural behavior, language barriers, different food habits, and the need to improve the service facilities and experience. Based on insights from industry practitioners, the study identifies service modifications provided by enclave resorts to provide Chinese tourists with a positive experience. Keywords: Enclave resorts; Chinese; culture; service; Mauritius

INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses how enclave resorts in Mauritius are responding to the challenges and adapting their services to satisfy the Chinese market

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 127 147 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007009

128

The World Meets Asian Tourists

which is a growing and promising segment. Tourism is recognized as a promising industry for many island destinations, as it represents one of the limited opportunities for economic diversification (Dodds & Graci, 2012). For Small Island Developing States (SIDS), tourism receipts accounts for more than 30% of their total exports as compared to other countries for which tourism only represents 5% (United Nations, 2014). The attractiveness of islands has been largely documented (Baum, 1997; Scheyvens & Momsen, 2008; Srinivasan, 1986). Islands are defined by their coasts (Farran, 2006) and are a source of fascination, since they represent adventure, isolation, splendor, and paradise (Prasad, 2007). SIDS compete based on their location, natural, and cultural resources (UNWTO, 2014c) which are used as marketing features to attract international tourism and upon which to expand development. Due to their unique geographical characteristics, resort tourism in coastal areas is one of the most predominant form of development on small islands. The holiday experience in Mauritius is to a great extent provided by large enclave resorts which offer the environment for attracting tourists to the destination. According to Mohammed Baiomy, Jones, El-Din Elias and Dinana (2013), resort hotels are distinctive since guests usually stay within the compound compared to other types. Enclave resorts refer to large, selfsufficient infrastructure and amenities which provide services to tourists including but not limited to accommodation facilities. They also provide tour with food and beverage settings, entertainment, shops, and leisure options. Enclave resorts in Mauritius include both all-inclusive resorts/ packages where all meals and drinks are provided at no additional cost. A large number of them also operate on half-board packages where fewer meals are provided.

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN MAURITIUS In the past 35 years, international tourism has played a significant role in the economic development of Mauritius. The island of Mauritius is located in the Indian Ocean around 800 km to the east of Madagascar (Sharpley & Naidoo, 2010) and covers an area of 1,865 km2 and a coastline of 177 km (UNCTAD, 2011) surrounded by coral reefs. Despite its small size, it is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with a population of slightly above 1.2 million (Statistics Mauritius, 2015a). Mauritius was colonized first by the French in 1715 and in 1810 by the British; the island became independent from the United Kingdom in 1968 and acceded

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

129

to the status of Republic of Mauritius within the Commonwealth in 1992. Owing to its colonial legacy, inhabitants speak both English and French. Mauritius consists of a diverse mix of inhabitants: 68% Indo-Mauritians, 27% Creoles, 3% Sino-Mauritian, and 2% Franco-Mauritians (Tanner, 2010). The island has a population of Chinese descent between the 17th and 19th centuries (Eriksen, 2004). The island has experienced steady growth in international tourism since 1974, when 72,915 arrivals were recorded. By 2014, the number reached just over one million and gross tourism earnings amounted US$1.2 billion (Rs. 44,304 million) (Statistics Mauritius, 2015b) with this industry contributing to 11.3% of total Gross Domestic Product. About 1.1 million arrivals is forecasted for the year 2015, representing an increase of around 6% in comparison with the previous year (Table 1). Tourism enclave resorts in Mauritius are mainly characterized by hotels. In 2014, there were 112 hotels in operation with a total of 12,799 rooms (Statistics Mauritius, 2015b) compared to 102 hotels in 2008. Although, tourism is showing steady signs of growth, the global economic crisis of 2007/2008 has had major repercussions on the economy of small islands, including Mauritius’ (Naidoo, Ramseook-Munhurrun, & Seetaram, 2010) which witnessed a slowdown in the number of arrivals from its main market, France. Concurrently, Chinese arrivals grew by 100.7% in 2013, although the number from Europe fell by 1.5% in 2013 (Mauritius Tourism Promotion Table 1. Countries France Reunion

Major Tourists Generating Countries

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

260,054

275,599

302,185

282,469

256,929

244,752

243,665

96,174

104,946

114,914

132,535

144,340

143,114

141,665

107,919

101,996

97,548

88,182

87,648

98,017

115,326

South Africa

84,448

74,176

81,458

86,232

89,058

94,208

93,120

Germany

61,484

51,279

52,886

56,331

55,186

60,530

62,231

India

43,911

39,252

49,779

53,955

55,197

57,255

61,167

Italy

66,432

56,736

56,540

52,747

40,009

31,205

29,557

15,133

20,885

41,913

63,365

98.9%

38%

100.7%

51.2%

The United Kingdom

China % Change of the Chinese Market

8,425 N/A

Source: Statistics Mauritius (2015b).

6,925 −17.8%

7,609 9.9%

130

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Authority, 2015). This amounted to a total of 41,913 Chinese for the year, an increase of 20,885 compared to the year 2012 (Table 1). However, the average length of stay for the Chinese is only half of that of Europeans. For example, in year 2013, Chinese tourists spent 6.6 nights in Mauritius compared to 11 nights for Europeans (Statistics Mauritius, 2015c). Although some argue that for every European tourist lost, Mauritius needs at least two Chinese to make up for the loss in expenditure (Africa, 2013), the statistics reveal that average expenditure for both European $1,371 (Rs. 48,879) and Chinese $1,362 (Rs. 48,538) tourists are similar despite the difference in length of stay, emphasizing the economic potentials of the latter (Statistics Mauritius, 2015c). However, the destination faces numerous challenges, such as competition from neighboring Indian Ocean islands like the Maldives which promoted the destination in China before 2008 (Jing Daily, 2014).

Promoting Mauritius in China The responsibility for tourism development in Mauritius lies within the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Tourism and External Communications. It has different bodies to achieve its set objectives, such as the Mauritius Tourism Promotion Authority (MTPA) whose main goals are to better tap into emerging economies like China and India (The Report Company, 2015). The strategy that it adopts is three-fold. First, it seeks to enhance its visibility through an integrated communication strategy with online and traditional marketing efforts. For example, the press is heavily used with glossy images, specialized niche magazines, radio, TV, and the Internet. Moreover, the MTPA works with several Chinese tourism companies to aggressively promote the destination to Chinese. The destination is also promoted through TV shows, photo sessions by celebrity photographer, Educ Tours, Familiarization trips, road shows, travel fairs among others. Additionally, digital marketing strategy is used to attract Chinese tourists. The MTPA also has an overseas office in China to conduct public relations and advertising activities to promote the destination. Second, the destination seeks to enhance accessibility, since Mauritius is a long-haul destination which heavily relies on ease of air access, like most SIDS. As a consequence, Air Mauritius has now scheduled four direct flights a week from China (Air Mauritius, 2015); one from Beijing, two from Shanghai, and a recent one from Chengdu, although tourists could still transit through Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Hong Kong, or Dubai.

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

131

Moreover, no visa is required for Chinese citizens spending up to 15 days in Mauritius. Third, the aspect of attractiveness is important for the destination to effectively promote the destination product portfolio. For example, Mauritius seeks to position itself as an ideal destination for weddings and/ or honeymoons for Chinese by promoting attractive features of the destination. Getting married or honeymooning overseas has developed into a craze that has spread across China and Mauritius is tapping into this niche by consolidating its reputation as a world class honeymoon destination. The island has been awarded the “Best Honeymoon Destination in the World” and “Best Honeymoon Destination in the Indian Ocean” in both 2013 and 2014 (MTPA, 2015). Moreover, the natural environment of the destination is also promoted to Chinese, such as diverse outdoor activities and a natural environment. Previous studies have found that experience of the outdoors, being close to nature and the quality of air (Fu, Cai, & Lehto, 2015) was important to Chinese tourists. Since the financial crisis, the Chinese market has become a priority for the destination, although it continues to consolidate its other markets (MTPA, 2015).

Enclave Resorts Model Evidence from the island of Mauritius suggests that enclave resorts have resulted in an increasing number of international tourists (Prayag, Dookhony-Ramphul, & Maryeven, 2010). However, the tourism environment is highly competitive, since small islands compete for the same share of the world’s market. Therefore, SIDS including enclave resorts need to be effectively managed to secure a competitive position on the international tourism map. This involves “identifying and tapping into market segments with highest long-term potential” (Dwyer & Kim, 2003, p. 369) and delivering a high level of service to satisfy the needs of consumers. Like the rest of the world, enclave resorts in Mauritius have recognized that China is fast becoming the world’s largest outbound market. Consequently, how to attract more Chinese tourists and how to satisfy their needs have become a pivotal question for resorts. Since the 1970s, tourism development in Mauritius has focused on the European market and enclave resorts have catered mainly for the needs of the Europeans. However, following the global economic crisis, the destination found itself in an impasse due to the decline in the number of European tourists, Chinese tourists have been sought to offset this fall. However, destination

132

The World Meets Asian Tourists

and resort managers had limited knowledge regarding the Chinese outbound market, yet its enormous potential could not be overlooked. Providing services to this unfamiliar segment can be difficult and may result in poor service delivery which can be detrimental to both the resort and the destination. Therefore, it becomes important to understand the challenges which may be faced by resorts to provide Chinese tourists with a positive experience and to gain insights from industry practitioners regarding ways of adapting to this segment.

Study Methods Given that to date no academic research has been conducted on the Chinese tourists in Mauritius, this study uses a qualitative approach with in-depth interviews conducted among key informants. This method was considered appropriate given that little is known about the topic and key informants would provide a detailed perspective that cannot be obtained from representative survey respondents or secondary data (Decrop, 2004). A purposive sample of ten key informants who were employed at supervisory and management levels in three- to five-star enclave resorts targeting Chinese tourists were selected. The sample consisted of enclave resorts in different coastal regions of the island and included both local and foreign owned organizations. Although the sample size is small, the aim of this type of sampling is to record and refine ideas (Charmaz, 2000; McCracken, 1988). The interviewees were required to provide their views regarding the challenges faced by enclave resorts to welcome Chinese tourists and to identify initiatives which their organizations have adopted to offer an improved service experience to the guests. The interviews were tape recorded with permission, transcribed, and translated into English where required. The transcriptions were content analyzed and categories were identified.

Study Results The section presents the main difficulties faced by enclave resorts to adapt to the Chinese market and service modifications adopted (Figure 1). The findings reveal that cultural behavior, food and beverage, language, and service facilities and experience pose challenges when dealing with this tourist segment. Figure 1 also indicates positive service initiatives adopted by resorts to improve their services.

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

133

Service Modifications

Cultural Behavior -Unfamiliar Guests

Intercultural Sensitivity Training

Language -Lack of Mandarin Speaking staff

Food &Beverage -Need for New and Familiar Food

Language Training

Signature Local Food

Tour Guides

Menu Design and Variety

Translation and Communication

Operating Hours

Chinese Speaking Trainees

Service Facilities & Experience -Additional Services Needed

Tangible Environment

Service quality

Technology & Social Media

Memorabilia

Entertainment

Figure 1. Service Modifications to Respond to Key Challenges Cultural Behavior. The literature confirms that culture is one of the most important feature that hotel managers and staff need to consider so as to provide a high level of service according to the needs of customers (Ueltschy, Laroche, Eggert, & Bindl, 2007). Culture has been defined as the behaviors and attitudes of a specific group of people that help distinguish them from another (Hofstede, 1994). Ueltschy et al. (2007); it is important for hotels to consider that customer preferences are not alike across the globe. Customers with different cultural backgrounds are habituated to their own standards of service quality (Seo, 2012). Therefore, cultural differences will undoubtedly affect customers’ expectations and perceptions of services (Seo, 2012).

134

The World Meets Asian Tourists

The unprecedented development of Chinese outbound tourism has created significant challenges for managing enclave resort operations. Most of them in Mauritius target different segments of tourists and are in general accustomed to meeting the needs of different groups of customers. However, many of the interviewees were in agreement that the Chinese tourists have resulted into some distinctive challenges, more so because the resort staff are habituated to provide services to European tourists. One of the difficulties might lie in the host-guest relationship (Huang, Keating, Kriz, & Heung, 2015). International tourism development in SIDS like Mauritius was traditionally based on the developing world providing tourism services to the Westerners. However, significant tourists emerging markets, such as China and India, are forcing destinations to question and re-assess the traditional host-guest relationships. Moreover, both the international press and academic studies have revealed that the behavior of Chinese tourists can offend and be perceived as inappropriate by staff and other tourists (Levin, 2015; Yeung & Leung, 2007) which can further accentuate possible difficulties. In the current study, although the interviewees acknowledged differences, none of them confirmed that the behavior of their guests are offensive. On the contrary, they showed positive emotions during the interviews and, as reported by a manager, the guests are in general “kind, easy to deal with, and unlikely to complain,” as compared with other tourist segments. One supervisor stated that Chinese couples visiting Mauritius are usually honeymooners and this segment enjoys quiet time together. However, it may happen that those traveling in groups are noisy at check-in or meal time. Therefore, this particular three-star resort has a large sound proof room for group check-in. This room is attached to the dining room and during breakfast or dinner, the glass sound-proof door panels can simply be closed to reduce noise. Another, manager stated that its hotel policies and regulations have been translated into various languages, including Mandarin, and clear guidelines provided regarding the expected behavior of tourists. Therefore, proactive solutions, including clear communication reduces possible problems which might arise from unfamiliar guest behavior. Successful resorts depend on the technical competence of staff and on their intercultural adaptability. As the industry faces increasing numbers of guests from different cultural backgrounds, understanding the impact of cultural values on service provision becomes more critical in the present competitive environment. Training is able to sensitize staff to critical intercultural factors which impinge on effective service delivery. Since the

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

135

Chinese culture is high context, with reliance on non-verbal communication (Reisinger & Turner, 1998; Reisinger & Waryszak, 1994) to convey meaning, training is provided to sensitize employees to the Chinese culture as most staff have poor knowledge about the behavior of their guests. Several resorts offer cultural awareness training programs to impart the principles of effective cross-cultural interaction and communication. In building cross cultural communication skills, hotels also have the opportunity to distinguish themselves from competition (Tsang & Ap, 2007). A manager interviewed stated that “we have to be very careful in our communication as even giving compliments can create misunderstandings. So we have to be very aware of cultural differences.” The same manager stated that training on Chinese culture and etiquette is provided for staff to best meet the needs of this cultural group and to become more aware of the tourists’ cultural background. For a few large hotels, training programs are supported by market research findings which recommended changes in behavior to be implemented by staff and specific trainings to be provided. A manager of a group of resorts explained that “market research was conducted by the group marketing department based in Mauritius and the agent representing the hotel group in China. We are a people industry and it is important to cater for their needs and not impose our culture on them. Therefore, it is essential to have a Chinese agent who understands their culture and provide us with relevant information.” Moreover, during the service encounter, trainees from overseas were able to impart their knowledge of non-verbal communication to the local staff and thus the latter are now better able to decode and pay more attention to non-verbal communication and find topics of conversation which are culturally appropriate.

Food and Beverage The interviewees were in agreement that food and beverage is an essential component to consider in improving the services for Chinese guests. Food represents one of the basic needs and all-inclusive resorts have been perceived as destinations for food (Caribbean Journal, 2014). Destinations have used food as tourist attractions, experiences, and cultural expressions (Boyne, Hall, & Williams, 2003; du Rand, Heath, & Alberts, 2003; Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Moreover, the food and beverage department is a core facility offering numerous dining options for tourists in enclave resorts. Successful food and beverage outlets contribute to the hotel’s overall competitive position (Siguaw & Enz, 1999) and profitability. Since

136

The World Meets Asian Tourists

guests are effectively confined in any enclave resort, their perceptions of the food and beverage becomes critical in the selection of resorts. Although Chinese tourists generally like to consume Chinese food or familiar food, it was found that they were enthusiastic to try the local dishes. For example a supervisor stated that “they will be adventurous and try different food.” Research shows that Chinese tourists are motivated to taste local food because it is an opportunity to explore local culture, learn, enhance status, and prestige (Chang, Kivela, & Mak, 2011). Local food motivates them to build their knowledge of the local cuisine which few other Chinese may have encountered. They are happy to engage in “adventure” and “novel” experiences as confirmed by the study of Chang et al. (2011). The ability to travel abroad, especially the long-haul, welldeveloped, or exotic destination is still considered a sign of prestige and social status in China (Wu & Pearce, 2016; Zhang et al., 2005) and tourists are thus likely to explore new type of cuisine that others are not likely to have tried before. Since most enclave resorts target different segments of customers simultaneously, the breakfast and the dinner buffet is highly international consisting of specialties from several countries. The buffet menu consists of wider choices, including Western style dishes, Mauritian cuisine, and “Indian corner,” allowing the more adventurous tourists from enjoying the tastes of other global cuisines. However, as reported by a manager, “they will try everything, they are very adventurous … but will not adopt the food.” Studies also demonstrate that Chinese tourists prefer to have familiar food to meet their basic physiological needs (Chang et al., 2011; Lin & Chen, 2014), and although they are keen to try local food, they unequivocally mention that it is not possible for them to have local food for all meals. All interviewees agreed that one of the main area in enclave resorts where changes were brought to better cater for the Chinese market was to improve the variety of the menu for the guests so that they had a better choice of food. Menus are crucial in enjoying the resort experience since guests spend more days in resorts and hence the importance of an attractive menu is important. Additionally, menus are essential promotional tools and influence customer satisfaction with a resort. Studies have also revealed the importance of menus in the marketing of resorts and as being a major influence on customers’ first impressions (Mohammed Baiomy et al., 2013). Thus, menus need to be attractively designed and presented to customers. Hotels have also reviewed their menus to offer food catering for the taste and cooking methods familiar to Chinese customers. Some larger hotels

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

137

have sent chefs abroad for training, while some others have hired specialized chefs in Chinese cuisine. The manager of a large resort stated that feedback regarding menu improvements was mainly gathered from customers, tour operators, and marketing agents based in China. The enclave resort has not completely modified their breakfast and dinner menu but have added more variety to satisfy the preferences of Chinese tourists. Another manager from a large hotel stated that “based on research conducted with our tour operators, we have adapted our menu. For example, we now have a Chinese buffet for dinner.” In many resorts, Chinese dishes are being provided in the “Chinese Corner” of the buffet with items for breakfast such as congee, ham, fish/meat balls in soup, soy milk and, Chinese tea. For dinner noodles, dim sum, sushi, braised pork, leafy greens, and quail eggs tend to be favorite items. Hot water has also been made available for both breakfast and dinner, it is “a must for them.” A minority of resorts have reviewed or extended their breakfast time. For example, a supervisor from a luxury hotel stated that the resort has extended its breakfast time, initially from 7.30 10.00, since “tourists on all-inclusive package will consume alcohol until late evening and wake up later,” thus brunch instead of breakfast is now proposed, giving the opportunity for the tourists to feel relaxed and enjoy their holiday. Moreover, since the guests enjoy consuming alcohol and tea from around 10.00 am, some hotels now offer the possibility to consume alcoholic beverages and tea throughout the day. Moreover, another department, namely the Spa in a few resorts, had to extend their closing time, since Chinese customers tend to appreciate a massage session after dinner.

Language Most interviewees expressed that language was a major difficulty when dealing with Chinese guests. Previous studies suggest that language is more than just a communication tool (Imberti, 2007; Lauring, 2008) and can influence different aspects of the customer service experience (Kim & Mattila, 2011). Research has also shown that communication barriers can have a major impact on the effectiveness of management operations (Munter, 1993; Shuter, 1989) and affect the travel of Chinese outbound tourists (Li et al., 2011). Since language is an important tool for communication, the front-liners’ ability to speak the guests’ language can enhance

138

The World Meets Asian Tourists

their role effectiveness and ensure that better services are delivered to tourists. Language barriers often lead to misunderstanding (Dawson, Madera, Neal, & Chen, 2012; Luo & Shenkar, 2006) and in Mauritius, although around 3% of the local population are of Chinese origin, the language spoken among the Sino-Mauritian community group is Hakka and not Mandarin. Since the traditional market of Mauritius has been from Europe, the language barrier has for long not been a cause for concern since locals have the ability to converse fluently in both French and English. Moreover, over the past decades, in-house German and Italian language training have been provided in resorts and hospitality training institutions to develop and reinforce language competence in these European markets. However, there is a lack of Mandarin speakers working for the hotel sector and the growth in tourist numbers have reinforced this lacuna. By providing practices that overcome language barriers, enclave resorts can become more effective in their communication with international tourists. A few luxury hotels for which the Chinese tourists are an important segment have a permanent Chinese speaking staff based at the reception, however, a supervisor from a less affluent hotel stated that “we cannot afford to have a permanent mandarin speaking staff” and rely mostly on tour guides or translation software. Several resorts are implementing Mandarin language training for staff. Training is essential in tourism to enhance employees’ knowledge and skills when dealing with people from different cultural backgrounds (Baum et al., 2007). Tourism is a labor-intensive service industry and customer contact have a critical role in service delivery (Hartline, Maxham, & McKee, 2000; Tsang & Ap, 2007). One well established group of resorts has been providing “in-house Mandarin short-courses for the past two to three years” as expressed by the Manager. Moreover, the group also conducts exam-based Mandarin courses where the employees are offered beginner-, intermediateand advance-level programs. The Manager of that hotel group stated that staff are encouraged to follow Mandarin classes and “large batches of 50 75 persons have already received Mandarin language training.” Frontline employees who on a daily basis interact with Chinese guests are required to complete the advance-level courses and front-liners “practice speaking the language amongst themselves and it is a good way to improve.” A supervisor from a five-star resort stated that staff from different departments received a training of six months on Mandarin language; this involved pinyin, a lesson on culture, way of living, habits, and preferences. He mentioned that two to three staff from each department, namely

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

139

from the front office, food and beverage, and spa were part of the training, because they deal with customers on a daily basis. Moreover, he mentioned that “I myself was part of the training and it really helps, even though I can’t speak fluently. At least I manage to say some basic words like welcoming the guest to the hotel and can assist in the check-in procedure.” Researchers suggest that the most common practices to reduce language barriers include hiring bilingual or multi-lingual personnel or translating materials into different languages (Dankelman, Chmarra, Verdaasdonk, Stassen, & Grimbergen, 2005; Harris & Bonn, 2000; National Restaurant Association, 2006; O’Connor, Loomis, Runyan, dal Santo, & Schulman, 2005; Zeidner, 2009). In the enclave resorts, for guests who have booked package tours, the tour operator will assign a Chinese speaking tour guide, in most cases a native from Mainland China. All of the interviewees highlighted that the tour guide will explain the whole check-in process including the submission of required documents for check-in and other information. Previous studies have shown the important role of tour guide as the mediator to alleviate the language and cultural barrier faced by the tourists (Weiler & Walker, 2014). The Mandarin speaking tour guide helps the guests to feel “at home away from home,” as indicated by a manager and to feel more comfortable in a destination with which they are not familiar. Many hotels have also translated a lot of information in Mandarin such as check-in documents, food and beverage menu, and spa menu to ease communication. A respondent from a less established resort stated that “there is a need for a permanent translator but usually only large hotels can afford this. So things, are explained mostly by tour operators and with Google translation from Chinese to English.” A common option which is utilized is to use a tablet on which the front-liner’s words are translated into Mandarin using Internet-based technology such as Google Translator with voice recognition. Several respondents stated that this technology is “largely accurate and helpful” in service encounters. The same interviewees also indicated that the guests communicate with staff using language translation software on tablets or phones. Efficient ways to reduce language barriers have been adopted by a few hotel groups where university trainees from China, South Korea, or Singapore currently following courses in tourism or hospitality management have been appointed on a short-term basis. The enclave resort provides them with accommodation, food and beverage, and a stipend. These trainees work in the hotel for a period of one to three months and this exchange is beneficial for both the hotel and the students. As indicated by one informant, the trainees “obtain work experience in a 5-star resort while

140

The World Meets Asian Tourists

our customers can interact in Mandarin with no language barrier. Moreover, our front-line employees can improve their basic Mandarin for which the hotel is already providing short-courses” to staff. For example, “at a time we can have around 12 13 students in the hotel, some are placed in the restaurant, others at the reception, sports department, spa and so on.” This strategy has been very beneficial to a local hotel in particular, as the combination of language training for staff and interaction with trainees have resulted into fast development of Mandarin language skills. The manager interviewed stated that “it is impressive how good our staff have become in Mandarin. Classroom training is helpful, but on-the-job training and contact with guests is the best way to learn how to deal with Chinese tourists. Our team members are also in constant contact with the trainees … there is a constant exchange so staff learn a lot.” The hotel has been able to optimize this opportunity as now there are only a few trainees as most staff have become advanced in Mandarin. Consequently, the hotel has been able to completely overcome the language barrier over a few years.

Facilities and Service Experiences The Chinese outbound is a promising and potential market for Mauritius. It is important that the enclave resorts in Mauritius develop a reputation for quality service facilities and experiences that meet the needs and wants of the Chinese tourists. Past studies reveal that Asians as compared to Westerners have different perceptions and expectations regarding standards of services provided by hotels (Mattila, 1999; Poon & Lock-Teng Low, 2005; Wang, Royo Vela, & Tyler, 2008). Chinese tourists coming from service-oriented culture seem to have higher service expectations regarding tangible services developed (Mattila, 1999; Wang et al., 2008). Bitner (1992) developed a framework where the service environment comprises of ambient conditions, spatial layout and functionality, and signs, symbols, and artifacts. The service environment and design of the hotels in Mauritius are focused on Bitner’s framework. However, to adapt to the needs of the Chinese market, a manager of a luxury resort explained that the hotel has introduced additional functionality and improved the spatial layout. The literature reveals that hotel facilities and services, such as clean, spacious, comfortable, and well-maintained rooms, facilities, and safety and security are major contributors to tourists’ satisfaction (Sparks & Pan, 2009; Wang et al., 2008). The managers of

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

141

enclave resorts stated that guests prefer hotels with modern decoration and furnishings and attach great importance to attributes such as bathroom facilities and quality of personal items in the rooms. Moreover, several managers indicated that hotels have introduced additional room amenities, such as kettle and tea-pot, to brew a variety of tea, as it is a preferred beverage among Chinese guests. A minority of resorts focusing on the luxury Chinese market have investigated to a greater extent to redesign the service offer to enhance their appeal to this segment. One group of resorts has even invested heavily in the development of facilities and the manager interviewed stated that the Chief Executive Officer of the group has played a leading role. The manager explained that “the whole organization has changed including its core values, vision and culture to target the Chinese market.” In terms of facilities, the resort invested in a “Tea Lounge,” where the guests can enjoy a wide selection of tea tasting during the whole day. In the same resort, a designer has been hired to provide modern rooms with an Asian touch using Feng-shui, Asian art and silk to reinforce the traditional Mauritian-Chinese influences. At the same time, comfortable linens, pillows, and mattresses have been provided for the guests. Other tangible additions by the same luxury resort include daily Chinese newspapers, Chinese books in the library, and Chinese games (such as mahjong and excursions with Chinese speaking guides). A tailormade restaurant has also been developed and the ambience, de´cor, food, and service have been designed with a focus on the Chinese tourists. The restaurant offers contemporary-style Chinese dishes, featuring Peking duck with steamed pancakes, dim-sum, live noodle-making stations, a woodfired duck oven, and a Chinese barbecue station complete the experience, topped by a varied selection of Chinese teas and Asian spirits (Lux Resorts, 2015). These changes and improvements are visible and have immediate impact on the Chinese tourists’ service experience. The role of service quality in the service design and managing service quality emerged as a critical factor in this study. The managers from fivestar resorts indicated that Chinese tourists expect a high standard of service in hotels. Consequently, several respondents indicated that service has been personalized and some corrective measures adopted to cater for Chinese tourists’ needs. The latter attach great importance to ritualistic behavior such as smiling, greeting, and even hand shaking when they arrive at the hotel and expect customized services (Wang et al., 2008). Some of the fivestar resorts now welcome Chinese tourists by the resort’s Chinese speaking team members. This first service encounter is significant, as the role of the service employee is critical in the overall evaluation of the service

142

The World Meets Asian Tourists

(Svensson, 2006). In fact, most of the managers indicated that their employees are courteous, competent, and very helpful toward all guests. Asian tourists are more people-oriented and attach great importance to interpersonal relationships (Mattila, 1999). Engaging in Mandarin with the tourists, listening and responding to their queries, could bring insightful understandings of the Chinese market and broaden the evaluation of their satisfaction, and, in turn, influence the development of memorable service experience. The findings indicated that individualized or special attention paid to Chinese provided by the hotel employees may make them happy, and may attract their future patronage or prompt them to be referrals. Memorabilia are an important part of the consumption of tourism experiences, especially for the Chinese who purchase gifts to take home for friends, relatives, and colleagues to express their friendship, love, and gratitude. This traditional culture of being close to friends and relatives makes Chinese tourists one of the most ardent shoppers and allow them to experience local culture (Snepenger, Murphy, O’Connell, & Gregg, 2003). Chinese tourists enjoy shopping at a destination and it is considered as one of the most important motivations (Xu & McGehee, 2012). They are high spenders when traveling and tend to follow the common Chinese proverb “be thrifty at home and spend lavishly while travelling,” as indicated by a manager. In Mauritius, the Chinese tourists have been observed to buy the typical local items of the island. Taking photos are extremely important to Chinese tourists who want to capture the experience. As a result, one of the hotels on the island has provided a photo booth, while some others have increased the variety of items sold in hotel gift shops, such as local ship models, local soaps and fragrances, tea and locally made handicrafts. The tourists also spend on luxury and branded products and some five-star hotels have improved their overall shopping value proposition, to enhance their shopping experience by providing better variety and quality products. The respondents were in agreement that Chinese tourists are adventurous, and as explained by one supervisor, “their priority as soon as they arrive is to provide them with their rooms so that they can start doing their activities. They enjoy adventure and water sports such as skydiving, zip lining, and catamaran rides.” They are perceived as active, enjoying day trips outside the hotel, instead of remaining in the enclave resorts. Another respondent stated that “they like good ambiance and enjoy entertainment shows.” Several hotels have now included Chinese and local traditional shows, such as Sega at least three times a week in evening entertainment program.

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

143

Internet technology is exerting a significant impact on the Chinese outbound market (Huang et al., 2015; Wu & Pearce, 2016). All interviewees were in agreement that the Chinese tourists were technology savvy or “hi-tech,” as stated by a respondent from a four-star resort. He further explained that “having access to Wi-Fi in all hotel areas is a priority for these guests.” The Internet has changed communication patterns by facilitating access to information and by promoting information sharing (Yang, 2012). It is an integral part of modern life for Chinese and the latter want to stay online all the time, even when they are on an exotic vacation (ChinaDaily, 2015). The literature confirms that tourism organizations make use of information technology to remain competitive (Iskandarani, 2008; Nasiri & Deng, 2009; Yusop, Tiong, Aji, & Kasiran, 2011) and in recent years Wi-Fi has become such an essential feature that Chinese are highly unlikely to select hotels without this attribute (Republica, 2015). In the current study, all respondents stated that Wi-Fi has been extended to rooms as per demand of consumers. A supervisor explained that “before wireless Internet connection was available only in the reception area, but the Chinese guests are technology people and we absolutely had to strengthen our Wi-Fi.” Technology was also introduced in the form of new features in rooms. For example, one five-star resort now provides digital tablets in rooms to offer translation options. The tablet is connected to a central booking system for any food and beverage order, spa booking, or leisure activity in the required language. In public areas, the same resort has invested in “internet corners” where sophisticated and user-friendly personal computers are made available to guests, as it is important for the latter to be connected at all times. With the growing popularity of the Internet, online social networks have become a commonplace to share and access information pertaining to travel decision making (Seebaluck, Bhiwajee, Ramseook-Munhurrun, & Dabeedin, 2015). Interactive social platforms like WeChat, QZone, Sina Weibo, and Tuniu are actively used by the Chinese tourists. The current study asserts the importance of having a strong and positive presence in the Chinese social media. A manager stated that “if we want to reach them, we have to use their social media sites.” As a result, their marketing team regularly post promotional information on sites such as Baidu, QQ to be close to and easily reach this market. Social media has become an important communication and competitive platforms for enclave resorts. One key informant pointed out that Chinese share their personal experiences and comments on social media platforms “and they will read online reviews before booking a holiday.” Past studies also confirm that guests’ reviews

144

The World Meets Asian Tourists

and recommendations on social media networks play an important role in the hotel decision making process (McCarthy, Stock, & Verma, 2010) and positive reviews can significantly increase the number of hotel bookings (Ye, Law, & Gu, 2009). Chinese tourists are constantly connected to the online social networks and potential ones rely on word-of-mouth recommendations (Davis & Khazanchi, 2008; Wu & Pearce, 2016; Xia & Bechwati, 2008), as information shared on social media tends to be perceived as trustworthy and unbiased (Mauri & Minazzi, 2013; Wu & Pearce, 2016). In the new technological environment, such recommendation is easily transformed into electronic word-of-mouth through online social networking (Davis & Khazanchi, 2008; Xia & Bechwati, 2008). A manager of a five-star resort explained that “if there are problems with our resort all the information will be shared on social media. So we cannot afford to offer bad service.” This hotel had an agent based in China who monitors social media sites on a daily basis and responds accordingly. Electronic word-of-mouth has a considerable influence on customers’ purchase and loyalty intentions (Chen & Xie, 2008; Davis & Khazanchi, 2008; Gruen, Osmonbekov, & Czaplewski, 2006; Xia & Bechwati, 2008). But the current study reveals that despite providing a positive experience to tourists, they were unlikely to become repeat buyers. A supervisor of a three-star hotel stated that “unlike Europeans, the Chinese guests rarely comes back to the hotel. In fact, many of our guests book several different hotels during their short holiday.” Chinese prefer to have different experiences while they visit the destination. Although, the majority will not become repeat guests, it is important to provide them with a positive experience. They are very vocal online and can either make or destroy the reputation of enclave resorts among the massive Chinese online community.

CONCLUSION Destinations across the world are battling for the attention of the increasingly important outbound Chinese market (Jing Daily, 2014), including enclaves resorts in SIDS like Mauritius. The spotlight has been shifted to Chinese tourists due to the associated economic benefits. However, it is likely that those unprepared are experiencing more difficulties, since the Chinese market represents significant challenges for resorts. Although Mauritius is a multi-cultural island, tourists from mainland China possess distinct behavior and perceptions. The present study reveals that the main constraints faced by enclave resorts consist of unfamiliar behaviors,

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

145

language barriers, differences in food habits, and the need to provide additional facilities and services. The needs of customers are “culturally determined” (Reisinger & Turner, 1998) and overlooking cultural differences can be detrimental to resorts. This can result in service delivery problems, such as misunderstandings, customer dissatisfaction, and poor post-purchase evaluation shared among the online community. All enclave resorts have to a certain extent improved their services, although only one group of resorts has successfully overcome all difficulties associated with targeting this growing tourist segment. Conversely, some other enclave resorts are slowly adapting to the market with some investment and shortterm practical solutions. The successful group of resorts was able to adapt to the Chinese market within a timeframe of five years. Three critical factors supported their success, strong leadership, financial resources, and marketing (Figure 2). The organization has gone through a complete rebranding strategy, including review of its vision and core values. Strong leadership was the driving force of this new strategy with a review of organizational goals. Managers of enclave resorts are faced with major challenges which require that they adopt a strong leadership style to effectively operate in the competitive business environment. The literature supports the view that the leadership style of hotel managers has a crucial impact on business strategies, marketing, and service delivery (Ahmed & Parasuraman, 1994; Clark,

Appealing Food and Beverages

Adapting to unfamiliar culture

Leadership Marketing Finance

Overcoming language barriers

Providing positive service experience

Figure 2. Critical Success Factors

146

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Hartline, & Jones, 2009). The CEO of the group of resorts acts as a role model, inspires, and motivates employees to achieve the organizational goals. Initially, employees had little knowledge of this market, but with training the aim is to build up respect and increase employees’ sensitivity regarding cultural differences to deliver a positive tourism experience. Another critical factor is money and studies have shown that finances are important to a firm’s success (Galbreath, 2005). In this study, larger organizations with stronger financial resources were better able to adapt to the Chinese market. For example, they could invest in marketing research, have marketing representatives based in China, and have a local marketing team consisting of several staff. Studies have shown that financial constraints can be a barrier to business growth (Ayyagari, Demirgu¨c¸-Kunt, & Maksimovic, 2008). Moreover, access to financial resources enabled the firm to invest in training of teams, such as language and cultural awareness training for a significant number of staff. Additionally, the same resort was able to send local staff to China for training, and hire overseas chefs and trainees. Monetary resources have also resulted in the development of products and services tailor-made to the Chinese market, such as the development of a tea lounge, restaurants, and newly designed rooms. Furthermore, this study reveals that effective marketing and processing of marketing information can provide a company with competitive advantage. Organizations are better able to convert knowledge rapidly into customer value (Choi et al., 2007). Marketing research is essential to identify and tap into new opportunities. Over five years ago the successful group of resorts was able to recognize that the European market was on the decline and there was an urgent need for market diversification. Market research findings initiated changes which supported the firm’s new strategy and identified areas in which training was required and the types of recruitment which were necessary. Marketing information also initiated service modifications, such as increased access to technology for the consumers and improved menu variety. Processing of information from user generated contents, such as social media, is also essential. The literature shows that it transforms tourists from passive to active consumers (Tsiotsou & Ratten, 2010) and has profoundly changed the way tourists search, find, trust, as well as collaboratively produce information about tourism suppliers and destinations (Akehurst 2009; Buhalis & Law 2008; Sigala et al., 2012; Wu & Pearce, 2016). In a large country like China, the Internet is a very effective and efficient way to distribute travel products (Tse & Hobson, 2008). Knowledge and use of social media platforms used in China are essential for resorts to

Enclave Resorts in Mauritius

147

attract customers and develop positive and profitable relationships. It can be said that customers give much importance to e-word-of-mouth when making purchase decisions by searching for information and advice on the online platforms. This medium is thus a powerful tool to promote the resorts. The interactive platforms offers an opportunity for enclave resorts to enhance the quantity and quality of tourism activities. Stakeholders should collaborate to reinforce technology in the destination through the development of smart tourism. Resorts and destination managers could develop a technological platform on which information related to tourism activities could be instantly shared with tourists on mobile applications. This integrated platform could be accessed through a variety of end-user mobile devices which will support the creation and facilitation of real-time experiences (Buhalis, & Amaranggana, 2013) and improve the effectiveness of resources management throughout the destination. This study’s objective was exploratory and future studies can further strengthen the themes presented in this chapter. Moreover, research opportunities exist to specifically investigate the marketing activities conducted by enclave resorts both locally and in China to target this market. The role of leadership and how it influences different functions of service provision in enclave resorts can not only be explored further in Mauritius but such work can be a key case study for many other small island destinations or resort areas interested in the outbound Asian market.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 9

ITALIAN CATHEDRALS AND CHINESE TOURISTS Management Implications Mao-Ying Wu Zhejiang University, China

Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: Significant heritage buildings in Europe, and most especially cathedrals and churches in Western Europe, are sites of considerable international tourism appeal. A developing analytical approach termed the orchestra model of experience was used to structure the collection of empirical data about Chinese tourists’ reactions to major cathedral sites in Florence and Milan. These results are used to identify the challenges of meeting not just the needs of Asian tourists but also simultaneously deriving commercial benefits and maintaining the Christian values of the settings. Emphases are placed on the roles of interpretation and the management of protected spaces to meet these goals. Keywords: Italian cathedrals; Chinese tourists; onsite experiences; management implications

INTRODUCTION The development of tourism at major heritage and religious sites in Europe has been evolving steadily for many decades (Richards, 2001; Stausberg,

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 149 167 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007020

150

The World Meets Asian Tourists

2011). Indeed, for some sites there have been centuries of influence as tourists have been drawn to significant buildings and monuments to fulfill spiritual quests (English Tourist Board, 1979). Other tourists have simply visited major cultural and religious sites to admire the splendor of the art and architecture (Evans, 1998; Horne, 1992). In the preceding centuries and decades, most of those arriving at the locations were somewhat familiar with the meaning of the heritage settings and able to assess the significance of the sites in the trajectory of Western history. Further, many of these Western tourists who visited the sites were aware of how to respect the key components of these settings and how to react to other people in these environments. In keeping with the theme of this volume, the way Asian tourists react to heritage and spiritual settings of the Western world represents a new cultural meeting ground and raises special challenges for site managers (Stausberg, 2011). The work reported in this chapter highlights issues of broad concern when Asian tourists visit Western sites of cultural and spiritual importance. Some Asian communities, notably those in the Philippines and South Korea, have strong Christian communities. By way of contrast, all those who are Taoist, Buddhist, or Muslim, and indeed for all those without any specialist Christian knowledge, the mysteries of the signs and symbols inherent in the European cultural record are visible puzzles without any easy solutions (Li, 2008). Two special environments, the major cathedrals and the surrounding plaza areas of the attractions known as the Duomo in both Florence and Milan, Italy, were the field sites for the research. In keeping with the styles of travel now emerging among Asian tourists, both independent and group Chinese tourists to these sites were surveyed. The aim of the two field studies was to assess the nature of the tourists’ onsite experiences with a view to using this information to comment on contemporary management practices. The work is undertaken using an emerging approach to understanding tourists’ experiences. In this analysis, and following precedents from the insights of other researchers (Cutler & Carmichael, 2010; Pearce, 2011; Pearce & Wu, 2015; Schmitt, 2003), tourists’ experiences will be understood as analogous to listening to an orchestra. The analogy consists of pointing out that several experiential elements operate according to their own modalities and style but the overall effect is a fusion of the components. The contributing elements to be assessed are the sensory inputs, the affective reactions, the cognitive mechanisms used to think about and understand the setting, the behaviors available and the relevant relationships which

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

151

define the participant’s world. Many influences shape this approach but the ideas of Schmitt (2003) and the contributions offered by Baerenholdt, Haldrup, Larsen, and Urry (2004) and Cutler and Carmichael (2010) are strong forces. In a research sense, these components may be studied separately, but in the lives of the tourists they are interacting and fused facets of the tourists’ lived world. For the purposes of this chapter, the orchestrate approach to viewing Chinese tourists’ experiences at major cathedral sites directs attention to specific measurable experiential factors. By considering the responses of the Chinese tourists some directions and challenges for managers of these special sites will be articulated.

THE CHINA LINK TO EUROPE Three kinds of background information are pivotal in understanding the value and directions of this study. There is a need to consider the growing tourism presence of Chinese tourists in Europe and especially at the Italian study sites being considered (refer to the Introduction for specific Asian and Chinese arrival data to European countries). Additionally, there are some key points which need to be outlined about the approach to assessing experiences in this chapter as well as a way to think about the management of attractions. The first issue of interest in this study lies in the fact that among the nonAsian destinations, Europe is the most visited continent for Chinese tourists (China Tourism Academy, 2014). Their activities and travel patterns in Europe have not only gained media and industry interest, but has also captured some researchers’ attention (Assiouras, Skourtis, Koniordos, & Giannopoulos, 2014; Dung & Reijinders, 2013; Prayag, Disegna, Cohen, & Yan, 2015). Traveling to Italy can even be described as a part of the contemporary Chinese “renaissance.” The latter concept is used deliberately because it reaffirms the long tradition of contact between China and Italy which actually dates from the period of the Renaissance in 15th century Italy. The contact was publicized in the writing of Marco Polo which highlighted the multiple historic Silk Road trading links between the east and west (Morris, 2011).There are even views that much of the Renaissance and the associated flowering of Western civilization were strongly influenced by ideas from Chinese thinkers (Menzies, 2007). In contemporary times, Chinese tourists traveling to Italy are visiting key locations reflecting some of the earlier interchanges between Eastern and Western culture, and they

152

The World Meets Asian Tourists

also are a visible presence signaling the “rebirth” of China as a truly pivotal, contemporary economic and cultural power. In 2014, 538,000 mainland Chinese visited Italy (CaixinOnline, 2014). As their number keeps growing, it is important to provide detailed information on how this rapidly growing market engages with Western destinations and in this case the grand Italian cathedrals in Milan and Florence. These cities lie at the heart of two of the four most popular regions of the country and together with the areas based on Rome and Venice account for over half of all the Chinese arrivals. For Tuscany, where Florence is the capital, China is now the 5th most important non-European market after the United States, Japan, Canada, and Australia. Similarly for Lombardy, where Milan is the center of commerce and tourist interest, Chinese are an emerging force among all of the nationalities (MAE ENIT, 2012). A second topic in the tourism research world frames the present study. The orchestra based model of experience represents one pathway to understanding tourists’ reactions to the settings they visit (Pearce, 2011). A number of subtle issues about analyzing tourist experience can be noted to extend the preparation and explain the planning inherent in the present work. The term experience has become a broad catch-all phrase to embrace tourists’ responses to the places they visit and those they encounter (Cutler & Carmichael, 2010). Arguably, the meaning of the expression has lost its precise earlier roots of all the information available to the conscious mind (Boring, 1950). Instead 21st century researchers, and especially tourism researchers, use it to mean select aspects of the subjective world of the participant. In using the concept in this way, they reinforce the business terminology of the experience economy (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). The persistent problem of this adoption of the experience economy perspective lies in the ambiguity of how to measure and assess the full compass of tourists’ experiences. The categories developed in the business research world are superordinate constructs, such as education, aesthetics, entertainment, and escapism and define outcomes for the experience rather than addressing direct onsite reactions and processes. This distinction between the overall outcomes of being involved in an activity or visiting a location and the processes leading to that outcome matter in terms of being able to provide a more precise management related set of implications. This point can be illustrated with a number of questions. For example, when researchers ask “Was this visit to a cultural site entertaining or educational?” they are in effect asking the tourist for an outline and overall assessment of the benefits they gained from being in

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

153

that setting. Benefits and outcomes are post event summaries at a molar scale of analysis (Pearce, 2010). For the managers of a setting, a set of tourists’ responses which report that the attraction was not enjoyable or not entertaining are simply a beginning, not a useful directed source of information about the sources of pleasure or dissatisfaction. Assessing experiences, by way of contrast, is a more micro and focused activity. It has been recognized for some time that recording immediate experiences, that is documenting the stream of consciousness is problematic (Stewart & Hull, 1996). Nevertheless, asking tourists about a range of specific issues close to the time of that event and on the site where the event occurs is manageable and likely to generate some precision in documenting the immediacy of the reactions to the settings. What kinds of questions can be envisaged here to capture the information available to consciousness? As suggested previously, there are five categories which have been suggested in the orchestra approach to assessing onsite experience. The questions are listed as follows, with their designated thematic area in brackets: What do you know about this setting? What do you understand about what is displayed here (cognitive)? What do you feel about the atmosphere here? What mood or emotion does this place create for you (affective)? What impact does this place have on your senses in terms of its visual appeal, the sounds, smells, taste, or tactile responses you have (sensory)? What did you spend your time doing here? What did you participate in and where did you go (behaviors and activities)? Who did you interact with in this setting and how comfortable were you with those people including both your fellow tourists and other people at the site (relationships)? There has been some commentary in the tourism literature on these kinds of questions and approaches to the study of tourists’ experience. Adopting a predominantly philosophical approach to the issue of experience, Gnoth and Matteuci (2014) have argued that tourism researchers ignore older philosophical traditions and analyses of experience. In considering these kinds of commentaries, it is important to understand the purpose of the orchestra model. The development of the approach was not intended to provide answers to long standing ontological questions on the relationships between the external and inner worlds of the individual. The orchestra model approaches the issue of building on past analyses by drawing on the philosophical roots of cognitive and social psychology. These traditions respect the view that people can report on the content of their experience but they may not understand the processes which underpin the

154

The World Meets Asian Tourists

way their mind works (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977; Pearce & Packer, 2013). Further, as suggested earlier, while for the individual tourists there is a fusion of the sensory, cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and relationship components of their encounter with a heritage or spiritual site, previous studies suggest that they are able to report on these separate elements if they are asked well directed questions. For the researcher interested in assessing the broad compass of tourists’ reactions to a site, the five part model represented in the orchestra approach offers a comprehensive and pragmatic guiding tool. All importantly, the approach does not unwittingly give a priority to a single component of experience by concentrating, for example, only on affective, cognitive, or sensory reactions to a site. The reaction to a spiritual site may well lie predominantly in just one of the domains identified in the orchestra model, but by adopting a comprehensive appraisal the researcher is not prescribing a single kind of experiential outcome (Woodside, Cruickshank, & Ning, 2007) A third source of formative ideas for this chapter lies in the texts and research discussing tourism attraction management (Fyall, Garrod, & Leask, 2003; Swarbrooke, 1999). Much of the literature has stressed the variety and styles of tourist attractions with associated attempts to build classification systems and schemes to differentiate settings which vary in scale, target markets, history, design, and levels of commercialism (McKercher & du Cros, 2002; Prebensen, 2012). Cathedrals and spiritual sites in particular occupy a special place in these classification systems. They are attractions but that role is secondary to their function as places of worship. Those who are responsible for the buildings and the activities within them, as well as the civic authorities who leverage aspects of their city tourism around the sites, have enduring dilemmas of meeting the goals of two sometimes warring value systems; maintaining the sanctity of place and opening it up to the gaze and interests of the commercial world of tourism (Mazumdar & Mazumdar, 2004). A key consideration arising from the tourism attraction literature for the present study is to understand the available tools to manage the stresses between tourists and the broader community which the cathedrals serve. Some of the available measures include the zoning of spaces, the use of information and interpretation, pre-travel awareness, guide services, and itinerary planning. The presence of these tools and the possibilities for the better use of such ways to manage the potential clashes between systems of values are the key interest areas of the present chapter. Informed by the approach to assessing experience, and appreciating some of the challenges in managing European heritage attractions, the

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

155

present chapter seeks to present two field studies. These cases are used to document the nature of the Chinese tourists’ onsite experiences with prototypical heritage attractions, specifically two major Italian cathedrals, with a view to using this information to comment on contemporary management practices.

Research Methods The study sites of the current research are the two major cathedrals of Milan and Florence. They were chosen for the study because they are the key symbols for these two cities. It can be suggested with confidence that all of the Chinese tourists who visit Florence and Milan will spend some time at these sites. The Milan Duomo area is located in central Milan. The area covered for the purpose of the study included the cathedral, the piazza in front of the cathedral, and the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II on the Western side of Duomo. The piazza traditionally provided a large public space for political and religious events, and nowadays is mainly for citizens and tourists to stroll around and view the exterior of the cathedral. The Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II which is immediately adjacent to the Duomo in Milan is the oldest shopping mall in Italy and can be considered a part of the cathedral precinct. This four-story double arcade also houses some of the most expensive and fashionable stores in the world. The second site of study is the Duomo of Florence and its precinct. The formal name for this striking building is Cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore. Close to the Duomo, there are several restaurants and souvenir shops, as well as nearby art galleries and public statues. Again an open space, free from street traffic, at the front of the building offers the opportunity to move around outside of the cathedral. Figure 1 presents some of the representative images of Chinese tourists with the two magnificent cathedrals as their background.

Research Procedures In each case study, the key research method was a questionnaire based survey. Some initial familiarization and pre-survey work was conducted to tailor the conceptual approach to the study sites. Informal interviews with 13 Chinese tourists were conducted in Milan and Florence by one of the researchers who is a native Mandarin speaker. These informal interviews,

156

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 1. Representative Images of the Two Italian Cathedrals Source: Image of the authors

undertaken on different days in the summer of 2012, sought the views of easily accessible, onsite Chinese tourists about these settings. The conversations helped the research team understand Chinese tourists’ immediate behavior and perceptions of their time in the location. Additionally, photographs taken by the interviewees were inspected and notes about these images were made. These informal processes helped formulate the plans to survey the Chinese tourists and provided some ideas in terms of how to phrase the orchestra of experience questions. The material collected also helped support the subsequent interpretation of the survey results. After the familiarization stage, two similar questionnaires were designed, with different contextual information. They were first designed in English by the research team and then translated by the Mandarin speaking researcher. Using the skills of a Mandarin speaking colleague, the back translation technique was employed to correct any expressions lost in the initial translation process. This check on the survey work also served to improve the accessibility of the questions. The surveys consisted of 22 questions, two of which were open-ended items. The design of this material followed the approach reported in the literature review. The questions

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

157

covered the five aspects of tourist onsite experience guided by the dimensions of the orchestra of experience approach (sensory, affective, cognitive, activity based responses, and relationships). To support the understanding of the experience, information was also sought on the tourists’ motivations for visiting the two cities, the length of time spent at the site, a benchmarking question comparing the appreciation of the study sites with other heritage settings in Europe, and the identification of the most impressive features of each place. Basic demographic information was also collected including travel style, travel experience and the kinds of travel companions. The surveys were conducted at both sites by research assistants from a local university in Milan in the summer season. The assistants were advised about a number of good face to face surveying practices by the researchers. They were asked to approach those tourists whom they identified through appearance as likely to be Chinese. They were instructed to confirm their nationality before handing out the survey. To build a diverse sample of Chinese respondents, the assistants delivered a copy of the survey to any small travel group where the party size was less than five. For tour groups which usually consisted of 15 30 people, a maximum of four surveys could be delivered. These approaches were designed to ensure the final sample was not dominated by easily accessible group tourists. In particular, a desire to collect a healthy percentage of independent tourists motivated this approach so that the diversity and heterogeneity of the tourists’ experiences could be sampled rather than relying on the more uniform patterns of those traveling in larger cohorts. Similar numbers of usable responses were obtained for the 220 copies of the questionnaire which were delivered at each site. For Milan, 178 valid surveys were received, while 179 fully completed surveys were obtained in Florence. Table 1 presents the information about the sample.

Study Results The main aims of this study were to identify systematically all facets of the Chinese tourists’ onsite experiences in the two Italian cathedrals precincts. As an initial frame to place these findings in context, it is useful to identify the reported motivations of the Chinese tourists for their visit to these two Italian cities and sites. For the tourists visiting Milan, three motivating destination features (or pulls in the push-pull account of motivation) were highlighted. Multiple responses were permitted for the question. The leading responses were

158

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 1.

The Demographic Background of the Respondents

Demographic Factors

Milan Florence Duomo Duomo Frequency Frequency (N = 178)/% (N = 179)/%

Gender

Male Female

Travel style

Independent travel

123/69.1

121/67.6

Length of stay

Tour group Less than 1 day

55/30.9 13/7.3

58/32.4 16/12.3

1 day 1 2 days

58/32.6 99/55.6

46/35.4 34/26.2

8/4.5

9/6.9

4 days and more Alone

27/15.2 71/39.9

25/19.2 13/7.3

With family With close friends

45/25.3 35/19.7

68/38.0 89/49.7

20/11.3

9/5.0

64/36.2

33/18.4

53/29.9

74/41.3

17/9.6 23/13.0

34/19.0 38/21.2

3 days Travel companion

With others (e.g., online friends, new contacts) Travel experience in None Western countries 1 2 times 3 5 times 6 times or more

92 87

92/51.6 87/48.4

visiting a heritage site (67.4%), being attracted by shopping and fashion (56.1%), and experiencing Italian culture and lifestyle (55.6%). Some minor items were also noted and included an interest in football games (16.8%), visiting friends and relatives (6%), and being on a business trip (6%). The motivating factors for Florence included visiting heritage sites (73.2%), experiencing Italian culture and lifestyle (70.3%), and being attracted by shopping and fashion (45.8%). Relatively few of those surveyed were involved in business trips (8.4%).

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

159

The onsite experiences of Chinese tourists were documented utilizing the comprehensive key dimensions of experience proposed in the literature review section. In detail, emotional, sensory, relationships, behavioral and cognitive aspects of the experiences were assessed. A comparison of the results is provided in Table 2. Table 2. Components of the Experience Emotional (NM = 178; NF = 179)a

Sensory (NM = 131; NF = 147)

Relationships (NM = 148; NF = 164)

Tourists’ Experiences in Milan Duomo and Florence Duomo Key Aims

Analysis Techniques

Key Findings

To identify an array of possible emotional feeling of Chinese tourists

Frequency analysis

To research Chinese tourists’ reaction to five sets of sensory experiences—the smell, visual, taste, sound, space and weather issues.

Repeated measures one-way ANOVA

The five sensory elements were perceived significantly differently in both sites.

To identify how different forms of the tourists’ social contacts (e.g., with travel companions,

Repeated measures one-way ANOVAc

Similar findings were observed in both sites.

Generally, positive emotions were reported. Milan data are reported first. The top emotions were relaxed (48%/46.4%)b; happy (44%/48%); romantic (28%/29.6%); peaceful (23%/20.7%); energetic (16%/15.1%); and surprised (10%/21.8%). Unsafe, however, was also present (12%) for the Duomo in Milan.

Chinese tourists enjoyed the visual attractiveness of the Duomo sites the most. Their experiences of space and weather, however, were close to unpleasant. At the Milan site, the sounds and auditory experiences were also unpleasant.

The three aspects of social contacts contributed to

160

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 2. (Continued )

Components of the Experience

Key Aims

Analysis Techniques

Chinese tourists’ enjoyment significantly differently. Travel companions were mostly positively viewed for an enjoyable trip. Interactions with other tourists and contacts with local service staff were viewed only moderately positively. In the Milan site, Chinese tourists (33%) were also worried about the large number of peddlers.

with the local service staff and vendors, and with other tourists) contribute to their enjoyment.

Behavioral (NM = 178; NF = 179)

To identify the most popular activities on the site.

Key Findings

Frequency analysis

The most popular activities in two Duomo precincts were similar, for example, photography (53%/54.7%), exploring the interior part of the site (38%/32.4%), observing the exterior environment of the site (34%/40.8%), and eating and drinking (25%/32.4%). In the Milan site, shopping for fashion (33%) was also popular.

Cognitive (NM: variable; NF: variable)

To understand how Chinese tourists understand the site. To identify the improvable issues for the onsite management. To report the most memorable experiences.

Frequency analysis and content analysis

Benchmarking with other European sites was made. In both sites, more than 60% of the respondents viewed their experiences positively, that is better than for many other sites in Europe. Improved site management for both sites include the availability of Mandarin interpretation (guide, signs, maps and info center), the improvement of facilities to

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

161

Table 2. (Continued ) Components of the Experience

Key Aims

Analysis Techniques

Key Findings

make the trip physically easy (toilets, tap water, rest areas, and shops), the cleanliness of the sites (cigarette butts, garbage, and pigeon droppings), the crowding management, and safety concerns. The magnificent historical Cathedrals were considered as impressive for tourists in both sites (75%/63%). Specific paintings and statues, Italian food, the diversity of tourists, the overview of the city, the colors, and shopping and fashion were memorable for some tourists. a

NM represents the sample size in the Milan Duomo, while NF represents the sample size in the Florence Duomo. The sample sizes for the different dimension of experience varied because some survey respondents might not experience or comment on a certain aspect of the experience. b In the key findings column, wherever there are 2% numbers, the left one stands for the information at the Milan site, while the right one applies to the Florence site. c Repeated measures one-way ANOVA includes a series of tests, for example, descriptive analysis, the Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity, Tests of Within-Subjects Effects, and Pairwise Comparison.

In addition to the general exploration of Chinese tourists’ experiences in both Duomo sites, the researchers proposed that the Chinese independent tourists and package tourists might have different experiences. This hypothesis was based on a sample of studies focusing on the rising numbers of Chinese independent tourists, who tend to be well-educated, younger, confident, experience seekers, who are high technology users and experienced in traveling (Corigliano, 2011; Pearce, Wu, & Osmond, 2013; Tourism Australia, 2012a, 2012b). The links were supported by Chi-square analysis of demographic factors. It was found that for both sites there were significant relationships between travel style and travel experience

162

The World Meets Asian Tourists

(χ2 = 17.89, df = 3, p < .001; χ2 = 19.15, df = 3, p < .001) and the time tourists spent onsite (χ2 = 15.18, df = 4, p = .004; χ2 = 12.94, df = 4, p = .012). Independent Chinese tourists were considerably more experienced tourists to Western countries than those on package tours, and they tended to spend considerably more time at both sites. Thus, the hypothesis predicting different components of their onsite experience was tested more fully (Table 3). Table 3.

Comparisons of Independent and Package Tourists’ Experiences

Onsite Experiences Dimensions

Analysis Techniques

Key Findings

Emotional

Cross-tabulation analysis

The emotional reactions of the tourists in different travel styles were not significant at the .05 level in both sites.

Sensory

Mixed-model factorial ANOVA and independent samples t-test

Independent tourists and tour package participants did not have significantly different sensory experience at an overall level in both sites.

Nevertheless, in the Milan site, there were some apparent differences between the specific sensory experiences of space and weather by the different travel groups; Independent Chinese tourists found them significantly less pleasant. Relationships Mixed-model factorial Significant differences were ANOVA and Independent observed between the two samples t-test travel groups for their evaluation of the onsite relationships.

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists Table 3. Onsite Experiences Dimensions

163

(Continued )

Analysis Techniques

Behavioral

Cross-tabulation analysis

Cognitive

Cross tabulation with a Chi-square test

Key Findings

Both of the groups were very positive to their contacts with travel companions. Group tourists, however, were significantly more positive toward the interaction with local service staff and vendors. By way of contrast the substantive meaning of the independent tourists’ assessment of the local wandering vendors indicated a low level of enjoyment. Independent tourists showed more interest in exploring the interior part of the site (reading signs, interpretation, appreciate presentations). Tour group participants were significantly more satisfied with this specific experience in Milan.

CONCLUSION The case studies reported in this chapter can be seen as having both local and broad implications. Using the information from the questionnaire study, supported by the informal interviews, several themes of interest in the results can be developed. In the two case studies, the overwhelming experiential dimension which was reported at both sites was the visual impact of the two principal buildings. The impressively large, decorated

164

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Duomo structures dominate the settings in which they are located and the aesthetic responses of the Chinese tourists were, not surprisingly, the most frequently reported outcome of the experience. It is also noteworthy that this kind of response is an easy one. It requires little understanding of the meaning of the buildings and settings or knowledge about their history. The concept of marveling is used in the literature on human memory and the savoring of experiences (Bryant & Veroff, 2007). It is easy for tourists to marvel at structures which are grand in scale, artistically impressive and, of course, unique in the experience of Chinese tourists. The studies on mindfulness identify attributes such as size, scale, novelty, and mystery as mindfulness inducing elements (Pearce, 2011). At this first level of analysis, the implication is that grandeur and its accompanying elements of distinctiveness may well be enough to satisfy and fulfill the needs of Asian tourists at some sites. It makes them mindful and they report positive overall reactions to the experience. Supporting evidence for this view comes from the benchmarking questions asked about the sites in the case studies. When asked how these cathedrals compared to other European heritage sites they were rated as superior. The view is buttressed by the qualitative comments collected in the informal interviews. In reflecting on this result, there are some subtle implications. If size, scale, and grandeur and an aesthetic response to heritage sites are dominant in shaping Chinese and Asian tourists’ reactions, then necessarily smaller, less physically impressive structures and locations might not be seen so positively. This view is perhaps an extension of the excesses of tourist labeling and group tour publicity where the depiction of tourist attractions is notoriously simplistic in terms of the site being the biggest, tallest, oldest and most famous along some critical dimension (Horne, 1992). The results of the case studies reveal in an indirect way what is missing in the outcomes of the tourists’ onsite experience. There was little evidence in the open-ended comments or in the interviews that the Chinese tourists were excited by or able to narrate the stories, meanings, and spiritual values which the sites represent. There were comments that there was a lack of information about the sites to help them appreciate their experience and the researchers’ own audit of the sites fully confirmed this view. It is not simply an elitist view to note that the Chinese tourists, limited by the availability of the interpretive information and unfamiliar with the religious practices of and purposes of these sacred places, merely judge their time in aesthetic terms. The concern here is also one for the management of the settings and the wider tourism appeal of these cities. The length of stay of tourists in a city or region is a fundamental aim of tourism

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

165

management personnel. Longer stays mean more income and a greater dispersal of income to more community members and businesses. Visual experiences alone are rapid experiences whereas attempts to interpret the complexities and narratives of the grand Duomo structures offer the possibility of longer stays, greater involvement with more businesses, and potentially more satisfying tourist engagement with the sites. This implication is not restricted just to the impressive major attractions, but gains additional impetus for those sites where the visual appeal of the structure of any setting is not so immediately powerful. In considering the management of these kinds of tourist sites for the Chinese and more broadly for all Asian tourists (see also Chapter 7), the concept of zones associated with the layout of attractions can be usefully employed (Fyall et al., 2003). In the early foundation work on attractions, Gunn (1988) identified the value of seeing them not as one undifferentiated space but rather as compartmentalized spaces where different experiences and management practices were enacted. Applying these concepts to the Duomo sites three zones may be identified. The first zone for management attention is that exterior to the buildings. This is the area where many tourists take photographs, stroll around the buildings, and in general find the facilities which support their visit. In his original assessment of attractions, Gunn referred to this kind of space as the zone of closure. The term is only partly accurate here because, in the original meaning of the expression, the area designated as the zone of closure was essentially one where support services operated. Arguably, for the cathedrals the exterior space and the piazza and forecourt are the sites for photographs and for the most impressive overall aesthetic appreciation of the architecture. In this exterior zone, it is really the local government and civic authorities which have to manage the site. Based on the case studies, much more could be done to meet the needs of Asian tourists in this zone. These improvements could be in the availability of iconic signs, multilingual signage, toilet facilities, and an initial explanation of the building and the site history. Some of this could be in hard copy form, while other opportunities exist in the digital era to have accessible information on mobile devices. Interestingly, the most commonly reported tourist behavior noted in the study, that of taking photographs, could also be managed more effectively with suggested viewing points and spaces highlighted for those keen to identify their presence at the site. Another key issue pertaining to this zone and its management lies in focusing on tourists’ safety. Other studies have suggested that Chinese are very concerned with issues of safety when overseas (Kim, Guo, & Agrusa,

166

The World Meets Asian Tourists

2005; Tourism Australia, 2012a, 2012b). There was evidence in the data that the behaviors of the African street vendors who repeatedly approach tourists in the space outside the two cathedrals worried the Chinese tourists (Corigliano, 2011). This was particularly the case in Milan. Many commentators have noted that in general terms Chinese are unfamiliar with foreigners, and members of such groups as young African men can be seen as threatening (Blainey, 2000). In their own communities, Chinese citizens have the social and linguistic skills to dismiss any forceful overtures to buy products. In Italy, by way of contrast, they are less well equipped to avoid the unwanted attention from the African itinerants who are trying to sell cheap products. Again civic management of this issue is lacking in the Italian context. There are no signs or public evidence suggesting whether these vendors offer bargains or bad deals, whether they can generally be trusted or are indeed treacherous. For a few Chinese tourists, these interpersonal stressors are linked to reports of the noise and confusion inherent in such a large, sometimes littered, international meeting ground. A second zone to consider in the presentation and management of the cathedrals studied is the common interior public area of each Duomo. Here the religious orders and authorities, who are necessarily keen to preserve the sanctity of the space, have the charge of dealing with the streams of tourists. Advice on appropriate behaviors is needed at the outset of this internal tour of inspection. Specific behaviors of Chinese tourists which are reported as troublesome in some cultural contexts include talking loudly and taking photographs (Loi & Pearce, 2012). These cathedrals are not simply historic ornaments of Italian and urban life, but deeply revered places of worship for many people. It is good practice in this educational effort to not only indicate through signs and advice leaflets appropriate behavior, but also to explain succinctly why that behavior should be observed. A third zone, one which may be identified as of particular significance in these cathedrals, includes the altar, the confessional boxes, and the private chapels. This kind of space is often labeled the inviolate zone in the attraction literature. These are zones where tourists may look but not enter. In keeping with the need to manage tourists in these settings, physical barriers preventing intrusion on these sites is necessary but represents only a part of the need to find a marriage between spiritual needs and tourists’ curiosity. The missing element in the current onsite Italian management, as documented to some extent in the interviews and the questionnaire study, lies in not appreciating just how unfamiliar Asian tourists are with these special sites. Church and cathedral authorities need to recognize that appropriate

Italian Cathedrals and Chinese Tourists

167

behaviors are more likely to occur if explanations for the need to behave in specific ways are explained. That is, encouraging appreciative behavior through information and building the cognitive awareness of the situation can foster more frequent appropriate behavior. An important distinction was made in presenting the research results between the responses of individual tourists and group tourists. It was also revealed in the demographic information describing the sample that the independent tourists were considerably more experienced as tourists. There were some indications in the data that the more independent and experienced Chinese tourists were more critical of the setting. They were arguably more exposed to the threat of being approached by unfamiliar strangers and more troubled by the lack of language specific interpretation and information services. It is also possible to suggest that experienced tourists may have been to more sites than the group tourists and visited locations where the level of services and interpretive support for the experience were greater than in these Italian settings. These findings are not a simple sideline to the present study. They can be seen as a foretaste of the rising demands for services and enhanced experiences as Chinese tourists become more experienced tourists. At the current rate of the expansion of the Chinese cohorts traveling abroad, the demand and the need for the management of zones at the kinds of heritage sites studied in this chapter is not a not simply an embellishment to the tourists’ experience but a necessity for sustainable management.

Acknowledgments Credit is given to the students of IULM Milan who assisted in this study and to the academic staff of IULM, Milan, Drs. de Carlo and Rossi, who participated in facilitating aspects of the work.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 10 AUSTRALIA’S FOOD TOURISM EXPERIENCES AND THE KOREAN MARKET Aise KyoungJin Kim University of South Australia, Australia

Abstract: This chapter addresses the emerging trends in Australia’s food destinations and analyzes different demands for this experience from a Korean tourism market perspective. Tourism Australia’s report on the international market research was analyzed, and the findings indicate that four main food experiences were sought by Koreans. A sense of landscapes plays an important role in enhancing their local food experiences. Multicultural food, health conscious markets, and food shopping are also crucial for developing Australia’s competitive advantage in this area. This chapter suggests marketing implications and directions for future research to explore crosscultural gaps in food culture and behaviors from the perspectives of Asian tourism markets. Keywords: Korean tourism market; food tourism; experience; food culture

INTRODUCTION Food is becoming a special interest attraction in its own right in many destinations as it can provide tourists with various types of sensory and cultural experiences (Bessiere, 1998; Cohen & Avieli, 2004). Food tourism focuses on primary motivations for tasting local cuisines, and experiencing

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 169 185 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007010

170

The World Meets Asian Tourists

related activities such as food festivals, restaurants, and cuisine trails, and the development of specific production regions (Beer, Ottenbacher, & Harrington, 2012; Hall & Sharples, 2003). This market is particularly interested in not only consuming food for their physical needs but also tasting dishes and products that are characteristic of the area they are visiting (Hall & Sharples, 2003; Sa´nchez-Can˜izares & Lo´pez-Guzma´n, 2012). By connecting this product to various features of a place, food tourists can also experience the unique and authentic local culture related to the destination, its history, local lifestyle, natural resources, and landscapes (Hjalager, 2002; Sims, 2009). Food can clearly act as a gateway to learn about another culture through a direct engagement with local cuisines and other related cultural activities at a destination, all of which may differ from what they may have at home (Long, 2004). With an emerging role for food in tourism, many destinations have developed their own distinct gastronomic identity with diverse types of food-related festivals, museums, ethnic restaurants, farm tours, and other relevant activities that are considered a significant contributor to local and regional economic development (Beer et al., 2012; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Quan & Wang, 2004). Such development benefits have been increasingly recognized as a field of study and as a tool to promote destinations. Yet, research on this topic is still establishing its basic tenets (Beer et al., 2012; Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2009). This chapter presents greater insights into the key trends, current food tourism products, and challenging issues for developing such potentials in Australia. A particular focus of this discussion will be on examining the four major food experiences that have become a central component of Australia’s gastronomic identity, and how such encounters are perceived differently by Asian markets, especially by Koreans. Despite the emerging value of food in Australian tourism, much of the previous research has focused on Australian domestic and European/Western motivations, preferences, and tourism patterns related to wine. In contrast, less attention has been paid to food tourism and, research on non-Western and Asian markets in Australia is scarce. Nowadays, increasing numbers of Asian tourists are motivated by gastronomy for their international travel (Okumus, Okumus, & Mckercher, 2007). Australia is new in preparing to tailor to the different needs of these Asian markets, as many of their culinary preferences and their food demands are different from those of the Western markets. Compared to the Japanese and Chinese markets, there is little research on Korean tourists, despite this being one of the top 10 international markets for Australia (Tourism Australia, 2015a). For this

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

171

reason, further analysis into Korean tourists’ preferences and demands for Australia’s food tourism experience is of particular interest. Such research will help to better utilize Australia’s food tourism resources and promote tour activities appropriately according to the needs and preferences of potential Korean target groups or broader Asian market segments.

Trends in Australia’s Food Tourism Australia’s outstanding natural environment has long been a major attraction for people visiting Australia (Productivity Commission, 2015; Tourism Australia, 2012b). In recent years, this situation has changed with a stronger presence for Australia’s food and wine products as an added attraction for targeting international markets within the tourism marketing campaigns (Hall & Mitchell, 2002; Tourism Australia, 2012b). This has been informed by Tourism Australia (2012b) which shows that “great food, wine, and local cuisine” are now also a central part of the tourist pull to Australia. Its gastronomic identity is increasingly being recognized with distinct food products that include locally grown foods (including fruits, cheese, seafood, honey) and wildlife meats such as kangaroo, crocodile, or emu, as well as Aboriginal and ethnic foods (Hall & Mitchell, 2002). Greater efforts have also been made in developing a range of novel food activities and attractions in connection to trails, markets, farms, shopping, wine festivals, and cooking demonstrations at the fine dining restaurants. For example, Australia continues to have a reputation for roadside attractions in regional areas, especially large icons in the form of sculptures which relate to agricultural and food products. These attractions include the Big Banana, in New South Wales, and the Big Pineapple, Woombye, in Queensland (Clark, 2004). The Big Banana, Coffs Harbor, on the New South Wales north coast, was one of the first attractions of its type, offering educational tours and activities. The Big Pineapple is located at the Sunshine plantation and is effectively a small theme park. This attraction provides tourists with an educational tour related to the tropical fruit industry, farm animal encounters and engagement with the culture of the plantation workers (Clark, 2004). Elsewhere, many local cuisines are promoted to tourists through recreational cooking classes held at fine dining restaurants or in food and wine festivals. For instance, the Maggie Beer restaurant in the Barossa Valley, South Australia, provides tourists with cooking demonstrations while explaining unique local recipes (Verjuice, vinegar, fruit sources) and local

172

The World Meets Asian Tourists

food heritage (Maggie Beer Products, 2015). Moreover, the Melbourne Food and Wine Festival and the Tasting Australia in Adelaide have become hallmark events for attracting large numbers of people drawn to tasting a variety of regional food and wine produces. Such food-related products, tour activities, and festivals are becoming increasingly recognized by international markets (Tourism Australia, 2012b). Interestingly, the promotion of Australia’s diverse ethnic foods or fusion foods has become a new trend in Australia’s national and regional marketing campaigns, such as Restaurant Australia and Gourmet Tourism. These new waves of cuisine change have been influenced by several factors such as changes in the tourists’ sociodemographic profiles, migration, tourism, and globalization (Hall & Mitchell, 2002; Kim, 2013). Australia’s dominant cuisines have been British, Italian, and Greek; the last two representing the influence of post-war European migration. More recently, Asian ethnic restaurants and Asian foods, such as Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, and Thai have become popular due to recent flows of Asian migrants to Australia (Hall & Mitchell, 2002; Kim, 2013). This development in the availability of ethnic foods has spawned many ethnic restaurants. It has also stimulated operators and chefs to create “fusion foods” as a means of adding a new selling point or creating a unique and innovative food image for multicultural tourism markets (Ingerson & Kim, 2015). In particular, many ethnic restaurants situated in major state capital cities, such as Chinatown in Sydney, the Central market in Adelaide, and Little Italy in Melbourne have become major attractions for both domestic and international tourism markets. The diversified and novel food options are now used as part of the marketing strategies for enriching the repertoire of multicultural food products in Australia (Tourism Australia, 2014b). Given new changes in the development of food tourism in Australia, it is expected that the country could gain a greater reputation as a significant food destination. Yet, the Australian tourism industry is facing challenges in targeting the specific culinary preferences of the heterogeneous international markets. Tourism Australia’s (2012b) report on the international market research indicates that perceptions of Australia’s food and wine offering are mixed. In particular, there is a significant perception gap between international tourists who have visited and those who have never visited Australia. For the former, they recognize food and wine experiences (60%) as the second most satisfying appeal, compared to the perceptions of those who have not been to Australia, who have much lower perceptions of the country (a mere 26%) as a good food and wine offering destination. In addition, there are further weaknesses because many international tourists,

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

173

especially Asians, are not well aware of the hidden variations in food products and experiences associated with regional and local cultures (Tourism Australia, 2012b). To maximize the successful outcomes of food tourism potentials in Australia, further marketing strategies are required for leveraging word of mouth recommendations internationally. This creates then a new image of Australia which can be differentiated from other food destinations (such as New Zealand) that share a similar food culture. More importantly, it is critical that Australia’s unique gastronomic identity and diverse food experiences are targeted to suit the culinary preferences of the potential markets.

KOREAN TOURISM MARKETS TO AUSTRALIA The new Asian markets have grown significantly, becoming the largest source region of international tourists to Australia over the past decade. In contrast, there are slower growth rates in arrivals from the Western markets, such as New Zealand, the United States, and the United Kingdom which are historically important mature markets to Australia (Productivity Commission, 2015). Interestingly, the Japanese market, historically one of the top ones, has noticeably declined in recent times, while there is strong growth in arrivals from some emerging countries, China and India in particular. The number of Koreans visiting Australia, which is the focus of this chapter, has risen steadily since the boom experienced in the early 1990s (Productivity Commission, 2015). In 1994 there were 110,800 arrivals which was an increase of 78% on the previous year (Cho, 1998). By 2014, South Korea had become Australia’s 8th largest inbound market, with 204,000 arrivals, and was the 7th largest for total expenditure and the 5th for hotel nights (Tourism Australia, 2015b). The growth of Korean tourists to Australia has been stimulated by several factors, such as an improved standard of living in Korea, direct air services linking Australia and Korea which were inaugurated in April 1990, a successful marketing campaign launched by the Australian Tourist Commission, and Australia’s favorable image as a holiday destination (Cho, 1998; Ko, 2000). The motivations and interests of Korean tourists to Australia have diversified over time. In the 1990s, three main Korean tourist segments were identified: the group tourists, who tends to be over 40 and like to visit major cities such as Sydney, Cairns, and the Gold Coast, as well as wildlife attractions; the repeat tourists who link up with family and friends, while

174

The World Meets Asian Tourists

incorporating a short city tour; and the independent or youth market (students, travelers for English language courses, honeymooners, young office women) who are more interested in diverse experiences such as city tours, beaches, outback areas, and backpacking (Bureau of Tourism Research, 1998). In recent years, there have been new trends in the preferred experiences sought by the Korean tourists (Tourism Australia, 2015b). Historically, Australia’s coastline, beaches, cities and harbor settings, natural wilderness, and wildlife generated the greatest appeal among Koreans. Such top travel preferences are similar to those of other Asian markets. As one of the new interesting trends, a growing number of Koreans are now interested in having food experiences (with less interest in wine), along with special interest tours such as golfing, scuba diving, and shopping. However, it is noted that they have perceived Australia’s arts and culture, and its history and heritage as tourism weaknesses (Tourism Australia, 2015b).

Korean Tourists’ Preferences and Perceptions Understanding tourists’ culinary preferences and their relations to this experience is important for developers in creating distinct food experiences, by utilizing various resources, food products, and tour activities in a particular destination. However, the delivery of experience quality is complex as the tourism experience has many influences and involves a variety of factors associated with both the supplier, the tourists’ motivations and their individual characteristics (Mak, Lumbers, Eves, & Chang, 2012). Much of the previous research has identified the multi-dimensional aspects of the food tourism experience that have been mainly conceptualized based on different types of motivations. Such essential experiences are broadly categorized into four dimensions: contrast, extension, obligatory, and pleasure. The contrast dimension refers to the motivation to seek exciting experiences and explore new foods which are in contrast to those encountered on a daily basis. The extension dimension denotes the motivations to seek familiar food experiences that extend the tourists’ daily routine. The obligatory dimension covers the essentiality of food consumption in tourism, for instance, for health concerns, and the physical need for sustenance. Finally, the pleasure dimension reflects the motivations to seek enjoyment through sensory appeal and social togetherness (Quan & Wang, 2004). A study on food tourism conducted by Kim et al. (2009) also identified similar dimensions experiences with additional motivational

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

175

factors: sensory appeal, togetherness, excitement, escape from routine, learning, the authentic experience, health concerns, prestige, and the physical environment. These previous studies argue that the various types of food tourism experiences are perceived differently depending on the market types and these can be segmented based on their past experience, sociodemographics, personality traits, food habits, cultural backgrounds, or beliefs, such as cultural familiarity, health benefits, or food safety (Kim et al., 2009; Mak, Wong, & Chang, 2011). As indicated in Quan and Wang’s (2004) study of contrast and extension motivations, there are significant differences in the likes and dislikes of certain types of food depending on tourists’ perceptions. That is, people with food “neophilia” tendency appear to be primarily interested in trying out unusual cultural or gastronomic food experiences, while people with neophobia tendency prefer to consume familiar foods based on their own food habits which are not easily changed regardless of different food consumption contexts (dining out, shopping, or traveling). Cohen and Avieli (2004) also point out that creating the right food experience is quite complex. Tourists’ motivations shape their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the food experience and paradoxically local foods can be an attraction or impediment to a good holiday. Thus, it is essential to examine diverse expectations and the relevant preferences of the heterogeneous food tourism markets for specific experiences. With this background, it is important to analyze the four food tourism experiences outlined in Tourism Australia’s (2012b) report on the international market research (Table 1). These include a sense of landscapes, the local food experience, multicultural/ethnic restaurants, and health-related foods which are considered as the top preferred experiences by the current Korean markets. Such analysis will help to identify the multiple facets of the experience and the hidden potentials for marketing food tourism in Australia which could generate a stronger appeal to Korean tourists. A Sense of Landscapes. Existing literature has suggested that the physical environment of the destination (landscapes, heritage buildings) can play a major role in affecting the quality of the tourism experience (Kim et al., 2009; Meiselman, Johnson, Reeve, & Crouch, 2000). Local food or indigenous ingredients can represent different geo-climate conditions and seasonality which can stimulate tourists’ quest for the geographical or historical “sense of place” (Mak, Lumbers, Eves, & Chang, 2012; Scarpato, 2002). The tourist’s food experience can be variously associated with different characteristics of the destination such as the countryside, townscapes, or

176

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Table 1.

Korean Markets’ Preferences for the Food Experience in Australia

The Types of the Food and Wine Experience in Australia

%

Fresh local produce grown or raised in pristine natural environments

48

High grade meat and livestock Outback steakhouses

41 41

Fresh seafood

30

Spectacular outdoor dining Backyard barbeques

29 27

Fish and chips on the beach A heritage of food and wine culture

25 20

Food and wine events and local festivals

17

Multicultural food Stunning food and wine trails

16 16

Unique culinary experiences Meat pie with sauce

15 14

Wineries with great food

12

Fine dining restaurants None of the above

11 4

Source: Tourism Australia (2012b).

heritage buildings which can all create a sense of relaxation and aesthetic appeal. In many European countries food and wine destinations are strongly linked with the local heritage and the cultural uniqueness of the place. These combined resources provide tourists with both a traditional and local authentic experience. Other destinations which highlight natural landscapes have also become a great attraction to food tourists. The “Eat the View: marketing strategy (Countryside Agency, 2002) used in UK’s Cornwall demonstrates a good marketing example of linking the scenic landscapes of a local place to the food consumption experience. It appears that many restaurants in Australia’s food destinations also highlight

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

177

natural landscapes related to wineries, stunning cities/harbor settings, coastlines, the outback, and natural forests as the key attributes for attracting tourists to enjoy a particular view and surrounding while dining at a restaurant (Tourism Australia, 2014b). A good example is the Jacobs Creek restaurant in the Barossa Valley, South Australia, which is situated alongside a spectacular view of the wineries. Another example is the Chocovino restaurant at Hahndorf Hill Winery, South Australia, which has developed a unique marketing strategy of linking the local winescapes to chocolates, local food and wine products, creating a culture of food consumption with fresh and innovative flavors (Hahndorf Hill Winery, n.d). Recently, restaurants which benefit from a backdrop of a spectacular vista have become a central component of the experience for international tourism markets. According to Tourism Australia’s (2012b) report, restaurants along the Sydney harbor settings, any coastal environment associated with local seafood, and fish and chips on the beach were the most appealing factors to Asian markets, including Korean tourists. For example, in Queensland which is one of the most popular destinations for Asians, Oskars on Burleigh is positioned as a highly recommended restaurant by Gold Coast Tourism. The enterprise is located on the beach and diners can enjoy the white sand and ocean atmosphere, while consuming fresh seafood (Gold Coast Tourism, 2015). In fact, there is a new trend for the outdoor dining experience associated with other types of Australian landscapes, which is increasingly being promoted by the local tourism marketing organizations and tour operators. For instance, the Nautilus restaurant in Port Douglas highlights a unique and picturesque outdoor restaurant setting which offers a tropical rainforest atmosphere (Nautilus Restaurant, 2015). The outback dining experience at Uluru (Ayers Rock) also attracts many Asians who enjoy sunset and sunrise views of Uluru Rock and the distant domes of Kata Tjuta, while dining at Tali Wiru, the open-air restaurant in a stunning desert environment (Voyages Indigenous Tourism Australia, 2014). Clearly, these examples show that the quality and diversity of Australia’s landscapes have become essential for recreating a particular place’s unique gastronomic identity. Such a sense of unique and natural landscapes certainly appears to many Asians who prefer to escape from a daily routine and their crowded and urbanized city landscapes. A Sense of Local Food Experience. As food can allow a place to link culture and tourism, tasting local food is considered a gateway to a local

178

The World Meets Asian Tourists

cultural experience (Getz, 2000; Long, 2004). Tourists regard eating local food as a means of enriching their intellectual tastes and learning about ways of dining, table manners, the symbolic meanings of the food, how to drink local wine, and different cooking methods (Kim et al., 2009). Indeed, experiences of tasting the local food can allow tourists to become more aware of a new culture through engaging with local residents, perhaps eating like the locals, and exploring new cuisines (Fields, 2002). For instance, in Australia, the way of eating local food at outdoor barbeque settings represents one part of Australia’s unique gastronomic identity which has a definite tourism appeal. Kim et al. (2009) argue that different nationals respond to such local food experience in different ways. Traditionally, food and wine cultural attractions such as those featured in festivals (Taste of Tasmania, Melbourne Food and Wine festival, Kangaroo Island Seafood festival, Noosa International Food and Wine festival), and food and wine trails are often more appealing to European/Western and domestic tourists, as a wine culture has been predominant in their home nations. In recent years, there is an emerging interest in Australian food products among major Asian markets, such as the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean markets. Their preferences for the food products are different from those of the European/ Western markets. Of the local food products offered in Australia (Table 1), for instance, Korean tourists are more interested in fresh local produce grown in pristine natural environments (48%), high grade, locally produced meat (41%), typical Australian seafood (30%), and fish and chips on the beach (25%) rather than food and wine festivals (17%), food and wine trails (16%), wineries with great food (12%), and fine dining restaurants (11%), or farmers’ markets, and indigenous food (Tourism Australia, 2015a, 2012b). Interestingly, the top preferences of Korean tourists are similar to those from China, although overall the latter group show a slightly higher interest in wine and food attractions (40%). Such preferences are distinctively promoted in Tourism Australia’s marketing campaigns for targeting Koreans and other Asians. In particular, Australia’s recent marketing campaigns, “Gourmet tourism” and “Restaurant Australia,” have presented its global reputation as a seafood nation with countless fresh native products to choose from at any given time of the year (Restaurant Australia, 2015). Attractions cover a wide variety of options, ranging from the uniqueness of an iconic seafood restaurant like Big Lobster, at the seaside town of Kingston, South Australia, to a take-away package wrapped in paper from the small local fish and chip shops. Many restaurants highlight seafood menus with a great emphasis on the “catch of

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

179

the day” (fish caught in local waters only hours earlier). A small fish and chip shop is promoted as one of the most popular places to enjoy fresh seafood straight off a boat (Tourism Australia, 2014b). The appeal is well received by the Korean market (as well as Japanese). This may be because Korean food culture, like the Japanese, is also associated with a range of seafood-oriented dishes which are perceived as healthy and natural. While the diversity and the quality of food products and tour activities are being recognized by current international markets, there is some weaknesses which needs to be addressed to improve food and wine heritage in Australia. This would be a good chance to develop educational activities for targeting Korean and other Asian tourists to be familiar with and appreciate the cultural context for Australia’s local and regional food culture. This would help to create a much stronger and distinctive Australian food identity within a competitive international marketplace. Multicultural Food and Ethnic Restaurants. Multicultural cuisines and ethnic restaurants have increasingly become one of the more authentic attractions in multicultural societies such as Australia, New Zealand, and North America. Ethnic cuisines can play an important role in representing the local culinary culture that is regarded as distinct to a particular cultural group, nation, or heritage (Utami, 2004). Different types of tour attractions associated with ethnic cuisines have been developed, such as dining at ethnic restaurants in Sydney’s Chinatown, fusion dishes from one of Australia’s most famous chefs at Tetsuya’s restaurant in Sydney, and international and regional ethnic food festivals (Greek Glendi festival in Adelaide, Sydney’s international food festival, Canberra’s National Multicultural Festival). In particular, ethnic restaurants (Outback Steakhouse) have become popular and trendy at many food destinations. Compared to fast food restaurants, ethnic restaurants tend to focus on authentic cuisines related to a specific cultural group, using themed settings with “ethnic art, decor, music, external fac¸ade, name, and various stereotyped signals in order to create a distinctive setting which lays claim to being a reflection of some exotic but recognizable culture” (Beardsworth & Bryman, 1999, p. 242). Such types of ethnic restaurants can provide tourists with a memorable dining and entertainment experience, strengthening social bonds (Mak et al., 2011), the opportunity to connect to local heritage (Negra, 2002), and interact with foreign cultures and cuisines (Barbas, 2003; Wood & Munoz, 2007). Interestingly, Tourism Australia’s (2012b) report shows that the Outback Steakhouse restaurant chain has grown to a point where it is

180

The World Meets Asian Tourists

clearly associated with an Australian cultural identity: the outback landscape, wildlife, and food culture. Yet, not many would be aware of its origin; the Outback Steakhouse opened its first restaurant in Tampa, Florida, the United States in 1988 and has now expanded to approximately over 1,000 steakhouses worldwide (Wood & Munoz, 2007). Although predominantly located in the United States, the Outback Steakhouse also operates in 21 countries worldwide, including Australia and Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, China, Singapore, and Thailand. The restaurant settings represent an array of “authentic” Australian cultural symbols including native animals (koalas, kangaroos, snakes, and crocodiles), Aboriginal artefacts (boomerangs, Aboriginal paintings), and Australian food and drink products (Fosters beer and Vegemite), as well as references to images of Australian icons (the Great Barrier Reef, outback landscapes, and road signs). Moreover, the menu presents the food options with an emphasis on Australian slang and national geographic locations (Outback Steakhouse, 2010). With a target market of 25- to 55-year olds, it attempts to create a “fun and casual atmosphere of the Australian Outback,” relying heavily on stereotypes of Australian animas and culture) depicted in the media (Wood & Munoz, 2007). Table 1 denotes the appeal of the Outback Steakhouse that has brought recognition to it as one of the top preferred tourism attractions by Korean tourists (41%). The Chinese market (20%) has shown less interest (Tourism Australia, 2012b). Indeed, the Outback Steakhouse has become quite popular since it opened in Korea as early as 1997 and has now expanded to over 80 restaurants nationally. Korean people appear to perceive it as one of several trendy and upmarket Western style restaurants in which they can have an “authentic” and “iconic” food experience. However, as Wood and Munoz (2007) have argued, the Outback Steakhouse focuses on only one aspect of Australia, the outback, a remote semi-arid area which is inhabited by less than 10% of the Australian population, while it misses the cultural variety (modernized Australian cultural attractions, and the multicultural and ethnic diversity) that is found in Australia today. Beyond the Outback Steakhouse restaurant, further marketing approaches are needed to target different types of ethnic restaurant experiences to Korean and other Asian markets within Australia. Despite the rapid growth in Asian ethnic restaurants and Asian foods in Australia, the nature or the role of different types of multicultural foods and ethnic restaurant experiences are not well promoted as main food attractions. Tourism Australia (2012b) identified the top culinary preferences among

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

181

the international market in relation to various food product options: multicultural food options, seafood, fruit and vegetables, meat and livestock, cheese and dairy, and wineries. It found that there is high interest in a range of multicultural food options among the Koreans (29%), and especially Chinese (43%), rather than certain Western styles of food such as cheese and dairy products (7% for Korean tourists and 3% for Chinese tourists). In contrast, European tourists, like the Italians and the French, show less interest in multicultural food options. This suggests that different types of Asian cuisines can be more connected with Korean tourists as their own food culture has a comparable Eastern style of gastronomic ingredients and cooking methods similar to Vietnamese, Chinese, or Thai cuisines. The distinct preferences for the types of restaurant experience found between the Korean and other Asian segments has been studied. Tourism Australia (2012b) examined the most appealing restaurant experiences in Australia in terms of the international flavors of Sydney’s Chinatown, and Australia’s fusion dishes created by the famous fusion chefs at Tetsuya’s. The Korean market tends to be less adventurous to try out new fusion foods, with only some interest in international flavors (20%) and fusion food (20%). Regional fine dining options (28%) do receive some support. By way of contrast, it seems that fusion food (44%) and international flavors (41%) are highly appealing to Chinese tourists. Considering the growing interest in a range of multicultural food and restaurant experiences, the Asian ethnic restaurants and Asian foods overlooking city/harbor settings or coastline landscapes could be more actively promoted when targeting the Korean market. However, little research has been conducted into examining the different types of food experiences at ethnic restaurants from a cross-cultural market perspective (Ingerson & Kim, 2015; Kim, 2013). Such research on ethnic experiences and their impact on the tourist’s overall enjoyment would be valuable for creating further demand potential and for the development of diversified and unique food tourism in Australia. Health Conscious Markets and Healthy Food Shopping. The greater focus on food consumption in tourism is tied to healthy eating and health-related products. A healthy lifestyle orientation has become one of the central motivational factors determining interest in local food and beverages. Tasting this type of cuisine with local ingredients from a clean environment is considered a pathway for tourists to improve their health mentally and/or physically (Kim et al., 2009). Sparks, Bowen, and Klag’s (2004) research on Australian consumer markets supported this trend, indicating

182

The World Meets Asian Tourists

that almost half of Australian consumers responded that one of the key motivations for eating out on holiday domestically is the consumption of healthy food at a destination (Sparks et al., 2004). This healthy lifestyle orientation is reflected powerfully in Australia’s recently launched marketing Campaign, “Restaurant Australia” (Restaurant Australia, 2015). This promotes the health value of local produce vegetables and fresh foods such as honey, mushrooms, seafood, oysters, crabs, and tuna products which are perceived as healthy as they are often natural, unprocessed, fresh, low fat, nutritious, and high in vitamins (Niva, 2007). Farmers’ markets and local restaurants with a great emphasis on fresh local produce are also promoted for the healthy lifestyle conscious market. Hence, major city markets such as the Adelaide Central Market, the Prahran Market in Melbourne, or the Sydney Fish Market have become well-known tourist attractions for their promotion of “freshness, quality and variety” of local foods (Tourism Australia, 2014b). According to Tourism Australia’s (2012b) research, Korean tourists have a high preference for experiencing Australia’s natural and fresh food products, such as royal jelly, honey, and “Squalene” (shark liver oil). Tasmania’s honey farms and oyster farms (Saffire oyster farm, on the shores of Tasmania’s Great Oyster Bay) have a significant appeal for Asians as they highlight fresh and healthy ingredients. The demand, especially from Korean markets, reflects a healthy eating lifestyle in the home society. Compared to other countries, South Korea has a very low rate of obesity, although the rate has begun to slowly increase in recent years. Its traditional food culture is a low-fat and high-vegetable diet, combining seafood with healthy cooking methods such as fermentation (like Kimchi), steaming and boiling rather than frying food with oil which is common in Chinese food (Ingerson & Kim, 2015). In addition, many Korean people are highly interested in functional food like ginseng or herbal plants with proven health benefits for boosting stamina or general well-being. Interestingly, the health-conscious South Korean market’s culinary preferences are linked with their purchasing behavior. Shopping for food products has become fundamental in many host destinations, notably targeting Korean tourists and other Asian markets. Tourism Australia’s (2015b) research shows that royal jelly products are favored greatly as a traditional stamina food for Koreans. “Squalene” is another popular product that is a natural organic compound originally obtained for commercial purposes and primarily from shark liver oil (Australian by Nature, 2015). Food shopping as a gift is an important aspect of social relations in the Korean, Japanese, and Mandarin-speaking societies, as Asian society has a tradition of gift giving and reciprocating as expressions of apology,

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

183

appreciation, gratitude, or remembrance. This tradition creates and nurtures relationships with people. When traveling, therefore, it is important for Korean tourists to buy local produce souvenirs and give gifts to their family members or colleagues (DeMente, 1991). In particular, Korean tourists buy expensive health products as gifts for their parents or elders. There is, however, a negative side with the shopping centers selling Australian native products (royal jelly, wool, honey products) with much higher prices to Korean group tourists than other general shops in Australia. Given the high interest from Korean markets in healthy food products, Australian tour operators would benefit from including more special shopping experiences or visits (for instance to honey or oyster farms) within their tours (Reisinger & Turner, 2002a). Despite Korean tourists’ interests in healthy eating and healthy food shopping, it is striking that few scholarly studies have addressed connections between Australian health products and the Korean food shopping experience. This suggests that the Australian food tourism has further room to improve its marketing strategies for healthy food products and the different types of local food experience for targeting such health conscious Asian markets.

Challenging Issues for Food Tourism Development With Australia’s recent marketing strategies for developing new and memorable food experiences, there are some challenging issues for targeting the demand and preferences of Korean tourists. Further product development is required in relation to unique food heritage and identity to an Australian gastronomic culture. As many international tourists have a lack of perception toward Australia’s diverse food heritage, there is room for identifying and developing its rich history and heritage of food and wine, rather than relying on a few iconic food products, such as seafood and fish and chips, as well as the Outback Steakhouse and natural environments, as identified by Tourism Australia (2012b). Further in-depth food heritage development could be aimed at Korean and other Asian markets with stories established behind different types of food and wine. Such gastronomic narratives can highlight the origins of a particular ethnic food associated with the immigrants’ own heritage, the ways of cooking, the symbolic meanings of a food, its history, the fusion styles of multicultural foods, and the specific connections to the life-story of local people and places. Reisinger and Turner (2002a) point out that the educational and intellectual aspects of

184

The World Meets Asian Tourists

travel to Australia are critical for Koreans who are seeking intellectual and cultural experiences. This is because knowledge and wisdom are considered an enhancement of the Korean social status and their recognition among fellow nationals (Reisinger & Turner, 2002a; see also Chapter 5 of this book for the role of learning influencing Chinese travel). In addition, further understanding of Korean tourists’ food attachment and their habits is required. Cohen and Avieli state that “Asians abroad tend to be less disposed than Westerners to partake of the food of ‘others’, and are more dependent than the latter on establishments providing their own national cuisines” (2004, p. 775). Korean tourists’ neophobia tendency toward foreign foods should not be ignored, as they are known to prefer their own cuisine while away from home (Reisinger & Turner, 2002a), although general tourists’ primary motivation for food involves tasting novel and unfamiliar cuisine in the destination (Tikkanen, 2007). Long (2004) suggests that it is possible to cultivate tourists’ attitude toward local food through socializing activities. In other words, they might socialize or adapt to a new eating behavior as their food experience could help to enhance their neophilic tendency, motivating them to participate in more adventurous food activities. It has also been noted that people tend to engage in new and unfamiliar food when clear pictures of servings are displayed and explained with ingredients and cooking styles on the menu (Jang, Ha, & Silkes, 2009). Yet, the way Korean tourists adapt to tasting new local varieties remains unanswered and further research is required. There is also room for future research which can examine the different perceptions of Koreans toward Australian’s service providers. Previous research indicates that the Australian service providers are seen by Koreans as being too slow (Prideaux, 1998), and that the local cuisine also tends to have a poor image (Kim, 1997; Reisinger & Turner, 2002a). Therefore, when targeting Koreans, Australian restaurant providers and other tour service providers need to be aware of their stereotypes of Australia’s food services. Moreover, this discussion inspires further studies to explore various types of food consumption and service management issues. As food experiences can be perceived differently depending on international tourists’ backgrounds, such as age, cultural difference, nationality, food habits, and past experience (Mak et al., 2011), critical incidents style studies or focus group interviews could be used to gain a concrete and detailed knowledge of tourists’ firsthand experiences during the food consumption process (Gremler, 2004). Such research approaches can be useful when investigating service encounters, and service success and failures, particularly in

Australia’s Food Tourism Experiences and the Korean Market

185

terms of identifying the necessary performance targets for satisfying the different preferences of different market segments (Gremler, 2004).

CONCLUSION This chapter has addressed the emerging trends in food tourism development in Australia and it has focused on the culinary preferences and perceptions of Koreans toward Australian food tourism attractions. In recent years, Australia’s different types of cuisine have become more recognized by international markets, especially Korean tourists, although Australia is still best-known for its outstanding nature-based tourism, such as its scenic coastlines, natural wilderness, and unique wildlife. Within such a context, evaluating the market demand and potential of the food products in Australia is crucial for developing Australia’s competitive advantage and for targeting the needs of Korean tourists markets. Based on the market research undertaken by Tourism Australia (2012b), this chapter has explored the four major tourist food experiences: a sense of landscapes, local food experience, multicultural food and ethnic restaurants, health conscious markets and food shopping. These are predominantly being sought out by Korean tourists. In addition, this chapter suggests further challenging issues to be considered for a better understanding of Korean culinary preferences associated with their food culture and food habits, as well as their perceptions of Australian food and service styles. This research suggests the importance of marketing initiatives to meet this growing market segment’s special needs and preferences by incorporating the food cultural-related aspects (methods of cooking and ways of eating), food heritage, and ethnic foods. Further research is also needed to explore the diverse Korean tourism market segments’ food behaviors and the different impacts of Australian cuisine attraction on their tourism experience.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 11

THEME PARKS GREET CHINESE TOURISTS Janice Scarinci Southern Utah University, USA

Gene Jeffers Themed Entertainment Association, USA

Abstract: This chapter explores what has been and is planning to be implemented in the theme parks in the Orlando area to meet the specific needs of a rising number of Chinese tourists. The literature review examines factors affecting tourists’ decisions and provides an overview of inbound Chinese tourists to the United States and their expectations and behaviors in theme parks. An online survey instrument was developed and implemented; it focused on Orlando-based theme park professionals’ creative design and operation strategies specific to meeting Chinese needs. The study provides a descriptive account of managers’ perspectives of both current and planned efforts to meet their needs in this particular theme park. Keywords: Theme park; Chinese tourists; Orlando; operational and creative strategies

INTRODUCTION Within a few years of the 1971 opening of what has become Walt Disney World Resort, the Orlando area of Florida emerged as home to the world’s

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 187 197 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007011

188

The World Meets Asian Tourists

largest concentration of theme parks and related attractions. Today seven of the world’s 25 most visited theme parks are in the area. They include Walt Disney World Resort’s Magic Kingdom, EPCOT, Disney’s Animal Kingdom, and Disney’s Hollywood Studios; Universal Orlando’s Islands of Adventure and Universal Studios; and SeaWorld (Themed Entertainment Association, 2013). Dozens of additional themed and specific attractions have created an as-yet unrivaled destination for those seeking the experiences that such facilities provide. In 2013, with more than 70 million attending these seven parks alone, the area remains the undisputed “theme park capital” of the world. However, new theme park alternatives for those unable or unwilling to travel to Florida are being built at unprecedented rates worldwide, with concentrations in the Middle East and the Far East. At the same time, Asians, and the Chinese in particular, have begun to dominate global tourism (UNWTO, 2014b). Through surveys of theme parks, this chapter explores professionals’ opinions on what is being done today and will be done tomorrow to attract and engage Chinese to Orlando, half a world away, when competing attractions now exist far closer to home. Outbound tourists to distant leisure destinations must first decide to invest in the time and expense of travel, hotel accommodations, and other related costs. It has been theorized that such decisions are based on combinations of cognitive and affective factors relating to both the investment required and the rewards expected from the effort. Lin, Morais, Kerstetter, and Hou (2007) found that decisions to visit natural sites were made based on cognitive factors, to visit developed sites were made through a combination of cognitive and affective factors, and to visit theme parks were made based on affective factors which created expectations that such visits would be pleasant, exciting, and relaxing. To attract tourists, developing an effective “destination image” is seen as an “essential factor for success” and an “important part of destination marketing strategies” (Castro, Armario, & Ruiz, 2007). How a destination is initially perceived and the expectations its “destination image” creates, have been shown to be critical influences on tourists’ eventual level of satisfaction with their visit (Assaker, Vinzi, & Connor, 2011; Castro et al., 2007; Chi & Qu, 2008; Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2005). According to Castro et al., a higher level of perceived destination image requires an increased level of satisfaction with the destination. In particular, meeting or exceeding expectations raised by the destination image are among the strongest predictors of repeat visits to a theme park (Castro et al, 2007; Geissler & Rucks, 2011). This destination image must be tailored to the tourists’ culture, as they select and consume tourism experiences through “prior knowledge,

Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists

189

expectations, fantasies and mythologies” of their own cultures rather than those of the host destination (Craik, 1997, p. 118). Tourists are “programmed with the cultural values rooted in their normal environment” (Kim & McKercher, 2011). Effective “destination images” must be developed around affective factors resonant with the tourists’ own cultural values. “It is therefore imperative for managers to understand cross-cultural issues in the tourism and hospitality industry to respond promptly in policymaking and compete successfully for market share” (Li, 2001, p. 43).

MANAGING THEME PARKS Like destinations, theme parks are intentionally designed, planned, and built, “imagineered” by creative teams to strike specific resonances with their clients. They must then be managed by operation teams, as highly specific cultural environments designed to attract and retain guests for lengthy stays and repeat visits. Creative teams anticipate and design for the experiential needs of future guests and operations teams cater to the experience demands of the present guests. To succeed, theme parks rely on an effective combination of creative and operations teams (Price, 2006). Variations exist in how organizations structure these teams and their relationships, but whatever the approach, all theme parks seek to deliver valued guest experiences today while planning and building improved experiences for tomorrow.

Guest Satisfaction in US Theme Parks Arlt noted Chinese tourists’ behavior is not based on “Western individual values such as self-actualization, recreation as non-activity or individually experienced authenticity” (2008, p. 142). “They differ markedly from Westerners who seek post-modern authentic experiences; the Chinese instead aspire to a ‘modern way of life’ and visiting ‘advanced’ and ‘developed’ destinations is seen as a step towards this goal” (Chan, 2009, p. 73). In particular, when visiting the United States, Chinese wanted “…to see how America measures up to the American Dream. They’re familiar with the stereotypes of the United States as the richest, most advanced nation in the world …. They want to see it in all of its brilliant modernity, to understand how far China has to go to catch up,” (Dunlop, 2004). Given the enormous strides made in modernizing urban centers and building theme parks

190

The World Meets Asian Tourists

in China over the past decade, this assumption about America’s destination image may no longer hold as much truth as it once did. In another discriminating characteristic, most outbound Chinese organized groups (the Chinese expression characterizing this group is “ducklings”), while a much smaller but growing number travel independently (“free walkers”). Destination image has been found to have a stronger impact on satisfaction and behavioral intentions of free walkers than on all-inclusive packaged tourists (Liu, Li, & Yang, 2015). These authors suggests that the quality of the tour service itself may have a compounding effect on their satisfaction and behavioral intentions. They argue that the majority of outbound Chinese tourists will continue to travel in groups for the foreseeable future (refer the Introduction and Conclusion, question this assumption or at least suggest a proportional rise in independent traveler numbers). Guest Satisfaction in Chinese Theme Parks The growth in the number of theme parks within China has provided greater exposure, greater experience with, and increased satisfaction with domestic attractions (Li, 2001; Milman, Li, Wang, & Qiuyang, 2012). Research examining the most important attributes identified by Chinese to their own theme parks were staff’s knowledge of the theme park, safety of the roller coasters, security of the park, ticket price, and creativity exhibited in the park (Milman et al., 2012). According to Milman and colleagues, the entertainment quality of the shows and activities, friendly and courteous staff, activities for kids and families, layout of the park, variety of entertainment options, and quality of landscaping were also seen as important. These findings are generally consistent with a North American study by the same researcher (Milman, 2009). In a study on a related theme, Chung (2010) noted that Chinese domestic tourist visiting theme parks felt many such attractions lacked in-depth theming and “interactive function.” The continued expansion and design improvements of Overseas Chinese Town, Chimelong, Dalian Wanda, and other domestic theme parks in China, along with major transnational projects from Disney and Universal Studios continue to raise the quality of parks in China. Florida Context and Visitor Trends The influx of Chinese arrivals to the United States began after the country was granted “approved destination status” from the Chinese government in

Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists

191

2007 (Levin, 2013). By 2012, nearly 1.5 million Chinese tourists came to the United States and the Commerce Department reported they spent nearly US$8.8 billion. Only a year later, predictions for considerable growth started to be made: “U.S. officials expect Chinese visitors to more than double nationwide” by 2018 (Gibson, 2013, para. 6). Visit Florida (2014), the state tourism marketing group, anticipates the number of Chinese arrivals will reach 4.7 million by 2018. China is Florida’s fastest growing inbound market and almost tripled in size from 2010 to 2013. Johnson (2013) reported 202,000 arrivals in 2012, a 32% increase from 2011. According to Gibson, Disney attracts the most Chinese tourists. Evan Saunders, CEO of Attract China stated, “It [Disney] has a large presence in China, in Hong Kong, so it’s a familiar brand …. Orlando has been branded well through the media as a hot destination” (2013, para 14). Saunders believes that the only limitation to attracting Chinese is the number of visas issued by the United States (Gibson, 2013). According to Visit Florida (2014), Chinese coming to Florida come predominately in groups, but there is an increase in the foreign independent travelers. The majority of the Chinese buy their packages from the top travel agents and they are staying on average from 11 to 12 days. They are going to fewer cities and staying longer with the major gateways being Orlando and Miami, with an emphasis on shopping, dining, amusement, and experiences. Many Chinese come to the United States to experience the Western culture and theme parks seen on television (Gibson, 2013). According to the Office of Travel and Tourism Industries, 2009 and 2010 market profile, studies indicated that shopping is the number one leisure activity for Chinese. Tourism authorities in Southern California reported that they want to have more personalized information on shopping outlet malls, shopping centers, local events, and activities for their children. Chinese book most of their hotels and activities online, thus it is very important to feature a Chinese language translation on websites and hire bilingual sales managers and front desk representatives (Chen, 2011). Many hotels are changing the way they market their services to increase their share of the Chinese market. For example, they are adding popular Chinese dishes to their restaurants, adding at least one popular Chinese television station, providing increased amenities to hotel rooms, including tea kettles and a selection of Chinese teas. Some hotels have hired front desk concierges fluent in Mandarin (Chen, 2011). According to Gibson (2013), Florida lacks the service workers with Chinese languages, and has little Chinese signage, which makes traveling difficult Chinese tourists.

192

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Research Methods Orlando was chosen as the geographic location of this study due to its size of the entertainment industry, the number of theme parks available, and the sheer volume of international visitation. Three key theme park groups were chosen for this study: Walt Disney World Resort, Universal Orlando Resort, and SeaWorld Orlando Resort. They together attract more than 70 million visitors each year (Themed Entertainment Association, 2013). Data collection was by way of online surveys of managers at major theme park groups. For the purpose of this study, the following research objective was developed: To explore what theme parks in Orlando are currently doing or are planning to do to attract and satisfy Chinese needs and wants. The 15 questions exploring these adaptive practices are reported in Table 1. Theme park creative and operations professionals were asked to identify specific tactics and approaches that are in current use or are being planned to specifically address the needs of Chinese guests.

Table 1.

Survey Questions Used to Study “Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists”

Current or Future efforts in your theme park specific to Chinese guests; core questions used. A response format for each question (slightly tailored as necessary) was used as follows: A. B. C. D. E.

□ Yes, we currently do □ No, but we are planning to □ No, we are not planning to, but I expect we will soon □ No, and I do not expect we will □ I don’t know

Marketing and advertising 1. Does your park advertise or promote specifically to the Chinese outbound tourist market? Human resource management 2. Does your park currently employ personnel with Mandarin or Cantonese language capabilities? 3. Does your park currently provide any training specific to the needs of Chinese guests?

Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists

193

4. Does your park currently have any personnel specifically designated to work with Chinese tourist groups? Signage/communication/information 5. Does your park currently have any Chinese language signage? 6. Does your park use any Chinese-specific messaging or visuals in queue lines for major attractions? 7. Are there currently any queue management tactics or strategies in place for groups of Chinese visitors? 8. Does your park offer any language-specific queue lines for major attractions? 9. Are there any programs in place at your park designed specifically for groups? 10. Does your theme park offer informational materials, such as park maps or brochures, in Chinese? 11. Does your park offer mobile apps to assist guest navigation or other activities? Food & beverage 12. In your park’s food and beverage offerings, are there any specifically tailored to Chinese guests? 13. Are any of the hotels on your property specifically “tuned” to cater to Chinese guests? Programming 14. Are there any attractions at your park that incorporate international culture or stories? 15. Are any of your park’s attractions based on Chinese culture or stories?

Study Results This section contains the results and conclusions of online surveys distributed by email to 80 creative and operations professionals working at the three major theme park organizations in Orlando. Among these, 22 completed surveys were returned, representing a 27.5% response rate. Among the 11 respondents identified themselves as part of the creative team, 11 were from the operations teams. Overall, they reported working an average

194

The World Meets Asian Tourists

of 11 15 years in theme parks, with the creatives group reporting slightly more years of service than operational personnel. Item 1, does your park advertise or promote specifically to the Chinese outbound tourist market? Respondents from Disney reported that such efforts were underway, and those from Universal and SeaWorld were evenly split between not seeing such marketing/advertising as likely in the future or simply not knowing if such efforts existed. “We see our expansion into China [through Hong Kong and Shanghai Disney parks] are integral to our global marketing of the Disney brand,” wrote one respondent. “Every park, in a way, helps to market all of the other parks.” Item 2, does your park currently employ personnel with Mandarin or Cantonese language capabilities? When asked if their parks had staff fluent in Mandarin or Cantonese, 16 of 21 respondents indicated their parks have personnel who speak at least one Chinese dialect. “With one park in China now [Hong Kong], and another under construction [Shanghai], we’ve had access to operations staff fluent in Chinese,” noted one respondent from Disney. Universal Parks and Resorts will also be opening a park in China (Beijing) within the next few years, so it is possible such staffing arrangements might take place within that system as well. Item 3, does your park currently provide any training specific to the needs of Chinese guests? Only two respondents indicated they believed specific training for assisting Chinese has been implemented by any of the surveyed park systems, and half (11 of 22) reported that such training did not exist and was not likely to exist in the future. “We do train our people on ways to assist international visitors, but do not break it out for any one specific nationality,” explained a respondent from Universal. Item 4, does your park currently have any personnel specifically designated to work with Chinese tourist groups? “We began offering Mandarin speaking assistance to tour groups from China a couple of years ago,” noted one respondent. Eight total respondents indicated there were personnel designated to work with Chinese groups at their parks, another six indicated plans for such personnel were ongoing or likely to be initiated soon; five indicated they did not know if such personnel existed. Item 5, does your park currently have any Chinese language signage? Of the respondents, 15 reported no Chinese language signage existed, nor did they feel it likely would be provided in the future. Four (all Disney respondents) indicated that such signage existed now, although one reported he “could not remember exactly where” he had seen such signage. Item 6, does your park use any Chinese-specific messaging or visuals in queue lines for major attractions? Among the respondents, 16 indicated

Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists

195

that such messaging did not exist and that they believed it would not be added in the future, with the majority of the remainder indicating they did not know. “We have many different nationalities visiting our parks, right now the largest groups are from Brazil and South America, so if anything, we would probably begin with Portuguese or Spanish messaging,” observed one respondent. Item 7, are there currently any queue management tactics or strategies in place for groups of Chinese visitors? “We certainly have systems in place for groups, just not specific for Chinese groups,” noted a respondent. In all, 15 respondents indicated there were no queue management tactics in place for Chinese groups, the majority of the remainder indicated they did not know. Item 8, does your park offer any language-specific queue lines for major attractions? While eight respondents indicated their parks did not have and likely would not implement language-specific queue lines for major attractions, five respondents (all Disney respondents) indicated that such lines existed. Such options also exist in Disney’s Hong Kong park, for example the Jungle Ride, which relies on a spoken narrative, has separate queue lines for Mandarin, Cantonese, and English. Item 9, are there any programs in place at your park designed specifically for groups? “Group packages have been part of our system for years now, but to my knowledge as yet we haven’t been specializing for Chinese visitors,” reported one respondent from Disney. Among those answering the questions, 20 reported that group programs of some kind were in place at their parks, and some parks do offer various language “packages,” primarily in the form of multilingual guides. Item 10, does your theme park offer informational materials, such as park maps or brochures, in Chinese? Among respondents, 10 indicated that their parks offered informational materials in Chinese, primarily from Disney and Universal parks. The remainder mainly indicated they did not know if such materials existed. Item 11, does your park offer mobile apps to assist guest navigation or other activities? “Given how everyone has their smart phones with them these days, mobile apps are essential for any park,” noted a respondent from Universal. “Our Discovery Guide mobile app has become very popular and continues to be improved and expanded every season,” reported a SeaWorld staff member. “There have been discussions about offering foreign languages,” but the respondent was unsure of any timeframe or which languages might be offered. In all, 19 respondents said their parks offered mobile apps to assist guests.

196

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Item 12, in your park’s food and beverage offerings, are there any specifically tailored to Chinese guests? Six respondents (all Disney personnel) indicated that their properties offered food and beverage options specifically tailored to Chinese guests. Most likely this refers to the Nine Dragons Restaurant in the China Pavilion in the EPCOT World Showcase park. No one from other park systems indicated they had such services available, and most indicated it was not likely that such services would be provided in the future. Item 13, are any of the hotels on your property specifically “tuned” to cater to Chinese guests? Most respondents (13 of 22) reported they did not know if any of the hotels on their properties were specifically “tuned” to cater to Chinese guests, and another six indicated the hotels were not and likely would not be in the future. Three SeaWorld respondents noted they did not have hotels as part of their properties. Item 14, are there any attractions at your park that incorporate international culture or stories? Among respondents, 18 reported attractions that incorporated international culture or stories, indicating that all three park systems have at least some attractions that connect with overseas stories. These range from the national pavilions at EPCOT’s World Showcase to specific aquarium features at SeaWorld. Item 15, are any of your park’s attractions based on Chinese culture or stories? Nine respondents indicated that their parks had attractions based on Chinese culture or stories, including all of the Disney employees and some of the Universal employees. Again, the China Pavilion at EPCOT World Showcase is at least one specific example within the Disney parks. The remaining respondents either did not know, or reported no such attractions now or likely in the future.

CONCLUSION While there are currently some Chinese-themed attractions and resources in theme parks in Orlando, the overarching view of professionals is that no new attractions, programs, and materials are being planned, at least for the near future. Orlando hosts a wide range of international tourists, with far greater numbers coming from South America, for instance, and, in the opinions of creative and operations professionals, the parks do not seem to be actively planning for changes or improvements specific to Chinese guests. With all of the park systems employing mobile applications to assist guests, the opportunity exists for relatively low cost adaptations of the apps for

Theme Parks Greet Chinese Tourists

197

Chinese (as well as other language) versions. Similarly, website language adaptations are also possible to assist guests who prefer to use their own language when visiting the parks. All of the parks appear to have resources dedicated to group visits, and this should also be seen as a relatively low cost opportunity to meet the needs of many US bound Chinese, who are often traveling in groups. Staff fluent in Chinese (Mandarin and/or Cantonese) appear to be available in many of the parks already, and with the increasing number of Disney and Universal parks in China, staff exchanges, and cross-training programs should grow the number of multilingual personnel available for such purposes. Several factors may affect the growth trend of Chinese tourists to the Orlando theme parks, including the softening of the Chinese economy in recent times, and the continuing growth and quality improvement of theme parks in China and nearby Asian countries as well. Disney will soon have two parks in China (Hong Kong and Shanghai), Universal Studios is beginning construction of a park in Beijing, and Chinese groups, such as Chimelong and Dalian Wanda, continue to break ground on new properties. In addition, efforts in Dubai and Abu Dhabi to create an even larger concentration of theme parks than is available in Orlando will likely compete for outbound Chinese tourists. To counteract these trends and continue growing attendance, Orlando parks continue to add new and powerful attractions, such as Universal Studio’s expansion of the highly popular Harry Potter experiences. Finding ways to make international tourists feel more welcome through signage, messaging, familiar food and beverage offerings, enhancement to hotel rooms, various language mobile apps and websites will become ever more important in an increasingly competitive theme park world. If Orlando is to remain the “theme park capital of the world” park systems will need to invest in attractions and programs designed to make international tourists feel more welcome and comfortable within their properties, especially high growth sectors such as Chinese tourists. It would be appropriate to conclude that the Orlando theme parks are only paying minimal attention to these out of Asia guests at this time and are adopting a generic rather than a specialized approach to their growing Asian tourist numbers.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 12

CROSS CULTURAL ASPECTS OF INTERNATIONAL GUIDEBOOKS Asian Tourists in South Central Europe Miha Koderman University of Primorska, Slovenia

Anton Gosar University of Primorska, Slovenia

Abstract: This chapter analyzes the recent increase in tourists traveling from Asia to South Central Europe. The work specifically examines the cross cultural communication about religious works of art in popular guidebooks. Since tourism represents a widespread global phenomenon, the guidebook descriptions of religious contents should be objective and accessible for all potential users/tourists, regardless of their cultural, historical, religious, and ethnic background. The analyses of the description of four Catholic cathedrals in South Central Europe in 12 well-known guidebooks demonstrates that the in-depth religious explanations in the literature published in English are minimal and arguably inadequate for the growing Asian market. Keywords: Asian tourists; Christian art; guidebooks; cross cultural communication; South Central Europe

INTRODUCTION In the last decade tourists from Japan, China, Korea, and India have become important contributors to the tourism economies of several The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 199 212 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007012

200

The World Meets Asian Tourists

European countries. South Central Europe, in particular, has come to the attention of Asian tourists at the dawn of the 21st century. These tourists are not entirely familiar with the Western culture but are keen to admire the classic, millennia old expressions of the traditions of the past. Compared to the “classical” tourists, originating in Europe and the New World, Asian tourists are coming from completely different cultural backgrounds. Their knowledge of the Greek, Roman, and Christian heritage is basic. Cross cultural communication on the admired sites is hindered by the fact that in world leading guidebooks, description of the artwork is limited, and the wider and contextual details about the visible architecture, painting, and sculpture are all missing. As Christianity is the most widespread religion in the world with an estimated two billion adherents (Vukonic´, 2006), and as Christian art is embedded in Western culture, authors of the international bestselling guidebook should seek to publish unbiased, non-Christian-centered works when guiding Asian tourists who visit Europe. Since tourism represents a widespread global phenomenon, these cultural differences should be taken into consideration when describing elements of heritage in interpretive efforts (Reinschede, 1992). Parallel questions have been raised regarding “Western” tourists visiting Asian heritage sites of religious importance for Islamic, Hindu, or Buddhist faiths. As Saipradist and Staiff (2008) argue in their study of international visitation to Ayutthaya, the former capital city of Thailand and a World Heritage Site, the cross cultural translation itself is a highly complex and sometimes contentious and problematic process if the tourist is not of the same culture as the one which is being experienced. It is very likely that such sites cannot be well understood and fully appreciated, thereby limiting the value of the experience for many observers. Popular guidebooks usually provide potential tourists with an inventory of places and objects of interest and include practical information on transportation, accommodation, and costs. The evolution of this genre was, according to Towner (2003), closely shaped by geography and history books, and has over the course of the last 150 years resulted in numerous publishing houses specializing in the field. One of the main characteristics of mainstream guidebooks is their impersonal, objective, and systematic approach to providing reliable information and guidance to the general public. When presenting buildings of worship and other religious sites, the guidebooks usually give a short description of places and then focus on

Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks

201

works of art (paintings, sculptures, frescoes, and mosaics). The latter are often described in considerable detail and are accompanied by information on the artist and the period in which the work was completed. As a rule, however, the guidebooks ignore the fact that the potential reader may not be familiar with the religious contents of the work, and furthermore can come from a completely different cultural, historical, religious, and ethnic background. According to Timothy and Boyd (2003), people visiting religious sites can be classified into two fundamental groups: pilgrims whose primary purpose is to gain a religious experience, and the potentially far larger group of secular tourists whose major motivation is to admire aspects of the world’s religious heritage. This classification suggests that there are many variations in people’s motivation for visiting religious heritage places— many tourists desire to visit religious structures and sites not only because of their own faith but out of interest in, or curiosity about, historic sites and the art presented. Others may, as Olsen and Timothy (2006) discuss, visit religious sites because they have an educational interest in learning more about the history of a site or understanding a particular religious faith and its culture and beliefs, rather than being motivated purely by pleasure-seeking or spiritual motives. In regards to sacred buildings Vukonic´ (1996) distinguishes two basic functions: one, the original function, where believers can satisfy their religious needs, and two, structures of greater or lesser cultural, historical, or artistic value. Vukonic´ states that the second, profane function of sacred buildings in tourism almost overshadows their religious function, since the latter is restricted to only one (religious) segment of tourism demand. He continues by stating that sacred buildings of special interest have often, wholly or in part, lost their religious function as they appear to be visited by religious and non-religious tourists, just as they visit a museum or a gallery. Among examples of Roman Catholic sacred sites in Europe, Vukonic´ (2006) discusses the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France, which is visited by 12 million people every year and has lost its dominant function as being a place of prayer. Another example of how a sacred space is increasingly becoming a profane tourism space is Gaudi’s Sacrada familia in Barcelona, Spain, although the same could be said of Westminster Abbey in London, the United Kingdom, Chartres Cathedral in France, Cologne Cathedral in Germany, and almost all the churches in Rome (see Chapter 9 for a consideration of Chinese tourists visiting cathedrals in Florence and Milan).

202

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Today, sacred sites present an additional and important value apart from the historical, cultural, and architectural aspect of the destination and such sites increase the attractiveness of places to visit. One cannot overlook the fact discussed above, that tourists have turned some sacred buildings (variable from one object to another) into a major destination of national or (in some cases) global importance.

ASIAN TOURISTS TO SOUTH CENTRAL EUROPE As statistical data (Tables 1 4) reveal, European tourists represent around 90% of all international tourists coming to the countries of Austria, Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia. Tourists coming from the Asian continent are ranked second (with the exception of Hungary), although they present a relatively small share among all foreign tourists in the period—between 4.4% (in Hungary) and 9.6% (in Slovenia). In terms of numbers of tourists, Austria is by far the leading country with almost 25 million international arrivals, among which 1.5 million originated in Asia (Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2014; Hungarian Central Statistical Office, 2015; Statistik Austria, 2015; Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2015a). Statistical data also revealed that Slovenia had the largest relative share (9.6%) of Asians among the four target countries of South Eastern Europe Table 1.

International Arrivals in Austria and Vienna (2010 2014)

International Arrivals

Europe Asia Africa Americas Australia and Oceania Not specified Total Vienna

2010

2014

Number

%

Number

%

19,926,153 907,914

90.6 4.1

22,072,285 1,780,916

87.3 7.0

44,965

0.2

63,163

0.2

708,515 129,818

3.2 0.6

918,868 156,286

3.6 0.6

286,901 22,004,266

1.3 100.0

299,853 25,291,371

1.2 100.0

3,682,503

16.7

4,837,954

19.1

Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks Table 2.

203

International Arrivals in Croatia and Zagreb (2010 2013)

International Arrivals

Europe

2010

2013

Number

%

Number

%

8,560,000

94.0

9,965,000

91.0

Asia

251,000

2.8

452,000

4.1

Africa Americas

12,000 208,000

0.1 2.3

20,000 382,000

0.2 3.5

80,000 9,111,000

0.9 100.0

129,000 10,948,000

1.2 100.0

447,000

4.9

607,000

5.5

Australia and Oceania Total Zagreb

Table 3.

International Arrivals in Hungary and Budapest (2010 2014)

International Arrivals

2010

2014

Number

%

Number

%

8,571,000

90.1

10,819,000

89.1

Asia Africa

316,000 23,000

3.3 0.2

535,000 28,000

4.4 0.2

Americas Australia and Oceania

536,000 65,000

5.6 0.7

678,000 79,000

5.6 0.7

Total

9,511,000

100.0

12,139,000

100.0

Budapest

2,167,131

22.8

3,029,673

25.0

Europe

in 2014 (the data for 2014 were not available for Croatia at the time of research). The number of tourists from Asia has grown rapidly in Slovenia as their number increased from 101,098 (or 5.4% of total) in 2010 to 231.619 (or 9.6% of total) in 2014. The most important increase in the five-year period was recorded among the tourists from the Republic of Korea (an increase of over 935 index points) and China (an increase of over 292 index points). When analyzing the statistical data, the growth was

204

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Table 4. International Arrivals in Slovenia (and Ljubljana) (2010 2014) International Arrivals

Europe Asia Africa Americas Australia and Oceania Total Ljubljana

2010

2014

Number

%

Number

%

1,680,403

89.9

2,050,146

85.0

101,098

5.4

231,619

9.6

3,396 61,941

0.2 3.3

5,489 95,990

0.2 4.0

22,268 1,869,106

1.2 100.0

27,580 2,410,824

1.1 100.0

372,359

19.9

534,278

22.2

also evident in the category of “Other Asian countries” (which among others include India, Indonesia, Israel, and Malaysia), where the number of tourists experienced a 228 index point growth in the same time frame (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2015a). Tourists from Asia have reached far more significant shares among international tourists in some of Slovenia’s leading tourist destinations, such as Ljubljana (Slovenia’s capital), Roga ˇska Slatina (traditional spa resort), Portoroz/Portorose ˇ (Mediterranean sea-side resort), Postojna Cave (the largest European cave open for tourist visits) and Bled (town and lake in the Julian Alps). The detailed analysis of the statistical data for the municipality of Bled shows interesting trends regarding the tourists from the Far East in particular. The area lies in the Northwestern Alpine region of Slovenia and is renowned for the glacial lake with the same name. It has been a traditional destination since the late 19th century and has recently becoming an increasingly popular place of interest for the tourists from Asia. In 2014, the latter accounted for 27% of all international arrivals in the municipality. Tourists from Korea appear to be the fastest growing group here as their number increased from modest 1,004 in 2008 to 19,693 in 2014 (an increase of over 1900 index points). Their share among international tourists was 7.2% and had exceeded the share of tourists from Japan (6.6%) for the first time in 2014. The destination of Bled seems to be popular in tourism itineraries of Chinese as well, as they experienced a growth of 655 index points in the period from 2008 and 2014 (although their relative

Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks

205

share among international arrivals remains moderate: 1.2% of total). The category of “Other Asian countries” also shows a strong, growing trend, while the number of tourists from the so called “traditional countries” (Italy, Germany, and the United Kingdom) remains relatively stable (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2015b).

Study Methods The European Union countries of Austria, Croatia, Hungary, and Slovenia and their capital cities were selected for analysis due to their geographical closeness and common history, as well as the dominance of Christian religion across these locations. They have all experienced a significant rise of tourists from Asia in the last decade. The tourism industry is increasingly focusing on arrivals from Asia, although to gain a rewarding experience of the site, individual Asian tourists would have to be enlightened into details of the Western culture and Christianity (where related works of art are represented). To find answers about the availability of the information related to the Christian heritage, selected guidebook texts were studied according to the following two criteria: one, they had to be issued (the English version) by the same publisher for all four countries, and two, each of the guidebooks had to be dedicated only to one of the four countries (not focused on the wider region). Based on the above mentioned criteria guidebooks from publishers DK Eyewitness, Lonely Planet, and Rough Guides were selected (three guidebooks for each of the four discussed countries). Next, the decision was made to study only the relevant textual descriptions which relate to the leading national religious shrine. In this way, the following cathedrals in four nation-state capitals have become the subjects of evaluation: St. Stephen’s Cathedral (or Stephansdom) in Vienna, Austria; Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (or Kaptol) in Zagreb, Croatia; St. Stephen’s Basilica in Budapest, Hungary; and St. Nicholas’s Cathedral in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Despite being the principal places of worship for Roman Catholics, they per se represent one of the main attractions in each country. The method of content analysis was used to study the description of cathedrals and evaluate whether they appear to be Christian-centered or not. It should also be noted that the research focused only on the segment of tourists, who travel individually and use international bestseller guidebooks to explore destinations in the country of interest. The following findings

206

The World Meets Asian Tourists

and conclusions are based on assumption that all of the analyzed guidebooks and cathedral descriptions appear identical in the translated editions as they do in the English version of the guidebook (the assumption could not be verified for all of the studied guidebooks).

Guidebooks’ Representation of Iconic Sacred Sites In order to find out how Western culture, in particular Christianity, is presented to the Asians in some of the leading guidebooks, their descriptions of the selected cathedrals have been further analyzed in four Central European countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, and Slovenia. St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna. Austria is the most developed in terms of economic and touristic indicators. The country attracted over 25 million international tourists in 2014 (Table 1), what makes it one of the most visited places in the world. The capital city Vienna is visited by approximately 4.8 million tourists a year, or 19.1% of the total (Statistik Austria, 2011, 2015). One of the city’s most visible landmarks is the St. Stephen’s cathedral (Stephansdom in German). The cathedral is the mother church of the Archdiocese of Vienna and the most important religious building in Austria’s capital. St. Stephen’s cathedral is also one of the city’s most visited destinations as it had over 5.5 million arrivals in the year 2014 (Wien Kultur, 2015). St. Stephen’s cathedral is consequently recommended to the potential tourists in all guidebooks studied. Sentences, such as Lonely Planet’s “The most hallowed and recognizable structure in Vienna” (Haywood, Sieg, & Christiani, 2011, p. 58) or DK Eyewitness’ “St. Stephen, is the very soul of the city” (Czerniewicz-Umer, Egert-Romanowska, & Kumaniecka, 2010, p. 58) clearly speak of its importance and popularity among locals and tourists. All three guidebooks initially present brief technical information on the cathedral (opening hours, address, and contact numbers) and continue with more or less detailed description on the exterior and interior of the cathedral. For these elements, the Rough Guide (Bousfield, Humphreys, Walker, & Williams, 2008) prevails with 874 words dedicated to the cathedral, while Lonely Planet (Haywood et al., 2011) and DK Eyewitness guide (Czerniewicz-Umer et al., 2010) follow with 438 and 277 words, respectively.

Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks

207

Although the name of the patron saint and other works of art symbolizing important Catholic persons and events are mentioned in all three guidebooks, their descriptions fail to give any explanations of the historical background. Two examples of such inadequate descriptions from Lonely Planet and Rough Guide are shown in the further text. Rough Guide (Bousfield et al., 2008) presents, among others, the following description on the interior of the cathedral: At the far end of the north choir aisle, however, you should just be able to make out the winged Wiener Neusta¨dter Altar, a richly gilded masterpiece of late-Gothic art, whose central panels depict Madonna and Child, the Birth of Christ, the Adoration of the Magi, the Coronation of Mary and latter’s death, all sculpted in high relief out of wood. (2008, p. 77) This description is, of course, correct and probably welcomed by everyone who is visiting the cathedral without a guided tour, but the question arises whether the self-guided tourist is familiar with the profound meaning of the Madonna and Child sculpture or the depiction of the Adoration of the Magi. The Magi, also known to the Catholics as the three wise men or three kings, were, according to Christian belief, a small group of royal leaders who visited Jesus of Nazareth after his birth. They are closely connected with the celebrations of Christmas and are an important part of the Christian tradition. A person with no previous knowledge of Christian religious heritage would, when faced with the current work of art and the above presented description, without doubt appreciate an explanatory sentence or two regarding this theme. In this way, one could gain a deeper understanding the artwork and, if further interested, obtain more information from Christian literature and other relevant sources. The example of Christian-centric descriptions is far from being an isolated example. Haywood et al. (2011) in the issue of Lonely Planet’s guide for Austria present a group of sculptures located on the exterior of the Stephansdom’s facade which refer to one of the main events in Christian history, the crucifixion of Jesus Christ: Look closely at the decorations and statues on the exterior of the cathedral: at the rear the agony of the Crucifixion is well captured, while the glorious tiled roof shows dazzling chevrons on one end and the Austrian eagle on the other. (2011, p. 59)

208

The World Meets Asian Tourists

The term crucifixion (a method of painful execution) in the above mentioned context refers to the event in which Jesus Christ was supposedly executed. The expression might sound clearer to the common (non-Catholic) public. But due to the fact that the events connected with the birth and the death of Jesus Christ later became globally referential as the start of the internationally accepted civil calendar—the Gregorian calendar (also called the Western or the Christian calendar)—it could leave members of other so called high or major religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam) somewhat confused and quite probably dissatisfied. Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Zagreb. Croatia ranks 3rd among the studied countries with almost 11 million international arrivals in 2013 (Table 2). In the same year, the country’s capital and the largest city in Croatia, Zagreb, attracted over 600,000 foreign tourists (or 5.5% of the national total) (Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2014). This fact presents a clear deviation from other three discussed capitals and countries, in which international tourists visiting the capital accounted for at least 19% of the total. In this instance Zagreb unsuccessfully competes with old historic cities situated along the Adriatic coast (such as Dubrovnik, Split, and Zadar) and the Mediterranean seaside resorts that traditionally represent primary destinations for international tourist coming to Croatia. Zagreb can be nonetheless be considered an important tourism center, mainly due to its rich cultural heritage and favorable geographic position in the contact area of the Dinaric, Adriatic, and Pannonia regions. Tourists are especially drawn to the historical part of the city, located north of the Ban Jelacˇic´ Square in the Gornji Grad and Kaptol districts. The Kaptol, a medieval urban complex of churches, palaces and museums, is especially popular among tourists. This is mainly due to the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (or Katedrala Marijina Uznesenja in Croatian), which dominates the city’s urban landscape and is one of the city’s most prominent landmarks (similar to the St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna). The cathedral and its surrounding buildings are the seat of the Archdiocese of Zagreb. The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is extensively recommended in all three guidebooks studied in this research. The DK Eyewitness guidebook (Zoppe´ & Venturini, 2011, p. 152), for example, clearly states that “… this is the most famous monument in the city,” while the Rough Guides (Bousfield, 2010, pp. 77 78) uses carefully selected adjectives (such as “the filigree spires” or “ivycloaked turrets”) to describe its beauty and grandeur. In general, all three guidebooks present similarly long descriptions dedicated to the cathedral,

Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks

209

which include basic explanations about its history, as well as interior and technical information. In this aspect, the DK Eyewitness (Zoppe´ & Venturini, 2011) provides the most thorough presentation (405 words) and prevails over the Rough Guide (Bousfield, 2010) with 355 words and Lonely Planet (Maric´ & Mutic´, 2009) with 243 words. While the Lonely Planet (Maric´ & Mutic´, 2009) and Rough Guide (Bousfield, 2010) guidebooks avoid giving detailed descriptions on religious works of art in the cathedral, the examination of the guidebooks also registered little on this subject in the case of the DK Eyewitness (Zoppe´ & Venturini, 2011). This guidebook offers (among other) the following report on the Gothic and Renaissance works in the interior of the cathedral: These works include a statue of St Paul (13th century), wooden statues of the saints Peter and Paul from the 15th century, a triptych entitled Golgotha (1495) by Albrecht Du¨rer and a 14th century Crucifixion by Giovanni da Udine. (Zoppe´ & Venturini, 2011, p. 152) The information on the authors of the works and the period of their origins, presented in the DK Eyewitness, is useful and contributes to the tourist’s common appreciation of the works of art. However, a general description on the early Christian leaders and apostles Saint Peter (also referred to as Simon Peter) and Saint Paul (or Paul the Apostle) might be advantageous for those unfamiliar with the Catholic background. The term Golgotha (also called Calvary), the site outside Jerusalem’s walls where the crucifixion of Jesus Christ occurred, would similarly deserve a short explanation, in the same way as was noted earlier for the term Crucifixion (as mentioned in the case of St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna). St. Stephen’s Basilica in Budapest. Hungary, which is known for a number of geothermal springs and the largest lake in Central Europe (Lake Balaton), is visited annually by around 12 million international tourists (Hungarian Central Statistical Office, 2015). Its capital and largest city, Budapest, has several world famous sites and receives one quarter of all foreign arrivals (Table 3). Among the city’s main attractions is the St. Stephen’s Basilica (or SzentIstva´n-bazilika in Hungarian), named in honor of Stephen, the first King of Hungary. At 96 m (315 ft) in height, the basilica is one of the highest edifices in the capital (together with the parliament building) and hence an obvious landmark of the city. In contrast to the previously presented St. Stephen’s cathedral in Vienna and the Cathedral of the assumption of

210

The World Meets Asian Tourists

the Blessed Virgin Mary in Zagreb, the basilica is not as well described in the three studied guidebooks as its religious counterparts in Croatia and Austria. Although recommended as one of the principal places of tourism interest in Budapest by Lonely Planet (Bedford, Dunford, & Fallon, 2009), the authors provide a rather short description of only 167 words. Both, ´ ´ DK Eyewitness (Olszanska, Olszanski, & Turp, 2010) and Rough Guide (Longley, Burford, Hebbert, & Richardson, 2010) present almost twice the number of words on the same object (325 and 316, respectively). All three analyzed guidebooks present a brief history of the basilica and inform potential readers about the basic technical information (address, telephone numbers, opening hours, and entry fees). Due to the relatively short description of the basilica, the explanations on works of art in and on ´ the building are limited. In this element, the DK Eyewitness (Olszanska et al., 2010) is dominant. Similarly, only two short descriptions of the religious contents were noticed in all three guidebooks. Both were found in the above mentioned guidebook and referred to the four Evangelists and the ´ 12 Apostles (Olszanska et al., 2010). Another important and insufficient description of religious contents was noted in the Lonely Planet (Bedford et al., 2009) and Rough Guide (Longley et al., 2010), where no explanation on the basilica’s Patron, St. Stephen (the first King of Hungary) was given. St Nicolas’s Cathedral in Ljubljana. Slovenia’s capital Ljubljana is one of the most popular destinations for international tourists (Table 4). It is visited by more than 20% of all tourist arrivals (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2015a, 2015b). Ljubljana’s historic center, marked by Baroque, Vienna Secession, and Neoclassical architecture, offers some unique points of interest to potential tourists. Although overshadowed by the Ljubljana castle and the Triple Bridge at the Pre ˇseren square, St Nicolas’s Cathedral (also called Stolnica svetega Nikolaja in Slovene) can be considered one of the city’s key attractions. Located on Cyril and Methodius Square near the Ljubljana Central Market, it is an easily recognizable structure with its green dome and twin towers. It is the most important sacred building in the country and serves as the seat of Archdiocese of Ljubljana. Compared with the studied sacred edifices in Vienna, Zagreb, and Budapest, Ljubljana’s St Nicolas Cathedral is the least promoted religious building. The descriptions about the cathedral in the inspected guidebooks included 282 words in Rough Guide (Longley, 2010), 226 words in DK Eyewitness (Bousfield & Stewart, 2012), and 137 words in Lonely Planet (Fallon, 2010). Surprisingly and despite short descriptions, which all included a brief technical, historical, and artistic presentation, the Rough

Cross Cultural Aspects of International Guidebooks

211

Guide (Longley, 2010) and the DK Eyewitness (Bousfield & Stewart, 2012) guidebooks offered basic explanation of the cathedral’s patron saint, St Nicolas, as presented below: Dedicated to St Nicolas, the patron saint of fishermen and sailors—many of whom lived in the suburb of Krakovo—the present building, designed by Andrea Pozzo from Rome and completed in 1706, stands on the site of a thirteenth-century basilica. (Longley, 2010, p. 59) Built in the site of an earlier church by leading Jesuit architect Andrea Pozzo in 1707, this cathedral is dedicated to St Nicholas, patron saint of fishermen and sailors. (Bousfield & Stewart, 2012, p. 50) While some other religious terms appeared in both the above mentioned guidebooks without any explanations (such as Corpus Christi, the Crucifixion, and the Apostles), the Lonely Planet guidebook presented no terms of religious nature.

CONCLUSION European tourists currently represent around 90% of all international arrivals in the studied countries of South Central Europe: Austria, Hungary, Croatia, and Slovenia. Asians are ranked second (and third in the case of Hungary) and despite the fact that they represented a relatively small share among all foreign tourists, their share recorded rapid growth in the period from 2010 to 2014. It is interesting to note that the world’s leading guidebook publishers seem to overlook this trend and (at this time) fail to publish English literature which would focus on the culture of the Asian tourists. In this regard, one cannot neglect the fact that guidebooks are not as popular as they were one or two decades ago. With the intense development of information technology, social media, and available information online, guidebooks seem to lose much of their importance. The Internet has strongly influenced tourists’ behavior as an information source providing descriptions of sites and points of interest. Information about sites of religious importance can be easily made available not only in different languages, but also to tourists coming from different cultural and ethnic

212

The World Meets Asian Tourists

environments. Although these descriptions are spontaneously generated by users and can be questionable in terms of correctness and objectivity, they can offer valuable and important insights for tourists. But an argument can be made that the guidebook is not yet irrelevant. It may be a source for many of the online postings and a convenient tool for those challenged by the problems involved in gaining Internet access while traveling or reading from screens in daylight and outside conditions. The globalization of tourism calls for cross cultural mediation in the field of information. The results of this study suggest that the major publishing houses still see the classical European/North American tourist as the sole consumer, while those residing in China, Korea, Japan or India are overlooked. The analyzed description of four cathedrals in South Central Europe clearly demonstrates that basic religious contents in the studied travel literature are minimal. The church construction and the artistic uniqueness are explored, in particular if regionally/worldly outstanding architects, painters, and/or sculptors are involved. However, the review of the texts indicated that basic information about the religious content of the work was frequently inadequate or missing. Frescoes and other painted works of arts, stained glass artistic expressions, and wood/stone sculptures are placed in the artistic and societal time frame (gothic, renaissance, baroque, …) and even in the artist’s production phase, but guidebooks in general fail to provide stories/descriptions of the presented religious stories (Bible sources, saint’s life, …). Interested non-Christian tourists from Asia, the main readers of guidebooks, would have to make their way through extensive religious literature to find out about the content (and its importance for the religious community) in the studied cathedrals. In order to access a deeper understanding of the Western society, several sentences on Christianity spiritual themes and specifics should be placed next to the description of the artwork and incorporated in guidebooks, therewith enriching the cross cultural touristic experience. There is, in brief, much to be done to meet and greet Asian tourists in South Eastern Europe and most especially within the arena of helping them understand the religious inspired sites of the cities and towns.

Chapter 13

COMMUNIST CONNECTIONS? Chinese Tourists in Croatia Nevenka Cˇavlek University of Zagreb, Croatia

Abstract: The awareness of Eastern Europe within China is mostly tied to the shared notion of Communist control. During the last half century, educational and cultural links were established which often resonated in the minds and desired experiences of many Chinese tourists. This chapter explores the meaning of these Asian-European links for Croatia by using economic data and archival evidence. The analysis is framed within the context of China’s policy toward Central and Eastern Europe. The work seeks to offer a better understanding of the politico-economic decisions that shape contemporary tourism flows and interests, not only in relation to Croatia, but also to similarly placed countries. Keywords: China’s outbound tourism; strategic cooperation; Central and Eastern Europe; Croatia

INTRODUCTION The significance of China as the primary tourism generating market in the world in terms of border crossings and patterns of expenditure is becoming increasingly relevant for destinations globally. Indeed, China’s outbound market accounts for almost 20% of growth in international tourism (Shanzhong, 2014). For this reason, Arlt (2013, p. 127) justifiably claims The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 213 229 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007013

214

The World Meets Asian Tourists

that there is hardly a national or destination marketing organization in the world which is not in the process of moving China up on its agenda, from “a potential source market to watch” to an “important new source market.” According to the China Outbound Tourism Research Institute (COTRI, 2015), in 2014, one in ten of all international border crossings started from mainland China, undertaken by approximately 5.5% of mainland Chinese citizens (70 million out of 1,390 million inhabitants). According to the same source, in 2020, one in seven of all international border crossings will originate from mainland China, involving roughly 9% of mainland Chinese citizens (120 million out of 1,400 million inhabitants). In 1990, the total number of outbound trips was just 620,000 (UNWTO, 2015b), but by 2014, this figure had reached 107 million. This is the result of China’s increasing liberalization of travel and the choice of destinations available to Chinese tourists. The number of countries with Approved Destination Status increased in the same period from only 5 to 148 (Arita, La Croix, & Mak, 2012; UNWTO, 2013). Although many countries regard tourism in “politico-economic terms” (Richter, 2009), the role that it plays and can play in interrelationships among countries has attracted scant research interest. Richter (1983, 2009) was among the first political scientists to deal with the politics surrounding tourism policy and the impact it exerts. Indeed, she argued that because China’s interest in tourism was primarily politically motivated, it followed that tourism was treated as an important part of China’s diplomatic strategy. She also stressed that the emerging impetus to recognize tourism’s political and social impact focused first on developing nations. The term Central, Eastern and South Eastern Europe including Croatia, (CEE) will be used to describe this set of destination countries. China’s politicoeconomic interests behind the initiative for better cooperation with these countries cannot be ignored. Since economic interests play a major role in state policy and politics toward a given country, the main purpose of this chapter is to explore China’s politico-economic links with Croatia, extend the analysis within the context of China’s policy toward Central and Eastern Europe, and try to offer a better understanding of politicoeconomic decisions that shape contemporary tourism flow patterns and interests, not only in relation to Croatia, but to similar countries.

FACTORS INFLUENCING CHINESE TOURISM TO CROATIA In post-communist societies, and in China, tourism has been used “as a catalyst of change: as a positive educational force stimulating a thirst for

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

215

knowledge of the outside world, encouraging entrepreneurial activity … creating new patterns of travel …, ” and as an opportunity for changing personal mobility circumstances (Hall, 2001, p. 97). Cohen and Cohen (2015a, p. 4) suggest that when studying tourism development in emerging regions of the world, the mobility paradigm seems the most appropriate theoretical framework since, among other reasons, it is “free from any Eurocentric bias.” The fact is that research into China’s inbound tourism in the CEE countries is scarce, to say the least, and most academic articles provide only superficial interpretations of meager data. Therefore, there is an urgent need to start extensive research into the subject in these countries. Tse and Hobson (2008) rightly point out that research on outbound tourism in China has been dominated by a consumer approach. It thus neglects an analysis of the macro-environment, especially the socioeconomic and political factors which shape outbound tourist flows from China. It should always be borne in mind that China is an authoritarian socialist state with a traditionally deep-rooted policy of control over public activities. Thus, political decisions regarding outbound tourism have consequences which are clearly reflected in China’s diplomatic policy and strategy. There are several studies which address this issue. Arlt (2006) argues that China is using tourism as a tool in its foreign policy. Fan states that China’s high tourist consumption potential, its authoritarian regime and state-owned travel agencies enable it to control outbound tourism flows, which “have become China’s bargaining chip in diplomacy” (2010, p. 247). (See also Chapter 2 of this volume and the role of the Chinese Tourism Law). Hall stresses that “tourism’s multifaceted role in economic restructuring” has been used in both inbound and outbound tourism policy” (2001, p. 96). Tse points out that “China is one of the major countries with an articulated outbound tourism policy that has strong implications for its outbound tourist flows,” and sees tourism as a tool with special diplomatic potential, through which the Chinese government demonstrates its power and ability to “exert influence over international relations” (2013, p. 150). The documents available on Chinese government policy clearly state that China strongly supports outbound tourism (China’s New Tourism Policy 2013 2020, 2013). The background to this support can be found in “China’s Going Global Strategy.” This strategy, that is seen by the Chinese government “as supplementary to the course of modernization” (Asia Monitor Resource Centre, 2014, p. 1), seems to have had a great influence on China’s State Council, which declared tourism to be a “pillar industry” in 2009, and thus for the first time clearly supported the development of not only inbound and domestic, but also outbound travel (Arlt, 2013,

216

The World Meets Asian Tourists

p. 131). In 2013, there was the highest ever level of Chinese outbound investment in registered real estate, including investments in tourism infrastructure (COTRI, 2015). According to the same source, direct investment relates to buying real estate and companies for profit and passport rights; indirect investment in “leisure travel” for self-esteem and peer group confirmation of status and prestige, possibly reflecting “anomie and ego enhancement” as earlier characterized by Dann (1977); and long-term investment, meaning benefits from formal and informal education, market knowledge, and experience. These points enable the inference that China’s strong political interests in out-flowing, foreign direct investments go hand in hand with its outbound tourism policy.

China’s Interest in the CEE Countries After Asia and the Pacific, Europe is the most important destination for Chinese tourists. The top European countries are the United Kingdom, Germany, and France (Travel China Guide, 2014). Zeneli (2014) claims that China regards the CEE countries primarily as a market for its own strategic industries and exports, and as a large window into Western European markets. Therefore, the CEE countries are becoming of more interest to Chinese investors, and at the same time, destinations in Eastern and Southern Europe are increasing in popularity. This corresponds to initiatives recently taken by the Chinese government. According to Premier Li Keqiang, China-CEE trade accounts for 1/10th of China-EU trade, and the Chinese government is striving to double its trade volumes by 2018 (Business News, 2013). This corresponds to the proportion of Chinese arrivals in the CEE countries among total international arrivals which, according to the China-CEEC Tourism Coordination Centre (TCC, 2015), amounted to 10.7% in 2014. The same source reveals that European countries registered 8.8 million Chinese tourists in 2014. The proportion of CEE arrivals in total European arrivals was 32.3%, or 2.9 million. By 2019, the CEE countries expect the proportion of total arrivals from China to increase to 11.2%, reaching four million from this source market alone. Although Plevnik, Mesic´, and Jurcˇic´ (2013) suggest that China’s policy for the CEE countries can be extrapolated from its strategy for Europe, which represents a very important part of China’s Going Global Strategy (Asia Monitor Resource Centre, 2014), until the opening of the 16 + 1 platform for cooperation between 16 CEE countries and China, there were no publicly accessible documents implying that China had a special strategy

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

217

for the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. However, the Bucharest Guidelines for Cooperation between China and the CEE countries (Government of Romania, 2013) are sufficient evidence that China has decided to change this situation. There are 11 EU member countries involved in the 16 + 1 platform for cooperation (Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia) and five EU candidate countries (Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia) are similarly disposed. The platform foresees regular annual summits and specialized forums, and promises an upsurge in investment and trade (Turcsanyi, 2014). What is common to all 16 countries, stretching from the Baltics to South-East Europe, is some form of socialist/communist government before 1989, and they have all been through the transformation of their economic, social, and political systems, although with differing strategies and degrees of success (Turcsanyi, 2014). In line with the activities that should enhance economic cooperation, trade and investment, and improve connectivity between the relevant parties (for example, fostering China-Europe international container traffic and improving connectivity and market-access between Asia and Europe, strengthening activities in infrastructure development, including roads, railways, ports and airports, and discussing cooperation on building regional transport networks), there are activities which immediately concern tourism development among stakeholders (The Bucharest Guidelines, 2013; The Belgrade Guidelines, 2014). These activities include initiatives for opening up new direct flight routes between China and the CEE countries (currently one of the major obstacles to more successful tourism); encouraging people-to-people cultural exchanges and cooperation at the sub-national level; and supporting the establishment of the China-CEEC Association of Tourism Promotion Agencies and Businesses in Hungary, responsible for organizing promotional events; opening a bilingual (Mandarin and English) website on China—CEEC tourism cooperation and developing more high quality travel routes to respond to the needs of Chinese and CEE tourists (The Belgrade Guidelines, 2014). 2015 was designated as the Year of Promotion of China-CEEC Tourism Cooperation, and the 2nd China-CEEC High Level Conference on Tourism Cooperation was held in September 2015 in Slovenia. Strategically, a very important step for tourism cooperation between China and the CEE countries was the establishment of the China-CEEC Tourism Coordination Centre in Budapest in 2014, whose main objective is to represent the Central and Eastern European region in a more efficient way

218

The World Meets Asian Tourists

as a common destination, to enhance its visibility among Chinese tourists, and make a greater contribution to facilitating tourist mobility (TTC, 2015). All these initiatives lead to the conclusion that whatever move China makes toward the CEE countries, it should be analyzed in the context of the Chinese government’s “going global policy” and its strategy. Therefore, the CEE countries should maximize China’s increased interest in the region, since investment opens doors and creates routes for the development of tourism flows between China and the CEE countries. UNWTO figures for inbound tourism in the CEE countries indicate a general increase of Chinese outbound tourists in the region, and a particular rise in business tourism (Shanzhong, 2014). This trend is in line with the COTRI’s (2015) research finding that “long-distance outbound travel to the CEEC is not a private decision, but an investment, not a holiday.” Pearce and Lu (2011) extend this point and construct a comprehensive framework that defines key types of learning outcomes. They also point out that “the limited international travel experience of Chinese tourists potentially makes their journeys particularly important in terms of direct, on-site learning opportunities about other countries and cultures” (Pearce & Lu, 2011, p. 446). (See also Chapter 5 of this volume). As the research by COTRI (2015) highlights, 90% of Chinese outbound do not intend to visit the CEE countries for various reasons. They consider them too far away, with limited direct flights, too complicated in terms of obtaining the necessary visas, not famous enough, indistinguishable from other destinations, lacking big cities or A-list brands, or simply not high enough up on their “must see” lists. These are challenges for the CEE countries to work on, since they should not overlook the remaining 10% of Chinese outbound tourists who constitute a potential market, even now representing over 11 million potential trips. UNWTO officials have advised the CEE countries to change their strategies toward the Chinese market, because of their lack of awareness about Chinese tourists, very limited direct flights, the absence of Chinese signs in international transport facilities, limited Chinese TV channels in hotels, and the difficulties mentioned earlier in obtaining visas (Shanzhong, 2014). One implication of these points is that neither Croatia nor any other CEE country can act as a single player on the Chinese market.

Chinese-Croatian Relations through History Although the awareness of Eastern Europe within China is mostly tied to the common denominator of communist control, in the case of Croatia, the

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

219

history of international relations with China should be seen in a different light. Croatia, along with the other republics of the former Yugoslavia, traces the roots of its international relations with China to the relatively long, proximate history of diplomatic relations between China and Tito’s Yugoslavia. Still, it should be remembered that Yugoslav communism, its internal and external policies, economy and international relations, differed greatly from the type of communism found in China and the Eastern Bloc countries. Diplomatic relationships were established in 1955, but remained very restrained until the late 1970s, and ceased with the disintegration of Yugoslavia in 1991 (Plevnik et al., 2013, p. 140). In the 1960s, Yugoslavia was perceived by the Chinese Communist Party as a country which had “betrayed Marxism-Leninism and the Yugoslav people, and consists of renegades from international communist movements and lackeys of imperialism” (www.archive.org). Yugoslavia severed all links with the Communist Bloc in 1948, leading to the cessation of tourist visits from those countries. The situation changed in 1977/1978 after Tito’s visit to China and Guofeng’s (the Chinese Prime Minister and leader of the Communist Party) visit to Yugoslavia, which coincided with a period when China was already moving from a “command economy” toward a “socialist market economy” (Asia Monitor Recourse Centre, 2011). The visits exchanged at a high political level ushered in a new era in the relationship between the two countries, and the criticisms that Yugoslavia was “developing private capitalism, transforming itself into a market for capitalistic dumping … opening itself up to FDIs …” (Plevnik et al., 2013, p. 153) were abandoned. Instead, new cooperation was agreed in line with Marxism and Leninism, and in accordance with the new spirit of the age. In 1978, China started economic reforms, announcing its “open door” policy (Cai, Li, & Knutson, 2008), and also changed its attitude toward tourism, which was until then considered a wasteful, bourgeois practice (Arlt, 2006). In 1983, restrictions on outbound tourism were reduced with the introduction of the Approved Destination Status policy, which governed outbound travel by China’s citizens (Sparks & Pan, 2009). Yugoslavia, in contrast to China and the Eastern Bloc countries, had developed a “socialist market economy” and accepted foreign tourism as early as 1952 (Pirjevec, 1998). Thus, in the 1980s, it generated revenues from international tourism which equaled the total international tourism revenues of the other CEE countries (Hall, 2001). The shift was marked by political rapprochement between Yugoslavia and West European countries on the one hand, and by Yugoslavia taking a leading role in the creation of a so-called Third World bloc, or Non-Aligned Movement, on the other.

220

The World Meets Asian Tourists

For tourism, it was a very positive step, with the opening of borders to foreign tourists, regulation of the dinar-foreign currency exchange rate, and the gradual construction of accommodation facilities in every part of the country. On the other hand, the economic stabilization of Western European countries revived the desire for traveling among their populations, particularly in the direction of the Mediterranean and Adriatic. This situation was reflected in growth rates for the period between 1961 and 1965, estimated at 24.9 and 14.2 percentage points for foreign visits and accommodation facilities respectively (Pirjevec, 1998, pp. 36 37). Although the educational and cultural links established over the last 50 years resonate in the minds and desired experiences of some senior Chinese tourists, Croatia has been facing the challenge of a general lack of awareness among other potential tourists from China. Indeed, the name “Croatia” is relatively new, not only to Chinese tourists who are middle-aged or younger, but also to the older citizens who still remember Yugoslavia. The Republic of Croatia and the People’s Republic of China established diplomatic relations in May 1992. At that time, in economic matters with China, Croatia acknowledged Yugoslavian cooperation from 1949 to 1990, but rejected the period of Yugoslavia’s Non-Aligned foreign affairs policy and socialist ideology, stressing more its orientation toward the European Union, the United States, and NATO (Plevnik et al., 2013, p. 222). However, Croatian promotional activities nowadays try to point out to potential tourists from China that the two countries have in some ways been connected much longer. Thus, for example, Croatia alludes to connections established by the great explorer Marco Polo and the Silk Road. On the other hand, although Croatia has tried to dissociate itself from the image of a socialist country, the recent Croatian competitive promotional slogan “The Mediterranean as it once was” (which has just been changed) would probably appeal to the nostalgic populations of former socialist countries and China.

Chinese Tourism in Croatia Croatia is a small country in South-East Europe, inhabited by 4.2 million people and occupying a total surface area of 87,661 km2 . Rich in natural and cultural attractions, with seven UNESCO World Heritage sites, 14 attractions on the UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage, 8 national parks, 11 nature parks, and over 1,000 islands, Croatia attracts over 11.6 million international tourists annually (CBS, 2015), or 88.5% of

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

221

a total of 13.13 million tourist arrivals. The proportion of total international tourist overnights is even higher in favor of foreign tourists, with 66.5 million tourist overnights and 92.2% foreign tourists recorded in Croatia in 2014 (CBS, 2015). Tourism revenues in 2014 reached 7.4 billion Euros. The direct contribution of tourism to Croatia’s GDP in 2014 was 12.5% (WTTC, 2014). The 10 major tourism generating markets for Croatia are Germany, Slovenia, Austria, the Czech Republic, Italy, Poland, the Netherlands, Slovakia, the United Kingdom, and Hungary, which account for 72.7% of Croatia’s total tourist overnights. According to data from the Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia (2015), on the Chinese tourism market Croatia is ranked as the 16th most popular European country and the 46th in the world. Although the proportion of tourists from China in the total number of tourist overnights accounts for only 0.12%, annual growth rates are significant, and this is why Croatia sees China as an important new tourism generating market. In the field of tourism, Croatia and China have been cooperating continuously since 2000, when the two countries signed a cooperation agreement and Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia and the National Administration for Tourism of the People’s Republic of China. Croatia was among the first European countries to sign a bilateral agreement with the Chinese government in 2003 and obtain Approved Destination Status, granting Chinese tourists permission to take leisure trips to Croatia on package tours. Until 2007, the Croatian Bureau of Statistics recorded only tourists from Japan separately from those from other Asian countries. From 2007 to 2012, the figures on arrivals from China also included tourists from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Since 2013, the data for arrivals from mainland China have been shown separately, which is why the 2007 2014 growth rates for Chinese inbound tourism are not fully comparable. However, since 2009, arrivals and overnights from China have been increasing significantly, reaching 61,215 and almost 90,000 overnights in 2014 (Table 1).

Chinese Tourist Behavior in Croatia According to Ministry of Tourism data, the vast majority of Chinese tourists visit Croatia in organized groups, as part of regional tours during which they usually visit three to six countries and stay in Croatia just 1.5 days on average. The majority of them visit the capital city of Zagreb (36% in 2014), Split-Dalmatia County, and Dubrovnik-Neretva County. This

The World Meets Asian Tourists

222

Table 1. Tourist Arrivals and Overnights from China (2007 2014) Year

Arrivals

Indices

Overnights

Indices

2007

6,416

2008 2009

6,375 7,586

99 119

12,018 15,572

78 130

2010

13,195

175

23,143

150

2011 2012

22,459 43,249

170.2 192.6

34,578 64,092

149.4 185.4

2013 2014

41,973 61,215

145.8

63,066 89,462

141.9

15,365

Source: Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2015).

has been confirmed by the findings of two separate, in-depth, face-to-face interviews made in spring 2015, each 90 minutes long. One was conducted with the most experienced tourist guide for Chinese tourists in Croatia, who had been living for 10 years in China, and the other with the head of an ethnic Chinese travel agency in Zagreb, specializing in the organization of themed packages to this part of the region for different groups of Chinese tourists, mostly from the urban areas of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangdong. The interviews were recorded and the qualitative data analyzed afterwards. These interviews helped throw light on the identification of different age groups among Chinese tourists, their itineraries, and preferred times of the year for visiting Croatia. To a certain extent, their motives for traveling, and the main challenges for Croatia in attracting more tourists from China, were also revealed. Both interviewees stressed the need to distinguish visits by Chinese tourists to Croatia before and after 2005, as before that date, arrivals from China were very low-scale and mostly motivated by business reasons. Expenses were covered by the government or state-owned companies. The trip usually included short business meetings and the rest of the stay was used for leisure purposes. After 2005, thanks to the introduction of Approved Destination Status, travel motives changed toward predominantly private, self-financed package tours. This trend is also in line with the research findings of Xu and Wang (2014, p. 2) who state that Chinese

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

223

outbound tourism in the last 10 years has experienced major changes in outgoing travel patterns, moving from travel for public purposes undertaken by government officials or people from state-owned companies, to mainly outbound tourism for private purposes (91.2% in 2011). Although mainland Chinese traveling to the CEE region generally prefer package tours including multiple destination countries (Li, Lai, Harill, Kline, & Wang, 2011), the CEE countries should be aware of the gradually changing behavior of Chinese outbound tourists, according to which the dominance of organized outbound tourism in China has been broken, and the number of independent tourists has been significantly rising. This has been well documented by Arlt (2013), Prayag et al. (2015), Wu and Pearce (2016), Xiang (2013), and the same development trend might also be reflected in inbound tourism from China to Croatia. Since there have been no non-stop flights from China to Croatia up to now, using package tours has still held particular benefits for Chinese tourists. A study by IPSOS (2014) revealed that 61.7% of Chinese tourists indicated they would consider going independently to certain tourist destinations if there were direct flight connections. The format of an independent tour favors the point-to-point model, from a city in China to an overseas city or island (Xu & Wang, 2014). Developing aviation connections with China is a critical part of adapting to this trend, and is regarded as an important prerequisite for the development of independent travel from mainland China to Croatia. It is also one of the most decisive pull factors, though there is no lack of other pull factors, such as cultural and natural sights. According to information published by the Croatian Ministry of Tourism, Croatia and Zhejiang, one of the most developed provinces in China, are working jointly on introducing direct flights from Ningbo in Zhejiang to Zadar in Croatia. The Croatian Ministry of Tourism has offered to support Chinese tour operators in their efforts to organize tours to Croatia, while the authorities in Ningbo have announced their readiness to support local travel agencies creating package tours to the CEE countries by subsidizing such tours from June till October. Although it was announced that the first direct charter flights from Ningbo to Zadar would start in May 2015, a year later this has not yet happened. Since the Croatian state administration has not been prepared sufficient opportunities for foreign investors to invest in the country, it is fairly evident that Croatia has not fulfilled the expectations of the Chinese government regarding commercial participation in planned infrastructure projects. China has adhered to its outbound tourism policy by postponing direct airline connections with Croatia, which clearly demonstrates the link between

224

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Chinese outbound tourism policies and politics, a scenario which is also familiar to Croatia. Croatian travel agencies, with their partner agencies in China, are making great efforts to offer packages which are especially appealing to the senior Chinese population. There are already 36 travel agencies in Croatia authorized for outbound travel by Chinese citizens (http://en.cnta.gov.cn/ TravelInChina/Forms/TravelInChina/TravelAgencies.aspx). Two of them are ethnic Chinese, migrant-owned travel agencies, like similar agencies in Europe which have been pioneers in capturing a share in the market (Leung, 2005). Travel agencies usually arrange for Chinese tourists to fly first into one of 15 international airports which are within a 300-km radius of Zagreb. Usually, Chinese tourists fly to Vienna, Venice, or Budapest, and then start their tour by coach from the countries where these famous cities are located. Another option frequently used is flying from China to Frankfurt, or Istanbul, with connecting flights to Ljubljana or Zagreb. Prior to their trip, Chinese tourists need to obtain a Schengen visa, which allows them to travel to all European countries, regardless of whether they are part of the Schengen zone (Croatia is not yet part of the Schengen zone). One of the most popular package tours for this tourism profile is a 15-day Balkan tour with visits to six countries: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Bulgaria. It is interesting to note that, according to the owner of the ethnic Chinese travel agency in Croatia who was interviewed, before they set off, Chinese usually watch again some old, Yugoslav serialized TV films about Partisans fighting Fascists, which were particularly popular in China in the 1970s and 1980s, noting particular places where special scenes were shot, in order to take photos on the same spots. Thus, Walter defends Sarajevo, and The Bridge have contributed significantly to the popularity of the capital city of Bosnia ˇ and Herzegovina, and of Mostar. Places like Zabljak and Durmitor in Montenegro are popular among Chinese senior tourists with a taste for lakes and mountains. There are many studies which deal with the popularity of film tourism, or film-induced tourism. Yen and Croy (2013) have identified four broad categories: the influence of film on the decision to travel, film tourists, the impact of film tourism, and film destination marketing activities. However, at this stage, it can only be surmised to which category Chinese tourists belong. According to the opinions of the two interviewees, Chinese tourists are not drawn to Croatia as a part of ex-Yugoslavia per se. In some cases, they request visits to be arranged to places connected to Tito’s life. They express a particular interest in visiting sites of cultural heritage and natural beauty.

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

225

So they usually visit the capital city of Zagreb, UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites (Plitvice Lakes National Park, the cities of Dubrovnik, Trogir and ˇ Sibenik), the birthplace of Marco Polo on the island of Korcˇula, the city of Zadar, with its well-integrated contrasts between 3,000-year-old cultural attractions and the newly created, fashionable attractions of the Sea Organ and Greetings to the Sun installations. Pearce, Wu, De Carlo, and Rossi (2013) argue that historical links (Marco Polo and the Silk Road) and an awareness of the Renaissance and typical works by Western artists and writers have created an interest in Italy among contemporary Chinese tourists. The right to acknowledge a long history of connections established by Marco Polo is also claimed by Croatia, since some Croatian and international historians argue that Marco Polo was born in the town of Korcˇula, on the island of the same name, in what is today Croatia, though at the time the island was under the rule of the Venetian Republic. Whether the “centuries-old oral tradition, handed down by word of mouth in songs, proverbs, stories, and legends that connect Marco Polo and Korcˇula” (Filippi, 2007) is true or not, the recreated tradition (Habsbwam & Ranger, 1983 in Orlic´, 2013) has been used successfully “as a symbol of identity and brand name to promote tourism” (Orlic´, 2013, p. 2). These promotional efforts have occurred on the island, since 1922 when Korcˇula first became interested in tourism development. It is interesting to note that in 2011, a museum dedicated to Marco Polo was opened in the Chinese city of Yangzhou (where Marco Polo served as an official from 1282 to 1284) by a former president of Croatia! All this is conducive to giving Croatia the context of a country with a long and intriguing history, and this should be better exploited in Croatia’s promotional activities on the Chinese tourism market. If Cresswell’s “politics of mobility” (2010, pp. 21 26) are applied to the largest segment of Chinese visiting Croatia, while remaining aware of critiques of how researchers have addressed the issue of tourism motivation (Moscardo, Dann, & McKercher, 2014), then by analyzing itineraries and the main attraction/stops on the route, it could be concluded that the motive force to choose a Balkan tour is a combination of many elements. These include film tourism or film-induced tourism, cultural tourism, ecotourism and the nostalgic evocation of Tito and his era. The behavior of Chinese tourists in Croatia corresponds to the behavior of Chinese tourists in other Eastern European countries, where they are also “more culture oriented … without the indulgent shopping sprees by visitors to Western Europe” (Xu & Wang, 2014, p. 6). As for speed and rhythm, Chinese tourists on this type of package tour rush to see as many attractions as possible,

226

The World Meets Asian Tourists

chasing opportunities to take photos, visit a city or place on the itinerary for a day or even less, and collect stamps at different border crossings as prestigious “trophies.” Correia and Kozak (2012) have identified such activities in East-to-West long-haul international tourism in general as denoting relative privilege and a sign of prestige that confers status. To comment on the Chinese tourist experience in Croatia without solid research on the ground among Chinese tourists would be inappropriate. However, it might be assumed that this experience is in a sense limited, since there is not much opportunity to interact with the local population, due to short stays and the huge language barrier. Routing should also be studied more, since it is involves three to six different countries which somehow need a common or similar denominator to avoid friction as much as possible. The second segment of Chinese tourists in Croatia involves the 35 to 40 + age group, mostly business tourists who manage to combine work obligations with several extra days of leisure which they finance themselves. Beside visiting several places in Croatia, they make a stop-over on the outward or return journey of at least a day or two in a city in another country (e.g., Vienna, Budapest, Munich, or Istanbul), where they have direct flight connections. They tend to prefer cultural sights and usually demand specially designed experiential tours from travel agencies. This corresponds to research findings by the World Tourism Cities Federation (2014, p. 16) revealing that Chinese outbound tourism is gradually shifting from mere sightseeing to more in-depth tour experience, and so more Chinese tourists are drawn to cities with great historical, cultural, and architectural features. It is interesting to note that travel agencies in Croatia have been adjusting quickly to the already well developed trend in long-haul travel for highend, outbound demand from China. Xu and Wang (2014) also point out that demands for in-depth tours in Europe and the United States are gradually becoming a new fashion among Chinese tourists. In Croatia, a special interest tour was organized for a group of photographers from Beijing who ordered a tailor-made, experiential tour which included Bled in Slovenia, Zagreb, Plitvice Lakes National Park, the island of Rab, Zadar, Split, the island of Hvar, and Dubrovnik in Croatia, Budva in Montenegro, and Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The third Chinese tourist segment comprises wealthy tourists who, apart from the usual cultural motives, are looking for investment opportunities (such as buying real estate) or educational institutions as potential places for their children to study. As a result of many official meetings between politicians from China and Croatia, there has been a growing interest in investing in Croatia’s health facilities and some types of wellness tourism.

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

227

This is in line with China’s interest in investing in infrastructure projects in the CEE region. Xu and Wang reveal that “as more Chinese join in outbound tours and many become frequent and experienced tourists, the travel patterns and styles are changing and their expectations are escalating …. Chinese visitors typically wanted to see more places in a short time, but now people like to slow down the pace and choose one or two places during each visit in order to stay longer and see more” (2014, p. 1). This has also been confirmed in studies by Arlt (2013), Pearce et al. (2013), Prayag, Cohen, and Yan (2013), and Wu and Pearce (2016). The tendency has also been observed by the interviewees in Croatia, who stated that many people on a tour passing through more than one country express the wish to return independently to Croatia and spend an entire holiday there. It can also be expected that impressions from the experiences of Chinese traveling in Croatia will increasingly spread by word of mouth, individually or virally in blogs or other forms of social media, and thus might encourage more Chinese tourists, especially younger ones, to visit the country independently. In fact, several research studies (Arlt, 2006; IPSOS, 2014; Xiang, 2013) indicate that independent Chinese outbound tourists are highly educated, tend to be younger (between 25 and 44) and have well above average incomes. The UNWTO (2012c) report on the Chinese blogosphere about Europe revealed that not only are Chinese consumers increasingly turning toward the Internet in their search for travel information, but they are also avid bloggers. According to the same source, in 2011 alone over 10 million blog posts were written about European destinations. Wu and Pearce (2016), in their study on Chinese tourist blogging motivation, stress that independent travelers are the pioneers of out-of-Asia visits, and their blogs are a testimony to self-organized travel, providing explanations for others of how to cope in new destinations. Although Croatia and other CEE countries are destinations less visited than Western European ones by Chinese tourists, the fact that for some tourists, they are among the first destinations visited, where unique cultural heritage sites, good value for money, and “hidden” natural attractions can be experienced, perhaps increases these tourists’ sense of achievement and encourages them even more to share their experience in blogs with their compatriots. All these could be regarded as pull factors for attracting increasing numbers of Chinese independent tourists. Although some might argue that they still constitute a small number compared to organized groups, the UNWTO (2012a) report stresses that their influence is disproportionately large, and illustrates it with the example of

228

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Cˇesky Krumlow, a small town in the Czech Republic, which was unknown in China until Chinese backpackers, mostly studying in Europe, started traveling there and sharing their experiences online. As a result, the town is now on a must-see list for tours to the Czech Republic. So, Chinese students in the CEE countries or Western Europe, who travel to countries in the geographical vicinity, should also be regarded as independent tourists whose blogs or other social media posts may greatly influence not only their relatives and friends in China, but also fellow online users. The study by Wu and Pearce revealed that the “enjoyment of blogging itself” plays a crucial role in Chinese tourists’ efforts to create their own “Lonely Planet” guides (2016, p. 9). This all leads to the conclusion that Chinese tourists’ travel motivation and behavior will be crucial to national tourism or destination marketing organizations in developing “effective and engaging marketing strategies” (Prayag et al., 2015). There are many other challenges that Croatia will need to deal with in order to improve inbound tourism from China. One also concerns Croatian travel agencies, who will need to cooperate more efficiently with other travel agencies in the CEE countries, in order to offer continuing programs for Chinese tourists and provide more specialized services, tailor-made to Chinese needs and customs. There is also a lack of qualified tourist guides who speak Chinese. The challenge of obtaining a visa for Croatia will be reduced once Croatia joins the Schengen zone.

CONCLUSION In this chapter, the development of outbound tourism from China to Croatia was examined by taking into account past and present political connotations in regard to ex-communist European countries, and China’s economic interests in this part of the world. Previous studies indicate that political decisions regarding outbound tourism policies have consequences which are clearly reflected in China’s diplomatic policy and strategy. An analysis of the Chinese Going Global Strategy was used to extend the critical assessment of China’s policy toward the CEE countries, in order to gain a better understanding of the politico-economic decisions that shape the contemporary patterns and interests of tourism demand from China, not only in relation to Croatia, but to countries in a similar position. It is not difficult to infer that China’s strong political and economic interests go hand in hand with its outbound tourism policy. China’s recently established cooperation with the CEE countries based on the so-called 16 + 1 platform, whose main objectives are to enhance

Communist Connections? Chinese Tourists in Croatia

229

economic cooperation, trade and investment, and to improve connectivity between the countries involved, reflects intertwined political and economic interests that also extend to the field of tourism. China sees the CEE countries as a common destination, so the inauguration of China-CEECs Tourism Coordination Centre in Budapest is the first strategic step toward enhancing the visibility of the CEE countries among Chinese tourists and facilitating the mobility of its people. Croatia has been struggling to assert its identity on the Chinese market, because it is a relatively new country, whose name is unknown to the majority of potential Chinese tourists. The senior generation has the greatest awareness of Croatia, as they mostly associate it with Tito’s Yugoslavia. Croatia is exerting every effort to make better connections between the symbols of its identity and its rich culture, natural landscapes, and historical figures like Marco Polo, rather than Tito and the communist regime. In this respect, emerging trends on the Chinese outbound market in terms of travel motivation, behavioral practices and online word-of-mouth communication will exert a great influence on tourism flows toward the CEE countries, including Croatia. Three major Chinese tourist segments have been identified in Croatia: senior tourists, business tourists, and wealthy tourists. The main motives for visiting the CEE countries are linked to film tourism, cultural, and ecotourism, even for richer tourists who may be seeking investment opportunities. Bearing in mind that Croatia, along with the other CEE countries, is trying to heal the wounds left by the economic crisis, China is positioned as an economically strong partner to offer these countries what they now need very much: investment, trade volumes, and tourist consumption at maximum rates of growth. Since Croatia’s share of the Chinese market, and the entire international tourism market, is limited by the fact that foreign capital has not been significantly involved in Croatian tourism, the country urgently needs to change its “slow motion” policy regarding FDIs, not only from China. Bilateral cooperation between China and Croatia is of significant importance for the future development of the Croatian economy. Initiatives for the stronger financial involvement of China in the field of tourism and other areas would surely help the country’s economy to reduce its heavy dependence on tourism and foster alternative economic activities important for the sustainable future economic development of the whole country. Along with macroeconomic factors, future areas of research should include the motivational aspects of Chinese outbound tourism flows to Croatia and other CEE countries, which could then be explored further in relation to promotional correlates, as they include various push and pull factors.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 14

INTERPRETING AUSTRALIAN LANDSCAPES FOR CHINESE TOURISTS Karen Hughes University of Queensland, Australia

Abstract: Effective interpretation of Australia’s unique landscapes has the potential to contribute to international tourists’ understanding of natural processes, as well as enhance their perceptions and appreciation of this environment. Research indicates that mystery, familiarity, and comprehension all influence how humans view landscapes and that preferences and perceptions are likely to be culturally determined. This chapter explores human perceptions of landscapes and highlights key differences in Western and Chinese approaches to experiencing and interpreting natural environments. It presents results of a study that used photo-elicitation to explore Chinese students’ perceptions of, and preferences for, six Australian landscapes. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications and recommendations for interpreting Australian landscapes for Chinese audiences. Keywords: Perceptions of landscapes; Chinese tourists; interpretation

INTRODUCTION Landscapes and their meaning have been studied from a number of disciplinary perspectives, including geography, geology, archaeology,

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 231 246 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007014

232

The World Meets Asian Tourists

psychology, anthropology. The focus of these studies varies considerably, but what binds them together is the assumption that landscapes contribute to a person’s sense of who they are. Furthermore, because cultural and personal identities are closely linked to events that occurred in the physical environment, landscapes provide a spiritual and spatial “anchor” (Stephenson, 2008). The cultural significance of landscapes is particularly evident in documents such as the European Landscape Convention which regards them as the foundation of a society’s identity; the Burra Charter which assesses their value in terms of their past, present, and future aesthetic, historic, scientific, or spiritual significance; and New Zealand case laws which recognize their scientific, aesthetic, historic, and indigenous values (Stephenson, 2008). If landscapes and cultural identity are inextricably entwined, do perceptions of them, nature and naturalness differ depending on culture? The response to this is important not only for conservation planning purposes (Chipeniuk, 1995), but also for the way natural areas are delineated, designed, and managed. What does naturalness mean to indigenous people, to laypeople, to international tourists? Are there cultural differences in perceptions of landscapes, and if so, what does this mean for the design of nature-based tourism experiences? How can nature be interpreted in a way that is meaningful for those with little or no exposure to such environments? These issues are particularly pertinent for destinations such as Australia which rely heavily on their natural environments to attract both domestic and international tourists.

LANDSCAPE PERCEPTIONS AND PREFERENCES Landscapes form the background to everyday life, yet for much of the time, they are given very little thought or attention (Appleton, 1996). A review of studies exploring perceptions of them by Kaplan (1987) suggests that an individual’s connection to, and preferences for, particular settings depend on a number of key variables. These include understanding (comprehending or making sense of the landscape), exploration/mystery (being attracted by the possibility of gaining further information from the scene), and familiarity. A meta-analysis by Stamps (2004) expanded on Kaplan’s work and found that mystery (the amount of further information that could be gained by walking into a scene) was a key determinant of environmental preferences. He called for further research exploring the concept of

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

233

mystery in different environments and suggested that researchers do this by asking respondents how much they would like to explore the particular environment under scrutiny (Stamps, 2007). Kaplan’s notion of familiarity has also received further research attention, with studies showing that familiarity can have both a positive and negative influence on preferences. Some studies indicate that familiar landscapes are most preferred; others suggest a preference for those which are markedly different from one’s everyday surroundings. Kaplan’s (1987) review also discusses the possibility of preferences having an evolutionary basis. This claim stems from studies showing humans prefer savannah-like environments, in which the human species is thought to have evolved. The idea that preferred environments provide an adaptive advantage is similar to the key tenets of habitat theory and prospect-refuge theory (Appleton, 1996). The former is based on the premise that perceptions of the environment have an evolutionary basis in that they are spontaneous and revolve around evaluations of whether they are favorable to survival. Prospect-refuge theory builds on habitat theory in that it proposes that places which provide prospect (vistas or overviews) and refuge (safe places to hide) are particularly attractive because they allow one to meet these survival or biological needs (Appleton, 1996). According to these theories, places which do not afford such protection would not be deemed attractive, ipso facto; perceptions of safety are likely to be key factors in evaluations of particular landscapes. From a tourism perspective, it could be inferred that landscapes that elicit fears about personal safety (being attacked by dangerous wildlife, getting lost, suffering from negative weather events, etc.) might be regarded unfavorably. This is not so much because of the landscape per se, but because of the potential threat they may pose to human survival. Such a prospect will be re-visited later in this chapter. In a recent review of approaches to understanding landscape, Stephenson (2008) concludes that regardless of disciplinary foundations, all models of landscapes include the physical forms (structures, spatial elements, visual elements); most refer to the meaning and values attached to these landscapes; and most include processes whether these be human or natural. These observations form the basis of the Cultural Values Model, which states that there are three culturally valued aspects of landscape. One, forms, which are the physical features of the landscape that are either natural (landforms, rivers, flora etc.) or built (gardens, pathways, etc.). This category also includes historic and cultural features. Two, relationships,

234

The World Meets Asian Tourists

which refer to the meaning that humans ascribe to particular landscapes. This includes myths, stories, memories, spirituality. Three, practices which refer to events which happen in the landscape that are a response to human processes (farming, building, irrigating) and/or natural processes (erosion and flooding). Natural and human interventions and events are seen as intertwined. Further, Stephenson argues that landscape has a temporal dimension, with things that happened in the past (conflicts, historic events, human achievements) affecting how communities see landscapes in the present and future.

Interpreting Landscapes in Tourism Interpretation of tourism landscapes and environments in Western countries often focuses on forms (historic features, structures, archaeology, vegetation), though occasionally practices (ecological processes or historic events that have that have shaped the current landscape) also feature. Interpretation based on relationships is less common, and mostly occurs in landscapes where the indigenous perspective is being presented. ‘Best practice’ principles highlight that although interpretation is based on information, information in itself is not interpretation. Information becomes interpretation when it is shared with tourists in a way that is entertaining, engaging, relevant, provocative and multi-sensory. What is not known, however, is how well this approach works in cross-cultural contexts. Researchers have pointed out that the development of the principles and practices of interpretation are based on Western values and ideals and that these may not translate into other cultures (Ballantyne, Hughes, Ding, & Liu, 2013; Moscardo, 2003). Different cultural groups may react differently to interpretive content, and may have clear preferences for material presented in a particular way (brochures, signs, presentations, models, guided tours). To design interpretation that is truly inclusive, researchers need to explore whether cultural differences do in fact exist and if so, consider how these differences could be accommodated in the development and delivery of interpretive experiences. It is also important to identify similarities among cultures, as these will be the “common ground” foundations upon which effective interpretation can be built (Moscardo, 2003). Tourism is highly visual in that promotion of destinations is largely achieved through visual media (Yan & Santos, 2009). There has been considerable research on landscape preferences and perceptions; however, this

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

235

has predominantly focused on Western cultures (Yu, 1995). Do cultures that are disparate have the same views of the landscape and the same preferences for how landscapes are presented, explained, and interpreted? Cross-cultural research exploring similarities and differences in environmental preferences has yielded varying results, but overall suggests that there is more similarity than difference in how people perceive surroundings (Kaplan & Herbert, 1988). It must be noted, however, most studies have been conducted with culturally similar samples—studies using culturally disparate groups tend to show more variation in preferences (Zube, 1984). A number of scholars have highlighted differences in the way Western and Chinese societies traditionally access and use their natural environments, suggesting there are likely to be key differences between Chinese and Western tourists in terms of landscape perceptions and preferences.

Chinese Tourism in Natural Areas Domestic tourism in China developed in the Shang dynasty (cf. 1600 1050 BC), when emperors and courtiers began traveling to distant mountains, rivers, lakes, and other natural formations to pay respects to ancestral gods and spirits believed to reside there (Sofield & Li, 1998). Confucianism, which venerates landscapes through art, calligraphy and poetry, also inspired Chinese domestic tourism to the areas of scenic beauty depicted in these traditional artistic and literary works. Indeed, Confucius himself advocated that individuals should travel in the natural environment in order to experience and appreciate mountains and rivers (Pearce & Lu, 2011). In terms of tourist activities, Xu, Ding, and Packer (2008) argue that Chinese tourists are more likely to travel to scenic areas to gain enlightenment from being in nature than to gain an understanding of environmental processes per se. Being close to or part of nature is a common theme in Chinese tourism, a phenomenon that Xu et al. (2008) attribute to people striving to finding the meaning of life, freeing the soul and/or obtaining inspiration for writing. This also fits Taoism teachings, which recommend that people should seek enjoyment and aesthetic benefits through immersive experiences in nature. Seeking enlightenment and cultural meaning is clearly evident in patterns of Chinese domestic tourism, as sites that have inspired famous art and literary works are now visited by millions of Chinese every year. Many travel

236

The World Meets Asian Tourists

set routes established over the centuries, “ticking off” important sites in a predetermined sequence and reciting famous literary pieces as they proceed (Li & Sofield, 2009). The idea is to “walk in the footsteps of the famous” and to connect on many levels with the work of art and its creator. Chinese tourists recognize destinations as having particular cultural meanings and significance, and interpret the landscape in a way that Western tourists do not or, in many instances, cannot (Sofield & Li, 1998). For example, Chinese visit a landscape and “see” famous poems or artworks linked to core philosophical ideas; Western tourists only see a river or a mountain. As Sofield & Li explain, “Without having being nurtured in the Chinese cultural milieu, it is difficult for foreign visitors to enter Chinese places with the same experiential understanding” (1998, p.367). They argue that to provide this information would require lengthy background interpretation about ancient poets, philosophy, religion, history, and Chinese literature, a task that is probably beyond the capabilities of most interpretive sites. Given the above account, it is perhaps not surprising that the Chinese worldview is anthropocentric (placing humans first) and anthropomorphic (assigning animals, plants, and natural features human characteristics). Evidence of this can be found in “scenic spots” which often feature built elements, such as lakes, waterfalls, paths, and lookouts that are believed to improve upon nature. Modes of transport, accommodation, signage and eating venues are all designed with tourists’ comfort in mind, even if this considerably alters or impacts on the natural environment (Sofield & Li, 2007; Winter, 2009). Indeed, built additions, such as neon signage, cable cars, concrete steps, and retail outlets, are deliberately designed to look new and modern, and are thought to enhance the tourism experience (Winter, 2009). Nature experiences are not synonymous with hardship or being in the wilderness per se (Xu et al., 2008) and Chinese have little interest in, or experience of, immersive or “hard” ecotourism (Wen & Ximing, 2008). This aligns with Hughes, Wang, and Shu’s (2015) study of the behavior of Chinese students living in Australia. Respondents’ interest in nature-based activities was more “look but don’t touch” than experiential per se, with many citing safety concerns (insects, snakes, getting lost, lack of outdoor living skills) as a major barrier to exploring natural areas.

Interpreting Landscapes for Chinese Tourists The rise of Asian tourism heralds the age of developing global approaches to designing meaningful experiences (Winter, 2009). There is an urgent

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

237

need to identify similarities and differences between Western and Asian tourists in terms of expectations, preferences, and perceptions and consider how these could influence approaches to managing and interpreting landscapes. “Best practice” principles of interpretation have evolved from Western discourse (Winter, 2009), but little research has explored whether these are effective for Asian audiences. Studies exploring interpretation in China suggest that practices are quite different from those commonly found in countries such as Australia. Chinese thinking is often figurative or metaphorical and involves making associations between images and the object being viewed. Thus, landscape formations in China tend to be interpreted with reference to the animate objects that they resemble (Xu, Cui, Ballantyne, & Packer, 2013). Examples from the Huangshan World Heritage Site include a rock being referred to as “Pig-headed Monk Eating Watermelon,” a tree with spreading branches as “Welcoming Guests Pine,” and two intertwined pines as “Two Lovers Embracing” (Li & Sofield, 2009). Imagery is also prominent in writings about the landscape. Li and Sofield (2009) explain that there are 20,000 poems and 200 essays that have been written about Huangshan, many of which are well-known to Chinese throughout the world. To Chinese tourists, the value of the site lies in its cultural features—the pine trees are revered and have become “must see” sights because of their survival in adverse conditions and their prominence in literary works. The trees’ ability to grow in cracks in the rock face has led Chinese people to label them with human characteristics, such as determination, steadfastness, strength, and braveness. Such labels and descriptions would rarely be seen in Western interpretation of nature. A recent study of interpretation in Danxia Shan National Natural Reserve and Geo-Park (Guangdong Province) by Xu et al. (2013) revealed that while signage was largely scientific to comply with World Geo-Park listing requirements, tour guides tend to use metaphors, images, stories, and poems to describe and exaggerate the landscape’s beauty. References to the park’s geological and geographic features were minimal. According to the park’s tour guides, Chinese tourists are more interested in stories and poems about the area than scientific information (Xu et al., 2013). These scholars call for interpretation to recognize the importance of aesthetics when interpreting landscapes for Chinese tourists. Hongying and Hui’s (2009) observation of more than 20 guided tours identifies similar elements in the way Chinese guides interpret surroundings. Cultural aspects of the landscape are the key focus, with geographical features, flora, and fauna receiving very little mention. Like Xu et al. (2013) and Li and Sofield (2009), they report that the natural landscape

238

The World Meets Asian Tourists

tends to be interpreted with reference to its place in legends or fairy tales (scientific perspectives are seldom used). This focus on the symbolic was also evident in Yan and Santos’ (2009) analysis of the “China, Forever” promotional video created to attract international tourists to this country. Here, the use of Chinese women in traditional dress, stone bridges, rivers, and traditional Chinese villages were all framed to represent traditional Chinese paintings. The researchers claim that the underlying messages were nostalgia, history, sweetness, and mystery with the past and present being intertwined. Similarly, Yu (1995) compared the landscape preferences of 28 Chinese groups and one Western design graduate group across 50 scenes from a Chinese National park. Cross-cultural differences were found in landscapes with deeply embedded cultural meaning. Chinese groups consistently rated these as the most preferred, whereas the Western group rated them as least preferred. The researchers conclude that these landscapes were rated highly by Chinese because they are symbolic of rural scenery and repeatedly feature in Chinese literature and art. This suggests that outsiders (those from other cultures) lack the rich cultural information required to “make sense” of the scenes and thus are unable to connect emotionally and cognitively with the landscapes. These observations have important implications for the way in which Australian landscapes are interpreted for Chinese tourists. If Chinese typically use symbolic and cultural references to interpret their own landscapes, what do they use to “make sense” of Australian landscapes? What do they “see” and how can interpreters springboard off this to provide a meaningful commentary that helps tourists understand and appreciate what they are looking at?

Chinese Perceptions of Australian Landscapes For many years, Australia’s natural environment (its flora, fauna, and protected areas) have been featured extensively in marketing materials and promotional campaigns. According to the national marketing agency, Tourism Australia (2014), nature is the key concept driving international tourism to Australia. Interviews conducted in 2013 by Tourism Research Australia (2014a) with 3,606 Chinese tourists support this claim, with 93% of the sample regarded nature-based experiences as a major drawcard. Further, 44% of interviewees nominated Australia’s unspoiled natural environment as its best feature.

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

239

Given the continuing growth of the Chinese market (Arlt and Burns, 2013) and the predominance of natural environments and landscapes in Australia’s tourism product, research exploring how to best present and interpret landscapes for Chinese is clearly needed. In 2015, an exploratory study was conducted with Chinese students attending the University of Queensland, Australia, to ascertain how people of Chinese origin view Australian landscapes. Students were sampled from two courses, one undergraduate and another postgraduate. Participation was voluntary, with students being assured that survey responses would remain anonymous and participation would not affect their grades. All Chinese students enrolled in the two courses agreed to participate. Using photographs, the aim of the study was to explore perceptions, preferences, and information requirements in relation to six Australian landscapes. The use of photographs to elicit responses and reactions is common in the social sciences, but has only recently started to receive attention from tourism scholars (Pearce, Wu, & Chen, 2015). Matteucci (2013) advocates using photographs to introduce fun, creativity, and engagement into the research process. He claims that photo elicitation prompts respondents to share personal feelings, meaning, and experiences. Others note that respondents are able to extract their own meanings from the images (Pearce et al., 2015). From a practical perspective, photographs are inexpensive and easy to obtain (Pearce et al., 2015), and in the present study helped overcome the prohibitive costs associated with traveling to destinations to question people in-situ. Using photographs also enabled the researcher to provide stimuli in a controlled condition where each respondent viewed the landscape from the same perspective and without the possible confounding variables of weather, lighting conditions, and crowding. Australia’s National Landscapes program (Tourism Australia, 2014) was used as the source of photographs as this database has a wide range of professional photographs of typical Australian landscapes (Figure 1). Of images that represent a variety of Australian natural environments (beach, desert, mountains, rainforest, rivers, lakes), 20 were selected, then 10 academics were asked to short-list this to six landscapes considered to be uniquely Australian. One, The Three Sisters: A striking rock formation in the Blue Mountains of New South Wales, The Three Sisters is a major attraction approximately 120 km west of Sydney. Two, Daintree Rainforest. This is a tropical rainforest on the north east coast of Queensland, 125 km north of Cairns. Covering 1,200 km2, it is the largest continuous area of tropical rainforest in Australia. Three, Cradle Mountain. Located in the

240

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 1. Photographs used to Elicit Perceptions of Six Australian Landscapes Source: Australia’s national landscape program (http://www.tourism.australia.com/programs/ national-landscapes.aspx)

Central Highlands of Tasmania, Cradle Mountain is located on the shores of picturesque Dove Lake and forms part of the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area. It is a popular destination among hikers and photographers. Four, Mission Beach. Known for its white sand, palm trees, and resorts,

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

241

Mission Beach in North Queensland is a relaxed tropical paradise. Five, Outback/desert. While the exact location is not specified, this photograph is indicative of the rural landscapes found in Central Australia. Six, the Twelve Apostles. A popular destination for Australian and international tourists alike, The Twelve Apostles is an iconic collection of limestone stacks off Victoria’s coastline accessed via the Great Ocean Road. The survey was conducted during normal lecture periods. Each photograph was presented on a PowerPoint slide for eight minutes. The accompanying questionnaire asked students to describe their initial reactions to the photograph then rate it on a seven-point scale in terms of how familiar it felt, how attractive it was and whether the image prompted a desire to explore the destination further. Space was also provided for respondents to expand upon their perceptions and ratings. Following this, respondents were asked to indicate the type of information that they would require to “make sense” of the environment depicted. The final sample of one hundred and three Chinese students was predominantly postgraduate (75% of the sample), aged between 20 and 24 (83%) and female (85%). One third of the group had lived in Australia less than two months. T-tests indicate that there were no significant differences in patterns of responses across age, gender, or length of time students had lived in Australia. One-way Repeated Measures ANOVAs were conducted to assess whether there were any significant differences in the way students responded to the six individual photographs. Mean scores for the six photographs in terms of their familiarity, appeal and respondents’ interest in exploring further (1 = not at all to 7 = very) are shown in Table 1, together with results of the ANOVA analysis. It can be seen that there were significant Table 1. Ratings of the Appeal, Familiarity, and Interest to Explore Landscapes More Three Sisters

Rainforest Cradle Mtn

Mission Outback/ 12 ANOVA Output Beach Desert Apostles

Appeal

4.70

5.13

5.48

4.72

3.69

5.43

F (5,95) = 19.75, p = 000

Interest in exploring

4.70

5.31

5.69

4.85

3.69

5.53

F (5,95) = 14.96, p = .000

Familiarity

5.08

4.33

4.36

5.94

4.09

4.09

F (5,95) = 23.23, p = .000

242

The World Meets Asian Tourists

differences across all three measures in terms of how the six landscapes were perceived by respondents. Not surprisingly, the landscapes considered most appealing were also the ones respondents wanted to explore further. Cradle Mountain scored highest on these two measures, with its appeal predominantly being related to its peaceful and poetic appearance. The landscape includes a lake reflecting a mountain with a small dwelling (Figure 1). Such scenery is often depicted in Chinese art and is considered balanced and attractive. Although moderately familiar in terms of composition, respondents still felt that to fully appreciate this landscape, they would need indigenous legends and information on the landforms and people who live/d here. The Twelve Apostles also rated highly on appeal and willingness to explore further. Qualitative responses suggest this largely related to its iconic status. Students indicated that they had seen the formation in numerous travel advertisements, that it was well-known in China, and that they held long-standing intentions to visit the area. Contrary to expectations, Mission Beach scored highest in terms of familiarity. It seems unlikely that respondents were comparing the scene to beaches in China, but perhaps it was considered familiar because it matches respondents’ images of Australia. The survey questions did not allow for exploration of this proposition, but this is an issue that could be investigated in future studies. Despite being familiar, students felt the scene had little appeal and consequently, were not particularly interested in exploring it further. The Three Sisters also scored highly in terms of familiarity, with many respondents commenting on its similarity to a structure in China called Five Fingers. Several respondents suggested that stories and information that draw comparisons between the two sites could be useful in connecting Chinese tourists to the Australian site. Like the Mission Beach photograph, however, familiarity was not linked to appeal or willingness to explore further. Qualitative responses indicated that many students felt it was too similar to Five Fingers to warrant a visit. Being perceived as unfamiliar can also be linked to lack of appeal. For example, the Outback photograph scored the lowest in terms of familiarity, and was also considered unappealing and not somewhere students would like to explore further. In open-ended questions, the landscape was described as boring, lonely, and under-developed. Approximately two thirds of respondents would definitely not visit, with fears of their personal safety and a lack of activities (including limited Internet access) commonly mentioned. Similar responses have been obtained in other studies examining Chinese students’ travel behavior in Australia’s natural areas

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

243

(Hughes et al., 2015), suggesting that attracting the Chinese market to remote landscapes will be challenging. Indeed, most respondents felt that there was nothing in the way of interpretation or experiences that would connect them to this environment—it was simply too foreign and unattractive. Those that indicated they might visit expressed a preference for indigenous legends and stories of human settlement (albeit with a degree of incredulity and skepticism that people could live there). These mixed findings in terms of the impact of familiarity on appeal and preferences mirror previous research that reports that familiarity can have both a positive and negative impact on preferences. Students’ concerns about safety are also interesting, as they support the key tenets of Appleton’s (1996) prospect-refuge theory (places need to provide prospect and refuge for them to be considered attractive). Chinese students clearly felt that the Outback scene provided neither. Perceived safety concerns were also a barrier to visiting the Daintree Rainforest, with snakes, insects, and wild animals listed as reasons for not visiting. Despite this, the appeal of the landscape and interest in exploring it further were still relatively high (5.13 and 5.31, respectively). For this landscape at least, there is scope for interpretation to provide a connection. Not surprisingly, students felt information on safety issues would be the most important for Chinese tourists, followed by scientific information on the formation of the landforms. Across the six photographs, there was a consistent preference for interpretation that focuses on scientific information about the formation of the landscapes and indigenous legends and stories. These seem logical as Chinese tourists are likely to have specific expectations of interpretation based on their previous travel experiences in China (Pearce & Lu, 2011). As mentioned, panels and signage in world heritage areas commonly focus on scientific facts to comply with regulations (Xu et al., 2013). It may well be that this is the style of information that Chinese people are used to seeing in their national parks—perhaps familiarity of presentation style helps to give an unfamiliar environment more meaning and this in itself may explain the expressed preferences for scientific information on the formation of these landscapes. The call for indigenous legends is not surprising, given the Chinese predilection for stories, legends, and tales of ancestors, not to mention the tendency for tour guides to focus on these when describing Chinese landscapes. Again, this could reflect a preference for the familiar when encountering the unfamiliar. If so, using indigenous dreamtime stories could resonate with this market as they have similar creation stories and like the dreamtime stories, often interpret landforms with reference to ancestors,

244

The World Meets Asian Tourists

spirits and animal forms. Perhaps other stories featured in popular culture could also be used to similar effect. For example, the Australian film ‘Priscilla Queen of the Desert’ could be used to enhance the appeal of desert environments and counter the impression that such environments are boring. Interpretation using this story could highlight adventure, discovery and excitement and in doing so, could help foster an appreciation of the scale and magnitude of the environment and the varied possibilities it offers. Using the movie’s theme song “I will survive” and drawing connections between the survival of desert species and survival of other species in harsh environments in China (as per the previously discussed trees in Yellow Mountain) might also appeal to this market. Given the key role that art, poetry, and literary works play in generating Chinese domestic tourism, it was expected that interpretation using Australian poetry and other works of art would be highly regarded. This was not the case. Respondents also expressed little interest in famous artisans or celebrities who had visited the area, suggesting that the motives driving travel in unfamiliar environments may be quite different to those operating in domestic settings. It is also possible that respondents’ lack of interest stemmed from their limited knowledge or understanding of Australian art and culture. If so, interpretation that outlines why certain landscapes are culturally and aesthetically important will be required to imbue the landscape with meaning. During this process, similarities could be drawn between the Chinese and indigenous Australian traditions of using art and other its forms, such as songs and dance, to pass information from one generation to the next. Responses obtained in the study can also be interpreted using Stephenson’s (2008) Cultural Values Model. Participants expressed clear preferences for information about forms (physical features of the landscape) and relationships (myths and legends). There was less emphasis on practices (events that occur in the landscape as a result of human processes), though this could be a function of the landscapes selected. There is certainly evidence that physical features and the spiritual meaning ascribed to them are considered key ingredients of a successful interpretive experience. This suggests that the elements contained in Stephenson’s forms and relationships segments could provide guidance on the types of themes that would appeal to Chinese tourists. This study provides important insights into how Chinese view and respond to Australian landscapes; however, it does have two key limitations. First, it sampled university students, a population who are likely to be younger, more educated, and more Westernized than most Chinese

Interpreting Australian Landscapes for Chinese Tourists

245

visiting Australia. Second, it only sampled Chinese students which precluded comparisons with other international students or Australians. The study is currently being expanded and revised to address several issues. One, photographs of five Australian landscapes that attract significant tourist numbers have been incorporated into an online survey that will be distributed through social media networks. Two, to maximize the size and variety of the sample, the study will be conducted with students in five universities located in Australia, Singapore, India, and the Middle East. Students will be asked to forward to all their social media contacts, regardless of place of residence. The survey has been translated into Chinese to encourage participation from non-English speaking Chinese residents. Three, each respondent will receive one randomly generated photograph and an associated interpretive story (scientific, historic, indigenous, or no interpretation). This will allow cross-cultural comparisons of the impact of different types of interpretation on perceptions of, and preferences for, a range of Australian landscapes.

CONCLUSION Research across a range of disciplines and settings suggests that physical landscapes play an important role in shaping individual, community, and cultural identities. It is argued that if preferences and perceptions of landscapes are closely connected to cultural backgrounds, different cultural groups may require particular styles of interpretation to “make sense” of destinations. The current practice of simply translating from one language to another fails to allow for the way different cultures view and interact with natural environment and is unlikely to enhance international tourists’ understanding and appreciation of Australian landscapes. For the Chinese market, presenting information in a “package” that has elements of familiarity (in content, style, focus, or delivery) is likely to be far more effective in cognitively and emotionally connecting them to the Australian environment. Interpretation for Chinese audiences should aim to incorporate universal themes (Ham, 2015), draw on similarities between Chinese and Australian approaches to understanding and interacting with the natural world, and, wherever possible, provide information in a familiar format. This could include, for example, reference to and comparisons with wellknown Chinese characters, myths, and legends; use of visual cues and reference points (describing formations and elements of the landscape in terms

246

The World Meets Asian Tourists

of their shape and/or size); and use of analogies to draw connections between the creation stories of Chinese and indigenous Australians. This is a call to present environments in a way that is familiar and safe, yet at the same time stimulating and inspiring. In doing so, it is important to remember that experiences are defined by the interaction between the site and what tourists bring with them in terms of thoughts, motives, beliefs, and preferences. What works well for one group of Chinese tourists may not necessarily strike a chord with another (Winter, 2009). Studies exploring the effectiveness of different approaches are required to inform the development of a suite of interpretive activities that have the potential to cognitively, emotionally, and physically connect Chinese tourists to landscapes that on the surface, and without interpretation, may appear very alien.

Chapter 15

TALKING ABOUT NEW CHINESE TOURISTS Managers’ Perspectives Amy M. Osmond James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: Nature plays an important role in tourism experiences with more people seeking leisure activities in outdoor settings. Tourism management can facilitate a reduction of impacts and enhancement of experiences but requires sensitivity to individual markets to be effective. This chapter investigate stakeholders’ perspectives for managing Chinese tourism to Wet Tropics. Specifically, it aims to determine overall thoughts as well as individual attitudes toward different futures. Guided by the concept of saturation of ideas in qualitative data, 18 in-depth interviews were conducted with stakeholders in north Queensland. Findings indicate that they are optimistic toward all futures but have different plans for and concerns about individual tourism markets. Keywords: Chinese tourists; Wet Tropics; management; stakeholders; scenario

INTRODUCTION Tourism is quite dependent on natural areas and their resources, mountains, lakes, rivers, and more. In particular, environments serve as a

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 247 265 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007015

248

The World Meets Asian Tourists

principal attraction or setting for tourist activities (Buckley, 2000). Every group, however, brings distinctive traits and learns about the environment differently (Urry, 1992). The way that people experience and respond to environments is a reflection of the ability to be cognitive and reflexive individuals (Tresidder, 2001). In addition, individual sites can host a myriad of leisure activities which depend upon the purpose and preference of the individual user. Therefore, the management needs to understand differences among tourism markets. Chinese tourists, like many other markets, are attracted to natural areas and landscapes. Nyı´ ri, when discussing the concept of scenic spots, warns that there is a need to understand how Chinese deal with “the far less canonized meanings of sites they encounter outside of China” (2006, p. 104) (see also Chapter 14). Furthermore, management strategies must also consider the unique characteristics which make natural environments special. Australia is renowned for its environmental diversity, with over 9,000 national parks, protected areas, and reserves. The Wet Tropics is one destination on the cusp of experiencing increasing visitation levels by Chinese. This World Heritage Area is described as a “living museum” renowned for its ancient ancestry, diversity of unique plants and animals, and surviving indigenous history (Wet Tropics Management Authority, n.d.). Located in far north Queensland, the Wet Tropics stretches along the coastline of two tourism regions: Tropical North Queensland (area north of Ingham stretching inland to the Northern Territory border, with Cairns as its major city) and Northern (area between Ayr and Ingham, stretching inland to Charters Tower, Townsville as the major city). Figure 1 highlights the importance of the Chinese source market for Australia and Tropical North Queensland (Chinese data for Northern not available). In year ending June 2015, 165,000 Chinese visited Tropical North Queensland comprising 19% of the total inbound (Tourism and Events Queensland, 2015; Tourism Research Australia, 2015a). In addressing these two issues, this chapter aims to document stakeholders’ perspectives regarding future management of Chinese in Australia’s Wet Tropics.

STAKEHOLDERS’ ATTITUDES TO NEW CHINESE TOURISM More people increasingly desire to experience nature-based settings in their leisure pursuits. Tourists have unlimited access to an array of unique and special ecosystems worldwide due to modern transportation advances (Newsome, Moore, & Dowling, 2002). In particular, different combinations

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

249

864

900 800 Tourist numbers ('000)

710 700

641

600

544 467

500

Australia

400 367

Tropical North Queensland Holiday travel

300 200 100

94

136 142

165

0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Year ending June

Figure 1. Chinese Tourist Arrivals (2010 2015)

of biophysical, social, and managerial attributes facilitate the possible range of recreation opportunities at any given site (Clark & Stankey, 1979; Hendee, Gale, & Catton, 1971). Individuals, however, create personalized (and often diverse) experiences by drawing on any number of these setting attributes (Eagles & McCool, 2003). Consequently, the experience of one site will inevitably vary in terms of the level of enjoyment and satisfaction among different individuals. Furthermore, Terkenli (2008) suggests that the tourist-landscape relationship is complex and requires contextual interpretation. Research attention could be directed toward understanding the cultural construction of a landscape and the associated distinct and meaningful interpretations (Ryan, 2000, cited in Fairweather & Swaffield, 2003, p. 57). Different forms of outdoor recreation require different resources and can cause divergent environmental and societal impacts. These effects might not only compromise resource protection mandates, but can also occur rapidly at the beginning, become cumulative and lead to other undesirable consequences (Farrell & Marion, 2002). Therefore, it is important to understand the potential impacts of tourism activities in any setting. Nature-based tourists, in particular, can be both participants in various forms of activities (such as hiking, skiing, and wildlife viewing) and

250

The World Meets Asian Tourists

consumers of commodities (Fredmen & Tyrva¨inen, 2010). Management strategies, consequently, represent a set of approaches to reduce impacts and maintain experience quality (Jim, 1989). One issue, however, is that effective management requires sensitivity to different markets. The way that individuals engage in tourism may produce differing levels of appreciation for nature-based attractions (Packer, Ballantyne, & Hughes, 2014). Natural area managers have a responsibility to protect and be publicly accountable for these precious investments (Moore, Smith, & Newsome, 2003). Visiting natural wonders and admiring scenic beauties rates highly among Chinese outbound tourists (Ai-ping, 2009; Chow & Murphy, 2007; Yu & Weiler, 2006). In particular, they have arguably developed a unique way of viewing landscapes, when on a journey in search of moral enlightenment, an aesthetic experience, and to enjoy being in nature (Xu et al., 2013). Daoism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucian thought and philosophies have all contributed to these contemporary values associated with nature (Li, 2008) and the appreciation of landscapes (Xu et al., 2008). Chinese views of landscapes have also developed through connections to literary works. Poems and paintings from famous people who have visited these sites have subsequently become embedded in the landscape, and are used by Chinese tourists to evaluate the attractiveness of the visited site (Xu et al., 2008). Furthermore, a set of recent studies have established that the Chinese market is now diverse and changing rapidly (Chen, Bao, & Huang, 2014; Pearce et al., 2013; Xiang, 2013). Notably, there is a unique juxtaposition of more sophisticated, affluent tourists seeking richer experiences and those tourists on packaged tours. Managing different and new tourist groups is a significant contemporary challenge. The Wet Tropics is a site where the “world” is just considering what to do to manage, meet, greet, and provide the experiences of the future. Therefore, the goal of this chapter is to understand the management implications arising from Chinese tourism to this precious ecosystem. Specifically, the aim is to identify stakeholders’ overall perspectives toward future management of the Chinese market and to explore their attitudes toward different Chinese tourism futures to Australia’s Wet Tropics;

Context of the Study Tourism stakeholders’ attitudes toward managing future Chinese tourism were explored through the concept of optimism-pessimism. A well-grounded

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

251

concept in medicine and psychology, it serves as a way to evaluate people’s outlook on life. That is, optimists hold favorable expectations about future events while pessimists expect bad things to happen (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010). Although optimism and pessimism have not been extensively explored in tourism, controversy surrounds the definition and measurement of this concept in general. Dember, Martin, Hummer, Howe, and Melton (1989) suggested that researchers might conceptualize optimism and pessimism in diverse ways (according to disciplinary backgrounds) along the lines of cognitive process, underlying mood, and trait-like variables. Furthermore, disagreement in the dimensionality of optimism and pessimism leads some scholars to advocate for measurement along a singular continuum while others recommend two separate scales. The latter approach recognizes that people can simultaneously possess optimistic and pessimistic tendencies (Burke, Joyner, Czech, & Wilson, 2000), where expressions of pessimism are not equivalent to those of the lack of optimism (Chen, 2011). Therefore, the current study explored optimism levels following Peterson and Seligman’s position, meaning that optimism (along with its sister concepts of hope, future-mindedness, and future orientation) “represent(s) a cognitive, emotional, and motivational stance towards the future” (2004, p. 570). Table 1 describes how optimism was accordingly defined and operationalized in the current work.

Study Methods Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted to investigate current versus future management perspectives. This work presents stakeholders’ attitudes toward future management only. These perspectives were explored through the use of four questions. One, how realistic do you think this scenario is for the year 2020? Two, in 2020, how well do you think your organization/the destination would cope in the scenario described? Three, thinking about the year 2020, how would you describe the state of Australia’s tourism industry based on the situation depicted in this scenario? Four, do you think that the number of Chinese tourists to the Wet Tropics area in 2020 will be better or worse than current visitation levels based on the tourist described in this scenario? These questions were included to gauge stakeholders’ overall attitudes toward different Chinese tourism scenarios to the Wet Tropics.

252

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 1.

Conceptualization of Optimism

Terminology Overall

Optimism

Individual Reality acceptance Dimensionsa Organizational survivability

Definition An individual’s confidence that the suggested future environment will be positive, and in which they hold favorable expectations, anticipate desirable outcomes, envisage constructive opportunities, and possess a strong willingness to approach the situation in an active manner The stakeholder’s willingness to accept the alternate future as a real situation The stakeholder’s belief that the organization could adapt and survive in the alternate future posited

Tourism-industry condition

The stakeholder’s opinion about the overall state of tourism and the environmental setting in the alternate future presented

Visitation outlook

The stakeholder’s stance on tourist numbers of future alternate Chinese tourist markets

a

Individual optimism themes were constructed by the researcher, which build on the various perspectives noted by others.

Scenario planning provides a disciplined method to explore future situations. Specifically, the full extent of an issue is potentially captured by simplifying the wealth of data into a select number of imagined futures (Schoemaker, 1995). These imagined futures (or scenarios) can assist users’ recognition, consideration, and reflection of the many uncertainties which may evolve (Varum & Melo, 2010). Scenario planning was employed in the current work to assess whether stakeholders are ready for tomorrow’s Chinese tourists. Arlt (2013) describes the “second wave” of Chinese which clearly foreshadows a different tourism with many new markets emerging. Individuals who possess a proactive attitude and a capacity to imagine

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

253

distinct futures will be better positioned to respond to unforeseen eventualities (Godet & Roubelat, 1996). Overall, a nine-stage, literature-informed deductive approach was adopted in developing the scenarios (more details available from the author). Individual scenarios represent a present-to-future pathway by highlighting key trends, events, and uncertainties, and by depicting the interrelationships, causes, and effects among these elements. Four Chinese scenarios were constructed using a matrix format along the axes of “political cooperation” (or the Chinese government’s level of advocacy and encouragement for citizens to engage in outbound tourism) and “travel familiarity” (or the extent of experience that the individual tourist possesses). Figure 2 provides a summarized description of the different scenarios. Both of these variables are consistent with major theoretical themes of influence at the macro and micro scale shaping future Asian outbound tourism (see Conclusion). The scenarios necessarily make some assumptions, including maintaining or improving air access (see Conclusion) and a continuing stability and welcome by the Australian government of Chinese tourists with either the same or improved ease of accessing visas (see Chapter 2). Overall, 18 intensive interviews were conducted (Table 2) during May and June 2014. Chinese management perspectives were sought from three types of stakeholders including tourism authority personnel (“protectors” of the Wet Tropics), tourism ambassadors (“marketers” of the Wet Tropics), and tourism enterprises (“operators” of the Wet Tropics). Selection of stakeholder bodies was guided by the location of the business/ organization, the individual’s familiarity and/or experience with the Chinese market, and the individual’s actual position held within the entity. Consequently, enterprises (attractions and businesses) were well represented in the sample, with a majority of stakeholders operating in Cairns, a major hub of the Wet Tropics. Stakeholder interviews varied in length from 48 to 129 minutes. Data collection was aided through audio-taping and later transcribing the intensive interviews. Transcription allows data to be converted into written format which is flexible to further analysis (Wood & Kroger, 2000). Audacity software facilitated the written documentation of interview data. Eighteen interviews were conducted; however, the primary data set comprised 15 transcriptions due to the exclusion of three interviews for incomplete sections. These three interviews served as supplementary material to support findings. Future management perspectives made up the more involved part of the intensive interviews (approximately 40 minutes to 1 hour, including

254

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Luxury and longevity

Authentic avenues

Environmental setting

Environmental setting

High expense of travel; Political tensions; Business “greener” travel. Potential tourist Middle age corporate (single); Overseas travel for work; Technology aided, “green”, luxury.

Prosperous, health economy; Technological advancements; Popular sites are deteriorating. T R A V E L

Potential tourist Young professional (single); Previous overseas living; Novel, authentic experiences.

POLITICAL

SUPPORT

Worried world Environmental setting Unstable and turbulent times; Terrorism, political instability, health pandemics and environmental issues; Minimal cooperation. Potential tourist Senior market (couple); Limited overseas travel experience; Typical sites with some luxury service.

Friendly forthcoming E X P E R I E N C E

Environmental setting Cooperation and prosperity; Travel is easier and more affordable; Peer recommendations. Potential tourist Young (middle class) family; Minimal overseas travel experience; Comparison experiences.

Figure 2. Future Chinese Tourism Scenarios to Australia’s Wet Tropics reading time). Content analysis of the responses was employed to assess stakeholders’ perceived level of optimism. In determining future attitudes, stakeholders were scale-rated (0 4 scale) based on the four dimensions of optimism. Negative and positive attitudes were both captured in the scale; the zero-point accounted for any pessimistic feeling, the one-point represented neutrality, and the other three

Talking about New Chinese Tourists Table 2.

255

Profile of Wet Tropics’ Tourism Stakeholders

Characteristic

Sample

Region Atherton/Kuranda/Port Douglas Cairns

5 10

Townsville/Ingham/Innisfail

3

Stakeholder type Tourism authority personnel

4

Tourism ambassador Tourism enterprise

4 10

points showed variance in the level of optimism. An independent researcher also rated stakeholders; percentage agreement for optimism coding was 57.5%. This level of agreement (albeit lower than usually recommended) was deemed acceptable. Oppenheim suggests that “the more ‘qualitative’ and revealing the question, the more complex the coding frame will need to be, and hence the greater the risks of inconsistency and bias in the coding of the responses” (1992, p. 278). Interviewee responses to all questions in the future management discussion were collectively contrasted to reveal a single score toward reality acceptance, organizational survivability, tourismindustry condition and visitation outlook for the four different scenarios. The overlapping nature of responses, however, meant that the researcher and independent coder occasionally assigned the same response to different dimensions. Furthermore, trustworthiness of the data – following Lincoln and Guba’s (1985, cited in Decrop, 2004) four criteria typology in establishing scientific canons for qualitative inquiry was established primarily through allowing interviewees to review the transcript and provide further clarifications; recruiting independent researchers to check data transcripts and coding reliability; and multiple readings of the interview data.

Study Findings Tourism stakeholders were assigned a score along four optimism dimensions, through repeated readings of the interview data and independent

256

The World Meets Asian Tourists

checks with another colleague. Qualitative analysis of the interview data was undertaken to identify conversation themes according to the scenarios. Figure 3 displays the mean optimism scores for the four Chinese scenarios. Tourism stakeholders were relatively optimistic toward different futures of outbound Chinese. Composite variables were computed to assign respondents a total optimism score for each scenario. Overall, interviewees were most optimistic toward Friendly Forthcoming (x = 11.30) and Authentic Avenues (x = 10.18), and less optimistic about Worried World (x = 6.83), and Luxury and Longevity (x = 6.80). This demonstrates a preference toward seeing outbound Chinese become less restricted by the government. The level of optimism associated with each dimension, however, varied slightly according to the individual scenarios (Figure 3). Reality acceptance and organizational survivability were generally ranked higher than tourism-industry condition and visitation outlook. Consequently, stakeholders appear to be more optimistic about individual scenarios playing out and their capacity to respond, than they are about the future state of Australia’s tourism and the potential arrivals. Further exploration of stakeholders’ attitudes was conducted through overall opinions instead of their perspectives toward each optimism dimension. This is due to several reasons. First, interviewees primarily responded to the four questions in a generic manner. For example, “it seems quite realistic,” “we could manage them,” “I think Australia would be doing well,” and “we will see growth in that market.” These responses made it 3.50 Degree of optimism (x)

3.00 2.50 2.00 Reality acceptance 1.50

Organizational survivability

1.00

Tourism-industry condition

0.50

Visitation outlook

0.00 Worried World

Luxury and Friendly Authentic Longevity Forthcoming Avenues

Chinese outbound tourism scenarios

Figure 3. Tourism Stakeholders’ Level of Optimism toward Chinese Futures

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

257

challenging to distinguish differences in attitudes among both the scenarios and the optimism dimensions. Second, stakeholders additionally provided an extensive array of perspectives. The identification of commonly held perceptions was almost impractical for some optimism dimensions. Third, interviewees’ responses to “how well do you think your organization would cope?” and “how would you describe the state of Australia’s tourism industry based?” revealed overlapping perspectives. Stakeholders may not actively perceive much difference between their organization’s position and functionality and the wider Australian tourism industry. Therefore, a more superficial, over-arching analysis of their attitudes is presented below. Figure 4 displays emerging perspectives toward different futures of Chinese outbound tourism. Stakeholders’ Perspectives towards Chinese Outbound Tourism Management. Overall, interviewees believed that any future would be significantly shaped Worried World

Luxury and Longevity

Costly times More group, not chauffeured Australia is favored Reduced offerings

External sensitivities Environmental champions

THE FUTURE Today, tomorrow, the new tourist Governmental influence Wet Tropics’ diversity Always growing Not the Chinese way

Beneficial everywhere Ideal but not realistic Improve the experience

Friendly Forthcoming

More experience; more tourists Market needs nurturing Dispersing the benefits Previous experience Authentic Avenues

Figure 4. Stakeholders’ Attitudes toward Chinese Tourism Futures

258

The World Meets Asian Tourists

primarily by governmental influence and direct access. Almost 2/3 of stakeholders commented about the influence of government actions (n = 9), with most uncertain in which way the government will respond. Specifically, a majority commented on the negative outcomes including a reduction in arrivals. One authority personnel believed there would be less tourists coming if they have to apply to get approved, while an enterprise stakeholder discussed Chinese tourists’ reduced interest in traveling if the government tried to regulate itineraries. Six stakeholders, however, believed there would always be increasing numbers with direct access the key to exponential growth. As an authority personnel explains “if we can get direct air links from a couple of those cities, you’re likely to see numbers skyrocket.” In addition, stakeholders felt that each scenario somewhat exists in today’s world and that the Wet Tropics suits all types of Chinese tourists. Generally, they believed that the timeline of change for each scenario was quite realistic and probable (n = 7). In particular, nine interviewees justified the eventuality of these events simply on the belief that these changes are evident now (n = 9). Other stakeholders commented about their capacity to currently respond to the individual markets. As one authority personnel explained “I think it’s developed enough to be able to provide those sorts of services” (discussing Worried World). The versatility of the Wet Tropics to cater to the different Chinese tourists described was also frequently identified (n = 8). For example, in Luxury and Longevity, interviewees felt that the destination is well suited for business travel: … being able to use places like Cairns or Townsville to actually do business makes better sense than going to a place like Sydney, and then spending hours trying to get from one place to the next. (Tourism authority personnel) Australia conducts itself very [well] throughout the days and evenings as well. And I think particularly in a regional place such as far north Queensland, that’s when we come to life! (Tourism enterprise) Although, for Friendly Forthcoming and Authentic Avenues, stakeholders felt that we’re a suitable destination for independent travel by Chinese tourists: … we’re quite geared up for people travelling with children, in terms of things to see and do …. (Tourism authority personnel, Friendly Forthcoming)

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

259

Australia’s very well positioned with the diverse range of experiences and with all the different environments and climates, we’re well positioned for longer stays. (Tourism ambassador, Authentic Avenues) With respect to the actual tourists, six stakeholders felt that Chinese tourists may not exhibit such travel behavior patterns. Basically, interviewees felt that Chinese would not progress to such levels (given their relatively shallow travel history). One authority personnel commented “… that whole concept of strolling along the beach for the sense of relaxation. I don’t know if that’s necessarily the Chinese way” (discussing Worried World). A few stakeholders believed that Chinese might still be seeking the main attractions and ordinary experiences, to “tick off the box, not so much the immersion” (Tourism ambassador, Authentic Avenues). Eight stakeholders, however, believed that their current experience can help with future tourism management. In particular, two enterprises commented that everyone would have a much more mature experience with the Chinese market and would be ready for what the future entailed. Furthermore, 1/3 of stakeholders also suggested that the evolution depicted in the scenarios is similar to other current markets, and thus they just need to fine tune their management finesse: … we’ve done it in the past. Once you’ve done it for other nationalities, you’re just fine tuning it. (Tourism enterprise, Luxury and Longevity) And really that scenario isn’t a great deal different from the ones that we’re getting from the western markets already … It’s just tweaking that existing product to suit a new market. (Tourism ambassador, Friendly Forthcoming)

Stakeholders’ Attitudes toward Different Chinese Futures. Interview conversations revealed additional perspectives which helped to define management implications of the individual scenarios. Stakeholders responded the most positively toward Friendly Forthcoming. This scenario portrayed a young Chinese family, on their second outbound trip, who is seeking to experience similar things to China but in a different context and in a more independent way. They believed that this scenario would be a good situation for Australia and the Wet Tropics region. Interviewees discussed a myriad of benefits including increased visitation and monetary dispersal

260

The World Meets Asian Tourists

outside of regional centers, the capability of Chinese tourists booking through local companies, and the tourists’ interest in learning and interacting more in the Australian context. Interviewees also felt that while Friendly Forthcoming may be ideal, it is not necessarily realistic. A number of reasons were suggested as to why it may not eventuate including those linked to macro forces and other internal influences. With respect to macro forces, stakeholders felt that this future could be shaped by the strength of the Chinese currency, political issues, and the movements of other markets impacted by external events. Alternatively, some internal forces such as the need for careful management, the tourists’ experience and level of English competence, and promotional efforts in this market were also discussed. Furthermore, stakeholders highlighted the need to improve the tourism product in Friendly Forthcoming. Some suggestions were to develop stories associated with the experiences, introduce more self-booking channels for Chinese tourists, enhance ease of access to these experiences, increase awareness of the variety of things to do, and to work with Chinese travel agents. Evidently, they consider this scenario to be beneficial and prosperous (something to strive for), but express a necessity for careful, strategic planning for it to eventuate. Overall, organizational survivability was the highest rated optimism dimension (x = 3.07), followed closely by tourismindustry condition (x = 3.00), then reality acceptance (x = 2.57), and visitation outlook (x = 2.46). Authentic Avenues was the second-most positively viewed scenario by stakeholders. In this situation, a young Chinese lady, previously a student at a university here, returns to visit friends, and decides to go on a nine day Townsville to Cairns road-trip with her friend. They felt that arrivals would grow as Chinese tourists’ experience does. At present, the Chinese free-independent market exists in small numbers worldwide, with relatively few visiting the Wet Tropics region. Interviewees believed that the area would see a slow growth in this market over time. In particular, stakeholders commented that this growth would be attributable to a rise in popularity and familiarity as a destination. One authority said “… we’re not an ancient place, we’re only [a] young city,” while an enterprise stakeholder explained “it might be the most popular thing in the future, when they do come to Cairns.” In addition, stakeholders believed that visitation levels in Authentic Avenues will be further dependent on how well the market is nurtured (n = 5). In particular, one concern was that the industry needs to actively push for the market. Two authority personnel commented that there is a need for “policies to help it develop this way” and that growth will be seen

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

261

“if we put time and effort into it.” Interviewees also mentioned that we need to make improvements and learn more if the market is to be successfully captured. As one enterprise stakeholder explained “I just think there needs to be a greater learning from everybody.” Stakeholders also discussed the positive impact of these Authentic Avenues’ tourists to all areas of the region (n = 5). In particular, interviewees highlighted that the benefits of this type of tourist would reach beyond the regional center. One authority stated “these are well behaved, interested tourists who are wanting to see and do everything,” while a enterprise stakeholder commented “she’s going all the areas that I’m sure some of these smaller operators, they need—so she’s spreading good money around.” Another perspective indicated by stakeholders is that Authentic Avenues is likely only due to the tourist’s previous extended experience in the region (n = 5). As an ambassador stated “for someone who has lived here, yes; but others who may have visited before but not have had that immersion experience, I don’t think it’s as likely.” Other interviewees commented on the need to know the destination to realize these experiences. In particular, one enterprise stakeholder stated “I would find it hard to imagine that that sort of itinerary would be common place in the China market” and that current free-independent tourists “would know a number of the places … mentioned in this scenario.” Overall, tourism stakeholders were most optimistic about organizational survivability (x = 2.79), then reality acceptance (x = 2.62), visitation outlook (x = 2.54), and tourism-industry condition (x = 2.50). The third-most optimistic scenario, albeit a significantly lower level, was Worried World. In this scenario, a senior couple traveling on a government bursary and engaging in more luxurious travel, as a reward for their tireless work efforts. Stakeholders commented on the fact that these types of activities and experiences appeared to be beyond the described tourist’s price range (n = 7). Some interviewees discussed potential issues with the high costs stating that “it comes back to disposable income at the end of the day” and “if it became the norm, it would perpetuate my perception that we are an extraordinary high cost destination.” On the other hand, some stakeholders believed that tourism would indeed become cheaper, if it is a concerned world. For example, one ambassador explained “… if international travel’s lessened, then everyone’s going to be fighting over the same dollars so it becomes cheapened.” Stakeholders also expressed their belief that senior tourists will still be reliant on group tourism in Worried World. Basically, interviewees felt Chinese tourists’ lack of previous travel history and issues with language would warrant group tourism. As one enterprise stakeholder indicated

262

The World Meets Asian Tourists

“… they’re more likely to be in a group than sort of travelling with a chauffeur thing, especially if they’re not sophisticated travelers who haven’t done a lot of travel.” Another matter that stakeholders discussed was Australia’s increased favorability in this troubled, Worried World (n = 5). The majority of the comments were that Australia was seen as a safe destination. Interviewees believed that the country would be one of the last destinations affected if this world should eventuate. In particular, two stakeholders commented that “maybe it’s going to see Australia being a place that’s even more attractive” as “these things look like they play to our advantage not disadvantage.” Furthermore, another enterprise stakeholder commented on the stable offering, “I think Australia is quite friendly to Chinese, not only for the customer … but also to the government side as well.” Furthermore, stakeholders discussed the issue of having a reduced tourism offering in Worried World (n = 5). Degradation of the natural environment was a primary concern of interviewees. All three types provided different perspectives such as “if the Wet Tropics goes, so do we” (enterprise), “if something should happen to the reef, I think that the industry would find it very hard to continue” (ambassador), and “it would mean … not such a big range of opportunities of things to do in Cairns anyway” (authority personnel). Furthermore, stakeholders felt that this rationalization could then lead toward providing a high-level service, of perhaps a mature product. Overall, reality acceptance (x = 2.07) received the highest optimism score, followed by organizational survivability (x = 1.67), visitation outlook (x = 1.57), and tourism-industry condition (x = 1.46). Lastly, stakeholders were the least optimistic toward Luxury and Longevity. This scenario presented corporate tourists coming on a five-day work-leisure trip, in an expensive world where eco-products are valued. They discussed the ramifications of external forces on Australia’s tourism industry (n = 6). Most of the interviewees held a negative attitude; however, some positive thoughts also emerged. In particular, some interviewees commented that “we would be focusing more on the domestic traveler,” “we tend to protect, preserve and sustain our environment … so that would be an advantage” and “[Chinese] people are actually happy to pay the money to come to Australia.” In addition, stakeholders felt that Australians are champions of environmental quality in Luxury and Longevity (n = 5). Generally, interviewees believed that Australia has a “very strong eco-accreditation program” (ambassador), where “most operators … abide by environmental regulations already” (authority personnel). Other stakeholders, however,

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

263

highlighted the more negative side of environmental laws. In particular, some perspectives were that “environmental accreditations have sort of lapsed in the last couple of years” (enterprise), “[branding quality experiences] just makes the tourism experience more costly” (authority personnel) and that brand value and environment accreditation has no influence in the consumer’s mind—“it comes back to rate” (enterprise). Overall, the highest rated optimism dimension was reality acceptance (x = 2.07), followed by organizational survivability (x = 1.79), tourism-industry condition (x = 1.29), and visitation outlook (x = 1.08).

CONCLUSION Natural environments play an important part in tourism experiences, where individual tourists have different needs, preferences and desires in the landscapes they experience. This study sought to investigate the problems in managing new kinds of Chinese tourists with different environmental aesthetics and values. In particular, stakeholders’ attitudes toward four diverse Chinese visiting pattern scenarios to the Wet Tropics were explored. First, this research aimed to identify their overall perspectives toward the future management of the Chinese market. Interviewees discussed five topics shaping all futures of Chinese outbound tourism. That is, tomorrow’s world is already happening today, governmental influence on shaping outbound tourism, diversity of the Wet Tropics, arrivals are always on the rise, and, these experiences do not seem to be the Chinese way. Second, the current study sought to explore stakeholders’ attitudes toward different Chinese tourism futures through using the concept of optimism. Other management perspectives helped to distinguish between the four scenarios. For Friendly Forthcoming, they believed the benefits would reach everywhere; it is ideal but not realistic, and the experience needs to be improved. With respect to Authentic Avenues, interviewees commented that arrivals will grow as tourists become more experienced, the market needs to be nurtured, benefits will be widely felt, and it depends on tourists’ previous experience. In Worried World, stakeholders felt that cost extended the tourists’ means, they would be more group oriented, Australia would become a favored destination, and there would be reduced tourism offerings. Finally, Luxury and Longevity was thought to be susceptible to external sensitivities, and they are environmental champions. Therefore, it appears that different futures warrant different management styles and distinctiveness in experience offerings for Chinese tourists.

264

The World Meets Asian Tourists

In general, stakeholders had a tendency to relate their current and previous experience toward managing future situations. Interviewees mentioned that they are already seeing some of these changes and suggested it is just a matter of continuing their current management style. Reliance on existing or past behavior routines, however, conceals the ability to respond to new situations and/or circumstances (Moscardo, 1999). Stakeholders also linked some of these futures to other previous markets, such as Japanese and European tourists; the overarching impression was that they could manage Chinese tourists in the same manner. Failure to recognize alternative perspectives may hinder their response to Chinese tourism situations (Van Winkle & Backman, 2009). Overall, their attitudes toward future management appear to be a manifestation of past trends and current experience. Nevertheless, interviewees provided some degree of individual and collective reflection on the different aspects (risks, opportunities, aspirations) arising from alternative future visions (Bohensky et al., 2011). With respect to the optimism dimensions, stakeholders usually viewed reality acceptance and organizational survivability higher than tourismindustry condition and visitation outlook. Overall, this might indicate a somewhat pessimistic viewpoint as lower rankings of tourism-industry condition and visitation outlook imply negativity and unfavorable outcomes toward future Chinese tourism (Chen, 2011). Higher scores of organizational survivability, on the other hand, indicate that stakeholders believed they individually would be fine in different future states. This positive expectation might assist them in being more adaptive to the complexities and adversities that arise from future Chinese tourism (Carver et al., 2010). Nevertheless, the identification (to some degree) of all four facets of optimism supports Peterson and Seligman’s (2004) idea that different stances toward the future co-exist. Results of the study show that futureorientation (reality acceptance) and future-mindedness (organizational survivability) are stronger dimensions than expectations (visitation outlook) and emotions (tourism-industry condition). The degree of difference in the individual dimensions across scenarios, however, was less discernible. Stakeholders showed the least variance in their attitudes toward reality acceptance. Therefore, the likelihood of one scenario eventuating was viewed at relatively the same level as any other. On the other hand, visitation outlook was the attitude demonstrating the most variance. Consequently, it is believed that the number of future Chinese tourists will be significantly determined by the way that the world evolves. Thus, optimism can explain how individuals diverge in the manner they approach and predict future outcomes (Burke et al., 2000); however,

Talking about New Chinese Tourists

265

this process might become distinctively more challenging when faced with alternative futures. In short, stakeholders in Australia’s Wet Tropics are relatively optimistic toward the future of Chinese outbound tourism to the destination. Specifically, interviewees described their capacity to respond to the four types of Chinese tourists illustrated across the different scenarios. There is stronger preference for Chinese to become politically unrestrained with them engaging in more free-independent tourism. Despite this, stakeholders were somewhat skeptical regarding these types of futures, suggesting that Chinese tourists need to gain more experience and increase their awareness of the destination. The subsequent management of these tourists is believed to require careful planning and nurturing. They were less optimistic toward futures that are more tightly controlled by the government. These futures, however, were perceived to be more probable in the 2020 timeframe. Interviewees reflected on the “personalized” nature of the experience, expressing concern that the whole visit would need to be tailored to the individual with likely rationalization of operators in the region. Several important challenges in the way the world meets and greets Chinese tourists in the future can be identified from this work. One, successful management of the many different markets emerging from China will require a proactive attitude and sensitivity to the environmental aesthetics and values that individual tourists possess. Understanding market characteristics will be vital; as such, there is potential for education based collaborations between academia and industry to better prepare stakeholders for future challenges in presenting Australian nature to different Chinese tourists. Two, there is a need to differentiate product offerings to capture the interests of an increasingly distinct and sophisticated market like the Chinese. Sharing alternative stories of Australian landscapes according to the desires of individual tourism markets might provide better connections and memories. Consequently, future research directions could move toward identifying and understanding which characteristics profile individual Chinese markets, and how these characteristics determine their nature-based tourist experiences.

Acknowledgment The author wishes to thank the tourism stakeholders who kindly donated their time and offered their perspectives.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 16

IMAGINATION, ANIME AND JAPANESE TOURISTS ABROAD Chiemi Yagi University of the Ryukyus, Japan

Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: This chapter explores the modern phenomenon of Japanese tourists visiting anime-related places abroad. While similarities to film-induced tourism exist, anime-linked locations require tourists to use their imagination and permit a special interplay among the sites, fantasy, and cultural values. To examine the phenomenon, samples of popular anime titles were selected and Japanese online word-ofmouth records were collected as a set of data. Key Japanese cultural concepts were used to explain the significance of the anime-linked locations. Site managers can embellish the experience by subtly suggesting parallels in the real world to the idealized creations of leading anime artists. Keywords: Japanese tourists; anime; online word-of-mouth; imagination; case studies

INTRODUCTION Japanese tourists were the first major nationality from Asia to visit the Western world. Today, their numbers, as well as their spending habits, still

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 267 286 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007016

268

The World Meets Asian Tourists

make them an important tourism market for many countries. Nevertheless, changes in Japanese culture may not have been well understood since behaviors and values change with times. For instance, unlike the earlier stages of outbound Japanese mass tourism, which were dominated by large organized tour groups with a Japanese-speaking tour escort visiting only prominent attractions, there are now more diverse groups with special interests. As an example of satisfying diversified interests, this chapter introduces and examines the recent phenomenon of Japanese tourists visiting animerelated places abroad. The term anime will be used consistently in this discussion to represent both one instance of this form of visual and artistic expression and many cases of the phenomenon. The purpose is to document some key cases illustrating the phenomenon and explains the wide appeal of the anime locations by referring to key themes in Japanese culture. Sensitivity to these cultural lenses provides a basis for managerial presentation of the sites.

JAPANESE OUTBOUND TOURISM IN REVIEW A retrospective view of the subject assists the understanding of the Japanese outbound tourism and their interests in anime. For one thing, it is helpful to point out that this is rather a recent leisure opportunity with only 50 years of history and that styles and forms of Japanese outbound have been changing during this period. Japanese anime and its influence shall be introduced briefly with special attention to this practice by Hayao Miyazaki and World Masterpiece Theater, two sources of anime discussed in this chapter.

Brief History of Japanese Outbound Tourism The Japanese were the first group of Asian tourists traveling out of Asia. It was 1964 when the overseas travel restrictions were removed and the privilege of international travel, which previously had only been permitted to a very few, became available to the general public (Japan Tourism Agency, 2015). It was, however, outrageously expensive for an ordinary person to actually take an overseas trip (Yamaguchi, 2010). International tourism became more realistic for many in the 1970s when jumbo jet aircraft were introduced and cheaper prices, especially for package tours, became a reality. In 1972, more than one millions Japanese traveled internationally and

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

269

the numbers continued to grow until around 1985. During this period, the major form of travel for Japanese was a package tour. There were several reasons driving this enthusiasm for the group and package tourism, with price and security being dominant forces. It is always important to remember that this was also a pre-Internet period in the world of tourism. From 1986 till 2000, the number of Japanese overseas tourists increased sharply. The Plaza agreement in 1985 caused a rise in the exchange rate of the yen, which, in turn, made the international tourism even less expensive for the Japanese. The government encouraged its people to travel abroad with the “Ten Million Plan” (to build the number of Japanese outbound to 10 million in the five years from 1986). The purpose of the plan was to promote the internationalization of the Japanese society and to offset the trade surplus through the “import” of the tourism trade. The planned goal was obtained in 1990, and was still supported until 2000, when some decline in outbound numbers began. Across this period, there was a gradual shift of styles from the typical packaged tours to more diverse and individual arrangements, interests, and itineraries. In the new century, several incidents had serious repercussions on tourism in general and international tourism in particular. These include September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001, the Iraq War and SARS in 2003, the international monetary crisis in 2008 and the major earthquake in Eastern Japan in 2011; these events saw the numbers of outbound Japanese tourism stagnate. However, the emergence of low-cost carriers, and the widespread availability of the Internet (including travel information sites, reservation sites, travelogues, online word-of-mouth recommendations, and associated Social Networking Service [SNS] networks) helped build the Japanese outbound numbers to 18.5 million in 2012, the highest ever in the country’s history (Takai, 2014, pp. 25 28). The Japan Travel Bureau reported that the ratio of Japanese individual tourists (vs. package tours) was 56.5% in 2014, the first time it exceeded 50% (JTB Corporation, 2015). The report suggested that one of the reasons for the steep rise in the individual travel forms was the availability of Internet information and online services. The online reservation of tourism commodities made it possible for individual needs and interests to be met. Such a shift to the more individualized mode appears likely to continue, forcing marketers and researchers to work harder to appeal to the new and diverse segments of Japanese overseas tourists that may not have the traditional characteristics of Japanese tour groups. The special interests of this chapter are with one group of Japanese tourists: those enthusiastic for anime. The interest lies within this widening circle of those who seek different experiences.

270

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Screen-Based Images of Places For quite some time, films and TV programs have received considerable attention as destination image formation agents (Hudson, Wang, & Gil, 2011). The screen images and presentations contribute by producing positive memorable images. More specifically, they associate the images and stories with actual places. Such exposure is called film-induced tourism, movie-induced tourism, or TV-induced tourism (Beeton, 2005) and has become the subject of many studies. Connell (2012) presented a comprehensive literature review on this subject. As examples, a number of films have been the subject of studies: Busby and Klug (2001) investigated “Notting Hill”; Kim and Richardson (2003) conducted their study on “Before Sunrise” and “Groundhog Day”; Hudson and Ritchie (2006) considered “Captain Corelli’s Mandolin”; and Carl, Kindon, and Smith (2007) studied the impact of the “Lord of the Rings.” Kim, Agrusa, Lee, and Chon (2007) have studied the motivations on Japanese tourists arising from recent Korean TV dramas, notably “Winter Sonata.” Iwashita (2008) who surveyed Japanese visiting the United Kingdom concluded that films and TV dramas could create strong destination awareness and work positively to attract tourists through the destination choice process. In addition to film and TV drama, novels and literature are also related to places and thus have the power to attract tourists (Herbert, 2001). There are also studies on famous characters as iconic figures for tourism. Pearce, Morrison, and Moscardo (2003) examined seven cases of famous individuals, such as James Dean and William Wordsworth, whose lives and associations have become the attraction for specific destinations. It is apparent that a variety of links between cultural texts and visual images can appeal to tourists. The concept of anime is a recent extension of this trend. Japanese anime (animated television shows and movies) were born in the 1960s as entertainment for children, but have since grown into a major export to all parts of the globe, drawing fans of all ages. Anime is well known as a modern Japanese cultural contribution to the world and its global popularity continues to escalate.

Anime Pilgrimage in Japan As Funck and Cooper (2013) noted, Japanese anime have recently gained a remarkable reputation, and Akihabara, as a Mecca of anime, attracts people from all over the globe. There are attempts to promote various

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

271

places in Japan as destinations with features related to movies, drams, and anime (Okamoto, 2010, p. 91). In particular, visits to anime-related places are called “anime pilgrimage” (Okamoto, 2010; Yamamura, 2008). Attention by some scholars as well as local destination marketing organizers and even the Japanese government are now considering this art form as a means to drive local economic growth. Anime pilgrimage is somewhat different from film-induced tourism. Anime is often purely fictional and, while there may be some locations that are models for certain scenes in a specific anime, an “actual location” for the story may not exist. To highlight the difference, unlike a film or television show, there are no physical “shooting locations” to which the tourists may be taken. Further, as Okamoto (2010) pointed out, this pilgrimage comes into existence when the anime fan finds a location that may be interpreted as a model site. That is, someone gives a place a special meaning that connects him/her with the anime story in the imaginary world. Anime can be regarded as a sub-culture and is not popular with everyone, so the claim for the “parallel” or anime designated place may be a surprise to the local people. While there are cases of conflicts between tourists and local people, Okamoto (2010) and Yamamura (2009) both report that participants in the anime pilgrimage sites have often been welcomed as they create opportunities for reinvigorating the local activities and economies. The “Butaitannhou Akaibu” database website, literally translated as “Stage Visit/Inquiry Archive” (http://legwork.g.hatena.ne.jp/), lists more than 1,000 titles of manga, anime, and games. It provides the links to the associated places for these fictional works. This site is created through postings by those who have visited places and thought of the association; the designations are not necessarily acknowledged by the creators of the manga/anime/game. Several guidebooks for anime pilgrimage are published to cater to the needs of the fans. Among many such anime pilgrimage sites, “Lucky Star” phenomenon in Washimiya and “Keion” in Toyosato are the two most famous ones. They are success cases of regional development through anime for local people and tourists. Okamoto and Yamamura conducted a series of studies on these sites to examine how the “holy sites” were born and developed, how local and outside businesses became involved, and what the tourists did at the sites. Funck and Cooper (2013) addressed other locations that attract domestic Japanese tourists in Japan with other famous amine association, such as Yakushima with Princess Mononoke and the small port town Tomonoura with Ponyo on a Cliff; both are anime by Miyazaki and Studio Ghibli. Compared with the Western culture of cartoons and comics, anime

272

The World Meets Asian Tourists

is often described as artistic and not just for children. While there is variety of it in Japan, this study examines two popular sets: Miyazaki anime and World Masterpiece Theater. Miyazaki Anime Films and Nature. Hayao Miyazaki, one of the bestknown Japanese anime film directors (at the same time, a screenwriter, author, and manga artist), and a founder of Studio Ghibli, is often described as a Japanese Disney and a Kurosawa of anime. Miyazaki has produced a large number of anime and has enthusiastic fans all over the world. With the profundity and artistry of his films, Miyazaki is often praised by critics as one of the best animation filmmakers in history, and he has received countless awards both in Japan and internationally. Recurrent themes of his films include human relationships with nature and technology, and the personal growth of human beings. In a fictional fantasy world, his anime deliver strong messages such as conveying concerns about environmental issues and the problems of international disputes. At the same time, he emphasizes the greatness and nobility of nature and its coexistence with mankind. These worldviews and fantasy, together with the detailed animation, may be the bases of the magnetism of Miyazaki anime for both children and grown-ups. Miyazaki himself acknowledged that the most remarkable characteristic of his anime is the way nature is described (Miyazaki, 2008). Sugita (2014) argues Miyazaki anime describes nature as having three distinct essences. First of all, nature is portrayed as pure and immaculate. Deep in the mind of the Japanese, nature is an object of worship. Examples are a holy place somewhere deep in the woods with peace and quiet, complete with abundant pure spring water or a stream. Such settings are seen as spiritual and environmental homes for humanity. This theme and examples of these settings include “Excavation underworld” covered with beautiful blue crystals in “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” and an ancient city sunk into the pure clear water in “Laputa: Castle in the Sky.” Sugita concludes that such images of nature stealthily remain deep in the souls of Japanese people, even amidst the prosperity of economic and technological development for their advanced scientific civilization. The retreat to the holy places as depicted in these anime scenes supports the balance of mind. On the other hand, many Miyazaki anime also portray terrifying, awe inspiring and horrible aspects of nature. Sugita notes the disastrous scene in “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” where a swarm of giant insects move to cover the firm ground. Facing nature’s ultimate power, humans would be at loss. One is often reminded that people cannot tame

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

273

nature. The third aspect of nature Sugita identifies is the one that continuously changes, partly as a response to disruptive forces. Again in “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind,” one can observe the mysterious and miraculous ecosystem in which humans, various living creatures, insects, and plants—those who struggle against each other—must co-exist. The nature there is neither beautiful nor peaceful, however, Nausicaa, the protagonist of the story, says it is beautiful. She does not mean just flowers and trees, but the dynamic composition of existence where there is a mixing with metals, ceramics, and even radioactive substances In effect there is an emphasis here on the sublime and higher dimensions of beauty. In “Laputa: Castle in the Sky,” there is an unimaginably complicated ecosystem, which has been created by the mysterious exchange among robots, animals, plants, and minerals in the 700 years after mankind has perished. Nature is described in Miyazaki anime as a force, which both offers peace and creates fear, and it is eternally changing mixing with various factors and elements (Kozo, Solomon, & Chang, 2005). World Masterpiece Theater. World Masterpiece Theater is a Japanese TV anime series, which were aired on Sunday evenings, from the mid-1970s until 2009. It was mostly produced by Nippon Anime. The popular novels and classical fairy tales in the world were adapted for TV anime for Japanese family viewers. Nippon Anime delivered 26 independent anime titles in this Theater, each of which lasted about a year for their 30 minutes a week program (Matsumoto, 1999). However, its forerunner also broadcasted in the same time frame included animated stories based on the world’s great literary novels for children. From its beginning, World Masterpiece Theater became very popular in Japan. It was typical for a family with young children to gather together in front of television to watch on Sunday evening. For readers from Western culture, there are parallels here with the family program Disneyland in the middle of the 20th century that offered similar family viewing to homes in slightly earlier times (Bryman, 2004). As the title “Masterpiece” indicates, the contents were healthy and appropriate for the family, and it quickly took a firm hold on the Japanese lifestyle by supporting family solidarity through entertainment. For young children, it was simply fun. For grownups, it had some deeper meanings. It should also pointed out that the quality of the animation was superb due to the strong policy of the producers committing themselves to provide highly sophisticated quality anime to last for generations (Matsumoto, 1999). After the original broadcast, many titles were rebroadcasted more than once, mostly on satellite channels, and

274

The World Meets Asian Tourists

some titles were reproduced into movie versions. These repeated appearances broaden the range of viewers of anime watching World Masterpiece Theater, making it a common conversational topic across age groups. Commonality between Miyazaki Anime and World Masterpiece Theater. There are some common elements uniting Miyazaki Anime and tiles of World Masterpiece Theater. They both offer complete stories, with no sexual scenes and limited violence. There are fighting images in Miyazaki Anime, but they are not graphic and this absence of sexual and violent material makes the stories suitable for family audiences. The contents of both offer messages and address important life topics, as all classical stories tend to do, making the anime themes analogous to fine pieces of literature. In brief, they both have been accepted as rich in good values and somewhat educational. Many parents do not value other anime production in this positive way. From the technical point of view, the artistic aspect of Miyazaki anime and anime in World Masterpiece Theater cannot be missed, especially when the nature—beautifully and imaginatively portrayed—is drawn. Building on these issues of understanding anime and Japanese tourism, this chapter seeks to examine select cases of anime and travel abroad for the Japanese.

Cases of Anime Four anime cases are introduced here and appear to relate to the places where Japanese tourists visit abroad. They are two anime produced by Hayao Miyazaki and the studio Ghibli, “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” and “Laputa: Castle in the Sky”; and two anime from World Masterpiece Theater, “Anne of Green Gables” and “A Dog of Flanders.” These four are chosen because of their widespread popularity in Japan. Special attention will be given to the first two cases, but all feature in building an understanding of this art form and its influence on Japanese tourists. Each of these four titles of the anime was used as the key term searched in Japanese on the Japanese TripAdvisor website, which provides the spontaneous comments from tourists. The keyword search provided the list of the locations that received comments. After excluding the locations situated in Japan, comments for each location in the list were examined. Through this process, remarks which included the title of the anime and other associated keywords (such as the name of the main characters or places in

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

275

the anime in question) were extracted for analysis. While some Japanese may write their online remarks in TripAdvisor in English in order to be read by a wider set of viewers, it is difficult to sort the comments by the origin of the writer and it is rather unrealistic to do this procedure manually, so only the comments written in Japanese were used in this study. Reported below are the brief descriptions of each of four anime and the results of the search of TripAdvisor comments. “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” (Kazeno Tanino Naushika). This is one of the most popular anime produced by Hayao Miyazaki, and is frequently ranked among the best animated-films in Japan. With the recommendation from the World Wide Fund for Nature, the film was released in 1984 in Japan. Original being Miyazaki’s manga version of the same title (1982), “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” is a story staged at a time 1,000 years after a global war, which destroyed the human industrial civilization. Lands are coved with rust and ceramic pieces, and “Sea of Decay,” the expanding toxic jungle of fungi, producers of deadly poisonous air, threatens the human survivors. The small nation of the Valley of the Wind is one of a few places free from poison of the Sea of Decay because of the sea breeze. Despite such a severe environment, a young Princess Nausicaa of the Valley develops a friendship with the king of the giant insects (Ohmu), finds the secret of the toxic jungle, and they try to stop a serious battle between two major countries. The development of the plot involves the serious pathology of human egoism and environmental issues. In contrast with the dreadful sight of the deadly and toxic Sea of Decay, the Valley of the Wind offers an arresting sight of a peaceful, serene, idyllic, and gently-sloping meadow surrounded with hills of red gigantic rocks. Miyazaki (1984) commented that this image was based on the arid region in Central Asia, and that the model of Sea of Decay was Sivash in the Crimean Peninsula, Ukraine (Miyazaki, 1996, p. 149). It is, however, clearly announced on the official Ghibli homepage that there is no one specific location in the real world that Ghibli and its artists recognize as a model location for this anime movie. Three attractions (outside Japan) with remarks “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” were found by keyword search in TripAdvisor. In order of the number of times mentioned, the first two places were Kata Tjuta (The Olgas) and Valley of the Winds, in this order, both in Northern Territory, Australia. Kata Tjuta had total of 987 online entries, in which 73 were written in Japanese (and here considered postings by Japanese), and 15 among these entries include the word “Nausicaa.” Valley of the Winds, on

276

The World Meets Asian Tourists

the other hand, had 103 online entries altogether, nine of which were in Japanese and four mentioned “Nausicaa.” Geographically, Valley of the Winds is located inside of Kata Tjuta, and some of the comments mentioned these two places interchangeably. Meaning “many heads” in the local Aboriginal language, “Kata Tjuta” is 30 kilometers away from Uluru, and spans more than 20 square kilometers with its large formations of 36 massive boulders. Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park is included on UNESCO’s World Heritage List, thus a popular destination for tourists from all over the world. Most of the Japanese word-of-mouth postings for these two destinations expressed their satisfactory experiences visiting the site with its distinctive natural features. Comments stressed the strong impression made by the rock formations. In July 2015 one gentleman expressed his experience in Valley of the Winds: This place is characterized by gigantic rocks and the strong winds located in the inner part of Kata Tjuta. I heard this is the model site for “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” by Studio. To be told so, the huge rock with a hole looks like a giant pill bug-looking “Ohmu” in the anime movie. Another Japanese wrote: As the name of the place implies, Valley of the Winds had pleasant winds blowing. I felt something mystical because this place was said to be a model for “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind.” A number of points feed the rumor, including the outcroppings of oddly-shaped rock which resemble the major character in the anime “Ohmu,” the giant insect; the name of the place “Valley of the Wind” itself; the naked surface of the rocks in this area recall the bare background hills which are a contrast to the gentle, green meadow and the village in the anime. One individual person directly commented that he came to visit the place because of the connection with the anime: This place is famous because Hayao Miyazaki had been inspired by the scenery to create the Ohmu in “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind.” As a Miyazaki fun, I always wanted to visit here. Upon getting off from the tour bus, red-heaped

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

277

high rock caught my eyes. It surely looked like Ohmu in line. The scenery appealed much more strongly than I expected. If you are planning to visit this place, I recommend you to watch the anime movie before the visit. I am sure looking at these rocks will become much more interesting if you do so. Others did not comment whether their decisions to visit were influenced by the anime and its link to Kata Tjuta. The remaining place mentioned as connected to “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” in TripAdvisor data was the Basilica of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, Spain. Although incomplete, this large Roman Catholic Church is listed in UNESCO World Heritage Site as a part of the works of Antoni Gaudı´ and attracts very large numbers of tourists every year. This architectural structure with uniquely organic molding has a rather original appearance and unprecedented interior construction. There are total of 60,081 online reports for this destination and 1,116 were in Japanese in which just three included the word “Nausicaa.” Three Japanese specifically commented on their visit to Gaudi’s work in connection to “Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind” There were comments linking the interior to the portrayal of the sea of decay, built largely around the appearance of the pillars and stained glass. Unlike the case of Kata Tjuta (The Olgas) and the Valley of the Winds, no one mentioned that they knew in advance about the potential relationship between the Basilica of the Sagrada Familia and Nausicaa. They seem to overlay the distinctive image of the interior of the church with what they had watched in the anime much earlier in time. The similarities and physical parallels between the sites and the anime creations are captured in part in Figures 1 and 2. “Laputa: Castle in the Sky” (Tenkuno Shiro Raputa). Based on Miyazaki’s original story, “Laputa: Castle in the Sky” is an adventure film staged in Europe during the 19th century Industrial Revolution. It is the story of Sheeta, descendant of the Laputan royal line from the legendary Laputa (the castle floating in the sky) with Pazu (a boy working in a mining town) who fight against air pirates and Muska (a secret agent working for a government) in order to protect Laputa and the world. The movie won the Anime Grand Prix in 1986. The most symbolic and arresting sight in this anime is the floating castle of Laputa. It is abandoned and no human being has been living there for

278

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 1. Kata Tjuta/The Olgas (Top) and Scenes from Anime Nausicaa (Bottom) Sources: Loyality free photos from AdobeStock (top); illustrations by the author (bottom)

Figure 2. Interior of Sagrada Familia (Left) and “Sea of Decay” in Naucicaa (Right) Sources: Loyality free photos from AdobeStock (left); illustration by the author (right)

decades, it looks as if trees have swallowed the building complex. The moss-covered castle has no sign of life, but welcoming birds can be heard singing and a single robot works there attending to the graves. The place for the movie setting chosen by the film company was Wales, where there

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

279

are ruins of coal mines (like the one Pazu works at), abundant green fields, national parks, and old castles that stimulate the imagination. Keyword search within TripAdvisor with “Laputa” provided 88 attractions, in which 50 were outside of Japan. Most of them have the remains of a temple or the ruins of a castle. The countries varied, from Cambodia to Australia, from France to Peru, and beyond. For example, the location with the largest number of entries with “Laputa” was Beng Mealea, Cambodia (72 entries out of 246 Japanese entries). The site is located 40 km east of Angkor Wat. Beng Mealea is an ancient and ruined temple which is nestled in trees and is thickly coved with green plants. Diverse tropical plants thrive amidst the half-crumbling walls of the building and the fallen stones. Many of the online entries have titles like “World of Laputa,” “Model of Laputa,” or “This is really like Laputa.” One female Japanese tourist reported that despite its crumbling ruins the site was beautiful and like Laputa. Another commented on the mystery surrounding the site and the fact that it was deeply buried in the woods gave her a sense of the world of Laputa. Many commentators expressed their excitement about visiting the place when they had heard it was a model of Laputa, and couple of them even stated that they wanted to visit solely because of the connection with the anime. This place is said to be a model of ‘Laputa the Castle of the Sky’ and I always wanted to visit. To step into this ruined place …, I can say it certainly is the model. All I hear is songs of birds in the quiet and I can feel the beauty of decay and collapse from the remains marking the passage of time. Some remarks were more skeptical: This place cannot be a model of Laputa, because it became accessible to the public in about 2007, long after the anime was put on the screen. Nevertheless, most tourists making comments were not bothered about whether the place is really a model of the anime or not. One observer remarked: These are real ruins. That surely appeals to Japanese. It is known as a model of Laputa. I am not sure if it is true or not, but it is very mysterious and exactly the world of Laputa itself.

280

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Similar types of location to Beng Mealea were also assigned associations with “Laputa.” Those spaces sharing similar characteristics with Beng Mealea, that is ruins covered with moss and trees, include (in order of reported frequency of the association) Paronella Park (Australia), Ta Prohm (Cambodia), The Anping Treehouse (Taiwan), Angkor Thom (Cambodia), Machu Picchu (Peru), Angkor Wat (Cambodia), plus about 30 more. One Japanese tourist who visited Paronella Park wrote: Rumor has it that this is a model of Laputa. Probably because of that, it is quite a popular destination for Japanese tourists and several tours are available in Japanese …. In the tour bus I took, they put on the theme song of Laputa and we were enveloped in a mood of Laputa. In the park as a Japanese tour guide escorted us, she mentioned a couple of screens from the anime and identified the scenes in the park here and there. A Laputa fan will be overjoyed with this place. Another observed: I did not know this park is a motif of Laputa the Castle in the Sky when I visited. Even those who do not know the connection, like myself, may recognize it once standing at the entrance. It is mysterious and exactly what the Miyazaki world is like. It is totally different from the everyday world. I recommend this place for those who like Miyazaki anime. Places listed above received similar online remarks of endorsement. Other places with commentary mentioning “Laputa” can be categorized into three types: a castle-like structure which looks like it is floating in the sky; the view from a peak or high point overlooking the scenery below; and trees engulfing other trees. From the online entries, the floating-castle images recalling Laputa included Mont-Saint-Michel (France), Levoca, Spissky Hrad and the Associated Cultural Monuments (Slovakia), Alhambra Palace (Spain), and Caernarfon Castle (England). Typical comments from Japanese tourist including emphasizing that the feeling of Mont-Saint-Michel was that it was floating in the sky, just like Laputa. Both Top of the Rock Observation Deck (the United States) and Burj Khalifa (United Arab Emirates) have links with “Laputa” because of the view from high above. There are comments using “Laputa” for Wat Phra

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

281

Mahthat (Thailand) and the Cathedral Fig Tree (Australia), the latter because of its scale and structure. As one Japanese put it: This is my first time to see such a tree. Simply breathtaking. It is said to be a model of Laputa. If you are a fun of the anime, you should come and view it with your own eyes. It can be observed that very few Japanese tourists stated that they visit the site because of the (possible) connection with the anime. The available data analyzed for this chapter does not conclusively establish that the first motivation to visit the site was the anime association. For a few respondents that link is clear but for many others the on-site experience establishes the connection. Figures 3 and 4 reveal the visual similarities which prompted some of the observations recorded in the online accounts. Hybrid Cases: “Anne of Green Gables” and “A Dog of Flanders”. There are two other cases where anime may be seen as combining with the work of existing books and films. The examples will be briefly noted, as they reveal several points in common with both the pure anime cases discussed already and the established literature on film and novel induced tourism.

Figure 3. Images of the Laputa in Amine Source: Illustrations by the author

282

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 4. Examples of the Places Associated with Laputa by Japanese Comments Source: Loyality free photos from AdobeStock

One of the examples is “Anne of Green Gables,” originally a novel by Lucy Maud Montgomery, first published in 1908. This is a story of an orphan girl who was brought, by accident, to live in Prince Edward Island with an elderly sister and brother. They had intended to adopt a boy. They were at first confused, but soon charmed with Anne’s character and her imagination, and this red-haired girl becomes a necessary part of Green Gables. The story is read worldwide by young Japanese girls and can be considered as a classic children’s novel and it is often used in school curricula. The anime “Anne of Green Gables” was broadcasted in Japan in 1979 for about a year as a program of World Masterpiece Theater on Sunday nights. Before the anime came out, the novel of Montgomery was translated into Japanese and had already been very popular among young girls, as it is the case in other parts of the world. Figure 5 highlights some of the most powerful links and imagery. The anime version was a triumph in terms of popularity.

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

283

Figure 5. Green Gables in Prince Edward Island and Its Anime Image Sources: Loyality free photos from AdobeStock (left); 1 Nippon Anime used with permission (right)

Figure 6. Works of Rubens at Cathedral of Our Lady and a Scene from Anime Sources: Public domain photo from Wikipedia (left); 1 Nippon Anime used with permission (right)

As another instance of an anime production with a more tangible place link, the work of the British novelist Ouida, “A Dog of Flanders” is a tragic story of a poor but kind, and hardworking boy, Nero, and his faithful dog, Patrasche. It is set in Antwerp, Belgium. Like Anne of Green Gables, the anime “A Dog of Flanders” is based on a novel that has existing places as settings, and this leads tourists to selected sites. There are five places that have “A Dog of Flanders” described in online commentary in TripAdvisor. They are Cathedral of Our Lady, Kapel Onze Lieve Vrouwe

284

The World Meets Asian Tourists

van Toevlucht, Hoboken, Antwerp Town Hall (Stadhuis), and Antwerp Central Station, all in Antwerp, Belgium. The links are provided in visual form in Figure 6. There are extensive TripAdvisor comments about both the Anne of Green Gables experience and the Dog of Flanders related visits reflecting some of the themes of nostalgia and the enjoyment of being at the actual place made famous by the anime version.

CONCLUSION This study examines Japanese tourists visiting anime-associated sites, and their associated experiences. Four classical cases from Miyazaki anime and World Masterpiece Theater were considered. Japanese tourists’ spontaneous comments on TripAdvisor were the data source. What they saw, remembered, related to, felt satisfied/dis-satisfied with, and wanted to tell others were analyzed. It was found that it does not seem to matter whether or not the site is authentically the model of the anime. The Japanese see their own image of the anime in many sites, and this anime informed imagination provides the added value to the sites visit. There are also some Japanese cultural backgrounds that influences the appreciation of the site visited, that may be called the “language of Japanese tourism” (Moeran, 1983). Several key concepts to understand Japanese tourists and their behavior are explored in this chapter. An understanding of how to use anime-linked sites by local destination managers can be built on an understanding of these concepts. Appreciation of nature, including wabi sabi (quiet aesthetic appreciation), natsukashii (nostalgia), and akogare (admiration for the Western world) are three themes which help interpret contemporary responses to Western sites, including those linked to film, television, and anime. Natsukashii involves memories of childhood, with a feeling of recapturing the good old days watching television and especially World Masterpiece Theater with the family on Sunday evenings. The act of visiting places associated with these memories is also seen as recalling or repeating some educational and moral values. Miyazaki anime makes viewers think about important issues, such as forging sustainable relationships with nature, avoiding war and promoting peace, undertaking self-sacrifice and growing-up, to name a few. There is a contrast here with other anime-manga “cartoons” which have much more violence and can even be seen as supporting aggression. The nostalgia theme can be linked to gen fukei (indelible scene of one’s childhood) (Okuno, 1989). The literal meaning of this concept is gen (field),

Imagination, Anime and Japanese Tourists Abroad

285

original, primitive, fundamental and fukei (landscape, scenery), but it may be interpreted more informally as “landscape of the heart,” because it usually means a feeling for the positive and powerful scenes of one’s childhood. It is commonly used in Japan to explain scenery which is familiar to an individual because it mimics those experienced when he or she was a child. Places described in anime are part of gen fukei to many Japanese even though they have never been there physically as a child. Those symbolic places from anime settings are deeply embedded in the young Japanese mind and are core to personal identities. That is why Japanese visit anime-related places abroad in search for the familiar in unfamiliar places. It is almost like searching for personal roots. Some of the emotional qualities involved in this search are a parallel to the rich emotional memory links described in Western work on visiting home and familiar places (Pearce, 2012b). The ideas can also be linked to what Rea (2000) identified as furusato, a term which defines an elective spiritual center. It is important to emphasize that anime is fiction and there is ample room for imagination at the sites visited. In fact, tourists seem to enjoy exercising their imagination to re-produce the anime scene they remember at the international locations. There is no right or wrong way to appreciate the place and connecting to the anime. For those seeking to promote anime-linked sites, it is problematic to be overly specific about exactly which angles and viewing points or sites are depicted. Several Japanese tourists commented that their minds “filled in the links” and being directed by text or spotlights and signposts to the exact places was unnecessary and indeed undesirable. The case of Prince Edward Island and Anne of Green Gables is instructive here. Rea (2000) reports that interviews with destination and site managers provided several points of view. According to Tourism Prince Edward Island 1996 We don’t represent Anne’s face with a photograph because all Japanese girls tend to perceive her as a dream, in a dreamlike state, this is where they want to be in life, and they actually picture themselves in that role. So we tend to show Anne in profile, or in cartoon, or from the back showing her red hair, so as not to take away from the young Japanese client their feeling of being part of that dream. (Rea, 2000, p. 653) Japanese preferences for environments and settings are also seen through additional cultural lenses, linked in part to the way anime depicts the world. The concept of shogyou mujou (all worldly things are transitory) is

286

The World Meets Asian Tourists

built on appreciating the beauty of nature (which lasts only temporarily) while humans are powerless in the face of nature. Further, the concept of wabi sabi, an aesthetic sense in Japanese art emphasizing quiet simplicity and subdued refinement, leads to appreciating the ruins of a castle, the beauty of a crumbling wall or moss-covered old abandoned ruins. It is these kinds of depictions of settings in the anime cases cited which makes the actual places in, for example the Laputa case, so appealing to Japanese tourists. Perhaps the nearest Western aesthetic to this sense of the beauty is the picturesque (Urry, 1990). The pursuit of anime-linked locations offers many Japanese something familiar in an unfamiliar land. It is familiar because it resembles the scene of anime that they recall. It is foreign because it is outside of Japan and most probably adds a mysterious atmosphere to international settings that is not associated with ordinary life back home. Miyazaki anime-related locations are now becoming popular with Chinese tourists as well and undoubtedly achieve same of the same sense of creating personal and familiar links to the world of childhood. Japanese tourists should no longer be seen as the stereotypical crowds of group tourists who follow the Japanese-speaking tour guide to visit typical destinations according to itineraries set by tour packages. Many are now more experienced tourists, armed with Internet information, and diverse in their motivations and interests. It is not to say that all Japanese are independent tourists who seek their own way and do not appreciate the comfort of group tours. The cases discussed here may be examples of one component of Japanese popular culture, but those hosting Japanese tourists can learn from these anime cases. In particular, those who meet and host Japanese tourists need to have some imagination to see what can be portrayed from the local setting to suit the Japanese in an unfamiliar environment. Anime leaves much more scope for imagination than films. There has to be a careful balance not to make it too obviously staged. Consulting the travel episodes and online remarks on websites may provide good examples and opportunities. Further, fresh research on the best ways to present the anime linked sites offer destination managers and academics rich and applied opportunities for studies in understanding cross cultural needs and interests. The story of Anne of Green Gables is intimately connected to her dreamy eyes which are described as shining with delight. The whole mythology of the tale stresses the human scope for imagination. Japanese tourists, too, have prolific imaginations and the capacity to add a dream like quality to the foreign environments and scenes.

Chapter 17

YOUNG CHINESE TOURISTS Travel Patterns and Future Plans Kim Ieng Loi Institute for Tourism Studies Macao, China

Abstract: The interests of outbound Chinese tourist behaviors have been of much recent research interest, yet the youth segment has received relatively little attention. By surveying young Chinese in Macao this chapter provides some glimpses into their aspirations and planning for future travel. The definition of “young” in this chapter is people aged between 18 and 35 years which is adapted from the Pacific Asia Travel Association in its “Young Tourism Professional” program. The impetus lies in the potential malleability of preferred destinations for this new generation of Chinese tourists since the precedents of the past and the limitations of language and group control over travel have weakened in the last 10 years. Keywords: Young Chinese; travel trajectory; Chinese outbound

INTRODUCTION Outbound Chinese tourists have gradually gained significance in the tourism market, both in terms of volume and purchasing power. This has been marked with the expanding group of outbound Mainland Chinese whose presence is increasingly apparent in long-haul international destinations.

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 287 304 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007017

288

The World Meets Asian Tourists

To provide a view of the future of the Chinese market, questionnaires were collected in Macao (a special administrative region in China). The study sought the views of respondents from Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macao (in effect all people from the greater China). The data collected are used to explore the patterns and likely sequences of travel which the younger generations of tourists will follow. In addition, the study and its findings are informed by the well-cited theory of the Travel Career Pattern proposed by Pearce and Lee (2005). This chapter focuses on travel patterns, trip planning, top preferred destinations and their likelihood of realization by the respondents (in short their travel trajectory). Both general and intergroup analyses are performed to see if the three sub-segments (current 18 23, 24 29, and 30 35-year-olds) differ significantly in terms of travel characteristics. By doing so, the discussion aims to identify a pool of preferred destinations and travel career trajectories for the new generations of Chinese tourists who represent such a large potential global market.

TOURISM PATTERNS AND FUTURE PLANS It is well documented that the rapid economic development in China has been the result of the economic reform policy introduced by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 (also known as the open-door policy). For many Chinese, this economic development has meant an improvement in the standard of living and enough money to stimulate a demand for international tourism (Keating & Kriz, 2008). Due to the strong economic performance as well as a rapid expanding middle class, China has become a major and growing rapidly source of outbound tourists (Keating & Kriz, 2008; Li, Lai, Harill, Kline, & Wang, 2011; Prayag et al., 2015). The approved destination status system introduced in 1995 which now covers some 140 countries and regions has been considered as a major policy tool that has contributed to the systematic management and development of Chinese outbound tourism (Arlt, 2006) (see also Chapter 2). In view of this rapid growth, some time ago the World Tourism Organization forecast that China would become the world’s top outbound market in 2020, with the expectation of generating more than 100 million tourists around the world (UNWTO, 2003). Later on, the World Tourism Organization and European Travel Commission (2008) adjusted the forecasts, predicting that the 100 million outbound tourists target could be met in 2015, which was five years earlier than the previous forecast. In fact, in 2014 and within just 11 months China “exported” its 100 millionth tourist

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans

289

for the first time. For the whole of 2014, the outbound tourists reached 107 million, an increase of 19.49% over 2013 (Travel China Guide, 2015). This demand still has great growth potential. From a percentage-of-total population point of view, Chinese outbound tourism development remains an early stage phenomenon (Lim & Wang, 2008). The growth in outbound travel demand forecast has been noted by many scholars (Lai, Li, & Harrill, 2013; Li, Harrill, Uysal, Burnett, & Zhan, 2010; Li, Meng, Uysal, & Mihalik, 2013). The Introduction of this volume provides the growth rates and numbers for China in the context of Asian outbound tourism. Many destinations have seen the rapid growth of tourists coming from the Greater China Region (Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan). Short to medium haul destinations, such as Japan, Singapore, and the Philippines, have received Chinese tourists as one of their leading source markets (Japanese Tourism Marketing Co, 2013; Philippine Department of Tourism, 2012; Singapore Department of Statistics, 2013). The number of Chinese outbound tourists going to the West has grown in terms of both group organized tours as well as independent travels (Arlt, 2006; Liu, 2013; Pearce et al., 2013). The foot prints of the Chinese tourists have stepped beyond the region to reach longer haul destinations, including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia (Canadian Tourism Commission, 2012; Office for National Statistics, 2012; Sheatsley, Li, & Harrill, 2009). In fact, for Australian tourism, China is arguably the most important market as Australia is the only Western country that has China as its largest generating source (Tourism Research Australia, 2015b). Destination choice has always been in the center of discussion in the tourism marketing enquiry (Keating & Kriz, 2008). The knowledge of factors that can affect destination choice can be considered as having important marketing implications. Strategic planning by major stakeholders especially in meeting the forecast Chinese flows are concerns in many countries (Seddighi & Theocharous, 2002; Uysal, 1998; Witt & Witt, 1995). Current literature on destination choices focuses on the broad issues of destination awareness and image (Beerli & Martin, 2004a, 2004b; Keating & Kriz, 2008; Woodside & Lysonski, 1989). Keating and Kriz (2008) summarize four processes of the destination choice framework: the conceptualization of destination image; the antecedents to destination image formation; the impact of destination image on the selection of a specific destination; and the influence of internal and external moderators. Destination image continues to be the anchor of discussion related to destination choice.

290

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Another related line of investigation is concerned with the motivational theories using push and pull factors to explain destination selection or choice sets (Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1977; Iso-Ahola, 1982; Schott, 2004). Others have tried to tackle destination choice from the demand perspectives using economic/econometric approaches, including single-equation timeseries measures (Johnson & Ashworth, 1990; Lim, 1997; Song & Witt, 2000). Less attention has been paid to the influence of demographic characteristics, such as the young segment on the destination routing preferences related to short-/medium-/long-haul trip patterns and future trajectory instead of specific destination choices. Different groups, as well as would be tourists, will be likely to have different preferences. While there are many ways to identifying such market segments, an approach based on emphasizing sociodemographic profiles is probably one of the most popular ways to conduct market segmentation. Such profile can affect the type(s) of destinations that are suitable for selection, as characteristics associated with key demographics may constrain travel costs, influence duration of the trip, and affect distance covered and timing. Knowing the identified market segment well allows stakeholders (policymakers and service providers alike) to develop marketing strategies appropriate to each group. This chapter explores tourists from one particular age and ethnic group: the young Chinese outbound market. The growing youth tourism phenomenon has led to an expansive body of literature and research. The World Tourism Organization, in its report “The Power of Youth Travel,” acknowledges that “… youth travel represents not just an important market segment, but also a vital resource for innovation and change” (UNWTO, 2012b, p.5) and calls the young people “The Future of Travel.” The same report highlights that 20% of the 940 million international tourists traveling the world in 2012 were young people and they predict that by 2020 there will be close to 300 million international youth trips per year (Figure 1). Many existing studies have demonstrated that the current youth market (sometimes called Generation Y) has distinct preferences and travel behaviors. Since most international youth tourists have come from Western countries and they are largely backpackers, the existing studies have mainly concentrated on their influenced preferences and behaviors (King & Gardiner, 2013; Loker-Murphy & Pearce, 1995). The China youth outbound market, as an increasingly important segment, has been given limited research attention so far. The potential growth trend of this segment is further supported by the fact that 54% of Chinese tourists are young, having been born after 1980 (China Tourism Academy, 2014).

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans

291

Figure 1. Prediction of International Youth Trips Source: UNWTO

Moreover, the young Chinese market is often seen as possessing distinct needs and consumption preferences while travelling. For example, they are less likely to join group packaged tours; more technological savvy; seek/ share opinions or call for travel companions via social media platforms; prefer to have more independence and flexibility in order to explore the destinations; are more adapted to a globalized world with fewer language barriers; tend to explore a destination for a longer period of time and feel more interested in visiting landmarks/famous sites rather than engaging in activities (Arlt, 2013; China Tourism Academy, 2014; Jin, Lin, & Hung, 2014; Kristensen, 2013; Sparks & Pan, 2009; Xu, Morgan, & Song, 2009). In the study conducted by Li et al. (2010), around half of the Chinese outbound travel population have or plan to travel to destinations outside Asia. As a result, this chapter seeks to investigate the contemporary trends of independent young tourists from China, with a specific emphasis on the route preferences and potential trajectory of this promising yet distinctive market segment. In addition, the sample is further divided into smaller sub-age groups to see if they differ in terms of their preferences. Sampling and Instrumentation The study adapted a survey instrument designed for a larger study topic with multiple sections and sample groups. This discussion interprets that part of the survey which covers destination choice characteristics, such as selection of short/medium/long-haul destinations and multiple destination trip possibilities. In addition, the main part of the chapter considers the future trajectory projection of the young Chinese tourist group.

292

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Demographic components are also presented. For the purpose of this work, only those from Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macao who between 18 to 35 years old are included. With Macao as the data collection site, the sample included tourists, work permit holders, as well as local residents. As such, those studied can be considered as possessing varied background characteristics which can enhance representativeness and generalizability. The definition of short-/medium-/long-haul destinations follows that provided by the Association of European Airlines [AEA] (2004). In this definition, air travel time equal to or less than three hours is classified as short-haul, between four and six is medium, and air travel time of seven hours or longer as long-haul trip. The age group classification is adapted from Pacific Asia Travel Association in its “Young Tourism Professional YTP” program (PATA, 2015), applying to adults over 18 and up to 35 years old. College students experienced in conducting street surveys and capable of communicating in Cantonese and Mandarin were recruited and trained to intercept every third person encountered in main tourist areas in Macao, a Special Administrative Region in China. The focus of this study is mainly on independent travel trends. In addition, the theme is “young Chinese travelers” who are often deemed to prefer more autonomy during their travels compared to package groups (Pearce et al. 2013; Prayag, Disegna, Cohen, & Yan, 2015; Xiang, 2013). All those recruited as respondents were independent tourists. In cases when the intercepted party was not a single tourist, the interviewers were instructed to interview only one member of the party. Macao was chosen as the data collection point because the author is working in a tertiary education institute in Macao, a destination which receives more than 50% of its arrivals from China, making it the administrative region’s largest tourist market source. The questionnaire was first designed in English and then translated to Chinese, with only the Chinese version used in the actual survey. A pilot test was carried out to college students (n = 60) and the clarity of translation and flow of questionnaire were checked. Only a few typological errors were pointed out and no fundamental changes were suggested. The official survey was carried out on selected days in the four months from September to December in 2013. The survey period covered weekdays, weekends, traditional peak tourism seasons such as the October 1st Golden week, the 60th Grand Prix, the Chong Yeung Festival long weekends, and the Christmas week. At the end, a total of 482 successful surveys were completed and analysis conducted using SPSS and NVivo.

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans

293

Sample Characteristics The sample mainly consisted of tourists from Mainland China (n = 289 or 60%) who came to Macao mostly for leisure (n = 217 or 45%) or shopping (n = 101 or 21%). It had a majority of female respondents (n = 291 or 60.4%) and the dominant age range was 24 29 (n = 216 or 44.8%). There was an even split between the other two age groups, namely 18 and 23 and 30 and 35 years. Most respondents held undergraduate degree (n = 284 or 58.9%) with a large percentage with high school or vocational training as well (n = 166 or 34.4%). They were mostly singles (n = 322 or 66.8%), traveling with friends (n = 146 or 30.3%). Among those who were married (n = 154 or 32%), many came with spouse and/or children (n = 102 or 21.2%). The sample consisted of white-collar workers (n = 160 or 33.2%), students (n = 116 or 24.1%), and professionals (n = 85 or 17.6%).

Multi-Destination Preferences Multi-destination trip behaviors have been one focal point in the research about tourist behaviors. The concept of visiting several destinations in one trip has attracted a great deal of academic attention (Dellaert, Arentze, Bierlaire, Borgers, & Timmermans, 1998; Hwang, Gretzel, & Fesenmaier, 2006; Lue, Crompton, & Fesenmaier, 1993; Stewart & Vogt, 1997; Tideswell & Faulkner, 1999; Wallace, Barnes, & Rutherford, 2000). It was also part of the intention of this study to investigate the multi-destination trip preference of the Chinese tourists, but the results established that the sample did not conform to these sorts of patterns. Of the alternatives provided, a vast majority of respondents would “avoid” making multi-destination trips (n = 206 or 42.7%), while the other choices were infrequent consisting of various combinations of short-/medium-/long-haul destinations in a trip as well as those having no preference on this travel style. The results confront the usual stereotype that young tourists might be uniformly more likely to take multi-destination trips. This consistent outcome across the sample might be attributed to diverse influences. For outbound Chinese tourists who are less experienced, the result arguably reflects their more conservative and less adventurous characteristics and thus they may prefer less complicated but more in-depth travel patterns. On the other hand, for the more seasoned young outbound tourists, there is evidence that they do enjoy the independent autonomous travel style

294

The World Meets Asian Tourists

(Sparks & Pan, 2009) but would prefer more authentic experience in a single destination. Many of them may create specialized or unique forms of self-organized travel based on hobbies or interests via social media and/or travel blogs (Kristensen, 2013; Wu & Pearce, 2016), rather than the “beenthere-done-that” parade through various destinations (Wu & Pearce, 2014). Regardless of the reasons, the results in this study suggest that this trend of more in-depth travel to single or fewer destinations in one trip may prevail in the future among this influential market segment group. This can be seen as a career path where the inexperienced young Chinese travelers who are less experienced transition from local tourism to domestic to outbound regional, to ultimately intercontinental long-haul trips after their first trials of independent trips and having built up confidence (Xiang, 2013). This transition is expedited by the rich travel-related information available through the Internet and social media which encourage them to take bolder steps into more exotic destinations near and far. This gradually builds up confidence, and together with the increasing role of the electronic platforms, enhanced English proficiency, as well as more lenient visa requirements, this young Chinese cohort can make independent travel choices with increasing regularity (Pearce et al., 2015; Pearce et al., 2013). In this study “destination” carried a broad definition which could be country or city or province and the respondents were requested to just use the “destinations” that came to their mind first. Therefore it would be considered as a “multi-destination trip” if a respondent visited, for example, several cities in Australia in one trip. It is notable that within the age ranges studied, the various groups did not hold significantly different preferences for multi-destination preferences as tested by chi-square analysis.

Trip Length When asked about going on short-/medium-/long-haul trips, most respondents opted for a traditional routing preference that included short-haul destinations first before adventuring into the mid- and long-haul destinations (n = 161 or 33.4%). This result coincides with Pearce’s (1988) wellcited “travel career ladder” and the later modified version of a “travel career pattern,” which describes the “travel career” as a “dynamic concept arguing that tourists have identifiable phases or stages in their holiday taking. The state of one’s travel career, like a career at work, is influenced by previous travel experiences and life stage or contingency factors” (Pearce & Lee, 2005, p. 228).

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans

295

In this study, the respondents demonstrated their gradual venture into the long-haul destinations after having accumulated enough travel experience to progress through their travel career. Similarly, the least chosen pattern was the Long-Short-Mid sequence (n = 33 or 6.8%) as this may be too adventurous for most of the respondents. There were considerable numbers of respondents who chose the Long-Mid-Short (n = 91 or 18.9%) and the Mid-Short-Long (n = 70 or 14.5%) patterns. Similar to previous section, Chi-square test confirmed that there was no significant difference in terms of such travel pattern preference among the different age groups (p > .05). In this case, the young Chinese respondents sampled held uniform view toward short-/medium-/long-haul destination preferences.

Prospective Travel Trajectory It is somewhat common for Chinese tourists to build some travel skills and establish a taste of tourism life and attractions in nearby destinations, particularly within Asia, before they begin to venture further afield. Destinations such as Vietnam, Korea, Thailand, and Singapore enable Chinese tourists to explore countries where some similarities in cultural and interpersonal practices exist. Subsequent steps in this sequence of experience see Chinese tourists visiting Western countries. The abundant statistical evidence that these steps exist can be found in numerous reports documenting the volume and direction of outbound Chinese travel (Arlt, 2010; PATA, 2010). In order to investigate the travel trajectory of the younger Chinese, the respondents were asked to indicate five destinations (could be country or city or province, respondents were instructed to simply use the terms that first came to their mind) they would like to visit the most and the preferred sequence of visit. The respondents were advised to include only those destinations that they considered would have a medium to high chance of realization in the foreseeable future so that the results could be seen as important indicators of future travel destinations trends. One respondent did not answer this part so the results were generated from 481 cases. Since the respondents used various terms (cities, countries, provinces or regions), the data were aligned to “countries” (with the exception of Hong Kong and Macao) as this was the intention and objective of the chapter. There was another exception where “Europe” was mentioned 64 times and since the count was so significant, this destination was retained as a single entity.

296

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Results indicated that many Chinese tourists considered “Europe” as their most desired destination, aligning with the results released by the European Travel Commission which predicted that 13.7% of total Chinese outbound travels will be made to Europe in 2020, representing a cumulative growth rate of 36.9% during the five-year period of 2015 2020 (European Travel Commission, 2015). As a first step, the data were given an overall scan and respondents’ answers were grouped into three categories. One, all destination choices were within China (including Hong Kong and Macao). Two, all destination choices were within Asia. Three, one or more destination choices went beyond Asia. More than 77% of the sample indicated one or more destinations outside of Asia as their likelyvisit destinations in the foreseeable future whereas only a mere 5% would confine their travel to within China. The pattern seemed to be consistent among the three age groups. These statistics were very encouraging as the newer generation appeared to be more ambitious and daring to venture into non-Asian lands, with up to 95% of respondents planning to engage in international travel and 77% of that holiday taking would be beyond Asia. A closer investigation supplies more evidences about this dominant preference. Content analysis was carried out using the qualitative analytical package NVivo 10. Table 1 provides the names of countries which the respondents had indicated 10 times or more in various styles (cities, provinces, regions, and the like). As was previously assumed, as a starting point Chinese typically prefer to explore destinations nearby where some similarities in culture and interpersonal practices exist, then gradually extend their attention to far-flung destinations in the West. Although a majority of respondents included a destination within Mainland China and Asian countries as among their top five potential destinations, it is not difficult to see the increasing importance of the Western destinations such as United States and Europe in their responses. It was also obvious that most countries on the list were long-haul destinations, further supporting the ever-growing “appetite” of the younger generation in China. As this batch of young tourists gain experience in traveling and trip planning, they will be more ready to explore the greater world. To visually present the countries of choice by the respondents, a series of word clouds (Figure 2) were generated to supply a ready analysis of the traveling trajectory of the sample. Since the focus of the study was to explore the travel trajectory of the sample “outside” of Greater China, the words “China,” “Hong Kong,” and “Macao” were excluded in data running in all subsequent analyses. Most statistics on Chinese outbound

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans Table 1. Ranking

297

Top-Mentioned Destination Countries

Word

Freq.

%

Ranking

Word

Freq.

%

1

Japan

222

9.30 16/17

Russia

33

1.38

2

Taiwan

153

6.41 18

Portugal

32

1.34

3

Korea

151

6.32 19

Greece

28

1.17

4

The United States

149

6.24 20

Egypt

23

0.96

5

Thailand

127

5.32 21

Indonesia

21

0.88

6

France

99

4.15 22/23

New Zealand

19

0.80

7/8

England

70

2.93 22/23

Switzerland

19

0.80

7/8

Malaysia

70

2.93 24

Netherlands

17

0.71

9

Australia

68

2.85 25/26

Brazil

16

0.67

10

Europe

64

2.68 25/26

Finland

16

0.67

11

Singapore

56

2.35 27

Vietnam

15

0.63

12

Italy

51

2.14 28

Turkey

14

0.59

13

Canada

42

1.76 29

Brunei

12

0.50

14

Maldives

37

1.55 30/31/32 Dubai

10

0.42

15

Spain

35

1.47 30/31/32 Iceland

10

0.42

16/17

Germany

33

1.38 30/31/32 India

10

0.42

Note: Long-haul destinations.

market include tourists visiting Hong Kong and Macao which actually should be considered as domestic tourism, as these two cities are the Special Administrative Regions of China (Xiang, 2013). Therefore it is more accurate to exclude these two destinations when it comes to the definition of outbound travel trajectory. In Figure 2 the gradual transition from the short-/medium-haul Asian destinations, such as Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand in the 1st/2nd/3rd likely visit destinations to farther away Western destinations, such as the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and Australia in the 4th/5th destination lists can be identified. This traveling pattern closely maps with the China outbound tourism statistics in 2014 when Europe, Americas, and Oceania were reported as the top five outbound destinations for Chinese beside Asia (Travel China Guide, 2015). Moreover, the various age groups

298

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Figure 2. Top Future Destination Choices

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans

299

uniformly demonstrated the increasing proportion of the long-haul destination choices in their travel plan. In particular, the older age group (30 35) had named mainly long-haul countries as their 4th and 5th likelihood visit destinations.

Factors Affecting Trip Choices A last section of the investigation looked at how important key influencing factors were to the respondents when making decision on whether to make short-/medium-/long-haul trips. The factors provided were drawn from a set of destination choice studies (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martin, 2004b; Um & Crompton, 1990). The scale was anchored from 1 to 5, with a score of 5 being the most important (Table 2). This Chinese cohort considered many of these factors (10 out of 16) as relatively important when making travel plans (with a mean score of 4 or above). In addition, all factors were rated with mean scores higher than the scale mean of 3. They rated “political/economic stability”; “time factor,” and “personal preference,” as the three most important factors and “perceived language barrier”; friends and/or relatives living there,” and “advertising and marketing communication influence” as the three least important factors that could affect their decisions. Two factors demonstrated significant inter-age group difference. They were “financial factor” (p = 0.001) and “ease of flight connections” (p = 0.014). The youngest age group (18 23) considered financial factor as significantly more important than the other two sub-age groups. The trend was that the older the respondents were, the less concerned they were financially when planning their trips. This finding was logical as they might have secured better career prospect in their late 20s and early 30s than their younger counterparts. Another significant difference existed in the factor “ease of flight connections.” The older respondents rated easy flight transit and connections as more salient consideration than the younger ones (Table 3).

CONCLUSION The affluent youth tourism market has been recognized as a major growth section in the international outbound tourism during recent decades (Cooper, Fletcher, Fyall, & Gilbert, 2005; Hall, 2005; Hunter-Jones, Jeffs, & Smith, 2008) and is highlighted as the future trend of travel by the

300

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 2.

Factors Affecting Destination Choice

Factors

N Mean S.D.

95% Confidence Interval Lower bound

Upper bound

Time factor

482 4.40

.765

4.33

4.47

Financial factorb (p = 0.001) Physical/bodily conditions

482 4.35 482 4.26

.867 .954

4.27 4.17

4.43 4.34

Visa requirement/ease of obtaining visa Ease of flight connectionsa (p = 0.014)

482 3.80 1.196

3.70

3.91

482 3.73 1.143

3.63

3.83

Destination attractiveness: natural environment Destination attractiveness: heritage/culture

482 4.23

.844

4.15

4.30

482 4.12

.880

4.04

4.20

Destination attractiveness: shopping 482 4.00 .992 Destination attractiveness: leisure 482 4.00 1.026 and recreation activities

3.91 3.91

4.09 4.09

Friends and/or relatives living there Peer influence/friends or relatives recommendations

482 3.35 1.201 482 3.83 .988

3.24 3.74

3.46 3.92

Political/economic stability Environmental conditions

482 4.43 482 4.28

.732 .807

4.36 4.21

4.49 4.35

Personal preference

482 4.40

.797

4.32

4.47

Advertising and marketing communication influence Perceived language barrier

482 3.37 1.255

3.25

3.48

481 3.32 1.301

3.20

3.44

a

The inter-age group mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The inter-age group mean difference is significant at the 0.01 level.

b

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans Table 3.

301

Identification of Difference (Multiple Comparisons— Turkey HSD)

Dependent Variable

(I) Range of Age (Mean)

(J) Range of Age (Mean)

Financial factor

18 23 (4.58)

24 29 (4.29) 30 35 (4.23)

.293* .351*

.095 .105

.006 .003

24 29 (4.29)

18 23 (4.58)

−.293*

.095

.006

30 35 (4.23)

30 35 (4.23) 18 23 (4.58)

.057 −.351*

.094 .105

.815 .003

18 23 (3.50)

24 29 (4.29) 24 29 (3.76)

−.057 −.260

.094 .126

.815 .098

30 35 (3.90)

−.400*

.139

.012

24 29 (3.76)

18 23 (3.50) 30 35 (3.90)

.260 −.140

.126 .125

.098 .501

30 35 (3.90)

18 23 (3.50) 24 29 (3.76)

.139 .125

.012 .501

Ease of flight connections

Mean Difference (I − J)

.400* .140

Std. Sig. Error

*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2012b). The tourist behaviors, in particular, the future travel plans, of this important segment are underresearched in the current literature. This chapter presents an initial attempt to understand one specific group of the youth market: the young Chinese outbound tourists. People in China born in the 70s, 80s, and 90s, represent the prime affluent consumer market in China, in other words, the youth market. By surveying 482 young Chinese age from 18 to 35 in Macao, this chapter outlines their plausible future travel trajectories, their trip preferences, and also the important factors that will affect their destination choices. The discussion demonstrates that young Chinese tourists opted for a progressive routing preferences that led them through a gradual track starting with visiting closer destinations first, followed by more distant adventures when they had accumulated more travel experience or progress

302

The World Meets Asian Tourists

through their travel career as introduced by Pearce and Lee (2005). In the original travel career studies, Western subjects tended to start their initial travel experiences from their culture-based countries then venture to the more exotic destinations in Asia as they proceeded through their travel experiences. In this case, it was the same path of building experience but in the reverse direction due to different backgrounds of the respondents. This is further supported by the results of this study that many of the respondents had included long-haul destination(s) in their foreseeable future trips. In addition, young Chinese tourists were found to be more likely to make single-destination rather than multi-destination trips. As supported by the literature illustrated in this chapter, new waves of more experienced Chinese tourists may prefer to spend longer time in single destinations, understanding local culture better and having more in-depth travel experience than parading around many destinations. Again these findings are consistent with the motivational trajectory noted in the travel career pattern formulation (Pearce, 2011). Through the use of Internet and social media, the young Chinese tourists are more informed and sophisticated tourists who are eager to set foot on the far-flung and exotic destinations. Noting that more than 77% of the respondents included one or more destinations outside of Asia and the high proportion of long-haul destination choices in their foreseeable future travel plans, Western destinations such as the United States, Europe, and Oceania should get ready to receive this large inflow of young Chinese tourists, possibly much earlier than previously predicted. While short to medium-haul destinations, such as Japan, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand remained their most-prioritized choices, the policymakers of these places must strive hard to maintain their competitive advantages as this market segment will begin their adventures beyond Asia very soon, in fact it is already happening for some niche groups (Wu & Pearce, 2014). Based on factors that affected the destination choice decisions of this targeted segment, the subjects considered all 16 factors as relatively important (all mean scores higher than the scale mean) and the most important factors were “political/economic stability,” “time factor,” and “personal preference.” These results showed notable similarity with the work of Solomon (1997) who postulated that this generation group had managed to deal with “political correctness” and was increasingly a “self-reliant” generation. This could also be cross-checked with the fact that “advertising and marketing communication influence” was being rated as one of the least important factors that could affect their destination choice decisions. The World Tourism Organization also made similar remarks that the

Young Chinese Tourists: Travel Patterns and Future Plans

303

young segment was less influenced by the so-called “celebrity endorsers” but more by opinion leaders among their peers (UNWTO, 2012b). For all the aspects discussed in this chapter, inter-group comparison was performed and the sample group demonstrated that they were one uniform cohort who shared similar views and preferences between and among the three sub-age groups in most aspects. Their views did not differ significantly in their preferred travel patterns (short-/medium-/long-haul routing sequence and multi-destination trips) and significant difference existed in only 2 out of the 16 decision making factors. The youngest sub-age group (18 23) considered the “financial factor” as more important than the other two sub-age groups whereas the oldest group (30 35) rated “ease of flight connections” as more important. Other than these two factors, the subgroups within the young segment held similar opinions toward the issues discussed in this chapter. This may be good news for the destination marketers and policymakers as knowing their general preferences can assist in appealing to the entire young population with little variation within the group (Dotson, Clark, & Dave, 2008), making this market segment more attractive for ready communication as well as rich in its potential because of the sheer numbers of young people involved. While most tourism studies related to young tourists focus on hedonism, risk-taking, onsite behaviors, destination choice preferences, and, more specifically, the route/sequence of travel plans are not frequently considered. This chapter attempts to make four major contributions to the literature. One, it tries to fill the void of not knowing much about the young Chinese outbound segment preferences. Two, it pictures the foreseeable and highly likely travel trajectories of this target segment. Three, it provides sub-age group comparisons to complete the picture of the young Chinese outbound segment and highlights that they are one holistic group with mostly uniform preferences. Finally, it supports the applicability of Pearce and Lee’s travel career approach in this distinctive emerging young Chinese outbound market. To further investigate the traveling path of the selected market with a more specific time frame, future studies may look at the travel trajectories using particular time intervals (e.g., 5/10/15 years from now). In addition, other sampling points may be used such that results can be cross-checked and cross-referenced. Macao was selected for the current study due to feasibility and its significance as a top destination of the Mainland Chinese tourists. However, those traveling to Macao may have a different agenda and/or preferences than those visiting other destinations. Therefore, more work exploring the travel preference of the young Chinese tourists from

304

The World Meets Asian Tourists

various sampling locations can help put the jigsaw pieces together. Nonetheless, this chapter can serve as a worthwhile beginning to better understand this expanding market segment. Last but not least, although limited to the Chinese market, researchers interested in the young segment of other nationalities in Asia may reference this study and provide intercultural comparison. After all, they are different yet the same. While some subtleties of place preferences and East-West orientations in terms of destinations differ, “as it turns out, Chinese youth are not so very different from young people all over the world” (UNWTO, 2012b).

Chapter 18

SINGAPORE International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World Jenny H. Panchal James Cook University, Singapore

Abstract: Perhaps more than any other country, the island nation of Singapore offers a bridge among cultures. Using data from multinational cohorts of international tourists studying in Singapore, this chapter reveals the travel patterns and preferences of Indian students whose tourist behaviors are less well understood. This chapter aims to identify their key motives using Pearce and Lee’s travel career pattern model. It also aims to identify the destination-based factors that attract Indian students in Singapore. The findings suggest that the students’ travel motives are linked to kinship and collectivism, and they are most concerned about price and safety when choosing destinations. This chapter reveals core motives and how the students can be welcomed in the next steps of their travel trajectory. Keywords: Indian students; Singapore; motivations; travel career patterns

INTRODUCTION The intended travel behavior of Asian students, and most directly Indian students, is the focus of this chapter. The core argument is that Indian

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 305 323 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007018

306

The World Meets Asian Tourists

students already studying in another location, specifically Singapore, offer a window into the future for assessing trajectories of travel and the necessary accommodation and services to meet their future needs. The movement of students between countries is now a mass movement (Maslen, 2014) and tourism marketers have noticed the unparalleled growth in the student-related travel and leisure behavior. The growth and spread of this global phenomenon has increased at an unprecedented scale in the last two decades, particularly in the “big four Anglophone countries”: the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada (Choudaha & Chang, 2012; Glover, 2011b; QS Quacquarelli Symonds, 2014). More recently, however, an increased regionalization of higher education which caused the decrease in popularity of the big four destinations has been observed (QS Quacquarelli Symonds, 2014). This means that as the demand for overseas education rises, students also search for new destinations that may offer more affordable and culturally relevant programs of study (UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2014). This is also to say that students are likely to be considering countries in their own region. Maslen (2014) suggests that nearly five million international students are likely to be studying for degrees outside their home countries, based on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s data which showed nearly 4.5 million international students in 2011. According to International Consultants for Education and Fairs Monitor [ICEF] (2014), Asia is a key contributor to the bulging international student market; Asian students account for about 53% of the total, most of whom are from China and India. The 2011 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development data show that Chinese students, in particular, account for more than 720,000 studying outside mainland China, that is, one in six international students is Chinese, while Indian overseas students account for more than 223,000 (5.3%) (ICEF, 2014). The other major markets include South Korea and Malaysia. In the Asia Pacific region, Singapore and Malaysia have started to compete with traditional educational destinations, such as Australia and Japan (Anderson & Bhati, 2012; UNESCO Bangkok, 2013; UNESCO Institute of Statistics, 2014). Singapore is increasingly being recognized as a leader in education, research and innovation. Its universities attract about 70,000 international students annually, or 18% of all students in the city-state (StudyLink, 2015). It further relates that the government is cutting funding opportunities to lower international enrollment by 15%. This action is intended to accommodate more domestic students. Places for international students, nonetheless, are still abundant.

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

307

Singapore is a popular education destination for Asians, especially for Indians. Anderson and Bhati (2012) suggest that safety and proximity to India and lower cost of living (as compared to Australia) are the key motives for Indian students in choosing Singapore. Better job prospects in the country, as compared to big four destinations, are also appealing. This can be underpinned by Matthews’(2013) report that they study in Singapore to find a job locally. With the recent changes to workplace and immigration policies, however, it can be viewed that these motives may have changed, albeit not significantly. In the discussion of international student mobility, it is important to define the subjects in this study. Following the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Gardiner, King, and Wilkins (2013) advocate that international mobile students can be illustrated by those who leave their country of origin and move to another country or territory with the objective of studying. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development provides a similar definition of “international students.” For the purpose of this chapter, the terms “international mobile students,” “international students,” and “overseas students” are used interchangeably. The term “travel” mainly refers to international travel that is the movement of people to destinations outside Singapore by any mode of transportation. This involves crossing geographic borders and going through standard immigration checks in Singapore and the destination country. This is because country is a small city-state, and the term domestic travel, which traditionally refers to travel within the country, may simply mean daily commuting for most nationals. A review of related literature suggests that very little attention has been paid to Asia-based international students’ travel behavior. More specifically, it has been observed that understanding about Indian students’ travel patterns is limited. This gap is addressed in this chapter by identifying the key motives of Singapore-based Indian students using Pearce and Lee’s (2005) travel career pattern (TCP) model.

INDIAN STUDENT TRAVEL Much has been written about international students’ travel patterns and behavior. It has been observed that most studies have been undertaken in Australia (Gardiner et al., 2013; Glover, 2011a; Michael, Armstrong, & King, 2003; Pope, Shanka, & Ali-Knight, 2002), New Zealand (Chadee & Cutler, 1996; Payne, 2009), and the United States (Hsu & Sung, 1997; Kim,

308

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Jogaratnam, & Noh, 2006). It was only recently that travel behavior of international students in Asia received some attention. The recent work of Varasteh, Marzuki, and Rasoolimanesh (2015), for example, focused on different factors which influence Malaysia-based international students’ travel behavior. In Japan, Shi, Nakatani, Sajiki, Sawauchi, and Yamamoto (2010) investigated the differences in travel behavior and preferences between Chinese and non-Chinese university students. The literature suggests that ethnicity and culture are significant factors affecting travel behavior among international students in any part of the world (Chadee & Cutler, 1996; Glover, 2011a; Hsu & Sung, 1997; Kim et al., 2006; Payne, 2009; Varasteh et al., 2015). While this can be supported by a corpus of academic work, fragmented attention has been given to specific ethnic groups of international students. It has been recognized, however, that a few cross-cultural comparisons between international and domestic students have been undertaken. Glover (2011a), for example, compared international and Australian students’ tourism behavior, and found that international trip characteristics differed significantly from those of domestic students. She also found that the length of stay in Australia did not result in international students adapting to domestic students’ behavior. Walker and Wang (2010) studied the effect of face concern (an indigenous Chinese concept that influences people’s behaviors) on Chinese and Canadian university students’ leisure travel. They found a significant difference between the cohorts in terms of perceived importance of face concern, that is, the face concern is more important to Chinese students than to Canadians. Other research studies that compare one ethnic group with the rest of international students have been undertaken (Shi et al., 2010). Although both Chinese and Indian students account for majority of the international students, it is evident in the literature that the former is given more attention than the latter, especially in Asia. Shi et al. (2010), for example, suggest significant differences between Chinese and non-Chinese students in terms of travel-related sources of information and accommodation preferences. While this is of interest, the literature offers similar themes about Chinese students in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and others (Hughes et al., 2015; Ryan & Zhang, 2007; Walker & Wang, 2010). On the contrary, no known study exploring Indian students’ travel behavior was found. This means that in spite of the significant number of Indian students around the globe, very little has been documented on this subject. The apparent dearth of studies paved the way for this study. The gaps are approached from three perspectives. The first lies in the geographical

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

309

context of this study. Singapore is one of the most competitive education destination of choice in Asia for foreign students apart from Hong Kong and Malaysia (UNESCO Bangkok, 2013). The second and third approaches are linked, focusing on Indian overseas students by using the TCP theory (Lee & Pearce, 2003; Pearce & Lee, 2005) to understand their travel motives. Because Indian overseas students’ travel behavior is not clearly defined in the literature, it is important to use a tested motive-based theory to analyze a group of people whose travel patterns are less understood. It should be noted that no known study has applied the TCP model in exploring international students’ travel patterns. The TCP is a modified version of the travel career ladder model. The structural underpinnings of the travel career ladder were based on adopting a multi motive approach, linked in part to the work of Maslow, and the concept of career which was assimilated from Hughes’ (1937) work on leisure careers. The travel career ladder has been criticized and re-appraised (Bowen & Clarke, 2009; Hsu & Huang, 2008; Ryan, 1998); some commentaries focused on the term “ladder” and its analogy to a physical one where an individual goes one step at a time and stays at that level for a long period (Panchal & Pearce, 2011; Pearce, 2005). The change from “ladder” to “pattern” has made the model’s hierarchical components less pronounced (Panchal & Pearce, 2011). The use of the three-layer TCP concept includes 14 key travel motives. The model suggests that novelty, escape/relax, and relationships are the most important motives that influence tourists in their decision making regardless of their tourism experience. Changing the terms de-emphasizes TCL’s analogy to a physical ladder. The two other layers of motives in the TCP suggest that there are moderately important motives (self-enhancement and host-site involvement) and less important motives (romance, nostalgia). Therefore, the model puts “more emphasis on the change of motivation patterns reflecting career levels than on hierarchical levels.” It also posits that tourists manifest “changing motivational patterns over their life-stages and/or with travel experience” (Pearce, 2005, pp. 54 56). The TCP model has been used in different geographical contexts and in more specific forms of tourism. In modifying it, Pearce and Lee studied tourists’ motivations in South Korea and Australia, and it was found that the patterns were consistent for the Western and Asian tourists (Pearce, 2011). Panchal (2012) and Panchal and Pearce (2011) also used the model in studying spa-going tourists in South and Southeast Asia, specifically in India, Thailand, and the Philippines. Their studies suggest that spa-going tourists’ motives correspond with the different levels of experience. They

310

The World Meets Asian Tourists

slightly expanded the TCP by adding health and beauty motives to it. They found that the model is dynamic and flexible and can be used in many forms of tourism (Panchal, 2012; Panchal & Pearce, 2011).

Study Methods An online survey was used in collecting data for this study. The advantages of this technique have been well-documented. The elimination of printing, postage, and data entry which make web-based surveys inexpensive are the key factors over the conventional survey method. Researchers have reported substantial improvement in response speed over traditional mail surveys (Dillman, 2000; Fricker & Schonlau, 2002). Online surveys, however, come with disadvantages as well. Critiques of online surveys point out coverage error as the most common shortcoming. Data quality—usually measured by the number of respondents with missing items or the percentage of missing items—is also a potential weakness of this method (Fricker & Schonlau, 2002). Further, Fricker and Schonlau (2002) identified sampling error as another weakness. As argued earlier, however, convenience sampling provides very minimal sampling issues because the target respondents are accessible and can be identified easily. Hence, even the ubiquity of the Internet which allows easy access to a larger sample was not a main consideration in choosing the web-based survey method. This study is part of a larger project that explores Singapore-based international students’ travel motives. Convenience sampling, also known as accidental sampling (Salkind, 2010), was employed in the data collection. This technique involves selecting participants based on convenience and accessibility (Salkind, 2010; Sedgwick, 2013). A small group of student volunteers invited international students at James Cook University in Singapore to sign up for the study over a period of two weeks. The 372 signatories were sent an invitation to participate in the research. The invitation included a link to the survey, which had four key sections: travel motives, including motivation to travel outside Singapore while studying (using the TCP model) and destination characteristics; travel experience; travel preferences; and demographic information. A total of 215 responses were generated over a period of four weeks; 132 were Indian students whose responses were selected and filtered for analysis for this study. Salkind (2010) argues that obtaining samples using this technique is easy and low cost. Nonetheless, he also argues that results from studies that

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

311

employ convenience sampling, because of its narrow focus, are not generalizable. In this study, however, it is argued that because the participants were not selected at random from the population of students and that it focused on respondents that need to meet certain criteria, convenience sampling is the most appropriate technique. Indian nationals enrolled at James Cook University in Singapore (based on their student IDs), were selected. In using the TCP model, only 52 out of the 69 statements from the foundation study were used, because some were thought to be overlapping or inapplicable to the present study. The statement “doing things with my companions,” for example, was omitted because it was overlapping with another statement, “doing things with my family/friends.” The latter is more applicable to the context of what is being studied. Also, the statements for “strengthening relationships” and “securing relationships” were combined. Strengthening relationships is more outward-looking (extrinsic); it was about doing and enjoying things with companions and contacting family/friends who live elsewhere. On the other hand, securing relationships is inward-looking (intrinsic); it was about feeling personally safe and secure, being with respectful people and meeting those with similar interests. It also involved the feeling of belongingness. The items for these two were analyzed and labeled as one factor (relationships). It is argued that both intrinsic and extrinsic approaches to relationships can be combined to represent one’s need for kinship. The key background information is provided in Table 1. Therefore, this study provides for a 13-factor model instead of 14. Importantly Table 1 shows some important balances in the sample which are valuable in discussing Indian students and more generally Indian tourist behavior. (see also Chapter 6 about differences in Indian tourists as airline passengers). Table 1 shows that the sample consisted of almost equal numbers of males (51.5%) than females (48.5%) and were mostly between 21 and 25 years old (71.2%). The students were well distributed from the diverse parts of India: from the states of Punjab (10%) and Haryana (2%) in the North; Rajasthan (2%), Gujarat (12%), and Maharashtra (18%) in the West; Tamil Nadu (26%), Andhra Pradesh (13%) and Kerala (9%) in the South; Manipur and Nagaland (2%) in the Northeast; and West Bengal (6%) in the East. The students were predominantly in business degrees.

Study Results The overarching aim of this chapter is to gain insights about international Indian students’ travel behavior, particularly their motives while studying

312

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 1.

Demographic Profile of Respondents

Variables Gender Age group

N Male

68 51.5 Education 64 48.5 (cont)

18 20

15 11.4

21 25

94 71.2

26 30

18 13.6

≥36

Education

Variables

Female

30 35 Origin (state in India)

%

N Masters

100

% 76

MBA (39%) MBA + MPA (19%) MPA(10%) Tourism (6%) IT (4%)

4

3

1

19

14.4

23

17.4

Haryana

3

0.8 Usual length of Day trip trips outside 2 days/1 night Singapore 2 3 4 days/2 3 nights

40

30.3

Rajasthan

3

2

4 5 days/3 4 nights

20

15.2

Gujarat

16 12

5 6 days/4 6 nights

18

13.6

Maharashtra

24 18

One week

6

4.5

Tamil Nadu

34 26

More than one week

6

4.5

Andhra Pradesh

17 13

Kerala

12

9

Manipur/ Nagaland

3

2

West Bengal

8

6

Punjab

Bachelors Business (20%) Psychology (4%)

13 10

32 24

Travel companions

Alone

7

5.3

With spouse/partner

6

4.5

With family

24

18.2

With friends from my educational institution

52

39.4

With friends NOT from my educational institution

9

6.8

With both family and friends

34

25.8

in Singapore. The profile analysis of the respondents showed that most students have an average of 1 2 trips out of Singapore (excluding India) every three months (48%). In a span of six months, however, 23% said that they traveled 3 5 times. Most of them reported that they usually spent 2 3 nights per trip outside Singapore (30.3%), and mostly did so with friends from the same tertiary institution (39.4%). About a quarter of the respondents also reported that they have mostly traveled with both “family and friends” (25.8%) and with “family only” (18.2%). The proximity of Singapore as well as its relatively easy visa provisions provide opportunities

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

313

for parents, siblings, and extended family members to visit their loved ones who are studying in Singapore. As a hub, there are many options for visiting other destinations such as South East Asia (Johor Bahru, Kuala Lumpur, Bali, Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh and Manila), the Middle East (Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Doha), Australia/New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Arguably, these transport links are major considerations facilitating both visits by family and friends and the movement of international students themselves. During the pre-trip stage, tourists generally search for information that aid them in making decisions. Booking for transportation, accommodation, and, to some extent, destination-based activities also constitute the preparation stage. In this study, the students reported that they heavily relied on the Internet (84%) and friends/family (76%) for information. Prior visits to the destination (organic experiences) were also of considerable importance as sources of information (48%). Booking for the various components of their trips were mostly completed online, with travel agents or onsite. Figure 1 shows that transportation and accommodation were typically booked through the Internet or mobile applications. Although some have reserved online, a sizable segment of the respondents said that it was not necessary to book for transportation within the destination. This may be attributed to practices in many parts of Asia where booking is not a sine qua non for public transportation, such as buses, trains, and taxis; in

Internet

Travel agent

On-site

Booking was not necessary

I do not know

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Transport to destination

Accommodation Transport within the destination

Activities

Transport back to Singapore

Figure 1. Method of Booking Travel Components

314

The World Meets Asian Tourists

this sense, locals and tourists alike take their chances as passengers. For destination-based activities that require reservations, they usually book them onsite, at the attraction or destination. For transportation back to Singapore, however, students booked them largely through travel agents. While this information cannot be investigated further, perhaps students were not very certain of their return dates or decided to return sooner or later than their intended date and sought the services of a travel agent to re-book their pre-arranged transportation. The students’ travel-related spending patterns also provide an insight to their tourism behavior. For accommodation, it was found that almost 38% of the sample spent up to US$70 (SG$100), while 34.8% spent from $71 to $215. The results revealed that backpackers/hostels were not a very popular choice among the respondents (11.4%). More than 61% usually stayed in hotels, while 15.2% selected resorts. While they may be expected to have spent more because of their accommodation preferences, these findings can be attributed to three perspectives. One is that free accommodation may have been provided by family/friends who live in the destination that they visited (private accommodation = 6.8%). Two, they have shared the accommodation costs among their companions. Lastly, the students who reported expenditure within this range were mostly those who visited places like Myanmar, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Cambodia, where accommodation prices are comparatively lower than the other destinations mentioned in Figure 1. Transportation, onsite activities, shopping, and food expenses per trip were also explored in the study. Transport-related expenses varied between enroute expenses (round trip combined) and local transportation. Almost 83% usually traveled by air. More than 42% usually spent between $70 and $215 for enroute transportation and 52% only spent up to $70 for the latter. The average spending for onsite activities per trip ranged from $35 to $215, while shopping (excluding food) accounted for a higher range, with about 3% of the respondents reporting to have spent more than $715 per trip. Food expenses were within the range of $35 $215 (70.4%). The push-pull model is a foundation approach for understanding tourism motivation (Dann, 1977). This framework posits that people travel because they are pushed and pulled by motivational factors. The former, which are considered to be socio-psychological motivations that prompt individuals to travel, are pivotal in this chapter. The pull factors, or the characteristics of destinations that attract tourists, are significant components of decision making. Characterizing destinations play an integral part in exploring behavior. Therefore, even though the pull factors do not

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

315

constitute the focal points of this chapter, it is worth identifying the characteristics of destinations that attract Singapore-based international Indian students. The students were asked to rate the importance of a pre-determined list of destination qualities that encompass both physical and social components as prescribed by Pearce (2005, 2011), where 1 was not important at all and 5 was very important. Respondents consider the same factors when considering both education and holiday destinations: price (x = 4.50) and safety/security (x = 4.44). The price-sensitive students generally consider the affordability of traveling to and holidaymaking at a destination. Safety and security were also assessed as very important factors in choosing a destination. Weaver and Lawton (2010) suggest that the tourist market is sensitive to any suggestion of social or political instability within a destination. The information pertinent to these concerns is provided in Table 2. The

Table 2. Destination Characteristics That Attract Indian Students in Singapore

Destination Attributes Price (i.e., amount to be spent here as compared to similar destinations) Safety and security

x (importance) 4.50a 4.44

Popularity of the destination (i.e., to both international & domestic tourists) Proximity (i.e., nearer/farther from Singapore)

3.84 3.36

Season/time of the year (e.g., summer) Climate at the destination (e.g., cooler, warmer)

3.27 3.29

Natural setting of the place (e.g., beaches, mountains)

3.80

Water-based activities at the destination (e.g., swimming, surfing, scuba diving) Land-based activities at the destination (e.g., hiking, mountain climbing)

3.35

Historical/religious significance of the place Non-nature-based activities at the destination (e.g., shopping)

3.05 3.14

3.27

Measured at five-point Likert scale with 1 = 1 was not important at all and 5 =very important. a

316

The World Meets Asian Tourists

importance of security stems for the immediacy of tourists’ consumption in and interaction with the setting. The proximity of destinations from Singapore is also of considerably high importance. This can be linked to their average length of trips. Students are most likely to spend weekends out of Singapore to unwind from university life. Public holidays, which sometimes allow for long weekends, also provide opportunities for travel. The accessibility of neighboring countries, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, make it easier for international students. As Figure 2 suggests, Johor Bahru and Kuala Lumpur are the most-visited cities outside Singapore. Johor Bahru, in particular, has received almost 47%% (n = 62) of the respondents. It lies just across the causeway from Singapore, and the ease of travel between these two places makes it a popular weekend destination. Getting to Kuala Lumpur by air (from Changi Airport), by rail, and by road (both via Johor Bahru) also make this Malaysian city a preferred destination for Indian students. Batam and Bintan, the nearest and most accessible Indonesian islands to Singapore, are also popular destinations. Price, length of holiday, and proximity of destinations can also be closely linked. It can be largely assumed that when traveling, distance is directly proportional to price and the duration of holiday. Traveling to farther destinations is presumably costlier in monetary and temporal terms than holidaying in nearby places. It should also be considered that a longer stay at a destination generally means more expenses (for accommodation, food, and activities). This is evident in the results: a very limited number of students visited Europe and the United States. Indeed, traveling to these distant places from Singapore requires more time and money. The participants who are time-constrained and price-sensitive did not find it appealing to travel to European sites and countries. Term breaks which last between 2 and 4 weeks in a year can also be seen as opportunities for students to take longer holidays. In considering the options available for extended holidays, 77% of them chose to spend the time with family and friends in India. About 18% chose to visit new destinations with their respective families, and the rest did not go anywhere. It was found that about 80% of those holidaying with their family out of Singapore were the ones who visited Australia, Europe, and the United States. The other factors are of moderate to lower importance. The season and climate at the destination are of considerably lower importance, compared to the natural setting of the place. Singapore, as a heavily modified urban landscape, may be perceived lacking natural beaches and mountains, which the students seek during their holidays. Indeed, places like Batam,

Paris London Melbourne Brisbane Sydney Perth Macau Hong Kong Shenzhen Beijing Shanghai Sikhanoukville Siem Reap Phnom Penh

Malaysia (n=70, 53%)

HK/Macau, SAR & Mainland China (n=26, 19.7%)

Europe Australia Other Asia Southeast Asia

317

New York Ohio

Myan Philippines mar (n=3, Indonesia Thailand (n=3, Vietnam Cambodia (n=44;33.3%) (n=51, 38.6%) 2.3%) 2.3%) (n=10, 7.6%) (n=7, 5.3%)

The United States

UK, Australia (n=30, France USA (n=2, 22.7%) (n=4, 3%) 1.5%)

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

Da Nang Hanoi Ho Chi Minh City Yangon Cebu Manila Chiangmai Phuket/Krabi Bangkok Jakarta Surabaya Bintan Batam Malacca Tioman Island Genting Kuala Lumpur Johor Bahru

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Figure 2. Cities and Countries Visited by Respondents while Studying in Singapore

The World Meets Asian Tourists

318

Bintan, Kuala Lumpur (and nearby places), as well as the destinations in Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Vietnam have many natural and idyllic settings to offer. The availability of water and land-based activities are moderately important, while the historical/religious significance of the destination and non-nature based activities at the destination (such as shopping) are of low importance to the students. The TCP model, previously tested in specific forms of tourism such as spa settings, was used in this study to identify what drives Indian students to travel while studying in Singapore. The model represents a 14-dimensional space of motivation. In this study, however, only 13 factors were used because the two relationship-based factors were combined. The items comprising the motive factors were summarized and the mean scores for each factor were computed (Table 3). A designation of very, moderately,

Table 3. Levels of Travel Experience and Importance of Motives Travel Motives

Low Travel Experience (3.79%)

Medium Travel Experience (67.42%)

High Travel Experience (28.79%)

Total Mean

Level of Importance

Novelty

4.20

4.51

4.59

4.52

Very important

Escape/relax

4.37

4.18

4.30

4.22

Very important

Nature

4.10

3.98

4.18

4.14

Very important

Relationships

4.32

4.08

4.25

4.13

Very important

Stimulation

3.80

3.85

4.26

4.05

Moderately important

Host-site involvement

3.90

3.90

4.07

4.04

Very important

Personal development

3.80

4.00

4.21

4.04

Moderately important

Isolation

3.95

3.93

4.12

3.99

Moderately important

Autonomy

4.20

4.06

4.29

3.97

Very important

Self-actualization

3.88

3.99

4.19

3.95

Very important

Recognition

4.00

3.61

3.59

3.72

Moderately important

Nostalgia

3.60

3.71

3.75

3.62

Moderately important

Romance

3.60

3.49

3.41

3.47

Less important

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

319

and less important bands of scores was employed and follows the substantive levels of importance scores used in the original formulations of the TCP work. The results in this study partially mirror that of the original TCP work by Pearce and Lee (2005). In the original study, the most important travel motives identified were novelty, escape/relax, and relationships. While this study reveals the same finding, it was also found that factors such as autonomy (x = 4.13), host-site involvement (x = 4.05), self-actualization, (x = 4.04), and nature (x = 4.04) were very important. Seeking romance (x = 3.47) was the least important motive for the Indian students. Moderately important motives were isolation (x = 3.99), stimulation (x = 3.97), and personal development (x = 3.95). Nostalgia (x = 3.91) and recognition (x = 3.62) were also in the mid-range of importance to the students.

Previous Travel Experience As a preliminary comment to the reporting of the results in this study, it should be mentioned that age was disregarded as a variable in the overall experience. While this is seen as a deviation from the original study, it serves as a way of customizing the TCP model in this study. Although age is an important demographic variable that is traditionally used in studying tourist behavior and market segmentation (March & Woodside, 2005; Swarbrooke & Horner, 2007), it is also reported to be an unreliable predictor of experience, particularly in developing Asian countries (Kim, Pearce, Morrison, & O’Leary, 1996). Previous experience was thought as an important variable among the students’ propensity to travel. Pearce and Lee’s (2005) means of measuring respondents’ international and domestic experience was adopted and slightly modified, following Panchal and Pearce’s (2011) study of spa-going tourists. Similar to their work, the respondents’ tourism experience was determined by the number of times that they traveled “within” and “out of” India (before coming for their education) and Singapore (as a student), and were given values 1 (inexperienced) to 4 (very experienced). Likewise, a standardized variable which represented the combined values for each respondent’s domestic and international experiences was created. This variable is based on the supposition that international travel is arguably more influential in building an individual’s experience of tourism settings than domestic journeys (Panchal & Pearce, 2011). In this study, the computation of values resulted in a lowest possible score of zero and a highest possible

320

The World Meets Asian Tourists

score of 12. Scores of 0 4 were low (n = 5), scores of 5 8 were medium n = 89), and scores of 9 12 were high (n = 38). Table 3 shows the breakdown of the respondents by overall experience. While some of the findings conform to previous TCP-based studies, the other results of the analysis were a little different. Similar to previous works, novelty, relaxation/escape, and relationships were very important to Indian students regardless of their past experience. Similar findings include host-site involvement and personal development as comparatively very important among more experienced and less experienced tourists, respectively. The search for romance was also consistently of low importance in most studies, including the current one. Some of the findings were, however, unforeseen. Students with greater travel experience, for example, perceived almost all motives as important, including the current one. A key theme that surfaced from the findings, albeit implicitly, is that the Singapore-based international Indian students’ tourism motives and behavior are linked to two related themes: relationships and collectivism. This largely conforms the findings from previous studies that one’s cultural and ethnic backgrounds are important factors that affect international students’ tourist behavior (Chadee & Cutler, 1996; Glover, 2011a; Hsu & Sung, 1997; Kim et al., 2006; Payne, 2009; Varasteh et al., 2015). Even though they are out of their country, the students still uphold much of their culture especially in valuing relationships and working/doing things together as a group. This study also found that strengthening/securing relationships is a very important factor. It is argued that these results can be attributed to strong family ties, which are one of the most essential foundations of the Indian society and culture (Hofstede, 2015; Mullatti, 1992). This is evident in their report that the Indian students were accompanied by both “family and friends” (25.8%) and “family only” (18.2%). Reports of long-haul experiences from Singapore (to Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), albeit very limited, were mostly with family members who were visiting from India. It was observed that the majority of the respondents spent their mid-term breaks with family and friends in India. Nevertheless, it was observed that seeking autonomy was one of the very important drivers for Indian students to leave Singapore, regardless of their past experience. While this may seem paradoxical in relation to strengthening family ties, it does not necessarily mean that the respondents are individualistic. It is important to note that the statements used for this factor were “being independent” (x = 4.10) and “doing things my way” (x = 4.17). Being independent and being able to do things by one’s self may mean

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

321

having the freedom to make tourism linked decisions not just for the individual, but for the travel party. Relationships are indeed part of the Indian psyche. It is therefore unsurprising that Indians are most likely to do things with their Indian peers. As Mullati (1992) suggests, Indians are fundamentally collectivists. Collectivism represents a preference for a tightly knit structure in society in which individuals can expect their family, friends (and other members of the group) to look after them in exchange for loyalty (Hofstede, 2015). The findings revealed that the overseas Indian students reported to have spent most of their leisure time (including traveling) with their fellow Indians by nationality or ethnicity (68%). In contrast, about 30% said they spent their leisure time with students of other nationalities (including Singaporeans), while 2% said they preferred to spend their free time alone.

CONCLUSION The work discussed in this chapter has a strong intra-Asian focus, but represents an analysis of a group of younger people about to step out into Western world destinations. The data indicate the value of Singapore as a partially Westernized and multicultural city functioning as an international experience base for Indian students, assisting them move on to destinations such as Australia and New Zealand. The significance of the topic of overseas student mobility in terms of the flow of students in, out, and within a destination has been studied in a variety of contexts. Small as it may be, Singapore is an increasingly popular education destination in Asia. With the increasing influx of students in the city-state, it is important to understand the tourism behavior of international students as outbound tourists. Motivation, as one of the key concepts in the study of tourism (Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1981; Pearce, 2005), is pivotal in this chapter. This study aimed to understand the motives and patterns of Singapore-based international Indian students using the TCP model. The findings support much of the previous studies on international students’ travel patterns. Indeed, culture and ethnicity are key factors that shape Indian students’ tourism motives. As revealed by the results, kinship is a strong element that influences the way in which international Indian students spend their leisure time (including as tourists) while studying in Singapore. Their affinity to family and friends can be closely linked with their collectivistic approach to the various aspects of their lives. It was found that price, proximity, and safety/security, which are the prime

322

The World Meets Asian Tourists

factors that attracted them to study in Singapore (Anderson & Bhati, 2012) are the key destination elements that they consider as most important when traveling to other destinations. The use of the TCP was an important and core foundation of the study. Although age can often be disregarded as a variable in the analysis of tourism experience, the findings still partially mirrored those of the previous TCP studies. At core, the results revealed that the search for novelty, relaxation, and relationships are very important motives at any point in a person’s travel career. The rest of the findings using the model, link well with previous TCP studies. In particular, many other motives of the Indian students were not strongly differentiated and were often rated as moderately to very important. This lack of differentiation among motives outside of the core set of leading factors of importance was found in earlier studies of inexperienced tourists in the original TCP studies Overall, this chapter suggests that international Indian students in Singapore are often eager and wide-eyed individuals who are keen to explore the globe. As the life cycle of these young Indians in Singapore mature, their travel careers can also be expected to develop and their trajectories can extend to non-Asian destinations, more specifically to those in the occidental part of the world. Therefore, Western destinations can benefit in knowing that future tourists from Indian are a generation who are educated, price-sensitive, tech-savvy, and have great concern for safety. This means that national tourist organizations and tourism businesses in non-Asian destinations who aim to attract the Indian market can create (or redesign existing) tourism products that match these needs and behavior. Both Asian and non-Asian destinations can benefit in understanding the apparent tourism behavior of Indian students based in a hub like Singapore, because these have implications for market segmentation, destination marketing, and, to some degree, immigration policies. By knowing the students’ preferences, length of stay, and travel companions, tourism businesses can design or enhance destination marketing strategies aimed at these students in the region. Immigration policies may require slightly more liberal visa policies and procedures for international students seeking these experiences. This can encourage greater mobility of overseas students, which in turn benefit tourism businesses, especially in emerging destinations. Any easing of visa controls can encourage greater mobility of Asian students, thus building their knowledge of countries outside their own continent.

Singapore: International Students’ Stepping Stone to the World

323

Acknowledgment The author acknowledges the assistance of Lavisha Kirpalani, Akhil Sharma, Yong Mei Xian, Saakshi Prakash, and Hoang Thi Ngoc Huyen who helped in the literature review, data collection, and initial data analysis. Appreciation is also extended to Nimrod Delante for proofreading this work.

This page intentionally left blank

Chapter 19

CONCLUSION Theoretical and Managerial Considerations Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Mao-Ying Wu Zhejiang University, China

Abstract: The final chapter of this volume seeks to interpret and explain key dimensions of Asian outbound tourism. Initially the challenge of employing culturally sensitive theoretical lenses is tackled. Cautious and at times sceptical assessments of the mobilities paradigm, critical pragamatism and specific micro approaches are offered. A selection of key lenses for future study is made. Major forces affecting Asian outbound tourism such as the digital world and low-cost air carriers are reviewed. The strategic issues facing destination managers and communities are highlighted. Managing the adjustments for mutual well-being between tourists and the communities they visit are stressed and extracted from the chapters in this book. Keywords: Mobilities; critical pragmatism; enabling forces; strategic marketing; management actions

INTRODUCTION The purpose of this chapter lies in meeting three ambitious goals. First, it seeks to offer commentary on some of the theoretical constructs and

The World Meets Asian Tourists Bridging Tourism Theory and Practice, Volume 7, 325 343 Copyright r 2017 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2042-1443/doi:10.1108/S2042-144320160000007019

326

The World Meets Asian Tourists

approaches which are in vogue and which can be directed toward the analysis of Asian outbound tourism. The authors acknowledge the evolving nature of these explanatory ideas, but present some theoretical lenses which assist in integrating the topics of this book. The second goal of the chapter is to review the ongoing power of the digital era and the role of low-cost carriers in creating the current and future flowering of Asian outbound tourism. The intention here is not so much a direct forecasting approach, such as that favored by econometrics colleagues, but follows instead a more qualitative path of highlighting likely trends. A third goal of substance for the chapter resides in addressing the strategic marketing and management issues, including sustainability and well-being, which communities hosting Asian outbound tourists need to address. This component of the final chapter serves to reinforce the title of the volume—The World Meets Asian Tourists—and considers how this meeting can be a success and points of friction overcome. In establishing the purpose and groundwork for the final chapter of this volume, it is pivotal to reflect again (Chapter 1) on the topic of Eurocentrism. It has already been noted in that introduction that the very terms used to describe the world, notably Asia, East-West, the Orient, the Far East, Western countries, and the North-South divide, are products of the European world view and its history. On a personal note, as authors working in Australian and China, these terms have always seemed like 19th century relics; anachronisms from the colonial expansion which defined European history and exploration. The points to be made about Eurocentrism reach beyond their dated character and their locational origins. The conceptual legacy of the terms is subtle. It has meant a view of the center and the periphery and in particular a privileging of the forms of international tourism and their meaning which have become enshrined in textbooks and modes of analysis. Van Egmond (2007), for example, produced a representative example of tourism scholarship in Understanding Western Tourists in Developing Countries. In this example of tourism study involving Europe and Asia, the hosts are relatively less affluent and the mainly young Dutch tourists are accorded respect, because of the implicit power of their nationality and its status. The understanding of tourism as a phenomenon and tourists in contact with others achieved in this kind of study is from the perspective of the goals, motives, and mindsets of Europeans visiting Asia. While valid as a special case, as an understanding of the whole phenomenon of tourism, the

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

327

strategy of building tourism models of cultures in contact from such samples is, at best, incomplete and, at worst, likely to be seriously flawed. What is missing from this selective Eurocentric view is the complexity of the jungle of tourism—the newly affluent East Asian tourists in Europe intent on boosting their status and worldly experience; Western hosts unable to differentiate between Asian faces and tourists; Muslim, Hindus, and Buddhists on pivotal life enhancing pilgrimages; the diaspora of the world visiting their home cities, villages, and family; and the pan-emerging struggle by Asian tourists to engage with Western values and be both modern and faithful to home cultures. As the theoretical lenses to address the expansion of Asian outbound tourism are considered, it is necessary to be mindful of avoiding a simplistic Eurocentric view which sees Asian tourists as facsimiles of their European and North American predecessors.

THEORETICAL LENSES In the introductory chapter to this volume, a number of theoretical approaches were listed as relevant to the treatment of the topics presented in the subsequent chapters. The list of approaches included comparative history, critical pragmatism, social representations theory, social situation analysis, culture shock, and culture confusion, mindfulness, the travel career pattern, and an adapted version of the mobility paradigm. It was pointed out in Chapter 1 that these approaches are not necessarily competitors all trying to explain the same part of the tropical forest of tourism. The notion that there are multiple levels of analysis and lenses for observing social phenomenon is a long standing one (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; Pierce 1877) and can be linked to the view that disciplines have corresponding different kinds of explanation for the levels they observe. For example Mayr (1982), representing the world of biologists, has distinguished between proximate causes, the immediate enabling conditions for an event or behavior and ultimate causes, which look beyond the short term and seek the larger molar forces at play in generating what is observed. This chapter seeks to identify some compatible proximate and ultimate causes across multilevel explanatory approaches from the current and developing theories which can be directed at the complex flowering of Asian outbound tourism.

328

The World Meets Asian Tourists

In a recent treatment of Chinese outbound tourism, Harrill, Li, and Xiao (2016) advocate a specific philosophical position of critical pragmatism as a compromise relevant to tourism study. Following Forrester (1993), they view critical pragmatism as a valuable bridge uniting the insights of Habermas and his theory of open communication action and the darker insights of Foucault whose Panopticon model stresses the controlling and imprisoning elements of the gaze of others and the self. More specifically, they illustrate these ideas in a treatment of how Chinese tourists deal with the permissive Western approaches to guns, sexuality, and gambling. Harrill et al. consider that by adopting a critical approach to data about how Chinese tourists see the world, then it is possible to appreciate their power as individuals to exert emancipatory pressure both at home and abroad. The ideas advocated by Harrill et al. do not exist in a theoretical vacuun with the social representations work derived from Mosccovici being closely aligned with Habermas’ open communicative action and the gaze work of Urry deriving quite directly from Foucault. It is apparent, however, that the incorporation of the critical theory approach which stresses an understanding of power and privilege in the analysis of tourism topics is a valuable emphasis for understanding the uneven tourism opportunities available to Asian citizens. Further the emphasis on power can be linked to the core question asking who benefits most from outbound Asian outbound? The latter question, as Flyvbjerg (2001) suggests, is always one worth asking about social science topics. Another recent candidate for appraising Asian outbound tourism at the molar level of analysis lies in the adaptation of the mobilities paradigm as advocated by Cohen and Cohen (2015b). They assert that the mobilities paradigm is a solution to the Eurocentric conceptual stranglehold limiting existing tourism theory. They see the linking of tourism to other forms of mobility as being able to tease out the complexities of the topic that are lost when only tourism is considered. This possibility would, however, appear to be an optimistic vision of the possibilities, rather than the reality of many current mobilities studies which perhaps rather too single mindedly seek to explore just one form of movement and spatial displacement. Additionally, Cohen and Cohen appear to have a rather old fashioned and limited definition of tourism, perhaps a residual European view in itself, because they advocate, following others, considering pilgrimages, visiting friends and relatives tourism, old home visits, and travel for education and medical purposes as new links (Hannam, Sheller, & Urry, 2006). Many researchers would already embrace such topics within the exiting ambit of

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

329

tourism work. The potentially original contribution in their advocacy lies in suggesting a tripartite understanding of what they term emerging regions (their compromise and adjusted term for the East-West and North-South expression dilemmas). They argue, following Cresswell (2010), that the basic components of human mobility can be understood through three terms: movements (the speed, rhythm, and flow of the travel), practices (the motives and behaviors of the participants), and representations (the meaning and types of tourism ascribed to the activity such as adventure or education). Arguably, the adequacy and usefulness of these two recently advocated approaches to assessing Asian outbound tourism are not yet richly supported by a set of studies. As Aramberri (2010) argued, researchers need to be careful that they simply do not repackage problems in eloquent new language while failing to deliver truly insightful and fresh perspectives. For the adaptations of the mobilities work suggested by Cohen and Cohen, it is possible to see that matrices of tourism types and related forms of the broader mobility phenomenon can be articulated with the three components they have specified. One example of using this work is presented in Chapter 13 by Cavlek when she considers the mobility of Chinese groups inside Croatia. Cohen and Cohen do note some limitations of their new theoretical lens. For example, they confess to a failure to treat in full the concept of power and, as well, not identifying new methods to make any of the terms they have developed special pathways to further understanding. Similarly, the critical pragmatism offered by Harrill et al., beyond using a variant of description in their own cases, does not indicate novel modes of conducting either empirical or interpretive work which might highlight how tourists and the outbound tourism phenomenon are managing what they call the contact with the postmodern values abyss of modern Western society. The value that can be drawn from these theoretical lenses in conjunction with several of the other frameworks outlined in Chapter 1 lies in recognizing that the levels of explanation at the molar scale need to consider politics and power. In addition, the more fine grained treatment of how tourists cope with the new territories they explore and how communities react to their presence need other tighter and more direct schemes of appreciation. As a specific addendum to these recently posited contributions to understanding and interpreting Asian outbound tourism, it is valuable to emphasize that both schemes appear to undervalue the pivotal role of time and the dynamics of change. The long shadow of history which is apparent in the analysis of societies in such work as Ferguson (2012) Civilisation and

330

The World Meets Asian Tourists

Morris (2011) Why the West Rules for Now, as well as Diamond (2005b) Guns Germs and Steel, do take this centuries old trajectory of change into account and help explain the current emergence of Asian societies. Importantly, proposals such as the travel career pattern of motivation and the analysis of culture shock and cultural confusion have the concepts of time embedded in their formulations. The mobilities paradigm, striving to reinforce the relevance and work of geographers and sociologists, has arguably under represented the significance of studying change at four levels: countries, cultures, organizations, the tourism industry, and within individuals.

Applying the Theoretical Lenses The following comments in this chapter apply some of these theoretical ideas in relation to the specific chapters in this book. The remarks are not meant as a summary of the individual pieces, as the abstracts preceding each chapter serve that purpose. Instead, the material offered in this chapter focuses on the theoretical concerns of the approaches outlined in the previous section. The themes of power and control are visible in the work of several chapter authors. A strong rendition of the use of political power to use tourism as a part of political policy is evident in the work of Cavlek (Chapter 13). In this study the promises by the Croatian government to deliver international economic activity for Chinese business interests, particularly in terms of involvement in infrastructure development, are revealed as not being met as promised, resulting in planned flights between the two countries being delayed by the Chinese side as a not too subtle reprisal. Huang (Chapter 2) too demonstrates the centrality of tourism laws and visa access for Chinese tourists and Yagi and Pearce (Chapter 16) notes the same issues when documenting why Japanese tourists were the first to visit non-Asian countries. Chen (Chapter 3) highlights the variability of religious and institutional holiday traditions within Asia which act as forms of control over people’s lives and their opportunities for travel. Concepts of power and personal empowerment are also present in the work of Lu and Pearce (Chapter 5) when they discuss what Chinese tourists learn from their travels and what opportunities exist for destinations to build travel experiences for these experiential outcomes. This work comes close to an empirical demonstration of the communicative action approach of Habermas and the opportunity for social change through tourism

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

331

experiences suggested by Harrill et al. Those particular perspectives are not taken in the Lu and Pearce’s chapter, but the repeated observations from interviews, travel blogs, and questionnaires that Chinese package tourists do build a consistent set of reflections on their own society is entirely consistent with the view that tourism can be a source for new ways of thinking about civic functioning. Such a view is supported by a recent study of Chinese photo taking where an interest in the mundane and the everyday formed a key part of the profile of 10,000 photographs taken by Chinese tourists in Australia (Pearce et al., 2015). The theoretical approach of social representations underlies several themes of interest in the preceding chapters and applies both to the experiences of tourists and those who seek to manage the new waves of Asian tourists. There is a key link here to the importance of representations, as advocated by Cohen and Cohen, but they do not cite the Moscovici line of work. Nevertheless, the two sets of ideas are closely aligned. As Wu (Chapter 4) demonstrates in rich detail in Chapter 4, the overall representations of Chinese tourists in the English media has several variants and represents the context for the specific interpersonal contacts which are worked out during the tourist-host encounters. Osmond (Chapter 15) too, notes the power of representations by the hosts as they struggle to come to terms with how to manage the new waves of Chinese tourists in Australia’s northern tropical environments. As Hofstede (1995) observed, there is value in some ideas and approaches casting light on molar and larger scale understanding of the forces involved in examining a phenomenon. Social representations are integrative, fluid, larger scale views held by communities and subcommunities. Such views are shared and debated. The theory offers a three part classification of social representations: there are hegemonic views (these are very dominant and common), emancipatory representations (original and different minority perspectives but still coherent views held by a subset of the community) and polemical constructions (strongly opposed to a dominant position). The advantages of the approach can be specified a little more explicitly. An example of a social representation of an outbound Asian tourist group, specifically the Chinese, was highlighted in the chapter by Wu and can be categorized with the tag line “Rich, big spenders, but loud and at times difficult.” Such summary statements are typically underpinned by examples of specific contact experiences and their consequences (Jovchelovitch, 2002). The social representations held by tourists of those they visit, or the receiving society of those who visit them, are most

332

The World Meets Asian Tourists

commonly studied by interviewing individuals and searching for consensual perspectives. These overarching views are guides to actions (Moscovici, 1988). All importantly, they evolve in talk and conversation and exist in the social interaction among connected individuals (Rega, Vannini, Fino, & Cantoni, 2013). Looked at in this way, social representations are the ground rules and information which parties bring to any specific social interaction. Contemporary work reinforces the approach of using both quantitative methods of attitude research and investing in parallel or accompanying qualitative approaches to study social representations (Lebrun, 2015; Rega et al., 2013). Social representations as an integrative concept, allied to the work on communicative action offered by Habermas and incorporated into the Cohen and Cohen application of mobilities studies to tourism, appears to be a leading theoretical lens for further use when considering the broad views tourists and hosts hold of each other. It is imperative, however, to have more fine grained theoretical lenses through which the experiences of analyzing Asian outbound tourists can be examined and managed. Three conceptual or theoretical lenses reviewed in Chapter 1 can be revisited and their value for further studies highlighted. The use of the concept of social situations, the mindfulness-mindlessness work and the travel career pattern approach to motivation can be seen as of particular value in the more specific analysis of examining the interpersonal encounters of Asian outbound tourism. Examples from the present chapters which illustrate the viability of using these terms can be considered in turn. Naidoo and Ramseook-Munhurrun (Chapter 8) consider the social situation of Chinese tourists visiting the enclave resorts of Mauritius. In an approach implicitly consistent with the eight features of social situations originally outlined by Argyle et al. (1981), Naidoo and RamseookMunhurrun attend to key social situation elements including the environmental setting, activities, rules and roles, and an understanding of the motives of the participants. They highlight an array of subtle modifications to the settings in terms of environmental design, the timing and style of activities, and the responsiveness to the needs of the new wave of tourists which help transform the social situation for easier contact. Hughes (Chapter 14) provides a tightly argued, coherent account of the need to understand the cultural values of visiting Asian tourists so that they can be provided with mindfulness inducing and relevant material to enhance their experience. Similarly, Kanlayanasukho and Pearce (Chapter 7) observe that attentive customer care and the task of making tourists mindful are pivotal considerations for tour guide companies when Thai tourists travel to European destinations. Of particular interest is the cognitive preparation

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

333

suggested for enabling the Thai tourists to create more value from their visits, especially when the cultural sites are unfamiliar to them. These same points about creating informed and mindful tourists are reinforced in the work on guidebooks in Europe for Asians as studied by Koderman and Gosar (Chapter 12). Tourists need to have the mental preparation to process the environment otherwise they are lost in the spaces they attend; an outcome which potentially leads to inappropriate behavior. Further, material from the studies of this theme of preparing tourists, that is enhancing the opportunity to make them mindful through preparation and onsite manipulation of the social situation, can be noted in the study on visiting Italian cathedrals (Chapter 9) where the hosts community appears not to be taking up the challenge of dealing with the variety of the new flows of tourists to these settings. This issue of the complexities of meeting these challenges for host communities and destination managers will be reviewed further subsequently. A key concept running through this volume is the changing levels of experience among Asian tourists who now travel out of Asia. The theoretical lens which can be seen as applicable to this important topic is the work on changing motivations due to past experience. The conceptual model here is the travel career patterns approach to tourism motivation (Pearce, 2011; Pearce & Lee, 2005). The central achievement of the travel career pattern work is that it has systematically reorganized and empirically connected a wide range of motivation items. Most importantly for the present work on Asian outbound tourists, it offers a dynamic link between sets of motivation factors and tourists’ age and previous experiences. The approach continues to be developed, with further conceptual links to neuroscience (Pearce, 2011), and the addition of specialist factors relating to health (Panchal & Pearce, 2011) and the Chinese market (Li, Pearce, & Zhou, 2015). A core layer of motives was identified at the heart of the travel career patterns model. These core motives were relaxing, novelty, and building relationships. These were relatively unaffected by how much traveling the participants had experienced. There were further motives that were structured into middle and outer layers of importance. For the more experienced tourists, the middle layer of motives, such as for self-development and involvement with the host community and nature were considerably more important than the outer layer, which included such motives as autonomy and romance. This major tendency for tourists with experience to seek to learn more, reach out more and be more interested in the details of the setting and their fulfilment needs (akin in some ways to a slow tourism

334

The World Meets Asian Tourists

orientation) rather than the status and simple relaxation pleasures are important directions for planning tourism futures. By way of contrast, those with limited experience tend to see all motives as almost equally important. In the foundation studies, the motive patterns were broadly consistent in studies of Asian and Western tourists. As discussed in Chapter 18, and as often implied in the studies discussing the newer younger waves of out of Asia tourists (Arlt, 2013; Li, 2016), the behaviors of contemporary Asian tourists driven by these changing motivation patterns have key implications for host communities. Cohen and Cohen note the significance of the rate of movement and behaviors and activities in their adaptation of the mobilities paradigm, but it is the specific way in which the motives and subsequent behaviors combine which give life to these broad concerns. As an approach to develop and enhance the study of out of Asia tourism motivation and trajectories, the travel career pattern approach with its dynamic emphasis on multiple forces motivating behavior linked to experience has a role as a theoretical lens of value. At core it anticipates a more intensive, slower style of future tourism for these experienced Asian market segments with strong motives to understand and appreciate settings rather than quickly tour the star attractions.

Technological Assistance In addition to the kinds of change happening within individuals, the technological forces structuring change are very powerful in shaping travel out of Asia. Notably, there are two forces, the success of low-cost carriers and the growth of social media, which have been and which undoubtedly will continue to act as change agents. For any long-haul travel, the availability of convenient and reasonably priced airlines is all important. In the past two decades, the integration of flights due to newly forged airline networks has improved global accessibility. In particular, people from the major cities in Asia, for example, Tokyo, Seoul, Singapore, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Beijing, Jakarta, Taipei, Mumbai, and Kuala Lumpur can readily access routes taking them to the most desirable destinations on the planet. In addition, reductions in the price of travel as noted by Yagi in the work on Japanese tourists, is due to the strong growth of low-cost carriers, which started in North America (South-West airlines), and moved onto Europe (Ryanair and easyJet), and has now spread in full to Asia (Air Asia). These budget carriers have brought international travel to the growing Asian middle classes. Such

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

335

low-cost carriers, also known as budget airlines or no-frills airlines, offer significantly lower prices by adopting cost cutting measures including taking out all the extras in short or medium-haul flights (Kua & Baum, 2004). These airlines not only enable tourists to fly for lower prices between big cities and destinations (Dobruszkes, 2013), but also connect many regional destinations, especially in Europe, where their importance is reflected in their control of around 30% of intra-European airline seats (Fageda & Flores-Fillol, 2012). Lower prices for flights have and will continue to stimulate novel paths out of Asia. For example, in their study of Chinese recreational vehicle users in Australia, Wu and Pearce (2014) found unexpectedly large numbers of tourists from west China, which is not positioned as Australia’s first tier market at all. The explanation for this surge of tourists is that Chengdu, the capital of the “Panda province,” Sichuang, is one of Air Asia’s key centers, and connects this part of China to some well-known Australia destinations (the Gold Coast, Perth, and Melbourne). A simple transit in Kuala Lumpur and literally millions of new tourists from this moderately developed region now have access to locations they had only read about in previous decades. Indeed, many Asian tourists are not as affluent as the media sometimes describes, with many being very price sensitive. A good bargain for the air tickets can ignite their enthusiasm in searching for more information about the destinations, inquiring about the ease of gaining a visa (Chapter 2), and finally traveling to the new setting. Low-cost carriers, as observed already, are generally short/medium haul, and connect many regional destinations. This accessibility to the regional destinations matters for those whose travel career pattern of motivation shifts from an emphasis on status and novelty to one of visiting alternative destinations with less people from their home country. In a study of how Japanese tourists see other tourists, Yagi and Pearce (2007) suggested that Japanese tourists preferred to visit destinations where more Western tourists were present, rather than be at those sites with familiar Asian faces. This kind of preferences has also been observed with the recent wave of Chinese outbound tourists, many of whom would like to be pioneers in discovering new destinations (Xiang, 2013). With the assistance of budget airlines, the Asian tourists can reach new destinations and find more authentic experiences. This accessibility is also critical for regional dispersal, a challenge for many destination management organizations (Koo, Wu, & Dwyer, 2012). Another pivotal force with a recent record of influence and an enduring impact on outbound Asian tourists lies in the widespread use of the new

336

The World Meets Asian Tourists

digital communication technologies. Social media can been considered as one of the “mega trends” that has significantly affected the whole tourism system (Leung et al., 2013). It has fundamentally changed the way tourists search, find, and trust, as well as collaboratively produce information about tourism suppliers and destinations (Akehurst, 2009; Sigala et al., 2012). Its widespread influence has been observed in nearly every corner of the world, including Asia, and the popularity of being online in Asia is fueling independent travel. As observed in various chapters of this volume (Wu & Pearce, Chapter 9; Osmond, Chapter 15; and Yagi & Pearce, Chapter 16) as well as other studies concerning Asian tourists (Arlt, 2013; Bui, Wilkins, & Lee, 2013; Li, 2016), growing numbers of Asians are traveling independently out of Asia,. The first independent waves arrived in the 1990s from Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong SAR (Yamamoto & Gill, 1999), and now, in a crescendo of change, the growth is from mainland China, India, and other emerging economies (Wu & Pearce, 2016). The package tour’s dominant role in the Asian outbound tourism market is disappearing. The second wave of Asian outbound tourism is arriving. Even within the package tours, as noted by Kanlayanasukho and Pearce in Chapter 7, some tour companies are responding to individual needs by highly tailored and flexible packages with degrees of independence built into their formats. Independent travel is viewed as having many advantages by Asian tourists. Traveling by oneself or in a small social group can help enhance one’s knowledge and skills more than being in large travel group (Pearce & Foster, 2007; Tsaur et al., 2010). This practice is also connected with being able to pursue a flexible itinerary and avoids being forced into shopping opportunities which characterize some commercial group tour itineraries (Huang & Weiler, 2010; Mak et al., 2011). Further, being one’s own boss is not just liked more but confers more status for the Asian young generation (Corigliano, 2011). It is worth noting that the growth of the independent segment has much to do the social media, through which they can easily find information, share itineraries, stories, and tips, make friends, form communities, and encourage each other. More specifically, the growing number of netizens in Asia is impressive. Taking mainland China for an example, by June 2015, the number reached 0.668 billion, while it was only 0.62 million in 1997 (Institute of China Internet Space, 2015). That is, nearly half the population is connected to the Internet. For travel information, the Internet has largely replaced or at the very least significantly supplemented, advice from friends and relatives, travel agencies, television, magazines, newspapers, and other traditional

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

337

information sources. In the case of China alone, the Internet has become the most important information channel (China Tourism Academy, 2014). The various social media, for example, blogs, virtual communities, microblogs, reviews, emails, bulletins, newsgroups, and discussion boards/forums (Litvin et al., 2008) play different roles in stimulating Asian tourists’ outbound adventures. Facebook, wechat (similar to Facebook and very popular in China), microblogs, and other friends linked social media are generally considered as trustworthy, as the information shared is a contemporary and more extensive sharing from friends and relatives. The information, especially the travel information, in the mixed style of text and images, though concise, is up to date and powerful in stimulating visits to a certain destination or popularizing certain activities, including self-driving, diving, white-water rafting, and hiking. Virtual communities and blogs, due to their rich information, as well as their interactive style, promote group interaction and inspire fellow tourists. Wu and Pearce (2016) reported that in China, a considerable number of people devoted weeks to the construction and writing up of their out of Asian travel trips. They were motivated by various reasons, including positive self-enhancement through online social connection, altruism, improving their social status, personal achievement, and hedonic enjoyment of blogging. Online fellowship is helpful to encourage many blog readers to step out of their own country and travel independently. Indeed, the new Asian tourists tend to be very tech-savvy and empowered by social media (Tse & Zhang, 2013). As noted in studies of Chinese tourists in Mauritius, a newly discovered destination without visa requirements (Chapter 8), as well as from reports by destination management organizations (Tourism Research Australia, 2014b), the Asian tourists tend to be very dependent on the availability of Internet, as they like being online and able to find out the best restaurants and the must-do things in a destination. Additionally, they want to keep their social contacts at home be informed about their activities overseas.

Strategic Issues The structural and technological forces shaping change produce some strategic marketing and management issues for destination communities and in particular for those who promote the locations and deal with the arriving tourists. Morrison (2013) identifies two dominant positions: a niche

338

The World Meets Asian Tourists

orientation with some attention to other groups or a generalist orientation with no focussed approach and a mission to continue to serve a broad array of tourists. When a location chooses to emphasize and try to become a specialist location for Asian tourists, it may do so for one or two compatible Asian markets. This does not mean ignoring all other markets, but it does imply a concentration of resources in presenting the country to the groups selected and then investing in people and infrastructure appropriate to that market in the key destination locations. This approach is the niche or multiple niche choice strategy. Australia and New Zealand are trending in this direction and to some extent Hawaii and the West Coast of North America might be labeled as niche in this same way. The case of Mauritius can be looked at as a destination in transition, switching from one European niche to a dual niche strategy where the Asian market at least equals that of the previously dominant French nationals. An alternative is to remain a generalist destination with a wide ranging portfolio of tourists arriving from global sources. This approach views Asian tourists as just a part of that mix. It appears that many of the older and well-known European destinations—Italy, France and The United Kingdom are examples—remain generalist with no particular orientation to the on-the ground issues confronting Asian tourists. The relative inattention is, however, arguably not a fully desirable strategy since as shown in the Italian cathedrals tourism case (see Chapter 9), the lack of interpretive and safety facilities around key sites for Asian and Chinese tourists may soon become a problem which is serious and damaging to the reputation of the country. The onsite management of Asian tourists in the communities they visit raises two further strategic issues of international concern. The first is sustainability and this theme has a connection to a more specific topic, that of wellness and well-being. The global concerns about sustainability include unsustainable tourism activities and practices which are key issues for both researchers and managers (Butler, 2015; Eijgelaar & Peeters, 2014; McCool, 2015; Sharpley & Telfer, 2015; Weaver, 2015). The topic of sustainability is debated in many ways and in multiple forums revealing a range of holistic and specific disciplinary concerns (Buckley, 2015). All importantly and as part of this debate, the global footprint of tourism is expanding due to the key growth statistics reported in Chapter 1 and the likely prospects of this growth continuing at speed is cited by multiple chapter authors. It would trivialize the substance and importance of this major international concern to suggest any simple solutions to the mounting conundrum of Asian tourists seeking healthier environments and settings in which to holiday, but in that process contributing in a key way,

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

339

especially air travel, to the problems of pollution and environmental degradation. Some key points in these debates can at least indicate select pathways for further work. It can be noted as a first principle, that a vast and complex array of powers influence the sustainability debates and actions. There are issues in global governance, problems with challenging the sovereignty of countries to behave in new ways, concerns with limiting the power of corporations, the legality of government induced polluting actions, and the drive toward development and better lives for those in the worst affected communities (Bramwell & Lane, 2006). In this vast array of topics and power struggles, tourism plays a role but perhaps not as important or significant a role as other industries such as car manufacture and use, energy production and land management, and food production processes (Sharpley, 2015). For the purposes of this volume, the specific strategic issue of sustainability linked to the present interest in the growing out of Asia market, does need to be the subject of more study and it is not a concern to be ignored as marketers and tourism advocates seek to boost and boast about the numbers of Asian tourists they attract. Some key issues to study in the near future include appraising the effectiveness and the appeal of practices boosting sustainable tourism. This set of study topics could include assessing the value of international experiences in influencing attitudes toward at home sustainability, the role of instructions, and advice to make on site Asian behaviors in visited cultures more sustainable, and an assessment of the viability of promoting more slow, extended variants of international tourism, and less frequent long-haul travel. Several authors who write about the sustainability theme do proselytize the cause of seeking to encourage tourists to be reflexive and adopt more sustainable practices by attending to actions, such as participating in carbon offsetting programs (Weaver, 2015). Additionally, there is encouragement and endorsement for the idea of rewarding those destination facilities which work toward being sustainable with loyal patronage and supportive recommendations (Eijgelaar & Peeters, 2014). It is abundantly clear that the environmental conditions in many Asian cities, as judged by the air pollution indices, are consistently unhealthy for human beings (Li, Pearce, Morrison, & Wu, 2015; Watts, 2010). This fact alone represents a building block and all too visible and tangible stimulus for the re-evaluation of personal and national practices in environmental stewardship. The importance and concern with sustainability as a strategic concern subsumes another more specific topic; the question of what value does tourism have in enhancing the lives of Asian outbound tourists? At first

340

The World Meets Asian Tourists

glance this topic might seem to be answered with a quick retort: “people have a good time and their evident need to repeat the experience as often as possible reinforces the view that holidays are gratifying.” As many researchers in positive psychology have argued, the understanding of well-being and the assessment of the enduring nature of gratifying events warrants more intensive appraisal (Diener & Biswas-Diener 2008). As noted in the succinct discussion of sustainability, it would be superficial to review a solid body of literature and extensive study on the meaning of well-being and wellness in a very brief space. Nevertheless, the questions which researchers ask about satisfaction are frequently very limited. They are constrained in terms of time and often oriented toward business goals of assessing the likelihood of repeat visits or determining areas for improvement. From a managerial perspective, these are valuable goals but in terms of fulfilling an academic and tourist-centered agenda of evaluating what tourism experiences are doing for the lives of Asians, their relationships, the social representations they hold and their values, these approaches and the current state of knowledge are inadequate. It is appropriate, therefore, to simply highlight that a substantial agenda of more intensive study which explores such topics as the long term effects of travel on those cognitive and affective responses and modes of thinking, including the value of savoring and remembering intense experiences, will constitute a research agenda of substance for future out of Asia studies (Bryant & Veroff, 2007). Well-being and a sense of enjoying the basic features of life, such as consuming select foods and drinks, being safe, enjoying beautiful places, and as a result feeling healthy are dominant concerns in meeting and caretaking Asian tourists. The argument that Asian tourists need to have their food preferences considered in some detail was noted forcefully in the present chapters both by Kim for Korean tourists (Chapter 10) and in the discussion of Thai tourists on tour. The authors own familiarity with Chinese tourists strongly reinforces this point. This requirement to offer staple foods and drinks, such as rice or noodles, hot water and tea, reflect the issue of more than simply providing familiar sources of sustenance, but can be linked to many Asian tourists’ sense of well-being in very tangible ways. Tourists from many Asian home bases can they feel distinctly unwell without the array of foods which they view, both in nutritional and symbolic terms, as central to health and physical comfort. The topic of well-being can also be applied to communities. Here, and like the broader concern with sustainability, the topic is under-researched at the present time. The primary concern of many commentators (Section 2 in the book edited by Li, 2016) has been with the number of arrivals and

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

341

economic benefits to the visited community but in the matrix of costs and benefits what are the other features of the equation? What kinds of points of friction and, by way of contrast, positive points of contact exist for those who look after Asian tourists? Some of the studies in this book point to ways to improve the contact experience and the use of proactive steps to be an Asian friendly host destination can be extensive. In Table 1, some of the key ideas emerging from the chapters in this book are summarized to advance this cause. There is perhaps some occasional public hostility which appears when adopting these practices. Some of the concerns in the Table 1.

Practices to Support and Enhance Asian tourists’ Experience

Management Category Respect Both through direct interaction (politeness, interest, key words of another language) and non-verbal cues (language relevant information, flags, catering to food and behavioral practices) visible and tangible face cues are given to the Asian tourists Activities Tailoring or reshaping some activities at attractions and in beach environments to meet the cultural needs of Asian tourists. The reshaping may be in terms of time of the day, physical demands such as walking, awareness of skills and national practices and preferences.

Research Support and Emphasis

Emphasized in the chapter about Thai tourists in Europe, dealing with four Asian nationalities on flights into and out of Asia, hotels in Mauritius and the work on seasonality and holiday practices, Celebrating source cultures is a positive step. Examples from the enclave resorts in Mauritius providing sporting facilities, shaded areas and preferred games and leisure options. Sun aversive Asian tourists can use beach environments in different ways and opportunities to learn skills to enjoy settings can be recommended.

Food and beverage Emphasized in the chapter on airline Consistent availability at meals of preferred “home” options together management of customers as well

342

The World Meets Asian Tourists Table 1.

Management Category with Western or visited country food choices. Attention to ongoing daily needs for types of drinks, often tea and hot water, as well as staple foods (rice/noodles). Explanation of menu choices and options are highly desirable.

(Continued ) Research Support and Emphasis as in specific study of Thai tourists and the Chinese visiting theme parks in the United States. Cultural beliefs about wellness and well-being linked to food and daily health noted in the final chapter.

Digital connectivity Levels of connectivity for Asian Contemporary reliance on social tourists, notably independent media is pivotal for many Asian second wave tourists are discussed groups including enjoying sites in the last chapter and evident in through sending immediate photos the Mauritian hotel study, Thai and information to others. tourists on tour, tourists to Connectivity is widely seen as a Croatia and reported extensively necessity for detailed daily in blogs about Chinese tourists information and trip planning as learning about international well as booking activities, and destinations. being independent and informed. Safety and cleanliness National experiences associated with Discussed in detail in the chapter on high risk diseases and concerns food for Korean tourists as an example as well as in the last with the purity of foods drive the chapter. Personal safety was a need for cleanliness in daily life. theme of importance in the Italian Personal safety issues due to cathedrals study. unfamiliarity of dealing with Western and new settings matter. Interpretation and information Through guides, texts and on site accessible information and explanations matter throughout the Asian holiday experience.

Noted in many chapters, for example the studies of guide books, guides, natural areas, theme parks, and for the work on airlines.

Conclusion: Theoretical and Managerial Considerations

343

extensive authenticity literature can be brought into play and a view expressed that any given host culture is distorting itself to cater to Asian tourists. This is most obvious, for example, in introducing plentiful street and orientation signs in Asian languages. The debate here is rather outdated. Technology can serve to provide much of the public signage advice and limited directional advice and labeling of facilities is not distorting a culture, rather it can be seen as positively presenting national friendliness. The dominant and major ways to meet Asian tourists are reinforced in Table 1.

DIRECTION In a volume of this type, several of the themes which are germane to Asian outbound tourism are not included. For example, and regrettably, some colleagues were going to write about such topics as the role of visiting friends and relative in Western countries, including the United States, Asian tourists to the United Kingdom, Chinese nature-oriented tourists to Africa, and the ways to satisfy and manage Indian tourists in their European tours. The individuals could not, however, deliver their work within the time constraints. Nevertheless, the editors have enjoyed conversations about these themes which reinforce many of the findings in the chapters presented here. The cumulative power of the studies in this book and in this type of work generally support the broad theme considered in Chapter 1. Tourism is changing history. The movement of tourists from East to West (terms used here with some reluctance because of their long standing value judgments) is one of the great global opportunities for personal interaction and creating cross national tolerance. It would be naive not to counter this optimism for global communication and networking with the dark negativity cast over world tourism by the terrorism of the very recent past. Nevertheless, the position of positivity can be maintained. The question is sometimes asked “what is tourism good for?” Those who rail again tourists as Adam Smith did some 250 years ago as “conceited, unprincipled, dissipated and incapable of contributing to their community,” might set aside these prejudices and explore instead how the new out of Asia tourists seek to become citizens of the world: “humble, principled, informed and more useful to their societies” (Hibbert, 1969, p. 224). The imprint of history is being forged with these contemporary out of Asia exchanges and as researchers and human beings the task of striving to make the encounters better is a goal for us all.

This page intentionally left blank

About the Authors

Nevenka Cˇavlek is Full Professor and Head of Postgraduate Studies in tourism management in the Department of Tourism at the Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb. She holds PhD in economics/tourism studies from the same university. She is editor-in-chief of Acta Turistica, and editorial review board member of four international tourism journals. Her research expertise includes tourism economics, multinational corporations in tourism, and experiential learning in tourism management training. She has published widely on the topics of tour operators and consolidation processes in the European market. Tingzhen Chen is a Lecturer and Researcher in tourism in James Cook University. She studied in Xia´n International Studies University in China and then completed a joint double degree with Honours in Tourism Management from James Cook University, Australia. She completed her doctorate at the same university. Her main research interests include tourism seasonality in Asia Pacific (particularly implications of institutional seasonality), tourist experience (focusing on Chinese outbound tourists), and cross-discipline research (e.g., marketing/economics implications of tourists’ organic food consumption). She has published several journal articles and conference papers in the above topics across tourism, economics, and marketing areas. Anton Gosar is Dean of the Faculty of Tourism Studies TURISTICA, Portoroz-Portorose, Slovenia. He is a geographer with teaching experiences in Germany, New Zealand, and the United States. His research interests include development of cross-border tourist destinations, sustainable tourism in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Alps, and cruise ship tourism. He is a member of the IAST— International Academy for the Studies in Tourism and a member of editorial boards of several professional journals. He has published more than 90 journal articles, book chapters, and conference papers in the area of tourism geography.

346

About the Authors

Andrea Grout received her MSc degree in Public Health from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. She is now a PhD candidate in the College of Business, Law and Governance at James Cook University, Australia, where she furthers her research on air cabin crew. Her area of interest is the impact of air travel on the general health and well-being of cabin crew and communities, infection risks associated with air travel, and the link between public health guidance and effectiveness of control measures on commercial air transport. She has published two journal articles in these subject areas. Songshan (Sam) Huang is Associate Professor in Tourism Management in the School of Management, and a member of the Centre for Tourism and Leisure Management at University of South Australia. He obtained his PhD in Tourism Management from the HongKong Polytechnic University. His research interests include tourist behavior, destination marketing, tour guiding, and various Chinese tourism and hospitality issues. He has published widely on Chinese tourist behavior and China tourism and hospitality issues in major tourism and hospitality journals including Tourism Management, Journal of Travel Research, International Journal of Hospitality Management, and Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. Karen Hughes is a Senior Lecturer at The University of Queensland, Australia. Her PhD, awarded in 2009 from UQ, explored the impact of wildlife tourism experiences and post-visit support on families’ long-term conservation behavior. Karen teaches and researches in the areas of interpretation, wildlife tourism, visitor behavior, and sustainable tourism. She has conducted several studies on the Chinese market, including an evaluation of interpretive signs at the Chengdu Panda Research Base in China; identifying the needs, motives, and perceptions of Chinese visitors at five Beijing heritage sites; and exploring the travel patterns of Chinese students studying in Australia. Gene Jeffers is a writer/researcher with 45 years of nonprofit experience, most recently Executive Director of the Themed Entertainment Association, the worldwide alliance representing creators of compelling places and experiences. Previous: Executive Director of the American Red Cross Inland Valley Chapter; Executive Director of the Western Insurance Information Service; VP, Public Affairs of the National Association of Broadcasters; Head of Media Relations, American National

About the Authors

347

Red Cross. Gene received the first Themed Entertainment Association Distinguished Service Award, and an American National Red Cross Tiffany Award. He has a BA in Psychology, MA in Journalism/PR, and an MBA in Management. Vorawan Kanlayanasukho was awarded a Doctorate in Tourism by Manchester Metropolitan University in 2013 for her research on political crises management for the tourism industry. She is a business professional with a long experience as founder and Director of AyaThai Travel in Thailand and the United Kingdom as an integrated travel services provider now serving the corporate and government markets. She is also the founding partner of her consultancy, Vorawan & Associates, in London. Her research interest is impacts of political crises, crisis management for the tourism industry. Her academic research greatly benefited from her professional experience. Aise KyoungJin Kim is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Management at the University of South Australia. She completed her PhD research in the School of Management at the University of Surrey, UK. Her research interests include environmental behavior, interpretation, tourism marketing, tourism impacts, and sustainable tourism. She also researches in the areas of restaurants, food, and wine tourism and geotourism. She serves as an editorial board member of two international journals: Tourism Recreation Research and ANATOLIA. She has published in many major tourism journals, including Tourism Management, Journal of Travel Research, and Journal of Sustainable Tourism. Miha Koderman received his PhD in geography from University of Primorska and is now an Assistant Professor at the Department of Geography, University of Primorska (Koper-Capodistria, Slovenia). His main research fields include tourism and economic geography, as well as geography of migration, where he is especially interested in the phenomenon of roots tourism. He is an author of a scientific monograph and has published over 30 scientific articles, monograph chapters, and conference papers in the above-mentioned areas. He is also an active member of the editorial board of the Geographic Horizon/Geografski obzornik professional journal. Kim-Ieng Loi is an Assistant Professor and Academic Coordinator for Hotel Management and Event Management

348

About the Authors

degree programs at the Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao SAR. Holding a bachelor degree in hotel management and a PhD in tourism together with 13 years of teaching at the tertiary education level, her main research areas include tourist behaviors, hotel guest satisfaction, service quality management, hotel/event management curriculum development, destination marketing, and tourism product management. She has published in international journals such as Journal of Business Research, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Tourism Recreation Research, and Cornell Hospitality Quarterly. Huan Lu is a Lecturer of Tourism in Shaanxi Normal University. She also serves as the Deputy Director of Tourism Administration of Hanzhong, P.R. China. She received her BA from both Xi’an International Studies University and James Cook University in English Literature and Tourism Management respectively. She holds a PhD degree and a First Class Honours degree in Tourism from James Cook University. Her research interests include tourist behavior, tourist learning, marketing, tourism administrative management in China, sustainable tourism and netnography research method. She has published several journal articles and conference papers in these areas. Perunjodi Naidoo is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Sustainable Development and Tourism, University of Technology Mauritius and a Visiting Scholar at James Cook University, Australia. She was awarded a PhD in tourism in 2014. Her main research area is tourism and services management. She is particularly interested in tourism development in small island developing states, the well-being of destination communities, tourism in emerging markets, and service quality. She has published in journals such as Managing Service Quality, Services Marketing Quarterly, International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, and Journal of Destination Management and Marketing. Amy M. Osmond is a Sessional Lecturer in the College of Business, Law and Governance at James Cook University, Townsville, Australia. She recently received her PhD in tourism research from James Cook University (2016), and is conducting postdoctoral research with the Department of Tourism. Her research interests include tourist behavior, experience economy, cross-cultural communication, sustainable community development, nature-based tourism, recreation activities, Chinese outbound tourism and intelligent tourists. In the past

About the Authors

349

few years, she has specialized in the field of Chinese outbound tourism to Australia, and has published a number of journal articles and conference papers in this subject area. Jenny H. Panchal is a Lecturer in Tourism and Management at James Cook University (JCU) in Singapore. She received the Australian Leadership Award Scholarship which funded her PhD in Tourism at James Cook University, Australia. She was also an NZAID scholarship recipient which enabled her to obtain her Masters in Tourism Management from Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Her research interests broadly include tourist behavior related to specific forms of tourism (e.g., wellness and spa tourism), positive psychology, tourism education (e.g., teaching pedagogies), and cultural/heritage tourism. Much of her work focus on Asia, particularly in the ASEAN region. Philip L. Pearce is the Foundation Professor of Tourism at James Cook University, Australia. He is the first Professor of Tourism in Australia. He earned his doctorate from the University of Oxford and is a foundation member of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism. His interests lie in all facets of tourist behavior and experience and he has published multiple books on these topics. In the last five years, he has been concerned with new tourism markets and products with a focus on Chinese and Asian tourists. He supervises many doctoral students principally from Asia and Australia. Prabha Ramseook-Munhurrun is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Sustainable Development and Tourism at the University of Technology, Mauritius. She holds a PhD in Services Marketing and Management from the same university. Her research interests include customer service experience, destination marketing and management, service quality, consumer behavior, and sustainable development with particular emphasis on sustainable tourism development and sustainable consumption. She has published in numerous journal articles, and presented several conference papers in these subject areas. She has taught at the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, before joining the University of Technology, Mauritius in 2001. Janice Scarinci is a Professor of Hospitality and Tourism at Southern Utah University in Cedar City, Utah. She earned

350

About the Authors

her PhD in Tourism at James Cook University in North Queensland, Australia, on a Rotary Ambassadorial Scholarship. She has taught in five countries on three continents and has over 17 years of academic experience as a Department Chair and Director of a Hospitality and Tourism Institute. Her research interests include, guest satisfaction, motivation and marketing, sustainable tourism and lodging and the effects of international travel on employable skills. She has published journal articles, and presented at conferences on these subject areas. Mao-Ying Wu is an Associate Professor of Tourism in Zhejiang University. With the sponsorship of the Australian Endeavour Award, she received her PhD degree in Tourism from James Cook University, Australia, in 2013. Her research interests include tourism community relationship (e.g., tourism as a sustainable livelihood choice), tourist behavior of emerging countries (e.g., Chinese independent tourists), cross-cultural research (e.g., international tourists’ travel experience), as well as the innovative research methods adopted in tourism research (e.g., netnography and photo-elicitation interviews). She has published more than 40 journal articles, book chapters, and conference papers in the above mentioned areas. Chiemi Yagi is an Associate Professor of Faculty of Tourism Sciences and Industrial Management, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan. She holds a Master’s degree in Hospitality and Tourism from the University of Wisconsin-Stout and a PhD in Tourism from James Cook University. She was the first Japanese student to gain a PhD degree in Tourism in Australia. Her research interests include crosscultural contact in tourism settings, Japanese outbound and inbound tourism, tourist psychology and behavior, tourist satisfaction, travel in relation to quality of life, destination images, and travel stories.

References

About Travel. (2015). Obon in Japan. Retrieved from http://gojapan.about.com/cs/japanesefestivals/a/obonfestival.htm. Accessed on September 25. Africa. (2013). Chinese visitors provide lifeline to Indian Ocean tourism. Retrieved from http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0ab61c2-05a6-11e3-ad0100144feab7de.html#ax zz3gbqNwT87. Accessed on July 7, 2015. Ahmed, I., & Parasuraman, A. (1994). Environmental and positional antecedents of management commitment to service quality: A conceptual framework. In T. A. Swartz, E. Bowen, & S. W. Brown (Eds.), Advances in services marketing and management (pp. 69 93). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press Inc. Aikman, D. (1986). Pacific Rim: Area of change, area of opportunity. Toronto: Little, Brown and Company. Ai-ping, M. (2009). Motivations for Chinese outbound tourists. The Business Review, Cambridge, 14(1), 150 156. Air Mauritius. (2015). Travel formalities. Retrieved from http://www.airmauritius.com/ documentnvisa.htm. Accessed on July 7, 2015. Airey, D., & Chong, K. (2010). National policy-makers for tourism in China. Annals of Tourism Research, 37, 295 314. Akehurst, G. (2009). User generated content: The use of blogs for tourism organisations and tourism consumers. Service Business, 3(1), 51 61. Aksoy, S., Atilgan, E., & Akinci, S. (2003). Airline services marketing by domestic and foreign firms: Differences from the customers’ viewpoint. Journal of Air Transport Management, 9, 343 351. Allen, D. (2011). Connoisseur of the mundane. American Book Review, 32(2), 27. Almagor, U. (1985). A tourist vision quest in an African game reserve. Annals of Tourism Research, 12(1), 31 47.

352

References

Alterman, J. (2009). China’s soft power in the Middle East. In C. McGiffert (Ed.), Chinese soft power and its implications for the United States: Competition and cooperation in the development world (pp. 63 76). Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies. Amadeus. (2015). Oxford economics. Shaping the future of travel. Retrieved from http://www. amadeus.com/documents/Thought-leadership-reports/Amadeus-Shaping-theFuture-of-Travel-MacroTrends-Report.pdf. Accessed on June 6. Anderson, R., & Bhati, A. (2012). Indian students’ choice of study destinatin: Reasons for choosing Singapore. International Journal of Innovative Interdisciplinary Research, 1(2), 66 76. Andreu, R., Claver, E., & Quer, D. (2013). Chinese outbound tourism: New challenges for European tourism. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal, 3(1), 44 58. Ap, J., & Wong, K. F. (2000). Case study on tour guiding: Professionalism, issues and problems. Tourism Management, 22, 551 563. Ap, J., & Wong, K. K. F. (2001). Case study on tour guiding: Professionalism, issues and problems. Tourism Management, 22(5), 551–563. Appleton, J. (1996). The experience of landscape. Chichester: Wiley. Aramberri, J. (2010). The real scissors crisis in tourism research. In D. G. Pearce & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism research: A 20-20 vision (pp. 15–27). Oxford: Goodfellow. Aramberri, J., & Liang, C. (2012). The Chinese gaze: Imaging Europe in travel magazines. Journal of China Tourism Research, 8(3), 284 301. Argyle, M., Furnham, A., & Graham, J. A. (1981). Social situations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Arita, S., Edmonds, C., La Croix, S., & Mak, J. (2011). Impact of approved destination status on Chinese travel abroad: An econometric analysis. Tourism Economics, 17(5), 983 996. Arita, S., La Croix, S., & Mak, J. (2012). How big? The impact of Approved Destination Status on mainland Chinese travel abroad. Hawaii: The Economic Research Organization at the University of Hawaii. Arlt, W. (2006). China’s outbound tourism. London: Routledge. (2008). Chinese tourists in ‘Elsewhereland’: Behavior and perceptions of mainland Chinese tourists at different destinations. In J. Cochrane (Eds.), Asian tourism: Growth and change (pp.135 144). Oxford: Elsevier.

References

353

(2010). Annual report of China outbound tourism development 2009/2010. COTRI, Hamburg. (2013). The second wave of Chinese outbound tourism. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(2), 126 133. (2014). New Chinese tourism law makes a dent in arrival statistics in fourth quarter of 2013. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/profdrwolfganggarlt/ 2014/01/03/new-chinese-tourism-law-makes-a-dent-in-arrival-statistics-infourth-quarter-of-2013/. Accessed on July 24, 2015. Arlt, W., & Burns, P. (2013). Chinese outbound tourism. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(2), 123 125. Asia Monitor Resource Centre. (2014). Preliminary report on China’s going global strategy: A labor, environment, and Hong Kong perspective. Retrieved from http://amrc.org.hk/sites/default/ files/CM%20Research%20Paper%20Series%20No%203.pdf. Accessed on June 7, 2015. Assaker, G., Vinzi, V., & Connor, P. (2011). Examining the effect of novelty seeking, satisfaction, and destination image on tourists’ return pattern: a two factor, non-linear latent growth model. Tourism Management, 32, 890 901. Assiouras, I., Skourtis, G., Koniordos, M., & Giannopoulos, A. A. (2014). Segmenting East Asian tourists to Greece by travel motivation. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research. doi: 10.1080/10941665.2014.982140 Associated Press. (2014). U.S. tourism industry excited about visa change for Chinese visitors. Retrieved from http://mashable.com/2014/11/20/visa-chinese-visitors/. Accessed on July 31, 2015. Association of European Airlines (AEA). (2004). AEA yearbook 2004. Brussels: Association of European Airlines. Ateljevic, I., & Doorne, S. (2000). ‘Staying within the Fence’: Lifestyle Entrepreneurship in Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8(5), 378 392. Australian By Nature. (2015). Ocean range product – Squalene. Retrieved from http://australianbynature.com.au/products/squalene-1000mg-100-capsules/. Accessed on March, 20. Ayyagari, M., Demirgu¨c¸-Kunt, A., & Maksimovic, V. (2008). How important are financing constraints? The role of finance in the business environment. The World Bank Economic Review, 22(3), 483 516. Baerenholdt, J., Haldrup, M., Larsen, J., & Urry, J. (2004). Performing tourist places. Aldershot, Hants: Ashgate. Ball, P. (2004). Critical mass how one thing leads to another. London: Arrow.

354

References

Ballantyne, R., & Hughes, K. (1991). Interpretation in ecotourism settings: Investigating tour guides’ perceptions of their role, responsibilities and training needs. Journal of Tourism Studies, 12(2), 2 9. Ballantyne, R., Hughes, K., Ding, P., & Liu, D. (2013). Chinese and international visitor perceptions of interpretation at Beijing heritage sites. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(5), 705 725. Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., & Falk, J. (2011). Visitors’ learning for environmental sustainability: Testing short- and long-term impacts of wildlife tourism experiences using structural equation modelling. Tourism Management, 32(6), 1243 1252. Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868 897. Barba, M. (2013). China’s new tourism law taks effect 1 October. What does it mean to destinations? Retrieved from http://www.chinacontact.org/en/chinas-new-tourism-law/. Accessed on July 24, 2015. Barbas, S. (2003). I’ll take chop suey: Restaurants as agents of culinary and cultural change. Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4), 669 686. Bar-On, R. (1975). Seasonality in tourism A guide to the analysis of seasonality and trends for policy making (Vols. 2). London: The Economist Intelligence Unit Ltd. Baum, T. (1997). The fascination of Islands: A tourism perspective. In D. G. Lockhart & D. Drakakis-Smith (Eds.) Island tourism: trends and prospects (pp. 21 36). London: Pinter. (1999). Seasonality in tourism: Understanding the challenges. Tourism Economics, 5(1), 5 8. Baum, T., Dutton, E., Karimi, S., Kokkranikal, J., Devine, F., & Hearns, N. (2007). Cultural diversity in hospitality work. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 14(3), 229 239. BBC News. (2002). Who are the world’s worst tourists? Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/ 2/hi/talking_point/2138252.stm. Accessed on March 16, 2014. Beardsworth, A., & Bryman, A. (1999). Late modernity and the dynamics of quasification. Sociological Review, 47(2), 228 257. Bedford, N., Dunford, L., & Fallon, S. (2009). Hungary. London: Lonely Planet Publications.

References

355

Beer, C., Ottenbacher, M. C., & Harrington, R. J. (2012). Food tourism implementation in the Black Forest destination. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 10, 106 128. Beerli, A., & Martin, J. D. (2004a). Factors influencing destination image. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (3), 657 681. (2004b). Tourists’ characteristics and the perceived image of tourist destinations: A quantitative analysis—a case study of Lanzarote, Spain. Tourism Management, 25(5), 623 636. Beeton, S. (2005). Film-induced tourism. Clevedon: Channel View. Bessiere, J. (1998). Local development and heritage: Traditional food and cuisine as tourist attractions in rural areas. Sociologia Rurali, 38(1), 21 34. Binnie, J., Edensor, T., Holloway, J., Millington, S., & Young, C. (2007). Mundane mobilities, banal travels. Social and Cultural Geography, 8(2), 165 174. Bitner, M. (1992). Servicescapes: The impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. The Journal of Marketing, 56, 57 71. Black, R., & Weiler, B. (2005). Quality assurance and regulatory mechanisms in the tour guiding industry: A systematic review. Journal of Tourism Studies, 16(1), 24 37. Blainey, G. (2000). A short history of the world. Melbourne: Collins. (2004). A very short history of the world. Camberwell: Penguin. Boeing. (2015). Long-term market. Current market outlook 2014 2015. Retrieved from http://www.boeing.com/commercial/market/long-term-market/world-regions/. Accessed on June 10, 2015. Bohensky, E., Butler, J. R. A., Costanza, R., Bohnet, I., Delisle, A., Fabricius, K. … Wolanski, E. (2011). Future makers or future takers? A scenario analysis of climate change and the Great Barrier Reef. Global Environmental Change, 21(3), 876 893. Boring, E. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: AppletonCentury-Crofts. Bosangit, C., Dulnuan, J., & Mena, M. (2012). Using travel blogs to examine the postconsumption behavior of tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 18(3), 207 219. Bousfield, J. (2010). The rough guide to Croatia. London: Rough Guides.

356

References

Bousfield, J., Humphreys, R., Walker, N., & Williams, C. (2008). The rough guide to Austria. New York, London, Delhi: Rough Guides. Bousfield, J., & Stewart, J. (2012). Slovenia. London: Dorling Kindersley Ltd. Bowen, D., & Clarke, J. (2009). Contemporary tourist behaviour: Yourself and others as tourists. Oxfordshire: CABI. Bowring, P. (1987). What is “Asia”? Far Eastern Economic Review, 135(7), 30 31. Boyne, S., Hall, D., & Williams, F. (2003). Policy, support and promotion for food-related tourism initiatives: A marketing approach to regional development. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 14(3/4), 131 154. Bramwell, B., & Lane, B. (2006). Policy relevance and sustainable tourism research. Liberal radical and post structural perspectives. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(1), 1 5. Bryant, F. B., & Veroff, J. (2007). Savoring A new model of positive experience. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bryman, A. (2004). The disneyization of society. London: Sage. Buckley, R. (2000). Neat trends: Current issues in nature, eco- and adventure tourism. International Journal of Tourism Research, 2(6), 437 444. (2015). Tourism and the sustainability of human societies. In T. J. Singh (Eds.), Challenges in tourism research (pp. 241 247). Bristol: Channel View. Buhalis, D., & Amaranggana, A. (2013). Smart tourism destinations. In Z. Xiang & I. Tussyadiah (Eds.), Information and communication technologies in tourism (pp. 553 564). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Buhalis, D., & Law, R. (2008). Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20 years on and 10 years after the Internet—The state of eTourism research. Tourism Management, 29(4), 609 623. Bui, H., Wilkins, H., & Lee, Y. (2013). The ‘imagined West’ of young independent travellers from Asia. Annals of Leisure Research, 16(2), 130 148. Bureau of Tourism Research. (1998). International visitor survey december quarter 1998. Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Tourism Research. Burke, K., Joyner, A., Czech, D., & Wilson, M. (2000). An investigation of concurrent validity between two optimism/pessimism questionnaires: The life orientation test-revised and the optimism/pessimism

References

357

Scale. Current Psychology: Development, Learning, Personality, Social, 19 (2), 129 136. Busby, G., & Klug, J. (2001). Movie-induced tourism: The challenge of measurement and other issues. Journal of Tourism Research, 6(3), 125 135. Business News. (2013, November 26). China seeks to boost trade with ex-communist Europe. Retrieved from htpp://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/26/us-chinaeastereurope Butler, R. (1994a). Seasonality in tourism: issues and problems. In A. V. Seaton (Eds.), Tourism: The state of the art (pp. 332 339). Chichester: Wiley. (1994b). Seasonality in tourism: Issues and implications. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 5 21). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science Ltd. (2015). Sustainable tourism; The undefinable and unachievable pursued by the unrealistic? In T. J. Singh (Eds.), Challenges in tourism research (pp. 234 240). Bristol: Channel View. Cai, L., Li, M., & Knutson, B. (2008). Research on China’s outbound market: A meta-review. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 16(1), 5 20. CaixinOnline. (2014). Want Chinese tourists? Be friendly to them. Retrieved from http//english. caixin.com/2014-02-17/100639696.html. Accessed on May 28, 2014. Canadian Tourism Commission. (2012). Tourism snapshot. Vancouver: Canadian Tourism Commission. Caribbean Journal. (2014). The 25 best Caribbean all-inclusive resorts. Retrieved from http:// caribjournal.com/2014/03/06/the-25-best-caribbean-all-inclusive-resorts-2014/. Accessed on July 9, 2015. Carl, D., Kindon, S., & Smith, K. (2007). Tourists’ expectations of film locations: New Zealand as ‘Middle Earth’. Tourism Geographies, 9(1), 49 63. Carson, D. (2008). The ‘blogosphere’ as a market research tool for tourism destinations: A case study of Australia’s Northern Territory. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(2), 111 119. Carver, C., Scheier, M., & Segerstrom, S. (2010). Optimism. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 879 889. Castro, C., Armario, E., & Ruiz, D. (2007). The influence of market heterogeneity on the relationship between a destination’s image and tourists’ future behavior. Tourism Management, 28, 175 187.

358

References

CBS. (2015). Croatian Bureau of Statistics. First Release, No. 4.3.2. Chadee, D., & Cutler, J. (1996). Insights into international travel by students. Journal of Travel Research, 35(2), 75 80. Chan, Y. (2009). Disorganized tourism space: Chinese tourists in an age of Asian tourism. In T. Winter, P. Teo, & T. Chang (Eds.), Asia on tour: Exploring the rise of Asian tourism (pp.67 77). London: Routledge. Chang, J. (2006). Customer satisfaction with tour leaders’ performance: A study of Taiwan’s package tours. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11(1), 97 116. (2007). Travel motivations of package tour travelers. Tourism, 55(2), 157 176. Chang, R., Kivela, J., & Mak, A. (2011). Attributes that influence the evaluation of travel dining experience: When east meets west. Tourism Management, 32(2), 307 316. chankaiyee2. (2013). Thailand shock by “rude” Chinese tourists. Retrieved from http://www. scmp.com/news/china/article/1162131/chiang-mai-locals-shocked-rude-chinesetourists. Accessed on January 5, 2015. Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 509 535). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Chell, E. (1998). Critical incident technique. In G. Symon & C. Cassell (Eds.), Qualitative methods and analysis in organizational research (pp. 51 72). London: Sage. Chen, G., Bao, J., & Huang, S. S. (2014). Segmenting chinese backpackers by travel motivations. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(4), 355 367. Chen, L. (2011). Chinese tourism: A potential bounty for U.S. hotel. Retrieved from Http:// wwww.hvs.com/article/5386. Accessed on June 17, 2015. Chen, T., & Pearce, P. (2012). Research note: Seasonality patterns in Asian tourism. Tourism Economics, 18(5), 1105 1115. Chen, T.-Y. (2011). A multimeasure approach to optimism and pessimism in multiple criteria decision analysis based on Atanassov fuzzy sets. Expert Systems with Applications, 38(10), 12569 12584.

References

359

Chen, Y. (1990). Analysing Liu Zongyuan’s travel theory from the relationship between tourism geography and aesthetic psychology. Economic Geography, (6), 80 83. Chen, Y., & Xie, J. (2008). Online consumer review: word-of-mouth as a new element of marketing communication mix. Management Science, 54(3), 477 491. Chi, C., & Qu, H. (2008). Examining the structural relationships of destination image, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty: An integrated approach. Tourism Management, 29, 624 636. China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC). (2012). Basic data. Retrieved from http://www.cnnic.net.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwfzzx/ qwfb/#. Accessed on March 2, 2013. China Tourism Academy. (2014). Annual report of China outbound tourism development 2014. China Tourism Academy, Beijing. Chinacontact. (2013). Interpretation of the new tourism law. Retrieved from http://chinacontact. org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/article_35_interpretation.pdf. Accessed on July 24, 2015. ChinaDaily. (2015). Must-pack list now includes pocket Wi-Fi for many tourists. Retrieved from http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2015-06/25/content_21097368.htm. Accessed on July 9. China’s New Tourism Policy 2013 2020. (2013). Retrieved from http://jameskennell.com/2013/04/02/chinas-new-tourismpolicy-2013-2020/. Accessed on July 7, 2015. Chipeniuk, R. (1995). A repertory grid test of the claim that sense of landscape naturalness is specific to culture. Cross-Cultural Research, 29, 335 360. Cho, B. (1998). Assessing tourist satisfaction. Tourism Recreation Research, 23(1), 47 54. Choi, S., Lehto, X., & Morrison, A. (2007). Destination image representation on the web: Content analysis of Macau travel related websites. Tourism Management, 28, 118 129. Choi, S., Xinran, Y., & Oleary, J. (2007). What does the consumer want from a DMO website? A study of US and Canadian tourists’ perspectives. International Journal Tourism Research, 9, 59 72. Choudaha, R., & Chang, L. (2012). Trends in international student mobility. WES research & advisory services.

360

References

Chow, I., & Murphy, P. (2007). Travel activity preferences of Chinese outbound tourists for overseas destinations. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 16(1), 61 80. Chung, O. (2010). Shanghai wishing on a fading Disney star. Retrieved from http://www.atimes. com/atimes/China_Business/LB05Cb01.html. Accessed on June 14, 2015. Clark, D. (2004). Big things: Australia’s amazing roadside attractions. Australia: Penguin. Clark, J. (2006). That ‘ugly American’ image is getting a makeover guide. USA Today. Retrieved from http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/200604-27-ugly-americans_x.htm. Accessed on March 16, 2014. Clark, R. A., Hartline, M. D., & Jones, K. C. (2009). The effects of leadership style on hotel employees’ commitment to service quality. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 50(2), 209–231. Clark, R., & Stankey, G. (1979). The recreation opportunity spectrum: A framework for planning, management, and research. General Technical Report. Cohen, E. (1972). Toward a sociology of international tourism. Social Research, 39(1), 164–182. (1985). The tourist guide: The origins, structure and dynamics of a role. Annals of Tourism Research, 12(1), 5 29. (2011). The people of tourism cartoons. Anatolia: International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 22(3), 326 349. Cohen, E., & Avieli, N. (2004). Food in tourism: Attraction and impediment. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(4), 755 778. Cohen, E., & Cohen, S. (2015a). A mobilities approach to tourism from emerging world regions. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(1), 11 43. (2015b). Beyond Eurocentrism in tourism: A paradigm shift to mobilities. Tourism Recreation Research, 40(2), 157 168. Commons, J., & Page, S. (2001). Managing seasonality in peripheral tourism regions: the case of northland, New Zealand. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 153 172). Oxford: Pergamon. Connell, J. (2012). Film tourism: Evolution, progress and prospects. Tourism Management, 33(5), 1007 1029. Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Fyall, A., & Gilbert, D. (2005). Tourism: Principles and practice. Essex: Pearson education.

References

361

Corigliano, M. A. (2011). The outbound Chinese tourism to Italy: The new graduates’ generation. Journal of China Tourism Research, 7(4), 396 410. Correia, A., & Kozak, M. (2012). Exploring prestige and status on domestic destinations: The case of Algarve. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(4), 1951 1967. COTRI. (2015). The second wave of China’s outbound tourism: Opportunities and challenges for central and Eastern European countries. Retrieved from www. china-outbound.com Countryside Agency. (2002). Eat the view: Promoting sustainable, local products. West Yorkshire: Countryside Agency. Craik, J. (1997). The culture of tourism. In C. Rojek & J. Utry (Eds.), Touring cultures: Transformations of travel and theory (pp. 113 136). London: Routledge. Creel, H. (1960). Confucius and the Chinese way. New York, NY: Harper. Cresswell, T. (2010). Towards a politics of mobility. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28, 17 31. Croatian Bureau of Statistics. (2014). Statistical yearbook of the republic of Croatia 2014. Zagreb: Author. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv/publication/subjects.htm/. Accessed on July 15. Crompton, J. (1979). Motivations for pleasure travel. Annals of Tourism Research, 6, 409 424. Crotts, J. (2004). The effect of cultural distance on overseas travel behaviors. Journal of Travel Research, 43, 83 88. Crotts, J., Mason, P., & Davis, B. (2009). Measuring guest satisfaction and competitive position in the hospitality and tourism industry. Journal of Travel Research, 48(2), 139 151. Crouch, D., Jackson, R., & Thompson, F. (2005). The media and the tourist imagination. London: Routledge. Cutler, S. Q., & Carmichael, B. A. (2010). The dimensions of the tourist experience. In M. Morgan, P. Lugosi, & J. R. Brent Ritchie (Eds.), Thetourism and leisure experience (pp. 3–26). Bristol: Channel View. Czerniewicz-Umer, T., Egert-Romanowska, J., & Kumaniecka, J. (2010). Austria. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.

362

References

Dankelman, J., Chmarra, M., Verdaasdonk, E., Stassen, L., & Grimbergen, C. (2005). Fundamental aspects of learning minimally invasive surgical skills. Minimally Invasive Therapy, 14, 247 256. Dann, G. (1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 4 (4), 184 194. (1981). Tourist motivation: An appraisal. Annals of Tourism Research, 8, 187 219. (1993). Limitations in the use of “nationality” and country of residence variables. In D. Pearce & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism research: Critiques and challenges (pp. 88 112). London: Rutledge and Kegan Paul. Davis, A., & Khazanchi, D. (2008). An empirical study of online word of mouth as a predictor for multi-product category e-commerce sales. Electronic Markets, 18(2), 130 141. Dawson, M., Madera, J., Neal, J., & Chen, J. (2012). The influence of hotel communication practices on managers’ communication satisfaction with limited English speaking employees. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 38(4), 546 561. Decrop, A. (1999). Triangulation in qualitative tourism research. Tourism Management, 20(1), 157 161. (2004). Trustworthiness in qualitative tourism research. In J. Phillmore & L. Goodson (Eds.), Qualitative research in tourism: Ontologies, epistemologies and methodologies (pp. 156 169). London: Routledge. Dellaert, B., Arentze, T., Bierlaire, M., Borgers, A., & Timmermans, H. (1998). Investigating consumers’ tendency to combine multiple shopping purposes and destinations. Journal of Marketing Research, 1998, 177 188. Dember, W., Martin, S., Hummer, M., Howe, S., & Melton, R. (1989). The measurement of optimism and pessimism. Current Psychology: Research and Reviews, 8(2), 102 119. DeMente, B. (1991). Korean etiquette and ethics in business. Chicago, IL: NTC Business. Diamond, J. (2005a). Collapse. How societies choose or fail to survive. Camberwell, Victoria: Penguin. (2005b). Guns germs and steel. London: Vintage. Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. Diener, E., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2008). Happiness: Unlocking the mysteries of psychological wealth. Oxford: Blackwell.

References

363

Dobruszkes, F. (2013). The geography of European low-cost airline networks: A contemporary analysis. Journal of Transport Geography, 28, 75 88. Dodds, R., & Graci, S. (2012). Sustainable tourism in island destinations. London: Routledge. Dolnicar, S., Crouch, G., & Long, P. (2008). Environment-friendly tourists: What do we really know about them? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(2), 197 210. Dotson, M., Clark, J., & Dave, D. (2008). Travel motivations and destination activities of young travelers of different ages: An empirical study in the United States. International Journal of Management, 25(4), 665. Douglas, J., & Barden, R. (1999). An analysis of the nature, causes and marketing implications of seasonality in the occupancy performance of English hotels. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 119 140). Oxford: Pergamon. Dredge, D., & Jenkins, J. (2007). Tourism planning and policy. Milton, Queensland: Wiley Australia. Du Cros, H. (2008). Too much of a good thing? Visitor congestion management issues for popular world heritage tourist attractions. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 2(3), 225 238. du Rand, G., Heath, E., & Alberts, N. (2003). The role of local and regional food in destination marketing: A South African perspective. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 14(3/4), 97 112. (2003). The role of local and regional food in destination marketing: A South African situation analysis. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 14(3/4), 97 112. Dung, Y., & Reijinders, S. (2013). Paris offscreen: Chinese tourists in cinematic Paris. Tourist Studies, 13(3), 287 303. Dunlop, F. (2004). California dreaming through Chinese eyes. Typescript of broadcast on BBC Radio 4, 11 December. Retrieved from www.BBC.co.uk Dwyer, L., & Kim, C. (2003). Destination competitiveness: Determinants and indicators. Current issues in Tourism, 6(5), 369 414. Eagles, P., & McCool, S. (Eds.). (2003). Management of visitors in national parks and protect areas. In Tourism in national parks and protected areas: Planning and management. New York, NY: CABI Publishing.

364

References

Eijgelaar, E., & Peeters, P. (2014). The global footprint of tourism. In A. A. Lew, C. M. Hall, & A. A. Williams (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell companion to tourism (pp. 454 465). Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. Ellis, C. (2004). A methodological novel about auto ethnography. Boulder, CO: Rowman Altamira. Ellis, C., Adams, T. E., & Bochner, A. P. (2011). Autoethnography: An overview. Forum Quality Social Research, 12(1), 15 25. English Tourist Board. (1979). English cathedrals and tourism. London: English Tourist Board. Enoch, Y. (1996). Contents of tour packages: A cross-cultural comparison. Annals of Tourism Research, 23(3), 599 616. Eriksen, T. (2004). Ethnicity, class and the 1999 Mauritius riots. In M. Stephen, M. Triq, & S. Judith (Eds.), Ethnicity, nationalism and minority rights (pp. 78 95). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Etzion, D. (2003). Annual vacation: Duration of relief from job stressors and burnout. Anxiety Stress and Coping, 16(2), 213 226. European Travel Commission. (2015). European tourism 2015 trends & prospects (Q1/2015). Evans, R. (1998). The visitor’s guide to Northern Ireland. Belfast: Blackstaff. Fageda, X., & Flores-Fillol, R. (2012). Air services on thin routes: Regional versus low-cost airlines. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 42(4), 702 714. Fairweather, J., & Swaffield, S. (2003). Tourist experiences of landscape in New Zealand: Themes from three case studies. Tourism, Culture and Communication, 4(2), 57 70. Falk, J., Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., & Benckendorff, P. (2011). Travel and learning: A neglected tourism research area. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2), 908 927. Falk, J., & Dierking, L. (2000). Learning from museums: Visitor experiences and the making of meaning. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira. Falk, J., & Storksdieck, M. (2005). Using the contextual model of learning to understand visitor learning from a science center exhibition. Science Education, 89(5), 744 778. Fallon, S. (2010). Slovenia. London: Lonely Planet Publications.

References

365

Fan, S.-P. (2010). The effects of China’s tourism diplomacy and a “united front”. China: An International Journal, 8(2), 247 281. Fan, Y., Zhang, X., & Wang, Y. (2008). Confucian tourism thoughts: A study review and reexamination. Tourism Tribune, 12(1), 77 81. Farran, S. (2006). The coastal zone of islands: Comparative reflections from the North and South. Island Studies Journal, 1(1), 55 80. Farrell, T., & Marion, J. (2002). The protected area visitor impact management (PAVIM) framework: A simplified process for making management decisions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 10(1), 31 51. Ferguson, N. (2012). Civilisation. London: Penguin. Fields, K. (2002). Demand for the gastronomy tourism product: Motivational factors. In A. M. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and gastronomy (pp. 37–50). London: Routledge. Filippi, Z. (2007). Korcˇula and the Polo family. Financial Times. Retrieved from http:// www.Croatia.org/crown/articles/9372/1/Marco Polos-Croatian-roots-based on-solid-research. Accessed on May 7, 2015. Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. The Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 327 358. Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making social science matter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Forester, J. (1993). Critical theory, public policy and planning practice towards a critical pragmatism. Albany: State University of New York Press. Fricker, R. D., & Schonlau, M. (2002). Advantages and disadvantages of Internet research surveys: Evidence from the literature. Field Methods, 14(4), 347–365. Frechtling, D. (2001). Forecasting tourism demand: Methods and strategies. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Fredmen, P., & Tyrva¨inen, L. (2010). Frontiers in nature-based tourism. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 10(3), 177 189. Fu, X., Cai, L., & Lehto, X. (2015). A Confucian analysis of Chinese tourists’ motivations. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 32(3), 180 198.

366

References

Funck, C., & Cooper, M. (2013). Japanese tourism: Spaces, places and structures (Vol. 5). New York, NY: Berghahn Books. Fyall, A., Garrod, B., & Leask, A. (Eds.). (2003). Managing visitor attractions. London: Butterworth Heinemann. Galani-Moutafi, V. (1999). The self and the other. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(2), 203 224. Galbreath, J. (2005). Which resources matter the most to firm success? An exploratory study of resource-based theory. Technovation, 25(9), 979 998. Gardiner, S., King, B., & Wilkins, H. (2013). The travel behaviors of international students: Nationality-based constraints and opportunities. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19(4), 287 299. Gartner, W. (1993). Image formation process. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 2(2/3), 191 215. Gbtimes Beijing. (2014). Survey shows changing shopping behavior for Chinese tourists abroad. Retrieved from http://gbtimes.com/china/survey-shows-changing-shoppingbehavior-chinese-tourists-abroad. Accessed on January 5, 2015. Geissler, G., & Rucks, C. (2011). The overall experience: A visitor satisfaction tracking study. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 17(1), 127 138. Getz, D. (2000). Explore wine tourism: Management, development and destinations. New York, NY: Cognizant Communication Corporation. Getz, D., & Nilsson, P. A. (2004). Responses of family businesses to extreme seasonality in demand: The case of Bornholm, Denmark. Tourism Management, 25, 17 30. Ghimire, K. (2001). The native tourist: Mass tourism within developing countries. London: Earthscan. Gibson, W. (2013). Florida tries to tap huge growth in Chinese tourism. Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved from http://www.articles.sun-sentinel.com/2013-07-06. Accessed on July 1, 2015. Glover, P. (2011a). A comparison between domestic and international students’ trip characteristics: Evidence from an Australian university. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 17(4), 263 274. (2011b). International Students: Linking education and travel. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 28(2), 190 195.

References

367

Gmelch, G. (1997). Crossing cultures: Student travel and personal development. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21(4), 475 490. Gnoth, J., & Matteuci, A. (2014). A phenomenological view of the behavioural tourism research literature. International Journal of Culture Tourism and Hospitality Research, 8(1), 3 21. Godet, M., & Roubelat, F. (1996). Creating the future: The use and misuse of scenarios. Long Range Planning, 29(2), 164 171. Goh, C., & Law, R. (2002). Modelling and forecasting tourism demand for arrivals with stochastic nonstationary seasonality and intervention. Tourism Management, 23(5), 499 510. Gold Coast Tourism. (2015). Oskars on Burleigh. Retrieved from http://www.visitgoldcoast.com/ places-to-see/burleigh-heads/restaurants/oskars-on-burleigh. Accessed on November 24, 2015. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Gomm, R. (2004). Social research methodology. Bristol: Palgrave-MacMillan. Goodall, H. (2000). Writing the new ethnography. Lanham, MD: AltaMira. Goodwin, H., & Francis, J. (2003). Ethical and responsible tourism: Consumer trends in the UK. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9(3), 271 284. Gould, S. (2004). The hedgehog, the fox and the magister’s pox. Mending and minding the misconceived gap between science and the humanities. London: Vintage. Government of Romania. (2013). The Bucharest guidelines for cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European countries. Retrieved from http://gov.ro/en/news/thebucharest-guidelines-for-cooperation-between-china-and-central-and-easterneuropean-countries. Accessed on May 7, 2015. Gremler, D. (2004). The critical incident technique in service research. Journal of Service Research, 7(1), 65 89. Grenoble, R. (2013). Chinese tourists upset North Koreans by treating children ‘like they’re feeding ducks’. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/05/ chinese-tourists-north-korea_n_3709399.html. Accessed on January 6, 2015.

368

References

Grey, R. (2002). Will Santa find me? Domestic Christmas travel, 1998 − 2001. Tourism Research Report, 4(2). Gruen, T., Osmonbekov, T., & Czaplewski, A. (2006). EWOM: The impact of customer-to customer online know-how exchange on customer value and loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 59(4), 449 456. Guangdong Tourism Administration. (2014). List of opened ADS countries (regions). Retrieved from http://www.gdta. gov.cn/zxbs/lxs/5595.html. Accessed on July 24, 2015. Guangrui, Z. (2003). China’s tourism since 1978: Policies, experiences, and lessons learned. In A. A. Lew, L. Yu, J. Ap, & Z. Guangrui (Eds.), Tourism in China (pp. 13 33). New York, NY: Haworth Hospitality. Gump, B., & Matthews, K. (2000). Are vacations good for your health? The 9-year mortality experience after the multiple risk factor intervention trial. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62(5), 608 612. Gunn, C. (1988). Tourism planning (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. Guo, Y., Kim, S., & Timothy, D. (2007). Development characteristics and implications of mainland Chinese outbound tourism. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 12(4), 313 332. Hahndorf Hill Winery. (n.d.). Chocovino experience. Retrieved from http://www.hahndorfhillwinery. com.au/ChocoVino. Accessed on July 30, 2015. Haig, I., & McIntyre, N. (1992). Viewing nature: The role of the guide and the advantages of participating in commercial ecotourism. Journal of Tourism Studies, 13(1), 39 48. Hakim, C. (1982). Secondary analysis in social research: A guide to data sources and methods with examples. London: George Allen & Unwin. Hall, C. (2005). Tourism: Rethinking the social science of mobility. Essex: Pearson Education. (2009). ‘A long and still unfinished story?’ Constructing and defining Asian regionalisms. In T. Winter, P. Teo, & T. C. Chang (Eds.), Asia on tour (pp. 21 33). London: Routledge. Hall, D. (2001). Tourism and development in communist and post-communist societies. In D. Harrison (Eds.), Tourism and the less developed world: Issues and case studies (pp. 91 107). Wallingford, CT: CAB International.

References

369

Hall, M., & Mitchell, R. (2002). The changing nature of the relationship between cuisine and tourism in Australia and New Zealand: From fusion cuisine to food networks. In A. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and gastronomy (pp. 186 206). London: Routledge. Hall, M., & Sharples, L. (2003). The consumption of experiences or the experience of consumption? An introduction to the tourism of taste. In M. C. Hall, L. Sharples, R. Mitchell, N. Macionis, & B. Cambourne (Eds.), Food tourism around the world: Development, management and markets (pp. 1 24). Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. Ham, S. (2015). Interpretation: Making a difference on purpose. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Press. Han, H., Lee, S., & Lee, C. (2011). Extending the theory of planned behaviour: Visa exemptions and the traveller decision-making process. Tourism Geographies, 13(1), 45 74. Hannam, K., Sheller, M., & Urry, J. (2006). Editorial: Mobilities, immobilities and moorings. Mobilities, 1(1), 1 22. Hansel, B. (1988). Developing an international perspective in youth through exchange programs. Education and Urban Society, 20(2), 177 195. Harrill, R., Li, X., & Xiao, H. (2016). China outbound tourism: A critical inquiry. In X. Li (Ed.), China outbound tourism 2.0 (pp. 347–364). Apple Publishing Company. Harris, D. (2005). Key concepts in leisure studies. London: Sage. Harris, K., & Bonn, M. (2000). Training techniques and tolls: Evidence from the foodservice industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 24, 320 355. Hartline, M., Maxham III, J., & McKee, D. (2000). Corridors of influence in the dissemination of customer-oriented strategy to customer contact service employees. Journal of Marketing, 64(2), 35 50. Hartmann, R. (1986). Tourism, seasonality and social change. Leisure Studies, 5(1), 25 33. Harvard Business Review. (2010). The global: Singapore airlines’ balancing act. Retrieved from https://hbr. org/2010/07/the-globe-singapore-airlines-balancing-act. Accessed on January 8, 2015. Haywood, A., Sieg, C., & Christiani, K. (2011). Austria. London: Lonely Planet Publications. He, G. (Ed.). (1999). 50 years of China’s tourism. Beijing: China Tourism Press.

370

References

Hellier, P., Geursen, G., Carr, R., & Rickard, J. (2003). Customers repurchase intention: A general structural equation model. Journal of Marketing, 37, 1762 1800. Hendee, J., Gale, R., & Catton, W. (1971). A typology of outdoor recreation activity preferences. The Journal of Environmental Education, 3(1), 28 34. Herbert, D. (2001). Literary places, tourism and the heritage experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(2), 312 333. Hibbert, C. (1969). The grand tour. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Higham, J. (2006). Sport tourism as an attraction for managing seasonality. In H. Gibson (Eds.), Sport tourism: Concepts and theories (pp. 106 130). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Inc. Hinch, T., Hickey, G., & Jackson, E. (2001). Seasonal visitation at Fort Edmonton Park: An empirical analysis using a leisure constraints framework. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 173 186). Oxford: Pergamon. Hinch, T., & Jackson, E. (2000). Leisure constraints research: Its value as a framework for understanding tourism seasonality. Current Issues in Tourism, 3(2), 87 106. Hjalager, A. (2002). A typology of gastronomy tourism. In A. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism & gastronomy (pp. 21 34). London: Routledge. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviours, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work related values (2nd ed.). Beverley Hills, CA: Sage. (1994). The business of international business is culture. International Business Review, 3(1), 114. (1995). Multilevel research of human systems; flowers bouquets and gardens. Human Systems Management, 14, 207 217. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (2015). The Hofstede centre Strategy, culture, change. Retrieved from http:// geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html. Accessed on July 15. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

References

371

Holloway, C. (1981). The guided tour: A sociological approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 8 (3), 377 402. Hongying, Y., & Hui, C. (2009). Analysis of tour guide interpretation in China. In C. Ryan, G. Huimin, & F. Meng (Eds.), Tourism in China: Destination, cultures and communities (pp. 225 236). New York, NY: Routledge. Horne, D. (1992). The intelligent tourist. McMahons Point, NSW: Margaret Gee. Hottola, P. (2004). Culture confusions: Intercultural adaptation in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2), 447 466. Howard, J., Thwaites, R., & Smith, B. (1991). Investigating the roles of the indigenous tour guide. Journal of Tourism Studies, 12(2), 32 39. Howarth, C. (2005). How social representations of attitudes have informed attitude theories: The consensual and the reified. Theory & Psychology, 16(5), 691 714. Hsu, C., & Huang, S. (2008). Travel motivation: A critical review of the concept’s development. In A. G. Woodside & D. Martin (Eds.), Tourism management: Analysis, behavior and strategy (pp. 14 27). Oxford: CAB International. Hsu, C., & Lam, T. (2003). Mainland Chinese travellers’ motivations and barriers of visiting Hong Kong. Journal of Academy of Business and Economics, 2(1), 60 67. Hsu, C., & Song, H. (2013). Destination image in travel magazines: A textual analysis of Hong Kong and Macau. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 19(3), 253 268. Hsu, C., & Sung, S. (1997). Travel behaviors of international students at a Midwestern university. Journal of Travel Research, 36(1), 59 65. Hu, A. (2012). Introduction to basic Asian values. Retrieved from http://www.asianweek. com/2012/04/28/introduction-to-basic-asian-values/. Accessed on June 27, 2015. Huang, S. (2007). The effects of motivation, past experience, perceived constraint, and attitude on tourist revisit intention. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR. (2010a). Toward a behavioral theory of government-firm relationship behavior: “thick-description” of the dynamics of government’s role in shaping China’s domestic, inbound, and outbound tourism industry. In A. Woodside (Ed.), Tourism-marketing performance metrics and usefulness auditing of destination

372

References

websites (Vol. 4, pp. 149 163). Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. (2010b). Evolution of China’s tourism policies. International Journal of Tourism Policy, 3(1), 78 84. Huang, S., & Hsu, C. (2005). Mainland Chinese residents’ perceptions and motivations of visiting Hong Kong: Evidence from focus group interviews. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 10(2), 191 205. (2009). Effects of travel motivation, past experience, perceived constraint, and attitude on revisit intention. Journal of Travel Research, 48(1), 29 44. Huang, S., Keating, B., Kriz, A., & Heung, V. (2015). Chinese outbound tourism: An epilogue. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 32(1 2), 153 159. Huang, S., & Weiler, B. (2010). A review and evaluation of China’s quality assurance system for tour guiding. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(7), 845 860. Huanqiu.com. (2013). Chinese visitors to Jeju Island dropped 60% due to the Chinese Tourism Law (in Chinese). Retrieved from http://world.huanqiu.com/exclusive/2013-11/4607362.html. Accessed on July 30, 2015. Hudson, S., & Ritchie, J. (2006). Film tourism and destination marketing: The case of Captain Corelli’s Mandolin. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(30), 256 268. Hudson, S., Wang, Y., & Gil, S. (2011). The Influence of a film on destination image and the desire to travel: A cross-cultural comparison. International Journal of Tourism Research, 13, 177 190. Hughes, E. (1937). Institutional office and the person. American Journal of Sociology, 43, 404 413. Hughes, K., Wang, J., & Shu, M. (2015). Exploring the travel patterns, preferences and recommendations of Chinese university students living in Australia. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 23, 12 22. Hungarian Central Statistical Office. (2015). Time series of annual data Tourism, catering. Budapest: Author. Hunter-Jones, P., Jeffs, A., & Smith, D. (2008). Backpacking your way into crisis: An exploratory study into perceived risk and tourist behaviour amongst young people. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 23(2 4), 237 247. Huntington, S. (1998). The clash of civilisations and the remaking of world order. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.

References

373

Hur, S., & Hur, B. (1999). Culture shock! Korea. Portland, OR: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company. Hwang, Y., Gretzel, U., & Fesenmaier, D. (2006). Multicity trip patterns: Tourists to the United States. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(4), 1057 1078. Hyllebert, S. (1992). General introduction. In S. Hyllebert (Eds.), Modelling seasonality (pp. 3 14). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Imberti, P. (2007). Who resides behind the words? Exploring and understanding the language experience of the non-English speaking immigrant. Families in Society, 88(1), 67 73. Ingerson, S., & Kim, A. (2015). Developing ethnic restaurant experience. In The proceedings of the Council for Australasian Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE) conference, Gold Coast, February, 2 5. Southern Cross University, Gold Coast. Institute of China Internet Space. (2015). Report on China’s internet development: 20 years. Beijing: Institute of China Internet Space. International Air Transport Association (IATA). (2013). Press Release No. 67. Retrieved from http://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/ pages/2013-12-10-01.aspx. Accessed on June 7, 2015. International Consultants for Education & Fair (ICEF) Monitor. (2014). Summing up international student mobility in 2014. Retrieved from http:// monitor.icef.com/2014/02/summing-up-international-student-mobility-in-2014/. Accessed on July 7, 2015. International Labour Office. (2013). Working time standards for domestic workers. Asian knowledge-sharing forum: Realizing decent work for domestic workers. Bangkok, Thailand, April 24 26. IPSOS. (2014). Market research report on Chinese outbound tourist (city) consumption. Retrieved from http://en.wtcf.travel/download/report201409en.pdf. Accessed on May 17, 2015. Iskandarani, M. (2008). Effect of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) on nonindustrial countries-digital divide model. Journal of Computational Science, 4, 315 319. Iso-Ahola, S. (1982). Toward a social psychological theory of tourism motivation: A rejoinder. Annals of Tourism Research, 9(2), 256 262.

374

References

Iwashita, C. (2006). Media representation of the UK as a destination for Japanese tourists: Popular culture and tourism. Tourist Studies, 6(1), 59 77. (2008). Role of films and television dramas in international tourism: The case of Japanese tourists to the UK. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 24(2 3), 139 151. Jang, S., Ha, A., & Silkes, C. (2009). Perceived attributes of Asian foods: From the perspective of the American customers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(1), 63 70. Japan Tourism Agency, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. (2015). Tourism white paper. Nikkei Insatsu, Tokyo. Japanese Tourism Marketing Co. (2013). Statistics of visitors to Japan from overseas. Japanese Japanese Tourism Marketing Co, Tokyo. Jennings, G. (Ed.). (2010). Tourism research (2nd ed.). Milton, Queensland: Wiley. Jim, C. (1989). Visitor management in recreation areas. Environmental Conservation, 16(1), 19 40. Jin, Q., & Pearce, P. (2011). Tourist perception of crowding and management approaches at tourism sites in Xi’an. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 16(3), 325 338. Jin, T., Lin, V., & Hung, K. (2014). China’s generation Y’s expectation on outbound group package tour. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(6), 617 644. Jing Daily. (2014). Mauritius emerges as Chinese Tourists’ Newest Island Getaway Hotspot. Retrieved from https://jingdaily.com/mauritius-emerges-as-chinese-touristsnewest-island-getaway-hotspot/. Accessed on July 3, 2015. Johnson, K. (2013). Florida tourism on record course for 2013. Retrieved from http://www. travelweekly.com. Accessed on July 1, 2015. Johnson, P., & Ashworth, J. (1990). Modelling tourism demand: A summary review. Leisure Studies, 9(2), 145 161. Jovchelovitch, S. (2002). Rethinking the diversity of knowledge: Cognitive polyphasia, belief and representation. Psychologie & Societe´, 5(1), 121 138. JTB Corporation (2015). JTB report 2015: All about Japanese overseers travelers. Japan Tourism Marketing Corporation, Tokyo.

References

375

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking fast thinking slow. London: MacMillan. Kai, J. (2014). Tourists behaving badly: China’s image problem. Retrieved from http:// thediplomat.com/2014/12/tourists-behaving-badly-chinas-image-problem/. Accessed on March 16, 2014. Kanellopoulos, D. (2008). An ontology-based system for intelligent matching of travellers’ needs for group package tours. International Journal of Digital Culture and Electronic Tourism, 1(1), 76 99. Kaplan, R., & Herbert, E. (1988). Familiarity and preference: A cross-cultural analysis. In J. L. Nasar (Ed.), Environmental aesthetics: Theory research and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kaplan, S. (1987). Aesthetics, affect, and cognition: Environmental preference from an evolutionary perspective. Environment and Behavior, 19(1), 3 32. Keating, B., Huang, S., Kriz, A., & Heung, V. (2015). A systematic review of the Chinese outbound tourism literature: 1983 2012. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 32(1 2), 2 17. Keating, B., & Kriz, A. (2008). Outbound tourism from China: Literature review and research agenda. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 15(1), 32 41. Kennedy, E., & Deegan, J. (1999). Seasonality in Irish tourism, 1973 1995. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 51 74). Oxford: Pergamon. Kharas, H. (2011). The emerging middle class in developing countries. Retrieved from http:// siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTABCDE/Resources/7455676-1292528456380/ 7626791-1303141641402/7878676-1306699356046/Parallel-Sesssion-6-HomiKharas.pdf. Accessed on June 8, 2015. Kim, A. (2013). The influence of food involvement on Australian consumers’ perceptions of Korean ethnic food attributes and food-related travel preferences. In the proceedings of the Council for Australasian Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE) conference, Lincoln, February 11 14, Lincoln University, New Zealand. Kim, E. (1997). Pre-visit expectations of Australia. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 6(1), 11 20. Kim, E., & Mattila, A. (2011). The impact of language barrier & cultural differences on restaurant experiences: A grounded theory approach. Retrieved from http://scholarworks. umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1175&context=gradconf_hospitality

376

References

Kim, E., Pearce, P., Morrison, A., & O’Leary, J. (1996). Mature vs. youth travelers: The Korean market. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 1(1), 102 112. Kim, G., Eves, A., & Scarles, C. (2009). Building a model of local food consumption on trips and holidays: A grounded theory approach. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 423 431. Kim, H., & Richardson, S. (2003). Motion picture impacts on destination images. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 216 237. Kim, K., Jogaratnam, G., & Noh, J. (2006). Travel decisions of students at a US university: Segmenting the international market. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(4), 345 357. Kim, S., Agrusa, J., Lee, H., & Chon, K. (2007). Effects of Korean television dramas on the flow of Japanese tourists. Tourism Management, 28, 1340 1353. Kim, S., Guo, Y., & Agrusa, J. (2005). Preference and positioning analyses of overseas destinations by Mainland Chinese outbound pleasure tourists. Journal of Travel Research, 44(2), 212 220. Kim, S., & McKercher, B. (2011). The collective effect of national culture and tourist culture on tourist behavior. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 28, 145 164. Kim, Y., & Lee, H. (2009). Passenger complaints under irregular airline conditions Cross-cultural study. Journal of Air Transport Management, 15, 350 353. King, B., Dwyer, L., & Prideaux, B. (2006). An evalutaiton of unethical business practices in Australia’s China inbound tourism market. International Journal of Tourism Research, 8, 127 142. King, B., & Gardiner, S. (2013). Chinese international students: An avant-garde of independent travellers? International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(2), 130 139. Kivela, J., & Crotts, J. (2006). Tourism and gastronomy: Gastronomy’s influence on how tourists experience a destination. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 30(3), 354 377. Klemm, M., & Rawel, J. (2001). Extending the school holiday season: The case of Eurocamp. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 141 151). Oxford: Pergamon.

References

377

Ko, T. (2000). The issues and implications of escorted shopping tours in a tourist destination region: The case study of Korean package tourists in Australia. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 8(3), 71 80. Koc, E., & Altinay, G. (2007). An analysis of seasonality in monthly per person tourist spending in Turkish inbound tourism from a market segmentation perspective. Tourism Management, 28, 227 237. Koo, T., Wu, C., & Dwyer, L. (2012). Dispersal of visitors within destinations: Descriptive measures and underlying drivers. Tourism Management, 33(5), 1209 1219. Kozinets, R. (1999). E-tribalized marketing? The strategic implications of virtual communities of consumption. European Management Journal, 17(3), 252 264. (2002). The field behind the Screen: Using netnography for marketing research in online communities. Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), 61 72. (2010). Netnography: Ethnographic research online. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. (2010). Netnography: Doing ethnographic research online. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Kozo, M., Solomon, B., & Chang, J. (2005). The ecological and consumption themes of the films of Hayao Miyazaki. Ecological Economics, 54(1), 11 17. Kramer, R., Modsching, M., ten Hagen, K., & Gretzel, U. (2007). Behavioural impacts of mobile tour guides. In M. Sigala, L. Mich, & J. Murphy (Eds.), Information and communication technologies in tourism (pp. 109 118). Vienna: Springer Computer Science. Kristensen, A. (2013). Travel and social media in China: From transit hubs to stardom. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(2), 169 177. Kua, J., & Baum, T. (2004). Perspectives on the development of low-cost airlines in South-east Asia. Current Issues in Tourism, 7(3), 262 276. Kuang, L. (2001). Study on the tourism industry government led development strategy. Beijing: China Tourism Press. Lai, C., Li, X., & Harrill, R. (2013). Chinese outbound tourists’ perceived constraints to visiting the United States. Tourism Management, 37, 136 146. Langer, E. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. (2009). Counterclockwise: Mindful health and the power of possibility. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.

378

References

Langer, R., & Beckman, S. (2005). Sensitive research topics: Netnography revisited. Qualitative Market Research, 8(2), 189 203. Lauring, J. (2008). Rethinking social identity theory in international encounters: Language use as a negotiated object for identity making. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8(3), 343 361. Lebrun, A.-M. (2015). Representations of cruise; Cruisers and non-cruisers cross views. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(5), 511 520. Lee, C., Lee, Y., & Lee, B. (2005). Korea’s destination image formed by the 2002 World Cup. Annals of Tourism Research, 32, 839 858. Lee, U., & Pearce, P. (2003). Travel career patterns: Further conceptual adjustment of travel career ladder. Paper presented at the Second Asia Pacific Forum for Graduate Students Research in Tourism, Busan, Korea. Leung, D., Law, R., van Hoof, H., & Buhalis, D. (2013). Social media in tourism and hospitality. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30(1 2), 3 22. Leung, M. (2005). Keeping compatriots on the move: A study of ethnic Chinese migrantowned travel agencies in Germany. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 14(1 2), 193 224. Levin, D. (2013). Wooing, and also resenting, Chinese tourists. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com. Accessed on November 20, 2014. (2015). Chinese tourists are big spenders And big offenders. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.seattletimes.com/life/travel/chinese-tourists-are-big-spenders-mdash-and-big-offenders/. Accessed on July 8. Li, F., & Sofield, T. (2009). Huangshan (Yellow Mountain), China: The meaning of harmonious relationships. In C. Ryan, G. Huimin, & F. Meng (Eds.), Tourism in China: Destination, cultures and communities (pp. 157 167). New York, NY: Routledge. Li, F. M. S. (2008). Culture as a major determinant in tourism development of China. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(6), 492 513. Li, H., Pearce, P., & Zhou, L. (2015). Documenting Chinese tourists’ motivation patterns [online]. In E. Wilson & M. Witsel (Eds.), CAUTHE 2015: Rising tides and sea changes: Adaptation and innovation in tourism and hospitality (pp. 235 246). Gold Coast, Queensland: School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross University.

References

379

Li, J. (2015). 2015 National tourism working conference report. Retrieved from http:// travel.china.com/vane/chinanews/11120563/20150116/19218052.html. Accessed on July 21. Li, J., Pearce, P., Morrison, A., & Wu, B. (2015). Up in smoke? The impact of smog on risk perception and satisfaction of international tourists in Beijing. International Journal of Tourism Research. doi: 10.1002/jtr.2055 Li, M. (2014). Cross-cultural tourist research: A meta-analysis. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 38(1), 40 77. Li, M., Zhang, H., Mao, Y., & Deng, C. (2011). Segmenting Chinese outbound tourists by perceived constraints. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 28(6), 629 643. Li, Q. (2007). Travel following a right principle—Confucius’ tour thought. Yinshan Academic Journal(Social Science Edition), 4, 39 42. Li, S. (2008). Culture as a major determinant in tourism development in China. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(6), 492 513. Li, X. (Eds.). (2016). Chinese outbound tourists 2.0. Oakville: Apple Academic Press. Li, X., Harrill, R., Uysal, M., Burnett, T., & Zhan, X. (2010). Estimating the size of the Chinese outbound travel market: A demandside approach. Tourism Management, 31(2), 250 259. Li, X., Lai, C., Harill, R., Kline, S., & Wang, L. (2011). When East meets West: An exploratory study on Chinese outbound tourists. Tourism Management, 32(1), 741 749. Li, X., Meng, F., Uysal, M., & Mihalik, B. (2013). Understanding China’s long-haul outbound travel market: An overlapped segmentation approach. Journal of Business Research, 66(6), 786 793. Li, Z. (2001). An analysis of tourist’s survey in the Overseas Chinese Town in 2000 On the development of China’s theme parks. Tourism Tribune, 16(1), 51 53. Lim, C. (1997). Review of international tourism demand models. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(4), 835 849. (2004). The major determinants of Korean outbound travel to Australia. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 64, 477 485.

380

References

Lim, C., & Wang, Y. (2008). China’s post-1978 experience in outbound tourism. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 78(2), 450 458. Lin, C.-H., Morais, D., Kerstetter, D., & Hou, J.-S. (2007). Examining the role of cognitive and affective image in predicting choice across natural, developed, and theme-park destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 12(4)1 12. Lin, Y., & Chen, C. (2014). Needs assessment for food and food services and behavioral intention of Chinese group tourists who visited Taiwan. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(1), 1 16. Lipsey, S. (2014). China tries to fight ‘bad tourist stereotype. Retrieved from https://www. yahoo.com/travel/china-tries-to-fight-bad-tourist-stereotype-105501979192. html. Accessed on January 6, 2015. Lisle, G. (1984). Tourism research in the United States: A geographic perspective. GeoJournal, 9(1), 5 15. Litvin, S., Goldsmith, R., & Pan, B. (2008). Electronic word-of-mouth in hospitality and tourism management. Tourism Management, 29(3), 458 468. Liu, A. (2011). Discussion about making strict demands on the access system of tour guides and improving the management system of tour guides. Tourism Tribune, 26(5), 62 67. Liu, C. (2013). Understanding Chinese travellers’ travel experiences in the UK: A critical analysis of an online community. Unpublished manuscript. Liu, X., Li, J., & Yang, Y. (2015). Travel arrangement as a moderator in image-satisfaction behavior relations: An investigation of Chinese outbound travelers. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21(3), 225 236. Loi, K., & Pearce, P. (2010). Powerful stakeholders’ views of entertainment in Macao’s future. Journal of Business Research, 65(1), 4 12. (2012). Annoying tourist behaviours: Perspectives of hosts and tourists in Macao. Journal of China Tourism Research, 8, 395 416. (2015). Exploring perceived tensions arising from tourist behaviors in a Chinese context. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 32(1 2), 65 79. Loker-Murphy, L., & Pearce, P. (1995). Young budget travelers: Backpackers in Australia. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(4), 819 843.

References

381

Long, L. (2004). Culinary tourism. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky. Longley, N. (2010). The rough guide to Slovenia. Delhi: Rough Guides. Longley, N., Burford, T., Hebbert, C., & Richardson, D. (2010). The rough guide to Hungary. London: Rough Guides. Lopez, E. (1980). The effects of leadership style on satisfaction levels of tour quality. Journal of Travel Research, 18(4), 20 23. (1981). The effect of tour leaders’ training on travelers’ satisfaction with tour quality. Journal of Travel Research, 19(4), 23 26. Lufthansa Airlines. (2015). Simone harth, team leader regional flight attendants, cabin crew management. Information received on 16 June 2015. Lue, C., Crompton, J., & Fesenmaier, D. (1993). Conceptualization of multi-destination pleasure trips. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 289 301. Lundtorp, S., Rassing, C., & Wanhill, S. (1999). Off-season is no season: The case of Bornholm. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 51 74). Oxford: Pergamon. Luo, Y., & Shenkar, O. (2006). The multinational corporation as a multilingual community: Language and organisation in a global context. Journal of International BusinessStudies, 37, 321 339. Lux Resorts. (2015). Hotels in Mauritius. Retrieved from http://www.luxresorts.com/?gclid= CKmmvcW1-ccCFVgTvQod6pUE0A MacCannell, D. (1976). The tourist. New York, NY: Schocken Books. Maggie Beer Products. (2015). Maggie’s farm shop. Retrieved from http://www.maggiebeer.com.au/visitus. Accessed on July 21, 2015. Mak, A., Lumbers, M., Eves, A., & Chang, K. (2012). Factors influencing tourist food consumption. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 928 936. Mak, A., Wong, K., & Chang, R. (2011). Critical issues affecting the service quality and professionalism of the tour guides in Hong Kong and Macau. Tourism Management, 32(6), 1442 1452. Maoz, M. (Ed.). (2009). The meeting of civilisations. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press.

382

References

March, R. (1997). Diversity in Asian outbound travel industries: A comparison between Indonesia, Thailand, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 16(2), 231 238. March, R., & Woodside, A. (2005). Tourism behavior: Travellers’ decisions and actions. Oxford: CABI. Maric´, V., & Mutic´, A. (2009). Croatia. London: Lonely Planet Publications. Maslen, G. (2014). Mass movement of the world’s students. Retrieved from http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20140129200018337. Accessed on June 7, 2015. Matsumoto, M. (1999). The complete works of world masterpiece theater. Tokyo: Dobunshoin. Matteucci, X. (2013). Photo elicitation: Exploring tourist experiences with researcher-found images. Tourism Management, 35, 190 197. Matthews, D. (2013). No sleep for Singapore’s universities. Times Higher Education. Retrieved from https://www.timeshighereducation.com/features/no-sleep-for-singapores-universities/2009064.article. Accessed on June 7, 2015. Mattila, A. (1999). The role of culture in the service evaluation process. Journal of Service Research, 1(3), 250 261. Mauri, A., & Minazzi, R. (2013). Web reviews influence on expectations and purchasing intentions of hotel potential customers. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34, 99 107. Mauritius Tourism Promotion Authority. (2015). MTPA tourism office. Retrieved from http://www.tourism-mauritius.mu/. Accessed on July 8. Mayr, E. (1982). The growth of biological thought. Cambridge, MA: Bellnap Press. Mazumdar, S., & Mazumdar, S. (2004). Religion and place attachment: A study of sacred places. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(3), 385 397. McCarthy, L., Stock, D., & Verma, R. (2010). How travelers use online and social media channels to make hotel-choice decisions. Cornell Hospitality Reports, 10(18), 4 18. McCool, S. (2015). Sustainable tourism: Guiding fiction, social trap or path to resilience? In T. J. Singh (Eds.), Challenges in tourism research (pp. 224 233). Bristol: Channel View.

References

383

McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. London: Sage. McKercher, B., & du Cros, H. (2002). Cultural tourism: Partnership between tourism and cultural heritage Management. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. Meiselman, H., Johnson, J., Reeve, W., & Crouch, J. (2000). Demonstrations of the influence of the eating environment on food acceptance. Appetite, 35, 231 237. Menzies, G. (2007). 1434 the year China discovered the world. London: Harper Collins. Mercille, J. (2005). Media effects on image: The case of Tibet. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 1039 1055. Michael, I., Armstrong, A., & King, B. (2003). The travel behavior of international students: The relationship between studying abroad and their choice of tourist destinations. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(1), 57 66. Milman, A. (2009). Evaluating the guest experience at theme parks: An empirical investigation of key attributes. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11, 373 387. Milman, A., Li, X., Wang, Y., & Qiuyang, Y. (2012). Examining the guest experience in themed amusement parks: Preliminary evidence from China. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 18(4), 313 325. Ministero Affari Esteri Agenzia Nazionale del Turismo (MAE ENIT). (2012). Rapporto Congiunto Ambasciate/Consolati/ENIT (2012). Rome: Repubblica Popolare Cinese. Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia. (2015). Internal documents obtained at personal request. Miyazaki, H. (1984). Comic box. Tokyo: Fujon Production. (1996). Naucicca of the valley of the winds: Watercolor art book. Tokyo: Tokuma Shoten. (2008). Turnaround point. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Moeran, B. (1983). The language of Japanese tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 10(1), 93–108. Modsching, M., Kramer, R., ten Hagen, K., & Gretzel, U. (2007). Effectiveness of mobile recommender systems for tourist destinations: A user evaluation. Intelligent data acquisition and advanced computing systems: Technology and applications IDAACS, 4th IEEE Workshop.

384

References

Mohammed Baiomy, A., Jones, E., El-Din Elias, A., & Dinana, R. (2013). Menus as marketing tools: Developing a resort hotel restaurant menu typology. Journal of Tourism Research and Hospitality, 2(2), 1 10. Moore, S., Smith, A., & Newsome, D. (2003). Environmental performance reporting for natural area tourism: Contributions by visitor impact management frameworks and their indicators. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11(4), 348 375. Morris, I. (2011). Why the west rules for now. London: Profile Books. Morrison, A. (2013). Marketing and managing tourist destinations. New York, NY: Routledge. Moscardo, G. (1999). Making visitors mindful: Principles for creating sustainable visitor experiences through effective communication (Vol. 2). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. (2003). Interpretation: Communicating across cultures. In T. Griffin & R. Harris (Eds.), Current research, future strategies: Bridging uncertainty (pp. 487 499). Asia Pacific Tourism Association 9th Annual Conference. Sydney: University of Technology. Moscardo, G., Dann, G., & McKercher, B. (2014). Do tourists travel for the discovery of “Self” or search for the “Other”? Tourism Recreation Research, 39(1), 81 106. Moscovici, S. (1984). The phenomenon of social representations. In R. M. Farr & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Social representations (pp. 3–69). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1988). Notes towards a description of social representations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 89 130. Mullatti, L. (1992). The changing profile of the Indian family. In UNESCO (Eds.), The changing family in Asia: Bangladesh, India, Japan, Philippines and Thailand. Bangkok: UNESCO. Munter, M. (1993). Cross-cultural communication for managers. Business Horizon, May June, 69 78. Naidoo, P., Ramseook-Munhurrun, P., & Seetaram, A. (2010). Marketing the hotel sector in economic crisis evidence from Mauritius. Global Journal of Business Research, 5(2), 1 12. Nasiri, A., & Deng, G. (2009). Environmental factors influence on mobile learning business. Journal of Applied Science, 6, 1225 1234.

References

385

National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2012). Personal income in different cities and provinces in 2012. Beijing: National Bureau of Statistics of China. National Restaurant Association. (2006). Restaurant industry facts. Retrieved from http://www.sju.edu/int/ resources/libraries/campbell/researchguides/securefiles/NationalRestaurant AssociationForecast2006.pdf. Accessed on July 8, 2015. Nautilus Restaurant. (2015). The nautilus dining experience. Retrieved from http://www.nautilus-restaurant.com.au/dining.html. Accessed on November 24. Negra, D. (2002). Ethnic food fetishism, whiteness and nostalgia in recent film and television. The Velvet Light Trap, 50, 62 76. Newsome, D., Moore, S., & Dowling, R. (2002). Natural area tourism: Ecology, impacts and management. Mona Vale, Australia: Channel View Publications. Ngai, E., Heung, V., Wong, Y., & Chan, F. (2007). Consumer complaint behavior of Asian and non-Asians about hotel services: An empirical analysis. European Journal of Marketing, 1, 1375 1391. Nielsen, C. (2001). Tourism and the media: Tourist decision making, information and communication. Melbourne: Hospitality Press. Nisbett, R. (2003). The geography of thought. London: Nicholas Brearley. Nisbett, R., & Wilson, T. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231 259. Niva, M. (2007). All foods affect health’: Understandings of functional foods and healthy eating among health-oriented Finns. Appetite, 48(3), 384 393. Nozawa, H. (1992). A marketing analysis of Japanese outbound travel. Tourism Management, 13(2), 226 234. Nyı´ ri, P. (2006). Scenic spots: Chinese tourism, the state and cultural authority. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Oberg, K. (1960). Culture shock: Adjustment to neo-cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, 17, 177 182. Office for National Statistics. (2012). Travel trends 2012. Newport: Office for National Statistics, UK.

386

References

Okamoto, K. (2010). Characteristics and research trend of Anime pilgrimage. CATS Library, 4, 91-109. Center for Advanced Tourism Studies, Hokkaido University, Washimiya Town Commerce and Industry Association. Okumus, B., Okumus, F., & Mckercher, B. (2007). Incorporating local international cuisines in the marketing of tourism destinations: The cases of Hong Kong and Turkey. Tourism Management, 28, 253 261. Okuno, T. (1989). Indelible scene of one’s childhood in literature. Tokyo: Shueisha. Olga, J., Wayne, B., & Margaret, D. (2003). Meeting the needs of the Chinese tourist The operators’ perspective. Retrieved from http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn= 846379381390702;res=IELBUS. Accessed on September 30, 2015. Olsen, D., & Timothy, D. (2006). Tourism and religious journeys. In D. J. Timothy & D. H. Olsen (Eds.), Tourism, religion and spiritual journeys (pp. 1 21). London: Routledge. ´ ´ Olszanska, B., Olszanski, T., & Turp, C. (2010). Hungary. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited. Oppenheim, A. (1992). Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement. London: Continuum. Orlic´, O. (2013). The curious case of Marco Polo from Korcˇula: An example of invented tradition. Journal of Marine and Island Cultures, 2(1), 20 28. Otaki, M., Durrett, M., Richards, P., Nyquist, L., & Pennebaker, J. (1986). Maternal and infant behavior in Japan and America. Journal of CrossCultural Psychology, 17(3), 251 268. Outback Steakhouse. (2010). Company information. Retrieved from http://outbacksteakhouse.com.au/ index.php/companyinfo. Accessed on July 22, 2015. O’Connor, T., Loomis, D., Runyan, C., dal Santo, J. A., & Schulman, M. (2005). Adequacy of health and safety training among young Latino construction workers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 272 277. O’Halloran, M. (2002). Show me the bunny: Travel activity and expenditure of overnight Easter travellers. Tourism Research Report, 4(1), 23 32. O’Reilly, A. (1986). Tourism carrying capacity: concept and issues. Tourism Management, 7, 254 258.

References

387

Packer, J., Ballantyne, R., & Hughes, K. (2014). Chinese and Australian tourists’ attitudes to nature, animals and environmental issues: Implications for the design of nature-based tourism experiences. Tourism Management, 44, 101 107. Paganelli, F., & Giuli, D. (2008). Context-aware information services to support tourist communities. Information Technology & Tourism, 10(4), 313 327. Pan, B., MacLaurin, T., & Crotts, J. C. (2007). Travel blogs and the implications for destination marketing. Journal of Travel Research, 46(1), 35 45. Panchal, J. (2012). The ‘positive tourism’ linkage: A study of motivations, flow and benefits of spa experiences in Southeast Asia. Paper presented at the 6th World Conference for Graduate Research in Tourism, Hospitality & Leisure, Fethiye, Turkey. Panchal, J., & Pearce, P. (2011). Health motives and the Travel Career Pattern (TCP) model. Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 5(1), 32 44. Park, J., Robertson, R., & Wu, C. (2004). The effect of airline service quality on passengers’ behavioural intentions: A Korean case study. Journal of Air Transport Management, 10, 435 439. Parnwell, M. (2008). The politics and politics of Asian tourism: Introduction. In J. Cochrane (Ed.), Asian tourism: Growth and change (pp. 9 11). Oxford: Elsevier. PATA. (2010). China outbound tourism yearbook 2010. Bangkok: PATA. (2015, March). Asia pacific newsletter. Bangkok: PATA. (2015). Young tourism professional. Bangkok: PATA. Payne, K. (2009). International students as domestic tourists in New Zealand: A study of travel patterns, behaviors, motivations and expenditure. NSW, Australia: Southern Cross University. Pearce, P. (1984). Tourist guide interaction. Annals of Tourism Research, 11(2), 129 146. (1988). The ulysses factor: Evaluating visitors in tourist settings. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. (2005). Tourist behavior: Themes and conceptual schemes. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. (2010). New directions for considering tourists’ attitudes towards others. Tourism Recreation Research, 35(3), 251 258. (2011). Tourist behaviour and the contemporary world. Bristol: Channel View.

388

References

(2012a). Authenticity matters: Meanings and further studies in tourism. In T. V. Singh (Eds.), Critical debates in tourism (pp. 265 276). Bristol: Channel View. (2012b). The experience of visiting home and familiar places. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2), 1024 1047. (2012c). Tourists’ written reaction to poverty in Southern Africa. Journal of Travel Research, 51(2), 154 165. Pearce, P., & Chen, T. (2012). Citizens’ representations of China’s Golden Weeks. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 17(4), 394 415. Pearce, P., Filep, S., & Ross, G. (2011). Tourists, tourism and the good life. New York, NY: Routledge. Pearce, P., & Foster, F. (2007). A “university of travel”: Backpacker learning. Tourism Management, 28(5), 1285 1298. Pearce, P., & Kanlayanasukho, V. (2012). Humour and scams in guided tours; synthesising issues from embodied international experiences. Paper presented at International Tourism and Hospitality Conference, Corfu, Greece, May. Pearce, P., & Lee, U. (2005). Developing the travel career approach to tourist motivation. Journal of Travel Research, 43, 226 237. Pearce, P., & Lu, H. (2011). A framework for studying the learning outcomes of Chinese outbound group tourists. Journal of China Tourism Research, 7, 445 458. Pearce, P., Morrison, A., & Moscardo, G. (2003). Individuals as tourist icons: A developmental and marketing analysis. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 10, 63 85. Pearce, P., Moscardo, G., & Ross, G. (1996). Tourism community relationships. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Pearce, P., & Pabel, A. (2015). Tourism and humour. Bristol: Channel View. Pearce, P., & Packer, J. (2013). Minds on the move: New links from psychology to tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 40, 386 411. Pearce, P., & Wu, M.-Y. (2015). Entertaining international tourists: An empirical study of an iconic site in China. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. doi: 10.1177/ 1096348015598202. Pearce, P., Wu, M.-Y., & Chen, T. (2015). The spectacular and the mundane: Chinese tourists’ online representations of an iconic landscape journey. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 4(1), 24 35.

References

389

Pearce, P., Wu, M.-Y., & Osmond, A. (2013). Puzzles in understanding Chinese tourist behaviour: Towards a triple-C gaze. Tourism Recreation Research, 38(2), 145 157. Pearce, P. L., Wu, M.-Y., De Carlo, M., & Rossi, A. (2013). Contemporary experiences of Chinese tourists in Italy: An onsite analysis in Milan. Tourism Management Perspectives, 7, 34 37. Petersen, Y. (1995). The Chinese landscape as a tourist attraction: Image and reality. In A. Lew & L. Yu (Eds.), Tourism in China: Geography, political and economic perspectives (pp. 141 154). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc. Philippine Department of Tourism. (2012). Visitor arrivals to the Philippines by country of residence for the month of January December 2012. Manila: Philippine Department of Tourism. Pine II, B. J., & Gilmore, J. (1999). The experience economy. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Pirjevec, B. (1998). Ekonomska obiljezja ˇ turizma. Zagreb: Golden marketing. Pizam, A. (1999). Cross-cultural tourist behavior. In A. Pizam & Y. Mansfeld (Eds.), Consumer behavior in travel and tourism (pp. 393 412). New York, NY: Haworth Press. Pizam, A., Jansen-Verbeke, M., & Steel, L. (1997). Are all tourists alike regardless of nationality? The perceptions of Dutch tour-guides. Journal of International Hospitality, Leisure & Tourism Management, 1(1), 19 40. Pizam, A., & Jeong, G.-H. (1966). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: Perceptions of Korean tour-guides. Tourism Management, 7(4), 227 286. Pizam, A., & Sussman, S. (1995). Does nationality affect tourist behavior? Annals of Tourism Research, 2 (4), 901 917. Pizam, A., Uriely, N., & Reichel, A. (2000). The intensity of tourist-host social relationship and its effects on satisfaction and change of attitudes: The case of working tourists in Israel. Tourism Management, 21, 395 406. Plevnik, J., Mesic´, S., & Jurcˇic´, L. (2013). Kina na Balkanu. Zagreb: Plejada. Poon, W., & Lock-Teng Low, K. (2005). Are travellers satisfied with Malaysian hotels? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 17(3), 217 227.

390

References

Pope, J., Shanka, T., & Ali-Knight, J. (2002). The role and economic impact of international student and family tourism within Western Australia. Paper presented at the 12 International Research Conference of CAUTHE, Western Australia. Population Reference Bureau. (2015). 2014 World population data sheet. Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/ pdf14/2014-world-population-data-sheet_eng.pdf. Accessed on March 30. Prasad, N. (2007). Research proposal and project document: Small policies in small states, A joint project of the commonwealth secretariat and United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), June 1 24. Prayag, G., Cohen, S., & Yan, H. (2013). Potential Chinese travellers to Western Europe: Segmenting motivations and service expectations. Current Issues in Tourism, 18(8), 725 743. Prayag, G., Disegna, M., Cohen, S., & Yan, H. (2015). Segmenting markets by bagged clustering: Young Chinese travelers to western Europe. Journal of Travel Research, 54(2), 234 250. doi: 10.1177/ 0047287513514299 Prayag, G., Dookhony-Ramphul, K., & Maryeven, M. (2010). Hotel development and tourism impacts in Mauritius: Hoteliers’ perspectives on sustainable tourism. Development Southern Africa, 27(5), 697 712. Prebensen, N. (2012). Benchmarking tourist attractions. Advances in Hospitality and Leisure, 8, 85 108. Price, H. (2006). Walt’s revolution! By the numbers. Orlando, FL: Ripley Entertainment Inc. Prideaux, B. (1998). Korean outbound tourism: Australia’s response. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 7(1), 93 102. Productivity Commission. (2015). Australia’s international tourism industry. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Pu¨hringer, S., & Taylor, A. (2008). A practitioner’s report on blogs as a potential source of destination marketing intelligence. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(2), 177 187. Qi, L. (2005). Analyze the phenomenon of zero fee tour package in Hainan. Journal of guizhou University of Technology (Social Science Edition), 7(6), 39 42. QS Quacquarelli Symonds. (2014). Trends in international student mobility: A comparative study of international student choices, motivations and expectations. London: Top Universities.

References

391

Quan, S., & Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: An illustration from food experiences in tourism. Tourism Management, 25(3), 297 305. Quiroga, I. (1990). Characteristics of package tours in Europe. Annals of Tourism Research, 17(2), 185 207. Ray, R., Sanes, M., & Schmitt, J. (2013). No-vacation nation revisited. Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research. Rea, M. (2000). A furusato away from home. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 638 660. Rega, I., Vannini, S., Fino, E., & Cantoni, L. (2013). Exploring the meanings of community multimedia centers in Mozambique: A social representations perspective. Information Technology and International Development, 9(4), 35 54. Reinschede, G. (1992). Forms of religious tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(1), 51 67. Reisinger, Y. (2009). International tourism: Cultures and behaviour. Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. Reisinger, Y., & Moufakkir, O. (Eds.). (2013). The host gaze. Oxfordshire: CABI. Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. (1998). Cultural differences between Mandarin-speaking tourists and Australian hosts and their impact on cross-cultural tourist-host interaction. Journal of Business Research, 42, 175 187. (2002a). Cultural differences between Asian tourist markets and Australian hosts, Part 1. Journal of Travel Research, 40(February), 295 315. (2002b). Cultural differences between Asian tourist markets and Australian hosts, Part 2. Journal of Travel Research, 40(May), 374 384. (2003). Cross-cultural behavior in tourism: Concepts and analysis. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Reisinger, Y., & Waryszak, Z. (1994). Tourists’ perceptions of service in shops: Japanese tourists in Australia. International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, 22(5), 20 28. Republica. (2015). As Chinese pour in, hotels in Annapurna region install Wi-Fi. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1697110340?accountid=16285. Accessed on July 18, 2015. Restaurant Australia. (2015). Welcome to restaurant Australia. Retrieved from http://restaurant.australia.com. Accessed on August 15.

392

References

Rhoden, S., Ralston, R., & Ineson, E. (2008). Cabin crew training to control disruptive airline passenger behavior: A cause for tourism concern? Tourism Management, 29(3), 538 547. Richards, G. (1998). Time for a holiday? Social rights and international tourism consumption. Time Society, 7(1), 145 160. (2001). Cultural attractions and European tourism. Wallingford, CT: CABI. Richter, L. (1983). Political implications of Chinese tourism policy. Annals of Tourism Research, 10(3), 395 413. (2009). Power, politics, and political science: The politicization of tourism. In T. Jamal & M. Robinson (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of tourism studies (pp. 188 202). London: Sage. Riley, R., & Love, L. (2000). The state of qualitative tourism research. Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (1), 164 187. Rittel, H., & Webber, M. (1984). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. In N. Cross (Ed.), Developments in design methodology (pp. 135 144). Chichester: Wiley. Roggenbuck, J., Loomis, R., & Dagostino, J. (1991). The learning benefits of leisure. In B. L. Driver, P. J. Brown, & G. L. Pesterson (Eds.), Benefits of leisure. State Colledge, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc. Rosenbaum, M., & Spears, D. (2006). Who buys what? Who does that? The case of Golden Week in Hawaii. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(3), 246 255. Rosenow, J., & Pulsipher, G. (1978). Tourism The good, the bad and the ugly. Lincoln, NE: Media Productions. Ryan, C. (1998). The travel career ladder: An appraisal. Annals of Tourism Research, 25 (4), 936 957. Ryan, C., & Zhang, Z. (2007). Chinese students: Holiday behaviors in New Zealand. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 13(2), 91 105. Saipradist, A., & Staiff, R. (2008). Crossing the cultural divide: Western visitors and interpretation at Ayutthaya world heritage site, Thailand. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 2(3), 211 224. Salkind, N. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

References

393

Scarinci, J., & Pearce, P. (2012). The perceived influence of travel experiences on learning generic skills. Tourism Management, 33(2), 380 386. Scarpato, R. (2002). Gastronomy as a tourist product: The perspective of gastronomy studies. In A. M. Hjalager & G. Richards (Eds.), Tourism and gastronomy (pp. 51 70). London: Routledge. Schaad, E. (2008). Perceptions of Scandinavia and the Rhetoric of touristic stereotypes in internet travel accounts. Scandinavian Studies, 80(2), 201 239. Schermerhorn, J. R., Jr., Hunt, J., & Osborn, R. (2000). Organizational behavior (7th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. Scheyvens, R., & Momsen, J. (2008). Tourism in small Island States: From vulnerability to strengths. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(5), 491 510. Schmallegger, D., & Carson, D. (2008). Blogs in tourism: Changing approaches to information exchange. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(2), 99 110. Schmidt, C. J. (1979). The guided tour: Insulated adventure. Urban Life, 7(4), 441 467. Schmitt, B. H. (2003). Customer experience management. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Schoemaker, P. (1995). Scenario planning: A tool for strategic thinking. Sloan Management Review, 36(2), 25 40. Schott, C. (2004). Young holidaymakers: Solely faithful to hedonism. Proceedings of the New Zealand tourism and hospitality research conference, 12 (pp. 364 376). Seddighi, H., & Theocharous, A. (2002). A model of tourism destination choice: A theoretical and empirical analysis. Tourism Management, 23(5), 475 487. Sedgwick, P. (2013). Convenience sampling. BMJ, 347(f6304), f6304. Seebaluck, N., Bhiwajee, S., Ramseook-Munhurrun, P., & Dabeedin, Y. (2015). Assessing the saturation potential of social networks: A Mauritian perspective. Procedia-social and Behavioral Sciences, 175, 193 200. Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2009). Research methods for business: A skill building approach (5th ed.). London: Wiley. Selnes, F. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of trust and satisfaction in buyer seller relationships. European Journal of Marketing, 32, 305 322.

394

References

Seo, Y. (2012). Cultural impact on customer satisfaction and service quality evaluation in hotels. UNLV theses/dissertations/professional papers/capstones. Paper 1370. University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Shanzhong, Z. (2014). How to develop tourism offers for the Chinese market. Madrid: UNWTO. Shao, J. (2011). Chinese tourists outbound tourism destination choosing and social media marketing. Tourism Tribune, 26(8), 7 8. Sharpley, R. (2015). In defence of tourism. In T. J. Singh (Eds.), Challenges in tourism research (pp. 194 200). Bristol: Channel View. Sharpley, R., & Naidoo, P. (2010). Tourism and poverty reduction: The case of Mauritius. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 7(2), 145 162. Sheatsley, D., Li, X., & Harrill, R. (2009). Emerging international travel markets: China Part II (2008 ed.). Washington, DC: The US Travel Association. Sheridan, G. (1999). Asian values Western dreams. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Shi, Y., Nakatani, T., Sajiki, T., Sawauchi, D., & Yamamoto, Y. (2010). Travel behavior of international students at a university in Japan: A comparison of Chinese and non-Chinese students. Journal of China Tourism Research, 6(1), 61 72. Shuter, R. (1989). The international marketplace. In M. Asante & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Handbook of international and intercultural communication (pp. 392 406). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Sigala, M., Christou, E., & Gretzel, U. (Eds.). (2012). Social media in travel, tourism and hospitality: Theory, practice and cases. Surry: Ashgate. Siguaw, J., & Enz, C. (1999). Best practices in information technology. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 40(5), 58 71. Sims, R. (2009). Food, place and authenticity: Local food and the sustainable tourism experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17(3), 321 336. Singapore Department of Statistics. (2013). Yearbook of statistics Singapore 2013. Singapore: Singapore Department of Statistics. Smith, V., & Brent, M. (2001). Hosts and guests revisited: Tourism issues of the 21 century. New York, NY: Cognizant Communication Corporation.

References

395

Snepenger, J., Murphy, L., O’Connell, R., & Gregg, E. (2003). Tourists and residents use of a shopping space. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 567 580. Sofield, T., & Li, F. (1998). Tourism development and cultural policies in China. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 362 392. Sofield, T., & Li, F. M. S. (2007). China: Ecotourism and cultural tourism, harmony or dissonance? In J. Higham (Ed.), Critical issues in ecotourism: Understanding a complex tourism phenomenon (pp. 368–385). London: Elsevier Science & Butterworth Heinemann. Solomon, J. (1997). Generation X How they fit in the Christian community. Probe Ministries International. May 9. Retrieved from https://www.probe.org/generation-x/. Accessed on June 17, 2015. Song, H., & Witt, S. (2000). Tourism demand modelling and forecasting: Modern econometric approaches. London: Routledge. Sorensen, N. K. (1999). Modeling the seasonality of hotel nights in Denmark by county and nationality. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 75 88). Oxford: Pergamon. Sparks, B., Bowen, J., & Klag, S. (2004). Restaurants as a contributor to a tourist destination’s attractiveness phase three (part ii) market segments. Gold Coast: CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty ltd. Sparks, B., & Pan, G. (2009). Chinese outbound tourists: Understanding their attitudes, constraints and use of information sources. Tourism Management, 30(4), 483 494. Srinivasan, T. (1986). The costs and benefits of being a small remote island landlocked or mini state economy. World Bank Research Observer, 1(2), 205 218. Stamps, A. (2007). Mystery of environmental mystery effects of light, occlusion, and depth of view. Environment and Behavior, 39(2), 165 197. Stamps, E. (2004). Mystery, complexity, legibility and coherence: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(1), 1 16. Startup China. (2014). Badly behaved tourists and the implications for China. Retrieved from http:// www.internshipschina.com/community/chinainsights2/55-china-insights/730what-chinese-tourists-do-for-china#.VazvMfmUf9w. Accessed on January 5, 2015.

396

References

Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. (2015a). Prihodi in prenocˇitve turistov po vrstah obcˇin, po vrstah nastanitvenih objektov in po drzavah, ˇ Slovenija, letno. Ljubljana: Author. (2015b). Prihodi in prenocˇitve turistov po skupinah nastanitvenih objektov in po drzavah, ˇ obcˇine, Slovenija, letno. Ljubljana: Author. Statistics Mauritius. (2015a). International travel and tourism. Mauritius: Statistics. (2015b). Population and vital statistics Jan-June 2014. Mauritius: Statistics Mauritius. (2015c). Survey of inbound tourism. Mauritius: Statistics Mauritius. Statistik Austria. (2011). Tourismus in O¨sterreich 2010. Wien: Author. (2015). Tourismus in O¨sterreich 2014. Wien: Author. Stausberg, M. (2011). Religion and tourism: Crossroads, destinations and encounters. London: Routledge. Stephenson, J. (2008). The cultural values model: An integrated approach to values in landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning, 84, 127 139. Stewart, S., & Vogt, C. (1997). Multi-destination trip patterns. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(2), 458 461. Stewart, W., & Hull IV, R. (1996). Capturing the moment: Concerns of the in situ leisure research. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 5(1/2), 3 20. Strauss-Blasche, G., Reithofer, B., Schobersberger, W., Ekmekcioglu, C., & Wolfgang, M. (2005). Effect of vacation on health: Moderating factors of vacation outcome. Journal of Travel Medicine, 12(2), 94 101. StudyLink. (2015). Study in Asia. Retrieved from http://studylink.com/study-in-asia/. Accessed on July 15. Sugita, S. (2014). Essays on Miyazaki Hayao. Tokyo: NHK Books. Suntikul, W., Butler, R., & Airey, D. (2008). Changing accessibility to Vietnam: The influence of a government in transition. In J. Cochrane (Ed.), Asian tourism: Growth and change (pp. 69 78). Oxford: Elsevier. Svensson, G. (2006). New aspects of research into service encounters and service quality. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 17(3), 245 257.

References

397

Swarbrooke, J. (1999). Development and management of visitor attractions (2nd ed.). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2007). Consumer behavior in tourism (2nd ed.). Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann. Sa´nchez-Can˜izares, S. M., & Lo´pez-Guzma´n, T. (2012). Gastronomy as a tourism resource: Profile of the culinary tourist. Current Issues in Tourism, 15(3), 229 245. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Takai, N. (2014). How has Japanese overseas travels changed? In T. Nakamura, S. Nishimura, & N. Takai (Eds.). Decoding Japanese youth’s shifting away from travel abroad approach from tourist behavior (pp. 25 28). Tokyo: Houritsu Bunkasha. Tan, E. M., Foo, S., Goh, D. H., & Theng, Y. (2009). TILES: Classifying contextual information for mobile tourism applications. Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives, 61(6), 565 586. Tanner, M. (2010). Software methods in global software development, The case of Mauritius and South Africa. Proceedings of the international conference on information management and evaluation, pp. 388 397. Taylor, A. (2015). Beijing is embarrassed about unruly Chinese tourists and plans to ‘publicly shame’ them. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/01/16/beijing-is-embarrassed-about-unruly-chinese-touristsand-plans-to-publicly-shame-them/. Accessed on January 17. TCC. (2015). A new level of tourism cooperation between China and the Central and Eastern European Countries: China-CEE tourism promotion year is ready to start! Retrieved from http://ceec-china.travel/documents/14462699/15879874/ Press+release+-+China-CEE+tourism+promotion+year+is+ready+to+start/ 60c50d39-94e1-41f1-88dad0c18b13c254. Accessed on July 8. Terkenli, T. (2008). Tourism and landscape. In C. M. Hall, A. M. Williams, & A. Lew (Eds.), A companion to tourism (pp. 339 348). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Tervo-Kankare, K., Hall, M., & Saarinen, J. (2013). Christmas tourists’ perceptions to climate change in Rovaniemi, Finland. Tourism Geographies, 15(2), 292 317.

398

References

Thanksooks, J. (2015). The domestic hotel in Thailand; Past present and future. Unpublished PhD thesis James Cook University, Townsville, Australia. The Belgrade Guidelines for cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European Countries. (2014). Internal documents obtained from the Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Croatia. The Huffington Post. (2013). Cultures clash as Mainland Chinese tourists flood Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/20/chinese-tourists-hongkong_n_4298781.html. Accessed on January 6. 2015. The Report Company. (2015). Mauritius. Retrieved from http://www.the-report.net/mauritius/jun2012/ 127-q-a-mr-robert-desvaux-chairman-of-the-mauritius-tourism-promotionauthority-mtpa. Accessed on June 17. Themed Entertainment Association. (2013). TEA/AECOM Theme Index & Museum Index. Retrieved from http:// www.teaconnect.com/News/TEA-News/index.cfm?if=5349. Accessed on July 7, 2015. Thevenot, G. (2007). Blogging as a social media. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 7(3 4), 287 289. Thor, F. (2001). Long-term positive adjustments to seasonality: Consequences of summer tourism in the Jotunheimen area, Norway. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 109–117). Oxford: Pergamon. Thirumaran, K. (2009). Renewing bonds in an age of Asian travel: Indian tourists in Bali. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 109 117). Oxford: Pergamon. Tideswell, C., & Faulkner, B. (1999). Multidestination travel patterns of international visitors to Queensland. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 364 374. Tikkanen, I. (2007). Maslow’s hierarchy and food tourism in Finland: Five cases. British Food Journal, 109(9), 721 734. Timothy, D., & Boyd, S. (2003). Heritage tourism. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Tourism and Events Queensland. (2015). Tropical Nth QLD regional snapshot. Brisbane: Tourism and Events Queensland. Tourism Australia. (2012a). 2020 China … building the foundations Knowing the customer. Canberra: Tourism Australia.

References

399

(2012b). Consumer demand project: Food and wine. Canberra: Tourism Australia. (2014). Restaurant Australia. Canberra: Tourism Australia. (2015a). China market profile 2015. Canberra: Tourism Australia. (2015b). South Korea market profile. Canberra: Tourism Australia. Tourism Research Australia. (2012). Caravan or camping in Australia. Canberra: Tourism Research Australia. (2014a). Travel by Australians September 2014 quarterly results of the national visitor survey. Canberra: Tourism Research Australia. (2014b). Chinese satisfaction survey. Canberra: Tourism Research Australia. (2015a). Inbound market time series analysis. Canberra: Tourism Research Australia. (2015b). Positive growth leads to record international visitors and spend. Canberra: Tourism Research Australia. Towner, J. (2003). Guidebook. In J. Jafari (Ed.), The encyclopedia of tourism (pp. 267 269). London: Routledge. Tran, N. (2011). The Maldives. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= gXWXiRB838I. Accessed on April 5, 2015. Travel China Guide. (2014). China outbound tourism in 2014. Retrieved from http://www.travelchinaguide.com/tourism/2014statistics/outbound.htm. Accessed on May 5, 2015. (2015). China outbound tourism in 2014. Retrieved from http://www.travelchinaguide.com/tourism/2014statistics/outbound.htm. Accessed on July 7. Tresidder, R. (2001). The representation of sacred spaces in a post-industrial society. In M. M. Cotter, W. E. Boyd, & J. E. Gardiner (Eds.), Heritage landscapes: Understanding place and communities (pp. 65 76). Lismore, NSW, Australia: Southern Cross University Press. Tribe, J. (2008). Tourism: A critical business. Journal of Travel Research, 46(3), 245 255. (2009). Philosophical issues in tourism. In J. Tribe (Eds.), Philosophical issues in tourism (pp. 3 22). Bristol: Channel View. Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in global business (2nd ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited. Tsang, N., & Ap, J. (2007). Tourists’ perceptions of relational quality service attributes: A crosscultural study. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), 355 363. Tsaur, S., Yen, C., & Chen, C. (2010). Independent tourist knowledge and skills. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(4), 1035 1054.

400

References

Tse, T. (2013). Chinese outbound tourism as a form of diplomacy. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(2), 149 158. Tse, T., & Hobson, J. (2008). The forces shaping China’s outbound tourism. Journal of China Tourism Research, 4(2), 136 155. Tse, T., & Zhang, E. (2013). Analysis of blogs and microblogs: A case study of Chinese bloggers sharing their Hong Kong travel experiences. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 18(4), 314 329. Tseng, C., Wu, B., Morrison, A., Zhang, J., & Chen, Y. (2015). Travel blogs on China as a destination image formation agent: A qualitative analysis using Leximancer. Tourism Management, 46, 347 358. Tsiotsou, R., & Ratten, V. (2010). Future research directions in tourism marketing. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 28(4), 533 544. Turcsanyi, R. (2014). Central and Easter Europe’s courtship with China: Trojan horse within the EU? European Institute for Asian Studies. Retrieved from http://cenaa.org/ wp-content/uploads/2014/01/IAS_policy_paper_turcsanyi_2014.pdf. Accessed on May 17, 2015. Tzanelli, R. (2012). Tourism and the media. Oxford: The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization. Ueltschy, L., Laroche, M., Eggert, A., & Bindl, U. (2007). Service quality and satisfaction: An international comparison of professional services perceptions. The Journal of Services Marketing, 21(6), 410 423. Um, S., & Crompton, J. L. (1990). Attitude determinants in tourism destination choice. Annals of Tourism Research, 17(3), 432 448. UNCTAD. (2011). UNCTAD’s unofficial list of SIDS. Retrieved from http://www.unctad. org/templates/Page.asp?intItemID=3645&lang=1. Accessed on July 8, 2015. UNESCO Bangkok. (2013). The international mobility of student in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: UNESCO. UNESCO Institute of Statistics. (2014). Global flow of tertiary-level students, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.uis. unesco.org/Education/Pages/international-student-flow-viz.aspx. Accessed on July 17, 2015. United Nations. (2014). International year of small Island developing states 2014. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/contact-us/index.html. Accessed on May 2015.

References

401

UNWTO. (2003). Chinese outbound tourism. Madrid: UNWTO. (2011). Tourism towards 2030: Global overview. Madrid: UNWTO. (2012a). The Chinese outbound travel market. Madrid: UNWTO. (2012b). The power of youth travel UNWTO and WYSE Travel Conferation. Madrid: UNWTO. (2012c). Understanding Chinese outbound tourism What the Chinese blogosphere is saying about Europe. Madrid: UNWTO. (2013). UNWTO and China strengthen cooperation. Madrid: UNWTO. (2014a). Asia-Pacific newsletter, 2014, Issue 34. Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. UNTWO. (2014b). Tourism highlights 2014. Madrid: UNWTO. UNWTO. (2014c). Tourism in SIDS: Building a more sustainable future for people of islands. UNWTO, Madrid. (2015a). Tourism highlights 2015. UNWTO, Madrid. (2015b). Tourism statistics 2014. UNWTO, Madrid. (2015c). Yearbook of tourism statistics data 2009 2013 (2015 ed.). Madrid: UNWTO. UNWTO & ETC. (2008). The Chinese outbound travel market with special insight into the image of Europe as a destination. Madrid: UNWTO. UNWTO/WTTC. (2013). The impact of visa facilitation in APEC Economies. UNWTO, Madrid. Urry, J. (1990). The tourist gaze: Leisure and travel in contemporary societies. London: Sage. (1992). The tourist gaze and the ‘environment’. Theory, Culture and Society, 9(3), 1 26. Utami, H. (2004). Consumer behaviour and food processor response towards ethnic food in East Java, Indonesia. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Uysal, M. (1998). The determinants of tourism demand: A theoretical perspective. In D. Ioannides & K. Debbage (Eds.), The economic geography of tourism. London: Routledge. Van den Berghe, P. (1994). The quest for the other. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Van Egmond, T. (2007). Understanding western tourists in developing countries. Oxford: CABI.

402

References

Van Winkle, C., & Backman, K. (2009). Examining visitor mindfulness at a cultural event. Event Management, 12(3/4), 163 169. Varasteh, H., Marzuki, A., & Rasoolimanesh, S. (2015). Factors affecting international students’ travel behavior. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21(2), 131 149. Varum, C., & Melo, C. (2010). Directions in scenario planning literature: A review of the past decades. Futures, 42(4), 355 369. Veal, A. (2005). Business research methods: A managerial approach (2nd ed.). NSW, Australia: Pearson Education Australia. Veal, A., & Ticehurst, G. (2005). Business research methods: A managerial approach. South Melbourne, Victoria: Pearson Addison Wesley. Visit Florida. (2014). Asia-Pacific market snapshots, governor’s tourism conference 2014. Retrieved from http://floridatourismconference.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/ 10/Governors-Tourism-Conference-2014-Michael-Merner.pdf. Accessed on July 8, 2015. Voyages Indigenous Tourism Australia. (2014). Tali-Wiru. Retrieved from http://www.ayersrockresort.com.au/experiences/detail/tali-wiru. Accessed on November 16, 2015. Vukonic´, B. (1996). Tourism and religion. Oxford: Pergamon. (2006). Sacred places in the roman catholic tradition. In D. J. Timothy & D. H. Olsen (Eds.), Tourism, religion and spiritual journeys (pp. 237 253). London: Routledge. Walker, G., & Wang, X. (2010). A comparison of Canadian and Chinese university students’ travel motivations. Leisure, 34(3), 279 293. Wall, G., & Mathieson, A. (2006). Tourism: Change, impacts and opportunities (1st ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Wall, G., & Yan, M. (2003). Disaggregating visitor flows The example of China. Tourism Analysis, 7(3/4), 191 205. Wallace, B., Barnes, J., & Rutherford, G. (2000). Evaluating the effects of traveler and trip characteristics on trip chaining, with implications for transportation demand management strategies. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 17(18), 97 106.

References

403

Wang, K., Hsieh, A., & Huan, T. (2000). Critical service features in group package tour: An exploratory research. Tourism Management, 21(2), 177 189. (2000). Critical service features in group package tour: An exploratory research. Tourism Management, 21, 177 189. Wang, Y. (2009). A study of tourism in the Tang Dynasty. Hebei: Hebei University. Wang, Y., Royo Vela, M., & Tyler, K. (2008). Cultural perspectives: Chinese perceptions of UK hotel service quality. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 2(4), 312 329. Ward, J. (2000). Xu Xiake (1586 1641): The art of travel writing. London: Routledge. Watts, J. (2010). When a billion Chinese jump. London: Faber and Faber. Weaver, D. (2015). Wither sustainable tourism? But first a good hard look in the mirror. In T. J. Singh (Eds.), Challenges in tourism research (pp. 248 252). Bristol: Channel View. Weaver, D., & Lawton, L. (2010). Tourism management (4th ed.). Milton, Queensland: Wiley. Weiler, B., & Black, R. (2015). Tour guides and tour guiding. Bristol: Channel View. Weiler, B., & Walker, K. (2014). Enhancing the visitor experience: Reconceptualising the tour guide’s communicative role. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Management, 21, 90 99. Wen, Y., & Ximing, X. (2008). The difference in ecotourism between China and the West. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(6), 567 586. Wenger, A. (2008). Analysis of travel bloggers’ characteristics and their communication about Austria as a tourism destination. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14 (2), 169 176. Westman, M., & Etzion, D. (2001). The impact of vacation and job stress on burnout and absenteeism. Psychology & Health, 16(5), 595 606. Wet Tropics Management Authority. (n.d.). Understanding. Cairns: Wet Tropics Management Authority. Wien Kultur. (2015). Wien Top 10 Sehenswu¨rdigkeiten. Retrieved from http://www.wienkultur. info/wien_top10.html. Accessed on July 12.

404

References

Willett, M. (2015). Chinese tourists are flooding Into the US thanks to a new visa rule. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com.au/chinese-tourists-to-uson-the-rise-2015-1. Accessed on July 31. Winter, T. (2007). Rethinking tourism in Asia. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(1), 27 44. (2009). Asian tourism and the retreat of anglo-western centrism in tourism theory. Current Issues in Tourism, 12(1), 21 31. (2009). The modernities of heritage and tourism: Interpretation of an Asian future. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 4(2), 105 115. Winter, T., Teo, P., & Chang, T. (Eds.). (2009). Asia on tour. London: Routledge. Wiseman, R. (2007). Quirkology: The curious science of everyday lives. London: Pan. Witt, S., & Witt, C. (1995). Forecasting tourism demand: A review of empirical research. International Journal of Forecasting, 11(3), 447 475. Wood, L., & Kroger, R. (2000). Doing discourse analysis: Methods for studying action in talk and text. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wood, N. T., & Munoz, C. L. (2007). ‘No rules, just right’, or is it? The role of themed restaurants as cultural ambassadors. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 7(3–4), 242–255. Woodside, A., Cruickshank, B., & Dehuang, N. (2007). Stories visitors tell about Italian cities as destination icons. Tourism Management, 28(1), 162 174. Woodside, A., Cruickshank, B., & Ning, D. (2007). Stories visitors tell about Italian cities as destination icons. Tourism Management, 28(1), 162 174. Woodside, A., & Lysonski, S. (1989). A general model of traveler destination choice. Journal of Travel Research, 27(4), 8 14. World Tourism Cities Federation. (2014). Market research report on Chinese outbound tourist (city) consumption. Beijing: WTCF & Ipsos China. WTTC. (2014). Travel & tourism economic impact 2014 Croatia. London: WTTC. Wu, B., Xue, L., Morrison, A., & Leung, X. (2012). Frame analysis on Golden Week policy reform in China. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2), 842 862. Wu, B., Zhu, H., & Xu, X. (2000). Trends in China’s domestic tourism development at the turn of the century. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12/5, 296–299.

References

405

Wu, M.-Y., & Pearce, P. (2014). Chinese recreational vehicle users in Australia: A netnographic study of tourist motivation. Tourism Management, 43, 22 35. (2016). Tourism blogging motivations: Why we create little “Lonely Planet”? Journal of Travel Research, 55(4), 537 549. Xia, L., & Bechwati, N. (2008). Word of mouth: The role of cognitive personalization in online consumer reviews. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 9(1), 108 128. Xiang, Y. (2013). The characteristics of independent Chinese outbound tourists. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(2), 134 148. Xiang, Z., Wo¨ber, K., & Fesenmaier, D. (2008). Representation of the online tourism domain in search engines. Journal of Travel Research, 47(2), 137 150. Xiao, H. (2006). The discourse of power: Deng Xiaoping and tourism development in China. Tourism Management, 27(5), 803 814. Xiao, H., & Mair, H. (2006). “A paradox of images”: Representation of China as a tourist destination. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 20(2), 1 14. Xin Jing Bao. (2015, October 21). Mainland visitor shopping in Hong Kong beaten to death by those who may be “shadow” tourists. Retrieved from http://news.sina. com.cn/o/2015-10-21/doc-ifxivsee8942446.shtml?cre=newspagepc&mod=f& loc=2&r=a&rfunc=3. Accessed on October 26. Xinhua News Agency. (2006). Tourists in Sichuan choose warm places to celebrate Lunar New Year. Xinhua News Agency Web site. Retrieved from http://www.china.org.cn/ english/travel/156838.htm. Accessed on July 27. Xu, F., Morgan, M., & Song, P. (2009). Students’ travel behaviour: A cross-cultural comparison of UK and China. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3), 255 268. Xu, F., & Wang, S. (2014). China’s outbound tourism Emerging trends and features in the second decades of the 21st century. Perspective in Asian Leisure and Tourism, 2(1), 1 17. Xu, H., Cui, Q., Ballantyne, R., & Packer, J. (2013). Effective environmental interpretation at Chinese natural attractions: the need for an aesthetic approach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(1), 117 133. Xu, H., Ding, P., & Packer, J. (2008). Tourism research in China: Understanding the unique cultural contexts and complexities. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(6), 473 491.

406

References

Xu, M. (2003). The special South Africa. NanFang LunKan, 11, 43. Xu, Y., & McGehee, N. (2012). Shopping behavior of Chinese tourists visiting the United States: Letting the shoppers do the talking. Tourism Management, 33(2), 427 430. Xue, Z. (2006). Xu Xiake’s adventure tourism thought and practice, and the contribution to the world tourism indurstry. The Study of Xu Xiake, 14, 204 205. Yagi, C., & Pearce, P. (2007). The Influence of appearance and the number of people viewed on tourists’ preferences for seeing other tourists. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(1), 28 43. Yamaguchi, M. (2010). Overseas travel of Japan 50 years history of youth and travel media. Tokyo: Chikuma Shobou. Yamamoto, D., & Gill, A. (1999). Emerging trends in Japanese package tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 38(2), 134 143. Yamamura, T. (2008). Study of birth and development of “sacred place for anime fans discussion of tourist promotions based on animated work “Lucky Star” focused on Washimiya, Saitama Prefecture. The Journal of International Media, Communication, and Tourism Studies, 7, 145 164. (2009). Revolution in tourism information and perspectives for tourism with culture creative power. Chiikikaihatu, 533, 32 36. Yan, G., & Santos, C. (2009). “China, Forever” tourism discourse and self-orientalism. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(2), 295 315. Yang, B. (2012). NPOs in China: Some issues concerning Internet communication. In P.-I. Law (Eds.), New connctivities in China (pp. 3 11). Houten: Springer. Ye, Q., Law, R., & Gu, B. (2009). The impact of online user reviews on hotel room sales. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 180 182. Yen, C.-H., & Croy, W. (2013). Film tourism: Celebrity involvement, celebrity worship and destination image. Current Issues in Tourism. doi: 10.1080/13683500.2013.816270 Yeung, S., & Leung, C. (2007). Perception and attitude of Hong Kong hotel guest-contact employees towards tourists from Mainland China. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(6), 395 407. Yi, J. (2014). The Chinese among us. Retrieved from http://koreajoongangdaily.joins. com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2993850. Accessed on January 5, 2015.

References

407

York, Q., & Zhang, H. (2010). The determinants of the 1999 and 2007 Chinese Golden Holiday System: A content analysis of official documentation. Tourism Management, 31, 881 890. Yu, K. (1995). Cultural variations in landscape preferences: Comparisons among Chinese sub-groups and western design experts. Landscape and Urban Planning, 32, 107 126. Yu, X., & Weiler, B. (2006). The experiences of Chinese visitors to Victoria, Australia. China Tourism Research, 2(1/2), 60 72. Yusop, N., Tiong, L., Aji, Z., & Kasiran, M. (2011). Free Wi-Fi as strategic competitive advantage for fast-food outlet in the knowledge era. American Journal of Economics and Business Administration, 3(2), 352 357. Zeidner, R. (2009). One workforce—Many languages. HR Magazine, 54(1), 32 37. Zeithaml, V., Berry, L., & Parasuraman, A. (1996). The behavioral consequences of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 60, 31 52. Zeneli, V. (2014). Why is China so interested in Central and Eastern Europe? The Globalist. Retrieved from http://theglobalist.com/chinas-interest-in-centraland-easter-europe/. Accessed on June 11, 2015. Zhang, B. (2014). In time, Chinese tourists will learn to behave better abroad. Retrieved from http://www.scmp.com/comment/article/1600783/time-chinese-tourists-will-learn-behave-better-abroad. Accessed on January 5, 2015. Zhang, G. (2006, November 6 9). China’s outbound tourism: An overview. Paper presented at the World Travel Market ChinaContact Conference, London. Zhang, H., & Chow, I. (2004). Application of importance-performance model in tour guide’s performance: Evidence from mainland Chinese outbound visitors in Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 25(1), 81 91. Zhang, H., Heung, V., & Yan, Y. (2009). Play or not to play? An analysis of the mechanism of zero-commission Chinese outbound tours through a game theory approach. Tourism Management, 30(3), 366 371. Zhang, H., & Lam, T. (1999). An analysis of mainland Chinese visitors’ motivations to visit Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 20(5), 587 594.

408

References

Zhang, H., Pine, R., & Lam, T. (2005). Tourism and hotel development in China: From political to economic success. New York, NY: The Haworth Hospitality Press. Zhang, L. (2002). Tourism resources in Chinese classical poetry. Published Master’s Thesis. Hebei Normal University, Hebei, China. Zhang, Q., Pine, R., & Lam, T. (2005). Tourism and hotel development in China: From political to economic success. New York, NY: Haworth Hospitality Press. Zhang, Y., Lin, M., Nonaka, A., & Beom, K. (2005). Harmony, hierarchy and conservatism: A cross-cultural comparison of Confucian values among China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. Communication Research Report, 22, 107 115. Zhao, G. (2013). The blending of feeling and dcenery in the tourism literature. Grain Budding, 6, 163 164. Zikmund, W. (2003). Business research methods (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson SouthWestern. Zoltan, J., & McKercher, B. (2015). Analysing intra-destination movements and activity participation of tourists through destination card consumption. Tourism Geographies, 17(1), 19– 35. Zoppe´, L., & Venturini, G. (2011). Croatia. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited. Zube, E. (1984). Themes in landscape assessment theory. Landscape Journal, 3, 104 110.

FURTHER READING ANSA. (2014). Over one million Chinese tourists to attend Milan Expo. Retrieved from http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2014/11/24/over-one-million-chinese-tourists-to-attend-milan-expo_68129b71-4d7d-48e7-a5c8-1f5072ac5d7f.html. Accessed on March 4, 2015. Australian Outback. (2004). Australian outback. Retrieved from http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Australian-outback. Accessed on July 20, 2015. Bass, B., & Avolio, B. (Eds.). (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.

References

409

Bruneteau, J. (1996). Tukka: Real Australian food. Sydney: Angus and Robertson. Chen, Y., Mak, B., & Guo, Y. (2011). “Zero-fare” group tours in China: An analytic framework. Journal of China Tourism Research, 7, 425 444. Clark, J. (2006). That ‘ugly American’ image is getting a makeover guide. USA Today. Retrieved from http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/200604-27-ugly-americans_x.htm. Accessed on March 16, 2014. EU-China 2020 Strategic Agenda for Cooperation. (2013). Retrieved from http://eeas.europa.eu/china/docs/eu-china_2020_strategic_agenda_en.pdf. Accessed on May 7, 2015. Expedia. (2008). Japanese travelers top the list in Expedia’s first annual global best …. Retrieved from http://viewfinder.expedia.com/news/japanese-travelers-topthe-list-in-expedia’s-first-annual-global-best-tourist-survey. Accessed on July 13, 2015. Harrill, R., & Xiao, H. (2016). Chinese outbound tourism: A critical inquiry. In X. Li (Ed.), Chinese outbound tourism 2.0 (pp. 348 363). Oakville, Canada: Apple Academic Press. Hjalager, A. (2004). What do tourists eat and why? Toward a sociology of gastronomy and tourism. Tourism (Zagreb), 52(2), 195 201. Huang, S., Hsu, C., & Chan, A. (2010). Tour guide performance and tourist satisfaction: A study of the package tours in Shanghai. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 34(1), 3 33. Ministry of Tourism India. (2015). Market research and statistics. Retrieved from http://tourism.gov.in/market-research-and-statistics. Accessed on September 25. Morgan, K., Marsden, T., & Murdoch, J. (2006). Worlds of food: Place, power, and provenance in the food chain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pierce, C. (1877). The fixation of belief. Popular Science Monthly, 12, 1 15. Saunders, A. (1999). Australian food: A celebration of the new cuisine. Sydney: Lands Down Press. Schwartz, S. (2007). Value orientations: Measurement antecedents and consequences across nations. In J. Jowell, C. Roberts, R. Fitzgerald, & G. Eva (Eds.), Measuring attitudes cross nationally; Lessons from the European social survey (pp. 161 193). London: Sage.

410

References

Sharpley, R., & Telfer, D. (Eds.). (2015). Tourism and development concepts and issues (2nd ed.). Bristol: Channel View. Studio Ghibli official homepage. (2005 2015). Q&A: Where is the setting of the each anime title? Retrieved from http://www.ghibli.jp/40qa/000026.html#more. Accessed on January 7, 2016. Triposo. (2013). The 10 countries with notoriously bad tourists. Retrieved from http:// www.businessinsider.com.au/worst-behaved-tourists-2013-5?op=1. Accessed on January 5, 2015. United Nations Environment Programme. (2015). Media fact sheet: The international year for small island developing states. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/wed/. Retrieved from http://www. unep.org/wed/. Accessed on August 8. Urala, N., Arvola, A., & Lahteenmaki, L. (2003). Strength of health-related claims and their perceived advantage. International Journal of Food Science Technology, 38, 815 826. Veal, A. (1997). Research methods for leisure and tourism: A practical guide. London: Pitman. Wonderful Indonesia. (2015). Discover Indonesia. Indonesia’s official tourism website. Retrieved from http://www.my-indonesia.info/. Accessed on September 25. Xu, J., & Chan, A. (2010). Service experience and package tours. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 15(2), 177 194. Yang, C. (2013). Evolution of a tourism destination complex system: Cases in China. In C. Ryan & S. Huang (Eds.), Tourism in China: Destinations, planning and experiences (pp. 169 189). Bristol: Channel View. Zhou, L., & Leung, F. (2015). China’s overseas investments, explained in 10 graphics. Retrieved from http://www.wri.org/blog2015/01/china. Accessed on June 6.