The World Atlas of Pirates

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The World Atlas of Pirates

Table of contents :
The World Atlas Of Pirates......Page 1
Contents......Page 6
Introduction......Page 9
What's in a Name?
......Page 11
Piracy in the Ancient World......Page 17
The Sea Peoples......Page 18
Pirates of Ancient Greece......Page 22
Pompey, Caesar, and the Cilician Pirates......Page 25
Medieval Sea Rovers......Page 29
The Fury of the Norsemen......Page 30
Pirates of Medieval Britain......Page 32
The Lords of the Mediterranean......Page 35
Störtebeker and the Baltic Pirates
......Page 37
The Barbary Pirates......Page 41
The Rise of the Muslim Corsairs......Page 42
The Barbary Coast......Page 44
The Barbarossa Brothers......Page 47
Murat Rais......Page 51
The Last of the Barbary Pirates......Page 54
The Spanish Main......Page 57
Spain's Overseas Empire......Page 58
The Treasure Fleets......Page 62
The Spanish Galleon......Page 66
The Sea Dogs......Page 67
The First Interlopers......Page 68
John Hawkins......Page 72
Drake's Raid......Page 76
Drake's Raid into the Pacific......Page 80
Drake's Great Expedition......Page 82
Drake's Last Voyage......Page 84
The Buccaneers
......Page 85
The Coming of the Dutch......Page 87
The Buccaneers of Hispaniola......Page 88
Tortuga and the Brethren of the Coast......Page 89
François L'Olonnais
......Page 92
Port Royal......Page 95
Henry Morgan......Page 98
Buccaneers of the Pacific......Page 103
The French Filibusters......Page 104
The Pirate Round......Page 107
The Appeal of the Indian Ocean......Page 108
Thomas Tew......Page 110
Henry Every......Page 113
Captain Kidd......Page 116
Edward England......Page 120
Madagascar......Page 123
The Golden Age: New Providence......Page 125
The Golden Age......Page 126
New Providence......Page 128
Woodes Rogers......Page 131
Charles Vane......Page 133
"Calico Jack" and the Women Pirates......Page 137
Pirate Flags......Page 141
The Golden Age: The Atlantic Seaboard......Page 143
Blackbeard, the Most Notorious Pirate of Them All
......Page 144
Stede Bonnet, the Gentleman Pirate......Page 149
Sam Bellamy and the Whydah......Page 153
George Lowther and Edward Low......Page 156
Pirate Ships......Page 159
The Golden Age: The Great Voyage
......Page 161
Howell Davis......Page 162
Bartholomew Roberts......Page 165
Walter Kennedy and the Pirate Lords......Page 171
The Pirate Code......Page 174
The Privateers......Page 175
The Business of Privateering......Page 176
America's Rebel Privateers......Page 178
John Paul Jones......Page 181
The French Privateers......Page 183
Robert Surcouf: King of the Corsairs......Page 185
The Privateers of 1812......Page 188
The Last of the Privateers......Page 190
The Last of the Pirates......Page 191
Jean Lafitte......Page 192
Benito de Soto and "Don" Pedro......Page 196
David Porter: Pirate Hunter......Page 198
Pirates in Eastern Seas......Page 201
Piracy in the Far East......Page 202
Kuo Hsing Yeh......Page 204
The Great Pirate Confederation......Page 208
Shap-'ng-Tsai
......Page 212
The Chinese Pirate Junk......Page 216
The Indonesian Pirates......Page 217
The White Rajah......Page 219
Sending a Gunboat......Page 222
Piracy Today......Page 223
The New Pirates......Page 224
Hotspot: Eastern Waters......Page 227
Hotspot: Somalia......Page 229
Hotspot: West Africa......Page 232
Hotspot: Latin America......Page 234
Piracy: Fact Versus Fiction......Page 235
Truth and Myth......Page 236
The Pirates of Fiction......Page 238
Captain Hook and Pirates of the Stage......Page 241
The Pirates of Hollywood......Page 242
The Jack Sparrow Phenomenon......Page 245
Pirate Perceptions......Page 246
The Pirate Legacy......Page 247

Citation preview

The World Atlas of

The World Atlas of

PIRATES Treasures and Treachery on the Seven Seas, in Maps, Tall Tales, and Pictures

ANGUS KONSTAM

11

The Lyons Press Guilford, Connecticut An imprint of Globe Pequot Press

Copyright © 2009 by Automobile Association Media Limited

First Lyons Press edition, 20 I 0

Packaged for AA Media Limited by Hunkydory Publishing Ltd. wvvw.hunkydorypublishing.com

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted in writing from the publishe� Requests for permission should be addressed to Globe Pequot Press, Attn: Rights and Permissions Department, P.O. Box 8 4 0, Guilford, CT 063 4 7.

The maps in this book are for historical reference only and should not be used for navigational purposes.

The Lyons Press is an imprint of Globe Pequot Press.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available on file.

ISBN 978-1-59921-47 4-0

To buy books in quantity for corporate use Printed in China

or incentives, call (800) 962--0973 or e-mail [email protected].

10 98 7 65 4 3 2 I

8

Tortuga and the Brethren of the Coast Frarn;:ois L'Olonnais Port Royal

10

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Henry Morgan

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The Sea Peoples

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.

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Pirates of Ancient Greece .

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Pompey, Caesar, and the Cilician Pirates . 24 . .

28 . . . . . . . . . . .

Pirates of Medieval Britain . .. .

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The Lords of the Mediterranean

. 34 .

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Stortebeker and the Baltic Pirates

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�ffi�P!J� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Barbarossa Brothers Murat Rais

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The French Filibusters

103

The French Privateers

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The Last of the Barbary Pirates

43 46

.50

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53

56' Spain's Overseas Empire The Treasure Fleets

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The Spanish Galleon

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6'6' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Drake's Raid into the Pacific Drake's Great Expedition .

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Drake's Last Voyage .

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67 71

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106' The Appeal of the Indian Ocean Thomas Tew

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Henry Every . Captain Kidd

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Edward England Madagascar.

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The Buccaneers of Hispaniola

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79 81 83

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177 180

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184

The Privateers of 1812 ............................187 The Last of the Privateers

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109

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119

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124 The Golden Age New Providence Woodes Rogers Charles Vane

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"Calico Jack" and the Women Pirates Pirate Flags ..

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125 127

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.

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132 136

.. . . . . . . . .. . . ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140

�8J�QQ(� .. � � 67�

142

��o/tkP!J� Jean Lafitte

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1.90

.... .

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.

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Benito de Soto and "Don" Pedro David Porter: Pirate Hunter .

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Stede Bonnet, the Gentleman Pirate Sam Bellamy and the Whydah Pirate Ships

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George Lowther and Edward Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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191 195 197

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148 152 155

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16'0 ..

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Walter Kennedy and the Pirate Lords

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161

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201

.203

The Great Pirate Confederation . .

207

.

Shap-'pg-Tsai

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The Chinese Pirate Junk The Indonesian Pirates The W hite Rajah .

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P!J�efodmy The New Pirates

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Hotspot: West Africa

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Hotspot: Latin America

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221

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P!J�.-@act�@tCttOn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Captain Hook and Pirates of the Stage The Pirates of Hollywood .

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The Jack Sparrow Phenomenon Pirate Perceptions

170

The Pirate Legacy

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215

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222

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Hotspot: Somalia

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Sending a Gunboat .

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. . 173

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The Pirates of Fiction

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The Pirate Code

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Kuo HsingYeh

Truth and Myth

�8Jolde#�: �8J�o/Y� . . . . . . . . .

Piracy in the Far East

Hotspot: Eastern Waters

Blackbeard, the Most Notorious

Bartholomew Roberts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

200

Howell Davis

The Coming of the Dutch

. 107

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Robert Surcouf: King of the Corsairs

Pirate of Them All

The First Interlopers Drake's Raid

61

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ea

John Hawkins

57

. 65

� 6f f{!j)°?6

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America's Rebel Privateers

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40

The Rise of the Muslim Corsairs The Barbary Coast

29

97

John Paul]ones

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The Fury of the Norsemen

174 The Business of Privateering

102

17

.- ..............21

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Buccaneers of the Pacific .

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g;��tk � Ofl/� 16'

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234 235 237 240 241

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246

Right: A 1 7th-century painting by Willem van de Velde the Younger, showing pirates attacking a British Navy warship of the time. A daring act, as pirates ·usually attacked only smaller, less well-defended craft.

The aim of this book is to set the record straight-to expose the romantic myths about pirates that have existed for centuries. In fact, piracy was a brutal business, far removed from the rose-tinted world of captainJack Sparrow.

One of many depictions of Blackbeard-the most notorious pirate-in his final battle with Maynard.

Piracy is neither the invention of Hollywood, nor something from a bygone age. You only have to pick up a newspaper or watch the news to be reminded that pirates are very real, and in deadly earnest. This might surprise many who see piracy as something more benign-a theme for costume parties or the actions of. romantic swashbucklers. The unvarnished truth is that piracy zs a crime. According to the dictionary it involves an act of robbery, committed

on the high seas. If that doesn't sound particularly exotic or romantic, it shouldn't. Piracy has been known murder, to encompass assaul~ kidnapping, and torture, none of which sit comfortably with the popular view ofpiracy. Piracy has existed since the dawn of recorded history and is still happening today. The first pirates used oared galleys; those from the so-called ((Golden Age of Piracy" in the early 1Bth century operated in small fast-sailing craft. Instead of sailing ships and cutlasses, modern pirates use speedboats and assault rifles. Piracy flourishes in waters that are inadequately policed or along coasts where there is little law and order. This was true in the waters ofthe Aegean Sea during the ancient Greek era and in the Caribbean of the mid-l 7th century, and it is true in the Red Sea today, where Somali pirates prey on passing supertankers and container ships. As a historian, I first became interested in piracy when I was asked

to curate a piracy exhibition for a maritime museum based in Key West, Florida. We managed to find plenty of objects to display from shipwrecks or borrowed from other museums. However, what we seemed to lack were hard facts-the bare bones of the story. While a lot had been written about pirates over the years, most of this literature seemed to perpetuate the same pirate myths. It was hard to sort out the fact from the fiction. This job was made harder by Hollywood, ':odern pirates base Piracy is a big probl d ~t Riau Islands Ind . em tn the S h ' ones1a. out China Sea.

and before that by fiction writers, both of who'ln consistently portrayed pirates as ro'lnantic figures inhabiting a world ofcruel governors, richly laden treasure ships, and pretty but wayward daughters. I decided I had to try and cut away the 'myth fro'ln the reality. Little did I know, but the job was to take the best part of a decade. The proble'm was that the truth about pirates was very hard to find, buried deep in dusty court records, newspapers, letters, and reports. What e7nerged was a very different kind ofpirate fro1n those we had beco'lne accusto'lned to. Most of these pirates were 'men who were driven to a life of cri'lne by circu'lnStance. These included 'mutiny against an unpopular captain, being cast ashore in port without atry prospects of gainful work, or being captured by pirates and then forced to join their crew. If captured, these 'men often railed against the injustices of society and the way sea'lnen were treated by ship owners and captains. While 'much of this was just gallows rhetoric, it had its roots in the realities of life at sea during the Age of Sail. This is strangely si'lnilar to accounts of 'modern pirates. Those who attack oil rigs off the coast of West Africa clai'ln they are protesting against the harsh conditions of life in the region, where oil co1npanies are seen as all-powerful, exploitative, and unsy1npathetic. In the waters of Indonesia and the Philippines, pirates often clai'ln they attack passing ships in order to steal the food, weapons, and

'money they need to survive. For the'ln, . . piracy is seen as a necessary 'means to an end. Then there are the So1nali pirates, who capture ships and their crews and hold the'ln for ranso'ln. In interviews, they speak of the'lnselves as coastguards, protecting their coasts and fishing stocks fro'ln rapacious interlopers. In all these cases, the excuses are pretty si'lnilar to those given in the early 1Bth century. For these people, piracy is a way offighting back. We know how these 'modern pirates justiJY their actions because 'most pirate groups around the world have given press interviews. This in turn reflects our enduring fascination with piracy. We see'ln deter'lnined to continue surrounding the cri'lne with a cocoon of ro'lnanticisrn, regardless of how brutal the truth can be. This was the sa'lne in the days of Blackbeard, ((Black Bart" Roberts, and Willia'ln Kidd. Back in 1724, a London co1npany published a bestsell~a lurid expose ofthe business of piracy called A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates. It revealed a world of brutal attacks and acts of depravity, but also offered readers an escapist look at a life which existed beyond the rigid confines ofpolite 1Bth-century society. By reading about pirates, people were transported into a world very different fro'ln their own, set a'lnid an exotic backdrop of pal1n-fringed beaches and war'ln tropical seas. My hope is that this book, The World Atlas of Pirates, will offer you

that sa'lne opportunity to read about pirates and their lives fro'ln the safety ofyour ar'lnchair, but these are ((real" pirates, whose stories 'may not be quite so ro'lnantic. You canfollow their journeys of wealth and fortune, as well as 'murder and betrayal. I have 'made every atte7npt to add exact dates to their raiding 'maps, but do re1ne'lnber, these rascals had little ti'lne to keep diaries.

One of the problems with historical pirates is trying to determine if they were pirates at all. A pirate in one country could have been an explorer or hero in another, com.missioned by a monarch to "conquer" new lands or seas.

Correctly applied, someone who is a "pirate" would attack ships without worrying which national flag they flew. Even then, some pirates oper. ated under self-applied restrictions, hoping that if they avoided attacks on the shipping of their home country, they might earn a pardon.

The l i ne between legal " privateer" and i l l egal "pi rate" was often all to easy to cross, as Captain Kidd (see pages I 1 5 - 1 1 8) discovered to his cost Other names keep cropping up throughout h i story-"corsai r," "freebooter," ' 'swashbuckler,' ' ' 'buccaneer,' ' and several others, all of which have their own mean i ng. Often these people weren't pirates at al l , and the words are used without too much care . Clearly we need to define exactly what a pi rate is-and what he isn't. Fi rst of al l , a pi rate isn't a privateer, buccaneer, fi l i buster, corsai r, freebooter, or swashbuckler. All these terms have their own mean i ngs, and none of them real ly say pi rate . Wh ile we' l l look at most of these i n more detai l later on, we need to say a l ittle about Right: Edward Teach, better known as "Blackbeard,'' wa one of the most notorious pirates in history.

Lift: The pirate Henry Every, notable for being one of the few who managed to retire with his plunder.

itself, many of which were purpose-built for the job. What the word didn't mean was a pirate. Even the people who were attacked knew the difference between the two. Put simply, privateers operated under fairly strict rules; pirates wrote their own. As for real pirates, they were the people who didn't hide behind laws as privateers did, or limit their attacks to the Spanish, as the "buccaneers" did. They attacked anyone, regardless

of

nationality. And unlike

the

buccaneers, who tended to land and raid towns, the pirates we encounter in the early 18th century-the pirates' heyday-rarely set foot ashore outside a few pirate havens such as New Providence in the Bahamas, St. some of them before we go any further. A

20 percent of the value of any captured ship

Mary's Island off Madagascar, or Ocracoke

"privateer" was a captain who belonged to

and its cargoThis meant that privateering was

Island in North Carolina's Outer BanksThese

a countr y that was at war, and was given

a worthwhile business in the Age of Sail, and

and other bases provided bolt-holes, where

permission to attack enemy shipping. He

most of the major maritime powers made

the pirates could sell their plunder, spend

was given a contract-a "letter of marque,"

use of them. Of course, the term privateer

their ill-gotten gains, and were protected by

which meant that as a privateer he was legally

was often used to refer to a seaman as well

the local populace who often provided an

permitted to hunt down and capture enemy

as a ship's captain or ship owner, and it was

infrastructure designed to suppor t piratical

ships as long as his countr y remained at war

even used when speaking about the vessel

activities.This was just as true

with the enemy. Once peace was declared, the whole agreement was canceled. In effect, a privateer was a licensed pirate who didn't attack his own countrymenThe French often called privateers "corsairs," although the term

Buccaneers, Filibusters, and Swashbucklers Another confusing term is "buccaneer," which-

that was later anglicized

if used properly-should only be applied to the

to "freebooter."

men who fought against the Spanish in the

Another confusing

later became associated with Mediterranean

Caribbean of the later 17th century. The word

term is "swashbuckler,"

pirates rather than just privateers, which of

had its roots in the French word boucan, the smoked

which was a 16th-century

course muddies the waters even more!

meat produced by the hunters of Hispaniola. The

word meaning an armed brigand or outlaw. By

term eventually came to be applied to the English,

the following century it meant "swordsman," and

What the government who issued the "letter of marque" gained from the deal was a free warship-or at least one that would go off and attack enemy merchant

French, and Dutch raiders who preyed on the

in the 20th century was adopted by pirate novelists

Spanish Main, capturing Spanish ships and sacking

and then by Hollywood to refer to dashing pirates.

Spanish cities. The French confused things by using

In other words, the term is a modern invention,

the term "filibuster" for the same people, a word

and has nothing to do with the pirates of history.

ships. It also got a share of the spoils-usually

TilL \\'()Rl.l) .\n.\,-

m

PIR.\ll.'-

11

Left: Unlike earlier pirates, the buccaneers of the 1 7th century frequently operated in large groups. For his attack on Panama in 1 67 1 , Henry Morgan commanded a force of more than 1 ,500 buccaneers.

PIRATE OR PRIVATEER?

Are Pirates Lone Wolves or Members of the Pack? While the buccaneers tended to hunt in packs, with a few notable exceptions pirates tended to operate on their own-lone wolves who rarely teamed up with others. This really applied to the pirates of the so-called "Golden Age"-those who operated during the first decades of the 1 8th century. At other times and places-most notably in the Mediterranean of the ancient world or Chinese waters during the early 1 9th century-piracy was a much bigger operation, and whole pirate fleets tended to operate together. While this was potentially dangerous, these pirates usually offered protection, for a fee, of course. Most often, ship owners found it cheaper and less dangerous to pay protection money than to risk passing through pirate waters without striking a deal.

l

(

i n the days of Blackbeard as it is today, on the coasts ofWest Africa or Somal ia. Some pirates offered protection to ensure the safe passage of ships whose owners had reached an agreement with them. It can be argued that these people weren't pirates at all, but protectors. This type of arrangement was as common in the waters of the ancient Mediterranean and early I 9th-century China as it is today When interviewed recently, Somali pirates claimed they were coast guards, protecting ships passing through their waters in return for the right to demand payment for their services. This argument is less impressive when the Somali pirates attack ships in international waters, or hij ack them and hold · their crews for ransom. In these cases, the pirates see themselves as law-abiding but their victims see them as criminals.

The distinction between piracy and something less illegal isn't a new phenomenon. Captain Will iam Kidd was a privateer who later turned to piracy when his privateering cruise proved unsuccessful. He then tried to claim that he had remained on the proper side of the law, but the evidence against him proved too damning. Blackbeard's mentor Benjamin Horn igold was a pirate who refused to attack Engl ish ships. By concentrating his efforts against the Spanish and the French he tried to maintain the i l lusion that he was a law-abid ing privateer rather than a ful ly fledged pirate. Actual ly, this ploy worked for Hornigold because he eventually secured a royal pardon. Bizarrely, h � then became a pi rate-hunter, and hel ped Governor Woodes Rogers drive pirates from the waters of the Bahamas. Sir Francis Drake, a man now viewed as a national hero, was in his ti me regarded eit her as a pi rate or a privateer, depending on who was judging him. Wh i le he officially clai med he was a privateer, and th is i l l usion was su pported by Queen Elizabeth who also had a financial stake in his voyages, he was in fact a pi rate . After al l , for most of the time he operated , England and Spain were at peace, so he had l ittle right to declare himself a law­ abiding privateer. However, an obscure legal loophole allowed him to attack the Spanish to seek redress-to help right a wrongdoing.The wrongdoing mentioned in this less-than-legal "letter of redress" was the attack on the ships of Drake and his kinsman John Hawki ns in a

attacking Spanish ships and settlements in the Cari bbean. However, when England and Spai n signed a peace treaty, Morgan conti nued to attack the hapless Span iards. Techn ically he had become a pi rate, but he sti l l enjoyed the protection of the Governor of Jamaica who represented the Engl ish crown. I n the end he was arrested and shipped back to London to stand trial . Morgan's tri umph was that he managed to earn the good grace of Ki ng Charles II and returned to Jamaica a free man. Al l th i s ti me the Span ish saw Morgan as a cri m i nal, even though he ended u p as Jamaica's Deputy Governor, and one of the wealth­ iest and most respected land­ owners in the Cari bbean .

PIRATES OF FICTION

Above: Edward England was a Red Sea roundsman" -a pirate who operated in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, preying on Indian merchantmen and ships of the English East India Company.

port on the Mexican coast in 1 5 68. The fact that Drake and Hawkins were there illegally was never mentioned. Whi le Drake saw himself as a privateer, the Spanish viewed him as a pirate, and a bloodthi rsty one at that

MORGAN'S DUALITY Another character whose role was d ifficu lt to define was Sir Henry Morgan. At fi rst, Morgan operated as a law-abiding privateer,

Regardless of what they cal led themselves, or how others saw them, most pi rates throughout history operated the same way. These principles-the basics of the craft of pi racy-were applied j ust as much in the ancient Med iterranean as they were in the Caribbean of the 1 7th and 1 8th centu ry, and many any of these pri nci ples sti l l apply today. F o r a start, pi rates l i ke to i nti m idate their victi ms, forcing them to su rrender without a fight Then they take what they came for and make a fast getaway. The fictional pi rate adage "dead men Right: Pirates never made their victims walk the plank-this was the literary invention of Peter Pan author, JM Barrie.

tel l no tales" was based on harsh real ity­ survivors cou ld indentify their assai lants. Many pi rates, particu larly those who feared retri bution, would murder their victims in order to protect· themselves. N one bothered with the fictional piratical favorite of wal ki ng the plank. It was much easier to throw the victi ms overboard, and watch them drown. Plank-walking was the creation of J M Barrie, who wrote Peter Pan. Many other examples of pi rate lore can also be l i nked to fiction-treasure maps were the i nvention of Robert Louis Stevenson,

who created them for Treasure Island. He did the same with buried treasure and the "black spot," wh ich was presented to a pi rate to offi cially pronou nce a verd ict of gu i lt or j udgment. What these pirate fiction writers did get right was the general atmosphere of piracy in its heyday. So too did the screenwriters and di rectors of the movie Pirates of the Caribbean. What they all had at their fingerti ps was an excel lent source , a reference book from wh ich they took accurate information, fleshing out their characters and creating a feel for the period . It was Captain Johnson's General History ofthe Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates, a book written duri ng the last years of

the pi rate heyday. Strangely, the real pirates portrayed in Johnson's almost 300-year-old book were often far more colorfu l and larger than l ife than any Long John Si lver, Captai n H ook, or Jack Sparrow.

A DEADLY BUSINESS It is often very d ifficult to separate the truth about pi rates from the myths and legends that have grown up around them. These days, pi rates are everywhere. Advertisers use them to sel l rum, food, hotel resorts, and even home i nsurance . Every ti me we play a DVD, we're reminded that piracy is a crime, even though these particular pirates probably never set foot on a ship i n their l ives. The word is misused, misappl ied, and m isunderstood. Pi rates have become a pale parody of their original selves, watered down Left: Contrary to popular belief, the only pirate known to ever bury treasure was Captain William Kidd, drawn here by U.S. illustrator Howard Pyle.

by a centu ry or more of pi ratical nonsense. The ai m of th is book is to untangle the truth from the fiction, to show the real ity of l ife as a historical pi rate and to explain what motivates pi rates today. Th i s journey wi l l therefore take us far from the safe waters of fictional p i racy, into the altogether more dangerous and murky seas i nfested by real pirates, the men-and a few women-who struck fear i nto the hearts of law-abiding mari ners. For these people, p i racy was not a l ight-hearted matter. There was noth i ng romantic about robbing people on the h igh seas in Blackbeard's day, any more than the Somal i pirates of today can be seen as romantic figu res when they take hostages at gun point and hold them for ransom. For genu ine pi rates, the th reat of a violent death, the risk of shi pwreck or d rown i ng, and the h igh chance of death through poverty, starvation, or d isease were all too real. The only difference between the pi rates

Right: Captain Scarfield, a fictional pirate created and drawn by Howard Pyle, is shown here at anchor in New York Harbor, around 1 700. Below: An Iraqi police boat patrols the port of Basra, Iraq, where modern pirates regularly attack and raid or hold to ransom visiting oil and food tankers.

of Blackbeard's day and those of today is that the tools they use now are more soph isticated, and more dead ly. Pirates now have speedboats, satellite navigation systems, and rocket launchers. By the same token, pi rate hunters no longer have to rely on cannons, pistols, and cutlasses. They have radar; satel l ite imagery, and jets capable of targeti ng a smal l boat i n a vast, seemi ngly empty ocean. The risks are great, if not greater than before . F o r al l this new tech nology, though, the pi rates themselves are remarkably simi lar to their historical forebears. Th is book wi l l trace these simi larities through the long and bloody history of pi racy, from ancient ti mes to the present day. THE \\'oru.n ArL\s

or Prn..\n'.s

15



When we think of pirates we imagine characters like Blackbeard or "Black Bart" Roberts who were notorious during the early 18th century. Of course piracy is a much older profession, and has been around since the start of recorded history.

Piracy thrives in regions where there is a lack of central authority or proper law and order. That was as true in the ancient world as it was in the 1 8th century, and it still applies today.

Piracy can trace its roots back to the crad le of civilization-the ancient Med iterranean. It was i n the Mare /nternum-the "I nner Sea" as the Romans called it-that historical records reveal the fi rst known instances of maritime trade . As merchants traveled further from home, they risked attacks from pi rates or having their ship and cargo seized in unfriendly ports. For more than 2,000 years, as ancient empires came and went, so too did the specter of piracy. At times when the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Carthagi n ians, or Romans were unable to patrol the sea lanes, pi rate communities grew. Most of them emerged in isolated, rocky coastl i nes, far from major ports but close to busy shipping lanes. It was only after the Roman Republic launched 16

P1R.·\GY L \ THL A'\ULN 1 \ \'oRL.D

a major cam paign against these piratical communities that the scourge of pi racy was eradicated. From the mid- I st century BC until the col lapse of the Roman Empire in

the 5th century AD, the Romans considered the Med iterranean to be Mare Nostrum,' 'Our Sea," a safe place where maritime trade could flourish and pi racy was a distant memory

Below: The Romans used small, light galleys called liburnians-known for their speed and driven by two rows of oarsmen-to patrol the waters of the ancient Mediterranean and keep them free of pirates.

The Sea Peoples The very early pirates sailed around the coastline of today's Turkey, making_ small sorties ashore. Then in the 1 2th century BC the " Sea Peoples" arrived, and they plundered on a far grander scale. Their goal was to ravage the richest civilization in the known world.

The first pirates in history roamed the waters of the eastern Mediterranean. Even before the building of the pyramids, ancient Egypt was beset by pirate raiders, who preyed on trading ships and coastal settlements.

Kingdom Egyptians and a political force of

Ramses II "the Great" (ruled 1279-1213 BC) .

some considerable importance.That changed

First, Ramses and his Egyptian army defeated

forever during the reign of the Pharaoh

the Hittites in a major battle fought in 1274 BC at Kadesh in modern-day Syria. Hittite

military power was broken, and Ramses was

able to divert Egypt's considerable resources to dealing with the Lukkans. From that point on the Lukkans slowly

THE FIRST PIRATES

disappear from the historic records, which could have been because their power

The first people that history records as

was waning. On the walls of a temple in

being pirates were the Lukka, a group

Thebes the Pharaoh Merneptah (ruled

I 212-1202 BC) records a victory by his

of sea raiders who based themselves on the Mediterranean shores of Lycia

fleet over the sea raiders of Egyptian

in Asia Minor-now Turkey. In the 14th

ports-almost cer tainly a rare reference

century BC they appear in the records

to the pirates of Lukka.

what is now Syria), and in the records of

mentioned again. Although evidence

the Hittites, who ruled that par t of the

scarce, most historians and archaeologists

Mediterranean. Around I 340 BC Egyptian

now believe that their disappearance as

of the port of Ugarit (on the coast of

After

that

the

Lukkans

are

never is

scribes recorded that the Lukkans raided

a people is most probably linked to the

the island of Cyprus. By the I 3th century

emergence of a group of maritime raiders

BC the Lukkans had formed an alliance

of diverse

with the Empire of the Hittites.The Hittites

Peoples." It seems that the Lukkan pirates

offered the Lukkans political autonomy

were simply assimilated into this new loose

and in return they gained a navy.

maritime confederation.

Before this alliance, Lukkan pirates were already

preying

on

Egyptian

Therefore, as the power of the Lukkans

merchant

ships and coastal communities. This alliance · with Egypt's great rival meant that these pirates became a major threat to the New

origins known as the "Sea

declined, the pirate threat didn ' t actually

Above: We know little about the appearance of the Sea Peoples, although this 3,200-year-old carving of a warrior is meant to depict one of them.

disappear. In fact, it became even more serious-the size of the threat had quite literally grown tenfold.

THE \VoRLD An.\s or P1R.\TEs

17

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The Coming of the Sea Peoples, 14-12th Centuries

THE ELUSIVE SEA PEOPLES BC

By the 1 4th century BC trade had begun to develop in the Mediterranean, and Egyptian merchants ventured far afield in search of

Nobody real ly knows where the Sea Peoples first came from.The term is a collective one, used to cover the sea raiders who attacked the ships and ports of ancient Egypt in the I 2th century BC. The name "Sea Peoples" (or Hau-nebu) was coi ned by Egyptian scribes, who recorded the names of six of their tri bes: the Denyen, Peleset, Shardana, Shekelesh, Tjeker, and the Weshesh peoples. The Peleset, Shardana, and Shekelesh tri bes may have come from the eastern coast of the Ad riatic coast, although some scholars also th ink that the Shardana came from Sard i nia. Wherever they hai led from , to the ancient Egyptians it was from beyond the western edge of the known world.



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commerce. Then in the 1 3th and 1 2th centuries BC, the Sea Peoples arrived, ushering in a new era of instability and large-scale piracy.

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Land attacks into Mycenaean Greece from "barbarians" in northern mountains took place around 1 200 BC, and by 1 00 BC they had reached the southern tip of Greece.

A Mycaenean Greek refugees flee to Crete, T Cyprus, and southern Italy, as the

Mycenaean civilization collapses, to be replaced

' ' '

by that of the "barbarian" Dorian Greeks. The Lukkans (based on the coast of Lycia) develop a reputation as sea raiders. It is thought they were the forerunners of the Sea Peoples. The Lukkans raid Cyprus, 1 340 BC . The Battle of Kadesh, 1 285 BC-a major Egyptian victory over the Hittites. The border

Later historians have added the names of two more tri bes: the Tursha and Lycian peoples. They settled on the coast of Asia M i nor-the Lycians occupying the Lukkans' ports. In fact, the Lukkans may have evolved i nto the Lycians-we simply don't know the detai ls. However, neither of these peoples ever came i nto di rect contact with the Egyptians, so the Egyptian scribes didn't record them alongside the other six tri bes. It appears that when the Sea Peoples were not engaged in piracy, they traded, developing their own sea routes throughout the eastern Mediterranean.Thi s made sense. After al l, the pirates had to sell the cargoes they had captured, and that meant finding a port where merchants were sti l l willing to do business with them.

of the Hittite Empire and the New Kingdom of Egypt now ran just south of Ugarit and Tripoli, on the coast of Syria.

ft T A

T

The Hittite Empire is invaded by barbarians from across the Bosphorus, 1 4th century BC. Land-based people from deserts in the west, where modern-day Libya is, invade Egypt, but are repulsed, 1 2 32 BC.

' Ugarit

and other cities destroyed by sea raiders,

c. 1 200 BC.

ft Enkomi on Cypru sacked and destroyed by T either the Lukkans or the Sea Peoples. The

Lukkans disappear from the historical records. This coincides with an Egyptian naval victory over these "pirates," c. 1 200 BC.

ITI\

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ID T

The Sea Peoples raid the Egyptian coast, and prey on shipping in the eastern Mediterranean during the early 1 2th century BC. The Sea Peoples are defeated in a major sea battle, off the Nile Delta, 1 1 83 BC. The Sea Peoples conquer and settle the coastal areas of what is now Israel. By the 6th century BC this region has become Phoenicia. The city of Dor on what is now the coast of northern



�l

Israel has been linked to the Tjeke

a tribe of

the Sea Peoples. The raiders had finally become '"cl", mecchan�



Egyptian warships such a s this were flimsy affairs, but they were fast, stable, and capable of carrying a substantial complement of archers and spearmen. The craft used by their chief foes, the Sea Peoples, looked similar, but the raiders were less well armed than their Egyptian enemy.

Today, some h i storians claim that the arrival of the Sea Peoples led to the col lapse of Bronze Age civi l ization i n the eastern Med iterranean-bringing about the end of Mycenaean G reece and the H ittite Empire. In the process they plunged much of the known world into a " Dark Age." Only the Egyptians managed to survive the barbarian onslaught. So too did the inscriptions, which tel l how the Sea Peoples formed an al l iance with Egypt's enemies i n Li bya and Palesti ne. Th is meant that at the start of the I 2th century BC, the Sea Peoples were poised to destroy the last great civi l ization i n the known world.

Left . : Shipbuilding on the Mediterranean coast, a timeless scene painted by Pietro da Cortona.

recorded that the Sea Peoples were great warriors a· n d sai lors, equ ipped with helmets and armed with long swords. It cou ld also be argued that unti l they encountered the Egyptian f leet, they had defeated every enemy they ever encountered-on land or sea.

THE END OF THE SEA PEOPLES

THE FIRST GREAT SEA BATTLE The temple of Medi net Habu stands on the west bank of the River N i le near Luxor. It was built as the mortuary temple of the Pharaoh Ramses I l l (ruled I 186-1155 BC) , and its wal ls are inscri bed with celebrations of his ach ievements. Pride of place is given to a record of an epic sea battle-the first recorded sea battle i n h istory. It was fought in the N i l e Delta in I 186 BC, between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptian navy. It tel l s o f how the Sea Peoples were vanq uished by the sh i ps of Ramses I l l , and how the threat to the Egyptian Kingdom evaporated. Thi s was a stunning victory, a tri umph of civi l ization over darkness. The scenes at Medinet H abu give us the first historical images of pi rates in action, as wel l as showi ng us what their ships looked like, and how they fought The ships of the Sea Peoples look smal ler and fl imsier than those used by the Egyptians, and while the 20

PrRACY r'.'\ THE A:-.:c1ENT \VoRLD

·

Pharaoh's troops wear armor, or wield bows and arrows, the Sea Peoples appear unprotected and poorly equ i pped. But their ships may wel l have been l ighter than those of the Egyptian fleet That way they would have been better suited to raiding, where stealth and speed were more i mportant than fighting abi l ity. The i mpression of these carvings is of a fight against barbarians-after al l , they were carved as a piece of propaganda. However, the truth m ight have been a l ittle d ifferent, and the battle less one-sided than they suggest. just a few years later, the ancient Egyptians h i red Sherden mercenaries for their army. These were fierce and wel l-armed warriors, who wore armor, and carried swords and shields. It has been suggested that the Sherden and the Shardana tribe were the same. A l ittle earl ier the Mycenaean Greeks

The battle of I 186 BC marked a turn i ng point U nti l then, the Sea Peoples had managed to extend their control over most of the eastern Med iterranean.After the battle.they quickly disappearfrom the historical records.There is evidence that some settled i n Palesti ne-the Peleset tri be have even been linked to the Phi l i sti nes mentioned in the Bible. Settlements of the Tjeker people have been found near Dor i n modern-day I srael, where they engaged in mariti me trade. No doubt they also indu lged i n a l ittle piracy too. It cou ld be argued that their settlements are the oldest known pirate havens in the world. The end ofthe Sea Peoples also coi ncided with the emergence of the Phoen icians­ one of the great trad i ng powers of the Med iterranean. It has al ready been suggested that the Tjeker people were amalgamated i nto Phoen icia by the 9th centu ry BC. Could other su rvivors ofthe Sea Peop les have also turned thei r back on pi racy and embraced trade? As usual, the evi dence j u st isn't there to explain what happened. Al l we know is that by the end of the 1 2th centu ry BC, the Sea Peo ples had van i shed from h i story. -

f

Pirates of Ancient Greece The demise of the Sea Peoples didn't mean an end to piracy in the waters of_ the Aegean and Adriatic Seas. Instead, the Greek city-states indulged in acts of piracy against one another. While Greece emerged as a new center of civilization, som.e Greek states actively encouraged piracy. For centuries, whole comm.unities m.ade a good living from. m.aritim.e plunder. Other states such as Athens tried to clear the pirates from. the sea lanes and the m.any islands.

THE CRETANS The col lapse of the Mycenaean G reek civi l ization meant that no single state was powerfu l enough to patro l the sea lanes, or to protect isolated coastal settlements from attack. I n fact, several city-states or sem i ­ autonomous i slands actively encouraged

p i racy as a means of generati ng i ncome. Pi racy conti nued to th rive , particularly after the I 0th centu ry BC and the col lapse of the M i noan civi l ization in Crete. The island was a natu ral haven for pi rates, with wel l ­ protected natu ral harbors that were close to the trade routes passi ng from the Aegean Sea i nto the Med iterranean.

Left: Captured Greek pirates are bound and keelhauled-dragged beneath a boat-a typical form of summary execution meted out by the pirate-hunters of the Athenian navy.

the enm ity of Athens when they began preying on Athenian ships and raiding their coastl ine during the late 5th centu ry BC. The Athenians launched a campaign to clear the islands of the pi rates. City-states which considered themselves friendly to Athens were forbidden to trade with the Sam ians, while anti-pi racy patrols hunted the pirates down on the h igh seas. Eventual ly Mycale and Lemnos were captured and the pi rate lai rs destroyed. The historian Herodotus descri bed these Athenian antiThe last rem nants of the M i noan civi l ization on the i sland had been destroyed by the Dorian Greeks, who raided Crete i n search of slaves. These Greek invaders then turned to piracy, attacki ng ships and conducti ng raids throughout the Aegean basin. The most profitable form of plunder was people-women and boys-who were then sold as slaves in Cretan ports such as Cydonia and Eleutherna, places that also became marketplaces for stolen p lunder. Homer regarded the names "Cretan" and "pi rate" to be synonymous. I n The Odyssey, he describes the island's inhabitants as being merci less pi rates, while some of his other poems contain passing references to the Cretan slave-hunting raids. Crete remained a pi rate haven for several centuries. It was not until the 5th centu ry BC that anyone was able to cou nter their activities. By then the Athenian navy was powerfu l enough to protect its coastl i nes and trade routes from the Cretans, forcing the pi rates to seek out 22

PJR\CY L'\ l I-IL A�l'IL:'\T \VORLD

victims i n less wel l-protected waters. The end came in the late 2nd century BC, when the i sland state of Rhodes finally eradi cated the pi rate menace by captu ring all the pi rate havens and razing them to the ground.

THE SAMIANS In the northern Aegean Sea, several islands or settlements on the main land also developed i nto small pirate havens. Mycale and the island of Lemnos were such places, occupied by the Sami�ns who had been driven from their own island by Dorian invaders. The historian Pl utarch descri bed how the Samians turned to piracy i n the 6th century BC, and under the leadership of Polycrates they operated in the waters around the island city of M i letus. They also used the rivalry between Greece and · Persia to their own advantage, offeri ng their services or neutral ity to both sides, in return for gold. They eventually incurred

Below: In this Roman mosaic detail, the Greek god Dionysus is depicted turning pirates into sea creatures, by way of punishment.

,

piracy operations i n his writings, and he went on to descri be the erad ication of other p irate lairs on Kythnos (Thermia) and Mykonos.

THE AETOLIANS The Aeto l ian League was formed in the 4th century BC as a confederation of small G reek city-states, sited to the north of the G u lf of Cori nth . Its mem bers regu larly used pi racy as a way of harm i ng the economies of their rivals, and of generati ng i ncome for their city­ states. In other words, thei r small navies were regarded as l ittle more than pi rates. The Aetol ians extorted protection money from coastal commu n ities i n the Aegean and the Adriatic, and their gal leys even ravaged the coastl ine of Asia M i nor. The col lapse of Athens as a naval power meant that there was no fleet i n G reek waters that was powerful enough to stop th em. Therefore these organ ized pirates conti nued to prey on ships and coastal towns until 1 92 BC, when the Aetol ian League was defeated and conquered by the Romans. Deprived of their bases, many of these pi rates sim ply moved east, and establ i shed a new pi rate haven i n Cil icia, on the southern coast o f Asia M i nor.

THE ILLYRIANS AND DALMATIANS Wh i le pi rate gal leys of the Aeo l ian League hunted the waters off the western coast of Greece , a l ittle further to the north p irates from l l lyria and Dalmatia (now Alban ia and Croatia) raided the coasts of G reece and Italy, and plundered ships passi ng th rough the Adriatic Sea.These l l lyrian and Dal matian pirates were also known to have operated even further afield as, accord i ng to historical

Cherubs in the guise of Graeco-Roman fisherman act as bait to attract pirates, in a detail from the mosaic shown on the opposite page. Fishermen were frequently captured, then coerced into joining pirate crews.

records, they were responsible for attacks as far as Sici ly, Crete , and the coast of North Africa. Their activities reached a peak during the 3 rd century BC, a ti me when Rome was emerging as a major pol itical and economic power, and therefore Roman trading vessels were regu larly sai l i ng th rough these pi rate­ infested waters. The main pi rate bases in the region were the islands of Cephalonia, Corfu, and Santa Maria. When the Romans conquered

Dal matia and l l lyria in the 2nd century BC the pi rate threat was curbed, but not completely removed. As attacks conti nued the Romans resorted to sterner measures, and they lau nched a series of amphi bious attacks on the pi rate strongholds, wi ping them out one after th e other. However, smal l bands of pi rates remained, and conti nued to operate from smal l h idden bases wel l i nto the mid- I st century BC, when Pompey eradicated the pi rate threat once and for al l. Tm, \\'oRLD ,\ 1 L\s ov P1 R.\TEs

23

Pompey, Caesar, and the Cilician Pirates

Piracy in the Roman World, 200-75

BC

Piracy was endemic in the Mediterranean during the early years of the Roman Republic. However, as Roman. power grew, so too did Rome's dependence on trade. In 7 5 BC, the Roman Senate ordered Pompey the Great to rid the Mediterranean of pirates once and for all.

ft

During the 2nd and early 1 st centuries BC the most notorious pirate stronghold in the Mediterranean was Cilicia, on the southern-eastern coast of Asia Minor-now Turkey. The Romans called the region Cilicia Trachea ("Rugged Cilicia") , as it was remote and inaccessible by land­ making it the perfect pirate haven.

From th is secure base the Cil ician pirates ranged throughout the eastern Med iterranean, preying on merchant sh i ps as far away as the coasts of Egypt and G reece. Then they encountered two i m placable Romans-Caesar and Pompey-both of whom declared war on th is last great pirate stronghold in an otherwise Roman sea.

PIR\CY

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A T

a T

THE CILICIAN HAVEN Cil icia was a narrow stri p of rocky coastl ine, with the Taurus Mountains behind it and the Mediterranean in front This inhospitable coast was settled by a few struggl i ng vi llages and fish i ng communities, with a host of h idden bays, natural harbors, and easily defensible rocky head lands 1n between. Ci licia also lay astride a major ancient sea route , l i nking Greece and Italy to Syria and Palesti ne. Pi rates could sal ly out of secret harbors, attack passi ng ships, and be back in port with i n a matter of days. When the Aetolian pi rates were driven from Greek waters in the late 2nd century BC, many of them establ ished themselves in Cil icia. The_ i mpetus beh ind their ejection from Greece was the expansion of Roman power i nto the region, a move that forced Asia M i nor to d ivert its fleets to patrol the Aegean and prevent any fu rther Roman expansion. This meant Left: A youngjuliu Caesar depicted in 7 5 BC, standing, with his captors, Cilician pirates who held him for ransom. After his release, Caesar had them crucified.

24

T

After Roman victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War (2 1 8-20 1 BC), the Roman Republic consolidates her control of Italy. The Romans conquer lllyria in the early 2nd century BC, and clear pirates from its waters.

In 146 BC Macedonia and Greece become

Roman provinces. The Achaean pirates are driven from their Greek bases and forced to establish themselve in Crete, the Aegean islands, and the coast of Asia Minor.

ft

T

As Rome establishes control over the ports on the eastern coast of the Aegean, pirates are driven eastward to Cilicia. By 1 33 BC this region has become another Roman province.

A T

'

King Mithridates of Pontus ( 1 34-63 BC) encourages the spread of piracy in the eastern Mediterranean, as a means of damaging Roman trade. Julius Caesar is captured by pirates, 75 BC. He is im p risoned on Pharmakonisi in the Dodecanese islands, where he is held for ransom. After his release he returns with a

'

naval force, captures the pirate base, and executes his former captor

.

In 60 BC Cilician pirates offer aid to Spartacus and his rebel slave army, who are campaigning

1 !

in southern Italy. Although Spartacus is defeated, the Romans decide to deal with

I

the pirate threat.

A T A T

In 67 BC Pompey "the Great" is awarded an

"Imperium" by the Roman Senate, and ordered

to clear the Mediterranean of pirates. Pompey moves eastward through the Mediterranean, which is divided into 1 3 zones, including Africa, Cyrene, Italy, Crete, Greece, Egypt, Syria, Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Cilicia. By late 67 BC, only Cilicia is left open to the pirates.

ITI\

T

Pompey blockades Cilicia, while his troops drive the pirates toward CoracesiUIIl . He then besieges and captures this last pirate

fro=

stronghold. The Mediterranean is finally free

1

\ :

"

I

/

KEy - - - Trade Routes ..- Pirate Raids ..- Pompey's Voyage to Cilicia

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"

r "EGYPT "

t'

f

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The Coast of the Pirates The rocky coast of Cilicia, on the southern side of Asia Minor (now Turkey), was the most notorious pirate haven in the ancient world. Protected from the landward side by the Taurus Mountains, the Cilician pirates operated from well­ defended strongholds and hidden harbors, which dotted the rugged coast. The region was only cleared of pirates in

KEY � Pirate Haven

that no ships were avai lable to patrol the waters of Ci l i cia, so the pirate bases were allowed to flourish. Soon, thousands of pi rates were o perating along the coast, their nu mbers swelled by refugees fleeing from the Romans. Worse, the new ruler of Asia M inor-King M ithrid ites of Pontus­ actively supported the pi rates, seei ng them as a usefu l al ly against the Romans. By the early I st century BC the Ci l ician pirates had become a major power and were raid i ng coastal communities as far away as the Italian mai nland. Captives were sold as slaves, and cargoes were sold on i n the marketplaces of Asia M i nor. By 75 BC, piracy in the eastern Med iterranean had become big busi ness.

CAESAR AND THE PIRATES Accord i ng to the Roman historian Pl utarch, a 26-year-old J u l i us Caesar was captured by Ci lician pi rates in 75 BC, while on his way to 26

P1R.\cY

1 :--; TH E .\:"-c .IJ.: . :-\ 1 \\'rnu.n

67 BC, during Pompey's

monumental anti-piracy campaign.

Rhodes to study oratory. Real izing he was an i m portant nobleman, the pi rates held him for ransom on the island of Pharmakonisi, in the Dodecanese , just off the coast of Asia M i nor. Pl utarch described Caesar's encounter:

..--.0 . L irs� when the pirates demanded a �/ ransom of twenty talents, Caesar burst out laughing, They did not know, he said, who it was that they had captured, and he volunteered to pay fifty. Then, when he had sent hisfallowers to the various cities in order to raise the money and was left with onefriend and two servants among these Cilicians, about the most bloodthirsty people in the world, he treated them so highhanded!:J tha� whenever he wanted to sleep, he would send to them and tell them to stop talking, For thirty-eight days, with the greatest unconcern, hejoined in all their games and exercises, just as if he was their leader instead of their prisoner. He also wrote poems and speeches which he read aloud to them, and if theyfailed to admire his work, he would call them to theirfaces illiterate savages, and would ofien laughing!:J threaten to have them all executed. They were much taken with this and attributed �is.freedom of speech to a kind of simplicity in his character or boyish playfulness.

Pirate Galleys and Roman Warships The Cilician pirates tended to operate in small, fast galleys, powered by pirate volunteers rather than by slaves. Their ships were really too light to be used as proper warships, but they rarely needed 'to fight a battle-most victims surrendered when the pirates overhauled them. Most merchant ships of the period were powered by sail, which meant that in most cases these pirate galleys were faster than their prey. Earlier Roman warships had been slow, lumbering vessels. However, by Pompey 's time, the Romans had begun to use biremes (galleys with two banks of oars), base cl on vessels used by the navy of . Rhodes. They also used Roman-built Liburnians, which were purpose-built, fast privateering galleys.

A votive model of a Roman bireme, dating from the mid-I st century BC.

In effect, these Rhodean or Liburnian biremes were j ust as fast as the galleys used by the Cilician pirates, which meant they were fast enough to pursue them and give battle. In battle, the Roman warships carried skilled marines who made short work of their poorly trained pirate opponents.

..._. .__ .. __.. �� � --- � � -� � � � � � _, � � � � � .../'� � ��.__ ,.,__ _,,, � � �

Lefi: An engraving based on a Roman bas-relief carving of the 1 st century AD , showing the bireme galleys favored by pirates and pirate hunters alike.

When the ransom arrived, Caesar was set free. However, he returned soon afterwards with a naval squadron and captu red the pirates, their base, and their ships. He took them to Pergamon in chains, and there he had them all crucified, as an exam ple to others.

POMPEY AND THE PIRATES Duri ng the I st century BC the Romans made several half-hearted attempts to stam p out piracy i n the Med iterranean , but none were particularly successfu l . The Roman attitude towards pi racy hardened in AD70, when the Cil icians supported the slave revolt led by Spartacus. In 67 BC the Roman Senate voted to erad icate piracy i n the Med iterranean, and chose Pompey to mastermind the campaign . His plan was to launch a campaign on a monu mental scale. He was granted sweeping m i l itary, fi nancial , and economic powers, a force of 500 ships and 1 20,000 troops. Thi s equaled about half of th e annual total budget of the Roman Republic, so the Senate expected resu lts. Pom pey had

already conducted smal l-scale campaigns against the Ci l ician pi rates and he knew exactly what to do. His plan was simple­ to start at one end of the Med iterranean , and drive the pirates eastward , toward the Cilician coast. He d ivided the Med iterranean i nto 1 3 districts and appointed a m i l itary commander to each ofthem. In a coordinated attack, each of these launched a simu ltaneous attack against the pi rate bases i n their area. Fi rst they blockaded known pirate bases, whi l e warsh i ps scouted for pi rate ships at sea or in unknown lai rs. I n each area, pirates were either pardoned or executed. Others were released i n exchange for i nformation. For the next phase, Pompey started at the Pil lars of Hercu les (Gibraltar) . He led the rest of his fleet east, driving any remai n i ng pi rates before him. Most of these fleei ng ships were driven onto the blockad ing forces establ ished by Pomey's deputies.These Roman warships looked i nto every port and bay as they advanced, maki ng sure that no pi rate sh i p was able t o slip through Pom pey's great net. With i n 40 days the Med iterranean had been cleared of pi rates-with one exception. Pompey had del i berately left Ci l icia untouched. He wanted the remaining pi rates to flee there, seeki ng a safe haven. He then blockaded the Cil ician coast, forming a tight cordon to trap them in their bases. If a few ships managed to slip through, Pompey had placed an outer ri ng of warships that waited just over the horizon.There was no escape. Starting at the two ends of the Cil ician coastl ine, he sent his mari nes ashore, exploring every bay, gul ly, and i n let. If a

pi rate ship was encou ntered it was besieged, and destroyed . I n th is manner the Cil icians were grad ual ly driven back toward their main stronghold-a place cal led Coracesium at the end of a rocky pen insula-a place the pi rates considered i mpregnabl e. But Pompey simply laid siege to it and in three months the pirates were starved into subm ission. Once again Pompey was lenient, executing the ringleaders but banishing their followers. The operation had been a complete success. Duri ng the three-month campaign, the Romans had destroyed 1 20 pi rate bases, ki lled or executed over I 0,000 pirates, and destroyed over 500 of th eir shi ps. As a resu lt, the Med iterranean was free of pi rates for the first ti me in its history. It would remai n so unti l the final collapse of the Roman world, some five centuries later.

Pompey the Great In 67 B_s; , Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus-Pompey the Great ( 1 06-48 BC)--was Rome's most experienced general. He had defeated Spartacus, led successful campaigns in Italy, Sicily, Africa, and Spain, and had served as the Roman Consul-one of the two joint rulers of Republican Rome who were elected on an annual basis. He had even led minor campaigns against pirates. After his pirate campaign of 67 BC, he went on to lead Roman armies to victory in the east. Today, Pompey is best remembered as being the opponent of Caesar during the Roman Civil War. However, back in 67 BC this veteran general was simply the ideal man for the job.

597 P O M P E J U S M AG N U S d- 41 •- K.

THE \\'oRw A ri .\� m PtR.\TL�

27

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in

AD

4 76, Europe and the western

Mediterranean were plunged into a grim period of disorder, crime and brutality that lasted for around five centuries, popularly known as the "Dark Ages. "

Above: A Byzantine illustration depicting an 1 1 th-century sea battle between two Byzantine warships. The Byzantine navy maintained regular anti-piracy patrols in the eastern Mediterranean from the 5th century AD until the beginning of the 1 3th century, the sea being vital to the existence of Byzantium.

The Dark Ages was a lawless time, when trade collapsed, towns and cities crumbled, and weeds spread over the Rom.an roads. In most parts of Europe there was no effective government, which left comm.unities vulnerable to attack by sea raiders.

In the eastern Med iterranean thi ngs were a l ittle d ifferent. The Eastern Roman Empire survived the fall of the Western Empire, and Constanti nople-now I stanbu l-became the 28

l\ILDJL\.\l. Sr \ Ron.Rs

new center of the civi l ized world. But the Eastern Romans-the Byzantines-were unable to protect the coastal communities and merchant ships beyond their borders, and as a result pi rate communities sprang up. When Byzanti ne fortunes started to wane , the Byzantine emperors cal led on these pirates to help defend them from attack by the new and growing threat posted by Islam. The situation in northern Europe was much worse. The col lapse of the Western Roman Empire meant that there was l ittle

or no central authority. In the ports of Europe-most notably in Britai n-the locals struggled to form some ki nd of government. U lti mately, however, their efforts proved fru itless, as Britain was subjected to a series of i nvasions by barbarian tribes. The most notable of these were the Angles and the Saxons who i nvaded Britain from Den mark and Germany. They eventually conquered much of southern Britain, wh ich became known as " Land of the Angles"-or England. Other raiders included the I rish from the west and the Picts and Scots from the north. Across western Europe the barbarians who brought down the Western Roman Empire carved out their territory-the Franks i n Gau l (now France) , the Vandals i n Spai n, and the Goths in Italy. All treated the sea as an avenue for attack, and ships and communities as a source of plunder. Then, in the late 8th century, a new type of sea raider appeared-one that was more ferocious than any the long-sufferi ng people of Britain and Europe had ever seen before . They came from the lands across the sea to the north, and so became known as the Northmen-or Norsemen. Today we know them as the Viki ngs.

The Fury of the Norsemen For more than a century, the appearance of Norse longboats rowing inshore to Britain and mainland Europe heralded an orgy of death, destruction, and looting.

Above: This contemporal), engraving of a longship shows how

elegantly were they designed for speed under both oar and sail. The rack above the hull was designed to house the sails.

The origins of the word "Viking" are vague, but it is often argued that it COIn.es frOIn. the Swedish word

vika,

In.eaning a "turn" or "shift," or the Norse

vikja,

which In.eant a shift of

oarSIn.en. In other words, it probably In.eans aNorse rowe�one of the In.en

The Viking Raider Norsemen, or Vikings, were not really pirates in the truest sense of the word. They were sea raiders-just like the Sea Peoples of the ancient Mediterranean, or the buccaneers of the l7th­ century Caribbean. For them, their ships were a means of transport-a vital tool which allowed them to sail or row from their bases on the coast

who crewed the Norse longships.

of Norway, and then to launch

THE COMING OF THE VIKINGS

attacks against coastal settlements in Britain or the mainland of Europe. Their ships were shallow

The Anglo-Saxon monk Alcuin claimed that the Vikings first appeared off the coast of Britain on the morning of June 8, They

appeared

unexpectedly

AD

793.

from

the

North Sea, and raided the island monastery

drafted, allowing the Vikings to crew up rivers and attack targets far inland. They relied on their ships for speed, mobility, and surprise. When they reached their objective, the Vikings

of Lindisfarne, just off the northeast coast

would land, overcome any

of England. The monks were slaughtered,

resistance, and then loot the

and the monaster y looted and burned to the ground. Alcuin and his fellow monks saw the

attack as

an outrage-' 'an

attack on the body and soul of Christian England." Worse was to come. The year before, King Offa of Mercia, central England, had been warned that the Norsemen might come, so he

settlement, monastery, or township. They would then return to their longboats, laden with plunder. Right: The 9th-century Oseberg Ship, found inside

f4i: A medieval Scandinavian stele (marker

a Norwegian burial mound.

stone) depicting Norse scenes, one of which shows the setting sail of a VIking longboat.

THE '''urU.!l :\]'L\S

Ol-

PJR\lCS

29

strengthened his defenses. However, it was too little, too late. Two years later, and a year after the attack on Lindisfarne, the Vikings returned and roamed the length of England's North Sea coast. I n the years that followed, other raiders plundered the Scottish monastery of Iona, and the Welsh churches of Carmarthen, Llancarfan, and St. David. By AD 798 the Vikings weren't even returning to Norway-they built permanent settlements on Orkney and Shetland instead, where they spent the winter before they began raiding again in the spring. It was l it tle wonder, then, that these early medieval monks saw the fury of the Norsemen as a precursor of the end of the world. Below: This carved figurehead from the 9th-century Oseberg Ship is a particularly fine surviving example of the dragon heads that were used to decorate the bows of Viking longships. They were designed to intimidate.

Right: This 1 3th-century illustration shows that longships were in use for several centuries.

DANEGELD By the early 9th century the Vikings had changed tactics. Having plundered the mainland of Britai n, some turned their attention to Ireland, where the raids would continue for a decade. As one I rish monk put it

T into Erin, so that no haven, no landing he sea spewedforth floods efforeigners

place, no stronghold, no fart, and no castle might befound, but it was submerged by waves ef Vikings and pirates.

I n England the Norsemen began offering communities their protection-i n return for a hefty fee. This payment became known as Danege/d-" Dane's Money." Th is lasted unti l the 830s, by which time the Viki ng raiders began to establ ish their own settlements i n the lands they had conquered, the most notable of wh ich was Jorvi k-now York.

VIKINGS IN FRANCE Meanwh i l e , other sea raiders turned their attention to the mai n land of Euro pe. Viki ng longsh i ps rowed far u p the great river networks of the Rh ine, the Seine, and the Lo i re , l ooti ng as they went. In AD 840 they sacked Ro uen,

and five years later they were at the gates of Paris. The city was only spared when its i n habitants paid the raiders off with a Danegeld of 7,000 pounds of s i lver. The N o rsemen th en establ i shed a permanent settlement at the mouth of the Seine and soon they claimed the su rrou n d i ng land for themselves. Th i s eventually became N o rmandy:- " Land of the Norsemen."

THE FURY SPENT These Viking rai ds lasted a l ittle more than 50 years, and ended when there was noth i ng left to plu nder. By the start of the I 0th centu ry the busi ness of colonization had begu n. By that time the raiders had become part of the emerging nations of Europe-Denmark, Norway, Scotland , England, a n d France. Wh i l e t h e Viki ng age wou ld conti nue for another centu ry, the days of the sea rai ders were over. Were the Vi ki ngs p i rates? Wel l , as most of thei r attacks took place on land, they were techn ical ly sea rai ders. However; to most Europeans of the ti me, the words Viki ng, sea raider; and p i rate were one and the same.

Pirates of Medieval Britain By the 1 1th century, western Europe was emerging from the Dark Ages. But as traders ventured back on to the high seas, so too did the pirates. The new system of feudalism, whereby feudal overlords protected their lands in return for rent in money or produce, brought with it prosperity and a flourishing sea trade. However, not all traders stayed on the right side of the law. Some overlords turned a blind eye to piracy in return for a share of the profits.

ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY This made it d ifficult for ki ngs to maintain a royal fleet that could keep the sea lanes open, and so pi racy f louri shed. Pirates also took advantage of the near-constant rivalry between England and France. Pi rates and noblemen al ike were often able to play the rival royal powers off against each other and in the process develop their own pi rate havens, with l ittle or no i nterference from eit her monarch. By the late I 2th centurJ' most of the Channel I slands were seen as pi rate havens. In theory they were ruled

This depiction of the Battle of Sluys ( 1 340), which marked the start of the Hundred Years War, shows the brutal way in which medieval sea battles were fought. After an initial exchange of arrows and other missiles, both sides came alongside each other to fight it out hand to hand.

by the Norman kings of England, but in practice .t hey were i ndependent. Although attempts were made to suppress piracy i n the Channel I slands duri ng the 1 2th century, these activities conti nued.

EUSTACE THE MONK The most notorious of these pirates was Eustace the Monk, also known as ' 'The Black Monk."Trad ition has it that he was the youngest son of a nobleman from Bou logne .

He joined a Bened icti ne monastery, but-it was said-he also dabbled in sorcery. The monk then served the Count of Bou logne as an administrator, but in 1 204 he q uarreled with his overlord. He is then said to have fled to Jersey in the Channel I slands where he joi ned the pi rates. Eustace rapidly became a pi rate leader, and was responsi ble for attacks on both Engl ish and French sh i ps as far afield as the Dover Straits. In 1 205 , Ki ng John of England hired Eustace and his men to attack the French. THE \\'oru.n , \ J L\� m PJR.\lT�

31

NORTH SEA

I

I

I

I

I

I I

FRAN CE NORMANDY

The Voyages of Eustace the Monk, c. 1 1 70-12 1 7

' 1. 1 70

Eustace i s born i n Boulogne, the son o f a

minor nobleman.

A c . 1 1 85 Eustace joins the Abbey of Samer, T outside Boulogne, and trains to become a monk.

The pi rates attacked smal l French ports from Calais to Brest, forcing Ki ng Ph i l i p I I of France to pay the pi rates another fee to stop raiding his coast. Eustace was even paid to raid the English coast, and in 1 2 1 2 he led a particu larly devastating raid on Fol kestone. He was now earn i ng a fee from both countries. Eustace then turned from piracy to protection-offering to protect shipping in return for a share of the cargo. However, the attack on Folkestone angered Ki ng john, who put together a fleet and attacked the Channel I slands. The pi rate bases on jersey and Guernsey were captured and destroyed, leavi ng Eustace without a safe refuge. He retaliated by allying himself with English rebels.

) �

(

ft 1 202 Eustace, now a monk, begins work as a T cleric, in the court of the Count Ranault or

I

Boulogne.



ft 1 204 Eustace "the Monk"

T

is accused of

undisclosed crimes, and forced to Aee. He

becomes an outlaw.

' 1 205

Eustace tl1e Monk establishes himself in

the Channel Islands, which are already known

as a pirate have n . He joins a pirate group, and

rapidly becomes their leader. In one source, it is

claimed he captured the islands using 30 galleys, lent to him by the English king.

a 1 206 After receiving payment from Kingjohn T of England, Eustace and his followers raid Calais

DOWNFALL OF THE PIRATE MONK

and the surrounding area. It is rumored he even raided up the River Seine, towards Rouen.

' 1 206

Eustace carries out an even larger pirate

' 1212

Eustace tl1e Monk and his men raid

In early 1 2 1 7, King Philip's son, Louis, hired Eustace to transport an even larger French force overto England The pirate fleet anchored off Dover, when they were surprised by a smal ler but better-equipped English war fleet. The Engl ish fi red a vol ley of crossbow bolts and then threw quickl i me in the faces of the pirates as they drew alongside. In the battle that followed the pirates were overwhelmed.

raid on Boulogne, forcing King Philip of France to pay Eustace protection money.

Folkestone, earning the enmity of the English king.

ft 1 2 1 4 Eustace the Monk forms an alliance with T King Philip's son, Prince Louis of France. m 1215

T

Civil War brakes out in England, between

the supporters of Kingjohn and rebel nobles.

Prince Louis uses Eustace to transport arms and supplies to the rebels.

€p October 1 2 1 6



r�-���J��

�----.-- .._,_ �

The Crooked Governor

Early medieval pirate chief Savary de Mauleon was the governor of La Rochelle on the Bay of Biscay, a port he held in the name of Kingjohn of England. Und e r his guidance the pirates preyed on French shipping-until de Mauleon switched sides and formed an alliance with the French king. For much of the early 1 3th century, La Rochelle was a pirate haven, a thorn in the side of Engli h and French merchants alike.

Eustace fled with a handful of his ships, but a few weeks later he was surprised and cornered by the Engl ish fleet off the coast of Sandwich, south east England. He was captured and dragged before the Engl ish admiral, H ugh de Burgh. Technical ly, the pirates were privateers in French pay, but such niceties didn't suit de Burgh. He offered the pi rate chief a choice-behead ing at the center or the side of the ship. The chronicler Matthew Paris, who described the event, never said which option the monk chose. One way or another, Eustace the Monk and his fellow pirates were all put to the sword. Below: The beheading of the pirate Eustace the Monk in 1 2 1 7 shown in a medieval illustration accompanying the Chronides ef Matthew Paris.

Death of Kingjohn. He is

succeeded by his young son, Henry I I I .

lb May 1 2 1 7

T

\

Eustace is hired to transport the

French army from Calais to Dover. Prince Louis besieges Dover.

Cf> July 1 2 1 7

aval Battle off Dover. Eustace's

fleet surprised and attacked by an English fleet, commanded by Hugh de Burgh. The pirates are defeated, and retreat to Sandwich.

In 1 2 1 7 Battle off Sandwich, fought on 24th ( T August. Eustace's pirate fleet are attacked and

}!

defeated off Sandwich. Eustace is captured, and then executed .

.____�



\





THL

\\'ORI.I) A 11.\S OF PlR.\TLS

33

The Lords of the Mediterranean ---

As Byzantine rule faltered under attacks from Muslim warlords and Christian crusaders, the waters of the Aegean and Adriatic seas once again became the haunt of pirates. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean were patrolled by the Byzantine navy. Unfortunately, when Byzantine power waned in the face of attacks by both Muslims and fellow Christians, the once great Empire lacked the resources to hunt down the growing number of pirates. Beww: A 1 4th-century warlike cog, fitted out with fighting "castles" at bow and stern.

34

l\lumx,\L Sc.\ RrnTRS

THE COLLAPSE OF BYZANTIUM The Byzanti ne Empire was effectively founded in AD 330 when the Roman Emperor Constantine "the Great" established himself in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. The city became a major trading port, and Byzantine warships kept its sea lanes open, even after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. By the 1 2th century things started to unravel, however: The growing power of Islam placed the Byzantines at the forefront of a new battleground, and after a major defeat in I 07 1 they appealed to the West for help. This appeared i n the form of the Crusaders, who were as much i nterested in worldly wealth and power as in driving back the borders of Islam. At the same ti m e , the Ven etians and the N ormans of so uthern Italy began encroac h i ng o n Byzanti ne territory i n the Adriatic, seizi ng i s lands and ports, and ge neral ly taki ng advantage of Byzanti u m 's l ack of naval muscle. Desp ite a tem po rary revival of Byzantine i nfi uence i n t h e m i d - 1 2th centu ry the · d ec l i n e conti nued, a n d i n 1 204 t h e Venetians and th e i r crusad i ng al l i es even captured

{

KEY � Pirate Haven

The Pirate Islands of the

\ Adriatic, 12th century

The eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea was a notorious pirate haven during the 1 3th century-the lair of

( }

Margaritone of Brindisi. His main bases were on the islands of Cephalonia and Zante.

and merc i l essly sacked the great c ity of Con stantinople d u ri ng the Fo u rth Crusade. Western noblemen carved out smal l feudal fi efd o m s i n G reece and the Aegean bas i n , and faced with a barren landscape , many turned to p i racy i n order t o make a l ivi ng. Th i s col l apse of Byzantine autho rity meant that afte r 1 204 the Adriatic and the Aegean had become breed i ng gro u n d s fo r p i rates.

THE PIRATE LORDS OF GREECE Western (Latin) overlords now ruled much of Greece, and ports l i ke Cori nth and Athens became marketplaces for stolen goods and slaves. Many of these rulers saw piracy as a usefu l source of i ncome, as they lacked the resources to develop legitimate mariti me trade. Even M uslim rulers took advantage of th is power vacuum-i n northwestern Anatolia (now Turkey) the Turkish Karasi and Saru han peoples developed a reputation for pi racy, raiding the Aegean islands i n search of slaves. Many of these islands became pirate havens i n their own right, particularly Lesbos, Chios, and Samas.The ancient pi ratical island of Crete became a home for pi rates once more, and soon only the ports and islands owned by the Venetians, Genoese, or Knights of Rhodes remai ned open to honest traders.

The Pirate Rock The medieval pirates of the Aegean preferred to establish themselves in well-defended harbors, where they would be relatively safe from attack. The most impressive of ' these pirate havens was Monemvasia, on the southeastern corner of the Peloponnese.

\

This harbo known as the "Rock"-was an impregnable fortress built on the top of a rocky peninsula, joined to the Greek mainland by a narrow causeway. The "Rock" became a thriving pirate haven during the 1 3th century. It was situated on the easternmost "finger" of the Peloponnese, but the middle finger, the Mani Peninsula, had been a notorious refuge

for pirates since ancient times. The locals-the Maniots-lacked any form of income apart from fishing, and so small-time piracy helped them to survive. Monemvasia remained a pirate stronghold until the 1 5th century, when it passed into the hands of the Venetian .

Above: A crusading ship of the 1 4th century, typical of the small single-masted merchant sailing vessels that plied the European waters during the Middle Ages. The ship is "carvel-built" (built with the hull planks lying flush or edge to edge rather than overlapping), which suggests it was constructed in the Mediterranean.

MARGARITONE OF BRINDISI Pi rates were also active in the Adriatic Sea. Duri ng the late 1 2th centu ry Zante , Corfu, Cephalonia, and the picturesque islands of the Dal matian coast all developed i nto safe havens for pirates. The most successfu l leader of these p irates was Margaritone of Bri ndisi (c. I 1 49-97) , an Ital ian kn ight who joined the Dalmatian pirates and soon rose to command their fleets. Most of Brindisi's men were Italians­ mai n ly renegade Venetian or Genoese sai lors. In I 1 85 he became the self-proclai med

fi rst count of Cephalonia and Zante when he captured the islands, and later Count of Malta. He was then hired by the Sicil ians as a naval commander; and eventual ly became their Grand Admiral. Brindisi was eventual ly captured duri ng an attem pt to rel ieve the siege of N aples by imperial ist troops, and he ended his days in a German dungeon . H i s island bases remained thriving centers of piracy unti l the late 1 4th century, when th ey were annexed by the Venetians. By that ti me the center of pi ratical activity had moved again-this ti me to the Barbary coast of North Africa. Tt-Jl. \ \'ORLD

,\ ll.\S OF PtR.\Tl-.S

35

StOrtebeker and the Baltic Pirates

The Piratical Activities of Klaus Stortebeker and the Victual Brothers, late 14th ft

T

A T

Lucrative cargoes carried between German Baltic ports in the Hanseatic League attracted the attention of pirates-the most notorious of whom was Klaus Stortebeker. Mter the pa�sing of the Vikings, the waters of northern Europe were used more for trade than for raiding, and a great mercantile empire­ the Hanseatic League-soon emerged. It was to transform the small harbors of the North Sea and the Baltic coast into bustling international ports.

Left: A cog, as depicted on a 1 4th-century German seal. These round-hulled vessels became the standard ship types of northern Europe.

36

!\fr.mn"\L SL.\ Ro\'ERs

Klaus Sti:irtebeker is reputedly born in Wismar, _ around 1 360. In

1367 The Hanseatic cities of the Hanseatic

League, including Lubeck and Wismar, form the Confederation of Cologne, and declare war on Denmark, who had become the dominant power in the Baltic. In 1 3 7 0 the Danes are

'

THE HANSA I n 1 24 1 merchants from the German Baltic port of Lubeck formed a trad i ng all iance with the nearby city port of Hamburg. In the process they created the Hanseatic League, also known as the Hansa, a mercanti le confederation that soon expanded to i nclude several other major German ports, i ncluding Bremen, Stetti n, Danzig, and Rostock. Other ports in the Baltic basin and the North Sea coast soon followed , and by I 300 the Hansa had become a major power i n the region, with 1 9 ports united under its trad i ng banner. Rival tradi ng organizations were squeezed out of busi ness as the Hansa began to monopol ize trade. The League became so powerful that neighboring states and cities felt threatened by 'the Hansa's economic power. The Danes consistently opposed the Hansa, as did smaller tradi ng all iances such as the Cinque Ports of southern England. The greatest threat to the Hansa, however; came from pirates.

c.

forced to sue for peace. In

1389 Queen Margaret of Denmark invades

Sweden, and lays siege to Stockholm.

ft 1392 The

T

pirate brotherhood known as

the Victual Brothers relieve the blockade of Stockholm, and wage war against the Danes.

The Hanseatic League supports them by offering them use of their ports.

' 1 393

The Victual Brothers raid Bergen in

Norway-a Hanseatic port. The Hanseatic

League closes its ports to the Victual Brothers.

ft Spring 1394 The Victual Brothers sack Malmo, T in southern Sweden, and then spend the summer

raiding other small towns in Sweden and Finland.

' Late 1394

The Victual Brothers seize the island

of Gi:itland, and turn its main port of Visby into

A T

their pri �cipal base. By the winter of

1 3 94-95, Baltic trade has

all but collapsed. Both the Danes and the

Hanseatic League suffer.

A 1397 The Kalmar Union is founded, uniting T Denmark, Sweden and Norway into one state,

controlled by Queen Margaret. She also forms an alliance with the Teutonic Order.

I )

m 1 3 98 The knights of the

T

Teutonic Order invade

Gi:itland, and drive the Victual Brotl1ers from the island.

In 1399 The remnants of the pirate brotherhood T establish themselves in the mouth of the River

!

1

Ems, and on the island of Helgoland.

� 1400

T

Sti:irtebeker is nan1ed

as the head of this pirate

group-the Likedeelers-­ and preys on Hanseatic and Danish ships.

lb 1 40 1 A Hanseatic fleet

T

I�

attacks the Likedeelers off

�0 &- Cow's \'

m PJR\ l L�

4·5

The Barbarossa Brothers

ft 1.5 05

Two red-haired brothers from Greece ruled the Mediterranean and became the most feared Barbary pirates of the 16th century.

ft 1506 Hizir Barbarossa captures a Sardinian T warship, the Cavalleria, off the Lipari Islands.

The first successful Barbary pirate leaders were Aruj and Hizir-known as the "Barbarossa Brothers. " Already accomplished pirates when they arrived on the Barbary Coast in 1 505, they soon established a reputation as the fiercest pirates in the western Mediterranean.

BEWARE THE GREEKS Aruj and h i s younger brother H izir were both born on the Aegean island of Lesbos duri ng the 1 470s. Trad ition has it that their father was Yakup Aga, a retired Ottoman soldier who married an island girl. At the The Barbarossa Brothers-who became the most ti me, Lesbos was owned by the Turks, and notorious and ferocious of the Barbary pirates. was a known pi rate haven. It was also a bustl i ng, cosmopolitan port where M uslim and Greek merchants m ixed freely. to fit out a privateeri ng gal ley, and soon his Another legend has it that Aruj and an younger brother joi ned h i m. Together they older brother were serving aboard a local spent a decade preyi ng on ships trad i ng with trad i ng ship when they were captured by Rhodes as a way of seeki ng revenge for the the Kn ights of St. John. His older brother death of their eldest brother. was ki l led and Aruj Aga spent a year in Rhodes before his fami ly cou ld raise the THE PIRATES OF DJERBA money to pay his ransom. On h is release, Aruj boarded a visiting Egyptian ship and · The brothers soon became h ighly regarded as sai led to Alexandria. There the local Egyptian skilled pirate captains. In 1 504 the Ottomans ruler Qansuh al-Ghawri lent h i m the fu nds made peace with the Knights of St. John, and 46

Tm. B\RB\R\ P1R.\1 t:s

The Rise and Fall of the Barbarossa Brothers

T

The Bey of Algiers grants the Barbarossa

Brothers the use of the small port of Djerba.

They establi h it as a privateering base.

A 1506 Aruj Barbarossa captures two Papal galleys T off the island of Elba, yielding a small fortune in plunder.

;

;

1511

The Brothers move their base to Djidjelli.

1512

Unsuccessful assault on Spanish-held

Bougie. Aruj loses an arm in the attack; Hizir captures a richly laden Genoese ship by way of compensation.

1514

Second assault on Bougie repulsed.

1 5 1 6 The brothers capture Algiers,

killing the Bey

in the process. Aruj claims the throne for himself.

' Spring 1 5 1 8 ' Summer 1 5 1 8

Spanish assault on Algiers repulsed. Attempted attack against Oran

intercepted. Aruj forced to withdraw to Tlemclen.



T

Tlemcen besieged and captured-Aruj Barbarossa killed.

cp 1 5 1 9

Hizir Barbarossa-" Khair-ed-Din"-now

the Bey of Algiers, repulses a Spanish assault on the city. He forms a defensive alliance with the

Turkish Sultan.

' 1 5 20 ' 1521

Khair-ed-Din raids the Balearic Islands. Khair-ed-Din and his Barbary pi.rates

ravage the Spanish coast and burn ships at anchor in the harbor of Cadiz.

� 1525 The Barbary corsairs raid along the T Mediterranean coast of Spain, as far north as Barcelona.

' 1 529

Khair-ed-Din captures the Spanish

foothold near Algiers, so relieving pressure on the city.

m 1534-35

T

Khair-ed-Din defeated in engagement

against the Spanish outside Tunis.

lb 1535 Tunis captured by the Spanish. They T would retain control of the city until 1 574.

' 1538

Battle of Preveza--Christians defeated by

a Turkish fleet led by Khair-ed-Din.

� 1540-41

T

Major Spanish attack on Algiers is

repulsed. A storm destroys much of the Spanish fleet.

' 1 545

Death of

Kh�

i; :

:i

'\ :/ /; "

Z

.f

I

l//� ,I

I

Sard i nian warship Cavalleria in the Li pari I slands to the north of Sici ly.These successes meant that other pirates flocked to join them, and soon the brothers found themselves i n command of a pi rate fleet.

SCOURGE OF THE SPANIARDS

-��l

Above: Dutch ships engage a heavily armed flotilla of

Barbary pirates in oared galleys, in a 1 7th-century oil on canvas by Flemish painter Sebastian D. Castro.

Red-Bearded Brothers

In 1 50 7 , the Spanish historian Diego Haedo wrote of one of the brothers:

rrhe wonder and astonishment that 1 this notable exploit caused in Tuni0

and even in Christendom, is not to be expressed, nor how celebrated the name ef Aruj Rais was to becomefrom that very moment. He was held and accounted by all the world as a most valiant and enterprising commander. And by reason his beard was extremely red, or he was generally called Barbarossa, which in Italian means ('Red Beard. '' In a Mediterranean world of black-haired people, the two red-bearded Barbarossa Brothers would have been instantly r

48

Tm: B \RH.\R\" P1 R.\ 1

) �

so the brothers moved their privateering operation westward to the Barbary Coast. I n 1 505 the Bey of Tu nis granted them the use of the smal l island port of Djerba, 200 m i les (322km) away to the south of his Beyl ik. The two brothers commanded a gal ley each, and soon the pair were rangi ng far to the north, preying on Christian shipping in t�e Tyrrhen ian and Ligurian seas. They had some spectacular successes. I n 1 506, Aruj captured two gal leys belonging to Pope Jul ius I I off the island of Elba, wh ile his brother H izir captured the Right: A large and prestigious Florentine galley is surrounded and attacked by a substantial squadron of smaller Barbary galleys.

Es

I n 1 5 I I , they fel l out with the Bey of Tunis because he demanded a greater share of their profits. The brothers moved their fleet to a new base, th is ti me in the small port of Dj idjelli, near Algiers. With the Spanish-held ports of Bougie and Oran on either side of them, there was no shortage of enemy sh i ps to attack. I n 1 5 1 2 the brothers launched an attack on Bougie but were driven off, and Aruj lost an arm in the fighti ng. Seeki ng revenge, he attacked the port again i n 1 5 1 4, but once again they were repulsed.The brothers were becoming i mpatient with the Bey of Algiers, who took his share of their plunder but did noth i ng to h elp them fight his enemies.

Right: A melodramatic 1 9th-century depiction of some of Hizir Barbarossa's captives. Most prisoners would either be ransomed or sold in to slavery.

THE DEATH OF ARUJ BARBAROSSA I n 1 5 1 6, Aruj seized his chance. Using a popu lar revolt agai nst the Bey as a d i straction, he entered the city at the head of his men, ki l led the Bey i n his palace, and claimed the title for hi mself. He now had the men and resources he needed to renew his offensive against the Span i sh. In early 1 5 1 8 he defeated a Span ish attem pt to capture Algiers. Later that summer the Span ish gathered an army at Oran , led by the Emperor Charles V. Aruj struck fi rst, but his pi rates were intercepted, and besieged in the town of Tlemcen. After three weeks the Span ish assau lted the wal ls, and the pi rate leader was ki l led, together with the rest of h i s men.

KHAIR-ED-DIN H izir Barbarossa now took command of Algiers. He was soon known as Khair-ed-Din ("Gift of God") , as he successfu l ly ral l ied the pi rates to the defense of his Beyl ik, with a l ittle help from the Turkish Su ltan. I n 1 5 1 9, he managed to repulse the Spanish attack on Algiers, forcing the Span ish to abandon the campaign. Algiers was secu re, and Khair­ ed-D i n-.n ow named Pasha (see Beys and Beyl i ks, page 44) by the Su ltan-took the war to the enemy. He raided the Span ish-held Balearic I slands and even burned sh ipping off the great Span ish harbor of Cad iz. With the Span ish at bay, the pirate leader then answered the summons of the Su ltan, and led his men to join i n a Turkish attack Le.ft: A contemporary depiction

of younger brother,

Hizir Barbarossa (Khair-ed-Din), one of the most

successful of the Barbary pirates.

against Rhodes. The island fel l in 1 523 and Khair-ed-Din and his men had their pick of the spoils. Duri ng the decade that followed, his Alge rian gal leys launched repeated raids on Span ish coastal towns. I n 1 5 3 I he attacked Tunis, which had been captured by the Span ish but was now defended by the Knights of St. John. The Barbary pi rates were defeated. It was H izir's first real setback since com i ng to power. He had more success campaigning against a new Holy League, an al l iance of Venice and the Papacy. I n 1 5 38, his joint Turkish and Barbary fleet defeated the League's fleet at Prevesa, on the Adriatic coast of Greece . Two years later he repulsed a th i rd and final Spanish assault on Algiers. By the time of his death i n 1 545 , H izi r Barbarossa had turned Algiers i nto a fortress, a secure base from which his successors cou ld continue the fight against the enemies of I slam. THt. \\'oRU) ,\TL\s

or PIRxn:s

49

Murat Rais

The Beys of the Barbary Coast, 16th Century Turgut Rais

Embracing piracy when he was just a boy, Murat Rais went on to become the scourge of the Spanish. He was a maverick pirate who earned a reputation for skill and daring. A worthy successor to the Barbarossa Brothers was Murat Rais, who rose to prominence in the late 1 6th century. An audacious and wily corsair, he was once regarded as the most dangerous pirate in the Mediterranean, but he ended his days as a respected admiral in the service of the Turkish Sultan. Below: A French merchantman, pictured being attacked by Barbary pirates. Sailing vessels were particularly vulnerable to galleys in calm weather.

A RISING STAR Born i n Alban ia around 1 5 34, Murat Rais was a teenager when he was captured by Barbary pirates. He converted to I slam and joi ned the crew, and by the 1 5 60s he had com mand of his own p irate gal iot. He developed a reputation for daring-and for i mpetuosity, a trait that did l ittle to endear h i m to his superiors, i ncluding the Barbary pirate leaders Tu rgut Rais and U l uj Ali.

1520

The Barbary corsair Turgut Rais joins

the fleet of Klrnir-ecl-Din, based in Algiers, and

serves under his command.

l' '

1538

He is made an admiral in the Ottoman

Turkish Aeet, and serves under Khair-ed-Din at the Battle of Preveza. They win a spectacular

victory over their Christian opponents.

1539

I n his first independent command, he

campaigns in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea, his galleys ranging a far north as Venice.

' 1540 ' 1 540 ' 1541 ' 1 544 ' 1 550

Establishes an operational base at Djerba,

and uses it to launch a raid on Malta.

Leads raids throughout Corsica and

Sardinia. Captured by the Genoese and spends the

next three years as a galley slave.

Khair-ed-Din threatens to attack Genoa,

to secure the release of Turgut Rais. Turgut Rais forced

to yield Djerba to

the Christians.

'

1551

Recaptures

Tripoli from the Knights of St. -

John.

Murat Rais

' 1 565

Murat Rais becomes the commander of a

Barbary galiot.

A 1 5 68 Earns the disfavor of his superior Uluj Ali, T so promotion is slow.

;

1574

Given command of the Algerian fleet.

1574

Captures the Spanish Viceroy of Sicily off

the southern tip of Sardinia-an achievement

which secures his reputation.

A 1 584 Becomes the Beylerbey of Algiers-the de T facto commander of the Barbary corsairs. 1586 Leaves the

Mediterranean, to lead a raid

against the Canary Islands.

1 5 94 As

commander of the Ottoman fleet, he

leads a major raid on the coast of southern Italy.

1 595

Defeats a powerful Christian naval force

off the southern coast of Sicily.

50

Tm: B.\RR\RY P1R.\l'LS

(

" "

1

"

1 \

!

\�

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t'

/ tI"

I

'/" '�

f: :'

:;/ / j

.1 !"�/l

I'

1'

,,'

( ',

Turgut Rais (1 485-1 565) Unlike many Barbary captains, Turgut Rais never

Rais took charge of the Muslim reserves. As a

His origins are obscure, but sources suggest he was brought up near Bodrum in Asia Minor (now

reward for hi performar.i ce, he was given the Governorship of Djerba. Then, in 1 540, he was

Turkey) as the son of a Turkish farmer. He began

surprised at anchor, and captured by a Spanish

his career in the Ottoman Turkish army, and it was

squadron. Turgut Rais was forced to serve as a

only in 1 5 1 7 that he went to sea, reputedly after

galley slave for three years and then imprisoned in

acquiring a part-share in an Egyptian galiot. He

Genoa until Khair-ed-Din negotiated his release.

soon mastered the nautical skills he required; for

Freeing him proved a costly mistake, as Turgut

more than two decades he pursued a career as a

Rais spent the rest of his career seeking revenge,

Barbary corsair, serving under Khair-ed-Din, the

refusing to negotiate with his Christian opponents.

younger of the Barbarossa Brothers, and leading raids throughout the western Mediterranean. In 1 538 both Turgut Rais and Khair-ed-Din were called on to serve the Turkish Sultan, and Lefl: Turgut Rais, as portrayed in a dramatic 1 8th-century engraving. Many Europeans viewed the Barbary pirates as romantic figures, but they were hard-bitten, merciless fighters.

CAPTAIN OF THE SEA In 1 584 M u rat Rais became the Bey of Algiers, and the Sultan commissioned h i m as "Captain of the Sea." He won fame when he captured a Spani sh gal ley with the Span ish Viceroy of Sicily aboard. M urat Rai s proved a real thorn in the side of the Span ish, and spent a decade raiding their coast, sinki ng their merchant ships, and fill ing the marketplace of Algiers with Span ish slaves. I n 1 5 86, h e attacked Lanzarote i n the Canary Islands and held the inhabitants for ransom.

ADMIRAL OF THE TURKISH FLEET Eight years later he was appoi nted Ad m i ral of the Tu rkish fl eet, and pro m ptly l ed the Ottoman f leet to victory over the Span ish Right: English warship i n action with Barbary corsairs, c. 1 680, in a painting by Van de Velde the Younger.

52

T1-1L BARIHRY Pnn rLs

while Khair-ed-Din commanded the fleet, Turgut

regarded himself as a pirate, or even a privateer.

off the coast of Sici ly. H aving successfu l ly turned his back on p i racy, he spent the remai nder of his days l iving i n the eastern

After the death of Khair-ed-Din, he rose to command the Turkish fleet, and later became the Beylerbey ("leader of leaders") of Algiers, and then the Pasha of Tripoli . However, his great



love was waging war against the Christians, and therefore it is appropriate that he died in action, besieging the Christian stronghold of Malta.

Med iterranean, i n the service of the S u ltan. M urat Rais reputed ly was over I 00 years old when he d ied in 1 609.

'



,

,

The Last of the Barbary Pirates The son of an Italian fisherman, Uluj Ali became one of the last great corsairs of the Barbary Coast, a man of legendary skill and courage. One of the last great pirate leaders of the Barbary Coast, Uluj Ali combined his activities as a pirate chief with service to the Turkish Sultan. In the process, he not only preserved the independence of the Barbary States, but he also helped save the Turkish empire from collapse in the wake of a catastrophic naval defeat. Below: A 1 6th-century depiction of the Barbary port of Algiers, a natural harbor that was home to a sizeable fleet of pirate galleys. The port was also well defended by walls and fortifications.

FROM SLAVE TO PIRATE Born to a fisherman 1 n southern Italy, U l uj Ali was captured by Barbary pi rates when he was i n his teens. He became a slave but won his freedom when he converted to Islam. He duly became a Barbary pi rate, dropping his Italian name, Giovan ni Dionigi. Above: Not all Barbary vessels were galleys-apart from its triangular "lateen" During the I 550s he rose sails, this 1 7 th-century North African merchantmen is little different from the to prominence under the European trading vessels that sailed the waters of the Mediterranean. corsair leaderTurgut Rais, and by 1 560 had gained command of his own pirate The following year he lau nched a galiot. He fought at the battle of Djerba ( 1 560), fu l l-scale attack on Tu nis, and agai nst the when his skill and bravery were noted by Piyale odds he succeeded in captu ri ng the port Pasha, the Turkish admiral. His performance was from the Spanish who had occupied it si nce also noted during the Siege of Malta ( 1 565). 1 5 35. From there he waged a naval war with the Knights of St John based on Malta, and in SUPREME LORD OF THE PIRATES 1 570 he even captured a powerful Maltese squad ron, an achievement which was lauded U l uj Ali was rewarded by being made Pasha throughout the Med iterranean. of Tri pol i, and in the years that followed he developed the city into one of the most SAVIOR OF THE MUSLIM WORLD active pirate havens on the Barbary Coast I n 1 5 68 a grateful Su ltan rewarded him with The fol l owing year Uluj Al i was ordered the prestigious post of Beylerbey of Algiers. east to join the main Turkish fleet, and he A Beylerbey was a Supreme Bey, holding was present when it was comprehensively authority over the other beys and pashas. defeated at the Battle of Lepanto ( 1 57 1 ) . THl, \\.ORLD

r\Tus

OF P1Rxn:s

53

\ '\ :

- - - Christian Trade Routes

,, ·

� Pirate Raids

J'/ /

,/ 1�



.

/ 1J/

I

.I

Battlefield

Uluj Ali: The Sultan's Pirate, 153 6-15 87

' 1.5 36

Born Giovanni Dionigi on the coast

of Calabria, southern Italy. His father was a

'

fisherman.

By the late 1 550s he is known as Uluj Ali, a

Barbary Corsair, who commands a galiot in the

fleet of Turgut Rais, based in Tripoli.

ft 1 5 60 Distinguishes himself during the T battle off Djerba.

;

(

\

naval

1565

Participates in the Siege of Malta.

1566

Succeeds Turgut Rais as the Bey

of Tripoli.

' 1567-68

Tripolitanian galleys raid the

coasts of Sicily and southern Italy, causing

widespread destruction.

' 1 5 68

Uluj Ali named as the Beylerbey of

'' 1569

Leads the Barbary Corsairs of Algiers in

Algiers, thereby gaining control over all the Barbary Corsairs.

The Battle of Lepanto ( 1 5 7 1 ) as depicted here was the battle that decided the fate of the whole region. The victory of the Christians over the Turks ended Ottoman expansion into the western Mediterranean.

an assault on Tunis, which liberates the city from the Spaniards.

A 1 5 70 Defeats and captures a squadron of T Maltese galleys, crewed by the Knights of

His tactical ski l l almost saved the day and the fo llowi ng year he became the Adm i ral in Chief of the Tu rkish fleet. Wh ile he rebu i lt the shattered fleet, he also prevented the Christians from taking advantage of their victory. The corsair had almost si ngle­ handed ly preserved the Ottoman Empire.

St. John . His reward is a commission as

admiral in the Ottoman Turkish fleet.

� 1571

The Battle of Lepanto-this climactic

naval engagement ends in disaster for the Turks, and halts Turkish expansion into the western

Mediterranean. Uluj Ali commands the Turkish

rearguard with di tinction.

cp 1572

Commands the Turkish fleet, rebuilding it

Oran and their other footholds on the coast. From then until h is death in 1 5 87, Beylerbey U l uj Ali strengthened the defenses of his ports, a nd used them to launch pi ratical and naval raids throughout the Med iterranean. To the end, he considered himself a pi rate first, and an Ottoman adm i ral second.

after the Lepanto disaster and securing Turkish

control over the waters of southern Greece and

THE HERO OF TUNIS

the Aegean Sea.

' 1 5 73 ' 1574

Don juan of Austria captures Tunis in

the name of Spain. Uluj

Ali recaptures Tunis from the

Spaniards, and from that point on the city is

placed under Ottoman Turkish rule.

lft 1574 He then strengthens the Muslim defenses T of Algiers and Morocco.

I

• 1576 Leads a major raid on Calabria, in

T

m Late 1 570s Raids Oran, and other Spanish

� T I

southern Italy.

enclaves along the North African coast.

I

i

I

I l \

\



����

However;. wh i le he was d istracted the Spanish managed to recapture Tu nis. Then, in the summer of 1 574, U l uj Al i led the Turkish fleet i nto the western Med iterranean, where he blockaded Tunis, then recaptured the city in a masterly combi ned amphibious and land assault. He went on to consolidate his control over the whole of the Barbary Coast, ejecti ng the Spanish from

By the time the British bombarded Algiers in 1 8 1 6, the Barbary pirates were no longer considered a serious threat to trade.

Tm. Wcw.w

Arus OF Puun:s

55

In 1 492, not only were the Moors driven from Spain and the country finally united under the b anner of the " C atholic Monarchs" Ferdinand and Isabella, but Christopher C olumbus discovered the New World and claimed it for Spain.

Spain's policy of colonization and conquest led to her controlling the Caribbean basin, as well as most of Central and South America. Under the 1 494 Treaty of Tordesillas, all this territory, apart from Brazil, belonged to them. This overseas empire was a source of glory and riches.

After conquest came exploitation, and soon a regular convoy of ships was transporting New World wealth to Spain. When French privateers intercepted one ofthe first ofthese shi pments, the rest of Europe discovered just how l ucrative the New World had become. By the mid- 1 6th centu ry, the first European " i nterlopers" appeared in the Caribbean-

Below: A Spanish fleet arrives in a Caribbean port, as depicted in a 1 7 th-century painting by Andries van Eertvelt.

56

Tm, SP.\.'-ISH .\ l \I:\

waters wh ich were general ly cal led the Spanish Main by these French, Dutch, and Engl ish newcomers. The first Span ish settlements were attacked, prompting the Span i sh crown to d ivert resources to the protection of her colonies. Her main ports were fortified and garrisoned, warsh i ps patrolled the Cari bbean, and Span ish treasure shipments were transported in wel l -protected convoys. For a century, these defenses �ere adequate , and the Span ish overseas empire continued to flourish. Th is al l changed duri ng the 1 7th century, as other European settlers establ ished their own colonies. By the mid- 1 7th century, these newcomers had started to launch regu lar attacks on Span ish settlements and shipping, which would lead to the sacking and destruction of several important Spanish settlements, and the d isruption of Spain's vital annual treasu re convoys. Whi le the Span ish weathered this storm and retained thei r possessions in the Americas for another I 50 years, by the 1 690s the Span ish Main was no longer an exclusively Span ish preserve. It had become a hunting ground for pi rates, buccaneers, and privateers of al l national ities.

Spain's Overseas Empire Within three decades of Columbus planting the flag of Spain on a beach in the Bahamas, the Spanish had carved out a vast empire. Spain's overseas empire stretched from Florida down to the mountains of southern Peru. Conquistadors battled with the jungles of Central America or the lofty heights of the Andes, as well as with the peoples who lived there. Their reward was a share in the great riches of the Americas-gold, silver, and precious stones-all available for the taking.

THE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS The first voyage of Ch ristopher Col umbus in 1 492 establ ished that there was land for the taki ng on the far side of the Atlantic Ocean . Wh ile he thought the islands he discovered were i n Asia, the Span ish crown sti l l wanted to establ ish control of these new lands-th is New World. Therefore, in 1 492, representatives of Spai n and Portugal sat down to discuss the partition of the undiscovered world between them. The agreement-the Treaty of Tordesi llas-was ratified by Pope Alexander VI in June 1 494. It effectively d ivided the undiscovered world into two parts. The d ivid i ng " l i ne" was set along a l ine of longitude-at 3 8 ° west_:_ wh ich ran down the Atlantic Ocean, passi ng withi n I 00 m i les ( I 6 1 km) of the Azores.

This 1 8th-century French chart depicts the area known as the Spanish Main. Originally referring solely to the Caribbean coast of South America, by the mid- 1 6th century it encompassed the entire Caribbean basin.

The Portuguese now control led al l undiscovered lands to the east of th is l i ne. Th is included the coast of Africa and more i mportantly the lands which lay to the east, including what is now I ndia and I ndonesia. After the d iscovery of Brazi l, the two nations met agai n, and the l i ne was moved further westward-to 46 ° 37' west. The Spanish now control led everywhere to the west

Interlopers The Spanish viewed any other European who crossed the "line" into their territories as "interlopers." For them, the word referred to any non-Spaniards who appeared in the Spanish Main during the 1 6th and early 1 7 th centuries. They were seen as intruders, and regardless of whether they came to trade or to raid, they were viewed as enemies. ___,-i____...

T H F \\'uRLll ArL\s m

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57

ATLANTIC O CEAN

CARIBBEAN SEA

pACIFIC O CEAN

How the Spanish Main was Defended, 1492-15 64 1 '.'1:92 Christopher Columbus discovers the Americas, and establishes the fortified settlement of La Navivad on the northern coast of Hispaniola.

A 1 494 The settlement of La Isabella is founded T in Hispaniola. It is abandoned four years later. The same year the Treaty of Tordesillas

establishes that all territory to the west of Brazil belonges to Spain.

A 1498 The town of Santo Domingo is founded, T on the southern coast of Hispaniola. Four years later work begins on its fortification.

A 1508 Juan

T

Ponce de Leon establishes a

settlement at Sanjuan, in Puerto Rico. It too is fully fortified by 1 52 1 .

' 1510

A fortified colony is established at Nombre

de Dios, on the Isthmus of Panama. Ten years later the regional capital is moved to Panama, on the Pacific coast.

' 1511

The settlement

of C uba is begun,

Above: The Spanish repulse an attack by Dutch interlopers in an early 1 7 th-century painting by Adam Willaerts.

and within two years

a fortified settlement is established at Havana and Santiago de C uba.

' 1519

Havana

The conquistador Hernan Cortes invades

Mexico, and establishes the fortified town of

Vera Cruz. Within two years, all of Mexico is under Spanish control.

' 1526

lncan Empire in Peru. Within nine years the

whole region is under Spanish control. A strongly fortified settlement is

established at Cartagena. The first French "interlopers" cross

the "line" and attack Spanish shipping i n the

New World.

' 1558 cp 1 565

The port of Vera Cruz is fortified. A fortified colony is established at

St. Augustine in Florida.

}

THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS

The conquistador Francisco Pizarro leads

a small army south from Panama, to invade the

' 1533 ' 1 535

of the l i ne-wh ich included the enti re Cari bbean basin, the whole of Central America, and most of South America.

ti\ 1568 English interlopers are defeated at San

T Juan de Ulua,

the newly constructed fortress

protecting Vera Cruz.

� q> 1564 i�

The Spanish crown orders the

improvement of its New World defenses, and uilding program is instituted.

The fi rst Spanish settlements 1n the Americas were ti ny, defended by l ittle more than a wooden stockade. The first Span ish colony was sited on the northern coast of H ispan iola, but th is was soon abandoned, and i n 1 498 a more su itable site was chosen on the southern coast.Th is became the town of Santo Domi ngo, and in 1 502 work began on a castle to defend the settlement from both Ind ians and European i nterlopers. Duri ng the next few decades other smal l Spanish settlements appeared i n Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Isth mus of Panama, and the Caribbean coast of South America. Then

in 1 5 1 9 the conquistador Hernan Cortes landed on the coast of Mexico, where he founde d the settlement of Vera Cruz.With in two years he had defeated the Aztec Empire, and establ i shed a fortified Span ish settlement 1 n the Aztec capital-now Mexico City. I n 1 5 23, he shi pped his Aztec plunder back

f

[ Beyond the Line f

\

�.=1

The Spanish were very protective about their

new-found overseas Empire. As they saw it, no

other Europeans were allowed across the "line,"

I

and they threatened to evict any interlopers by force if they had to. Of course, the French, English, and Dutch didn't agree, and by the mid- 1 6th century they began venturing into these Spanish waters. The Spanish reacted vigorously, and whenever they could they used force to expel the interlopers. For the Spanish, there would be "no peace beyond the line."

T H E \\'0 R u 1 A n.\� Ol·

P!RATL�

59

Right: A publication from 1 58 1

However, the treasu re ports were sti l l vul nerable. DISC O VE l UE A N D C O NQyE of the Pro ui ST A combination of lethargy, � ces of p E ! Cll

P11n n '>

63

second port was easier to defend than N ombre de Dias. After load i ng the si lver, the Tierra Firme Flota made its way to Havana, where in most years it joi ned the New Spai n fleet, wh ich had not yet sai led. Someti mes the two fleets made their own way home, but in ti mes of war or danger they sai led home together, even though that m ight mean a sl ight delay. The fleets sai led home using the same route-north through the Florida Straits and the Old Bahama Channel, then eastward across the Atlantic to the Azores. There the treasu re (Iotas would take on stores and water agai n, before completing the fi nal leg of their JOUrney to Sevi l le, which they reached around October or November.

p AYROLL AND PREDATORS

reason the fleet didn't arrive , the cou ntry was plunged into fi nancial tu rmoil.Therefore the (Iotas were extremely i mportant to Spai n, and a great deal of effort was made to keep the treasure· ships and their precious cargoes out of the hands of any i nterlopers, pi rates, privateers, or buccaneers who m ight try their l uck against the richest and best­ protected fleet in the world.

The Hurricane Season A far more significant danger to ships was posed by hurricanes. The annual hurricane season in the Caribbean started aroundJune, and continued until October. The plan was that the .fiotas would sail from Havana before the hurricane season got underway, but this wasn't always possible because sometimes the departure of the fleets was delayed. On four occasions-in 1 554, 1 622, 1 7 1 5 , and 1 7 3 3the treasure.fiotas were caught in a hurricane

Cartagena's Strength The port of Cartagena comprised a small inner harbor and large outer roads. The entrance to the outer roads was guarded by a fort at the end of a sandspit, while two more forts covered the approaches to the inner harbor. The city itself was encircled by walls and bastions, making it one of the most strongly held cities in the Spanish Main .

was waiting to be loaded. Th is si lver had been mi ned i n Potosi and other Peruvian mines, then transported to the Pacific coast, where it was shipped north to Panama. From there the si lver was carried by mule trains across the I sthmus of Panama to Nombre de D ios. In the late 1 6th centu ry the Cari bbean terminus for th is si lver was moved a l ittle further up the coast to Porto Bel lo, as th is

This huge undertaki ng followed a strict ti metable, and the whole enterprise formed the largest mariti me trad ing system in the world . It was usually too powerfu l to attack, as the treasure ships themselves were wel l-armed as wel l as being escorted by warshi ps. Only on one occasion-i n I 628-were the annual (Iotas attacked and captured by an enemy fleet. In that particu lar c�se the attackers were the Dutch, who drove the fleet ashore at Matanzas Bay to the east of H avana, then looted the ships, and took the pl under home to Amsterdam. The Span ish crown came to rely on th is annual fleet of si lver, gold, and precious m i nerals. The revenue it produced was used by the Span ish crown to pay · Span ish troops, and to fund Spain's political and m i l itary endeavors in Europe. If for some

and many of the ships were wrecked. The loss of the 1 7 1 5 fleet on the eastern coast of Florida resulted in a frenzy of treasure hunting, which in turn played a significant part in the development of the Bahamas as a pirate haven .

Treasure hunter Mel Fisher Oeft) displaying some o f the treasure de Awch.a. recovered from the wreck of the Spani h galleon Nues/a

'--����_,...,...,_,__ _ _�� �

Sena:

I

The Spanish Galleon Long associated with pirates and the Spanish Armada, the galleon has become an emblem of Spanish power during the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries. When we think of Spanish galleons, we imagine one of the most romantic ship types in history-the grand vessels portrayed on film, just waiting to be captured by pirates. The real galleons, however, were completely different.

THE CREATION OF THE GALLEON . Unlike the slow, lumbering galleons of fiction, the real ships were nimble and designed for speed. Rather than floati ng status symbols, they were the workhorses of Spain's overseas

How Big Were They? During the early 1 6th century, most galleons were quite small-weighing little more than 1 50 to 200 tons. However, by the 1 550s galleons displacing 350 tons were built, carrying a larger armament than the earlier galleons. This was a reaction to the growing threat posed by French corsairs in the Spanish Main, and therefore the increased risk of an attack against the treasure

.fiotas. By the 1 5 7 0s, galleons with a displacement of 700 tons were commonplace, and during the Spanish Armada campaign of 1 588 the Spanish fleet included a group of Portuguese galleons, most of which weighed more than 1 ,000 tons and were designed to fight in European waters.

empire, designed to protect the shipments of Span ish treasure from the New World to Spai n. The word "gal leon" first appears i n the early I 6th centu ry. The earliest gal leons were powered by oars as wel l as sai ls, but by the 1 540s the term referred to a type of smal l sai l i ng warsh i p in the service of the Spanish crown . In 1 5 36, the Spani sh determi ned just how these Above: Elegant and well-armed Spanish galleons such as this were the workhorses of the treasure fleets throughout the 1 6th and 1 7 th centuries. ships should be bui lt, and French, Dutch, or Engl ish warsh i p that tried how they should be armed. Clearly they to attack the fleet. The only ti me a Span ish had become fast, powerfu l warshi ps-ideal ly su ited to the long, gruel i ng voyage to the treasure fleet was defeated in battle was in I 628, and wh ile the battle exposed m inor Spanish Main and back, and perfectly able to problems with Spanish ship design and defend themselves against all but the most gunnery, the mai n problem lay with the way determi ned attack by pi rates. From the 1 570s, the typi cal large gal leon the sh i ps were commanded rather than the way they had been bu i lt. Therefore, of the treasure fleets weighed around 500 tons and was armed with up to 24 heavy for the best part of I 50 years, from the mid- 1 6th century onward, the gal leon bronze guns; the crew included a company remai ned the mainstay of the Span ish of veteran Span ish soldiers. I n ti mes of war, treasu re fleet, and the best guarantee the a typical treasure (Iota m ight i nclude fou r King of Spain had that his treasure would be or more o f these shi ps, al l o f wh ich were considered more than a match for any safely del ivered to his royal exchequer. Tm \ \'rnzw

.

\ ru� o r Pt R. \ 1 1

s

65

While the English regarded men like Drake and Hawkins as heroes-Eliz abethan "sea dogs"-to the Spanish they were little more than pirates, who along with French and Dutch equivalents were plundering their New World riches.

In May 1 523, off Cape Sagres on the southwest tip of Portugal, three small Spanish ships sighted land after a dull and uneventful transatlantic voyage. Their home port of Seville lay just three days away.

The ships expected to rendezvous with a sq uadron of warships, which would escort them home i n safety. I nstead the Spanish lookout saw five ships approaching them

from the wrong d i rection. The Span iards altered cou rse, but after a brief chase the mysterious ships overhauled them. Their pu rsuers turned out to be wel l-armed French privateers. Outgunned and outnumbered .the Span ish had l ittle option but to surrender. The French ships were com manded by jean Fleury, an experienced pirate who now sai led as a privateer under the French flag. Even th is hard-bitten corsair would have been amazed at the plunder he found i nside the holds of the Spanish ships-chests fi l led with Aztec gold, sparkl i ng j ewel ry, and rel igious statues; precious jewels, including an emerald the size of a man's fist; even a live jaguar in a cage. In al l, the plunderwas valued at more than 800,000 gold d ucats-the equ ivalent of a staggering 234 Left: I n this lively early 1 7th-century painting, an English and a Dutch warship attack a larger Spanish galleon.

66

T H L SL\

Doc .s

m i l l ion dollars today. It was probably the richest treasure hau l in the history of pi racy. When the privateers retu rned to their home port of Dieppe, the news of their success spread l i ke wildfire . Now everyone in Europe knew that there was fabulous wealth to be had in the Americas. It was there for the taki ng for anyone wi l l i ng to make the voyage, and risk the wrath of the Spanish. During the next seven decades French and Englis h pirates made regu lar i ncursions i nto Spanish territory, raiding Spanish settlements, i ntercepting treasu re sh i pments, and general ly causing havoc throughout the Span ish Main. Strangely enough, the Spanish cou ld have avoided much of thi s if they had pursued a more i nclusive pol i cy toward these illegal traders. When john Hawkins, the fi rst Engl ish "interloper," appeared i n the Span ish Main, he came to trade rather than to plunder. However, after being attacked by the Span ish in 1 5 68, Hawkins and his men vowed to seek revenge by attacki ng their poorly defended overseas empire. One of H awki ns' fol lowers was Elizabethan "sea dog" Francis Drake, who did exactly that, retu rning to the Cari bbean to harry the Span ish and to plunder their treasu re.

The First Interlopers Naturally, after Jean Fleury's capture of the Spanish treasure ships and the discovery of untold riches, a host of French privateers took to the seas in search of another windfall. French Corsairs To the French, the word

� J

corsair meant the same

as "privateer." The word came from the French

/,a course--a nautical cruise. To confuse things,

the French also used the word when speaking

about the Barbary pirates of the Mediterranean. In general, though, a corsair should be seen

as a French privateer, although he could also

be a pirate. As the Spanish showed when they

executed Fleury, to those who fell victim to these

corsairs they were nothing more than pirates.

A Huguenot squadron are depicted attacking Spanish ships o ff the coast o f Cuba in this mid- 1 6th century engraving. The attacks by these corsairs caused widespread disruption to Spanish trade, and the loss of income threatened the very survival of some of Spain's overseas colonies.

While m.ost French privateers operated in European waters, an intrepid few ventured beyond the line drawn up by the Treaty of Torsedillas. The French plunder of Spanish treasure ships would continue for the next 40 years.

THE FIRST CORSAIRS Within a year of Jean Fleury's success, French corsai rs were cru ising off the Azores hoping to i ntercept more Span ish ships. The Spanish, meanwhile, started operating 1 n convoys, which meant the corsai rs were

unable to ach ieve anything. In 1 527 Jean Fleury was captured by the Span ish, after a six-h