The West Bank Survey from Faras to Gemai: 3. Sites of Christian Age 9781841718606, 9781407328638

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CHURCHES
3. FORTIFICATIONS
4. HABITATION REMAINS
5. INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND ENIGMATIC SITES
6. MORTUARY SITES
7. POTTERY VESSELS
8. NON-POTTERY OBJECTS
9. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION
APPENDIX: COMPREHENSIVE LIST OF CHRISTIAN FINDS FROM THE WEST BANK SURVEY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arabic Summary
Plates
Figures

Citation preview

BAR S1421 2005

SUDAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH SOCIETY PUBLICATION NUMBER 14

ADAMS

The West Bank Survey from Faras to Gemai 3. Sites of Christian Age

William Y. Adams THE WEST BANK SURVEY FROM FARAS TO GEMAI

BAR International Series 1421 2005 B A R red cover template.indd 1

21/07/2010 10:03:25

SUDAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH SOCIETY PUBLICATION NUMBER 14

The West Bank Survey from Faras to Gemai 3. Sites of Christian Age

William Y. Adams

BAR International Series 1421 2005

ISBN 9781841718606 paperback ISBN 9781407328638 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841718606 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Contents

List of Tables

viii

List of Figures

ix-x

List of Plates

xi-xiii

1. Introduction The development of the survey The organization of the volume The meaning of “Christian” Expeditions Acknowledgements

1-9 1 5 5 5 8

2. Churches The church classification 6-G-7: Gezira Dabarosa Church 5-0-14: Abdel Qadir prototype church (?) 5-T-1: Kisinarti Church 5-T-2: Abu Sir Church 5-T-4: Gaminarti Church 5-X-1: Gendal Irki Church 5-X-44: Meili Island Church West Bank churches not reported in this volume

11-27 11 11 15 17 18 20 21 23 26

3. Fortifications 5-T-29: Late Christian fortified tower, Abu Sir 5-T-1: Walled compound, Kisinarti Island 5-S-31: Christian fortified settlement, Nabash Island 5-S-32: Christian fortified settlement, Nabash Island

29-34 29 30 31 33

4. Habitation Remains 24-E-30: Early Christian houses, Faras 24-I-18: Christian houses of uncertain age, Faras 24-M-14: Christian? Building of uncertain age, Faras 24-R-6: Christian (?) Houses of uncertain age, Debeira 24-V-12: Christian house remains of uncertain age, Argin 24-V-13: Ballaña and Early Christian houses, Argin 24-V-15, 24-V-16, and 24-W-20: Christian sherd concentrations, Argin 6-B-20: Christian habitation? of uncertain age, Argin 6-B-21: Christian sherd concentration, Argin 6-G-6: Ballaña and Classic Christian village, Gezira Dabarosa 5-0-15: Early Christian houses and enclosure, Abdel Qadir 5-S-24: Ballaña and Early Christian houses, Mirgissa 5-S-30: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Shamnarti Island 5-S-33: Late Christian settlement, Shargait Island 5-T-39: Late Christian house, Matuga Island 5-T-40: Late Christian building, Matuga Island 5-T-41: Christian habitations of uncertain date, Deir Island 5-T-42: Late Christian settlement, Deir Island 5-T-45: Late Christian settlement and graves, Dukule Island 5-T-47: Late Christian settlement and kiln, Gaminarti Island 5-T-51: Christian habitation refuse, Serrarti Island 5-T-52: Late Christian stone huts, Kisinarti Island 5-T-53: Classic Christian stone huts, Shagir Island

35-69 35 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 44 45 46 47 47 47 48 48 48 48 49 49 49

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5-X-1: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Gendal Irki 5-X-32: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Kasanarti Island 5-X-29: X-Group and Early Christian houses, Gemai 5-X-37: Meroitic, Ballaña, and Christian structures and graves, Gemai 5-X-41: Early Christian house, Gemai 5-X-43: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Meili Island 5-X-12: Classic and Late (?) Christian settlement, Amashkeit Island West Bank habitation sites not reported in this volume

49 53 66 67 67 68 68 69

5. Industrial, commercial, and enigmatic sites 24-E-21: Early and Classic Christian pottery factory, Faras 24-N-3: Early Christian pottery kilns, Serra 5-T-46: Late Christian pottery kilns, Dukule Island 5-T-47: Late Christian settlement and kiln, Gaminarti Island 24-R-7: Early Christian unidentified structure, Debeira 5-0-16: Early Christian wineshop (?), Abdel Qadir 5-S-10: Early Christian building, Mirgissa 5-X-30: Christian stone-lined basin, Mirgissa

71-97 71 89 93 94 94 94 97 97

6. Mortuary sites 24-E-28: Christian cemeteries, Faras 24-E-29: Christian brick tombs, Faras 24-M-11: Early Christian cemetery, Serra 24-R-4: Christian cemetery, Debeira 24-R-9: Christian cemetery, Debeira 24-R-11: Ballaña and Christian cemetery, Debeira 24-R-12: Ballaña and Christian cemetery, Debeira 24-R-14: Christian cemetery, Debeira 24-R-19: Christian cemetery, Debeira 24-V-7: Christian graves, Argin 24-V-9: Meroitic, Ballaña (?) and Christian cemetery, Argin 6-B-13: Christian cemetery, Argin 6-F-2: Christian graves, Gezira Dabarosa 6-G-2: Meroitic, Ballaña, and Christian cemetery, Gezira Dabarosa 6-G-8: Christian cemetery, Gezira Dabarosa 6-G-11: Christian (?) grave, Gezira Dabarosa 5-0-10: Christian (?) grave, Abdel Qadir 5-T-2: Christian graves, Abu Sir 5-S-16: Christian graves in Pharaonic hut, Mirgissa 5-S-21: Christian (?) graves, Mirgissa 5-S-22: Christian (?) grave, Mirgissa 5-S-23: Ballaña and Christian graves, Mirgissa 5-S-29: Christian cemetery, Shamnarti Island 5-T-27: Ballaña and Christian cemetery, Abu Sir 5-T-28: Christian cemetery, Abu Sir 5-T-30: Christian cemetery, Abu Sir 5-T-33: Christian grave, Abu Sir 5-T-36: Meroitic, Ballaña, Christian, and Muslim cemetery, Matuga Island 5-T-37: Christian cemetery, Matuga Island 5-T-43: Christian and Muslim cemetery, Tila Island 5-T-44: Christian cemetery, Dukule Island 5-T-49: Meroitic (?), Ballaña (?) and Christian cemetery, Gaminarti Island 5-T-50: Ballaña? and Christian cemetery, Serrarti Island 5-X-31 and 5-X-39: Ballaña? and Christian cemetery, Gemai 5-X-36: Christian cemetery, Gemai 5-X-40: Meroitic and Christian cemetery, Gemai 5-X-45: Christian cemetery, Meili Island West Bank mortuary sites not reported in this volume 7. Pottery vessels Classificatory terminology

129-159 129 vi

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99-127 99 101 101 101 102 102 103 103 103 103 104 104 105 105 105 107 107 107 108 108 108 108 109 110 113 113 113 113 118 118 119 119 119 120 121 122 126 127

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Family D. The Nubian hand-made wares Group D.II. X-Group and earlier Christian domestic wares (Plates 12a-c) Group D.III: Later Christian domestic wares 12 Family N. The Nubian wheel-made wares Group N.II: X-Group wares 19 Group N.III: Early Christian Wares 21 Group N.IV: Classic Christian wares 29 Group N.V: Post-Classic Christian wares 37 Group N.VI. Late Christian wares 39 Group N.VII: Terminal Christian wares 41 Group NU: Nubian coarse utility wares Family A: the Aswan wares Group A.II: Byzantine Aswan wares 49 Group A.III: Early Islamic Aswan wares 54 Group A.IV: Medieval Aswan wares 55 Family T: Middle Egyptian mud wares Sub-family LB: Ballas wares Form classes and forms Decorative colors Decorative styles Decoration on the Nubian utility wares Maker’s marks Owners’ graffiti on pottery 8. Non-pottery objects Objects of ceramic and unfired clay, other than vessels Objects of glass Objects of metal Objects of bronze Objects of iron Objects of stone Objects of bone, ivory, and shell Objects of fabric and fiber Objects of leather Ostraka

161-184 161 168 170 170 172 173 180 180 181 182

9. Concluding discussion The sites Distribution and preservation Continuity of occupation Building techniques Churches Fortifications Houses Industries Commerce Mortuary sites The finds Pottery Non-pottery finds Cultural continuity and change

185-192 185 185 185 185 186 187 187 188 188 189 190 190 191 191

Appendix: Comprehensive list of Christian finds from the West Bank Survey

193-198

Bibliography

199-201

Arabic Summary

vii

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132 133 133 134 134 134 136 140 140 140 144 144 144 149 149 149 149 150 153 153 155 158 158

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LIST OF TABLES 1

Chronology of Christian Nubian phases.

5

2

Christian sites on the West Bank and islands, Faras to Gemai.

3

Registered Christian vessels from the West Bank Survey, tallied by ware and vessel form.

4

Registered Christian vessels from the West Bank Survey, tallied according to form class.

5

Registered objects of ceramic and unfired clay from Christian sites.

6

Registered finds of glass from Christian sites.

170

7

Registered objects of metal from Christian sites.

170

8

Registered objects of stone from Christian sites.

173

9

Registered objects of bone, ivory, and shell from Christian sites.

180

10

Registered finds of fabric and fiber from Christian sites.

181

11

Registered finds of leather from Christian sites.

181

12

Registered ostraka from Christian sites.

182

6-8

8

150 162-163

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LIST OF FIGURES

1

Map of the survey area

2

2

Map showing omodias from Faras to Gemai

3

3

Map showing foreign concessions in the survey area

4

4

Map showing distribution of Christian sites

5

Developmental phases in Nubian church architecture

12

6

Plan of Church 6-G-7, Gezira Dabarosa

13

7

Plan of prototype Church (?) 5-0-14, Abdel Qadir

15

8

Plan of Church 5-T-1, Kisinarti Island

17

9

Plan of Church 5-T-2, Abu Sir

19

10

Plan of Church 5-T-4, Gaminarti Island

20

11

Plan and cross-section of Church 5-X-1, Gendal Irki

21

12

Plan and cross-section of Church 5-X-44, Meili Island

24

13

Plan and cross-sections of fortified Tower 5-T-29, Abu Sir

14

Plan of fortification wall, church and houses at Site 5-T-1, Kisinarti Island

15

Plan of fortified Settlement 5-S-32, Nabash Island

16

Overall plan of Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa

38

17

Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa: plan of Sector I

39

18

Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa: plan of Sector IV

42

19

Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa: plan of Sector V

42

20

Schematic plan of Sites 5-0-14, 5-0-15, and 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir

21

Plan of settlement Site 5-X-1, Gendal Irki

End pocket

22

Site 5-X-32, Kasanarti Island: plan and cross-sections of Classic Christian houses

End pocket

23

Site 5-X-32, Kasanarti Island: plan and cross-sections of Late Christian houses

End pocket

24

Plan of House 5-X-41, Gemai.

68

25

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan showing excavated areas

72

26

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan showing the different room suites

73

27

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: southwest to northeast cross-sections

between 74 & 75

28

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: southeast to northwest cross-sections

between 74 & 75

29

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan of Phase 1 remains

74

30

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan of Phase 2 remains

75

31

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan of Phase 3 remains

76

32

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan of Phase 4 remains

77

33

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan of Phase 5 remains

78

34

Site 24-E-21, Faras Potteries: plan of Phase 6 remains

79

35

Idealized diagram of typical double-chamber kiln

81

36

Plans of Serra Kilns, Site 24-N-3

90

37

Plan of Christian wineshop or tavern, Site 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir

95

38

Partial plan of Abu Sir Cemetery 5-T-27

between 110 & 111

39

Partial plan of Matuga Cemetery 5-T-36

114

40

Typical vessel forms in Wares R3 and R5

135

41

Early Christian white wares: cup, goblet, and bowl forms

137

9

between 30 & 31 between 34 & 35

between 44 & 45

ix

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9

31

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42

Early Christian white wares: footed bowl, plate, and vase forms

138

43

Early Christian white wares: small pots, lamps, lids, and larger vessels

139

44

Classic Christian Ware W5 vessel forms

141

45

Classic Christian Wares R7, W6, and W10: cup, bowl, and plate forms

142

46

Classic Christian Wares R7, W6, and W10: vases, small pots, and other forms

143

47

Classic Christian Wares R23 and W7: typical vessel forms

145

48

Late Christian Group N.VI: cup, goblet, and bowl forms

146

49

Late Christian Group N.VI: vases, qullas, and other forms

147

50

Terminal Christian Wares R28 and W14: typical vessel forms

148

51

Distinguishing characteristics of Early Christian decorative Style N.III

154

52

Distinguishing characteristics of Classic Christian decorative Style N.IVA

155

53

Distinguishing characteristics of Classic Christian decorative Style N.IVA (cont.)

156

54

Distinguishing characteristics of Late Christian decorative Style N.VIA

157

55

Distinguishing characteristics of Terminal Christian decorative Style N.VII

158

56

Maker’s marks and owner’s graffiti on pottery vessels

159

57

Ceramic figurines

164

58

Modeled clay nose and phallus

164

59

Vessel handle

165

60

Ceramic stoppers(?)

165

61

Incised decoration on the tops of stamping seals

165

62

Hone(?) of marble set into clay base

165

63

Ceramic spindle whorls

166

64

Perforated disc ground from a qadus knob

167

65

Clay gaming board(?) and gaming die

168

66

Clay amphora seals

169

67

Stamp designs on amphora seals

169

68

Practice sherd with painted designs

171

69

Incised sherd, probably a weight

171

70

Glass vessel fragments

171

71

Fragmentary objects of bronze

172

72

Small iron objects

174

73

Fragmentary iron implements of unknown use

174

74

Large sculptured stone fragments

175

75

Smaller sculptured stone pieces

176

76

Small incised stone items

177

77

Small discs of stone, ivory, bone, and shell

178

78

Grinding and chopping stones

178

79

Sandstone weights

179

80

Alabaster bowl fragments

179

81

Paleolithic scraper/chopper

180

82

Leather shoe

182

83

Leather bag fragment

183

84

Leather sheath fragments

183

85

Unidentified leather fragments

183

x

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LIST OF PLATES 1

Church remains a. 6-G-7. Gezira Dabarosa Church from the west. b. 6-G-7. Gezira Dabarosa Church, detail of the east end. c. 5-0-14. Abdel Qadir prototype Church (?) from the south. d. 5-0-14. Abdel Qadir prototype Church (?), detail of pulpit. e. 5-T-1. Kisinarti Church from the southwest. f. 5-T-1. Kisinarti Church, the central cupola.

2

Church remains a. 5-T-2. Abu Sir Church from the southwest. b. 5-T-4. Gaminarti Church, denuded remains of the apse. c. 5-X-1. Gendal Irki Church from the north. d. 5-X-1. Gendal Irki Church, interior view of eastern rooms. e. 5-X-1. Gendal Irki Church, remnants of paintings and inscriptions. f. 5-X-44. Meili Island Church, interior view.

3

Fortifications and habitation remains a. 5-T-29. Abu Sir fortified watchtower. b. 5-S-31. Nabash Island, habitation remains within the fortified enclosure. c. 5-S-32. Nabash Island, the fortification wall. d. 24-E-30. Faras, remains of Early Christian House 1. e. 5-S-30. Shamnarti Island, remains of House A. f. 5-S-30. Shamnarti Island, detail of House A.

4

Habitation sites 6-G-6 and 5-X-1 a. 6-G-6. Gezira Dabarosa, Rooms in House 10 (Colorado) b. 6-G-6. Gezira Dabarosa, Rooms in House 11 (Colorado) c. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. General view looking east. d. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. Interior ovens in Unit B, House 1. e. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. Subterranean vaulted chamber in Unit B, House 2. f. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. Unit C, House 2, from the west.

5

Habitation remains a. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. House 1 (the castle-house) from the south. b. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. Remains of Houses 3 (left) and 4 (right). c. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. Remains of House 3, Rooms 11-14, from the southeast. d. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. House 8, from the north. e. 5-T-1, Kisinarti. Remains of House 2. f. 5-X-41, Gemai. House remains, with Room 2 in foreground.

6

Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21 a. General view from the west, after excavation. b. Interior of Room 10, at Phase 2. c. Interior of Room 18, at Level 4. d. Base of the stairs in Room 12, seen from Room 11. e. Small interior kiln in Room 7, Phase 3. f. Room 18 at Level 6, showing mixing basins and wall kiln.

7

Kilns at the Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21 a. Kiln 3 from the east. b. Top of Kiln 3, showing ascending steps. c. Perforated floor of the firing chamber in Kiln 3. d. Kiln 4 from the south. e. Kilns 4 (left) and 5 (right). f. Stratified ash and refuse deposits east of the kilns.

8

Industrial, commercial, and enigmatic sites a. 24-N-3, Serra. Kiln 2 from the south. b. 24-N-3, Serra. Kiln 6 from the south.

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c. 24-R-7, Debeira. Enigmatic circular structure. d. 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir. The wineshop or tavern, from the northwest corner. e. 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir. The wineshop or tavern, Room IV in the foreground. f. 5-X-30, Gemai. Enigmatic basin and channel. 9

Grave superstructures a. 24-M-11, Serra. Stone superstructure of adult grave. b. 24-R-9, Debeira. Brick outline superstructure of a grave. c. 5-X-31, Gemai. “Spine and ribs” brick superstructure of Grave A. d. 6-G-8, Gezira Dabarosa. Solid brick superstructure of Grave 5.

10

Graves a. 24-E-28, Faras. Carved design over the entrance to Tomb 7. b. 5-T-27, Abu Sir. Grave 12, stones closing the side niche. c. 5-X-36, Gendal Irki. Shrouded and tied body in Grave 1. d. 5-T-27, Abu Sir. Shrouded and tied body in side niche, Grave 4. e. 5-S-23, Mirgissa. Body in side niche, Grave 2. f. 6-G-2, Gezira Dabarosa. Mummified body in grave (not numbered).

11

Burials and basket cache a. 5-S-16, Mirgissa. Extended burial in Grave 1. b. 5-T-28, Abu Sir. Extended burial; grave not numbered. c. 5-X-45, Meili Island. Two burials on left sides, in Grave 2. d. 5-S-29, Shamnarti. Contorted burials in Grave W1. e. 5-T-27, Abu Sir. Cache of baskets.

12

Hand-made wares; wheel-made utility wares a. Pots of Ware H1, Form U12. b. Pots of Ware H2, Form U26. c. Smaller vessels of Group DII and Group D.III wares. d. Pot and storage jar of Ware H4. e. Resinated footed jars of Ware U5, Form X15. f. Storage jars of Ware U5, Form Y3.

13

Early and Classic Christian wares a. Early Christian vessels, Groups N.II and N.III. b. Small bowls (“saucers”) of Ware W5. c. “Saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22. d. Unfired “Saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22. e. “Saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22. f. Unfired “saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22.

14

Classic and Late Christian Nubian wares; Aswan wares a. Miscellaneous Classic Christian vessels. b. Classic Christian vases. c. Late and Terminal Christian vessels. d. Terminal Christian vessels, Wares W15 and R28. e. Imported amphorae. f. Molded lamps of Aswan Ware R4.

15

Non-pottery objects of ceramic and unfired clay a. Fragments of architectural elements. b. Ceramic toilet. c. Pot stamps and sealing stamps: side views. d. Pot stamps and sealing stamps: underside views. e. Impression of sealing stamp. f. Impression of pot stamp.

16

Non-pottery objects of ceramic, potsherds, and unfired clay a. Miscellaneous objects of unfired clay. b. Pot scrapers made from potsherds. c. Miscellaneous discoidal objects.

17

Clay seals a. Signet impression on clay. b. Signet impression on clay. c. Clay jar seals with stamped impressions. xii

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18

Objects of glass, metal, and shell a. Glass flask. b. Objects of metal. c. Iron chain and hobble. d. Incised shell ornament.

19

Objects of sculptured stone a. Coptic tombstone. b. Tombstone portion. c. Portion of decorated sandstone block. d. Portion of sandstone jamb. e. Miscellaneous sandstone pieces. f. Marble altar top.

20

Miscellaneous stone objects a. Fragment of marble tombstone. b. Sandstone weight; front view. c. Sandstone weight; end view. d. Miscellaneous small stone objects.

21

Leather shoes; ostraka a. Pair of leather shoes. b. Ostrakon. c. Ostrakon. d. Ostrakon.

xiii

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1. INTRODUCTION excavation in well over half of them. They included eight churches, four fortifications, 77 habitation sites, 21 industrial and miscellaneous sites, 18 rock picture and/or inscription sites, and 170 mortuary sites. (Some sites are included more than once in this enumeration, because they involved remains of more than one type.) The amount of excavation we did in any given site varied according to circumstances that will be considered more fully later. Of the sites discovered, over 150 are described in this and the companion West Bank Survey volumes (Adams 2004; Nordström forth.). A few sites discovered by us are omitted from inclusion here because the remains were too scanty to be informative, and a few others because they were much more fully documented afterward by other expeditions. The latter category includes nearly all Paleolithic and Neolithic sites, investigated by the Combined Prehistoric Expedition (Wendorf 1968; Wendorf et al. 1964; Wendorf et al. 1965; 1966) and the University of Colorado Expedition (Irwin and Wheat 1965), as well as rock picture sites documented by the expedition of the East German Academy of Sciences (Hintze 1964; 1965; Otto and Otto 1991; 1993). In cases where excavation was begun by us and later carried on by another expedition, only our own work is reported here, while readers are referred to the relevant publications of the later excavators. An exception is made however in the case of the large village Site 6-G-6. This site, first investigated by us, was later dug in extenso by the University of Colorado Expedition, but was never published. Because of the importance of the site I have thought it desirable to publish as full a report as possible, and have received permission from the Colorado authorities to publish their results along with our own. For that purpose I have had full access to the excavation records as well as the artifacts in the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History.

This is the second in a series of volumes detailing the results of an archaeological survey carried out in the most northerly part of the Sudan, between 1960 and 1965. Like all other archaeological work in that area at the time, it was undertaken in anticipation of the flooding of the region by the Aswan High Dam. The Survey was financed and outfitted by the Sudan Antiquities Service (as it was then called) but directed by personnel, including the present writer, employed by UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). For that reason it has been designated as the UNESCO – Sudan Antiquities Service Survey. For convenience, it will be referred to here simply as the West Bank Survey. An earlier volume, describing the Meroitic and Ballaña phase sites recorded in the survey, was published in 2004 (Adams 2004). The present volume deals exclusively with sites dating from the Christian Nubian period, between approximately AD 580 and 1500. These sites are listed in Table 2, and their geographical distribution is shown in Figure 4. Subsequent volumes will describe sites from the earlier, pre-Pharaonic and Pharaonic phases of Nubian history. The circumstances, work, and limitations of the UNESCO – Sudan Antiquities Service Survey have been very fully described in Adams 2004, and will be only briefly recapitulated here. In brief, the survey covered an area on the west bank of the Nile extending from Faras, on the Egyptian border, to the village of Gemai, 62km to the south (Figure 1). Also included within the survey area were all of the islands of the Second Cataract to the west of the main Nile channel—more than 20 islands in all. It had been our intention to follow up the west bank survey with a comparable survey of the east bank, but while our work was still in progress the Scandinavian Joint Expedition asked for and received a license to investigate the east bank, thereby relieving us of that responsibility. After completion of the initial survey from Faras to Gemai, the UNESCO – Sudan Antiquities Service Survey continued to explore the region upriver from Gemai, along both banks, as far as the head of the proposed reservoir at Dal (cf. Figure 1). The results of that survey, directed by Mr A. J. Mills, will be separately published; they are not included in the present volumes. Eventually, large areas of the west bank were granted as excavation concessions for foreign archaeological missions (Figure 3). However, those concessions with one exception were granted after the time of our initial exploration, and often on the basis of our initial findings. In practice, therefore, we surveyed the whole area between Faras and Gemai except for the Buhen Concession of the Egypt Exploration Society, which had already been granted before we began our work. During the course of four seasons the West Bank Survey recorded a total of 262 sites, ranging in age from Neolithic to early modern, and carried out at least some

The development of the survey Although the West Bank Survey was recognized from the beginning as a salvage operation, in advance of the region’s inundation, it was far from clear at the outset how much could be or should be salvaged. There was uncertainty as to how many and what kinds of sites were in the area, as to what resources the Antiquities Service would have available for our work, and as to whether foreign expeditions would come to share part of the salvage burden. Importantly too there was uncertainty as to how long UNESCO would continue to support the work of the three of us (Jan Verwers, Hans-Åke Nordström, and myself) who directed the field work. For all these reasons our work in the early seasons was somewhat tentative. Naturally we made a record of every site that we found, but in many cases we did just enough excavation to establish the nature, age, and condition of the

1

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Figure 1. Map of Lower Nubia and the Batn el-Hajjar, to show areas surveyed by the West Bank Survey (shaded area), the Scandinavian Joint Expedition, and the later Batn el-Hajjar survey of the Sudan Antiquities Service.

site. Our expectation was that either a foreign expedition would carry on from there, or else that we ourselves would return for fuller investigation at a later date. By the third season however all of the various foreign concessions had been granted, and it was then clear that everything not already granted would be our responsibility alone. We also had by that time a much clearer sense of priorities—an understanding of what most urgently needed to be done, to fill out the picture of Nubian prehistory and history. As a result we did substantially more, and better documented, excavation in the third and later seasons

than in the first two.1 This will be apparent in the reports on some of the more important sites, like Sites 5-T-36, 5-X1, and 5-X-32, in the pages that follow. Our excavation methods (which all three of us had to learn after arrival in the Sudan) were not different from those employed by nearly all expeditions in the Nile Valley. That is, we employed a large number of local laborers, who used the turiya to rake sand and other overburden 1 For a fuller discussion of the evolution of the survey, its successes and failures see also Adams 1992.

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Figure 2. Map showing the names of local districts within the West Bank Survey area.

into baskets, which were then carried away and dumped beyond the limits of the site. Our documentation for each site was generally though not uniformly comprehensive. In principle we wrote a detailed description of every grave, and in habitation sites a description of every room, and we drew maps at a scale of 1:50 of all the most important sites. We also drew cross-sections of several stratified sites. Because of the pressure of time, however, we did not invariably live up to these standards, as readers of the

following pages may observe. It is important in this connection to note the we, the three UNESCO archaeologists, had no team of technical assistants. We ourselves had not only to write field notes but to draw plans and profiles, to take, develop and print photographs, and to register object finds, and this circumstance may help to explain certain deficiencies in the record. The most complete aspect of our documentation is undoubtedly the photographic record, which is extensive for nearly every site. Our photo archive includes over 3000 site photos, all 3

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Figure 3. Map showing foreign excavation concessions within the West Bank Survey area.

of which have been fully catalogued. Object finds were registered comprehensively for each site. Each artifact was recorded on a separate card, and many were drawn. Nearly all objects, other than small fragments, were also photographed in black and white, and a few in color. Because of the sheer volume of material as well as the time limitations, however, like objects were nearly always photographed in groups rather than individually. For convenience also, objects were grouped according to type rather than according to provenience. That is, pottery bowls from many different sites were pho-

tographed together (cf. Plates 12-14), as were iron knives, glass beads, etc. Our file of object photos nevertheless includes more than 1,800 individual photos. Because of our practice of grouping objects by type rather than by provenience, it is not possible in these pages to illustrate the individual finds from each site along with the description of the site itself. Instead, an abbreviated list of registered finds is appended at the end of each site description, but more extended description of the object finds is deferred until later chapters, following the series of site descriptions. 4

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With the rarest of exceptions, all objects found by the West Bank Survey are now in the Sudan National Museum. A complete list of all the finds, with their Sudan Museum accession numbers, will be found in the Appendix at the end of the volume.

burying the dead always in extended position, with head to the west, and without any offerings to accompany the body. Not all of these traits were liturgically connected with the practice of the Christian faith; they just happened to come into use at the time when Christianity was adopted. It follows then that “Christian,” as applied to an era, is simply an archaeological phase marker in the same way as are “Meroitic” and “C-Group.” In this volume, sites and burials are identified as Christian if they exhibit the distinctive traits listed in the previous paragraph. It is not meant to suggest that every individual buried in a “Christian” grave or living in a “Christian” house was an active follower of the faith. Indeed we know that there were Muslims resident in some of the larger Christian Nubian communities during the Middle Ages. Inevitably, considerable cultural change took place during the nine centuries of the Christian era, marked by changes in house types, in church types, in pottery types, and even in burial ritual, as well as in the size and distribution of settlements. For these reasons it has been desirable to divide the period up into a succession of subphases, marked especially by distinctive church, house, and pottery types. The successive phases are designed as Transitional, Early Christian, Classic Christian, Late Christian, and Terminal Christian; their approximate dates are indicated in Table 1. These phase designations will be employed throughout the present volume.

The organization of the volume A word of explanation is in order about the arrangement of the contents in the pages that follow. There are chapters dealing with each of the major site types, viz: churches, fortifications, habitation sites, industrial and miscellaneous sites, and mortuary sites. Within each section, sites are described essentially in order from north to south. This means that they are not described strictly in numerical order.2 A glance at Figure 4 will show that, because of peculiarities of geography, sites having the numerical prefix “24” are to the north of those having the prefix “6,” which in turn are to the north of those having the prefix “5.” The succession of site descriptions therefore proceeds in the same order. Some cemeteries were occupied in the Meroitic and Ballaña periods as well as in the Christian period, as were a few habitation sites. In all such cases only the Christian components of the site are described here, while the preChristian remains are described in an earlier volume (Adams 2004). The description of each site is followed by an abbreviated listing of all the registered finds from that site. However, more detailed discussion and illustration of the artifactual finds from all the sites is reserved for two chapters following the site descriptions. A final chapter considers what the West Bank Survey has contributed to our understanding of the history and culture of Christian Nubia.

TABLE I. CHRONOLOGY OF CHRISTIAN NUBIAN PHASES. Phase Terminal Christian Late Christian 2 Late Christian 1 Classic Christian 2 Classic Christian 1 Early Christian 2 Early Christian 1 Transitional

The meaning of “Christian” In Lower Nubia, the historical period that we call Christian lasted for something like nine centuries, from a little before AD 600 to sometime around AD 1500. It was the most recent of the cultural periods whose remains were investigated during the West Bank Survey, and also one of the most long-enduring. For those reasons its remains were very much the best preserved of all the sites encountered during the survey. They were also very much the most numerous, accounting for more than one-third of all the sites recorded. Christian sites are not always, or even usually, identified by any specific evidence for the practice of the Christian faith. Most of the time they are identified by diagnostic or distinctive archaeological traits, just as are the remains of all other Nubian cultural periods. In the case of townsites the most conclusive era-marker is of course the presence of a church, but there are also several distinctive house types, and any number of distinctive pottery types which were made only during the Christian period. In the case of cemetery sites, diagnostic traits include a number of grave superstructure forms, and the practice of

5

5

1400-1500 1300-1400 1100-1300 950-1100 850-950 750-850 625-750 550-625

Table 2 lists the 92 Christian sites that were investigated by us during the West Bank Survey, as well as a number of other sites that were previously investigated by others.

2 For explanation of the system of site numbering see Adams 2004, 11.

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TABLE 2. CHRISTIAN SITES ON THE WEST BANK AND ISLANDS, FARAS TO GEMAI. Sites shown in italics are published elsewhere, and are not described in this volume. Site no.

Locality

Description

Original Investigator1

Fuller Investigation2

EBC OUE OUE EBC EBC OUE OUE PE PE JLB SAS EBC SAS SC U-SAS U-SAS EBC OUE U-SAS SAS SC U-SAS EBC U-SAS

PE OUE OUE EBC EBC OUE OUE PE PE F-AE

U-SAS U-SAS EBC OUE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

SAS U-SAS JLB U-SAS U-SAS

U-SAS U-SAS EBC U-SAS U-SAS

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS SAS EBC U-SAS SC SAS UGE UGE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS JLB U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS UGE UGE U-SAS UGE UGE UGE UGE U-SAS SE SE SE SE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

Churches 24-E-18 24-E-19 24-E-20 24-E-23 24-E-24 24-E-25 24-E-26 24-E-37 24-E-38 24-I-1 24-N-6 24-R-2 24-R-44 24-W-3 6-G-7 6-K-3 6-K-5 5-0-1 5-0-14 5-T-1 5-T-2 5-T-4 5-X-1 5-X-44

Faras Faras Faras Faras Faras Faras Faras Faras Faras Aksha Serra Debeira Debeira Argin Gezira Dabarosa Meinarti Buhen Abdel Qadir Abdel Qadir Kisinarti Island Abu Sir Gaminarti Island Gemai Meili Island

Citadel Church Great Church Nabindiffi Church North Desert Church South Desert Church Rivergate Church Church on the Meroitic mastaba field Church on the south slope of the kom Faras Cathedral Aksha Temple converted to church Fragment of granite column and brick pavement Debeira West Church Small church Deir el-Bollor Church Gezira Dabarosa Church Meinarti Church Buhen Church Abdel Qadir Church Abdel Qadir prototype church Kisinarti Church Abu Sir Church Gaminarti Church Gendal Irki Church Meili Island Church

UGE UGE

Fortifications 5-T-1 5-T-29 6-F-1 5-S-31 5-S-32

Kisinarti Island Abu Sir Buhen Nabash Island Nabash Island

Irregular area surrounded by massive wall Fortified tower Christian occupation in Buhen fortress Large area surrounded by massive wall Irregular area surrounded by massive wall Habitation remains

24-E-30 24-I-18 24-M-14 24-R-1 24-R-3 24-R-6 24-R-8 24-R-44 24-R-59 24-R-60 24-V-12 24-V-13 24-V-15 24-V-16 24-W-20 6-B-20 6-B-21 6-G-6 6-K-3 5-0-15 5-S-24 5-S-30 1 2

Faras Faras Serra Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Argin Argin Argin Argin Argin Argin Argin Gezira Dabarosa Meinarti Island Abdel Qadir Mirgissa Shamnarti Island

Scattered houses Scattered sherds, with indications of house House Mud-brick building 2-storey vaulted buildings Denuded remains of small houses Debeira West Village Small settlement and church Single large building Large complex of buildings Denuded habitation refuse and bricks Ballaña and Christian structures Concentration of sherds; no structure seen Concentration of sherds; no structure seen Concentration of sherds; no structure seen Floor with occupation refuse Mound with concentration of sherds X-Group and Christian village Meinarti village Scattered small houses Two small X-Group and Christian houses Scattered rude huts

Original investigator. For abbreviations see end of table. Fuller or subsequent investigation. For abbreviations see end of table.

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TABLE 2. CHRISTIAN SITES ON THE WEST BANK AND ISLANDS, FARAS TO GEMAI (CONT.). Sites shown in italics are published elsewhere, and are not described in this volume. Site no.

Locality

Description

Original Investigator1

Fuller Investigation2

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

OUE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

OUE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

OUE U-SAS GAS GAS

OUE OUE EBC U-SAS U-SAS SC SAS SAS U-SAS U-SAS SAS U-SAS SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

OUE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS UGE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS SE U-SAS SE UCE U-SAS UCE

Habitation remains 5-S-31 5-S-32 5-S-33 5-T-39 5-T-40 5-T-41 5-T-42 5-T-45 5-T-47 5-T-51 5-T-52 5-T-53 5-X-12 5-X-1 5-X-29 5-X-32 5-X-37 5-X-41 5-X-43

Nabash Island Nabash Island Shargait Island Matuga Island Matuga Island Deir Island Deir Island Dukule Island Gaminarti Island Serrarti Island Kisinarti Island Shagir Island Amashkeit Island Gendal Irki Gemai Kasanarti Island Gemai Gemai Meili Island

Fortified settlement Fortified settlement Rude stone huts Small stone house Single brick room Scattered brick and stone houses Numerous small stone huts Numerous small stone huts Dense cluster of huts and some brick houses Dense occupation refuse; no structures Scattered stone huts Three small stone huts Cluster of stone rooms Settlement Ballaña and Christian house Large settlement Scatter of sherds with traces of structures Four-room house Small stone and brick houses Industrial and miscellaneous sites

24-E-21 24-N-3 24-R-7 5-0-16 5-S-10 5-T-46 5-X-30

Faras Serra Debeira Abdel Qadir Mirgissa Dukule Island Gemai

Faras pottery kilns Serra pottery kilns Large round structure of brick Tavern (?) Tavern (?) Two pottery kilns Oval stone-lined basin Epigraphic sites

24-E-22 24-I-15 5-S-28 5-T-36

Faras Faras Shamnarti Island Matuga Island

Inscriptions in Anchorite’s Grotto Incised cross designs in rock Rock pictures Rock pictures at Matuga Cemetery Mortuary sites

24-E-27 24-E-28 24-E-29 24-M-11 24-R-4 24-R-9 24-R-11 24-R-12 24-R-14 24-R-19 24-V-1 24-V-7 24-V-9 6-B-13 6-F-2 6-G-2 1 2

Faras Faras Faras Serra Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Debeira Argin Argin Argin Argin Gezira Dabarosa Gezira Dabarosa

Brick-vaulted graves in Meroitic cemetery Four very large cemeteries Two large brick-vault tombs Graves with stone-mastaba superstructures Large group of graves with stone heaps Graves with brick superstructures Ballaña and Christian cemetery Ballaña and Christian cemetery Graves with stone heaps at surface Graves with stone heaps at surface Huge Meroitic, Ballaña and Christian cemetery Five Christian graves Meroitic, Ballaña and Christian cemetery Christian cemetery Four Christian graves Meroitic, Ballaña and Christian cemetery

Original investigator. For abbreviations see end of table. Fuller or subsequent investigation. For abbreviations see end of table.

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TABLE 2. CHRISTIAN SITES ON THE WEST BANK AND ISLANDS, FARAS TO GEMAI (CONT.). Sites shown in italics are published elsewhere, and are not described in this volume. Site no.

Locality

Description

Original Investigator1

Fuller Investigation2

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS HBE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS HBE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

UCE U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

Mortuary sites 6-G-8 6-G-11 5-0-10 5-S-16 5-S-21 5-S-22 5-S-23 5-S-29 5-T-2 5-T-27 5-T-28 5-T-30 5-T-33 5-T-36 5-T-37 5-T-43 5-T-44 5-T-49 5-T-50 5-X-31 5-X-36 5-X-39 5-X-40 5-X-45 1 2

Gezira Dabarosa Gezira Dabarosa Abdel Qadir Mirgissa Mirgissa Mirgissa Mirgissa Shamnarti Island Abu Sir Abu Sir Abu Sir Abu Sir Abu Sir Matuga Island Matuga Island Tika Island Dukule Island Gaminarti Island Serrarti Island Gemai Gemai Gemai Gemai Meili Island

Large cemetery Single grave Single grave Graves intruded in Pharaonic hut A few graves Single grave Two Ballaña and Christian graves Small group of graves About 100 Christian graves Ballaña and Christian cemetery Small cemetery Graves with stone paving markers Single grave Meroitic, Ballaña and Christian cemetery Large cemetery Small cemetery Small cemetery Cemetery Cemetery Small cemetery Cemetery Small cemetery Christian graves in large Meroitic cemetery Graves with brick superstructures

U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS U-SAS

Original investigator. For abbreviations see end of table. Fuller or subsequent investigation. For abbreviations see end of table.

EXPEDITIONS

U-SAS, UNESCO and Sudan Antiquities Service survey of the West Bank, Faras to Gemai.

CPE, Combined Prehistoric Expedition of Museum of New Mexico and Southern Methodist University. EBC, Eckley B. Coxe Junior Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania Museum. EES, Egypt Exploration Society excavations at Buhen and Kor. F-AE, Franco-Argentine Expedition to Aksha. FE, French Expedition to Mirgissa. GAS, (East) German Academy of Sciences epigraphic survey of Sudanese Nubia. H-BE, Harvard-Boston excavations at Mirgissa. OIC, Oriental Institute of Chicago excavations at Dorginarti. OUE, Oxford University excavations at Faras. PE, Polish Expedition to Faras. S-A, Prehistoric Survey of Sandford and Arkell, 1936. SAS, Sudan Antiquities Survey, 1956. SC, Architectural survey of Somers Clarke, 1912. SJE, Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, excavation of Tomb of Amenemhat. UCE, University of Colorado excavations at Argin and Gezira Dabarosa. UCLA, University of California at Los Angeles, excavations at Dabenarti. UGE, University of Ghana Expedition to Debeira.

The distribution of all the sites listed in Table 2 is shown in Figure 4.

Acknowledgements I owe thanks to a very long list of persons, in the Sudan and abroad, for their assistance in carrying out the work of the West Bank Survey, and in the subsequent study and publication of the results. They are appropriately acknowledged in the Introduction to the preceding volume (Adams 2004). In the case specifically of the present volume, I am profoundly grateful to my friend and colleague, Professor G. M. Browne, for his translations of the ostraka, given in Chapters 5 and 8. The late Professor J. M. Plumley provided the translation of the Coptic tombstone 24-E-21/237, given in Chapter 8. I also owe thanks to Deborah Confer, Collections Manager at the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History, for giving me access to the collections as well as the records from the University of Colorado excavations at Site 6-G-6, which I have undertaken to publish in the present volume.

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U-SAS U-SAS

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Figure 4. Distribution of Christian sites in the West Bank Survey area.

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2. CHURCHES

Remains of no fewer than 24 churches were found on the west bank and islands between Faras and Gemai (cf. Table 2 and Figure 4). Many of those in the northern part of the area were large and impressive buildings, which had already attracted the attention of archaeologists and antiquarians in the early years of the twentieth century. These churches were reported variously in the publications of G. S. Mileham (1910), Somers Clarke (1912, 56-70), F. Ll. Griffith (1926, 54-86; 1927, 57-62), and U. Monneret de Villard (1935, 190-24). We did not attempt any further investigation in any of the northern churches described by those authors, and they are omitted from discussion here. In the area from Gezira Dabarosa southward however we found and excavated five previously unknown churches, as well as three churches that had been previously reported but not fully excavated or published. These buildings are described in the present chapter.

vator’s notes on the church are rather scanty; information here is derived mainly from the plan and photographs. Specifications Setting: immediately off the edge of the cultivated floodplain at Gezira Dabarosa. Surrounded by and partly overlying earlier remains of village Site 6-G-6 (see Figure 16). Built immediately adjacent to the southern part of the heavy stone wall surrounding the settlement. Size: 14 x 10m. Type: 3c. Plan: typical of Type 3c in all respects. Number of rooms: 8. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: rollag brick under walls; sandstone blocks under nave piers. Wall thickness: exterior walls 80cm; interior walls 60cm; nave piers 1.2 x 1.2m; higab walls 20cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: whitewashed plaster throughout. Doors: exterior doors with stone jambs on outer side; doors to eastern corner rooms rebated on inner side; doors to western corner rooms not rebated. Pivot stones were found in situ in the rebates of the two eastern corner rooms. Roof: undoubtedly vaulted. Central dome possible, in view of symmetrical spacing of piers. Floor: sandstone flagging in nave and aisles; hard mud in corner rooms. Interior features: parts of tribune, altar, higab, and pulpit well preserved. Stairway in SW corner room possible. Fill: purely drifted sand. Condition: well preserved to uniform height of about 1m throughout. All upper walls mined away by maroq diggers, who also left tops of nave piers hollowed out. Dating: typology suggests construction in the early Classic Christian period, although surrounding village dates back to Ballaña times. The underlying remains were not those of an earlier church. Lamps found in the fill suggest occupation throughout the Classic Christian period. A late Umayyad coin, struck before AD 750, was found in fill under the apse, and furnishes a terminus post quem.

THE CHURCH CLASSIFICATION In the following descriptions, churches are described in terms of the classificatory scheme developed by the present author in 1965 (Adams 1965a). The scheme encompasses five major types, designated by the numbers from 1 to 5, and several subtypes, designated by letters— for example 3a, 3b, and 3c. The major, numbered types represent a fairly clear-cut, though not absolutely rigid, developmental sequence, as illustrated in Figure 5. The subtypes however do not in all cases represent chronological change. That is, churches of Types 2a and 2b may have been built at the same time, as might churches of Types 3b and 3c. It is necessary to remember also that churches, once built, were likely to remain in use for many centuries, so that a community might have churches of two or three types all in use at once.

6-G-7: Gezira Dabarosa Church (Figure 6; Plates 1a-b) This church, of Classic Christian Type 3c, was located within the village Site 6-G-6, described in Chapter 4. Both stratigraphy and typology suggest that it was built late in the history of the community, which had been occupied at least since early Ballaña times, if not earlier still. (For the pre-Christian occupation phases see Adams 2004, 27-30, 95-109). The church was underlain by older buildings, not excavated, which might have been of either Ballaña or Early Christian date. Enough of the underlying walls was cleared to show that they were definitely not remains of an older church. In a test excavation beneath the apse, the University of Colorado Expedition found an Islamic coin datable to the early 8th century (Lister 1967, 6).1 The exca-

Interior features Northeast corner room Entered by a doorway at the north end of its west wall, from the north aisle. There was a raised threshold, formed by a single cut stone block, on the outer (aisle) side of the doorway. The door was rebated on the inner side, with a pivot stone in situ. Floor within the room was of hard mud. Plan and photos show a rectangular bin, enclosed by a 20-cm brick wall, in the southwest corner of the room, adjoining mainly the west wall. The southern end of its enclosing wall was not preserved.

1 The surrounding village 6-G-6, but not the church, was excavated by the University of Colorado Expedition. See the description of 6-G-6 in Chapter 4.

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Figure 5. Schematic diagram showing developmental phases in Nubian church architecture. Only the most prominent subtypes are shown.

Passage behind the apse This was 60cm wide at floor level, but above the floor it has been widened out to 75cm, by recessing the inner face of the east church wall—presumably to make passage easier.

floor was of hard mud. Photos and plan show a large rectangular bin adjoining the whole west wall, from the doorway to the northwest room corner. It was enclosed by a rather heavy wall of large stones, 30-35cm thick, and preserved to a height of about 15cm.

Southeast corner room. Entered by a doorway at the south end of the west wall, from the south aisle. There was apparently a raised stone threshold at the western side of the doorway, as in the northeast room. The doorway was rebated on the inner side, with a pivot stone in situ. The

Apse and tribune. The apse was relatively short and nearly half-round, suggesting the probability that it was designed from the beginning to contain a tribune. This is further indicated by the fact that there was no plaster or 12

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between the uprights was filled with masonry of smaller stones, plastered over. The spaces between the uprights were narrower on the north and south sides, and appear to have been filled simply with mud mortar. There was no filling between the uprights on the east side, which was probably hollow to receive a chalice. The altar was preserved to a height of about 70cm. Nave. To the west of the higab, the nave extended without interruption to the west wall of the church. It was without features. At the extreme west end were the doorways to the two western corner rooms. The whole of the nave as well as the adjoining aisles were floored with irregular but neatly laid sandstone slabs. Pulpit. The pulpit was in the usual position adjoining the west side of the northeast nave pier, with ascending steps from the west. Only the lower portion of the steps was preserved; the whole upper portion of the pulpit was missing. Possibly it had been mined away in order to reuse the cut stone. The surviving lower steps were formed of very nicely shaped pieces of cut sandstone, which were probably salvaged from an earlier context—possibly a temple. The width of the pulpit stairs was 70cm, and the width of the individual treads 30cm. Aisles The aisles were entirely without features. North exterior doorway. The north doorway was originally equipped with cut stone jambs on its outer side, of which the lower part of one remained in situ. It was set into a recess in the brickwork, and had the effect of narrowing the door opening by about 20cm. The door apparently had either no raised threshold, or a very low one like the south door. This must mean that there was some kind of retaining wall or antechamber on the outside, to keep sand out (see below). When found, the north door was very crudely blocked with loosely piled stones. One of these had deep votive grooves, and had obviously once been a threshold or jamb stone, although it was piled in such a way that the grooves were on one side rather than on the top.

Figure 6. Plan of Church 6-G-7, Gezira Dabarosa (scale 1:200).

whitewash on the wall behind the tribune. The tribune filled the whole apse, and was preserved at the north side to its full original height of three steps (clearly visible on Plate 1b). The southern half had been partly mined away by maroq diggers. Sanctuary. The sanctuary consisted of the eastern bay of the nave. It was separated from the central bay by whitewashed higab walls 20cm thick, but terminating in jambs 40cm thick on either side of its central doorway. The presence of whitewash on the pier walls, where the higab walls abutted, showed that the higab was a later addition, nor an original feature of the church. The finding of two fragmentary ceramic capitals in the fill suggests that there was once a triumphal arch in place of the higab, though nothing survived at floor level to prove it. There were no walls separating the sanctuary from the north or south aisles, but the plan shows a pivot stone at the southeast corner of the southeast nave pier, as though there had once been a door at the south side of the sanctuary. According to the photo caption, the pivot stone was a reused tombstone, but it was not registered as such.

South exterior doorway. The south doorway retained the lower parts of cut sandstone jambs on both sides. The stones were each about 40cm long and 20cm thick; they were set into recesses in the brickwork in such a way that they reduced the width of the doorway from about 1.1m to 75cm. Each jamb was decorated on the outer side with an incised design consisting of paired lines in a crisscross pattern. The south doorway had originally a very low threshold of cut stone blocks, apparently not more than 10cm high above the level of the paved floor. When found, the doorway was blocked to a height of 50cm, partly with pieces of cut stone and partly with brick masonry. From the photo, it appears that the stone pieces might have been pieces from the upper part of the door jambs. However, one was part of a Pharaonic-style jamb bearing part of the relief of a standing figure, and part of a cartouche which is believed to be that of Taharqo. The doorway was adjoined on the outside by a stoutly walled portico which will be described below.

Altar. The altar stood about 65cm from the foot of the tribune, along the midline of the church. It was unique among Nubian altars in that it was formed of four upright, square or rectangular pieces of cut stone, one at each corner, which might originally have been door jambs or lintels (visible in Plate 1b). At the west side, the space 13

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Northwest corner room. The room was entered by a doorway 70cm wide at the west end of its south wall, from the west end of the nave. The room had a rather high built-up threshold of stone masonry, but no features were preserved within.

there was a single very large room, entered from the north, adjoining the northern part of the west church wall, and another large room, without lateral entrance, adjoining the southern part. In Nubia, structures directly adjoining a church were uncommon, and when present usually had some demonstrable liturgical connection with the church itself (Adams 1965a, 90). However, it is impossible to recognize any such connection in the case of the rooms at Gezira Dabarosa.

Southwest corner room. This room was entered by a doorway 70cm wide at the west end of its north wall, from the west end of the nave. The plan shows no raised threshold. In the center of the room was a fragment of a brick pier which may have been the newel for a staircase. Two stones, extending across from the pier to the west wall of the room, were probably risers for the lowest step in the staircase, of which nothing else survived.

Discussion Village Site 6-G-6, which surrounded the Gezira Dabarosa Church, was probably occupied from pre-Christian times until the year 1172 (see Chapter 4). However, everything points to the probability that the Gezira Dabarosa Church was not built in the earliest years of Nubian Christianity, but perhaps in the Classic Christian period. Had it been built earlier there would probably have been no passage behind the apse, and no tribune in the apse. Moreover, the building clearly did not have a long history of use, in comparison to most other Nubian churches. There was no buildup of floor deposits, and the walls were not whitewashed more than once. The only interior modification that could be recognized was the insertion of the higab wall in the sanctuary, possibly replacing an earlier “triumphal arch’ (see below). It is noteworthy too that all of the numerous lamps found within the building (see below) were of Classic or even later Christian types. The fill of the church contained three fragments of ceramic capitals, shown in Plate 15a. Presumably these had been part of a “triumphal arch” that had once separated the bema (sanctuary area) from the body of the nave. This feature was apparently present in many early Nubian churches, when it took the place of the higab.2 However, not many have been found in situ, for many seem to have been removed at the time when the bema was enlarged, in the Classic Christian period.3 Our assumption is that this happened at Gezira Dabarosa. There was no cemetery adjoining the church. The nearest Christian cemetery was Site 6-G-8, a short distance to the south of the village.

Decoration. There seems to have been whitewash in all rooms, including the western corner rooms. There were no surviving traces of the usual multi-colored murals on any of the walls, but one very small fragment was found in the fill. It seems to show part of a figure in yellow, outlined by dark brown lines, on a red background. However, there were very crude paintings, done in red lines, on the east sanctuary wall to the north and south of the tribune. These cannot be clearly made out in photos; they are described in field notes as “very childish paintings of red animals.” One photo also shows what is described as a “horse figure” on the north side of the southeast nave pier (i.e. within the sanctuary). Parts of one or more rather crudely incised graffiti were found on the same wall. Adjoining structures North antechamber. The plan shows a wall, 40cm thick, extending northward from the north church wall a little to the west of the north doorway. As shown it extends northward for 1.8m, then turns southward for 30cm, beyond which point it is not preserved. Almost certainly this was the surviving remnant of a retaining wall which once formed a complete rectangle outside the north doorway, protecting it from drifting sand. South antechamber. The notes speak of whitewashed walls adjoining the south church doorway. The plan shows two enormously stout walls, each 1.2m thick, extending southward for a distance of 2.4m on either side of the south doorway. At the south end they terminated at a cross-wall 40cm thick, which had a doorway 60cm wide at its north end. Interior whitewash as well as thickness of the walls suggests that this was a complete, roofed portico, probably with a vaulted roof. The doorway when found was partially blocked with stones.

Registered finds All registered finds were from the sand fill within the church. 1. Meroitic offering table. 2. Ware U4 amphora portion. 3. Mud jar seal fragment. 4. Mud jar seal fragment. 5. Mud jar seal fragment. 6. Mud jar seal fragment. 7. Tiny fragment of painted mural. 8. Embossed tile fragment. 9. Fragment of ceramic capital. 10. Fragment of ceramic capital. 11. Decorated sandstone block (fragment of church door jamb).

Western rooms or walls. The west church wall stood at a distance of 2.7m from the massive stone wall that enclosed Settlement 6-G-6 (described in Chapter 4). According to the plan, three walls ran across the intervening space between the church and the enclosure wall; one each from the northwest and the southwest corners of the church, and one from a point slightly north of the middle. The walls at the north and south corners were of brick, 50cm wide. That at the north had a doorway 90cm wide at its western end, while there was no doorway in the southern wall. The middle wall was built of stone, 40cm wide, and had no doorway. These walls would seem to suggest that

See Adams 1965a, 99. For the best surviving examples see Mileham 1910, pls 16b and 21b; Van Moorsel et al. 1975, pl. 8. 2 3

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12. Lamp, unknown ware, Form P29. 13. Lamp, ware and form not recorded. 14. Lamp, Ware W12, Form P28. 15. Cup lamp, Ware W12, Form A4. 16. Lamp, Ware H3, Form P32. 17. Lamp, Ware H3, Form P29. 18. Lamp, Ware R2 or R5, Form P16. 19. Lamp, Ware H8, Form P26. 20. Lamp, Ware H8, form P24. 21. Lamp, Ware H3, Form P26. 22. Lamp, Ware W6 or W10, Form P19. 23. Lamp, Ware W6, Form P19. 24. Lamp, Ware H3?, form uncertain. 25. Bowl, Ware R2, Form C67. Not numbered: 2 fragments of sandstone stela; block with carved relief.

ary chamber, although it retained no remnant of an altar or other liturgical feature.6 The transverse room was adjoined on its southwest side by three parallel rooms (Rooms 2, 3, and 4), of about equal size. Only the middle one, Room 3, had a doorway into Room 1, in the middle of its northeast wall. It was this room which contained the pulpit, adjoining its northwest wall (Plate 1d). Rooms 2 and 4, which took the place of aisles in the more conventional Nubian church, were entered through doorways at their southern ends from Room 3. There was an adjoining room to the south of Room 4, which may have contained a staircase, a feature thought to have been present also at Karanog. There may have been a corresponding room to the south of Room 2 also, but this could not be definitely determined because the most southerly and easterly parts of the building were entirely missing. Because of ostraka found in the nearby Site 5-0-15, the complex of Sites 5-0-14, 5-0-15, and 5-0-16 has been tentatively identified as an Egyptian entrepot, where cargoes coming from Egypt in large vessels were transshipped to smaller boats, for passage through the Second Cataract. For discussion see under Site 5-0-15, in Chapter 4. Although the Abdel Qadir prototype church deviated

Documentation Excavation: fully excavated by G. J. Verwers, March, 1961. Field notes: GJV Book IV, pp. 63-67, 85-89. Photos: F/021: 66; F/022: 2-34, 38-46, 56; F/025: 5; F/038: 6-34. Sketch plan: none. Plan: Figure 6 herein. Published reference: Verwers 1962, 33, fig. 5, and pl. 7.

5-0-14: Abdel Qadir prototype church (?) 4 (Figure 7; Plates 1c-d) This incompletely preserved building was part of an Early Christian complex that also included small nearby houses (Site 5-0-15) and a building identified as a wineshop or tavern (Site 5-0-16). Site 5-0-14 was identified as a prototype church (“Type 0”5 ) for one principal reason: the presence of a well-built stone pulpit in the position where a pulpit is normally found in Nubian churches. In other respects the plan deviated considerably from the typical plan of Nubian churches, and it deviated by nearly 45° from the usual east-west orientation. The building did nevertheless show a close resemblance to a very early structure at Karanog town, which was tentatively identified by the excavator as a church (Woolley 1911, 40 and pl. 28, lower). Identification as a church was also suggested by the finding of an iron pendant cross within the fill; it is shown in Plate 18b, no. 4. The walls were very much straighter and stouter than was usual in Early Christian houses. Preservation was highly variable, with some walls standing to a height of 2m at the center of the building, while the most southerly walls were missing altogether. The very early date of the Abdel Qadir structure was confirmed by sherds found within the building as well as in the neighboring Sites 5-014 and 5-0-15, q.v. Both the Abdel Qadir and the Karanog buildings had, at the northeastern end, a single transverse chamber (Room 1 on the plan) in place of the usual apse adjoined by small corner rooms. This is presumed to have been the sanctu-

Figure 7. Plan of prototype Church (?) 5-0-14, Abdel Qadir (scale 1:200).

from the usual east-west orientation of Nubian churches, conventional east-west terminology will be employed, for convenience, in the description that follows. That is, the sanctuary end will be designated as the east end, and the opposite end as the west. Specifications Setting: built on a low rock promontory overlooking the Nile. Size: probably about 14m square.

4 Not to be confused with the Late Christian Church 5-0-1 at Abdel Qadir, which was published in extenso by Griffith (1928, 6380). We did not re-investigate this building. 5 See Adams 1965a, 101-2.

6 Monneret de Villard (1957, 1-2) cited other examples of early churches having a transverse chamber at the east end in Egypt, Syria, and Algeria.

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Type: 0? Plan: apparently a single transverse room at the east end, adjoined by three rooms on its west side, plus additional small western rooms. Number of rooms: probably 5 or 6 rooms. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: horizontal brick. Wall thickness: mostly 80cm. Brick size: not measured. Plaster: a few small remnants of plain mud plaster surviving. Doors: doorway to Room 1 rebated on Room 1 side; others plain. Floors: hard packed mud, laid directly on rock. Interior feature: well-built pulpit of cut stone sections. Fill: goat dung overlain by a thick layer of fine ash in Room 2, with windblown sand above. Windblown sand in other rooms, containing numerous amphora sherds of Ware U2, and lesser number of Ware U4. Condition: highly variable. Wall between Rooms 2 and 3 stood about 2m high; all others 1m or less. Southern and western sides of the building eroded away altogether. Dating: very early Christian.

built pulpit adjoining the north wall (Plate 1d). This was the usual location for pulpits in Nubian churches, except that in this case the structure did not extent all the way to the northeast corner of the room. The pulpit, as usual, was mounted from the west side. The structure measured 2.8m long (east to west) and 1.6m wide, and was enclosed within a wall of very well cut sandstone masonry, 30cm wide. The lower three steps, each 30cm wide and 30cm high, were also of well dressed sandstone blocks. The structure was not fully preserved above the level of the third step, but it looked as if the upper steps were of mud brick. The interior fill of the structure, underlying the steps, was formed of an irregular mass of small, coarse stone slabs in mud mortar. The maximum height as preserved, at the east end, was 1.5m, but this was evidently somewhat less than the full original height, since only the coarse rubble fill survived at this level.

Interior features Room 1. A transverse room running the full width of the building at the east end. It was entered through a narrow doorway, 70cm wide, in the middle of its west wall, from Room 3. There was a step up in the doorway, from Room 3 to Room 1. There was also an interior step within the room; the northern half was slightly higher than the remainder. This was apparently necessary to compensate for a slight slope in the underlying rock surface. By analogy with other churches this should have been the sanctuary chamber, but there was no trace of an altar or any other interior feature.

Room 5. This designation was given to very denuded structural remnants adjoining Room 4 on the west. The wall separating it from Room 4, unlike all others in the building, was only 40cm thick. Within the room there was a much thicker wall, only 35cm from the northeast wall, which might actually have been the remnant of a very narrow stairway.7 This would have been the normal location for a stairway in a Nubian church.

Room 4 adjoined Room 3 on its south side, and was entered from Room 3 through a doorway 90cm wide at the west end of its north wall. There was a step down from the floor of Room 3 to that of Room 4. The room was very denuded, with the south wall entirely missing. There were no interior features.

Discussion The prototype churches at Abdel Qadir and Karanog, if such they were, might have been built on their own initiative by local Christian votaries, perhaps even prior to the official conversion of Nobatia to Christianity. This kind of activity is well attested for other areas in the beginning years of Christianity (cf. Crowfoot 1971, 1-4; Gough 1961, 59-62). If however the ostraka found at Sites 5-0-14, 5-015, and 5-0-16 should not be dated earlier than the eighth century, as is suggested by their translator, then either the sites were occupied for a longer time than is suggested by the pottery, or else the suggestion that 5-0-16 is a very early, prototype church is open to question. For discussion see Site 5-0-15 in Chapter 4.

Room 2 was one of three parallel rooms that formed the central part of the building, adjoining Room 1 to the west. This room was entered from Room 3 through a doorway in the west end of its south wall, with a step up of 25cm in the doorway. There was a considerable accumulation of sheep and goat dung on the floor. At the north end of the room, over the sheep dung, there was a sizable bed of fine ash, and the adjoining portions of the walls showed considerable burning. The ash contained a number of small baked clay lumps; also a small iron pectoral cross. This room would correspond to the north aisle in a typical church, but it was separated from the nave (Room 3) only by a solid wall with a single doorway, rather than by an arcade.

Registered objects 1. Pottery ostrakon fragment, Ware U2. The language is undecipherable. 2. Small iron pendant cross. 3. Fragment of mud jar seal.

Room 3. The central room in the building, would have corresponded to the nave in an ordinary church. A doorway in the middle of the east wall gave onto Room 1, and symmetrically placed doorways in the north and south walls, near the western end, gave onto Rooms 2 and 4. There was no surviving western wall, suggesting that the room originally extended as far as the western end of the building, which was not preserved. Apart from the pulpit, described below, there were no features in the room.

Documentation Excavation: in toto, by W. Y. Adams, November 1-2, 1961. 7 The upper half of the stairway in the Meinarti church was no more that 35cm wide but there was no doubt in that case that it was actually a stairway.

Pulpit. The most distinctive feature in Room 3 was a stoutly 16

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being toward the northwest. For convenience, however, conventional east-west terminology will be employed in the description that follows. That is, the sanctuary end will be designated as the east end, and the opposite end as the west.

Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 11-15. Photos: F/067: 1-4. Plan: Figure 7 herein. Published reports: Adams and Nordström 1963, 36; Adams 1965a, 101-2.

Specifications Setting: on relatively level but rocky ground, near the southern extremity of the walled enclosure. Most of the walls rested directly on bedrock. Rocky outcrops immediately nearby. Size: 9.5 x 7.8m. Orientation: northwest-southeast. Type: intermediate between Type 3c and Type 4. Number of rooms: uncertain; probably 5 or more. Wall construction: exterior walls of mud brick resting on heavy stone lower courses. They employed granite blocks of various sizes, from 0.4 to 1m, laid with the even sides outward. The stone walls were heavily mortared with mud containing a great many potsherds. All interior walls were mud brick only. Wall thickness: exterior wall foundations 60-70cm; interior brick walls uniformly 60cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster and decoration: yellow-grey sandy plaster, with fragments of painting preserved under the NW nave arch. Doors: exterior doorways 60-70cm; lintels not preserved. All interior doorways arched, with stone insets at the base of the arch springing. Arches spanning the nave, on the east and west sides of the central cupola, were 3.3m high. Those separating the nave from the aisles appear in photos to have been very substantially lower, measuring 1.85m high. Wall features: stone insets at the base of the springing for each arch. Within the central dome room, at a level 3.4m above the floor, there were inset red bricks at each corner, possibly marking the base of pendentives. Windows: on the north and south sides of the cupola, at a level 2.4m above the floor, were two rectangular windows, 40cm wide and 60cm high, with stone slab lintels. The window on the north (i.e. windward) side was solidly blocked with stones and mud. Roof: barrel vaults over all rooms, with central cupola projecting to a height of at least 4.75m. Vault springing of other vaults at a height of about 3.15m. Floor: mostly not preserved, except in the central and western parts of the nave. Here it was a thin paving of mud, 2-5cm thick, laid directly over bedrock. Interior features: no surviving trace of tribune, altar, pulpit, or stairs. Fill: not recorded; probably very little other than goat dung. Condition: all external walls denuded to lowest courses; most interior walls standing to height of 2m or more. Dating: no registered objects were found in the church, but typology as well as sherds found in the neighboring settlement indicate a Late Christian date.

5-T-1: Kisinarti Church (Figure 8; Plates 1e-f) This little church was located on one of the more remote islands of the Second Cataract, to which it gave its name (Kisinarti = “island of the church” in the Mahasi dialect of Nubian). It was first reported in the published Antiquities Ordnance of 1952, but there seems to have been no systematic investigation prior to our own excavations in 1962. The church was located within a heavily walled enclosure, which also contained at least two houses and a few graves, all believed to have been of Late Christian date. The enclosure wall and houses (also designated as 5-T-1) will be described in Chapters 3 and 4. The church was in a curiously uneven state of preservation, possibly as a result of brick-robbing. Most of the interior walls, built entirely of brick, were preserved to a height of 2-3m, as can be seen in Plates 1e and 1f. At the same time all of the exterior walls were denuded to a height of no more than 50cm. The surviving lower portions were almost entirely of heavy stone masonry, but at the northwest corner a few courses of brick were preserved at the top, suggesting that the upper parts of these walls had also been of brick. The plan of the building (Figure 8) represents an interesting hybrid, seemingly combining features of Type 3 and Type 4. The small size, the tall central cupola, and the lack of fully enclosed rooms at the corners are all characteristics of Type 4, while at the eastern end there seems to have been an apse, and possibly also an eastern passage—features characteristic of Type 3. However, the interior features were so poorly preserved that neither the apse nor the eastern passage can be attested with certainty. After abandonment as a church the building had been used as a goat pen, which resulted in destruction of most of the floor as well as interior features. The church deviated by about 40° from the usual eastwest orientation of Nubian churches, the sanctuary

Interior features Entryways. The church had relatively narrow (60-70cm) doorways at the conventional places in the north and

Figure 8. Plan of Church 5-T-1, Kisinarti Island (scale 1:200).

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south walls. The north doorway had a high (40cm) threshold of heavy stone masonry, set with mud mortar and with numerous sherds as chinking. Apparently this was because the floor level within the church was substantially higher than that outside. There was no comparable threshold in the south door, which was very poorly preserved.

ably. Along the west side it was uniformly about 70cm wide, while at the north it was considerably wider. From west to east it widened gradually, from 1.1m at the west end to 1.7m at the east end. At the east, it closed against a small rocky outcrop. On the north side, a passageway 70cm wide was cut through the mastaba, affording access to the north church door. Its floor was at the same level as the outside ground surface; that is, 30cm lower than the top of the mastaba. The excavator’s plan suggests that it was paved with brick.

Sanctuary: The sanctuary seems apparently to have terminated in an apse, set in a rectangular shell of brick masonry, although only a tiny fragment of it survived at the north side. It seems fairly clear that the sanctuary included also the first bay of the nave. There was no trace of a higab wall at the western end of this area, but there were sections of thin brick wall which partially screened the first bay from the adjoining aisles both to the north and south. On the south side, a section of thin (20cm) brick wall extended eastward for 75cm from the southwest pier; beyond that point it was not preserved. On the north side there was another segment of thin wall which extended east from the northwest pier for the same distance, leaving a doorway 55cm wide between it and the northeast pier.

Graves. At least three graves were found in the immediate vicinity of the church, as shown on the plan. They will be described later, in Chapter 6.

Documentation First reported: in Antiquities Service Ordinance of 1952. Excavation: fully excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, February 1-2, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 17-20. Photos: F/092: 7, 10-12; F/093: 1-2, 9-11; F/094: 6-7. Sketch plans: HÅN Book IV, opp. pp. 17, 19. Plans and elevations: 2, including Figure 8 herein. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 32-4, 38.

The “vestry.” The doorway just described opened from the sanctuary into a small square enclosure, measuring 1.2 x 1.2m, which was intruded into the area of the north aisle, but could be entered only from the sanctuary. It was enclosed by 20-cm brick walls, which might not have extended to full room height; they were preserved only to a height of 25cm. The “vestry” had a mud floor at a level slightly higher than that in the rest of the church.

5-T-2: Abu Sir Church (Figure 9; Plate 2a) Because of its proximity to the much-visited Rock of Abu Sir, this small church attracted the attention of many early visitors. It was largely intact, except for the roofs, when visited and sketched by Cailliaud in 1822 (Cailliaud 1826, vol. 3, 260-61; Atlas 2, pl. 31). By the time it was visited and drawn by Somers Clarke in 1909 it seems to have been in the same ruinous condition in which we found it, most of the brickwork having been removed for reuse (Clarke 1912, 52-3). It was being used as a goat pen in Clarke’s time, and was still so at the time of our visit. We excavated the church in its entirety in order to ascertain details of the plan not shown by Somers Clarke. The church was a fairly typical example of Early and Classic Type 3b, with a passage behind the apse but with no tribune in the apse. There was no surviving trace of an altar, pulpit, or higab. There was also no surviving trace of a staircase in either of the western corner rooms, but the presence of one cannot be wholly ruled out because of very poor preservation. Exceptional thickening of the outside wall at the southwest corner may suggest that there was a stairway in the southwest corner room—the usual stairway location in Nubian churches. We did not locate any nearby Early or Classic Christian community, that might have been served by the Abu Sir Church and cemetery.

The nave. The nave extended from the sanctuary to the west wall of the church. At the west end it was separated by walls from the two western corner rooms, which were not entered from it. The north aisle. The north aisle apparently ran the full length of the church from east to west, for the “room” at the northwest corner of the building was not walled off from the aisle, but only from the nave. As mentioned earlier, the “vestry” was intruded into the area of the north aisle, but was not entered from it. The south aisle extended from the east church wall as far as the southwest corner room. There was almost certainly a doorway in the south end of the west wall, opening into the southwest corner room. Eastern corner rooms. There was no evidence to suggest the presence of corner rooms, separate from the aisles, at the eastern end of the building. Western corner rooms. There was definitely a fully enclosed room at the southwest corner of the building, which was probably entered through a doorway from the south aisle. Within, there was no surviving trace of a stairway. In the northwest corner of the building, an area equal in size to the southwest corner room was walled off from the nave, but not from the north aisle.

Specifications Setting: on a small area of alluvial flat, among rocky outcrops, about 50m from the riverbank. Size: 12.5 x 9m. Type: 3b. Plan: symmetrical, with rooms at the four corners and an eastern passage. Wall construction: lower walls of rather rough stone

Exterior features Mastaba. Adjoining the whole north side of the church, and at least the northern half of the west side, was a broad mastaba approximately 30cm high, built of heavy stone masonry set in mud mortar. The width varied consider18

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arched niche 90cm wide and 1.1m high, just above the level of the stone masonry. The room had no floor features. Southeast corner room. Very little survived of this room. All of the outside enclosing walls were completely destroyed, as was the doorway from the south aisle. The doorway however can only have been in the southern part of the wall, and therefore was not symmetrical with the doorway to the northwest corner room. There was a niche in the brickwork of the north wall, exactly corresponding to the niche in the northeast corner room. Apse. A typical rather shallow apse of Early Christian type, continuous with the nave but without interconnection to the two corner rooms. As usual, it was enclosed within a shell of rectangular masonry. There was no surviving trace of a tribune. The floor had been entirely destroyed through use as a goat pen. North aisle. The best preserved room in the church. Most of the north outside wall was preserved up to a height of about 2.5 m, and most of the mud floor was also intact. The room as usual was entered through a rebated doorway in the extreme west end; there is no indication in the notes of the presence of a threshold or step. The door was solidly blocked with stone masonry when found but this may have been done when the building was converted to a goat pen. A thin brick partition, 20cm wide, ran part way across the north aisle from the northeast nave pier, separating off a vestibule area at the east end of the aisle. A doorway at the east end of the aisle opened into the northeast corner room.

Figure 9. Plan of Church 5-T-2, Abu Sir (scale 1:200).

masonry, to average height of about 1.7m, but lower in some walls. Upper walls of mud brick. Wall thickness: exterior and interior walls mostly 60cm, but thickened to 1m at the SW corner; interior pilasters 80cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster and decoration: surviving traces of thick white plaster, with painted murals, under the arches. Doors: all exterior and inner doors rebated on inner sides. Window: lower part of a narrow slot window preserved in top of west wall. Roofs: vaulted, with tall central cupola, when sketched by Cailliaud. Floor: hard mud laid directly on bedrock granite. Interior features: vestibule in the north aisle; no surviving trace of tribune, altar, or pulpit. Fill: 10-50cm of goat dung. Condition: highly variable. Most of stone masonry of the lower walls remained intact except along south outside wall, and adjoining part of east wall. All brickwork of the upper walls robbed away except brick arches spanning the pilasters, west outside wall, and apse enclosing wall. Had been used as goat pen during most of 20th century. Dating: Early Christian 2, indicated by extensive sherd finds. However, the site produced no registered objects.

Nave. No features of any kind were preserved in the nave. It was separated from the north and south aisles by arcades resting on four stout, symmetrically placed piers, which supported a tall cupola. Doors at the extreme west end opened into the two western corner rooms. South aisle. Entirely destroyed, down to the foundations. Stone was evidently used to make crude blockages between arches when the building was made into a goat pen. Consequently, there was no clear evidence as to the location of the south door. Northwest corner room. Walls destroyed down to the lowermost courses; no indication in regard to the floor. The doorway, opening from the nave, was solidly blocked when found. Southwest corner room. This room was so poorly preserved that little could be made out. It was entered from the nave through a rebated doorway in the north wall, which looked to have been an original feature of the plan. However, there was a second, narrower doorway at the south end of the east wall, which was solidly blocked when found. The narrowness of this opening suggests that it may have been a stair closet rather than an entrance to the room. Taken together with the thickening of the exterior walls at the southwest corner, this may be an indication that the room had contained a stairway.

Architectural features Eastern passage. There was definitely a passage behind the apse, connecting the two eastern corner rooms, although only a part of the outer enclosing wall foundation was preserved. Northeast corner room (sacristy?). Entered from the north aisle, through a rebated doorway near the south end of its west wall. There was a step up in the doorway, from the level of the aisle. In the brick masonry of the south wall (forming the enclosing wall of the apse) there was a wide

Decoration. The church produced several small fragments of ornamental stonework, which could have been from 19

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exterior door lintels or from a triumphal arch. They were too small to permit any reconstruction of the design. There was thick white plaster, with remnants of murals in red, yellow, and blue, under several of the nave arches. One was copied.

goat pen subsequent to abandonment; it survived only in patches in the center of the building. The structure was most probably a church of Type 3b (without tribune in the apse) although this could not be determined with certainty because of poor preservation. The building formed a slightly irregular rectangle, being 50cm wider at the west end than at the east (cf. Figure 10). The doorways were apparently though not certainly at the usual locations in the north and south walls. The walls were not actually preserved up to the level of the thresholds, which must have been at a level considerably higher than the church floor. However, inset sections in the church walls suggested the location of doorways about 1.2m wide, without rebates or buttresses. In both doorways there appeared to be remnants of steps leading down from the thresholds to the church floor, although they were very poorly preserved. There was no surviving trace of any interior feature: neither tribune nor altar nor pulpit nor higab. However, the presence of an interior dividing partition in the southwest corner room suggested the probability that there had been a stairway here. The church contained only one floor level, and there was no evidence of any modification subsequent to the original construction.

Adjoining structures There seem to have been additional rooms of mud brick adjoining the southwest corner of the church. They were preserved only to a height of one brick, the upper walls probably having been dismantled to reuse the brick. They were not excavated because of the close proximity of modern houses. Cemetery Immediately north of the church, and extending northward for about 40 m, there was a group of about 100 Christian graves. They were marked at the surface either by a rectangular covering of mud brick or by an oval outline of upright stones. The whole surface was cleaned, but no graves were excavated.

Documentation Excavation: church fully excavated by W. Y. Adams, November 20-24, 1961. Cemetery surface cleared, but no graves excavated. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 31-34. Photos: F/072: 1-12; F/073: 8. Plans: one plan of church (Figure 9 herein); none of cemetery. Original drawing: Cailliaud 1826, Atlas II, pl. XXXI; Monneret de Villard 1935, vol. 2, pl. XCV. Drawing of mural: one drawing of a mural fragment by WYA. Published references: Cailliaud 1826, vol. 3, 260-61; Atlas II, pl. XXXI; Ampère 1868, 519; Clarke 1912, 52-53; Monneret de Villard 1935, vol. 1, 221; vol. 2, pl. XCV; Adams and Nordström 1963, 32, 44-6.

Specifications Setting: on top of a small, rocky outcrop, surrounded by houses of Site 5-T-47. Size: 11.5 x 9.5m. Type: apparently 3b. Plan: symmetrical cross-in-square, with small rooms at each of the four corners. Number of rooms: 8. Wall construction: exterior walls of coarse stone masonry up to 1.25m above base, surmounted by mud brick. Interior walls mud brick only. Foundations: stone and horizontal brick. Wall thickness: exterior walls 80 cm; interior walls 60cm. Plaster and decoration: none surviving. Doors: all plain doorways, without rebates or buttresses.

5-T-4: Gaminarti Church (Figure 10; Plate 2b). This very damaged structure occupied the top of a rocky outcrop, and was more or less surrounded by the houses of Site 5-T-47. It was built on somewhat uneven ground. After the stone lower walls had been built, the uneven surface enclosed by them was built up first by filling in cracks in the rock with large stones, and then by laying in mud and refuse to provide a level mud flooring. Because of underlying rock outcrops, however, the floors in the two western corner rooms were at levels considerably higher than those elsewhere in the building. In addition, the whole church had a slight downward slope toward the east. The orientation of the building was more nearly southeast-northwest than true east-west. However, for convenience the sanctuary end will be here designated as the east end, and the other end as the west. The state of preservation was variable but generally very poor. Most of the south wall and a small part of the west wall were preserved nearly to the original height, but all other walls survived to a height of no more than 2550cm, and in one or two places they were missing altogether. The floor was badly destroyed through use as a

Figure 10. Plan of Church 5-T-4, Gaminarti Island (scale 1:200).

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Roof: beam holes suggest the possibility of a flat roof, at least over western rooms. Floors: where preserved, flat mud floor over a leveling fill of rocks, mud, and sherds. Fill: fallen wall material, goat dung and trash. Condition: highly variable but generally bad. Most of the south wall and a small part of the west wall were preserved to near the original height; all other walls preserved to no more than 25-50cm high, and missing altogether in one or two places. The floor was badly destroyed through use as a goat pen subsequent to abandonment; it survived only in patches in the center of the building. Dating: sherds in fill suggest a Late Christian date.

Plan: Figure 10 herein. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 34.

5-X-1: Gendal Irki Church (Figure 11; Plates 2c-e) This well preserved and conspicuously located church attracted the notice of many earlier visitors, as attested by numerous scratched graffiti on the walls. The majority of these were in (modern) Greek, but the earliest dated one, in Latin characters, read “S. Segato 1820.” Plans were published by Mileham (1910, 12), Somers Clarke (1912, 51), and Monneret de Villard (1935, 223), and Coptic and Nubian texts from the walls were published by Griffith (1913, 68) and Zyhlarz (1928, 170, 187). The plan published by Mileham was actually derived from a hand-copy made some year earlier by Crowfoot; it is therefore considerably the earliest of the three. It shows some architectural details that were lost by the time of our visit. The church is called Gendal Irki by Somers Clarke, and Figir Antawu (with a variety of spellings) by Mileham, Griffith, and Monneret. According to local residents, Gendal Irki was the name of the nearby village, while Figir Antawu (“Below the Sheikh”) was the name given to the ruin itself. It derived from the fact that there was a sheikh’s tomb on top of the bluff directly behind the church. We excavated the church and its immediate surroundings in their entirety, and found in the process that this had already been done once before—most probably by Monneret de Villard. We noted that the interior walls

Architectural features Eastern corner rooms. These were slightly wider at the eastern than at the western end, because the masonry shell enclosing the apse was rhomboidal rather than rectangular. Both rooms were totally devoid of features when found. The southeast corner room was entered from the south aisle by a plain doorway 50cm wide, near the north end of its west wall. There was presumably a corresponding doorway giving entry to the northeast corner room, but it was not preserved. A passage behind the apse, 70cm wide, connected the two corner rooms. Apse. The half-round apse was enclosed within a rhomboidal rather than a rectangular mass of brick masonry; that is, it was considerably narrower at the east end than at the west. There was no indication that the apse had ever contained a tribune (cf. Plate 2b). Aisles. The two aisles were separated from the nave by a single stout masonry pier in each case, indicating that the church could not have had a central cupola. The aisles were wholly without features, except for apparent remnants of steps leading down to the floor from the two exterior doorways. Nave. The nave, as usual, extended all the way from the apse to the western wall of the building. A short section of narrow brick partition extended 90cm eastward from the northeast nave pier, providing a partial screening between the nave and the north aisle. Otherwise no features of any kind were preserved within the nave. Western corner rooms. Whether these rooms were entered from the adjoining aisles or from the west end of the nave could not be determined, as none of the walls were preserved up to the level of door thresholds. The east wall of the northwest corner room was missing altogether. The southwest corner room was divided by an interior partition, extending westward from the middle of its east wall, in such a way as to suggest that the room had contained a stairway, though no stairs were actually preserved. As previously noted, the floor levels in both rooms were considerably higher than those in the nave or aisles.

Documentation Excavation: interior excavated down to bedrock by W. Y. Adams, January 13-15, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 1-2. Photos: F/089: 9-12. Sketch plan: none.

Figure 11. Plan and cross-section of Church 5-X-1, Gendal Irki (scale 1:200).

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throughout were grooved and scarred, at a level about 1m above the floor, and that remnants of sheep and goat dung were preserved here. Evidently this was the floor level before the church was dug out. It probably was still the floor at the time of Somers Clarke’s visit, since he was unable to determine the location of the exterior doors. The church was built on level alluvial ground, about 50m from the riverbank, with bluffs close behind. It was of a unique type, apparently intermediate between Type 3 and Type 4. It had most of the characteristics of Type 4, including the square sanctuary without tribune, but retained the passage behind the haikal characteristic of Type 3, as well as the western stairway usual in Type 3. The dimensions were also slightly larger than in most Type 4 churches. As a result of its design and dimensions, the church was more nearly a perfect cross-in-square than was any other Nubian church. The building was not quite a perfect rectangle, as the north wall was about 1m longer than the south wall. The orientation of the long axis was actually northeast to southwest; that is, it deviated by almost 40o from the traditional east-west orientation of Nubian churches. This anomaly was probably due to the fact that the Nile here flows from southeast to northwest, rather than in its more usual north-northeasterly direction. For descriptive simplicity in the text that follows, however, the traditional ecclesiastical directions north, south, east, and west will be used. The building was extraordinarily well preserved, with many walls standing to their original height of 4 m, as can be seen in Plate 2c. Parts of roof vaults remained intact at the east end of the building. However, a considerable section of the north wall had fallen away entirely, as had the southeast corner. Much of the floor had been destroyed in the course of previous excavations, if not before, but enough survived to suggest that the whole building had a floor of brick paving. The church was located about 100m to the southeast of a sizable village (also designated as 5-X-1) that will be described in Chapter 4. It probably served also as a place of worship for the dwellers at Kasanarti, an island settlement directly opposite the church (also described in Chapter 4). The church was adjoined on the south side by an extensive cemetery, separately designed as 5-X-36, and described in Chapter 6. Pottery finds from the neighboring settlement, as well as typological features, suggest that the church was built late in the Classic Christian period, and continued in use through the Late Christian period.

Doors: external doors deeply rebated on east side only; most internal doors also rebated on inner sides. No raised thresholds preserved in any door. Windows: paired slot windows, 20cm wide and 80cm tall, at various places in the outside walls (cf. Plate 2c); individual slot window in the stair chamber (Room 9). Roofs: vaulted, with small relieving vaults spanning the interstices between main vaults. Crown of the surviving vaults 3.75m above the floor. Somers Clarke hypothesized a central dome, but we could find no confirming evidence for this. Floors: mostly mud-brick paving where preserved; redbrick paving immediately adjoining the eastern sanctuary wall. Floor features: none except mastabas in the two eastern corner rooms. No trace of altar, pulpit, or tribune survived. Fill: shallow fill of modern rubbish (probably excavated previously). Condition: generally very well preserved, but most roof vaults fallen in, and much of floor destroyed. Dating: probably built late in Classic Christian period, continuing into Late Christian. Interior features Northeast corner room. This room is designated as the sacristy in many Nubian church descriptions. It was entered not from the adjoining north aisle, as in Type 3 churches, but through a doorway directly from the sanctuary (Room 4), as is common in Type 4 churches. The door, rebated on the inner side, was near the west end of the south wall. Directly opposite in the north wall there were two niches, 60cm wide and 30cm deep, separated by 60cm. The height of the niches was not recorded. A narrow mastaba, 1.2m long and 40cm wide, was located in the northeast corner of the room, running along the base of the east wall. There was a pair of slot windows high in the north wall, and another pair high in the east wall, admitting light from the outside. Both pairs were located more or less at the midpoints in the two walls. In addition there was a single slot window in the west wall, near its south end, opening through into the adjoining north aisle. The slot was 30cm wide; it was not preserved to its full height. Eastern passage. The passage behind the sanctuary, connecting the two corner rooms, was without features. Mileham’s plan (1910, 12) shows paired slot windows halfway along the east (outside) wall. Sanctuary. This was a square chamber, not separated from the nave by any kind of intervening construction (cf. Plates 2d and 2e). As previously noted, a doorway through its north wall opened into the northeast corner room, but there was no corresponding doorway into the southeast corner room. The floor at the base of the east wall was paved with fired bricks, extending outward for a distance of 60cm from the wall, and also extending for a short distance along the adjoining north and south walls.

Specifications Setting: on level alluvial flat, about 50m from the riverbank. Size: 11 x 9m. Type: transitional between Type 3 and Type 4? Plan: symmetrical cross-in-square. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: mostly rough stone. Wall thickness: exterior walls 80cm; interior walls 60cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster and decoration: whitewashed, with considerable remnants of murals preserved on eastern walls.

Southeast corner room. This room was entered from the adjoining south aisle through a rebated doorway near the north end of its west wall. A very large mastaba, measuring 1.6 x 0.7m, was located in the southwest corner of the 22

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room, adjoining the south wall. Directly above it was a niche in the wall, 60cm wide and 30cm deep, comparable to the niche at the same location in the north wall of Room 1. It is very probable that there was a second niche alongside it, as in the northeast room, but here the more easterly portion of the south wall was not preserved. As in the northeast room, there were paired slot windows in the two outside walls (visible in Plate 2d).

Exterior platforms The whole northern side of the church, and at least a part of the east side, was adjoined by a slightly raised platform 20cm high. It was faced with mud brick, and filled in behind with stones, mud, and refuse. The platform was intact along the north side of the church, except that it was interrupted where a passage 80cm wide led through to the north church door. On the east side of the church however it continued southward only for 3m, beyond which point it was denuded away. In all probability it had originally run along the full length of the east church wall. The parts of the platform adjoining the north wall were 1.2m wide, while the part adjoining the east wall was 1.8m wide.

The north aisle was actually no more than a square room, forming the north transept of the cross-in-square. It was entered from the outside through a wide, rebated doorway at the west end of its north wall. At the south side, there was no architectural division between this room and the nave . A doorway in the west wall, near its south end, opened into the northwest corner room.

A second church ? Somers Clarke, who visited in 1909, described and illustrated a second small church, apparently of Type 4, which stood close by the one described above (Clarke 1912, 5051) . According to his notes it was 8m long, and was in very ruinous condition. The published plan shows the northwestern part of what was apparently a square building, with a doorway through the north wall near the west end. The south wall and adjoining part of the west wall, and most of the east wall were entirely missing. Also preserved were four symmetrically placed piers, which according to Clarke’s reconstruction supported a dome. This building does not seem to have been noticed by any of the several previous visitors to the site, and we could find no trace of it.

The nave as usual ran the full length of the church from the sanctuary to the west wall. As previously noted, it was not separated architecturally either from the sanctuary or from either of the two adjoining aisles; the four together formed an uninterrupted cross. A doorway in the south wall of the nave, very near its west end, opened into the stair chamber at the southwest corner of the building. There were paired slot windows high in the west wall (visible in Plate 2c). The south aisle was the mirror image of the north aisle. However, a doorway near the north end of its east wall opened into the northeast corner room, while there was no doorway in the west wall opening into the southwest corner room.

Registered object

The northwest corner room was without surviving features. As previously noted, it was entered from the north aisle through a doorway near the south end of its east wall. Whether or not the doorway was rebated could not be determined, as the southern jamb had fallen away. There were paired slot windows in the middle of the west wall, and probably originally in the north wall as well, although only a portion of one of these was preserved.

14. Wooden bowl fragment.

Documentation Excavation: by W. Y. Adams, March 21-22, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 33f. Photos: F/102: 8-12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: Figure 11 herein. Cross-section: Figure 11 herein. Published references: Steindorff 1900, 233-4; Mileham 1910, 12-13; Clarke 1912, 50-52; Griffith 1913, 68; Borchardt 1928, 3 (?); Zyhlarz 1928, 170, 187; Monneret de Villard 1935, 223; Adams and Nordström 1963, 35-6.

The southwest corner room was a stair chamber, as usual in Nubian churches of Type 3. It was entered from the nave through a doorway without rebates near the western end of its north wall. From here the steps ascended southward to a landing in the southwest room corner, and from there to a landing, measuring 80cm square, in the northeast corner. Above that level they were not preserved. All of the steps, ascending south, east, north, and west around the central partition, were uniformly 80cm wide, with a riser of 20cm. There was a single slot window high in the west wall, above the lower end of the stairway.

5-X-44: Meili Island Church (Figure 12; Plate 2f) This badly damaged church was built on top of a small kom, which contained the remains not only of an earlier church but of three layers of Meroitic occupation, separately designated as Site 5-X-46 (reported in Adams 2004, 39-42). Small as it was, the kom was the highest point on Meili Island, and the only one that had not been scoured by repeated flooding. Prior to building the church, the top and sloping sides of the kom had been given a paving of mud brick, to provide a firmer surface than was provided by the soft fill within the underlying Meroitic houses. This paving was found underneath the church floors, but also extending away from the church building on all sides for a considerable distance. In order to provide footing for the walls, trenches were cut into the underlying, rather

Decoration. Traces of painted murals were preserved in the eastern end of the sanctuary and in the adjoining eastern chambers. The best preserved mural, at the east end of the sanctuary, showed a very large, white robed figure with two protecting figures standing on either side and partly behind him (visible in Plate 2e). The protecting figures had haloes, but apparently no wings, and were wearing red robes. The entire face of the central figure had been gouged away, and the eyes of the two protecting figures had also been gouged.

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Figure 12. Plan and cross-sections of Church 5-X-44, Meili Island, showing walls of earlier and of added structures (scale 1:200).

soft Meroitic deposits, and were filled with mud and brick rubble. Even so they did not provide an adequately stable foundation for the walls, many of which had toppled over entirely. The state of preservation was generally poor. Most interior walls stood to 1-2m high, but many portions of outer walls had fallen away altogether, as a result of construction on soft fill and on sloping surfaces. The northwest corner room was missing altogether, as was nearly all of the east outside wall.

Nearly all the standing walls were very weather-beaten (cf. Plate 2f). However, traces of a plain tan plaster were preserved at several points. Removal of the brick paving in the haikal revealed traces of white plaster, with some scraps of red painted decoration, at the base of the walls. Evidently this was a remnant of the original decoration, before the tan plaster was overlaid. After its building the church had undergone several later modifications, and had been replastered at least once, as described below. 24

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here a doorway was left at its north end. Subsequent to these modifications, any priest entering the sanctuary from the sacristy (northeast corner room) would have had to pass first through the eastern passage into the southeast corner room, from it into the east end of the south aisle, and finally from there northward into the haikal itself. At the northeast corner of the north aisle, a rectangular area was partitioned off with a 20-cm wall, but leaving a wide doorway in the east end. Probably it was a special votive shrine. Features of this kind, at this location, were fairly common in Nubian churches. A section of heavy brick masonry, 70cm wide, extended westward from the northeast nave pier as far as the northwest nave pier. Probably it formed the foundation courses of a pulpit, although we could not ascertain this with certainty. The final additions to the church are hard to account for. At the mouth of the apse, where it joined the nave, masonry additions were made in such a way that they ran partly in front of the tribune. These additions were not symmetrical. The one at the south was a small rectangular masonry column measuring 45 x 60cm, while the one at the north was a section of thinner wall, 1.1m long and 35cm wide. Perhaps at the same time when these modifications were made, a small quseba was installed in the southwest corner of the haikal. These changes caused me to suppose, at the time of excavation, that the final use of the building was as a domestic dwelling rather than as a church. It was probably also at the time of these late changes that the interior was refaced with tan plaster, which did not retain any traces of mural decoration. Near the west end of the nave, adjoining its south wall, there was a rectangular pavement of bricks set on edge, having the “spine and ribs” design typical of Classic Christian grave superstructures (see Adams 1998, 22) . That is, there was a central spine comprising two courses of bricks running the long axis of the “grave,” and on either side of it bricks set at right angles to the spine. We took it for granted that this was a grave, and accordingly designated it as Grave 1 in Cemetery 5-X-45 (described in Chapter 6). On excavation however we found that there was no grave beneath it.

Specifications Setting: on top of a small kom, near the north end of Meili Island. Dimensions: 11.5 x 9. 5m. Type: 3c Plan: symmetrical, with small rooms at the four corners. Number of rooms: 8 or 9. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: rubble of brick and mud. Wall thickness: 55cm. Brick size: 36 x 18 x 8cm. Plaster and decoration: originally whitewashed, with painted murals. Later covered with tan plaster. Doors: all preserved doors were plain. Roof: undoubtedly vaulted, through no vault springings were preserved. Central dome problematical. Floors: apse and haikal paved with mud brick; remainder of floor mud. The paved portion was a step higher than the remainder of the nave, and the step up was edged with cut stone. Fill: not recorded. Condition: highly variable. Most interior walls stood to 1-2m high, but many portions of outer walls had fallen away altogether, as a result on construction on soft fill and sloping surfaces. Northwest corner room missing altogether, as was nearly all of the east outside wall. Dating: probably built in Classic Christian 1, remaining in use until Late Christian times. The basic plan The church as originally built was in every way a conventional building of Type 3c, with eastern passage and with a tribune in the apse. The nave was separated from each aisle by two square pilasters, but these were not symmetrically positioned; the north-south span was considerably greater than that from east to west. It seems unlikely therefore that they could have supported a central dome. Entries to both of the western corner rooms must have been from the west end of the nave, for there were no doors in their eastern walls, adjoining the aisles. There was almost certainly no stairway in the southwest corner room. Not enough survived of the northwest corner room to determine anything about it. There was no surviving trace of an altar.

The underlying and surrounding “apron” As previously noted, the whole top of the kom was given a paving of mud brick prior to the construction of the church, presumably to provide a reasonably firm surface. Although considerable parts of it were broken away, the general shape of the paved area seems to have been oval, with the long axis corresponding to the long axis of the church. The pavement extended for a maximum distance of about 5m to the north and south of the church, and 8m to the east and west. The paving was laid over the tops of at least two previously-destroyed graves of Cemetery 5-X-45, q.v. On top of the brick paving, there was a kind of roughly built stone perimeter wall that ran around the north, east, and south sides of the building. It may have continued around the west end as well, but was not preserved at this end. It was formed only of large stones, dry-laid in a line. It was mostly about 1.5m from the church walls, but there

Interior partitioning and features Various interior partitions were added to the basic plan; some perhaps at the time of construction and some at a later date. All four of the nave piers were enlarged by additions to their northern and/or southern sides, giving them an oblong rather than a square shape. This was presumably meant to provide better support for the roof, but the positioning of the additions does not suggest that they were meant to support a dome. Subsequent to the additions to the nave piers, a higab screen 35cm wide was run across the west side of the haikal, partitioning it off from the rest of the nave, although a wide doorway was left in the middle. At its north side, the haikal was also screened off altogether from the north aisle by a 20-cm wall. Another 20-cm wall also screened the haikal from the south aisle, although 25

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was an offset projection at the south side, where it stood out about 2.5m from the church wall. The plan shows a set of brick-built steps ascending to the top of this projection.

and Nordström 1963, 33-4, 41.

WEST BANK CHURCHES NOT REPORTED IN THIS VOLUME

The earlier church Under the foundations of the later church were the very denuded remnants of what is believed to have been an earlier church, since it shared the same location and orientation as the later church. Its north and south walls lay directly beneath the north and south walls of the later church, while the east wall was about 1m further west. The walls were somewhat thicker than those of the later church: 75cm at the north and south, and 1m at the east. The west wall was not preserved. The walls were preserved only to a height of one or two bricks. No walls were preserved at the western end of the building, whose original length could therefore not be estimated. Interior walls of the older building were 40cm thick, and their asymmetrical arrangement had none of the features of conventional church architecture; it suggested rather an ordinary house. However I know of no case in Nubia in which a church was built directly from the foundations of an earlier secular building, although it happened several times in the case of older churches. It seemed clear in any case that there had at one time been a church on the island with a lot of elaborate carved stone decoration, and this antedated the building of the later church. Fragments of stone grillwork, a small haikal pillar, and other carved bits were found among the flagstones and in the floor fill, and others were scattered on the surface in the vicinity of the church. Among them was a fragment of a marble altar top, and a sandstone piece bearing the graffito ΜΙΧΑΗΛ? This material almost certainly did not come from the later church, since some pieces were found under its floor. It seemed clear that some and perhaps most of the graves in adjoining Cemetery 5-X-45 were associated with this earlier church. The elaborateness of the vaulted tombs suggests also that this was an especially important burial site, and therefore perhaps an important church.

The following is a list of additional churches on the west bank between Faras and Gemai, that were investigated by other expeditions, mostly before our survey. 24-E-18. Faras Citadel Church. A fairly large church of Type 4, built directly on top of the sanded-up remains of the Faras Cathedral (24-E-38). It was first reported by Mileham (1910, 24-5), and was more fully excavated by the Polish Expedition (Michalowski 1962a, 135-45; 1962b, 239-42). 24-E-19. Faras Great Church. Griffith (1926, 59-61) surmised the existence of a destroyed “great church” after finding various fallen columns, capitals, and other building stones. No intact trace of the actual structure was ever found. 24-E-20. Faras Nadindiffi Church. Very denuded remains of a mud-brick church, apparently of Type 3c, built directly over the remains of a destroyed Hathor temple (locally known as the Nabindiffi). They were first noted by Lepsius (1913, 181) and later by Mileham (1910, 181), but were excavated by the Oxford Expedition a few years later (Griffith 1926, 62-3). 24-E-23. Faras North Desert Church. One of two large churches located beside the now-dry western channel of the Nile. Originally of Type 2a, it was later converted to Type 3a. It was fully excavated by Mileham (1910, 27-30). 24-E-24. Faras South Desert Church. The second of the churches located beside the now-dry western channel. It was also originally of Type 2a, later converted to Type 3a, and was also excavated by Mileham (1910, 31-6). 24-E-25. Faras Rivergate Church. An elaborately decorated church of cut stone and brick, located close to the river’s edge within the Faras enclosure. It was originally of Type 2b, later converted to Type 3a. It was fully excavated by the Oxford Expedition in 1910 (Griffith 1926, 6686).

Registered objects

24-E-26. Faras Church on the Meroitic Mastaba Field. Denuded remains of a small mud-brick church, probably of Type 3c or Type 4, which was built directly over some of the tombs in the Faras Meroitic cemetery. Excavated by the Oxford Expedition in 1910 (Griffith 1927, 57-62).

1. Pottery lamp portion, Ware R5?, Form P18. 2. Pottery bowl, Ware W9, Form C75. 3. Glass vessel fragment. 4. Faience bead. 5. Glass vessel handle. 6. Iron chain tether. 7. Marble vessel fragments. 8. Clay jar seal fragments. 9. Clay jar seal fragment. 10. Marble altar top fragment.

24-E-37. Faras Church on the South Slope of the Kom. Remains of a red brick church with columns, of Type 3c; built close beside the Faras Cathedral (24-E-37). A dedication stela bore the a date equivalent to AD 930. It was discovered and excavated by the Polish Expedition in 1963 (Michalowski 1964, 207).

Documentation

24-E-38. Faras Cathedral. The great stone-built cathedral, so completely buried under sand that its existence was not suspected prior to the Polish excavations of 1960-62. It has been the subject of innumerable publications, the most comprehensive of which are Michalowski and Gerster 1967, and Michalowski 1974).

Excavation: fully excavated by W. Y. Adams, April 7-19, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 35-38. Photos: F/109: 4-12; F/112: 11-12; F/113: 3-12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: Figure 12 herein. Published references: Cailliaud 1826, vol. I, 332; Adams

24-I-1. Aksha Temple-Church. A large mud-brick church 26

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converted from the Ramesside Temple of Aksha (therefore, Type T). Its remains were still fairly well preserved when sketched by Gau in 1817 (see Contenson 1966, pl. A), and they were also noted by several other visitors. However, nothing remained visible above ground by the time of the Franco-Argentine excavations in 1960-61. The definitive publication is Contenson 1966.

served by a Yugoslav expedition in 1964, and are now in the National Museum in Khartoum.

24-N-6. Church at Serra? Trial excavations by the Sudan Antiquities Service in 1966 revealed a fragment of a granite column and a brick pavement (Vercoutter 1956, 8-9), but no other structural remains were uncovered. We did not succeed in re-locating this site. 24-R-2. Debeira Church. A large church of Type 2a, later converted to Type 3a; situated a short distance to the north of Christian village Site 24-R-8. It was excavated by Mileham in 1908 (Mileham 1910, 14-21), and some further clearing was done by the University of Ghana Expedition in 1962 (Shinnie 1963, 258; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 1719). It was called the “Church near Debereh” by Mileham, and “Hammam el Farki” by Somers Clarke (1912, 59-62), who incorrectly located it within the omodiya of Serra. 24-R-44. Small Debeira Church. A mud-brick church originally of Type 2b, later converted to Type 3a. It was originally located by the Sudan Antiquities Service preliminary survey of 1956, and was fully excavated by the University of Ghana Expedition in 1963 (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 29-33). The church was located within a small settlement, of which only a few houses were dug (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 30, 33). 24-W-3. Deir el Bollor Church. Somewhere within the village of Argin, Somers Clarke found the very denuded remains of a small mud-brick church and, directly contiguous to it, a large complex of vaulted rooms which he believed was a monastery (Clarke 1912, 57-59). We could find no surviving trace of these structures. The plan of the church suggests a building of Type 3. 6-K-3. Meinarti Church. Alongside the island settlement of Meinarti were the remains of a mud-brick church, originally of Type 2b, which had been completely rebuilt twice in the course of its long history, first as a building of Type 3a and finally perhaps as a building of Type 4. It was discovered and excavated in 1963 in the course of the Sudan Antiquities Service excavations. The definitive publication is Adams 2003. 6-K-5. Buhen church. A small, very denuded mud-brick church originally of Type 2b, later converted to Type 3a, and much modified in the course of its apparently long history. It was excavated by Mileham (1910, 48-56), who called it the “Church near Wady Halfa.” 5-0-1. Abdel Qadir Church. This little building, with its many murals, was the best preserved church in Nubia, and was visited and described by many early visitors, beginning with Richardson in the early nineteenth century (Richardson 1822, vol. 1, 454-5). Its central feature was a tiny church of Type 5, which was adjoined by satellite chapels on both the north and south sides; all were adorned with murals. The church was fully described by Griffith (1928, 63-80). The murals were removed and con-

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3. FORTIFICATIONS

wall material extending down to floor surfaces. Condition: lower, stone walls preserved to full height most of the way around; upper, brick walls preserved to nearly full height at west side only; elsewhere mostly missing. Dating: uncertain; architectural typology suggests Late Christian.

Of the four fortified sites investigated by the West Bank Survey, three were large, irregular walled compounds located on islands of the Second Cataract. Given the propensity of the Christian Nubians to make use of older fortifications, as at Qasr Ibrim (Adams 1996, 84-6), Serra East (Knudstad 1966, 166-78), and Buhen (not published), we could not be certain in any case that the enclosure walls were not of pre-Christian origin. They are described here because they evidently still played a significant role in protecting the Christian settlements that were built within them.

Architectural details Lower storey. Entrance to the lower storey from the outside was through a doorway 1m wide at the southeast side. The doorway was not fortified, but may have been adjoined by a buttress on the interior, of which only a portion remained. The doorway opened into Room 2, from which an interior door opened into Room 1, of about equal size. From here a second door opened into the smaller interior Room 3. The exterior door and the door from Room 1 to Room 3 were roughly blocked when found, but this might have been done by modern Nubians who used the structure as a goat pen. The tower was adjoined on the outside by a room of irregular rectangular shape (Room 4), which was only partly preserved. It was not interconnected with the interior rooms of the tower, and may have been added at a later date. A sizable area on the east side of the tower had been artificially built up to create a kind of terrace (Room 5 in the field notes), by building an irregular retaining wall and filling in behind with stone blocks and mud. Fragments of two floor levels were preserved in Room 1. The upper, later floor was a hard-packed mud surface throughout the room. It was underlain by mud and granite slabs extending down to the original floor, another mud surface which was preserved only in the eastern half of the room, was at a depth of 35-40cm below the upper floor. No remnants of floor were preserved in Rooms 2 and 3.

5-T-29: Late Christian fortified tower, Abu Sir (Figure 13; Plate 3a) This unique structure stood on a low granite eminence, in a rocky area that was apparently an island at the time of the extreme high Nile. It was a roughly round tower, two storeys high, with lower walls of very stout but rough stone masonry, and upper walls of brick. There was no trace of any stairway leading to the upper storey, which must have been accessed by ladder, as usual in Late Christian castle-houses. The architectural typology suggests a very Late Christian date, but most of the collected sherds were of Early and Classic Christian types. There are no registered finds. Specifications Setting: built on top of a low granite eminence, in a very rocky area beside the Second Cataract. Size: diameter 7m. Plan: ground floor interior divided into three interconnected rooms, with an extra room appended to the outside. Upper floor plan not discoverable. Wall construction: lower storey massive, very rough stone masonry, to height of about 3.5m. Upper storey thinner mud brick. Wall thickness: lower stone walls 1 to 1.2m; upper brick walls 80cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: no surviving indications of plaster in lower rooms. Some indications of plain mud plaster on upper interior walls. Doorways: exterior doorway to Room 2 may have been adjoined by a buttress; not rebated. Interior doorway from Room 2 to Room 1 rebated on Room 1 side. Door from Room 1 to Room 3 not rebated. No thresholds. Floors: where preserved, hard mud, underlain by stone slabs and mud which was used to level the underlying jebel surface. Roof: fragments of springing brick suggest that lower storey rooms had vaulted roofs. Upper storey roofs probably flat, since no springing was preserved. Fill: uppermost fill was goat dung, underlain by fallen

Upper storey. Nothing could be said with certainty about the interior features of the upper storey. There were some hints that it might have been bisected by a wall resting directly on top of the wall between Rooms 1 and 2. Small loopholes were preserved at two points, high in the upper storey walls. Exterior Room 4. This was a large, irregularly shaped enclosure which abutted against the west side of the tower. It was enclosed by stout walls, 80cm thick, of the same rough stone masonry as that in the lower tower walls. Its north and west walls were straight, but did not meet at a right angle. The north wall was preserved to a maximum height of about 1.5m where it abutted the tower wall, from which point it diminished to a height of about 50cm at the broken end of the west wall. There was no surviving trace of the south wall, which had evidently fallen away. In modern times a curving wall of rough stonework had been run across between the broken end of the east wall and

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the tower wall, so as to form a fully enclosed room. This was evidently done when the building was converted to a goat pen. There was no discoverable floor within Room 4, and no doorway in the surviving portions of wall. It could not be determined if the structure was ever roofed.

this is consistent with the typological features of the church. The wall itself might nevertheless have been older. The enclosure wall The wall enclosed an area measuring roughly 75 x 60m. The area was very irregular in shape, largely dictated by the uneven topography of the rocky island. A large part of the wall was missing at the north side, and a small portion at the south side as well. Where preserved, the wall was mostly between 30cm and 1.75m high, with thickness varying from 1.5 to 1.9m. Construction was of heavy and coarse stone masonry, double-faced with a fill of smaller stones and rubble. At one point in the east wall there was a well formed gateway, 2m wide. Within, it was flanked on the north side by small projecting buttresses measuring 90 x 85cm. It was flanked on the south side by a larger, slightly inset buttress, which was only partly preserved. The surviving remnant was 1.7m wide and at least 2.2m long. On the side facing the doorway it was faced with mud brick. Running across the gateway was a threshold of large stones, 20cm high. The excavator’s sketch plan suggests the possibility of a second gate (“Gate B”) at the southernmost point in the enclosure wall, where it was very denuded. However, there is no mention of this in the written notes.

Terrace. On the east and south sides of the tower, a considerable area of the adjoining jebel had been made into a level terrace, by building a stout retaining wall of rough stone masonry, and filling in behind with granite slabs and other rubble. The terrace wall, which followed an irregular alignment, abutted at each end against low rock outcrops. The maximum width of the terrace was about 7m, and the length about 20m.

Discussion Tower 5-T-29 had enough features in common with the Late and Terminal Christian castle-houses of the Batn elHajjar to suggest a similar dating, despite the Early and Classic Christian sherds found around it (cf. Adams 1994a). Common features include the two-storey plan, with heavy stone lower walls and brick upper walls, access to the upper storey only by a ladder, and loopholes in the upper walls. Lack of floors or domestic features in the lower rooms suggests that they were mainly used for storage, with living rooms on the upper level. The size was considerably smaller than the largest of the castle-houses, but others of equally small size were preserved at several points in the Batn el-Hajjar. The round shape of the building is however unique. It should be noted that, unlike many castle-houses, 5T-29 was not especially well situated to serve as a watchtower. A better view could have been obtained from a number of higher rock knolls in the general vicinity. The abundant sherds scattered over the adjoining terrace, and used as chinking in the wall masonry, were mostly of Early Christian types, suggesting that the terrace itself may have been built and occupied in Early Christian times. However, enough Late Christian hand-made sherds (especially painted Ware H8) were found within the building to suggest a Late Christian dating.

The houses Despite the size of the enclosure, only two small buildings, other than the church, were found within in. Both were built of rough stone masonry. House 1 was an irregular-shaped, two-room structure built directly against the inner face of the enclosure wall, close to its southeast corner. It was about 20m from the east end of the church. The shape was a kind of oval, with one flat end where it adjoined the enclosure wall. Entry was through a narrow (55cm) doorway, in the middle of the south wall, into Room 1. This room, more or less in the shape of a rounded square, adjoined the enclosure wall. It was separated from Room 2, to the west, by a straight wall, in which there was definitely no doorway. Room 2 therefore had no lateral entrance. Its shape was half-round.

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, November 22-26, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, pp. 23-27; WYA Book V, pp. 37-38. Photos: F/073: 1-7; F/074: 1-7. Sketch plan: HÅN Book III, opp. p. 23. Plan and cross-sections: Figure 13 herein. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 3839.

House 2 was a free-standing rectangular house, located about 8m from the eastern church wall (Plate 5e). The southwest corner was not fully preserved. Entry was through a narrow (55cm) doorway in the west end of the south wall, into Room 1. This room, which was featureless, was separated from the larger Room 2 only by a thin partition that ran only half way across the width of the house, leaving a very large opening between the two rooms. In the northeast corner of Room 2 were remnants of a rectangular bin, measuring 1.75 x 0.6m, built against the east wall. It was enclosed by small upright stone slabs set in mud mortar.

5-T-1: Walled compound, Kisinarti Island (Figure 14) The site consisted of a heavily walled enclosure located on a rocky summit, more or less in the middle of Kisinarti Island. Within were a fairly well preserved church (5-T-1, described in Chapter 2) two houses, and a few graves. All were situated near the southern extremity of the enclosed area; no structures were identified in the more northerly portions. Sherds indicate a Late Christian 1 dating, and

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, February 1-4, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 20. Photos: F/092: 8-9, F/094: 10-12. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 18. Plans: plan of gateway; Figure 14 herein. 30

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Figure 13. Plan and cross-sections of fortified Tower 5-T-29, Abu Sir (scale 1:200).

Figure 14. Plan of fortification wall, church, and houses at Site 5-T-1, Kisinarti Island (scale 1:400).

Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 3234.

neighboring islands. Most were single rooms, built most often against the inner face of the girdle wall, but there was also one free-standing structure of six rooms (Area D) on top of a high outcrop within the enclosure. Beneath some of these were older and larger structures of Early and/or Classic Christian date (shown in Plate 3b). There were also numerous Pharaonic and Meroitic sherds, but no identifiable structures. Very extensive sherd deposits on the surface suggested prolonged occupation. Despite the abundance of sherd material at the surface, our test excavations revealed that there was very little cultural deposit below. It was clear therefore that the allu-

5-S-31: Christian fortified settlement, Nabash Island (Plate 3b) The site was a large walled enclosure very roughly rectangular in shape, although the outline was highly irregular due to adaptation to natural features of the terrain. Within, there were at least 100 rudely built stone huts of Late Christian age, similar to those found on all the 31

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vial surfaces were deflated. We carried out test excavations in five areas; four adjoining the girdle wall and one in a free-standing house in the interior. However, structural remains were encountered in only three of the areas.

girdle wall. At the surface there was a line of typically rough-built Late Christian huts, some built against the girdle wall and some partly on top of it. They did not have well-defined floors.

Specifications Setting: an area of rocky knolls with a few gravel and sand flats between. Area: about 150 x 250m. Condition: all features very denuded; whole site had obviously been flooded many times. Alluvial surfaces were clearly deflated, and all traces of early structures, other than the enclosure wall, destroyed. Dating: all identifiable houses were Classic or Late Christian, but enclosure wall may originally have been built earlier. Sherds indicated considerable occupation in Pharaonic and Meroitic times, but there were no identifiable structures from those times.

Classic Christian houses (Plate 3b). Directly beneath the Late Christian huts there was a line of three regularly rectangular rooms, each measuring about 2 x 4m. They were enclosed mostly by stone walls formed of small stones set in heavy mortar, but in one room there were two walls made of very large bricks, measuring 44 x 24cm. Both the stone and the brick walls were about 45cm thick. All the rooms had good mud floors and plastered walls. The rooms were apparently not interconnected. All must have been entered from the west (the side away from the girdle wall), although the walls here were too poorly preserved for us to identify actual doorways. Adjoining the west side of the three rectangular rooms was a half-round room enclosed by a wall of stone masonry, somewhat heavier than the walls of the other three rooms. No part of it was preserved to a height of over 25cm, and it had evidently been denuded by flooding before the Late Christian houses were overbuilt. The floors were directly underlain by jebel rock and river sand. There was a considerable scatter of ash and sherds on all the floors, and one room had a hand-made pot buried in the middle of the floor. Most of the registered vessels and sherds were of Classic Christian wares.

The enclosure wall The enclosure wall was very probably of pre-Christian date. It was so denuded in many places that its existence was not immediately obvious; it appeared simply as a meandering line of rubble. Once recognized however its entire length could be traced out. It was a very heavy stone construction, perhaps of dry-laid masonry, 2-3m thick. It was wholly destroyed at a number of points, and where surviving it stood no more than 50cm high The wall followed a very irregular course, with no straight segments anywhere. It followed the contours of the land so as to take maximum advantage of rocky heights where possible. There was no evidence of buttresses anywhere along its length. The area enclosed was very roughly rectangular, measuring about 250m from north to south and 150m from east to west. There was definitely a wide gateway at the south end of the enclosure, where the wall appears to have been thicker than elsewhere. The entry passage was about 3m wide and 6m long, and was flanked by a natural outcrop on one side and by a massive bastion of masonry on the other. In Late Christian times however the gateway was blocked by the building of houses within it (Area E). There could have been gateways at other places, where the wall was not preserved.

Area C This was another unproductive test, adjoining the west side of the girdle wall. It yielded only 0.5-1m of soft sand, overlying jebel rock. A few Meroitic and X-Group sherds—perhaps fallen chinking from the girdle wall— were found in the fill. Area D This designation was given to a six-room structure standing on a rocky knoll in the interior of the fortress, near its southern extremity. There are no notes on this building, apart from the statement that it was Late Christian, and it may not have been excavated. The sketch plan shows four more or less square rooms in a line, extending from northwest to southeast, and two adjoining rooms on the southwest side. Locations of doors are not indicated.

Test excavations Area A This area, against the enclosure wall near the north end, was selected because there was a fairly deep drift of sand, which we thought might cover a building. However, our excavation encountered nothing but clear sand, extending down to sterile ardiyya 1m below. Just outside the excavation area, to the west, there was a small stone hut built into an angle of the girdle wall, which could not be dated. Intruded into it was a very poorly preserved burial of an adult. It was dorsally extended, oriented west, with the knees considerably flexed. The skull was missing.

Area E This excavation revealed a line of five rooms, which were made by running a series of parallel walls directly across the former gateway of the enclosure, to form rooms about 3m long and about 2m wide. The walls were of rather crude, heavy stone masonry, with mud mortar, about 40cm thick. The photos do not show interconnections between any of the rooms, and the method of entry is therefore uncertain. The rooms had fairly well defined floors, with a considerably scattering of ash, charcoal, and sherds. They were covered by a fill of from 0.6 to 1m of fine windblown sand.

Area B Late Christian houses. This was the most productive of our test excavations, adjoining the northeast side of the

Registered objects 1. Bowl portion, Ware R32 (Meroitic). 32

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2. Bowl fragment, Ware W2, Form C75. 3. Vase portion, Ware W6, form probably F12. 4. Storage jar, Ware U5, Form X3. 5. Amphora portion, Ware U8, Form Z8. 6. Bowl portion, Ware H3, Form C17. 7. Bowl portion, Ware H3, Form C43. 8. Glass vessel fragments. 9. Bottle lamp (probably originally a naphtha grenade), unidentified stone ware, Form N4.

These may have been chinking in the fallen walls; at any rate they are evidence of earlier occupation in the area. The enclosure wall The massive enclosing wall was far more impressive than anything enclosed within it. The enclosed area was very roughly an elongate oval, but with many irregularities due to the nature of the terrain. In several places the wall “rode up” over high outcrops, then dipped down into the lower places between them (cf. Plate 3c). For the same reasons the wall varied considerably in thickness from place to place. The average thickness (at the top) was about 2m, but in at least four places along the outside, and two along the inside, there were sections of reinforcing buttress. The wall at these places was up to 4m thick. It was also very thick just adjoining the two gateways.

Documentation Excavation: test excavations by W. Y. Adams, February 27-March 5, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 19-22. Photos: F/100: 2-6, 8-12, Sketch plan: WYA Book VI, opp. p. 21. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 36.

The west gate. The fortification seems to have had at least two gateways. The best defined was at the western extremity, where there was an opening 2.4m wide (at the inner end). Flanking the entry on both sides were outward-projecting buttresses, so that the full length of the entryway into the interior was about 4m. The buttress on the north side of the gateway was a regular square projection, measuring 3 x 3m. That on the south side was a very much larger, irregular mass of masonry, like a bastion, measuring no less than 8 x 5m.

5-S-32: Christian fortified settlement, Nabash Island (Figure 15; Plate 3c) The site consisted of a massive girdle wall enclosing an area measuring about 100 x 60m. Within were about two dozen small and very rudely built stone huts, most of which adjoined the inner face of the girdle wall. However, by far the majority of the enclosed space was devoid of structures, and much of it was occupied by steep rock outcrops. The entire site was built on very uneven, rocky ground, to which both the girdle wall and the huts had to adapt themselves. There was no level, alluvial ground anywhere within the enclosure, or adjoining it. The whole enclosed area had a considerable slope from west to east.

The north gate (?). There appeared to have been a second gate in the north wall, somewhat east of the middle of the enclosure. The wall was poorly preserved here, with one section 7m long entirely missing. However, the termination at the west side of the opening seemed to be a regularly squared off end, suggesting that this was the jamb of a gateway. The same was not true on the east side, where the ending of the wall was irregular and clearly broken off. In any case the gateway, if any, would not have been 7m wide. The wall was very considerably thickened on both sides of the opening, again suggesting the possibility of a gate here, although there were no projecting buttresses as at the west gate. Since this opening was at the point where the enclosure wall approached closest to the riverbank, it could possibly have been a watergate.

Specifications Setting: a series of high, craggy outcrops at the east end of Nabash Island, enclosed within a massive girdle wall. Channels of the Nile flowed close by on two sides. Area: about 100 x 60m. Wall construction: enclosure wall was a massive double-faced, rubble-filled affair of dry-laid stone, with considerable batter from top to bottom (see Plate 3c). Interior huts had crude dry-laid stone walls. Wall thickness: enclosure wall varied from 2 to 4m thick at the top; considerably wider at the base because of the batter. Hut walls rarely more than 40cm thick. Plaster: none. Doors: girdle wall had massively fortified gateways. All huts had plain doors. Floors: soft sand floors laid over bedrock. Floor features: none. Fill: mostly fallen rubble in huts. Condition: preservation of the enclosure wall variable. Many parts considerably tumbled down, but some still stood to about 3m, which was probably about their original height. Walls of interior huts mostly preserved to height of about 1m. Preservation was much better in the western than in the lower eastern portion of the enclosure, which had been repeatedly flooded. Dating: majority of sherds were Late Christian, but some Early and Classic Christian sherds were recovered also.

The huts Our survey located 19 definite huts within the fortress interior, as well as the probable localities of five others that were too tumbledown for definite identification. The structures were all small, and fairly uniform in size, with diameters of 2-3m. All but three of the huts adjoined the inner face of the girdle wall; the remaining three were built up against rock outcrops in the interior. Construction in all cases was of very rude, dry stone masonry. The great majority of the huts were either half-round or had a rounded rectangular shape, most with a very narrow, plain doorway. In at least five places there were pairs of huts adjoining each other, and sharing a short section of party wall, but in no case were they interconnected. No doorway could be identified in a number of the huts, suggesting the possibility either that they were entered from above, or more probably that they were open-air working spaces which the owners simply entered by stepping over the walls. 33

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In addition to the half-round or rounded huts described above, there were at least four rooms that were made by running walls across between the girdle wall and the face of a rock outcrop that paralleled it, at a distance of about 4m. The rooms formed in this way were thus roughly square or rectangular. Two of them, at the north side of the site, were interconnected; the only occurrence of interconnecting rooms anywhere in the settlement. We excavated most of the huts in the better preserved western portion of the interior; a total of 13 in all. All had very poorly defined sand floors, without floor features and with very little refuse. However, two small concave mortars, with hand-stones, were found in one of the huts. There was relatively little refuse scatter anywhere within the enclosure, and practically none outside.

Discussion The poor quality of house construction and the lack of occupation refuse make it virtually certain that Site 5-S-32 was not a regular dwelling place. Most probably it was built to serve as a temporary refuge in times of enemy attack, the major advantage being that Nabash Island is very near the center of the Second Cataract, at a maximum distance from both banks. This makes it probable that the fortification walls were built during the disturbed Late Christian period rather than in the relatively stable earlier times. Nevertheless, the structure was certainly very little used. The presence of some Early and Classic Christian sherds indicates however that there was some earlier occupation in the area, presumably predating the building of the enclosure. It is possible that the fortification was built as a replacement for the apparently much older fortified Site 5-S-31, located about 300m east, when the latter had been rendered untenable by repeated flooding.

Registered object 1. Goblet portion, Ware H7, Form B32.

Documentation Excavation: site mapped and 13 huts excavated by W. Y. Adams, February 26-27, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 17-18. Photos: F/099: 10-12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: Figure 15 herein. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 36.

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Figure 15. Plan of the fortified settlement 5-S-32, Nabash Island (scale 1:500).

4. HABITATION REMAINS

nated by a single line of mud bricks, about 50cm from the back wall. Apart from this, no floor features were noted.

Habitation remains—some of them too small to be called towns or settlements—made up just half of all the Christian sites investigated in the West Bank Survey. In addition to the sites described in this chapter, there were also habitation remains within three of the fortified enclosures reported in Chapter 3. It is probable that the Faras Potteries site, described in Chapter 5, was also originally a place of habitation.

Room 2 adjoined Room 1 on the north, and was entered from it through a doorway in the east end of the separating wall. The door was stoutly buttressed on the Room 2 side. The room was somewhat smaller than its neighbor, and had a curving east wall. The floor is described as being 40-50cm higher than that in Room 1. Two pots (not recovered) were buried in the floor near the back wall. Subsequent to building, the east wall was reinforced with a small pile of stones and mud built against its inner side.

24-E-30: Early Christian houses, Faras (Plate 3d)

Room 3. The photo (Plate 3d) shows an additional masonry room, with a curving east wall, adjoining Room 2 on the north.

This was a group of small, two- or three-room houses built against a low sandstone escarpment at the desert edge, just to the west of the dry western channel of the Nile. We saw four or five houses; there may have been others in the area. Three were excavated. House 1 had stone walls laid in “herringbone” courses, after the fashion common in houses of the preceding Ballaña period (see Adams 2004, 151). The other two houses had mud-brick walls. Houses 1 and 2 were built against the face of a low stone escarpment, which formed their western wall. The site was investigated in the earliest days of our first field season, and notes are minimal.

House 2 The house consisted of a larger eastern Room 1 and a smaller western Room 2. Entrance was into Room 1, and a doorway at the west end of the separating wall led into Room 2. The floor in Room 1 was slightly lower than that in Room 2. Specifications Size: not recorded. Plan: 2 contiguous rooms built against a low stone escarpment. Number of rooms: 2. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: none; walls rested on sand. Wall thickness: 20cm according to notes, but photo suggests about 40cm. Bricks replaced by sandstone at the SW corner. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: apparently plain. Floors: mud. Floor features: none recorded. Fill: sand and collapsed wall. Condition: very denuded; walls preserved to height of only one or two brick courses. Dating: Early Christian. Plan: none. Photo: F/001: 21A.

House 1 (Plate 3d) Specifications Size: not recorded. Plan: three rooms in a line, abutting against rock face. Number of rooms: 3, plus a dug-out area to southwest. Wall construction: rough herringbone stone with mud plaster. Foundations: none; laid on sand. Wall thickness: 20cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: wide doorway, stoutly buttressed on both sides, gave entry to Room 1. Floors: hard mud. Floor features: buried floor pots in Room 2 and in dugout area. Fill: sand. Condition: walls preserved to height of about 60cm. Dating: sherds and herringbone construction suggest very early Christian. Plan: none. Photo: F/001: 16A.

House 3 Specifications Setting: described as “close to the former western channel of the Nile.” Size: 5.2 x 1.8m. Plan: rectangular Number of rooms; 1? Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: not recorded. Wall thickness: 35cm. Brick size: 32 x 17 x 8cm.

Architectural details Room 1. Entry was through a fairly wide door at the east end of the south wall. The doorway was stoutly reinforced on its west side, and apparently also on its east side. The photo suggests that the shape of the room was more or less square, with a straight or slightly curving east wall. The room had a good, hard mud floor, but it did not extend all the way to the back wall (the rock face). It was termi-

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Plaster: not recorded. Doors: not recorded. Floor: not recorded. Floor features: pot of rough brown ware (Ware H1?), containing much charcoal, in the middle of the floor. Fill: not recorded. Condition: denuded. Dating: attributed to the Christian period.

among the dunes close to the riverbank. There was also some kind of a small stone-lined channel. The excavator thought the buildings were probably of Christian date, and this is suggested by the rollag foundations. On the other hand one of the two registered finds from the site is an undoubted Meroitic cup, and the very denuded condition is also more suggestive of a Meroitic than of a Christian date. It is also remotely possible that the channel was Meroitic, while the houses were Christian. The site was included among the Meroitic sites published in Adams 2004, 23-25.

Documentation Excavation: 3 houses excavated by G. J. Verwers, April, 1960. Field Notes: GJV Book I, pp. 11-15, 69. Photos: F/001: 16-21. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Verwers 1961, 29 and pl. IIIb.

24-V-12: Christian house remains of uncertain age, Argin Very denuded habitation remains included loose bricks, door stones, and potsherds scattered on sand among the riverside tamarisk groves; heavily disturbed by modern occupation. The total area of the remains was no more than 5 x 15m. The photo shows one section of intact brick wall, of undetermined thickness. The site was possibly an extension of 24-V-13, q.v. A very limited surface test was made by H.-Å. Nordström in March 1961. A Christian dating is suggested by the sherd finds.

24-I-18: Christian houses of uncertain age, Faras The site consisted of three loci with scattered Christian sherds on the surface, and some remnants of brick houses, buried in sand dunes about 25m from the riverbank. Notes indicate that one house was excavated, but no description is given.

Documentation Excavation: surface test by H.-Å. Nordström, March, 1961. Field notes: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 54. Photos: F/041: 1-2. Site plan: none. Published reference: Nordström 1962, 44.

Documentation Excavation: trial excavations by G. J. Verwers, fall, 1960. Field notes: GJV Book III, p. 9. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Verwers 1962, 21.

24-V-13: Ballaña and Early Christian houses, Argin

24-M-14: Christian? Building of uncertain age, Faras

Remains of several mud-brick structures and considerable occupation refuse, partly overbuilt by the modern houses of Argin village. The total area of the remains was about 30m square. Minor test excavations were carried out by Nordström in 1961, and one house was fully excavated by the Spanish Expedition in 1962. The Spanish excavation has not been published.

The site consisted of a few very denuded remains of a stout-walled brick building, with rollag foundations. It was situated on top of a low dune, close to the river bank. Photos show only part of one east-west wall, apparently 50-60cm thick and preserved to a height of no more than 30cm. There may possibly have been also the stump of a projecting wall at right angles. The site was covered by sand containing ash and pieces of brick, and also some slag of the type found at pottery kiln sites. Only minor surface clearing was undertaken, as there was no depth to the remains. The Christian dating is a guess.

Excavation and results The surface was cleared over an area of about 10 x 15m,and several test pits were dug. Remnants of mud-brick walls as well as occupation refuse were found in two pits. Three sides of a room and a portion of an adjoining room were cleared. Test pits indicated a depth of at least 1.5m in the occupation refuse.

Documentation Surface clearance: by G. J. Verwers, Fall, 1960. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 27. Photos: F/020: 21-23. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

Documentation Excavation: minor test excavation by H.-Å. Nordström, April, 1961. One house excavated by Spanish Expedition, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 57. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 56. Photos: none. Site plan: none. Published reference; Nordström 1962, 44. There is no

24-R-6: Christian (?) Houses of uncertain age, Debeira The site apparently consisted of very denuded remnants of a number of mud-brick houses, rather widely scattered 36

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published documentation of the Spanish excavations.

as conclusive. Registered pottery vessels, mostly not seen by me, were identified by Florence Lister of the Colorado Expedition (Lister 1967), whose identifications are cited in following pages. The site appeared to have been a fairly large, densely clustered village, originally enclosed on the north, west, and south by a massive perimeter wall. However, our excavations as well as those of the Colorado team showed that some houses had extended both northward and westward beyond the wall. If the whole area within the wall was built over, the village would have numbered at least 300 rooms, and possibly more. Located within the village, in Christian times, was Church 6-G-7, described in earlier pages. The Colorado excavations, together with our own, cleared only about one-third of the surface area of the site (cf. Figure 16) and also uncovered only the uppermost layer of remains. In some sectors these dated from the Ballaña period, in others from the Early Christian period, and in still others from the Classic Christian period. Sherd finds also gave a suggestion of an earlier Meroitic occupation, although no buildings could be definitely ascribed to that period. The pre-Christian remains have been fully described in Adams 2004, 95ff.; only the Christian buildings and finds will be described in this volume. Apart from the Church 6-G-7, Christian remains were preserved only in the most northerly and southerly sectors of the village, here designated as Sectors I, IV, V, and VI (Figure 16). The presence of the church, however, suggested the probability that the Christian habitations were once much more extensive than was revealed by the excavations. Probably there were many additional Christian houses in the unexcavated parts of the site.

24-V-15, 24-V-16, and 24-W-20: Christian sherd concentrations, Argin These were three areas close together, among the riverside dunes at Argin, where there were extensive concentrations of Christian sherds. No structural remains were visible at the surface in any case, and we did not attempt any excavation. All three areas were tested by the Spanish Expedition in 1962, but there is no report on what, if anything, they found.

6-B-20: Christian habitation? of uncertain age, Argin On the sandy flat east of Argin village, remains of a mud floor were found at the surface, together with a considerable concentration of sherds, in an area about 30m square. A trial excavation revealed that the occupation refuse continued downward for nearly 2m, but no structural remains were encountered. The base of a small stone column was found on the surface nearby.

Documentation Excavation: small trial excavation by H-Å. Nordström, April 19, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 90. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Photos: none. Published reference: Nordström 1962, 44.

6-B-21: Christian sherd concentration, Argin Close to the riverbank to the east of Argin village was a mound of sand about 50m in diameter and 5m high, covered with Christian potsherds. At the surface there were some indications of underlying mud-brick walls. We made a large collection of sherds for study, but did no excavation.

Site specifications Setting: on gently sloping ground immediately adjoining the western edge of the Dabarosa floodplain, with village houses directly behind. Deeply sanded over. Area: apparently about 100 x 50m. Fill: largely drifted sand. Depth: up to 3m of deposit noted in some places. Condition: uppermost structures preserved to heights of between 0.5 and 1.5m, with everything above that level either destroyed by flooding or removed to marog diggers. However, surviving remains ended fairly abruptly at a line along the eastern side of the village, beyond which everything was destroyed. Dating: all structures excavated by us, except perhaps the perimeter wall, dated from Ballaña or very Early Christian times. However, the Colorado Expedition found some Classic Christian houses and abundant Classic Christian pottery, as well as some of the earliest glazed wares. Colorado also reported a small amount of Meroitic refuse, but no identifiable structures.

6-G-6: Ballaña and Classic Christian village, Gezira Dabarosa ( Figures 16-19; Plates 4a-b) This large settlement, adjoining the floodplain at Gezira Dabarosa, was occupied at least from early Ballaña times until the end of the Classic Christian period, and contained several layers of habitation remains. Preliminary excavations were carried on by us in the winter of 196061, with much more extensive investigation by the University of Colorado Expedition in the two following seasons. Our own excavations turned up considerable quantities of Early Christian pottery, but no buildings, other than the Church 6-G-7 (described in Chapter 2), that could be ascribed to a Christian origin. The description here is therefore based entirely on the notes, photographs, and plans of the Colorado Expedition (for explanation see the Introduction). Chronological estimates for the various buildings however are mostly my own, based partly on stratigraphy and partly on examination of sherd collections. These dates should not in most cases by regarded

Sector I (Figure 17) Of the structures uncovered in this area, only House 2 could be dated unmistakably to the Christian period. House 1 and Feature 29 yielded only Ballaña material, while Houses 3, 4, and 5 could not be securely dated on the basis of scanty sherd finds. On typological grounds, how-

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Figure 16. Overall plan of Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa. After original field plan by the University of Colorado Expedition (scale 1:500).

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Figure 17. Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa: plan of Sector I. After the original field plan by the University of Colorado Expedition (scale 1:200).

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ever, it seems most probable that Houses 4 and 5 belonged to the Ballaña period, and House 3 to the Christian period.

1m. Dating: Early Christian. The plan shows a large pottery vessel, 47cm in diameter, set into the floor in Room 19. Just above, a portion of the wall face was cut away. In the southwest corner there was an infant burial in a large pot, identified by Lister as a Ware U2 amphora. Elsewhere on the floor, face down, was an intact bowl of Aswan Ware R12, according to Lister’s identification. Face down in the middle of the floor was a thin, nicely shaped rectangular slab of sandstone with an incised border, and bearing in the center the kind of monogrammatic inscription, including Χ Π Θ, usually found on pottery. One end of the slab was broken away. The Colorado excavators surmised that it may originally have been set into the niche in the southwest wall of Room 19.

House 2 This was a cluster consisting of two stout-walled brick structures, Suites A and C, with a number of irregular, thin-walled rooms extending between them (Suite B). Apparently, nearly all construction was of mud brick. The two stout-walled houses may have been built first, and the thin-walled rooms of Suite B later built into the space between them. However, the possibility exists that the thin-walled structures of Suite B were of late Ballaña date, while the thicker walled Suites A and C were built up over the tops of older thin walls, as happened at the beginning of the Christian period at Meinarti (Adams 2001, 9). Suite A. These three stout-walled rooms probably did not comprise the whole of the original building, which seems to have extended southwestward beyond the limit of the Colorado excavations. The interiors but not the exterior faces of the southwest walls were cleared. The excavated portion consisted of a not quite symmetrical rectangle, with a room at the northeast, having a long axis NW-SE, and two rooms to the southwest of it, with long axes NE-SW. The northeastern room (Room 21) was entered from the outside, while no lateral entrance is shown for either of the other two rooms. Since two of the three rooms seem to have had no lateral entrance, the possibility exists that these were blind cellars under a two-storey house—a feature of construction otherwise known from the Meroitic and Late Christian periods, but not from anything intervening. The walls of Suite A were certainly thick enough to have supported a second storey.

Suite B. An irregular, more or less L-shaped aggregation of thin-walled rooms filling up the space between Suites A and C, and also adjoining the northeast side of Suite C. These rooms, or at least some of them, evidently formed an adjunct to Suite C, since the only entrance to Suite C was through them. There appear to have been two outside entrances, both at the southwest, into Rooms 12 and 15c. Suite B specifications Setting: middle part of House 2, adjoined by Suite A on the southeast and Suite C on the northwest. Area: 15 x 9m. Plan: essentially an L-shape, with somewhat irregular interior partitioning. The rooms were all interconnected, except possibly Room 12, and were entered from the outside (?) at the south corner. Number of rooms: 9. Wall construction: apparently all mud brick, except for one small square enclosure. Some walls in Room 15 were apparently low partitions, about 1.25m high, not extending to full room height. Foundations: northeast wall of Room 12 was built up on large stone foundations. Wall thickness: apparently all 20cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: variable. Some rooms apparently rather coarsely plastered, others not. Doors: some buttressed, others not. Floors: photos seem to show good, level mud floors in some cases. Floor features: ceramic ovens in Room 12. Fill: not recorded. Condition: most walls apparently standing 1-1.5m high. Dating: Early Christian.

Suite A specifications Setting: at the southeast end of House 2; adjoined on the northwest by Suite B; on the northeast by Feature 29 and open area; on the southeast by an open area; and on the southwest by an unexcavated area. Area: 11 x 7.5m. Plan: a slightly irregular rectangle of three rooms, not interconnected. Number of rooms: 3. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: partly but not all rollag. Some walls possibly built up on tops of older, thin walls of Ballaña date. Wall thickness: apparently mostly 60cm, but northwest wall of Room 19 40cm. A short section of the northeast wall of Room 21 appears to have been only 20cm thick. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: interiors rather roughly plastered. Doors: only one shown, into Room 21 from outside. Raised threshold with two stones set in mud. Rebated on southwest side, but without buttress. Roof: quite possibly vaulted, in view of room shapes and wall thickness. Floors: no data recorded. Floor features: none. Fill: not recorded. Condition: walls generally standing to height of 0.75-

Suite C. This was a well built, thick-walled house adjoining Suite B on the northwest. The house was essentially square, except that northwestern Room 13 extended eastward further than did the adjoining Room 17, so that there was a jog or inset into the northeast wall. This inset area was occupied by Room 16b of Suite B. The house consisted basically of two rooms, although there were low interior partitions within Room 13. A short section of thick wall extending southeastward from the south corner 40

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of the house showed that there was an adjoining structure on this side, which was not excavated.

Sector IV (Figure 18) This was a narrow rectangular area, measuring about 32 x 7.5m, at the southwestern extremity of the village. Here, the Colorado group cleared a connected line of eight rooms directly adjoining the inner face of the old village perimeter wall, and another line of rooms adjoining them on the east side. They were designated collectively by the present writer as House 10. The excavated rooms can be divided for convenience into six more or less square or rectangular suites, each comprising two to four rooms, although the suites were all interconnected so as to form in the broadest sense a single large suite. However, there is considerable evidence to suggest that all of the interconnecting doors were cut through at some date subsequent to the original building, and that the six suites were originally fully independent residences. This is suggested by the fact that thresholds of all the interconnecting doors were at a level considerably higher than the original floors, and none of them was rebated or buttressed.

Suite C specifications Setting: at the northeast end of House 2; adjoined by Suite B on the northeast and southeast. Area: 7 x 8m. Plan: a nearly square two-room house, except for jog in the northeast wall. Number of rooms: 2. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: rollag. Wall thickness: all 40cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: interiors smoothly plastered. Doors: rebated and stoutly buttressed. possibly arched. Roof: vaulted, as indicated by springing bricks preserved at the top of the Room 13 wall. Floors: hard mud floors. Floor features: oven and floor pot in Room 13; floor pot in Room 17. Fill: not recorded. Condition: walls standing to height of 1-1.8m. Dating: Early to Classic Christian.

House 10 The following was quoted by Florence Lister (1967, 5) from the field notes of the original excavator:1 “The rooms along the stone and mud enclosing wall south of the church were made by adding wall to wall, butting the additional walls against the older ones as construction went on. The walls perpendicular to the enclosing wall and butted up against it were much more regular in being set parallel to one another than were the walls of additions elsewhere on the site. This regularity suggests planning and unit construction. While there were several floors in many of these small rooms formed by repeated sand-filling, the floors in general were at much more nearly the same level than was true of the X-Group complexes” (Lister 1967, 5). However, the Colorado plan suggests that many of these rooms were built up directly on top of older, thin walls.

House 3 This was a square, thick-walled house which seems to have stood by itself, at some distance to the northeast of House 2. It was the most northerly excavated feature at Site 6-G-6. Although no material was found which could date this house, it would appear to have been a late construction, as the floor level was at a considerably higher level than was found in Ballaña period houses, and walls were preserved only to a height of 50-65cm. The plan of the house was typical of square houses of the Ballaña and Early Christian periods, consisting of one large room, which occupied almost half the total area of the house, and two smaller rooms beside it, all interconnected. A decidedly unusual feature however was the presence of two exterior doorways. No floor features were recorded in this house.

House 10 specifications Setting: at the southwest corner of the village, directly adjoining the inner face of the perimeter wall. Close to the church (6-G-7) on the north side, and separated by a narrow street from House 11 (Sector V) on the southwest. Area: 32 x 7.5m. Plan: an interconnected double line of rooms adjoining the inner face of the perimeter wall. Number of rooms: 19. Wall construction: all mud brick, except where stone perimeter wall formed the western wall of the western line of rooms. Foundations: rollag. Wall thickness: mostly 60-70cm, except for perimeter walls which was about 1.7m thick. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: variable. Doors: variable, but mostly not buttressed. Roof: no data; vaulting possible in view of thickness of the walls. Floors: several floors in many rooms.

House 3 specifications Setting: standing alone at the northern extremity of the excavated area. Area: 8 x 8m. Plan: a nearly square house with three interconnected rooms, one large and two smaller. Number of rooms: 3. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: rollag. Wall thickness: all 40cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: photos suggest plaster both inside and out. Doors: exterior doors rebated on both sides; not buttressed. Interior door buttressed, not rebated. Floors: no data; possibly not fully exposed. Floor features: none shown. Fill: sand. Condition: walls apparently preserved to height of 5065cm. Dating: uncertain; probably Early or Classic Christian.

1

Mark Papworth

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Figure 18. Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa: plan of Sector IV, House 10. After original field plan by the University of Colorado Expedition (scale 1:200).

westward beyond the limits shown on the plan.

Floor features: very few. Fill: sand. Condition: variable. Most walls apparently preserved to a height of about 1m, but outer (southeasterly) wall more denuded. Dating: mainly Classic Christian, though original construction may date from Early Christian.

House 11 specifications Setting: near the southwestern extremity of the village; separated from House 10 on the northwest by a narrow street. Area: excavated area about 15 x 11m. Plan: not fully revealed. A line of five contiguous rooms having a common northeast wall, all adjoined by additional rooms to the southwest that were not fully excavated. Number of rooms: 8 or more. Wall construction: apparently all mud brick. Foundations: not indicated. Wall thickness: variable. Plan shows 20-cm, 50-cm, and 80-cm walls. Brick size: 34 x 19 x 8 cm; recorded for Rooms 86W and 91 only. Plaster: not recorded.

Sector V (Figure 19) This was a more or less square area adjoining Sector IV on the southeast side; the two in fact were really one excavation area. The remains encountered were those of five contiguous rooms and parts of three other rooms, designated collectively as House 11, as well as something that looks on the plan to be a kind of square sunken area, designated by Colorado as Room 93. There appear to be no field notes on these structures, and no photos were found. Information is derived entirely from a series of plans at 1:50, which however yield less information than do the plans of other parts of the site. It can be inferred that all construction was in mud brick, since there was no notation of stone construction on the plans.

House 11 This structure was separated from House 10, at the northwest, by a narrow alley. Since the alignment of rooms was identical in the two houses, and both yielded Early Christian and Classic Christian pottery, it is likely that they were contemporaneous. The excavated remains were mainly those of a line of five contiguous rooms (Rooms 86E, 86W, 91, 95, and 85) having a common, fairly straight northeast wall, although different parts of it were of different thicknesses. There is no indication of adjoining structures on this side of the house, or on the northwest side where the house was separated by a narrow street from House 10. There is also no indication on the plans of adjoining structures on the southeast, although the excavation here appears to have been incomplete. However, there were definitely adjoining structures along the southwest side, which either were not excavated or were not preserved. The house, in any case, clearly extended south-

Figure 19. Site 6-G-6, Gezira Dabarosa: plan of Sector V, House 11. After original field plan by the University of Colorado Expedition (scale 1:200).

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Doors: main Room 91 had rebated and/or buttressed doors; others plain. Roof: thick-walled rooms almost certainly vaulted; others necessarily flat. Floors: “floors” are indicated in most rooms, but no other information is given. Floor features: a small corner bin and a buried floor pot in Room 91. Fill: not indicated. Condition: apparently poor. To the extent that I can interpret “depth” entries on the plans, it looks as if no walls were preserved to a height of more than 60cm, and many somewhat less. Dating: Early and Classic Christian, according to ceramic finds.

34, and 44. The following registered items were found during examination of the collections at the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History: 15319: lamp portion, Ware W2, Form P19. 15324: footed bowl portion, Ware W23, Form D23 (see Lister 1967, fig. 14, d). 15325: vase, Ware W6, Form F12 (see Lister 1967, fig. 14, c). 15333: pilgrim bottle portion, Ware W7, Form K2 (see Lister 1967, fig. 14, a). 15352: bowl, Ware R2, Form D49. 15356: bowl, Ware R13, Form C44 (see Lister 1967, fig. 18, a). 15357: bowl, Ware R5, Form D71. 15363: suspension pot, Ware U13, Form Z22 (see Lister 1967, fig. 9, b). 15368: lamp fragment, Ware R4, Form P1. 15374: lamp fragment, Ware R4, Form P1 15377: lamp, Ware R5, Form P19. 15378: bowl lamp portion, Ware W12, Form C49 (see Lister 1967, fig. 18, c). 15379: bowl lamp, Ware W5, Form C49 (see Lister 1967, fig. 14, b). 15383: pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2. (No number): bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C7.

Sector VI House 12 This was a small rectangular area lying somewhat to the east of Sector V, and about 15m to the southeast of Church 6-G-7. The excavations seem to have encompassed three complete rooms (Rooms 78, 79, and 81), parts of two other contiguous rooms (Rooms 80 and 82), and a small part of a detached room (Room 83). For convenience these rooms have been designated by the present writer as House 12. I could find no notes or detailed plans on these rooms, and information is derived entirely from the sketch plan of the complete site. It shows a contiguous cluster of small rooms, but with no interconnecting doors. The plan suggests somewhat curving walls, but the thickness and the method of construction is not indicated. Ceramic finds suggest an Early Christian dating, although the architecture looks much more like that of the Ballaña houses in other sectors.

Unregistered finds. The following small items of metal, apparently not accessioned to the Museum, are identified by field numbers only. It is possible that some of these objects came from Ballaña contexts; in most cases no record of the provenience was found. 1. Small copper or bronze bell with iron clapper. 5. Iron hinge strap. 10. Section of bronze rod. 11. Copper ring. 12. Numerous small, corroded iron fragments. 13. Copper fragments. 14. Small cylindrical bronze staff tip. 16. Very thin brass (?) finial. 17. Short section of rusty iron rod. 18. Small piece of rusty iron. 19. Almost half of rusty iron ring. 20. Short section of bronze tubing. 22. Section of copper wire. 23. Bronze wire loop earring. 24. 2 small, rusty iron lumps. 25. Curved edge of copper or bronze vessel. 26. Lead ring. 27. Portion of iron blade. 28. Small bronze ring. 29. Half of small bronze sphere. 31. Fragment of lead (?). 33. 2 lengths of thick bronze wire. 34. Fragment of very corroded iron. 38. Unidentified iron object. 41. Fragment of very corroded iron blade

Finds Our excavations at 6-G-6 did not yield any objects of Christian date. No complete register of finds from the Colorado Excavations has been located, but there is a published register of pots in Lister 1967, 117-19. The list of Christian vessels may be summarized as follows: Ware R5: Early Christian Polished Red Ware: 1 footed bowl, 4 lamp fragments, 1 whole and 1 fragmentary jar. Ware W1: Early Christian Polished White Ware: 1 lamp fragment. Ware W2: Early Christian White Ware: 3 lamp fragments. Ware W5: Classic Christian Polished White Ware: 1 bowl. Ware W6: Classic Christian Polished Yellow Ware: 1 footed bowl, 1 cylinder. Ware W7: Classic Christian Heavy Decorated Ware: 3 lamp fragments, 1 pilgrim bottle fragment. Ware U5: Christian Red Utility Ware: 1 jar, 2 pilgrim bottle fragments. Ware R12: Aswan Medieval Decorated Red Ware: 1 bowl. Ware R13: Aswan Medieval Plain Red Ware: 1 bowl. Ware W12: Aswan Medieval White Ware: 1 bowl.

Discussion

Some of these vessels are illustrated in Lister 1967, 32,

Sherd material as well as architectural remains indicate 43

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5-0-15: Early Christian houses and enclosure, Abdel Qadir

that Site 6-G-6 was occupied at least from early Ballaña times until the end of the Classic Christian period. Nevertheless, incomplete excavation, as well as imprecise dating of the various buildings, makes it difficult to form a coherent picture of the nature of the community, especially in Christian times. Christian buildings were very much in the minority among the buildings uncovered, yet Early Christian sherds were nearly as numerous as Ballaña sherds in the tallies published by Lister (1967, 56-7). We do not know, of course, whether some or all of the houses originally built in the Ballaña period continued to be occupied in Christian times. We also do not know if there were additional Christian houses in the unexcavated portions of the site. The latter circumstance seems quite probable in view of the fact that, with one minor exception, the areas most immediately adjoining Church 6-G-7 were not excavated. The situation in Classic Christian times is even more enigmatic. Classic sherds constituted less than 1% of the total tally published by Lister (1967, 56-7), yet the presence of some glazed specimens shows that occupation at 6-G-6 continued through the whole of the Classic Christian period (cf. Adams 1986, 585). It is noteworthy also that the village Church 6-G-7 was basically of a Classic Christian type (Type 3c), and is not likely to have been built earlier than the latter part of the Early Christian 2 period. Such a substantial building would surely not have been constructed unless there was still a thriving community at Site 6-G-6 at the time. We are left to conclude therefore either that Classic Christian remains were mainly in the unexcavated parts of the site, or that they had been stripped away from the top levels prior to the time of the excavations.

(Figure 20) This site was part of a complex of very Early Christian buildings, that were scattered over an area about 150m square, close to the riverbank. The complex also included the prototype Church (?) 5-0-14, described in Chapter 2, and the building 5-0-16, tentatively identified as a tavern or wineshop (cf. Figure 37), described in Chapter 5.

Houses Our survey located remnants of three small, widely scattered houses, but there were probably others that we did not locate. We excavated one, which consisted of three parallel rooms, not interconnected. Others were not excavated because of their poor condition. Fill in and around the houses included huge quantities of amphora sherds of Wares U2 and U4; also found in the neighboring sites 5-0-14 and 5-0-16. Very crude construction is typical of late X-Group and very early Christian houses in this area. House specifications Construction: uneven rough stone masonry, including some upright rows, set in heavy mortar. Wall thickness: not recorded. Plaster: none. Floors: bedrock, with no clay covering. Fill: sand, containing abundant sherds. Condition: very denuded; surviving walls mostly 2550cm. Dating: Early Christian 1.

Enclosure A short distance to the south of the houses was a large, fairly regular oval enclosure, surrounded by a low stone wall which was preserved to a maximum height of 50cm. The small amount of fallen rubble suggested that it may never have been much higher. It may have been entered through a narrow doorway, 60cm wide, in the south wall, though this was not certain because of poor preservation. There was evidence of burning on the bedrock floor in several places. At one point near the north wall there was a rectangular sunken area, about 80cm across and 15cm deep, with sides and bottom formed of mud. It had definitely served as a fireplace. It was protected on two sides by low wing walls of rough stone masonry. There were no other constructions of any kind within the enclosure. In the center of the floor was a considerable natural depression in the rock which had not been filled in, although there was mud leveling in the bottom of it. Adjoining the outside wall of the enclosure on the northwest was a rectangular room measuring 2.8 x 1.8m. It was enclosed by the same rough stone masonry as that of the enclosure wall, and was entered through a narrow doorway at the east end of its south wall. There was no doorway from this room into the enclosure itself. There were no floor features, but the room yielded 10 Greek ostraka, all on sherds of Ware U2, a fragment of a Coptic ostrakon, and an amphora of Ware U4. There was no clear indication as to what purpose the

Documentation The Unesco-SAS excavations. Documentation from our excavations, all by G. J. Verwers, refers exclusively to preChristian remains. See Adams 2004, 27. The Colorado excavations. Material found at the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History, and loaned to the present writer for study and publication, includes very little in the way of written notes, except for one house. However, there are highly detailed individual plans, at 1:50, for nearly every room excavated (more than 100 in all), and extensive notation of floor and wall features, as well as finds, is entered on each plan. There are also several large overall plans of the different excavated areas, also at 1:50, with much of the same information on them. Almost all these are the work of the late G. W. Hewes. There is in addition a superbly detailed photographic record. Sherd data is tallied in summary form in Lister 1967, 56-7, and there is also a detailed tabulation of animal bone identification. However, no overall artifact catalogue was found among the Colorado records. There may be additional records, not found by this writer on his visits to Colorado in 2001 and 2002.

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Figure 20. Schematic plan of Sites 5-0-14, 5-0-15, and 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir (scale 1:1000).

enclosure served, but it was probably functionally related both to the nearby houses and to the wineshop (?) 5-0-16, located about 100m to the west. The ostrakon shipping receipts found in the fill (discussed below) suggest the possibility that the place was a temporary storage depot for cargoes off-loaded from Egyptian boats coming upriver.

Hajjar would have been exporting barley to the much richer region of Lower Nubia, or to Egypt. There is also very little likelihood that such large quantities of barley could have been produced in the vicinity of Site 5-0-15, for this itself was not a productive area. Most probably, then, this was a transshipment point where cargoes of barley, coming in large boats from Egypt, were offloaded, to be transferred to smaller boats for the passage of the cataracts. The walled enclosure could have been the place where the barley was stored, pending transshipment. That this was also a depot where Egyptian wine was offloaded seems clearly attested by the quantities of amphora fragments found in the vicinity, and by the presence of a wineshop (Site 5-0-16) nearby, although wine is not actually mentioned in any of the ostraka. It is worth noting that barley was one of the Egyptian commodities delivered to the Nubians under the terms of the Baqt treaty (cf. Adams 1977, 452). It is tempting to surmise therefore that the transactions carried on at Site 5-0-15 were part of the official Baqt exchange, and this may account for the meticulous records that were kept by Marcus. The names of the boatmen, as well as that of the notary, suggest that the whole operation was in the hands of Egyptians. There is even a possibility that the complex of Sites 5-0-14, 5-0-15, and 5-0-16, including both its prototype church and its wineshop, was an Egyptian outpost established in consequence of the Baqt agreement. It should be noted however that, according to the translator, the ostraka probably should not be dated earlier than the eighth century. Therefore, they must date from at least half a century after the Baqt was enacted.

Enclosure specifications Size: 17.5m north-south x 14.4m east-west. Construction: rough stone masonry laid up in heavy mud mortar. Wall thickness: 35-40cm. Floor: uneven bedrock, in which some depressions and cracks were filled in with mud. Fill: sand, with abundant sherds. Condition: very denuded, with walls preserved mostly to 25-40cm; enclosing wall eroded away altogether at northeast. Dating: Early Christian 1.

The ostraka The ostraka found at Site 5-0-15, as well as at the neighboring sites 5-0-14 and 5-0-16, have been examined by Professor G. M. Browne, who has kindly furnished the following information. Five of the specimens are bills of lading, in each case for 50 artabs (= about 300 bushels) of barley. All are in Greek, and written by the same scribe, a certain Marcus. Four of the five shipments were dispatched in the month of Thoth (= September 11 to October 10); one on the first, two on the fourth, and one on the fifth. The fifth shipment was dispatched on the 10th of Pachon (= June 17). The shipments were loaded in the boats of five different boatmen, whose names are given. Three are recognizably Greek names, one is Coptic, and one might be either Coptic or Nubian. Of the remaining Greek ostraka, one appears to be part of an account of some kind, one may be part of a memorandum, and one is illegible. One specimen has been lost. An ostrakon found at the neighboring wineshop Site 5-016 is also in Greek and appears to be part of an account. The translator originally suggested, on palaeographic grounds, a dating in the ninth or tenth century, but this does not accord well with the ceramic evidence. He has subsequently written that “There’s no reason, palaeographically, why the texts cannot be earlier than the 9th/10th century, but I’d be hesitant to set them earlier than the 8th” (personal communication). One fragmentary ostrakon found at Site 5-0-15 is in Sahidic Coptic rather than Greek. The surviving text comprises the beginning of three lines of what is probably a letter. It reads: “. . . I sent it (or: her) . . . There is no slave . . .” These documents, and their implications, shed an extremely interesting light on the nature of Site 5-0-15 and its neighbors. We may note, to begin with, that this is the farthest place in Lower Nubia that can be reached by large boats, before the rapids of the Second Cataract are encountered. And we can infer that the cargoes of barley were destined upriver rather than downriver, for there is no likelihood that the impoverished region of the Batn el-

Registered finds 1. Footed bowl portion, Ware W2, Form D13. 2. Footed bowl portion, Ware W3, Form D55. 3-10. Greek ostraka on sherds of Ware U2 amphorae. 11. Ostrakon (lost). 12. Coptic ostrakon on sherd of Ware R1, R2, or R5. 13. Greek ostrakon on sherd of Ware U2 amphora.

Documentation Excavation: enclosure and one house excavated by W Y Adams, November 3-5, 1961. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 16-19. Photos: F/065: 1-3. Sketch plan: WYA Book V, p. 16 (Figure 20 herein). Published report: Adams and Nordström 1963, 39-40.

5-S-24: Ballaña and Early Christian houses, Mirgissa Very denuded remains of two small houses, built with irregular combinations of mud brick and crude stone masonry. Walls were denuded to a maximum height of 40cm at the upper ends, and eroded away completely at their lower ends. Consequently, some architectural details were indistinct. Sherds collected by us were mainly of Ballaña types, but with some very Early Christian wares also. Because the structures themselves appeared to have been built in Ballaña times, they were reported in Adams 2004, 109-110.

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The house groups at Shamnarti and other Second Cataract islands seem to have been associated with a fishing industry. In many places where houses were found, there were also circular stone-walled basins built in narrow passages among the rock, which were most probably fishtraps. The fishing industry has continued into modern times, as attested by enormous quantities of fish bone scattered all over the island surface. In fact, the family resident at Shamnarti in 1962 was engaged entirely in fishing; there was no cultivation on the island. This seems to have been an advantageous site for fishing because of an exceptionally swift rapid alongside the island. We excavated one six-room house (House A) and one one-room hut (Hut B). The vessels and sherds recovered were Classic Christian, but it is quite possible that some of the houses and huts dated from earlier times, and very probable also that some were of Late Christian date.

Site specifications Setting: on markedly sloping ground, at the foot of rocky bluffs. Area: roughly 25 x 12m. Condition: very denuded, with no walls preserved above 40cm, and some eroded away altogether. Dating: late Ballaña and very Early Christian.

Documentation Excavation: By H. Å. Nordström, 14 December 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, pp. 40-42. Photos: F/080: 4-5. Sketch plan: HÅN Book III, opp. p. 40. Plan: Published in Adams 2004, fig. 38. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 30.

5-S-30: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Shamnarti Island

House A (Plates 3e-f)

(Plates 3e-f)

This house was selected for excavation because it appeared to be the largest and the best preserved on the island. It consisted of five rooms (Rooms 1-5) in a line, built beside a low rock face, and one room (Room 6) projecting northward from the other five, at the east end. The complete house thus had a kind of L-shape. There was in addition a detached single room about 5m further west, which was included under the same number.

The whole island of Shamnarti, as well as the neighboring islands of Artawi and Shargait, was scattered over with Christian dwelling remains. As in nearly all islands of the Second Cataract, the sandy alluvial flats were strewn with Christian sherds, while the remains of rather rudely built stone huts, sometimes also with mud-brick components, were located here and there on the adjacent rocky summits. On Shamnarti the remains seemed to be both more numerous and better preserved than on neighboring islands, perhaps because the elevations were somewhat higher than on other islands, and had been less subject to flooding. The houses were nearly all of very rough stone masonry, having large base blocks surmounted by rubblefilled walls using smaller, very irregular chunks of granite (cf. Plates 3e-f). Mud mortar was used in most walls, but there was no evidence of plastering on most wall surfaces. Sherds were used abundantly as chinking. Many walls were preserved to a height of 1m or more, with enough fallen rubble to indicate that they stood originally to full room height. Walls were typically 75cm or more in thickness. A few houses, like House A, were free-standing structures of three to six contiguous rooms. However, the great majority were built against vertical or overhanging rock faces, either singly or in lines of two, three or four rooms. Adjoining rooms might be interconnected, but often were not. One-room huts might be either rectangular or halfround, while lines of contiguous huts tended toward a rectangular shape. However, some were quite irregular in shape. Rooms in houses of all kinds were typically small, rarely exceeding 2m square, with a very few reaching 3 x 3m. Floors were mostly rather uneven hard-packed mud surfaces, usually without features. However, buried pots were found in two room floors in House A, and this feature might have been common in other dwellings as well. In the same area where the houses were found, there were many long, low, straight walls running across the alluvial flats between rocky outcrops. Most probably these were meant to serve as soil retainers in times of flood.

House A specifications Setting: built on sloping ground beside a low rock face. Size: approximately 20m east-west x 4m north-south. Number of rooms: 6 Wall construction: very coarse stone masonry. Wall thickness: 0.75-1m. Plaster: none. Roof: undoubtedly flat. Doorways: two buttressed on inner side; two plain. Floors: well packed mud floors. Floor features: buried hand-made vessels in two rooms. Fill: mostly fallen wall rubble. Condition: most walls preserved to height of 1-2m. Dating: Classic Christian 2. The interconnected Rooms 2 and 3 were clearly the original nucleus of the unit, built before the others. Together they formed an elongate rectangle with slightly rounded corners. Room 1 was a later addition at the west end of the house, abutting against the older west wall of Room 2. Rooms 4, 5, and 6 were also later additions at the east end of the house, with Room 4 abutting against the older east wall of Room 3. Rooms 4 and 6 were interconnected. There were buried vessels in the floors of Rooms 2 and 3, while all other floors were featureless, and very little in the way of refuse was found in these rooms. About 5m west of Room 1 was a detached, semicircular room built against an overhanging boulder. It had a flat mud floor without features.

Hut B This single room was built in the angle of a high vertical rock face, which formed two of its walls. The room was enclosed otherwise by a curving wall of stone masonry

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5-T-39: Late Christian house, Matuga Island

running across between the rock projections, giving the room a roughly quarter-round shape. There were no floor features, and very little material was found in the fill.

This was a small, two-room house of heavy stone masonry, entered through a doorway at the east end of the north wall. Within, the two rooms were connected through a doorway at the east end of the separating wall.

Hut B specifications Setting: built on sloping ground against a high rock face. Size: radius about 2m. Wall construction: two walls formed by natural rock face; other wall of rough stone masonry. Wall thickness: 0.75-1m. Plaster: uneven mud plaster on masonry walls. Door: a plain doorway with raised threshold. Floor: hard floor of wet-laid mud. Floor features: none. Fill: not indicated in notes. Condition: walls preserved to height of about 1m. Dating: Late Christian sherds mentioned in notes.

Specifications Setting: on an area of alluvial flat, adjoining a rocky outcrop. Size: about 6 x 7m. Number of rooms: 2. Wall construction: double-faced walls of heavy stone masonry. Wall thickness: 70cm. Plaster: none preserved. Doors: plain, without rebate. Roof: probably flat. Floors: not preserved because of flooding. Underlain by irregular rock surface. Fill: river sand. Condition: very denuded; walls surviving to maximum height of 50cm. Dating: few sherds in fill suggest Late or Terminal Christian date.

Registered finds (all from House A) 1. Footed bowl, Ware R13, Form D2. 2. Footed bowl, Ware R13, Form D20. 3. Pot, Ware H3, Form U26. 4. Pot, Ware H2, Form U26. 5. Fragment of glass vessel. 6. Clay signet impression.

Documentation Excavation: by W. Y. Adams, 9-10 January 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 89. Photo: F/088: 12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

Documentation Excavation: 2 houses excavated by W. Y. Adams, February 24-25, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 14-16. Photos: F/098: 5-6; F/099: 1-9. Sketch plan: WYA Book VI, opp. p. 16. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4 and Fig. 4 on p. 27.

5-T-40: Late Christian building, Matuga Island A single isolated room of mud brick, entered through a doorway at the east end of the north wall. There were no interior features, but the floor and adjoining part of the south wall were considerably burned, apparently from repeated fires. There were no other structures in the immediate vicinity.

5-S-33: Late Christian settlement, Shargait Island Remains of at least 30 Christian huts were found widely scattered over this small island. They were different in no respect from the huts at neighboring Shamnarti and Nabash Islands (Sites 5-S-30 and 5-S-32), and should probably be regarded as forming part of the same extended community. As at Shamnarti some of the houses were free-standing and were fairly well preserved, but none were excavated. Late Christian sherds were abundant, but there were also a few earlier Christian ones.

Specifications Setting: on an alluvial flat. Size: 2.3 x 3.3m. Wall construction: mud brick. Wall thickness: 20cm. Door: plain doorway 55cm wide. Found blocked with rocks. Floor: hard mud. Floor features: none. Fill: sand. Condition: very denuded; wall survive to height only of 3 bricks. Dating: sherds suggest Late or Terminal Christian.

Documentation Excavation: none. Recorded: by W. Y. Adams, March 4, 1962. Original notes: WYA Book VI, p. 18. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published references: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-

Documentation Excavation: by W. Y. Adams, 9 January 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 88. Photos: F/088: 10-11. Sketch plan: none.

4.

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5-T-45: Late Christian settlement and graves, Dukule Island

Plan : none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

All over the northern end of Dukule Island, as well as neighboring islands, there were crude, tumble-down stone huts scattered over rocky hills and outcrops. Most were single detached rooms, but in a few cases there were contiguous huts. Christian graves were found here and there in the alluvial swales between the rocky hills. We did no excavation or clearing at this site, which should probably be considered as forming a continuum with nearby settlements on Deir Island (5-T-42) and Gaminarti (5-T-47), q.v. All were probably served by the Gaminarti Church (5-T4).

5-T-41: Christian habitations of uncertain date, Deir Island Near a modern house in the middle part of the island were remains of stone masonry and a few mud-brick foundations, very badly denuded and in places completely destroyed. Some walls were 60-70cm thick. Sherds of Christian date were abundant in the area around the site.

Documentation Excavation: surface partially cleared and trial pits dug by H. Å. Nordström, 9 January 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 6-7. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

Documentation Recorded: by W. Y. Adams, 13 January 1962. Excavation: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 92. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

5-T-42: Late Christian settlement, Deir Island At the northeastern end of Deir Island, stone huts were widely scattered over a large area, among and on the slopes of stone outcrops. In the northwestern part of the area were two groups of rectangular or square huts built together; individual huts measured between 2 x 2m and 3 x 5m in size. They were built of coarse granite slabs, with a fill of river sand. The total number of huts at this part of the site was estimated at about 15, but only a few were at all well preserved. Two unusual structures, of uncertain function, were excavated:

5-T-47: Late Christian settlement and kiln, Gaminarti Island The designation 5-T-47 was given to rather crude habitation remains, mostly of stone but some of mud brick, that were scattered pretty much all over Gaminarti Island. All were poorly preserved and in many places indistinct, due to various uses that were made of the area subsequent to the abandonment of the site. Part of the site, to the south and west of Gaminarti Church, was excavated and recorded by W. Y. Adams, and another part, apparently further north, was excavated and recorded by H.-Å. Nordström.

1. A rectangular pit with evenly rounded corners, measuring 3 x 2.5m, with a depth of 1m. The sides were lined with large slabs, 20-50cm wide, with a mud floor which was coped up at the base of the lining slabs. A few potsherds were found in the fill.

W. Y. Adams notes A rocky outcrop immediately to the south and west of the Gaminarti Church (5-T-4) showed evidence of extensive habitation. Nearly the whole outcrop bore traces of heavy, straight stone walls with mud mortar and plaster, as well as a few fallen bricks. The site had been heavily damaged both by repeated flooding and by the activities of local inhabitants, who used parts of the area for goat pens and cleared other areas for winnowing grain. As nearly as could be determined however the site was not a scattering of detached huts but a single, very irregular aggregation of three to four dozen rooms, adapted to the contours of the rock outcrop. Test excavations at several points were inconclusive. The walls were found to be almost completely fallen down, surviving only as alignments of rubble, and only a few scraps of mud floor were encountered. The entire fill deposit consisted of masses of fallen wall material: stones mixed with mud and extremely numerous Late Christian sherds which had presumably been used as chinking in the walls. At the north end of the settlement was a slightly detached group of small mud-brick rooms, “sandwiched” between two rock outcrops. The rooms were very small, and may have been store rooms.

2. A hut in the shape of a pointed oval, with dimensions of 3 x 2.6m. The wall foundations were granite slabs measuring 20-40cm, with smaller stones resting on top of them. The floor was mud, rounded up to the base of the walls. In the floor was a round “platform” 55cm in diameter, and 4cm higher than the remainder of the floor, which was probably the base for a quern (rahaya). There were wall segments of coarse granite slabs extending to the west and southeast outside this structure. Sherds of Late Christian type were abundant on the site surface.

Documentation Excavation: two structures excavated, others recorded by H. Å. Nordström, 10 January 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 7-8. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

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Below the settlement on its north side, close to the river, was a small surviving remnant of a pottery kiln, which will be separately described in the next chapter.

ied in size between 2.3 x 3 and 3 x 4m, with walls standing generally to a height between 40 and 75cm. Some huts were built in contiguous groups of two or three. One hut was excavated. It was built of rude stone masonry but mud plastered on the inside. The dimensions were 3 x 4m. Late Christian sherds were found in and around it.

H.-Å. Nordström notes Building remains consisted of five or six units built on the southern and southwestern slope of a very eroded granite outcrop on the northeast end of the island. The surface was here very uneven and had several traces of habitation activity, probably at different periods. Sherds were very abundant on the surface all over the place. Each unit consisted of four to five rooms, rectangular or square with straight wall foundations, on in a few cases of an irregular shape with curved wall alignments. The size of the rooms varied between 3-6m in breadth and 4-8m in length. Most of the walls were 50-75cm thick, standing to a height of 60-80cm above the original ground level or above trash fill which had been used to level the uneven rock surface. The walls were built of coarse granite blocks with sharp corners (not dressed), with their even sides turned outward. The walls were double-faced, with heavy stone masonry on the inner and outer faces, the space between being filled with trash and small stones and splinters. There are no registered finds.

Documentation Excavation: site recorded and one hut excavated by H.Å. Nordström, February, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 21-22. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1962, 42-4.

5-T-53: Classic Christian stone huts, Shagir Island Three huts were located among the outcrops at the northern part of Shagir Island, and one was excavated. It was a two-room structure of coarse granite masonry. Specifications Size: about 5 x 6m. Number of rooms: 2, of about equal size. Wall construction: coarse granite masonry, with the flat sides facing outward. Wall thickness: not recorded. Plaster: mud. Floors: mud. Floor features: crushed pottery vessels on the floor. Fill: sand. Condition: walls standing 0.75 to 1m high. Dating: sherds indicate Classic Christian date.

Documentation Excavation: test excavations by W. Y. Adams and H.-Å. Nordström, January 14-16, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 95-6; WYA Book VI, p. 3ff (notes by HÅN). Photos: F/089: 7-8. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

5-T-51: Christian habitation refuse, Serrarti Island

Registered objects 1. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 2. Lamp portion, Ware R7, Form P19.

On the southern part of Serrarti Island was a large sandy plain crossed by an old saqia ditch. The whole area, measuring about 200 x 100m, was covered by potsherds from all the different Christian periods. However, test pits failed to discover any remains of habitations.

Documentation Excavation: one hut excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, February 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 22. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

Documentation Excavation: test pits dug by H.-Å. Nordström, February 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 21. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

5-X-1: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Gendal Irki (Figure 21; Plates 4c-f) The number 5-X-1 was assigned both to the well known Figir Antawu (Gendal Irki) Church, described in Chapter 2, and to a sizable group of buildings extending westward from it for about 200m. Apart from the church there were three separate clusters of buildings, designated by us as Units A, B, and C (Figure 21). We excavated all extensively. All three units involved irregular clusters of fifteen or more rooms, of varying size, built partly of stone and partly

5-T-52: Late Christian stone huts, Kisinarti Island In addition to the two houses located within the fortified enclosure at Kisinarti (5-T-1, reported in Chapter 3), stone huts were widely scattered among the outcrops and rocks further to the northeast. The main group consisted of about 15 huts, rudely built of granite blocks, mostly without mud plaster or interior features. They var49

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of mud brick. Each cluster appeared to have grown by accretion. Preservation was highly variable. Generally speaking, walls built entirely of brick were well preserved, while those of brick resting on stone foundations were much more denuded, because of the poor quality of the stonework. The stone lower courses were formed of mostly small, irregular blocks, with a great many sherd spalls but with inadequate mud mortar. The church and House 2 in Unit C, both built entirely of brick, were remarkably well preserved, while other parts of Unit C and most of Units A and B were much more denuded. In Units B and C the surface before excavation was deeply littered with Late Christian and post-Christian sherds as well as ash and other kinds of trash, some of it of recent date. However, enough Classic Christian sherds were found to indicate that occupation had begun in that period. Several of the houses as well as the church had been used as goat pens, and then later as refuse dumps for the nearby modern houses.

few places). A few walls of brick only. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: none recorded. Doors: plain doorways preserved in three places only. Roofs: vaulted, with springing of vaults, where preserved, 1m above floors. Floors: fairly well defined, on bedrock leveled with mud and trash where needed. Floor features: none. Fill: mostly fallen wall material and trash. Condition: mostly very denuded, with no single room fully preserved above foundation level, and many rooms destroyed altogether. Dating: most probably built in Classic Christian times, and occupied into Late Christian times, if this unit was contemporaneous with others on the site.

Registered find from Unit A 9. Small glass bottle.

Site specifications Setting: on a wide, slightly sloping alluvial terrace, with bedrock protruding through here and there. Bordered by bluffs on one side and by the Nile on the other. Area: about 200 x 150m. Dating: Classic to Late Christian.

Unit A documentation Field notes: WYA Book VI, opp. p. 33. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: overall site plan (Figure 21 herein).

Unit A

Unit B

This was the most westerly of the four units, situated somewhat uphill from Units B and C, closer to the base of the bluffs. It was separated from Units B and C by an open area about 50m wide, which was traversed by a small khor. We guessed that Unit A had been a connected complex of 16 or more rooms, although the presence of some of these could only be inferred. Most of the surviving construction was of stone, though in the best preserved segments it was surmounted by brick at a level 70cm above the bases. There were also a few remnants of walls built entirely of brick. The most westerly and best preserved rooms were in a straight line, but we could not determine the full original outlines of the cluster because of poor preservation. In some cases we could trace the alignment of missing walls by mud lines on the underlying bedrock; in others we merely inferred it by extension from standing walls. However, there was no way of reconstructing the complete original plan of the building, for it seemed clear that some rooms at the eastern side had been destroyed entirely. In a few places, brick-vault springings were preserved at a level about 1m above the floors. This can only mean that the crown of the vaults was less than 2m above the floors; considerably lower than was usual in Late Christian houses. This, plus the absence of any floor features, suggests the possibility that these were store rooms.

This unit, also very denuded, seemed to consist of a detached house of four or more rooms (House 1), and a much larger, very irregular cluster of 14 or more rooms (House 2), of which only small remnants were preserved. Nearly all surviving construction was in stone up to a level of 40-70cm, with brick above. There were a few remnants of walls entirely of brick. Unit B specifications Setting: on uneven rocky ground at the foot of bluffs, about 20m west of Unit C. Area: about 40 x 25m. Wall construction: very rough stone masonry up to between 40 and 70cm, with brick above. A few remnants of interior walls purely of brick. Wall thickness: one wall 1m; all others 60cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: mud plaster visible in two photos. Doors: mostly plain; one has an adjoining brick buttress. Roofs: vaulted. Vault springing preserved at a level 1.25m above the floors. Floors: mud floors where preserved. Underlain by bedrock, leveled where necessary with trash fill. Floor features: ovens in House 1; subterranean chamber in House 2. Fill: fallen wall material and trash. Condition: variable. Most of House 1 fairly well preserved, with parts of walls standing up to nearly 2m. House 2 very poorly preserved, with large areas missing altogether. Dating: probably built in Classic Christian times, with occupation continuing into Late Christian.

Unit A specifications Setting: on a rather uneven, rocky slope, just off the edge of the floodplain. Size: 30 x 18m, as preserved. Wall construction: very coarse stone masonry to a height of 70cm, surmounted by mud brick (surviving only in a 50

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House 1

Registered finds from Unit B

This structure, the north part of the unit, consisted of a nearly regular rectangle of four rooms, most of whose walls were preserved. On the south side were traces of additional rooms that were certainly added later, and were very poorly preserved. Rooms 1 and 2, at the east side of the house, were of equal size and were certainly built as a unit. Together they formed a regular square. Entrance was through a rather narrow (60cm) door in the south wall of Room 1; it was flanked on its east side by a buttress of brick, 40cm wide. There seemed to have been a small, brick-lined bin in the southeast corner of Room 1; there were no interior features in Room 2. Rooms 3 and 4 were a connected pair of small, square rooms that adjoined the west side of Room 2, but were not connected with it. Aligned back to back along the west wall of Room 4 were two small brick-vaulted chambers, 90cm wide and 60cm high, which were largely preserved; they appear to have been ovens (Plate 4d). Their floors were at a level considerably below the room floor, while their crowns projected at least 30cm above it. The room as a whole, including both the floor and the walls, showed very extensive evidence of burning, and contained a mass of carbon and burned clay. There was evidence of at least two additional rooms adjoining the south side of the House 1, although only the west wall and a small part of the south wall remained. These walls were somewhat curving and were thinner than the original house walls; they almost certainly represent a later addition.

10. Bronze bowl fragment. 12. Incised schist net weight.

Unit B documentation Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 31-2. Photos: F/101: 9-10. Sketch plan: none. Plan: overall site plan (Figure 21 herein).

Unit C This was the largest and considerably the best preserved of the non-ecclesiastical units at 5-X-1. On the basis of surface indications we identified and numbered four houses, but excavation later proved that Houses 1-3 formed a single connected line, comprising at least 28 rooms. Although some rooms were fully destroyed, we were able to recover or to reconstruct nearly the full original outline of the group. It was very irregular, showing that the unit had grown by accretion, with the middle house (House 2) having almost certainly come first. House 4 was a detached, rather small two-room house, at a distance of about 8m from the nearest surviving remains of Houses 1-3. However, it is possible that there were originally rooms in the intervening area, and that all four “houses” of Unit C formed a single contiguous cluster. The whole area had been used as a refuse dump by the modern inhabitants of nearby Gendal Irki village. Unit C specifications Setting: on sloping alluvial surface, with small bedrock outcrops nearby on three sides. Area: Houses 1-3, 43 x19 m; House 4, 6 x 5m. Wall thickness: most walls 60cm; a few walls that supported vaults on both sides were 80cm thick. Brick size: not recorded. Floors: many destroyed by use as goat pen. Many others were bedrock, with ash and burned clay lying directly on them. Fill: 0.6-1m of soft trash, including straw, ash, and modern rubbish. Condition: all stone-and-brick walls very denuded; purely brick walls much better preserved, especially in House 2. Some sections stood to a height of 3m.

House 2 Of this large and very irregular room cluster there was only one reasonably well preserved room at the northwest corner, and part of another adjoining it. Elsewhere there were only scraps of surviving wall here and there, with nothing like a complete room among them. Subterranean vault. In the corner of a room near the east side of House 2, a rectangular chamber measuring 2.05 x 0.95cm had been excavated down 1m into the jebel rock, and then roofed over with a vault which just came level with the overlying room floor (Plate 4e). The chamber had a hard packed mud floor laid directly on bedrock. It was fully preserved when found, but was devoid of any contents. The chamber was entered by means of a stepped ramp, which led down to an arched opening 45cm wide and 55cm high, at the level of the chamber floor. The ramp was not located at one of the ends of the chamber but at the east side, some distance from the north end. Directly opposite the entryway, there was an arched niche in the west wall at floor level; it was 55cm high, 55cm wide, and 35cm deep. The subterranean chamber had the typical dimensions of a Christian vault tomb, but it had certainly never been used as such, and the north-south orientation was aberrant. The room containing the subterranean vault had stone masonry walls directly adjoining the chamber, on the east and south sides. They were preserved to a height of about 50cm. There was no surviving trace of the north and west walls of the room.

Other features are described separately for individual houses.

House 1 This was the most northwesterly of the three contiguous houses, adjoining the west side of House 2. It had been poorly constructed from an erratic combination of brickon-stone and pure brick walls, both involving crudely formed brick. Preservation was very poor, with no wall standing over 60cm, and many missing altogether. The southeastern portion of the house, and the only part that was at all well preserved, consisted of a regular rectangular building measuring 6 x 7m. The northeast wall and a small portion of the adjoining southeast wall, as far as the doorway, were formed of brick-on-stone masonry, while the remaining walls were entirely of brick. These rooms were adjoined on the north by a larger group of rooms, of which only disconnected remnants of wall 51

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remained. The surviving bits of wall were entirely of brickon-stone. The plan of this group of rooms could not be reconstructed from the surviving bits. Adjoining the southwest side of the northeastern rooms was a group of rooms constructed entirely with thin brick walls, measuring 20-30cm in thickness. They were certainly all built at once, and collectively they formed more or less a square, measuring 5 x 5m. However, their southeastern wall was at a considerable angle from the other three. These rooms were adjoined by remnants of additional rooms, occupying the space between House 1 and House 2.

ostrakon, . . . with it . . . it . . .”2 Main House specifications Area: 13 x 9m. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Foundations: horizontal brick. Wall thickness: mostly 60cm; interior walls which supported vaults on both sides were 80cm thick. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: good, smooth mud plaster preserved on some interiors; none preserved on exteriors, which were very weatherbeaten. Wall features: arched niches, 65cm wide, 1m high, and 35cm deep, in many rooms. Doors: all interior doorways rebated on both sides; exterior doorways without rebates or buttresses. Some were clearly arched. Roofs: vaulted; springing about 2m above floors. Floors: not preserved; entirely destroyed through use as a goat pen. Fill: goat dung, overlain by fallen wall material, overlain by modern trash. Condition: highly variable. Most walls in Rooms 2-3 preserved to height of 2-3m; most others preserved to at least 1m, but southwest wall almost entirely destroyed. Dating: Classic Christian, with continued use into Late Christian.

House 1 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 27f. Photos: F/101: 7. Sketch plan: none. Plan: overall site plan (Figure 21 herein).

House 2 This was the largest component of Unit C, comprising at least 20 rooms. At the southeast side was a well-built eight-room house of mud brick, here designated as the Main House, which was certainly built first. Adjoining it on the northwest and southwest were many additional rooms, which were much more poorly preserved. The Main House (Plate 4f). This was the only well preserved structure among the non-ecclesiastical buildings at Gendal Irki, and by far the most distinctive. It was certainly built as a unit, probably by professional architects, and may very possibly have been two storeys high. The quality of the brickwork was much superior to that in the adjoining brick-on-stone walls. The house was in the form of a regular rectangle, with a slight skew from a right angle. It was built directly on a rather uneven rock surface, which was leveled with mud and trash before the wall foundations were laid. After walls were built, additional material was laid in to create the original floors. Floor surfaces however had been destroyed due to use of the building as a goat pen. Because of the slope in the underlying rock, floors in the two southwestern rooms were 25cm higher than in the adjoining Room 5, which in turn was 25cm higher than floors in all the adjoining rooms to the northeast. The four more easterly rooms were all interconnected, and were entered from the outside through a door near the northeast corner. Arched wall niches were present in several of these rooms (cf. Plate 4f). There was some suggestion that there may have been a stairway in the southeast corner room, although poor preservation made this less than certain. Adjoining the four interconnected rooms on the southwest was a rather narrow room that was not connected to the others by regular doorways, but only by two very low, arched openings at floor level, 65cm wide and 1m high, opening into the neighboring room. At the northeast corner of the Main House was a very small room whose size and location suggest that it may have been a toilet chamber (cf. Adams 1977, 491-2). The single, fragmentary ostrakon found in this house is the beginning of a letter in Sahidic Coptic. After an initial cross it reads: “I greet you. If you receive this

Adjoining rooms. The Main House was adjoined on two of its four sides, at the northwest and southwest, by at least 11 additional rooms that were added later. Directly adjoining the northwest wall were four rooms which, with one exception, were built entirely of brick. Adjoining these in turn, on the northeastern (uphill) side, and also extending southward from them, there were scrappy remnants of many additional rooms, whose details of plan could not be recovered. All the surviving remnants had mud-brick walls 40cm thick, without stone footings. The most southerly of the room walls formed the northeast wall of adjoining House 3, which was clearly the last addition to the house cluster of Unit C. Paralleling the southeast wall of the Main House, at a distance of 4m from it, there was a long surviving section of brick-on-stone wall. It could have served to enclose other rooms adjoining the south side of the Main House, although no partition walls were preserved in the intervening space.

Registered find from House 2 8. Coptic ostrakon fragment.

House 2 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 28-29. Photos: F/101: 4-8; F/103: 3-4. Sketch plan: WYA Book VI, opp. p. 28. Plan: overall site plan (Figure 21 herein).

House 3 Adjoining the southeast side of the rooms just described was a small two-room house which was certainly the last addition to the Unit C building cluster. It stood on consid2

Translation furnished courtesy of Professor G. M. Browne.

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erably higher ground than the adjoining rooms. All its walls were of stone-on-brick except the northeast wall, which was the pre-existing brick wall of House 2. Preservation was poor, but all walls were preserved at least in their lowest courses except at the northwest corner, which was missing. House 3 was a regular rectangle of two interconnected rooms, measuring 6.5 x 5m. There were no preserved floor features.

settlement was perhaps the residential estate of a wealthy and influential family, whose elegant home in Unit C (House 2) was surrounded by the much more humble dwellings of his relatives and/or tenants. However, the very low level of the vault springing in many of the poorly built rooms (1-1.25m above the floor), especially in Units A and B, suggests that they may have been designed for storage rather than as dwellings. There were probably other, somewhat less affluent families dwelling nearby, in Houses 3 and 4 of Unit C and in Units A and B. Presumably, all made use of the nearby church as well as Cemetery 5-X-36. The closest equivalent site would appear to be the contemporaneous Site 21-R-8 at Debeira West, where there was also a very substantial elite house surrounded by a cluster of flimsier rooms, and with other houses outlying (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978). Houses at Debeira West were also notable for their numerous arched wall niches. In the late medieval period, it seems probable that all the inhabitants at Gendal Irki moved away for protection to the mid-river island site of Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32), which stood directly opposite Gendal Irki. However, they probably continued to make use of the Gendal Irki church and cemetery, since there was no church or cemetery on the island.

House 3 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 30. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: overall site plan (Figure 21 herein).

House 4 This detached two-room house stood 8m to the northwest of the nearest surviving remains of Houses 1 and 2, although it is possible that there were once additional rooms in the intervening area. However it was totally denuded when cleared by us. House 4 was found in very tumble-down condition, with no wall standing as much as 1m high, and with the southeast wall entirely missing. The house was very nearly square in plan, measuring 6 x 6m, and was nearly identical in all its details to House 3. Construction was entirely in brick-on-stone, and the interior was once again divided into two rooms, of which one was slightly larger than the other. There were no interior features.

Site documentation Excavation: by W. Y. Adams, March 21-22, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 33f. Photos: F/102: 8-12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: Figure 21 herein. Published references: Steindorff 1900, 233-4; Mileham 1910, 12-13; Clarke 1912, 50-52; Griffith 1913, 68; Borchardt 1928, 3 (?); Zyhlarz 1928, 170, 187; Monneret de Villard 1935, 223; Adams and Nordström 1963, 35-6.

House 4 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 30f. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: overall site plan (Figure 21 herein).

Cemetery The Gendal Irki church was adjoined on its southeast side by what was apparently once a very extensive cemetery, although badly destroyed. It was given separate numeration as Site 5-X-36, described in Chapter 6.

5-X-32: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Kasanarti Island

Registered finds of unrecorded provenience

(Figures 22-23; Plates 5a-d)

1. Footed bowl portion, Ware W20, Form D23. 2. Lamp portion, Ware R7, Form P18. 3. Bowl lamp portion, Ware W6, Form C22. 4. Bowl portion, Ware R10, Form C45. 5. Cup portion, Ware W12, Form A20. 6. Bottle lamp portion, Ware W12, Form P34. 7. Bowl fragment, glazed. 11. Iron pendant cross. 13. Painted stone vessel fragment. 15. Footed bowl portion, Ware R13, Form D2. 16. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 17. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C17? 18. Footed bowl portion, Ware W5, Form D23. 19. Bowl fragment, Ware W5, Form C22 or C23.

Kasanarti was not, in the strictest sense, a Second Cataract island; it was situated about a kilometer upriver from the head of the cataract. It was the middle one of three very narrow islands which, at the time of low Nile, were joined end-to-end to form a splinter of land perhaps 1km long, and not over 200m wide. The islands were located at mid-river, equidistant from both banks. They lay in a direct line between two other important Late Christian sites: Qasrantawu (5-X-2) on the east bank, and Gendal Irki (5-X-1) on the west bank. There were no preserved archaeological remains on the northern and southern islands, but almost the whole of Kasanarti, above the high Nile level, was covered with them. The uppermost remains were those of a dense cluster of Late and Terminal Christian brick unit houses, including one castle-house (House 1). Some of these were found to rest on the stumps of Classic Christian stone houses. No Early Christian habitations were encountered, but enough Early Christian sherd material was found in

Discussion The settlement and church at Site 5-X-1 appear to have been established in Classic Christian 2 times, with occupation continuing through the Late Christian 1 period but probably not through the whole of Late Christian 2. The 53

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the vicinity of the two massive retaining walls, on either side of the island, to indicate that there had been Early Christian occupation, which was probably destroyed by flooding during the era of high Niles in the early Middle Ages. The backbone of the island was formed by a rocky ridge, crowned by an outcrop that stood up in the middle of the Late Christian village. Surviving structures were found on all sides of it, occupying the sloping ground that extended away from it (cf. Figures 22-23). Many houses were built directly on bedrock; others were on artificial fill that had been inserted behind retaining walls at either side of the island. The village had certainly extended in all directions beyond the limits that were preserved. The outer houses were destroyed by flooding because they were on lower ground than those that survived. Below the Classic Christian houses were found the very denuded remnants of a Meroitic settlement, whose uppermost levels also yielded X-Group pottery. It was separately designated as Site 5-X-60, and has been reported in a previous volume (Adams 2004, 37-39). There is at least a reasonable possibility, therefore, that the island was continuously occupied from Meroitic times to the Terminal Christian period, the remains from the late Ballaña and Early Christian interval having been washed away by high floods. Only the surviving Classic and Late Christian remains will be described here. We excavated about 75% of the Late and Terminal Christian village which comprised the uppermost level of occupation. Within that area, about half was excavated only to the Late Christian floor levels, and half was excavated down to bedrock, through the underlying Classic Christian and Meroitic deposits. It had been my intention to excavate the complete site, but the work was terminated abruptly in February, 1963, when it became necessary to begin excavation immediately at Meinarti (see Adams 1992, 18). For that reason, final on-site documentation was never completed, and notes on some houses and features are not as full as they should be.

described above), they had upper walls of brick, most of which were not preserved. In the Late Christian period nearly all of the Classic houses were overbuilt with brick unit houses. These mostly retained the outer wall alignments of the underlying houses, but new interior partitions were often added that did not rest on older foundations. Several of the houses had rooms with no apparent lateral entrance, suggesting that these were store rooms entered only from above. The Classic Christian remains were in all cases very denuded, for the upper parts of the walls had been dismantled when the Late Christian houses were overbuilt. Generally they survived to a height of between 25 and 40cm. Although the Classic Christian houses were preserved only on the highest ground, there is no reason to suppose that they did not originally extend beyond the remnant that was found, especially toward the north where there was a considerable unexcavated area. The surviving remains comprised three clusters of contiguous houses, but they may all have formed a single cluster before a portion, in the area of the South Plaza, was eroded away. There was fairly clear evidence that the settlement had grown by accretion over time. We hypothesized that the earliest houses (with walls indicated by cross-hatching in Figure 22) had been free-standing, while later houses (walls shown without cross-hatching) were built up against them so as to create contiguous clusters. While our excavations exposed the tops of all or nearly all the Classic Christian walls, we cleared these buildings to floor level in only a few cases. In many others we did not dismantle the overlying Late Christian houses. In those cases we could only document the earlier wall alignments, but gained no information about floor features. Dating for all the Classic Christian houses was provided by the sherd refuse found in the fill. Classic houses were assigned the same numbers as the Late houses that overlay them. Room numbers were also the same as those assigned to the overlying Late Christian rooms. Rooms were not numbered separately for each house; only a single running series of numbers was assigned to all the rooms throughout the site.

Early Christian occupation? There were remnants of heavy and rather crudely built stone retaining walls along both the east and the west side of the island, more or less at the high Nile level. Their thickness varied from 0.75 to 1m. These walls were evidently built after the Meroitic occupation, for in places they were sunk deep into the underlying Meroitic remains. That they were built in Early Christian times is suggested by the presence of Early Christian sherds lying at the base of the walls, as well as used for chinking within them. However, no other traces of Early Christian construction were found. In the Classic Christian period the retaining walls were heightened, and portions became the foundation for houses built alongside them.

Classic Christian site specifications Area: maximum extent 50 x 30m. Plan: as preserved, three clusters of 2 or more contiguous houses each. Wall construction: mostly rather rough stone masonry as preserved; probably topped originally by brick which had mostly disappeared. Also some purely brick walls. Wall thickness: mostly 60cm; some walls 80cm and 1m. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: none preserved. Doors: mostly plain; two buttressed doors preserved. Roofs: most probably flat. Floors: mostly not exposed. Floor features: none exposed. Condition: denuded, either through natural erosion or overbuilding. Dating: Classic Christian, continuing into Late Christian I.

The Classic Christian settlement (Figure 22) Remains datable to the Classic Christian period were preserved only on the highest part of the island, near its south end. Some of them adjoined the rock outcrop that formed the island’s summit. The surviving remains were nearly all of stone masonry, although in a few places there was evidence that, like many houses at Gendal Irki (5-X-1, 54

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House 1

House 3 specifications Setting: adjoining House 1 on the north side. Built on bedrock, with pronounced westward slope and slight northward slope. Size: 10 x 7m. Number of rooms: 5. Wall construction: rough stone, surmounted by brick at levels of 40-60cm. Wall thickness: 50cm. Plaster: not indicated. Doors: 3 plain, 1 buttressed. Roof: probably flat. Floor: uneven floor of mud, laid directly on bedrock. Floor features: none. Fill: soft, dry mixture of decomposed brick and sand, containing enormous numbers of sherds from fallen wall fill. Condition: all walls preserved up to a level of 1-1.6m. Not significantly modified in Late Christian times.

This was the largest house at Kasanarti throughout its history. Its eastern outside wall rested directly on the older retaining wall at the east side of the village. In Late and Terminal Christian times its exterior wall stumps served as the foundations for the Castle-House. However, the arrangement of interior partitions in the castle-house was quite different from that in the Classic Christian house. There was one doorway in its north wall, which gave onto a suite of three small rooms at the northeast corner of the house. However, there seems to have been no connection between these and the three other and much larger rooms in the house. There was no indication as to how these latter had been entered, if indeed they had lateral entrances. House 1 specifications Setting: at the southeastern extremity of the excavated area; built directly on bedrock. Eastern wall incorporated a section of the village retaining wall. Size: 11 x 11m. Number of rooms: 6. Wall construction: rough stone. Wall thickness: outer walls 0.8-1m; inner walls 60-80cm. Plaster: none preserved. Doors: two plain doorways and one buttressed doorway preserved. Roof: probably flat. Floors: bedrock. Floor features: none. Fill: occupation refuse. Condition: preserved to a level of 25-40cm; overbuilt by Late Christian House 1.

House 6 This house was adjoined by House 2 on the north and by the center street on the west. The south wall and immediately adjoining parts of the east and west walls were not preserved. The plan in any case is difficult to account for, since most of the rooms do not appear to have been interconnected. There were two very narrow rooms at the north side of the house that were almost certainly storage cellars. House 6 specifications Setting: built on high ground near the center of the site, adjoined by later built House 2 on the north side. Adjoined by the center street on the west. Size: 7 x 7m as preserved, but southern end missing. Number of rooms: 7 as preserved. Wall construction: rough stone, with some remnants of overlying brick. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: none preserved. Doors: all plain. Roof: vaulting possible. Floor: level, hard mud surface. Floor features: none. Fill: dense occupation refuse. Condition: denuded; Late Christian House 6 overbuilt.

House 2 This was a relatively small three-room house, built alongside the previously built House 6, with which it shared a party wall. It probably preceded House 23, which adjoined it on the other side. The north-south interior partition was the same as that in the Late Christian house, but the arrangement of east-west partitions was different. The two small eastern rooms were apparently cellars with no lateral entrance. House 2 specifications Setting: between adjoining Houses 6 and 23; bordering on central street on the west side. Size: 6 x 5m. Number of rooms: 3. Wall construction: stone. Wall thickness: 60cm. Doors: no doors are shown on the plan. Condition: very denuded; overbuilt by Late Christian House 2.

Houses 7 and 23 These two were almost certainly a single house in Classic Christian times, although they were definitely separated in Late Christian times. The northern half (House 7 in later times) was a single large room, entered from the outside, while the southern half was a suite of three small rooms, not interconnected with the northern room. Most of the east wall and an adjoining part of the north wall were missing.

House 3 This house directly adjoined House 1 on its western side, and was almost certainly added after House 1 was built. The house consisted of two suites which were not interconnected, and which might have been built at different times.

House 7 and 23 specifications Setting: adjoining House 2 on the north; built on top of Meroitic walls and refuse. Size: 8 x 6m. 55

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Wall construction: rough stone. Wall thickness: 60cm. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one plain door preserved. Roof: no data. Floors: well defined mud floors. Floor features: none. Fill: occupation refuse. Condition: denuded when Late Christian Houses 7 and 23 were overbuilt.

cal Late Christian unit houses. The houses newly added in the Late Christian period were entirely of brick. As usual with such structures, they were directly contiguous to one another but almost never shared a party wall. However, they differed from Late Christian unit houses at Meinarti, Kulubnarti, and elsewhere in two conspicuous respects: most of them had two exterior entries rather than one, and only one had a clearly recognizable toilet chamber. The surviving houses were in three clusters, separated by narrow streets and by small plazas. Each cluster consisted of seven or more contiguous houses. Around the perimeter of the village there were stumps of walls indicating that the settlement had originally extended further in all four directions, but the outlying houses, built on lower ground, had been destroyed by flooding. At the north side of the village there were also partially preserved remains that were not excavated. Houses were numbered in the order in which they were excavated; as a result, the sequence of house numbers does not follow in a logical topographic order. Rooms were not numbered individually for each house; instead, all the rooms in the site were numbered in one continuous series, from 1 to 101.

Houses 21 and 22 These were the two westernmost houses at Kasanarti. There were remnants of Classic Christian stone walls under the two Late Christian houses, but not enough survived in either case to permit a coherent description.

The bakery Near the center of the site, on high ground, there was a stone-walled, two-room structure that we identified as a bakery, because of its contents. It was not given a separate number. Because it remained in use, without modification, in the Late Christian period, it will be described in the Late Christian section.

Remains in the South and North Plazas

Late and Terminal Christian site specifications Area: About 100 x 50m. Number of houses: 24 wholly or partly preserved; probably many others destroyed by flooding. Wall construction: mud brick resting on stone foundations in houses that originated in the Classic Christian period; mud brick alone for all others except the Bakery, which had heavy stone walls. Foundations: late mud-brick houses might have one course of stones, but more often had rollag brick, especially when laid in soft sand. Wall thickness: mostly 60cm; House 1, 80cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: all mud plastered; two rooms in House 11 whitewashed. Doors: mostly plain; a few buttressed. A few arched doorways, but most had a flat stone lintel. Doorways rarely over 60cm wide and 1.2m high. Roofs: probably all vaulted; a few vaults survived. Height of vaults averaged 2m. Floors: well defined mud floors. Two floor levels in a few houses. Floor features: mastabas and bins fairly common. Only one house had an identifiable toilet chamber. Fill: uppermost fill windblown sand, underlain by fallen wall debris and occupation refuse. Condition: highly variable. Most houses around the perimeter only partly preserved; many toward the center had walls standing 1-2m high, and parts of a few roof vaults were preserved. Highest walls of House 1 preserved to over 4m. Dating: Late and Terminal Christian. There was no definite evidence of post-Christian occupation, but high-level floors in House 1, following partial destruction of the building, might indicate post-Christian squatter occupation.

An open area in the southern part of the site, adjoining Houses 1 and 3 on their north sides, was designated as the South Plaza. There were no remains of Late Christian structures here, but some very denuded fragments of stone walls, associated with Classic Christian refuse, were found just below the surface. Additional very denuded remains were found in an area later called the North Plaza, underneath the remains of late House 16. However, the remains in both areas were too scrappy to permit mapping.

Registered Classic Christian finds 50. Pottery jar stamp. 51. Bronze blade. 58. Sandstone jar stamp. 59. Problematical ceramic object. 62. Pot, Ware H2, Form U26. 63. Pot, Ware H2, Form U26. 64. Storage jar, Ware U5, Form Y3 70. Restored pot, Ware H2, Form U26. 94. Pilgrim bottle portion, Ware W10?, Form K2.

The Late and Terminal Christian settlement (Figure 23) Site 5-X-32 was the only settlement excavated during the West Bank Survey, other than Meinarti, that showed clear evidence of occupation until the end of the Christian period; that is, in the Terminal as well as the Late Christian period. The Late and Terminal village was a dense aggregation of stoutly built, roughly square houses, that had clearly grown by accretion. Houses 1-3, 6, 7, and 21-23 were built directly on top of Classic Christian house remains, and used the stumps of their stone walls as footings. (The sequence of growth is indicated by different wall shadings in Figure 23). House 1 was a two-storey castle-house, while most but not all of the remaining houses were typi56

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House 1 (Plate 5a)

that caused the partial collapse of the south house wall and adjoining roof vaults, leaving Rooms 1-4 open to entry at their south ends. Subsequent to this there were some remains of squatter occupation on top of the floodborne material.

This was a typical two-storey castle-house, of the type found in many places in late medieval Nubia (cf. Adams 1994a; 1994b). It was the largest and most stoutly built structure at Kasanarti. No doorways were preserved in the exterior walls, but portions of the north and east walls were missing. There may have been a doorway in one of the missing walls, but it is also possible that, as in castlehouses further south, there was no entryway anywhere at ground floor level. There was clear evidence of a second-floor entryway at the southwest corner. The ground-floor plan included four small blind cellars (Rooms 1-4) at the southwest corner of the house, and another (Room 7) in the center, while around them, in a kind of L, was a suite of interconnected rooms (Rooms 5, 6, and 8-10). Access to the blind cellars was through overhead hatches, of which one was preserved in Room 2. Since this room did not interconnect with any other, however, there must have been hatchways to the adjoining rooms as well. None of the rooms could be interpreted as a cess pit or toilet chamber, although these features were common in other castle houses (Adams 1994a, 19). Nevertheless, a fragment of what was probably a ceramic toilet was found in the fill. While the outer walls rested directly on the stumps of Classic Christian House 1 walls, the arrangement of interior partitions was entirely different. Only a small part of the second-floor plan, at the west side, could be reconstructed (Figure 23, inset). All the rooms had two clearly distinct floor levels. The original floor (Floor 2) was a level surface of hard mud, with a scattering of numerous sherds and charcoal. This was overlain by a dense mixture of water-deposited sand and decomposed brick, up to 50cm deep, which was clearly the result of flood damage. It was still damp at the time of our excavations. On top of this was a thin scattering of charcoal, sherds, and bone (Floor 1), but not a hard compacted floor. It was clear at least in Room 2 that the southern end of the roof vault as well as the southern house wall was broken away prior to the time when Floor 1 was established. Thereafter, lateral entry to the room was gained through a break in the wall. There was a raised area in the room floor, at the south end, to facilitate stepping down into the room. Features of the second storey could be reconstructed only at the west side of the building, where most of the exterior wall was still preserved at second-floor level. No parts of the north, south, or east walls were preserved at this level. The alignment of surviving walls was in all cases the same as that of underlying walls, but the arrangement of doors was notably different. Probably the whole of the second storey was a single interconnected suite, but not enough was preserved to confirm this with any certainty. The second-storey rooms that survived were given the same numbers as those directly underlying. At some point in its history House 1 was attacked by a flood which caused severe damage to the building, and left a deep deposit of flood-borne sand and mud in all the outside rooms, though the two interior Rooms 7 and 8 were possibly spared. It may have been the same flood

House 1 specifications Setting: built directly on the stumps of Classic Christian House 1, near the southern limit of the village. Size: 11 x 11m. Plan: two-storey castle-house. Ground-floor entry, if there was one, must have been in the middle of either the north wall or east wall. Number of rooms: 10 on the ground floor; second-floor plan not determinable. Wall construction: mud brick, on stone footings. Wall thickness: 80cm throughout. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: plain mud. Wall features: rubble in Room 3 contained large number of thin, fired bricks, with whitewash along one edge or at one end. These may have formed a slightly projecting string course at the base of the ceiling vaulting. Doors: plain, arched. Roofs: ground floor roofs vaulted; second storey roofs possibly flat. Floor features: mastaba and buried pots. Fill: 25-50cm of windblown sand, underlain by 25-75cm of fallen wall rubble, underlain in turn by flood-borne mud and sand. Condition: notably variable. Southern walls of Rooms 1-5 generally preserved to height of about 1m. Highest walls in the center of building preserved to nearly 4m,and parts of several ground-floor roof vaults preserved. However, parts of north and east outside walls were completely fallen away. Outside surfaces. At least on the south and west sides, House 1 was originally adjoined by a well compacted occupation surface (Floor 2) marked by numerous fire hearths, and by evidence of burning at the base of the house walls. This surface was established on top of the already filled interior and the partly dismantled walls of House 17, which was bricked over to form a kind of mastaba adjoining the south side of House 1. This surface sloped up to the south wall of the house, and was stabilized with a kind of rough glacis or pavement, of stones and brick, extending away from the house walls for at least 3m.

Registered House 1 finds 1. Bronze spoon. 4. Pottery, shell, stone and bone buttons. 5. Bone knife fragment. 6. Bronze bracelet. 8. Incised shell tablet. 9. Stone button. 18. Storage jar, Ware U5, Form Y7. 26. Qadus or jar portion, Ware U5, Form V1 or U21. 96. Ceramic toilet?

House 1 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 9-22. Photos: F/156: 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 12; F/157: 3-8. 57

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Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, pp. 4-10. Plans and profiles: overall site plans and profiles. Published references: Adams 1964b, 222; Adams 1994a, 13, 23.

floor laid directly on bedrock. There was also no change in the plan of the house. While the foundations of Rooms 11-14 were directly on bedrock only a few centimetres below the floors, the foundations of Room 15 were at a level more than 1m deeper, because of the slope of the underlying rock. There were indications that there might originally have been a crypt under the floor in Room 15, roofed over by beams at the level of the floor. Notes indicate that it was entered by very crude stone steps from the east end. However, the crypt had no well-defined floor. The deposit within consisted of soft sand mixed with enormous numbers of sherds. This might have been deliberate fill after the crypt ceased to be used. House 3 seems to have been devoted to specialized food preparation. The refuse contained enormous numbers of grinding and pounding stones, as well as animal and fish bones, and shell.

House 2 This three-room house was bordered on the south by House 6, on the north by House 23, on the east by House 13, and on the west by Center Street. It shared a party wall with House 6, which may have been built earlier, but not with the other two contiguous houses. The north and south walls were not parallel, perhaps because they had to conform to the alignment of the previously existing houses on either side. The two western rooms formed a connected suite, while the single eastern room had no lateral entry. The floor level in this room was about 75cm below that of the western rooms, conforming to the slope of the ground. House 2 specifications Setting: adjoined on three sides by other houses and on the fourth by Center Street; built directly on top of the stumps of Classic Christian House 2. Size: 5.5 x 5.5m. Plan: an unusually small unit house. Number of rooms: 3. Wall construction: brick, resting on rough stone footings. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not described. Doors: plain. Roof: vaulted. Floors: not described. Floor features: a raised step just inside the exterior doorway, and a ceramic oven. Fill: not described. Condition: generally good. Walls standing from 1 to 1.5m high in western rooms; part of roof vault preserved intact in eastern room, at height of 1.7m above the floor.

House 3 specifications Setting: adjoined by House 1 on the east, House 5 on the west, House 10 on the south, and the South Plaza on the north. Built directly on uneven bedrock. Size: 10 x 7m. Number of rooms: 5. Wall construction: rough stone, surmounted by brick at levels of 40-60cm above floor. Wall thickness: 60cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: 3 plain, 1 buttressed. Roofs: probably flat throughout. Floors: uneven floors of mud, laid directly on bedrock. Floor features: none. Fill: soft, dry mixture of decomposed brick and sand, containing enormous numbers of sherds from fallen wall fill. Condition: all walls preserved up to a level of 1-1.6m. Not significantly modified in Late Christian times.

Registered House 3 finds 7. Faience beads. 29. Schist net weight. 30. Bowl portion, Ware R13, Form C39. 31. Lamp portion, Ware W6, Form P19. 47. Lamp fragment, Ware W6, Form P18 or P19.

Registered House 2 finds 32. Drilled shell. 33. Decorated bronze pin. 34. Bronze pin. 35. Curved bronze rod.

House 3 documentation

House 2 documentation

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 23-24. Photos: F/156: 3, 5, 9-11; F/157: 1, 2, 6-8. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans: overall site plans.

Field notes: none. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans and profiles: overall site plans and profiles.

House 4

House 3 (Plates 5b-c)

This Late Christian house, at the southwestern extremity of the preserved portion of the site, had no Classic Christian antecedent. It consisted of a suite of four interconnected rooms in a regular square, plus two small rooms added to the west side, which did not connect with the others. The main suite had two outside entryways, as did most other Late Christian unit houses at Kasanarti, while the two added rooms had no lateral entrances. It looked as if these western rooms had been deliberately filled with

This large, irregular-shaped house consisted of two separate suites: an easterly suite consisting of Rooms 11 and 12, and a westerly suite consisting of Rooms 13-15. House 3 did not have the plan or features of a unit house; it was in fact a Classic Christian house which, with one exception, remained in use without modification in the Late Christian period. In all the rooms except Room 15 there was only one floor level—the original Classic Christian 58

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House 5

refuse at a late date, in order to provide stabilization for the adjoining wall of the main suite. Room 24, the innermost room in the main suite, was an over-and-under room; that is, it had one small vaulted chamber above another.3 The roof vault of the lower chamber, 85cm above the floor, was preserved largely intact. Entry was through a very small and low doorway from the neighboring Room 25. Not enough of the upper chamber survived to indicate its original height, or how it was entered. The east side of the house, outside Rooms 24 and 25, was originally adjoined by a kind of low mastaba. It had a fill of mud and occupation refuse, and was paved over with a hard mud surface. At a later date, it was overbuilt by the west end of House 10.

This rather irregular aggregation of rooms did not have the typical plan of a unit house, although it was built in Late Christian times. It was probably built later than the adjoining House 4, with which it shared a party wall. The number of bins suggests the possibility that it was a food storage area. At some point in the Late Christian period it was abandoned—probably after a flood—and its sandedover remains converted into an outside working area. The latter area was enclosed by very low mud partitions, and had several burned areas indicative of fires. House 5 specifications Setting: near the southwest corner of the site; adjoined by House 4 on the south, House 13 on the west, South Street on the east, and the South Plaza on the north. Size: 8.5 x 6.5m. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not described. Doors: one plain, one buttressed. Roofs: probably flat. Floors: hard, continuous mud surface, with numerous sherds. Floor features: 3 bins; 1 buried pot. Fill: very dense fallen wall rubble and refuse; also some very large rocks that were evidently part of deliberate fill inserted in the abandoned rooms, to provide higher level working area. Condition: fair; most walls standing 1m or more.

House 4 specifications Setting: at southwestern extremity of excavated area, adjoined on north by House 5, on east by House 10, and putatively on south by House 18. There was a possibility of an adjoining house at the west as well. Built on an accumulation of soft sand containing sherds, but no underlying structure found. Size: 7 x 6m. Plan: small unit house, with added rooms to west. 0n the north, the house shared a party wall with House 5, which was probably added later. Low, over-and-under vaults in Room 24. Number of rooms: 6. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: all plain. Roof: vaulted. Floors: hard, solid mud surfaces. Floor features: mastaba, bin, and floor pot. Fill: fallen wall rubble and refuse. Western Rooms 28-29 apparently deliberately trash-filled at a late date, to provide stabilization for adjoining west wall. Condition: southern wall somewhat denuded; others preserved to a height of 1m or more. Low roof vault partly intact in Room 24. South house wall had been badly damaged by a flood, causing it to sag outward, after which it was shored up by a mass of mud and large rocks piled against the outside.

Registered House 5 finds 10. Ground sherd disc. 11. Vase, Ware R11, Form F23. 12. Irregular shaped dish, Ware H4, form not classified. 13. Pot, Ware U6, Form U16. 16. Bronze ring. 17. Silver? bead. 20. Storage jar, Ware U5 or U10, Form Y7. 21. Pot, Ware U5, Form U21. 107. Footed bowl portion, Ware W12, Form D55. 108. Footed bowl portion, Ware R13, Form D58.

House 5 documentation

Registered House 4 finds

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 29-30, 33. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans: overall site plan.

3. Cup, Ware H6, Form A2. 14. Footed bowl portion, Ware R27, Form D43. 15. Pottery jar stamp. 22. Qadus, Ware U5, Form V1. 23. Iron implement.

House 6 This house was built on top of Classic Christian House 6, using many of its wall stumps as foundations. However, the west wall was rebuilt on a slightly different alignment from the original, and some of the original interior partitions were not overbuilt. The southern end of the house was not preserved. The rooms that remained comprised a fairly typical unit house, with all interconnecting rooms. The house shared a party wall with House 2, which may have been built first. The point of entry could not be determined; it was not in any of the surviving outside

House 4 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 31-32. Photos: F/156: 3, 11. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan. 3 For similarly designed rooms in other Late Christian unit houses see Adams 1994b, 55-7 (Kulubnarti), and Adams 2002, 989 (Meinarti)

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walls.

Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: all plain. Roofs: undoubtedly vaulted. Floors: level, hard mud floors. Floor features: mastaba. Fill: soft windblown sand; almost no occupation refuse. Condition: most walls standing to heights of 1-2m, but southeast corner fallen away.

House 6 specifications Setting: built partly on wall stumps of Classic Christian House 6, partly on soft sand fill within the older house. Adjoined by Houses 2 and 13 on the north, and by Center Street on the west. No definite evidence of adjoining houses on the south and east. Area: 7.5 x 5m as preserved. Plan: probably a typical unit house. Number of rooms: 4 preserved. Wall construction: mud brick, resting on Classic Christian stone stumps. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not described. Doors: all rebated; one also had buttress. Roofs: almost certainly vaulted. Floors: apparently well defined, but not described. Floor features: none shown on plan. Fill: occupation refuse. Condition: mostly denuded; southern portion missing altogether.

Registered House 7 finds 42. Bronze vessel fragments. 46. Cup of goblet portion, Ware H4 or H6 cup, Form A2 or B12.

House 7 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 55-56. Photos: F/159: 12. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 8 (Plate 5d) This was, after House 1, the largest and most imposing house at Kasanarti, and could conceivably have had a second storey. It was mostly well preserved, with some roof vaulting intact, except at the southwest corner which had been destroyed. It was not built up over an earlier, Classic Christian house. The rather complex ground-floor plan comprised two suites, separately entered from the outside. The house was remarkable for containing three mastabas, all bordered by brick masonry, which were otherwise rare in the houses at Kasanarti. There were also a number of pots buried to the rim in the room floors. The southern part of the house had undergone considerable modification after being severely damaged by a flood. After the southern and western walls had been partially destroyed, a section of curving wall was built within Room 97, running southwestward from the northeast corner. The area enclosed within it became a large fireplace, and a hole was cut through the base of the western wall, opening into the air space in the formerly doubled wall. This then became a chimney. It is quite likely that, at the time these changes were made, Room 97 was no longer roofed.

Registered House 6 find 44. Incised sherd.

House 6 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 51-52. Photo: F/158: 5. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 7 This was one of the better preserved unit houses, although a portion of wall at the southeast corner was missing. It was not built up on an earlier, Classic Christian house, but directly on top of the denuded Meroitic remains of Site 5X-60. The house had two outside doorways and apparently consisted of two suites which may not have been interconnected. However, it is remotely possible that they were interconnected, since a small portion of the intervening wall was missing. At some point in the later history of the house the east wall was heavily damaged, either directly by a flood or by slumpage resulting from a flood. Room 75 was then given a new east wall, at a point 2m west of the original, so that the size of the room was reduced by half. It was probably at this time that a sloping glacis of mud brick, similar to the one adjoining House 1, was built up against the outsides of the east and north walls.

House 8 specifications Setting: at the northwest corner of the preserved area, adjoined by House 11 on the south and House 12 on the east. Apparently no adjoining house to the north, since exterior doorways were on this side, but there could conceivably have been a (destroyed) adjoining house on the west. Built on markedly sloping ground; floor in westernmost Room 99 more than 1m lower than floor in easternmost Room 101. There were no underlying Classic Christian remains. Size: 10 x 8m. Type: unit house with two suites; second storey possible. Number of rooms: 7. Wall construction: brick throughout. Wall thickness: 60cm.

House 7 specifications Setting: at the east side of the North Plaza, adjoined by House 9 on the north, House 15 on the east, and House 23 on the south. Built directly on top of denuded Meroitic remains (Site 5-X-60). Size: 7 x 6m. Plan: unit house with two suites. Number of rooms: 5. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm.

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Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: mostly plain, fairly wide. Roofs: vaulted. Floors: not described. Floor features: mastabas, floor pots, 1 bin. Fill: not described. Condition: variable. Some eastern walls over 1.5m high; increasingly denuded toward west, part of west outside wall missing altogether.

adjoined by House 7 on the south and by North Street on the west. Presence of adjoining houses on the north and east doubtful, since the outside entry doors were on these sides. Size: 6.5 x 6m. Plan: unit house of a single suite. Number of rooms: 5. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: north house door had long buttress; others plain. All preserved doors had flat stone lintels. Roofs: vaulted. Floors: level, hard mud surfaces. Floor features: floor pots in Room 79. Fill: not described. Condition: generally good; all walls 1 to 2m high.

Registered House 8 finds 60. Vase, Ware R11, Form F17. 71. Qadus, Ware U5, Form V1. 72. Storage jar, Ware U5, Form Y7. 73. Footed bowl fragment, Ware R11, form uncertain. 74. Qadus, Ware U5, Form V1. 109. Bowl portion, Ware R11, Form C20 or C49.

House 8 documentation

Registered House 9 finds

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 65-66. Photos: F/159: 11-12. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans and profile: overall site plan.

68. lid made from broken-off base of Ware W14? footed bowl; and storage jar or amphora of Ware U10, Form Y7 or Z11. 69. Storage jar, Ware U5, Form Y3.

House 9

House 9 documentation

This was one of the best preserved of the Kasanarti unit houses. The interior was a single suite of five rooms, although like most other unit houses here it had two outside doorways. The house was not built over the stumps of a Classic Christian house. The arrangement of Rooms 78 and 79, in the middle of the house, was unique. The two rooms were enclosed by the same walls at the north and south, with the small Room 78 to the east and the larger Room 79 to the west, but they were not interconnected. Room 79, essentially a secret closet, was entered from Room 77 only by means of a very narrow and low passage, roofed over with large flat slabs, that ran underneath the northern half of Room 78. As a result Room 78 had two very different floor levels: a high floor in the northern half, over the top of the passage, and a ground-level floor in the southern half. There was no lateral entry to Room 78, but a very small window high in the east wall, like a speaking hole, opened through into Room 77. At the south side of the house, the very long Room 76 ran the full width of the house from east to west. Just inside the room, a short distance from the outside door, there was a small lamp niche in the south wall. At the west end of Room 76, the lower part of the wall was reinforced by an addition of brick masonry, 80cm high and 75cm wide. This may have been a reinforcement because of the buildup of sand in the street outside. Both the masonry addition and the original house wall were perforated by a round opening, about 15cm in diameter, that ran through to the outside of the house. Its opening was just at ground level in the street outside, but well above the floor within the house. The purpose of this feature could not be determined; it was too small for a toilet cleanout hole.

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 55-58. Photo: F/159: 4. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans: overall site plans.

House 10 This rather denuded house of four or more rooms adjoined much older Houses 3 and 4, at the southern end of the village (as preserved). It was built at a late date, on top of deep refuse that had accumulated at the east side of House 4. Most features at the east side of the house were not preserved. House 10 specifications Setting: at the southern extremity of the excavation area, adjoined by House 4 on the west; separated by South Street from House 3 on the north. Possibly but not certainly adjoined also by putative House 18 to the south, and by another structure to the east. Built on top of a deep accumulation of earlier refuse. Size: probably about 7 x 5 m; east wall not preserved Plan: apparently a small unit house. Number of rooms: parts of 4 preserved. Wall construction: brick, apparently with stone foundations in some areas. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one buttressed; no others preserved. Roofs: probably vaulted. Floors: not recorded. Floor features: floor pot in Room 17. Fill: mostly windblown sand. Condition: denuded, with eastern portion largely missing.

House 9 specifications Setting: at the northeast extremity of the excavated area, 61

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Registered House 10 find

House 12

25. Storage jar, Ware H4, Form Y1.

This was one of the best preserved houses at Kasanarti, with a considerable part of one roof vault surviving intact. It was a unit house having only a single exterior doorway, and a single connected suite of rooms. Interior doorways were so wide that the south, west, and north rooms seemed to form in effect a single U-shaped room, encircling the interior Room 91 on three sides. For reasons that never became clear, the east wall of Room 94, separating it from Room 91, had at some point in time been doubled in thickness. At the northeast corner of the house was a small room that was almost certainly a toilet chamber—the only such facility definitely identified at Kasanarti. There was a cleanout hole at the base of its east wall.

House 10 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 25-6. Photo: F/156: 11. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 11 This was evidently the surviving eastern half of a large unit house, near the northwestern limit of the village. It was built on lower ground than the adjoining houses, and with a considerable downward slope; this accounts for the complete destruction of its western and lower half. The surviving rooms formed a single connected suite. The house was remarkable in that it contained the only two whitewashed rooms at Kasanarti, Rooms 83 and 84. The small Room 83, in the center of the house, was evidently a kind of strong-room, entered only through a low and narrow doorway, roofed with a flat stone slab, from Room 84. The name ΡΑΦΑΗΛ was painted in black above the doorway to Room 83. Room 84 also had a lamp niche in its north wall, more or less at the midpoint along its length. In all the surviving rooms there were two well defined floor surfaces, one about 50cm above the other. This was unusual among the Late Christian unit houses, most of which had only a single floor level. At some point after the original construction of House 11, the east wall (adjoining the North Plaza) was reinforced by a heavy stone wall running alongside it. Its foundations were not as deep as those of the adjoining brick wall.

House 12 specifications Setting: adjoined by House 8 on the west, North Plaza on the south, and North Street on the east. Very probably adjoined also by House 20 on the north, although nothing of this house remained except its south wall. Built on top of a deep accumulation of Classic Christian refuse, but no underlying structure was encountered. Size: 7 x 5.5m. Plan: a small unit house. Number of rooms: 5. Wall construction: exclusively brick. Wall thickness: originally 60cm, but interior wall between Rooms 94 and 91 doubled to 1.2m. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: mud. Doors: buttressed. Roofs: vaulted. Floors: not recorded. Floor features: none. Fill: not recorded. Condition: generally well preserved, with part of roof vault intact.

House 11 specifications Setting: at the west side of the North Plaza; adjoined on the north by House 8 and on the south by House 22. Size: 8 x ?m. Plan: almost certainly a Late Christian unit house. Number of rooms: parts of 5 preserved. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: mud; whitewash in two rooms. Doors: plain. Roofs: undoubtedly vaulted. Floors: two good, hard mud floors, separated by about 50cm of occupation refuse and mud. Floor features: bin and floor pot in Room 83. Fill: windblown sand overlying Floor 1; mud and refuse overlying Floor 2. Condition: denuded; west side entirely missing.

Registered House 12 find 65. Pot, Ware H4, Form 17.

House 12 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, p. 63. Photos: F/158: 2, 4; F/159: 11-12. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan and profile: overall site plan and profiles.

House 13 There are no written notes on this structure. The plan shows the western end of an oblong building which was probably not a unit house; the eastern end was destroyed. It was built adjoining the previously existing Houses 2 and 6, but did not share a party wall with either. The house was also adjoined on the north by House 14, which might have been added later. The plan shows remnants of three rooms, of which the two at the west were interconnected.

Registered House 11 find 75. Jar portion, Ware U5, Form U21.

House 11 documentation

House 13 specifications Setting: at the east side of the village, adjoined on the south by House 6, on the west by House 2, and on the north by House 14.

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 61-62. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan. 62

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House 15

Size: 5 x 6+m. Plan: uncertain. Number of rooms: parts of 3 preserved. Wall construction: brick only. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one plain, one buttressed. Roof: no data. Floors: no data. Floor features: floor pot in Room 58. Fill: not recorded. Condition: very denuded; eastern half missing.

There are no written notes on this house. The plan shows a small but complete building with a regular rectangular shape, and two interconnected rooms of equal size. House 15 specifications Setting: at the eastern edge of the village, adjoined by House 14 on the south and House 7 on the west. Size: 4.5 x 4m. Number of rooms: 2. Wall construction: brick only. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: no data. Doors: plain. Roof: no data. Floors: no data. Floor features: none shown. Fill: no data. Condition: denuded.

Registered House 13 finds 27. Bowl portion, Ware W18, Form C35. 28. Iron nail or signet. 67. Storage jar, Ware U5, Form Y3.

House 13 documentation Field notes: none. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

Registered House 15 find 61. Lamp, Ware W2 or W6, Form P18.

House 15 documentation

House 14

Field notes: none. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

This single room was the sole surviving remnant of a narrow building, whose eastern portions were destroyed. It was certainly too small to be a unit house. It and the adjoining House 23 may have been built into what was formerly a street. There are no written notes.

House 16 The very partial remains of a small house which, at a late date, was intruded into the North Plaza. It was the only freestanding structure at Kasanarti. The preserved remains were those of a large room, with a smaller one partitioned off in one corner, plus parts of two adjoining rooms. There are no written notes.

House 14 specifications Setting: adjoined by House 13 to south, House 23 to west, and House 15 to north; eastern portion destroyed. Size: 3.5 x ?m. Plan: uncertain. Number of rooms: at least 2. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one plain interior doorway preserved. Roof: no data. Floors: no data. Floor features: 2 floor pots. Fill: not recorded. Condition: very denuded; probably more than half missing.

House 16 specifications Setting: within the North Plaza, near its east side. Built over Meroitic remains (Site 5-X-60). Size: 6.5 x 4.5m. Plan: uncertain. Number of rooms: parts of 4 preserved. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: no data. Doors: none preserved. Roof: no data. Floors: no data. Floor features: none shown. Fill: no data. Condition: very denuded; considerable parts missing.

Registered House 14 finds 37. Cup portion, Ware R11, Form A26. 38. Cup fragment, Ware R11, Form A10 or A11. 39. Vase, Ware R11, Form F23. 52. Pot, Ware H4, Form U17, with broken base of Ware U5 qadus used as lid. 56. Amphora body, Ware U10, Form Z11.

House 16 documentation Field notes: none. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 14 documentation Field notes: none. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 17 This designation was given to a brick structure that 63

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adjoined House 1 on its south side. Although stratigraphy as well as the brick construction indicate a Late Christian date, the house was destroyed at some point by a flood, which filled the lower parts of the rooms with sand. The filled rooms and wall tops were then paved over with a brick pavement, and became an outside mastaba adjoining the south side of House 1. After another flood, mud and rubble was in turn built up over this, and again paved with brick to form a glacis at the south side of House 1. Only the north end of the original house was preserved. Here there were two interconnected rooms, with an outdoor entry. Little can be said about the remainder of the house, except that the additional rooms were not interconnected with the two at the north end. Because of its setting on very low ground, the house had been affected by flooding in the recent past; the deposit was still wet when we dug it.

was also a short stump of wall projecting from the middle of the east wall, showing that there had been two rooms at the east side of the house. There is no documentation except the overall site plan and the sketch plan (WYA Book VII, p. 4).

House 17 specifications Setting: adjoining the south side of House 1, at the extreme southern extremity of the village. Size: 7.5 x ?m. Plan: uncertain; possibly a unit house. Number of rooms: parts of 3 preserved. Wall construction: brick exclusively. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: no data. Doors: plain. Roof: probably vaulted. Floors: two well-defined mud floor levels. Floor features: floor pot and bin. Fill: riverborne sand. Condition: northern walls denuded to uniform height of about 80cm. Southern portion entirely destroyed.

This was a substantial but very denuded house at the west side of the site, built on top of the remains of Classic Christian House 21. However, only the exterior walls rested on older stumps; all of the interior partitions were newly aligned. The best preserved portions were in the northeastern section of the house, where three rather small rooms were fully preserved. The whole of the west outside wall was missing, as was all but a short section of the south wall. The written notes on House 21 are very sketchy.

House 20 This is the designation given to a building that adjoined House 12 on its northern side, at the far northern extremity of the excavated area. Nothing survived of this building except the full length of the south wall, adjoining House 12, and small adjoining sections of the north and south walls. There were no surviving remnants of any interior partitions in House 20, although it was very probably a unit house. There is no documentation except the overall site plan and the sketch plan (WYA Book VII, p. 4).

House 21

House 21 specifications Setting: at the west side of the village, adjoined by House 22 on the north, the Bakery on the east, and the South Plaza on the south. Built on top of the stumps of Classic Christian House 21. Size: 9 x 7m. Plan: probably a unit house. Number of rooms: parts of 6 preserved. Wall construction: mud brick, with exterior walls resting on stone stumps. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: all plain. Roofs: probably vaulted. Floors: not recorded. Floor features: none shown. Fill: soft sand and occupation refuse. Condition: very denuded, with considerable portions missing at the west and south sides.

Registered House 17 find 19. Ceramic toilet.

House 17 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 27-8. Photos: F/156: 7-8. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 18 The south walls both of House 4 and of neighboring House 10 were adjoined on the south side by a contiguous, 60-cm brick wall. It was clear therefore that there had been an adjoining structure, or more probably two structures, here, of which this was the north wall. Apart from this wall, the only surviving remnant was a very short stump of wall projecting southward from it, about halfway along its length. There is no documentation except the overall site plan and the sketch plan (WYA Book VII, p. 4).

House 21 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, p. 35. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 22

House 19

This house, at the west side of the site, was very denuded, but nearly all its walls were preserved at foundation level, except for the west wall which was entirely missing. The west wall had rested directly on top of a much older stone retaining wall, almost certainly of Early

This was the very denuded remnant of a house that had adjoined the west side of House 5, at the extreme west side of the site. Nothing survived except the east wall and very small segments of the north and south walls. There

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Christian date, while all other walls rested directly on Meroitic occupation refuse. The plan consisted of a tworoom suite at the north and a four-room suite at the south, with a kind of narrow corridor between them that did not open into either suite.

Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one plain door only. Roof: no data. Floors: no data. Floor features: none shown. Fill: no data. Condition: denuded.

House 22 specifications Setting: at the west side of the site, adjoined by House 11 on the north, House 21 on the south, and the central rock outcrop to the east. There was probably no adjoining house on the west. Built on relatively soft sand fill overlying Meroitic houses. Size: 8 x 6.5m. Plan: unit house. Number of rooms: 7. Wall construction: exclusively brick, but west wall rested on an older stone retaining wall. Wall thickness: 60cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: 2 buttressed, others plain. Roofs: undoubtedly vaulted. Floors: not recorded. Floor features: none shown. Fill: not recorded. Condition: denuded; west wall missing.

Registered House 23 finds 40. Bronze ring. 41. Small bronze object. 45. Schist net weight. 48. Vase, Ware W6, Form F16 or F23. 55. Iron cruciform object. 92. Vase fragment, Ware W10, form uncertain.

House 23 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, p. 53. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

Bakery The Bakery was a two-room, stone-walled structure which, as nearly as I could determine, had continued in use without modification from Classic through Late Christian times. In the Late Christian period it was the only stone-walled building on the site. At the southern end of the building was the very heavywalled Room 44, entered through a doorway in the middle of its west wall. The section of west wall in the southwest corner of the room, to the south of the doorway, was very much thickened. Set into the floor were two large ceramic ovens, one in the northwest corner and one in the southeast corner. Their diameters were respectively 0.95 and 1.2m. Adjoining Room 44 on the north, but not connected with it, was the smaller, oblong Room 45, which had no lateral entrance. It was separated from Room 44 by a 40cm stone wall, while the remaining walls were thicker. There was probably an additional room to the north of Room 44, but only its east wall was preserved.

Registered House 22 find 93. Cup fragment, Ware W14?, Form A29.

House 22 documentation Field notes: WYA Book VII, p. 54. Photos: none. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plan: overall site plan.

House 23 This designation was given to a pair of rooms which, together with adjoining House 14 to the west, were apparently intruded into what had formerly been an open street, extending east from the North Plaza, between House 7 on the north and Houses 2 and 13 on the south. House 23 was built on top of older, filled-up Classic Christian remains, but did not use any of the earlier walls as footings. The house shared a party wall with House 7 on the north, but not with other adjoining houses. The more westerly room had a doorway opening from the North Plaza, while the eastern room had no lateral entrance. These rooms were almost certainly not a dwelling.

Bakery specifications Setting: in the center of the village, adjoining the south side of the central rock outcrop. Adjoined on the west by House 21, on the south by the South Plaza, and on the east by Center Street. Built directly on bedrock. Size: 5+ x 4m. Plan: two or more rooms without interconnection. Number of rooms: 2 or 3. Wall construction: heavy, rough stone, with very large blocks. Wall thickness: variable from 40 to 80cm, but southwest corner heavily reinforced to maximum thickness of 1.2m. Plaster: none. Doors: one plain doorway only. Roof: possibly unroofed. Floor: not recorded. Floor features: large ceramic ovens. Fill: sand and refuse mixed with a great deal of ash. Condition: walls in southern rooms preserved to about 50cm; northern room (if any) mostly destroyed.

House 23 specifications Setting: in the northeastern house cluster, adjoined by House 7 and a small part of House 15 on the north, by House 2 and a small part of House 13 on the south, and by House 14 on the east. Open to the southeast corner of the North Plaza on the west. Size: 5 x 4m. Plan: two unconnected rooms. Wall construction: exclusively brick. Wall thickness: mostly 60cm, but east and north walls of Room 61 were 20cm. Brick size: 40 x 20 x 8cm.

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Bakery documentation

82. Cup portion, Ware R11, Form A10. 83. Cup fragment, Ware R11, Form A10. 84. Cup fragment, Ware R11, Form A11. 85. Vase fragment, Ware R11, Form F12?. 86. Vase fragment, Ware W14, Form F30. 87. Vase portion, Ware W14, Form F30. 88. Jar fragment, Ware W14, Form W26. 89. Restored pot, Ware U6, Form U16. 90. Miscellaneous beads. 91. Ground sherd discs. 95. Lamp, Ware H4, Form P26. 99. Perforated sherd disc. 100. Ground sherd gaming piece. 101. Perforated sherd disc. 103. Lid, Ware H5, Form Q16. 104. Lid made from portion of cylindrical pot rest, Ware H5? 105. Bowl portion, Ware W6?, Form C4. 106. Jar portion, Ware W12, Form W35.

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 35-6. Photos: F/158: 3, 5, 7. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans: Overall site plans.

Unexcavated areas South The excavations at the south end of the village reached the limits of preservation. There had certainly been additional rooms here, making up the southern ends of Houses 17 and 18, and possibly even further houses beyond them, but nothing was preserved.

West We stopped the excavations along this side because of a very deep accumulation of wind-blown sand. We cannot say for certain therefore that there were no additional structures surviving under the drifts. However, the structures that we excavated on the west side were on low and sloping ground, and it seems likely that anything further to the west would have been heavily damaged if not totally destroyed by flooding.

Discussion It seems at least a reasonable possibility that Kasanarti was occupied continually from Meroitic until Terminal Christian times. If so, however, the remains from the Ballaña and Early Christian periods were entirely carried away by flooding, except for some deposits of sherds. This is not unlikely, if view of the evidence of high flooding during those periods at other sites. There was definite occupation over much of the island in later Classic Christian times. Probably it marked an episode of wholesale rebuilding after the era of high floods was over, as was the case at Meinarti at this time (Adams 2001, 51-2). The newly built structures exhibited a common form of Classic Christian architecture for this area: lower walls made of heavy and rough stone, with innumerable sherds as chinking, surmounted at a height of 0.6-1m by rather crude brick. The wholesale rebuilding of the Late Christian period almost certainly took place after the raid of Shams edDawla in 1172-73, when there was a felt need for more secure housing. All the houses in the village were dismantled down to their foundations and rebuilt in brick, with vaulted ceilings, and sometimes with interior strongrooms or hidden rooms. The same transformations took place at Meinarti at this time (Adams 2002, 11-12). Probably at the same time, the two-storey castle-house (House 1) was built at the south end of the village. Perhaps also at the same time, settlers began moving to Kasanarti from the nearby West Bank village of Gendal Irki (5-X-1), for the sake of the greater protection offered by the island location. This would account for the growth of the community by accretion. By the Terminal Christian period, Gendal Irki was abandoned, but the villagers may have continued until the end to use the church and cemetery at Gendal Irki, since there was neither church nor cemetery on the island. There might have been some farming on the adjacent, low-lying islands to the north and south of Kasanarti. However, most farming was probably done on the east and west banks, where there were extensive alluvial flats. Fishing was probably also important, to judge from the

East So far as houses are concerned, our excavations appeared to have reached the limits of preservation on the east side of the village, except possibly at the north end, alongside Houses 7 and 9. Well to the east of the houses, and on much lower ground, we did expose a remnant of a heavy stone retaining wall, that was probably either of Classic Christian or still earlier origin.

North To the north of the excavated area was a fairly high, level area of alluvium, extending for perhaps 50m beyond the excavated houses. Tops of mud-brick walls could definitely be seen here, extending north for a distance of about 20m from the excavated houses. We estimated that there could be as many as 20 rooms, but the outlines of houses could not be made out.

Registered object: 77. Ground soapstone stopper.

Registered finds from surface, or unrecorded provenience 1. Pottery buttons. 24. Perforated stone disc. 36. Cup portion, R11, Form A20. 43. Ground sherd disc. 49. Iron object. 57. Pottery jar stamp. 53. Lamp made from ground-off base of Ware R11 bowl or vase. 54. Potsherd bottle stopper. 66. Footed bowl portion, Ware R11, Form D23. 76. Jar, Ware W14, Form W26. 78. Vase portion, Ware R11, Form F17. 79. Vase portion, Ware R11, Form F1 or F17. 80. Goblet fragment, Ware R11, Form B12. 81. Bowl portion, Ware R11 or R22, Form C12. 66

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amount of fish bone found in the refuse. Kasanarti was one of the very few Late Christian settlements encountered during the West Bank Survey, apart from the ubiquitous huts on the Second Cataract islands. It was one of only two sites that could be clearly dated to the Terminal Christian period, the other being Meinarti (Adams 2002, 97-108). However, later excavations at Qasr Ibrim (Adams 1996) and Kulubnarti (Adams 1994b) showed that these sites also had been occupied in Terminal Christian times, and indeed in post-Christian times as well. The Kasanarti settlement nevertheless differed from both Meinarti and Kulubnarti in two important respects. First, it was the only settlement made up primarily of unit houses. At both Meinarti and Kulubnarti these dwellings were accompanied by much more numerous structures that were more insubstantially built. Second, Kasanarti was the only place where unit houses were built directly contiguous to one another, rather than standing slightly apart. In both these respects Site 5-X-32 was unique among the sites of Lower Nubia and the Batn el-Hajjar.

Structures

Site documentation

Excavation: trial excavations by H.-Å. Nordström, 25 March 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 42f. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

1) A rectangular construction measuring 1.6 x 1m, built of rough stone masonry, filled with loose grey sand and potsherds. 2) A few meters further north, built into a shallow depression, there were some fragmentary remains of crude stone masonry walls, of uncertain function. In alluvial deposits between the rocks there were also some circular pits, 50 to 70cm in diameter, mud-plastered on the inside.

Graves On a slight rise to the south of the main part of the site, close to the rocks, there were a few slot type graves, oriented northeast-southwest. They were not excavated.

Saqias On the southern part of the plain were remains of two old saqias, about 100m apart. There was various debris of mud and stones, and an abundance of late type potsherds, but no structural remains.

Documentation

Field notes: WYA Book VII, pp. 4-38, 50-80. Photos: F/156: 1-12; F/157: 1-8; F/158: 2-9; F/159: 4-8, 11-12. Sketch plan: WYA Book VII, p. 4. Plans: 2 overall site plans. Published references: Adams and Nordström 1963, 40; Adams 1964b, 218-22; Adams 1994a, 13 and 23, fig. 6.

5-X-41: Early Christian house, Gemai

5-X-29: X-Group and Early Christian houses, Gemai

(Figure 24; Plate 5f) The site comprised the partial remains of a stone-built house of very Early Christian date. The surviving portion, from the northwest corner, consisted of a large room with two much smaller rooms alongside it, one of which was clearly an interior store room. In contrast to nearly all other Early Christian houses, this one had stout and fairly straight walls, and seems to have had a regular square or rectangular plan.

The site consisted of a denuded structure of four rooms, a nearby structure of two rooms that may originally have been contiguous, and an outlying, oval-shaped room that was not connected. There may have been additional rooms that were not excavated. Sherds indicated that the structures had been built in Ballaña times, with continued occupation into the very early Christian period. Because of its origin in Ballaña times, Site 5-X-29 was reported in Adams 2004, 111-112.

Specifications Setting: on a low gravel terrace, about 100m from the riverbank. Size: about 7.5 x 5m, as preserved. Plan: apparently a regularly rectangular or square house. Number of rooms: parts of 4 preserved. Wall construction: rough stone masonry employing some herringbone construction. Wall thickness: exterior walls 50 cm; interior walls 3540cm. Plaster: none preserved? Doors: plain. Roof: undoubtedly flat, timbered. Floors: none preserved. Floor features: none. Fill: fallen wall material. Condition: only the northwest portion of the building preserved, with walls surviving to maximum height of about 60cm. Dating: sherds as well as herringbone masonry indicate

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, March 17-18, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 39-41. Photos: F/102: 1-7. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 39. Plan: Adams 2004, Fig. 39. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 30; Adams 2004, 111-112.

5-X-37: Meroitic, Ballaña, and Christian structures and graves, Gemai The rather broad, sandy flat to the south of Gendal Irki (5X-1) was thickly littered with potsherds of Meroitic, Ballaña, and Christian types. Trial excavations revealed very denuded traces of structures, and some graves were noted as well. The whole area was so deflated that further excavation was not considered worthwhile.

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rough stone lower walls surmounted by brick, and with great quantities of sherds used as chinking. The largest number of sherds were of Classic Christian date, indicating extensive occupation of the island at that time, but their re-use as wall chinking could indicate that the houses excavated by us were not built until Late Christian times. House specifications, excavated rooms Setting: rooms built on top of jebel rock, abutting against an outcrop. Area: not recorded. Wall construction: rough stone construction to a height of 25-40cm, surmounted by brick. Enormous numbers of sherds used as chinking in stone construction. Wall thickness: very thick. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: none recorded. Doors: all small and probably low. One room had intact doorway 80cm high. Roofs: vaulted. Two smaller rooms have vaults just over 1m above floor level; larger room apparently had somewhat higher vault. Floors: hard mud, but two smaller rooms had irregular stone outcrops sticking up through floor. Floor features: none. Fill: sand. Condition: three rooms fairly well preserved, with walls over 1m high and vaults preserved nearly to crown in two cases. Dating: Classic and/or Late Christian indicated by sherd finds.

Figure 24. Plan of House 5-X-41, Gemai (scale 1:100).

Transitional and very Early Christian date

Documentation

Registered object

Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, 28 March 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book V, pp. 1-2. Photos: F/106: 8-10. Sketch plan: HÅN Book V, opp. p. 2. Plan: Figure 24 herein. Registered objects: none. Published reference: none.

1. Embossed sherd, Ware W5.

Documentation Excavation: 3 rooms excavated by W. Y. Adams, April 11, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 49. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 40.

5-X-43: Classic and Late Christian settlement, Meili Island Although very much flood-swept, Meili Island bore many traces of Christian settlement, in addition to the church (5-X-44) described in Chapter 2. We estimated that there were remnants of at least 100 rooms in all. At the northeast corner of the island were low, rocky outcrops with numerous rooms built around and among them. All were very badly destroyed. In the middle of the island, in an area overgrown with trees, there were very denuded traces of mud-brick construction which might have been either Meroitic (cf. Site 5-X-46) or Christian. Close to the southern end of the island was a group of deeply buried rooms, built against a rock outcrop, that were somewhat better preserved than the others. Three rooms were excavated. They were all small and low, and must almost certainly have been store rooms. The largest of the three measured 1.9 x 1.65m, while the other two were about half that size. The construction was strongly reminiscent of contemporary Christian architecture at Gendal Irki (Site 5-X-1) and Gaminarti (5-T-47), involving

5-X-12: Classic and Late (?) Christian settlement, Amashkeit Island Amashkeit was one of the three small, rocky islands that “straddled” the Nile opposite Gemai village. It was located just to the west of Meili Island; between it and the West Bank. The remains here were first noted by T. H. Thabit in 1955 (Thabit 1955, 4), but were not excavated. The whole island had been badly flooded over, and we also did not consider any of the remains to be worth excavating. The remains we observed at the surface were those of 25 or more rooms. They were in groups of contiguous, rectangular rooms, abutted against rocky outcrops wherever possible. The architecture was closely similar to that at Meili Island (5-X-43), Gendal Irki (5-X-1) and Gaminarti (5-T-47), with lower walls of rough stone, containing innumerable sherds, surmounted by brick. The rooms were 68

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generally small, and were probably covered by low vaults. On the high, rocky points at the north end of the island were two more substantial mud-brick buildings, with fragments of intact vaulting, that were most probably Late Christian unit houses. There may have been other, similar houses elsewhere on the island that were destroyed by flooding. This site should probably be considered as forming a part of the same community as Site 5-X-43, on nearby Meili Island. Both probably used the Meili Island church (Site 5-X-44).

side of Church 24-R-2, discovered and excavated by the University of Ghana Expedition in 1963 (Shinnie 1964, 214; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 19-39). 24-R-60: Debeira Early Christian building complex. Another building cluster discovered and excavated by the University of Ghana Expedition in 1963. It consisted of an aggregation of mostly thin-walled rooms surrounding a single heavy-walled, two-storey building. The complex may originally have been walled (Shinnie 1964, 214-15; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 33-41). 6-K-3: Meinarti kom. The kom on Meinarti Island, one of the largest in Nubia, attracted the attention of innumerable archaeologists and other early visitors. Intensive excavations by the present writer in 1963 and 1964 proved that the site had been occupied almost continuously from Meroitic to Terminal Christian times. The definitive publications are Adams 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2003. Other references include Burckhardt 1819, 42; Cailliaud 1826, Vol. 1, 234; Clarke 1916, 164; Crowfoot 1927, 230-31; Monneret de Villard 1935, 217-21, Vercoutter 1956, 7; 1957, Pl. 10; Wheeler 1961, 150; Adams 1964b, 222-41; 1965b, 148-76; and Sherif 1965, 249-50.

Documentation Excavation: none. Recorded: originally by T. H. Thabit, 1955; subsequently by W. Y. Adams, April 19, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 50. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published references: Thabit 1955, 4; Adams and Nordström 1963, 40.

WEST BANK HABITATION SITES NOT REPORTED IN THIS VOLUME The following is a list of additional habitation sites on the west bank between Faras and Gemai, that were investigated by other expeditions. 24-R-1: Debeira mud-brick building. Denuded remains of a heavy-walled rectangular building of brick, which included a stairway to a second storey or tower; apparently of Classic Christian date. It was initially discovered by the Antiquities Service Survey of 1956, and was subsequently excavated and reported by the University of Ghana Expedition (Vercoutter 1957, 111-12; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 41-2). 24-R-3: Debeira vaulted buildings. A cluster of several mud-brick buildings, one of which was the very conspicuous remnant of a two-storey structure, possibly a Late Christian castle-house. They were locally called “Hammam el Farki,” a name also applied to nearby Church 24-R-2, and were themselves sometimes mistaken for a church. They were initially noted by Mileham (1910, 14), again by the Antiquities Service Survey of 1956, and were fully investigated and reported by the University of Ghana Expedition on 1964 (Mileham 1910, 14; Vercoutter 1956, 9; 1957, 112; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 42-4). 24-R-8: Debeira Village. Remains of a very extensive Early and Classic Christian settlement, first noted by Somers Clarke, and subjected to trial excavations by the Antiquities Service Survey of 1956. The site was excavated in extenso by the University of Ghana Expedition in 1962-63. The definitive publication is Shinnie and Shinnie 1978 (Clarke 1912, 62; Monneret de Villard 1935, 209; Vercoutter 1956, 9; 1957, 112; Verwers 1962, 29; Shinnie 1963, 258-63; 1964, 208-12; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978). 24-R-59: Debeira Early Christian building complex. An extensive complex of mud-brick rooms adjoining the north

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5. INDUSTRIAL, COMMERCIAL, AND ENIGMATIC SITES 24-E-21: Early and Classic Christian pottery factory, Faras

Foundations: mostly rollag. Wall thickness: variable from component to component Brick size: not recorded; probably 36 x 18 x 9cm. Plaster: all original walls smoothly mud plastered. Doors: original doors arched; not rebated. Some rebates added later. Wall features: arched niche in Room 10. Many potterymaking features added later. Roofs: originally vaulted. Floors: originally hard-packed mud. Floor features: none originally, except stairs in Room 12. Innumerable mud-mixing basins, small interior kilns, and other pottery-making equipment added later. Fill: variable by layer; see individual period notes. Condition: mostly very well preserved; some walls standing to over 2m. Dating: Early Christian to early Classic Christian.

(Figures 25-35; Plates 6-7) The pottery factory at Faras (“Coptic Potteries”) was initially noticed by Mileham (1910, 25), and a little later, in 1911-12, was partially excavated by the Oxford Expedition, led by F. Ll. Griffith (1926, 63-5). The actual excavations were apparently conducted by C. L. Woolley, who drew the published plan (Griffith 1926, pl. XLII). We originally intended only brief trial excavations, to learn something about the kilns and their technology, as this aspect had been largely ignored by Woolley. It soon became apparent however that the stratigraphy of the site was much more complex than the original excavators had recognized, and also that there had been conspicuous stylistic evolution in the pottery wares over the time of the site’s occupation. The Potteries therefore offered an opportunity to develop a chronology of Christian Nubian wares, which could be useful later in the dating of other sites. We found also that many of the rooms shown in Woolley’s plan had not been fully excavated, as we encountered numerous interior features not shown on his plan. For all these reasons it seemed desirable to continue the excavation until the site had yielded as much information as possible about pottery making in the Early and early Classic Christian periods. Eventually we re-excavated eight of the rooms mapped by Woolley, and an area of about equal size lying to the east, which he had not dug (cf. Figure 25, which shows only the rooms and not the large kiln area of the site). The rooms re-excavated were at the center of the original complex mapped by Woolley; we did not re-excavate the outlying rooms to the north, south, or west, although in some cases we cleared the tops of the walls. The site has been fairly extensively described in several previous publications, most notably Adams 1961, 30-43 and Adams 1986, 16-22. However, these reports have dealt mainly with pottery-making activities and apparatus. It remains to tell here the long and complex architectural history of the Potteries.

Eventually we were able to recognize six quite distinct phases of occupation, covering the period between perhaps AD 600 and 1000. During that time the site had undergone very substantial modification, first through growth by accretion, in Phases 1-3, and then through diminution due to flood damage and the accumulation of manufacturing refuse, in Phases 4-6 (cf. Figures 27 and 28). It became clear that the place was not originally a factory, but most probably some kind of religious establishment. Pottery manufacture did not begin until Phase 3, and did not begin on an industrial scale until Phase 4, after the site had been severely damaged by a flood.

Synopsis of phases Phase 1. The earliest structure was apparently some kind of mud-brick compound, perhaps unroofed, which was built directly on the alluvial floodplain. Only a small part of it was excavated, and details of the plan are unclear. This was eventually abandoned and sanded over, and bore no relationship to the later structures. Phase 2. What I have called the Monastic Complex (see below) was built during this period. It grew by accretion, beginning with Suite A, with Suites B, D, and possibly C and E added subsequently.

Site specifications Setting: about 40m from the Nile riverbank; about 100m south of the Egyptian frontier. Extent: area of 28 x 25m shown on Woolley’s plan. Area of 16 x 24m excavated by us. Plan: originally a fairly regular rectangular complex of thick-walled rooms; additional rooms and pottery kilns later added at east side, and original rooms very much modified. Number of rooms: 17 rooms, exclusive of kilns, shown on Woolley’s plan. 27 rooms numbered by us, including re-numbering of Woolley’s rooms. Wall construction: all mud brick.

Phase 3. Floor levels throughout the Phase 2 buildings were raised by an average of 25cm, and Suite C was added at the east side of the complex now, if not earlier. Pottery making was begun on a small scale, as a small kiln was installed within one room, and an adjoining room was devoted to clay-mixing activity. However, there was nothing to suggest that the place at this time had become primarily a factory. The flood. At the end of Phase 3 the site was badly damaged by a flood. Many roofs collapsed, walls along the east side of the complex were reduced to a height of 1m or less, and a layer of dense mud, 50cm or more in 71

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Figure 25. Plan of Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21, showing sectors excavated by the Oxford University Expedition and by the West Bank Survey. Kilns are not shown.

thickness, was deposited through most of the rooms. It was probably after this, if my conjecture is correct, that the early inhabitants decided to remove to higher ground at the nearby monastery of Qasr el-Wizz (reported in Scanlon 1970 and 1972), continuing to use the original site purely for pottery manufacture.

updraught kilns (Kilns 3 and 4) were built at the east side of the site, directly on top of the sanded-up eastern rooms. Phase 5. At this phase two additional cylindrical kilns (Kilns 1 and 2) were built immediately beside the previously existing two. There were minor modifications in some of the adjoining rooms, and most floor levels were raised. In the course of this phase ash, slag, and other refuse accumulated very rapidly around both the kilns and the neighboring rooms, requiring the continual modification of the kiln stoke holes, and the construction of stairways descending into the old rooms from the much higher outside ground level.

Phase 4. After the flood the central rooms were restored to use, with new floors established on top of the accumulated mud. In many cases this required a rebuilding of the upper walls and the vaulted ceilings. There were substantial internal rearrangements, with old doors blocked up and new ones cut through. Meanwhile no effort was made to restore the heavily damaged eastern rooms of Suite C, which became filled with sand and refuse. Pottery making activity was now carried on in nearly every one of the rooms that remained in use; it is attested by sunken mixing basins, mixing bins, drying platforms, and small kilns, as well as clay splashed on the walls. Most importantly, the first of the large, cylindrical

Phase 6. This phase witnessed the most drastic modifications at the Potteries since Phase 2. Only a few rooms of the original Monastic Complex remained in use, now deeply filled above the original floor levels. The original rooms in the central part of the complex were abandoned altogether, and overbuilt with new rooms having rather different wall alignments. One of the original cylindrical 72

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Figure 26. Plan of Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21, showing the different room suites. Kilns are not shown.

Unit specifications Setting: at the southeast corner of the excavated area. Area: undetermined; only a small segment excavated. Plan: undetermined. Number of rooms: parts of 2 excavated. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: horizontal brick. Wall thickness: 35cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one plain doorway. Roof: possibly unroofed. Floors: compacted surface with occupation refuse. Floor features: bin built into an angle in the wall in Room 8. Fill: occupation refuse. Condition: walls preserved to uniform height of about 1m; overbuilt with later construction at Phase 2. Dating: Phase 1 only.

kilns (Kiln 3) was buried in refuse and abandoned, while the others were nearly doubled in height, to bring them up to the level of the accumulated refuse. One more very large cylindrical kiln (Kiln 5) was built at the east side, and large, open-air working areas, enclosed by thin and curving walls, were now added alongside the surviving kilns. The stratigraphy of the various phase remains is shown in a series of profiles, in Figures 27 and 28.

Synopsis of spatial components In addition to stratigraphic levels, were able also to recognize several different spatial components, that had been added at different times in the history of the site (see Figure 26). The following is a brief synopsis of the spatial components. The original eastern structure (Rooms 7 and 8; Figure 29) Lying to the east of the Monastic Complex, described below, were remnants of a very early structure built directly on alluvium. It appears to have been an open enclosure, and was built and occupied at Phase 1 only. All that we uncovered were portions of a west wall and of a south wall, both of which extended beyond the limits of the excavated area. These were the only structures excavated by us that rested directly on alluvium, and the only ones we could attribute definitely to Phase 1.

Room 7 was wholly rebuilt at Phase 2, with new thinner walls resting on the stumps of the older ones, and a new doorway installed in the southwest corner. At Phase 3, the room was equipped with a large mastaba and also with the site’s first pottery-making apparatus: a small kiln in one corner and a ceramic mixing basin in the floor. We did not uncover enough to determine anything about the 73

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Suite A (Rooms 1-6 and 9-10; Plate 6b) The most northerly rooms of the Monastic Complex (Rooms 1-5 and 9-10) formed very nearly a perfect square, with Room 6 projecting eastward at the middle of the east side, as a kind of domed entrance portico. These rooms were almost certainly all built at one time. They were entered from Room 6 through a doorway in the middle of the east wall, and were all interconnected except possibly for Room 1 at the northwest corner. Rooms 4-6 and 10 were re-excavated by us; others were not. At least some of the rooms were used for pottery making from Phase 3 onward. The large Room 10, at the southwest side of Suite A, had almost certainly had in the beginning some kind of religious function (Plate 6b). It was fully excavated by Woolley, and the following is quoted from Griffith’s published report (1926, 63-4):

Figure 29. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: plan of Phase 1 remains (scale 1:200).

continued use of Room 8. Both Room 7 and Room 8 were destroyed by the flood at the end of Phase 3, and their remains were soon covered by accumulated refuse from the newly built kilns of Phase 4. The Monastic Complex (Rooms 1-5, 9-10, 16-20, and 2327; Figures 30-32) This was a nearly regular, rectangular complex of 17 rooms, built on top of about 1m of drifted sand. It consisted of several different suites, which grew by accretion over time. Suite A was built first, and Suite B later added alongside it, both at Phase 2. Suite C was still later added at the east side of Suite B, possibly late in Phase 2 but more probably at Phase 3. Suite D was partly built at Phase 2, but then largely rebuilt at Phase 3. Suite E, at the south of the complex, was added either in later Phase 2 or in Phase 3; its history was not certainly determined because we did not excavate it. We designated this group of suites as the Monastic Complex because of evidence of religious activity found especially in Suite A (see below). Most rooms in the complex continued in use through Phase 5, though with substantial interior alterations. Only a few rooms continued in use at Phase 6; others were abandoned and overbuilt. There was no evidence of pottery-making in any of the rooms as first built and used.

“Room 6 [our Room 10] may have been a chapel or oratory. There is no altar in it, but the east end is raised a step higher than the rest. In the middle of the east wall is an arched niche 1.25m above the floor, 90cm high, 80cm wide, and 40 deep [visible in our Plate 6b]; the back of the niche was white and painted with somewhat rude designs of crosses etc. in brown within a border of triangles [illustrated in his Fig. 1, p. 64]. Above the niche at 1.55m from the south wall was a window 40cm wide. The roof was low; the vaulting began about 1.70m from the floor, and cannot have reached above 2.50 m; on the south side at 1.30m from the west end was a slit window or ventilator 20cm wide, with sloped sill at 2.30m above the floor. The spring of the vaulting formed a projecting cornice along the sides of the chamber, and upon it was painted a white band, which was also carried across the east walls at the same level, except where it was interrupted by the niche and the door in the west wall. On this band was a painted inscription, and from it at intervals rose crosses in white paint upon the vault and walls. One of these crosses is placed symmetrically on either side of the niche [shown in his Plate XLIII, 1]; and on the opposite (west) wall at the south side of the doorway a larger cross, white edged with red [shown in his Plate XLII, 3], had its horizontal bar coinciding with the fillet; in the center at the crossing is X for Christ (?) with the four letters Αϖ for God and ΓΗ for the Apostles (?) in the angles, and ‘I, Al . . . ‘ is written in Coptic on the upright below, giving probably the painter’s signature. “To the left of this cross on the fillet is a coil pattern, to fill the space not occupied by the long inscription. Of this inscription only fragments are to be seen [shown in his Plates XLI, 3; XLII, 2. and XLIII, 1]. It probably began on the east wall to the right of the niche [Plate XLIII, 1], and may have continued to the end of the south wall or to the door in the west

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Figure 27. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: cross sections from southwest to northeast (scale 1:100).

Figure 28. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: cross sections from southeast to northwest (scale 1:100).

wall; it appears to have consisted of the palindrome sator arepo tenet opera rotas (in a very corrupt form, and with the substitution of areto and otera usual in Greek and Coptic instances), and a Coptic record of another decorator beginning with ‘I, Yopshenka . . . ‘ or some such name. It seemed that there had been a corresponding inscription on the long north wall, but no letters could be distinguished. Mr. Woolley considered that the inscriptions belonged to the first period of the building. The palindrome is the same that we meet with as a protective formula in the Anchorite’s Grotto [cf. Griffith 1927, 81-91], where the original inscriptions are also in Coptic, not in Greek. Possibly the building was really a monastery.” Many of the features described by Griffith were no longer visible when we re-excavated this room. Suite A specifications Setting: northeastern component of the Monastic Complex; adjoined by Suite D on the northwest and Suite B on the northeast. Size: 12 x 12m, exclusive of portico. Plan: essentially a square, with asymmetrical arrangement of interior rooms; projecting portico at the middle of the east side. Number of rooms: 8. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: rollag. Wall thickness: exterior and some interior walls 80cm; other interior walls 60cm. Figure 30. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: plan of Phase 2 remains Brick size: not recorded. (scale 1:200). Plaster: smooth mud plaster on all original walls. Doors: original doors arched, without rebates. Later cut and 5. At Phase 6 the large Room 10 was abandoned and doors probably had flat stone lintels. filled with refuse, after blockage of all its doors, but at Roofs: originally vaulted. least Rooms 5 and 4 remained in use for pottery making. Wall features: arched niche and numerous inscriptions Suite B (Rooms 11 and 12; Plate 6d) These two interconin Room 10; interior windows in Room 4. nected rooms were added to the northeast side of Suite A, Floors: originally smooth wet-laid mud floors. still within Phase 2. They were built into the angle formed Floor features: buried floor pot in Room 10. by the east wall of Room 10 and the south wall of Room 6. Fill: occupation refuse overlain by flood-borne deposit Room 11 was entered through a wide doorway from the overlain by pottery-making refuse. entrance portico of Suite A, while a doorway at the oppoCondition: original structure generally well preserved, site end of the same room gave access to Suite D. Room with walls standing to height of 1.5 to 3m. 12 was occupied entirely by a stairway to a second stoDating: Phase 2 to Phase 6. rey, or to the roof. These rooms remained in use through The suite underwent substantial modification after the flood that terminated Phase 3. The floor level was raised by 50cm, additional masonry was added to the top of the walls, at least in Room 10, and new doorways were cut through connecting Suite A with Site D. The eastern portico (Room 6) was abandoned and deeply buried under flood deposit and refuse, and the former doorway from Room 6 to Room 5 was now equipped with a long set of steps, descending from the built-up outside ground surface to the floor level in Room 5. Evidence of potterymaking activity was found in all the rooms at Phases 4

Phase 5, and were used for pottery making from Phase 3 onward. The two rooms of Suite B were the best preserved on the site, because at Phase 5 they had been filled to the ceiling with refuse. Much of the roof vault in Room 11 was preserved intact. Because the two rooms were overbuilt at Phase 6 by Rooms 29 and 30, they were not discovered by Woolley. Suite B specifications Setting: adjoining the southeast side of Suite A and the northwest side of Suite C. 75

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The suite seems to have undergone no significant modification at Phase 3. After the ensuing flood the floor levels were very substantially raised, as they were everywhere on the site, and the lower half of the stairway in Room 12 was buried under floor-borne mud. At the beginning of Phase 4, Room 11 was partitioned off from Room 12 by a very stout but crudelybuilt wall, while a new doorway was hacked through the southwest wall of Room 11, opening into Room 21 of Suite D. The first two major kilns, Kiln 3 and Kiln 4, were now built close to the southwest outside wall, and during the two ensuing phases ash, wasters, and other ceramic refuse from these kilns gradually accumulated in Rooms 11 and 12, until in the end they became simply refuse dumps. At Phase 6 they were entirely filled with refuse, and were overbuilt by the newly constructed Rooms 29 and 30, which used the older wall tops as footings. Suite C (Rooms 13-15 and 22) These stoutwalled rooms were added to the east side of Suite B, possibly late in Phase 2 but more probably at Phase 3. They were part of a complex that extended both eastward and southward beyond the limits of our excavation; only Room 15 was completely excavated. Rooms 13 and 22, which were separated from each other only by a low partition, may actually have been an open street between Suite C and Suites B and D. Suite C specifications Setting: adjoining the southeast side of Suite Figure 31. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: plan of Phase 3 remains (scale 1:200). B, at the eastern limit of the excavated area. Size of excavated area: 10 x 6.5m. Plan: not determined. Size: 4.5 x 6m. Number of rooms: parts of 4 excavated. Plan: regular rectangle consisting of two adjoining rooms Wall construction: mud brick. of equal size, one containing a staircase. Foundations: horizontal brick. Number of rooms: 2. Wall thickness: mostly 60cm, but northwest wall of room Wall construction: mud brick. 15cm thick. Foundations: rollag. Brick size: not recorded. Wall thickness: interior partition and northwest wall Plaster: mud plaster. 80cm; others 60cm. Doors: rebated doorway with raised threshold from Brick size: not recorded. Room 13 to Room 14. Plaster: rather uneven mud plaster. Roofs: no data. Wall features: traces of red and yellow painted decoraFloors: not very compact mud floors. tion in the small vaulted “closet” under the upper end of Floor features: none. the stairs; window high in the wall to admit light to the Fill: mostly sand. stairway. Condition: walls preserved to height of about 70cm. Floors: well defined mud floor, with slight upward slope Dating: Phase 3 only. to southwest, in Room 11. These rooms were destroyed by the flood at the end of Floor features: large jar buried in floor in the “closet” Phase 3, and were never rebuilt. Kilns 3 and 4 were built under the stairs. on top of their destroyed remains at Phase 4, and Kilns 5 Fill: flood-borne deposit overlain by pottery-making and 6 were added at Phases 5 and 6. refuse. Condition: very well preserved, with walls standing over Suite D (Rooms 16-21) These rooms were part of the Mo2m high, and much of the roof vault intact in Room 11. nastic Complex, but their place in the chronological sequence was difficult to determine. At least Room 17 was Stairs fully preserved in Room 12. Dating: Phase 2 to Phase 5. clearly built at Phase 2. So also perhaps were Rooms 18, 76

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Floor features: none originally; many added after Phase 3. Fill: flood-borne deposit overlain by extensive pottery-making refuse. Condition: original walls mostly standing to height of 1-2m. Dating: Phase 2 to Phase 6. There were numerous modifications to this suite at every phase. At Phase 3, a new, thin partition was installed in Room 18, dividing it into two rooms, and long mastabas were installed in two other rooms. At Phase 4, after the flood, floor levels were raised by 40-50cm throughout the suite, and several of the interior walls were rebuilt. New doorways were cut through from Room 18 into Room 10 of Suite A, from Room 17 both to Room 18 and to Room 20, and from Room 21 into Room 25 of Suite E. A new wing wall, which may have been a retaining wall for a stairway, was built within Room 20. During Phases 4 and 5, Rooms 18 and 21 became two of the major loci of pottery-making activity (cf. Plates 6c and 6f). No fewer than four large ceramic mixing basins were placed on the floor in Room 18, and the west end of Room 21 was equipped with a whole series of mixing or drying bins, enclosed by thin brick partitions. Most of these features were buried when the floor levels were raised by 25cm at Phase 5, although the ceramic basins in Room 18, now partially sunk below the floor, remained in use. Figure 32. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: plan of Phase 4 remains At Phase 6, a great many walls in the suite (scale 1:200). were either heightened or wholly rebuilt, with thinner masonry resting of the tops of the older walls. In Room 21, the previous doors both in the east and 20, and 21, but these rooms were almost wholly rebuilt at west walls were blocked, and the room at this level was Phase 3, and details of their original form could not be devoid of features. In Room 18, two of the four original determined. The suite was entered from the outside ceramic mixing basins remained in use, their rims now through a door in the east wall, while doors in the north slightly below floor level (cf. Plate 6c), while the other two wall gave access to Suite A and Suite B, and a door in the were wholly buried and out of use. Two new small, brickwest wall gave access to Suite E. The most westerly Rooms lined bins or basins were installed in the middle of the 16 and 19, shown in Woolley’s plan, were not re-excaroom floor. A small double-chamber kiln (Kiln B), rectanvated by us. gular in shape, was built into the thickness of the north wall of Room 18 (visible in the background in Plate 6f). Suite D specifications The presence of this feature can only mean that Room 18 Setting: in the middle of the Monastic Complex, adjoinwas no longer roofed at Phase 6, and indeed this may ing south side of Suites A and B, and north side of Suite E. already have been true at Phases 4 and 5. Size: 16 x 7m. Suite E (Rooms 23-27) This rectangular block of rooms Plan: nearly an elongated rectangle, with asymmetrical formed the southern portion of the Monastic Complex. arrangement of interior rooms. The east-west walls deviated sufficiently from the alignNumber of rooms: originally 5. ment of the other walls (Suites A-D) to indicate that they Wall construction: mud brick. were a later addition, not built at the same time as the Foundations: rollag? other rooms. However, we did not re-excavate any of these Wall thickness: 60cm, except 80-cm wall separating Suite rooms, and our information comes entirely from Woolley’s D from Suite A, and 70-cm wall separating Rooms 17 and plan. The rooms were probably added late in Phase 2, but 18. could date from Phase 3. How long they then remained in Brick size: not recorded. use could not be determined. They were never overbuilt Plaster: mud plaster. by any later structures found by us, as were many walls in Doors: mostly rebated. the adjoining Suite D. Roofs: probably vaulted. Floors: originally hard, smooth mud floors. 77

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Suite E specifications Setting: at the southwest side of the Monastic Complex, adjoining Suite D on the southwest. Size: 17 x 7.5m. Plan: an elongate, slightly skewed rectangle, with large interior rooms asymmetrically arranged. Number of rooms: 5. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: not determined. Wall thickness: Woolley’s plan suggests 60cm. Other features: not determined. The late overbuildings (Rooms 28-30; Figures 33-34) At Phase 6, after the central Rooms 10-12 had been abandoned and deeply filled with refuse, they were overbuilt by late Rooms 2830, whose walls mostly rested on the tops of the old walls. These were probably outdoor working areas connected with the line of major kilns, which were just to the east. Rooms 30 and 31 were built directly on top of the Suite B walls, while Room 28 was built on top of the southern end of old Room 10. Room 29 contained several drying bins, as well as small kilns or hearths in both the northeast and southwest corners. These features suggest the probability that the room was unroofed. There may also have been a kiln or hearth at the southwest end of Room 30. Only the southern end of Room 28 survived, and it contained no features.

Figure 33. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: plan of Phase 5 remains (scale 1:200).

Unit specifications Setting: immediately adjoining the west side of the major kilns. Size: 6 x 8+m. Plan: irregular. Number of rooms: 3. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: horizontal brick, resting on tops of buried older walls. Wall thickness: 40cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: not recorded. Doors: one wide, plain doorway. Roof: very probably unroofed. Floors: hard, smooth floor on top of a dense filling of packed clay, up to 50cm deep. Floor features: numerous bins and kilns in Room 29, possibly also a kiln in Room 30. Fill: mostly sand (earlier deposit removed by Woolley’s excavations). Condition: denuded, with most walls standing less than 1m high; northern end destroyed altogether. Dating: Phase 6.

tery making. They were built on top of deep accumulated refuse, overlying the earlier eastern rooms. Kilns 4 and 5 formed the southwest wall of Room 31, which was entered via a stairway ascending beside Kiln 4, from lower ground to the west. Room 32 apparently had no western wall. Unit specifications Setting: at the southeast side of the site, adjoining Kilns 4 and 5 on the east. Size: 12 x 8m. Plan: two contiguous large, irregular working areas. Number of rooms: 2. Wall construction: mud brick. Foundations: horizontal brick. Wall thickness: 20cm. Brick size: not recorded. Plaster: none. Doors: none preserved. Floors: compacted occupation surfaces. Floor features: several drying bins in Room 31; a row of small fireplaces in Room 32. Fill: sand. Condition: walls preserved to height of about 65cm, but they may never have been very much higher. Dating: Phase 6.

Eastern outdoor working areas (Rooms 31 and 32; Figure 34) At Phase 6, large areas adjoining Kilns 4 and 5, at the east side of the site, were enclosed by low, curving partitions, to form outdoor working areas connected with pot-

The major kilns (Kilns 1-6; Figures 32-34) The line of cylindrical, updraught kilns adjoining the east side of the 78

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mastaba, at its western end, it was adjoined by the upper half of a very large, round ceramic vessel, 65cm in diameter, enclosed within a square mudwalled bin on the north and east sides. The upper edges of the vessel projected about 20cm above the level of the bin, and 10cm above the level of the adjoining mastaba; above that level the top was broken away. The vessel when found was filled with fine white ash and a great concentration of small, waterworn sherds. The southeast corner of Room 7, between the mastaba and the east wall, was occupied by a small, round, double-chamber kiln, designated as Kiln A. The lower portion (furnace chamber) was formed by a ceramic shell 40cm in diameter, set deep into the floor. At the top of this, just above floor level, was a “grate” composed of two bricks spanning the chamber from east to west, and one brick extending from the east-west member to the south wall (Plate 6e). A few small remnants suggested that there had been an upper, firing chamber, of about the same diameter, enclosed by bricks or by a thin mud wall. However, not enough survived to be certain of this. The presence of the kiln suggests that the room was unroofed at this time, and indeed it may have been so from the beginning. Also at Phase 3, the floor level in the adjoining Room 6 was also raised by 25cm, and three claymixing bins were installed. A very small square bin was built in the northeast corner of the room, and a slightly larger, rectangular one was built in the southeast corner. A much larger rectangular bin, measuring 1.9 x 1.2m, stood free in the middle of the room. All the bins had walls about 20cm thick, and 75cm high. A bowl full of red pigment was found in the large bin. Pottery-making activity was attested Figure 34. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21: plan of Phase 6 remains also by clay splashed on the walls, and by an unfired (scale 1:200). vessel of Early Christian Red Ware R5 found on the floor. site was built at Phases 4-6. Kilns 3 and 4 were built at Although there were substantial changes elsewhere in Phase 4, overlying buried eastern Rooms 13-15. Kilns 1 the site at Phase 3, no pottery-making equipment was and 2 were added at Phase 5, and Kilns 5 and 6 at Phase 6. found anywhere except in Rooms 6 and 7. It is obvious The kilns will be described in detail in a later section. too that so small a kiln as Kiln A could not have fired more than a few vessels at a time. It seems reasonable to conRefuse mounds On the south and especially on the east clude therefore that the site at Phase 3 was still primarily a side of the site, immediately adjoining the kilns, there was monastery, or at least a religious center, with pottery makan accumulation of at least 2m of refuse, consisting of ing only an incidental activity. Nevertheless, fragments innumerable alternating layers of ash and of kiln wasters of unfired pottery were found in the fill overlying many and other refuse (Plate 7f). Additional pottery-making Phase 3 floors. refuse was found all through the older rooms of the MoBoth Room 6 and Room 7 were destroyed by the flood nastic Complex. which occurred at the end of Phase 3, and were never rebuilt. The stumps of their walls were entirely covered Pottery making activity by a thick deposit of Nile mud, and stratified beds of ash Phase 3 and refuse, first from Kiln 3 and later from Kilns 1 and 2, The first definite evidence of pottery-making activity was were successively deposited on top of this. Kiln 3 was found in Room 7, at Phase 3. This room had already been installed, somewhat to the south of the area of Room 7, at in existence at Phase 2, but at Phase 3 the floor level was Phase 4, and Kilns 1 and 2 were built directly on the deraised by 25cm, and a number of new features were added. posits overlying the room, at Phase 5. Most of the south wall was now adjoined by a mastaba Phase 4 1.75m long, 1.15m wide, and 35cm high, fronted by a 20It was clearly at this phase, following the destructive flood cm wall of burned brick. Immediately at the base of the 79

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of Phase 3, that the Potteries went into full-scale industrial production, and also ceased to be anything other than a factory. The first two major cylindrical kilns, Kilns 3 and 4, were built just to the southwest of Suites B and D, on top of the destroyed remains of Suite C. Within the Monastic Complex, four ceramic mixing basins were installed on the floor of Room 18, and another in Room 5, while a whole series of small mixing or drying bins was constructed in Room 18. Mixing activity was attested especially in Room 5 by clay splashed all over the lower walls, with a number of individual clay handprints on the walls above them. There must have been mixing or wheelthrowing activity in Room 11 also, for here too clay was splashed all over the walls, although no actual pottery apparatus was found in this room The large Room 10, formerly the chapel or oratory, contained no pottery-making equipment, but apparently became a storeroom for both finished and unfinished products. According to Griffith (1926, 65) “A number of finished products of the pottery had previously been stacked on the floor of [Room 10] against both the north and south walls.” In our excavations we found over 2500 pieces of unfired amphorae, but almost no other vessel forms, in the Phase 4 and/or Phase 5 fill. The doorway that was cut through the southwest wall of Room 10 at this time, connecting with Room 18, was probably made so that finished vessels could be conveniently brought through from the working areas to the storeroom. In Room 12, the old stair chamber in Suite B, all the lower steps were buried under flood-borne silt and sand. A small rectangular hearth, enclosed by a low wall of molded mud, was now constructed in the northeast corner of the room. It was evidently used for burning bone, for it contained grey ash and a great quantity of calcined and nearly petrified bone, and there was a large cache of unburned animal bones of all kinds nearby.

structed immediately alongside Kiln 4 and actually shared a portion of wall with it. Within the old Monastic Complex, some mixing and wheel-throwing activity continued in Rooms 5 and 18, but most other rooms in the complex seem to have been either abandoned altogether, or overbuilt with new rooms resting on the refuse fill in the older ones. In Room 18, two mixing basins, now sunk below the floor, remained in use, and a small, double-chamber kiln was built directly into the thickness of the wall separating this room from Room 28 (Plate 6f). This rectangular structure, with outside dimensions of 1 x 0.9m, was identical in the basic features of its design to the great cylindrical kilns adjoining the outside of the complex. It had a lower, furnace chamber, fed through a small square opening at floor level, and an upper, firing chamber separated from the furnace by a brick floor, perforated with several small flues. The kiln was built of especially small bricks, each measuring 10cm wide. It did not show evidence of extensive use, although there was a deposit of ash in the bottom of it. The presence of this feature in any case indicates that Room 18 was no longer roofed at Phase 6. Very large numbers of small, finely decorated bowls (“saucers”) of Ware W5, painted and ready for the kiln, were found in the Phase 6 fill of Room 18. At the same time, much pottery making activity now shifted to the outdoor areas immediately adjoining the kilns. Rooms 29 and 30, built on top of refuse fill in the old Suite B and directly adjoining Kiln 2, contained a whole series of small kilns, fireplaces, and drying bins. Within the northwest corner of Room 29 was the base of a somewhat irregularly-shaped kiln, enclosed on the east by a straight, 40-cm wall, and on the south by a 25-cm wall which curved outward into the room. In the middle of the curving wall there was a stoke hole projection 20cm wide, flanked by short sections of wing wall which projected out into the room interior. The interior walls of the chamber were very heavily scorched and slagged, suggesting that this was a furnace chamber. Its floor was about 1m below the room floor, and the whole interior was filled with ash. It seems probable, in spite of the irregular shape, that the kiln would have had an upper, firing chamber, but no part of it was preserved. The adjoining Room 30 also contained either a kiln or a fireplace, although preservation here was very poor. The presence of these features shows clearly that Rooms 29 and 30 were unroofed. Large numbers of painted “saucers,” unfired but ready for the kiln, were also found in Room 29. To the south of Rooms 29 and 30, adjoining the northeast side of Kilns 4 and 5, were the newly constructed, open working areas designated as Rooms 31 and 32. Room 31 contained several drying bins, in one of which an unfired qadus was found. There may also have been a kiln or fireplace in the northeast corner. Along the northwest wall of Room 32, adjoining Room 31 on the southeast, there was a line of five small fireplaces, of unknown use. Six large, individual mud bricks had been placed with their narrow ends close to, but not actually abutting, the wall, leaving spaces about 30cm wide between then. A short distance to the east of each of the spaces was another, separately laid brick. The two bricks on each side of

Phase 5 At this phase two more major kilns, Kilns 1 and 2, were added at the east side of the site. The two were directly contiguous to one another, and Kiln 2 on its other side was also contiguous with the older Kiln 3. The two new kilns were built on top of, and partly dug into, a deep accumulation of refuse that had already collected alongside Kiln 3 (cf. Figure 27). Pottery making and storage continued as before in the interior rooms of the Monastic Complex, although some of the original mixing basins were buried when floor levels were raised. Ash, slag, wasters, and other refuse built up so rapidly around the east end of the site that it was necessary to construct outside stairways, descending into Rooms 5 and 21 from the east. The lower parts of these stairways were already installed at Phase 4, but they had to be considerably extended in Phase 5. The stairway into Room 5 eventually descended for almost 2m.

Phase 6 Kilns 1, 2, and 4 remained in use, while Kiln 3 was abandoned and filled with refuse. Room 31 was built partly over its filled-up remains. The walls of Kiln 2 were reinforced so as to make them very much thicker. The new Kiln 5, the largest ever built at the Potteries, was con80

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the fireplace plus the third brick in front of it thus formed a kind of tripod rest. Fires had evidently been built in each of the spaces. It is possible that these were used to hasten the process of drying the formed but unfired pots.

This was the time when pottery manufacture went into mass production, and such of the earlier rooms as had not been destroyed were converted entirely to pottery-making activities. Kilns 3 and 4 were built at Phase 4, Kilns 1 and 2 were added at Phase 5, and Kilns 5 and 6 were added at Phase 6, while Kilns 3 and possibly 4 went out of use at that time. All of the major kilns (Kilns 1-5) were of the doublechamber, updraught type, identical in basic design to kilns still in use today at Qena, Ballas, and other pottery-making centers in Egypt. The method of construction appeared to have been essentially the same for all of the kilns, and is shown schematically in Figure 35. It may be described briefly as follows:

The major kilns The outstanding feature of the Potteries, which first drew the attention both of Griffith and of ourselves, was the line of large cylindrical pottery kilns along the east side of the site. Four of these, Kilns 1, 2, 4, and 5, were found and partially excavated by Woolley, but none was completely cleared. We completed the excavation of all of these, and also found a fifth kiln, Kiln 3, that had been completely buried, and was not found by Woolley. It was the only Christian Nubian kiln ever found nearly intact. A sixth, very small kiln (Kiln 6) was also found and excavated by us. Although pottery making had clearly begun on a small scale at Phase 3, all of the large kilns dated from Phase 4 and later; after the major flood destruction that had apparently ended the use of the site for any other purposes.

1. The cup-shaped lower portion of the furnace chamber was dug down into accumulated sand and refuse. 2. The sloping dug-out walls were first lined with horizontally laid brick, then faced with vertically laid brick. At the same time some but not all chambers were floored with horizontally laid brick. Others had no constructed floor. 3. The main arch to support the furnace chamber ceiling was built on two vertical buttresses rising from the furnace chamber floor. 4. Secondary arches to support the furnace chamber ceiling were built with their lower ends resting on top of the furnace chamber lining, and their upper ends abutting against the main arch. 5. The girdle wall surrounding both the upper part of the furnace chamber and the firing chamber was built. It rested partly on top of the lower furnace lining, including the lower ends of the floor arches, and partly on the fill surrounding the furnace chamber (see cross-sections, Figures 27 and 28). 6. A stoke hole was constructed between two of the arches, opening into the upper part of the furnace cham-

Figure 35. Idealized rendering of a typical double-chamber kiln. a, drawing; b, top view; c, cross-section.

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ber. It was faced with vertical bricks, and projected some distance beyond the kiln wall itself. 7. A thick floor of clay was laid over the top of the arches, to provide a level floor for the firing chamber. Small round flues, 10-15cm in diameter, were left in the floor— typically two between each pair of arches (cf. Plate 7c). 8. At a later date the girdle wall was thickened with additional masonry, and buttresses were built against it for additional strength, in several of the kilns.

descending into it at the outer end. The passage may have extended as much as 1.5m from the kiln wall itself; how much of it was originally arched could not be determined, because of later modifications. Flanking and protecting the stoke hole passage on either side were low, curving wing walls, extending outward for about 80cm from the two kiln buttresses, against which they were built. Access to the top of the firing chamber, for purposes of charging the kiln, was by means of an ascending flight of six steps at the south side, directly adjoining the east wall of Room 12 (visible in Plate 7b). The stairway did not adjoin the kiln wall itself, except at the top. The stairway was 80cm wide; the treads averaged 30cm wide. The stairs showed very extensive wear.

For the sake of historical coherence, the kilns will be described here in chronological rather than in numerical order.

Kiln 3 (Plates 7a-c) This kiln was built at Phase 4, directly adjoining the outside of Room 12, which at this stage was still in use. It was found almost fully intact, except that the tops of the firing chamber walls were somewhat denuded. The basic features and the method of construction were as described above. This kiln was not found by Woolley and is not shown on his plan.

Phase 5. The floor level surrounding the kiln was raised by 70cm. As a result, all but the upper three of the ascending steps on the south side were buried. Kiln 2 was built close beside the north side. A section of curving wall, 35cm thick and 1.65m long, was built in such a way that it intervened between the north wall of Kiln 3 and the south wall of Kiln 2. Beyond the east end of this, the area between the Kiln 3 and Kiln 2 walls was filled by a drying bin. At this phase the stoke hole and its approach were considerably modified. The original sloping ramp was shortened, and new descending steps were built at its outer end, closer to the kiln wall. At the same time the flanking wing walls on either side were considerably extended, to a distance of at least 1.6m from the kiln wall. Their outer ends however were not fully preserved. The area enclosed between the two wing walls was at a level considerably lower than the adjoining ground surfaces. There were remnants of small descending steps at the outer (east) end of this area.

Kiln 3 specifications Diameter of the firing chamber: 1.75m. Thickness of the upper girdle wall: 20cm. Thickness of the lower girdle wall: 50cm. Maximum standing height of girdle wall, from ground level: 1.55m. Maximum height of girdle wall, from chamber floor: 1.15m. Width of the arches: 35cm. Thickness of the main arch: 25-30cm. Thickness of secondary arches: 15-20cm. Width of interstices between arches, at base: 40-50cm. Width between arches on either side of the stoke hole: 70cm. Thickness of lower furnace chamber lining wall: 20cm. Furnace chamber diameter at top of liner wall: 1.5m. Diameter of furnace chamber at floor: 1.3m. Depth of the lower furnace chamber, with sloping liner: 1m. Total depth of furnace chamber, from floor to underside of arches: 1.6m. Diameter across the floor between arch supports: 1.2m. Height of main arch supports, to springing of arches: 1.3m. Dimensions of main arch supports at top: 30 x 30cm.

Phase 6. The kiln was abandoned, though still in a usable condition; presumably because of the deep buildup of refuse from neighboring kilns. The interior of the firing chamber was filled with clean sand, containing sherds but no ash or other kiln refuse. The north wall of Room 31 was later built partly over the top of the filled-up kiln. Kiln 3 documentation Field notes: WYA Book I, pp. 8, 18-19, 48-9; Book II, pp. 48-52. Photos: F/130: 1-12; F/131: 1-8; F/132: 1-8; F/133: 1-7; F/ 134: 1-8. Sketch plans: WYA Book I, pp. 8, 18, 48; Book II, pp. 52, 54. Cross-sections: WYA Book I, pp. 18, 48; Book II, pp. 52, 54.

Phase 4. The kiln was built against the east wall of Room 12, which was still standing above flood debris to a height of about 1m. It was built on top of the filled-up remains of Rooms 13 and 14. The girdle wall was 50cm thick, up to a height of about 1m above ground level (65cm above the firing chamber floor); above that height the wall was only 20cm thick. The top of the girdle wall was partially denuded at the east side; it may or may not have been preserved to full height at the west side. There were stout buttresses, 40cm square, adjoining the east and north sides of the kiln, on either side of the stoke hole (visible in Plate 7a). The stoke hole aperture was arched, with a width of about 40cm and a height of 50cm (Plate 7a). The stoke hole was approached by a long, sloping passage, arched over with bricks, with brick steps

Kiln 4 (Plates 7d-e) This was the other major kiln built at Phase 4. It was located 2.2m to the south of Kiln 3, and was nearly identical in design. The kiln was also well preserved, except that the middle part of its firing chamber floor had fallen in. However, it was evident that the kiln had also previously collapsed in the course of a firing operation, when most of the east and south walls fell in, filling the furnace chamber with fallen brick and misshapen pottery fragments. 82

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The kiln was subsequently rebuilt on the same plan as before, but the fallen material was not removed from the lower part of the furnace chamber. This material was overlain by a dense fill of pure ash, showing clearly that the kiln was returned to use after the disaster. Many fragments of the broken pottery from the kiln collapse were used as chinking in the rebuilt walls. The fact that most of the destroyed vessels were vases of Classic Christian Ware W6 suggests the probability that the collapse took place at Phase 5 or Phase 6. Woolley had excavated for a short distance below the broken firing chamber floor, as shown on his photo (Griffith 1926, 13, and pl. XLIII, 2), but he did not remove most of the material from the furnace chamber.

x 35cm. It descended below the surrounding floor level for at least 40cm, at the bottom of which was a sloping surface which led down to the stoking aperture proper. A long section of thin, curving wall, extending northward from the northeast kiln buttress, took the place of the earlier wing wall that had protected the stoking area. The surface between Kilns 3 and 4 was now considerably higher than was that to the south of them. Two wide steps, edged with thin brick walls, were constructed in the area between the Kiln 4 wall and the Room 12 wall, to give access to the raised working surface. Phase 6. Kiln 3 was now out of use, and the area adjoining Kiln 4 on the north was occupied instead by the outside working area designated as Room 31. This room was now accessed from the southwest by a long series of curving steps, which adjoined the north side of Kiln 4. The very large Kiln 5 was now built directly adjoining the east wall of Kiln 4, in such a way that the two actually shared a common segment of perimeter wall. The angle formed where the two perimeter walls met was filled by the small oval structure which has been designated as Kiln 6.

Kiln 4 specifications Diameter of the firing chamber: 1.45m. Thickness of the upper girdle wall: 20cm. Thickness of the lower girdle wall: 50cm. Maximum standing height of girdle wall, from ground level: 1.8m. Maximum height of girdle wall, from chamber floor: 90cm. Width of floor support arches: 30cm. Thickness of lower furnace chamber lining wall: 20cm. Furnace chamber diameter at top of liner wall: 1.4m. Diameter of furnace chamber at floor: 1.05m. Depth of the lower furnace chamber, with sloping liner: 1.2m. Total depth of furnace chamber, from floor to underside of arches: 1.85m.

Kiln 4 documentation Field notes: WYA Book I, pp. 39-43; Book II, pp. 38-40, 53, 55. Photos: Griffith 1926, pl. XLIII, 2; F/135: 1-11; F/139: 7; F/248: 53-60, 73-76. Sketch plans: WYA Book I, p. 40; Book II, p. 38. Cross-sections: WYA Book I, p. 42; Book II, p. 38.

Kiln 2

Phase 4. The kiln was built on top of the filled-up remains of Rooms 22 and 16. As with Kiln 3, the lower part of the furnace chamber was dug into mud and refuse deposit, while the upper part as well as the firing chamber was enclosed by the girdle wall. Like Kiln 3, the lower girdle wall was 50cm thick while the upper part was 20cm thick (cf. Plates 7d and 7e). The floor was supported on eight arches, with round flues in between. However, the kin differed from Kiln 3 in that it had three symmetrically placed buttresses, each measuring 40 x 40cm, at the northeast, northwest, and southwest sides (two are visible in Plate 7d). There may originally have been a fourth buttress at the southeast, but if so it was destroyed when a portion of the kiln collapsed and was rebuilt at a later phase. The stoke hole was at the north side, slightly closer to the northwest than to the northeast buttress. The original stoke hole was a vertical archway, adjoined on the outside by a scoop-like depression with mud lining, sunk about 20cm below the surrounding room floor. There were sloping wing walls running north from the kiln wall on either side of the stoke hole.

Built close to the north side of Kiln 3, at Phase 5. It was evident from the depth of the furnace chamber, and the amount of ash remaining in it, that the kiln had been very much heightened in the course of use, to compensate for the buildup of adjoining floor surfaces. At Phase 6, a very thick girdle wall was built on top of the original thin girdle wall. In this kiln only the furnace chamber was preserved, with no indication of any supports for the firing chamber floor. The chamber walls were very heavily vitrified, indicating long and intensive use. The tops of the walls were cleared by Woolley, but he removed almost none of the ash content which filled the whole surviving portion of the furnace chamber. Kiln 2 specifications Diameter of the furnace chamber at top: 1.15m. Diameter of furnace chamber floor: 55cm. Depth of the furnace chamber as preserved: 3m. Original thickness of furnace chamber wall: 20cm. Thickness of upper furnace chamber wall after rebuilding: 65cm.

Phase 5. The collapse and rebuilding of the south and east walls most probably took place at this phase. The floor level between Kilns 4 and 3 was raised by 80cm, burying the two wing walls which had adjoined the stoke hole, and also burying the lower steps adjoining Kiln 3. This necessitated a restructuring of the stoke hole in Kiln 4, as it did also in Kiln 3. The original scooped-out area adjoining the hole was filled in, and above it was constructed a square, brick-lined vertical shaft measuring 40

Phase 5. The kiln was built on top of the buried wall of Room 13. It was just to the north of Kiln 3 and directly adjoining Kiln 1, which may have been built at the same time. The furnace chamber was deeply dug down into refuse and mud deposits, and had tapering sides and a flat bottom, without a brick floor. At least the lowermost portion of the enclosing wall was formed of bricks laid 83

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vertically. However, the brick side walls were so heavily vitrified that the surviving portion was quite thin, and the coursing of the bricks could not be clearly determined. The original stoke hole opened to the northeast and there was a square sunken area, enclosed by a brick wall, adjoining it. The sloping brick floor within the square area was already built up with additional brick, to a higher level, before the end of Phase 5. In fact, the stoke hole approach appeared to have been slightly modified many times; perhaps each time the chamber was cleared of ash. The area adjoining the stoke hole approach was itself at a somewhat lower level than the surrounding ground surface. Here, a roughly rectangular area measuring about 3m NW-SE x 2.2m NE-SW was enclosed within a 20-cm brick wall, to separate the lower area adjoining the kiln from the higher ground to the east. It was probably not an original feature of Phase 5, but was added as kiln refuse and ash accumulated on the nearby ground surfaces. As mentioned above, the north wall of Kiln 2 was contiguous with the south wall of Kiln 1, while the south wall was almost contiguous with one of the wall buttresses of Kiln 3. The “gores,” lying between these segments of converging wall, on both sides of Kiln 2, were occupied by oval drying bins.

the deep fill of ash in the furnace chamber. Kiln 1 specifications Diameter of the furnace chamber at top: 1.25m. Diameter of furnace chamber floor: 80cm. Depth of the furnace chamber as preserved: 1.85m. Thickness of furnace chamber wall: 20cm. Phase 5. The furnace chamber was dug into mud and previously accumulated kiln refuse, overlying parts of Rooms 6 and 7. The sides were sloping, lined with horizontally laid brick, but there was no brick floor. The bottom of the chamber was directly on top of the layer of flood-borne mud. The stoke hole was an arched aperture on the northeast side, adjoined by a brick-enclosed stoking area. When found the stoke hole was closed by three large bricks leaning across its outer end, presumably because this hole was no longer used after the floor level was raised, and a new hole was built at a higher level. The space in the angle between the two converging walls of Kiln 1 and Kiln 2 was occupied by a small oval drying bin. Phase 6. Study of the furnace chamber walls suggested that they had been extended upward at least once and more probably twice, presumably because of the raising of the surrounding floor level. This could not be definitely confirmed because the higher floor levels were not preserved; they had probably been dug away by Woolley. Blocking of the stoke hole suggested also that a new stoke hole had had to be made at a higher level. Presumably the floor of the firing chamber would have been raised at the same time.

Phase 6. The kiln was very much heightened at this phase, to compensate for the raising of the surrounding ground level by as much as 1m. In the process of heightening, the upper part of the kiln, including apparently the whole of the firing chamber, was dismantled, and the structure was then built back up with a girdle wall no less than 65cm thick The new masonry enclosed both the upper part of the furnace chamber and, presumably, the firing chamber, though this was not preserved. The original stoke hole entrance and adjoining square enclosure were filled over, without any inserted blockage, and an entirely new stoke hole was made at the east side. Only the lowermost part of this survived. Within the furnace chamber, at a level high above the floor, the bases of two arch supporting buttresses were found, adjoining the north and south walls. These were at a level so high above the original chamber floor that they were almost certainly not remnants of the original structure, but were additions at the time when the kiln was heightened.

Kiln 1 documentation Field notes: WYA Book I, pp. 5-6, 8, 10-11; Book II, pp. 37, 53, 55. Photos: F/129: 1-7; F/137: 8. Sketch plans: WYA Book I, p. 8. Cross-sections: WYA Book I, p. 10.

Kiln 5 (Plate 7e) This was the last of the major kilns to be constructed, and by far the largest. It was built directly adjoining the southeast wall of Kiln 4, with which it shared a small arc of common wall. The kiln was very poorly preserved, with only the lower portion of the furnace chamber surviving, and much even of this was destroyed. The kiln was mapped by Woolley but apparently was not excavated, since we found it completely full of ash. Within the ash deposit at the bottom of the kiln was found a large unfired utility vessel. The kiln is shown having thin walls on Woolley’s plan, whereas our excavations suggested that the girdle wall from the beginning was very thick.

Kiln 2 documentation Field notes: WYA Book I, pp. 5, 7-9, 16-18, 51; Book II, pp. 53, 55, 63. Photos: F/137: 6-7l; F/248: 9-18, 25-26, 39-40, 61-62, 6768, 71-72. Sketch plans: WYA Book I, p. 8. Cross-section: WYA Book I, p. 16.

Kiln 5 specifications Diameter of the furnace chamber at top: 2.8m. Diameter of furnace chamber floor: 1.45m. Depth of the furnace chamber as preserved: 1.3m. Thickness of lower furnace chamber wall: 25cm. Thickness of upper furnace chamber wall: 65cm.

Kiln 1 This was a relatively small kiln, built at Phase 5 directly alongside Kiln 2. It was the most northerly in the line of major kilns. Only the furnace chamber and stoke hole projection were preserved, and for this reason it could not be determined if the kiln originally had a thick or a thin girdle wall surrounding the firing chamber. Woolley had excavated only to the base of the stoke hole, leaving in situ

Phase 6: The kiln was built directly adjoining the southeast side of Kiln 4. Its furnace chamber was dug into very 84

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Other apparatus

deep refuse and ash deposits partly overlying the deeply buried walls of Room 15. The floor of the kiln was at a level more than 1.5m higher than that of adjoining Kiln 4, due to the enormous buildup of refuse since the construction of Kiln 4. Thus, Kiln 5 when intact must have risen at least 2-3m above the remnant that was preserved. The structure was built on a more massive scale than that of any other kiln. The furnace chamber had markedly sloping walls built of horizontally laid brick, faced on the inside with vertically laid brick. The floor was formed by no fewer than three layers of horizontally laid brick. The lowermost part of the furnace chamber wall was only about 25cm thick, and continued upward from the kiln floor for about 45cm. Above that height, it gave way to a massively thick wall. This, unlike the lower wall, had a vertical outside face, while the inside face was sloping as in the lower walls. Thus, the upper walls were thickest at the bottom (1.1m), diminishing to a thickness of 65cm at the uppermost point where they were preserved (see crosssection, Figure 28). Because Kiln 5 was built directly adjoining Kiln 4, its thick girdle wall did not completely encircle the structure. At the west, it closed against the already existing east wall of Kiln 4. The interstice between the two kiln walls was occupied by a drying bin. The stoke hole of Kiln 5 was apparently at the east, within Room 32, although only faint indications of its location survived. The very large Kiln 5 may have been an unsuccessful experiment, for the inner furnace walls did not show enough vitrification to suggest much use. At some late date the furnace chamber was reduced to a much smaller size, by building a curving wall, about 20cm thick, which essentially partitioned off the northwestern portion of the furnace chamber from the remainder (visible in Plate 7e). It extended all the way to the bottom of the chamber, and was sloped in such a way that it must have been dug into the previous ash deposit, which was left intact on the southeast side. The segment enclosed by this wall was markedly oval in shape, and can hardly have been the furnace chamber for an ordinary cylindrical kiln. That it nevertheless continued is use was indicated by the fact that a great deal of ash had accumulated in the enclosed area, subsequent to the building of the wall. What kind of kiln surmounted it remains a question.

Other pottery making equipment found at the Potteries included ceramic mixing basins of various sizes, which were either resting on or set into room floors; brick-walled drying bins which were found within many rooms; and several fireplaces, one of which had unmistakably been used for burning animal bone. It is interesting to find the Faras potters making use of bone ash, since this material is normally associated only with porcelain or China manufacture. It does however have the advantage of lowering the firing temperature of the fabric (Nelson 1960, 208). A mass of bone ash, congealed together with water, was found on the floor of one room. A number of scraping tools made from large potsherds were found (Plate 16b). They made use of sherds from several different wares, both domestic and imported. Some of the specimens have incised grooves all along one edge. Also found were two ceramic stamping tools, one fired and one unfired, which were used to make the impressed medallion designs in the bottom of Ware W5 bowls (Plate 15c and 15d, nos. 1 and 2; Plate 15f). An intriguing find is a large sherd of coarse utility ware, on which a pot decorator has practiced drawing some of the elaborate designs that were later painted on bowls of Ware W5 (Figure 68). All these objects are described more fully in Chapter 8. A bowl, found on the floor in Room 7, contained a quantity of red pigment (powdered hematite). Found in the refuse fill elsewhere were two fist-sized lumps of a very dark resinous material (mumiya, according to the laborers) which was evidently the material used to coat the interiors of locally made amphorae. The source of this material has not been identified, but it almost certainly came from someplace far from Nubia, most probably in the eastern Mediterranean.1 Nothing suggestive of a potter’s wheel was found at the Potteries.

The ceramic product Although several wares were produced at Faras, they were not necessarily all made at the same time. Early Christian wares were made only at Phase 3, and Classic Christian wares at Phases 4-6. Among the latter, there is some evidence to suggest that Potteries specialized in the production of different wares at different times, probably in response to immediate market demands. Phase 4 seems to have been given over primarily, though probably not exclusively, to the production of unslipped amphorae of Ware U5, while the main vessels in production when the site was abandoned, at Phase 6, were small bowls of Ware W5. It is also possible, though not demonstrable, that there was differential specialization within the site. That is, some groups of rooms and some kilns might have been devoted to the production of utility wares, and others to the production of decorated wares.

Kiln 5 documentation Field notes: WYA Book I, pp. 44-45; Book II, pp. 47, 53, 55. Photos: F/136: 1-3; F/248: 23-24, 51-52, 73-76. Cross-section: WYA Book I, p. 44.

Drying bins All of the major kilns except Kiln 3 were adjoined on the outside by small bins where completed vessels could be placed to dry before firing, taking advantage of the heat transmitted through the kiln walls. These bins were constructed in the interstices between abutting kiln walls, giving them an irregular triangular to oval shape. Additional drying bins, of various shapes, were found within the rooms of the Monastic Complex, as well as in the later built Rooms 29-31.

1 According to Lucas and Harris (1962, 319-22) the identification of resins, and particularly those black in color, presents considerable difficulties.

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Early Christian wares (Ware Group N.III)2

Ware W7: Classic Christian heavy decorated ware.5 A ware having the same color scheme as Wares W6 and W10, but used for large, heavy-walled vessels. Although there was clear evidence for the manufacture of this ware at Faras, it was never common, and is represented only by sherd finds. All the identifiable specimens are fragments of pilgrim bottles (Form K2).

Sherds of the Early Christian wares were found abundantly in all of the deposits from Phases 1, 2, and 3, and there were a few complete vessels. These were nearly all finished, fired vessels that could have been made anywhere; there was nothing to indicate that they had been made at the Potteries. Specimens found in the Phase 1 and Phase 2 levels must indeed have been made elsewhere, for pottery production at Faras had not yet begun at that time. However, in the deposits and on the floors of Phase 3 there was a scattering of unfired sherds, some of which could be identified as exhibiting Early Christian vessel forms. There was also one complete unfired plate, whose form and stamped decoration declared it clearly to belong to Early Christian Red Ware R5. It should be evident nevertheless that the single small kiln in Room 7 could not have produced any substantial number of vessels. Probably they were made purely for local consumption, by the local monks.

Classic Christian utility ware (Ware U5).6 A heavy-walled, unslipped utility ware having usually a brick-red color. It occurs in a wide variety of forms, but the overwhelming majority of specimens found at Faras are amphorae of Form Z10. These vessels, unique to Ware U5, were made in very large quantities at Phase 4; their continued production at Phases 5 and 6 is less certain. The vessels are very crudely resinated on the interiors, and are probably to be associated with a short-lived Nubian experiment at viticulture (cf. Adams 1966, 262). Heavy resination was also sometimes applied to the interior of storage jars, and occasionally spilled over a good deal of the outside, as can be seen in Plate 12e. A peculiarity of the Ware U5 utility vessels made at Faras was the occasional presence of simple white painted decoration, in Early Christian Style N.III (also visible in Plate 12e). Vessels thus decorated have not been found at any other site.

Classic Christian decorated wares (Ware Group N.IV) The Classic Christian decorated wares represented a radical departure in Nubian ceramic tradition (cf. Adams 1986, 485-90) and the Faras Potteries may well have been the place where they were first developed. It was certainly the only place in Lower Nubia where most of the wares were made, although there were other centers of production in the Dongola Reach and elsewhere to the south. The fact that so many of the Classic Christian designs are derived from medieval manuscript illumination suggests in any case a connection between the monks and the potters (cf. Adams 1981). Production of the Classic Christian wares probably, though not certainly, began at Phase 4; they were certainly produced throughout Phases 5 and 6.

Figurines and fantasies The Faras potters evidently amused themselves from time to time, and broke the monotony of their work, by fashioning small clay figurines. Among specimens found at the site were figurines of camels, with detachable saddles, a cow, and a giraffe, as well as a large model of a human nose, and a small phallus. Unfired pieces that might have been gaming pieces were also found. Various examples of these objects are shown in Plate 16a.

Registered finds

Ware W5: Classic Christian fine white ware.3 A polished ware having a white to cream slip and decoration usually in red-brown only. The overwhelming majority of vessels are small bowls (“saucers”) with interior decoration (Plates 13b-f). These seem to have been the chief items in production at the time when the Potteries were abandoned, as very large numbers of both fired and unfired specimens were found in several rooms.

1. Bowl, Ware R3, form uncertain. 2. Footed bowl portion, Ware R3, Form D74. 3. Footed bowl portion, Ware R3, Form D74. 4. Footed jar fragment, Ware R5, Form X4? 5. Bowl, Ware R2, Form C67. 6. Footed bowl portion, Ware R5, Form D67. 7. Footed bowl fragment, Ware R5?, Form D23. 8. Jar, Ware R5, From W25. 9. Bowl portion, Ware W9 or R5, From C5. 10. Bowl, Ware R5, Form C23. 11. Bowl portion, Ware R5, Form C23. 12. Bowl portion, Ware R5, Form C23. 13. Bowl portion, Ware R5?, Form C4. 14. Footed bowl portion, Ware R5, Form D30. 15. Small bottle, Ware R5, Form G30. 16. Footed jar, Ware R3, Form X3. 17. Cup portion, Ware R3, Form A14. 18. Cup fragment, Ware R5, Form A14. 19. Bowl portion, Ware R3?, Form C75. 20. Cup fragment, Ware R3, Form A24. 21. Bowl portion, Ware R5?, From C23.

Wares W6 and W10: Classic Christian matte yellow ware and Classic Christian polished yellow ware.4 These two wares are distinguished from Ware W5 by the use of a slip that is most commonly yellow, tan, or buff, and by painted decoration commonly in both black and red. They were used mostly for larger vessels than those in Ware W5. By far the most common forms made at Faras were footed bowls of Form D23 (Plate 14a, no. 7) and vases of Forms F10-12 (Plate 14b). These vessels were produced in quantities in Phases 5 and 6. Most of the vessels that were being fired in Kiln 4 at the time of its collapse were in these two forms. 2 3 4

For the ware group description see Adams 1986, 473-81. For the ware description see Adams 1986, 491-3. For the ware descriptions see Adams 1986, 493-4.

5 6

For the ware description see Adams 1986, 494-5. For the ware description see Adams 1986, 522-3.

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22. Bowl portion, Ware R3, Form C23. 23. Cup fragment, Ware R5, Form A14. 24. Footed bowl portion, Ware R3, Form D30. 25. Bowl portion, Ware R2, Form C32. 26. Bowl fragment, Ware R3, Form C75. 27. Bowl portion, Ware W2, Form C23. 28. Goblet portion, Ware W9, Form B34. 29. Cup, Ware W2, Form A3. 30. Cup portion, Ware W2, Form A4. 31. Bowl fragment, Ware W6, Form C22. 32. Bowl portion, Ware W2, Form C82. 33. Bowl portion, Ware W2, Form C23. 34. Lamp portion, Ware W6, Form P19. 35. Bowl, Ware W2, Form C23. 36. Bowl portion, Ware W2, Form C82. 37. Footed bowl portion, Ware W2, Form D77. 38. Footed bowl portion, Ware W1 or W2, Form D30. 39. Footed bowl portion, Ware W2, Form D30. 40. Footed bowl fragment, Ware R5?, Form D64. 41. Bowl portion, Ware W2, Form C17. 42. Bowl portion, Ware W2, Form C17. 43. Footed bowl portion, Ware W2, Form D12. 44. Footed bowl portion, Ware R7, Form D13. 45. Cup, Ware R7, Form A14. 46. Cup portion, Ware R5, Form A14. 47. Cup portion, Ware R7, Form A14. 48. Unfired bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 49. Unfired bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C49. 50. Unfired bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 51. Unfired bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 52. Unfired bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 53. Unfired bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 54. Bowl fragment, Ware W5, Form C22. 55. Bowl fragment, Ware W5, Form C22 or C49. 56. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 57. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 58. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 59. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 60. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 61. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C49. 62. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 63. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 64. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C49. 65. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C23. 66. Bowl fragment, Ware W5, Form C23. 67. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C48. 68. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 69. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C49. 70. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 71. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 72. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 73. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C49. 74. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 75. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C49. 76. Bowl fragment, Ware W5, Form C22. 77. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C49. 78. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C4. 79. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C49. 80. Bowl fragment, Ware W5, Form C48. 81. Bowl fragment, Ware W56 or W6, Form C22. 82. Footed bowl, Ware W6, Form D23.

83. Plate, Ware W5, Form E1. 84. Bowl, Ware W6, Form C22. 85. Bowl, Ware W6, Form C22. 86. Bowl, Ware W6, Form C22. 87. Bowl portion, Ware W6, Form C50. 88. Bowl fragment, Ware W6, Form C50. 89. Vase portion, Ware W6, Form F12. 90. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 91. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 92. Bowl fragment, Ware W6, form uncertain. 93. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 94. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 95. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 96. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D77. 97. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D77. 98. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D77. 99. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C23. 100. Bowl, Ware W10, Form C49. 101. Cup, Ware W6, Form A25. 102. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C49. 103. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C49. 104. Bowl fragment, Ware W10, Form C50. 105. Bowl fragment, Ware W10, Form C50. 106. Bowl fragment, Ware W10, Form C50. 107. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C50. 108. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C50. 109. Bowl portion, Ware W10, Form C50. 110. Bowl fragment, Ware W10, Form C50. 111. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 112. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 113. Cup portion, Ware W6, Form A12. 114. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 115. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 116. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 117. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 118. Vase fragment, Ware W10, Form F12. 119. Vase portion, Ware W10, Form F12. 120. Vase fragment, Ware W10, Form F12. 121. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 122. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 123. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 124. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 125. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D30. 126. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6, Form D23. 127. Footed bowl portion, Ware W10, Form D12. 128. Footed bowl portion, Ware W10, Form D23. 129. Pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2. 130. Pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2. 131. Pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2. 132. Pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2. 133. Pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2. 134. Footed bowl portion, Ware W10, Form D23. 135. Vase, Ware W10, Form F12. 136. Footed bowl, Ware W6, Form D23. 137. Vase, Ware W10, Form F16. 138. Vase, Ware W10, Form F12. 139. Vase, Ware W10, Form F12. 140. Cup portion, Ware W10, Form A25. 141. Vase portion, Ware W6, Form F12. 142. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22. 143. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 87

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144. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 145. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C49. 146. Bowl, Ware W5, Form C22. 147. Cup, Ware R7, Form A12. 148. Cup, Ware U5, Form A14. 149. Footed bowl portion, Ware R5?, Form D23. 150. Footed bowl portion, Ware W6 or W10, Form D54. 151. Pot fragment, Ware U5, form uncertain. 152. Jar fragment, Ware U5, Form W25? 153. Pot portion, Ware U5, Form U16? 154. Qulla fragment, Ware U5, Form H1 or H4. 155. Jar fragment, Ware U5, Form W22. 156. Footed bowl, Ware R7, Form D77. 157. Bowl fragment, Ware U5, Form D77. 158. Suspension pot, Ware U5, Form Z22. 159. Qadus portion, Ware U5, Form V1. 160. Footed jar portion, Ware U5, Form X15. 161. Amphora portion, Ware U5, Form Z10. 162. Amphora portion, Ware U5, Form Z10. 163. Footed jar portion, Ware R3?, Form X15. 164. Footed jar, Ware U5, Form X15. 165. Footed jar, Ware U5, Form X15. 166. Footed bowl, Ware R13, Form D1. 167. Bowl portion, Ware R13?, form uncertain. 168. Doka fragment, Ware H3, Form S3. 169. Pot fragment, Ware H1, Form U3. 170. Doka fragment, Ware H3, Form S2. 171. Pot portion, Ware U9, form uncertain. 172. Pot, Ware H2, form not classified. 173, Pot, Ware H1, Form U12. 174. Pot, Ware H1, Form U12. 175. Pot, Ware H1, Form U12. 176. Pot, Ware H1, Form U12. 177. Lamp, Ware R7, Form P19. 178. Ceramic jar stamp. 179. Unfired ceramic jar stamp. 180. Unfired ceramic jar stamp. 181. Ostrakon fragment apparently in Greek. 182. Ostrakon fragment. 183. Ceramic pot scraper. 184. Ceramic pot scraper. 185. Ceramic figurine fragment. 186. Ceramic figurine fragment. 187. Ceramic handle fragment. 188. Ceramic handle fragment. 189. Clay signet impression. 190. Clay signet impression. 191. Glass vessel fragments. 192. Ivory bead fragment. 193. Bronze pin. 194. Bronze disc. 195. Ground stone fragment. 196. Polished stone pebble. 197. Sandstone bead fragment. 198. Stone pot polisher. 199. Marble libation tray fragment. 200. Grooved sandstone weigh. 201. Grooved sandstone weight. 202. Incised sandstone fragment. 203. Unidentified stone implement. 204. Conglomerate grinding stone.

205. Marble door pivot slab. 206. Leather shoe fragment. 207. Unidentified leather fragments. 208. Unidentified leather fragments. 209. Leather sheath? fragments. 210. Leather shoe fragment. 211. Unidentified leather fragments. 212. Fabric scrap. 213. Fabric scrap. 214. Fabric mat. 215. Fabric scrap. 216. Fiber cord. 217. Mass of hair. 218. Mass of hair. 219. Mass of hair. 220. Clay jar seal. 221. Clay jar seal. 222. Clay jar seal portion. 223. Clay beads. 224. Ceramic button. 225. Unfired camel figurine fragment. 226. Unfired camel figurine fragment. 227. Unfired cow figurine fragment. 228. Unfired giraffe figurine fragment. 229. Unfired camel saddle figurine. 230. Unfired camel saddle figurine. 231. Unfired animal figurine. 232. Unfired phallus figurine portion. 233. Unfired figurine of human nose. 234. Unfired gaming die? 235. Unfired gaming board? portion. 236. Unfired gaming piece? portion. 237. Sandstone Coptic tombstone (reused as door pivot stone). 238. Marble tombstone fragment. 239. Bowl portion, Ware W5, Form C22 or C49. 240. Footed bowl? fragment, Ware W6, Form D54. 241. Bowl portion, Ware W6, Form C50. 242. Vase fragment, Ware W10, Form F23? 243. Unfired small pot portion, Ware W5?, Form G30 or G33. 244. Unfired goblet, ware unidentifiable, Form B20. 245. Toy bowl of unfired clay. 246. Unfired plate, Ware R5, Form E1. 247. Unfired goblet fragment, ware unidentifiable, Form B20. 248. Unfired clay beads. 249. Unfired clay stopper? 250. Miniature clay vessel. 251. Sherd used as pottery scraper. 252. Sherd used as pottery scraper. 253. Sherd used as pottery scraper. 254. Sherd used as pottery scraper. 255. Sherd used as pottery scraper. 256. Sherd used as pottery scraper. 257. Unfired clay bead? 258. Unfired clay sphere.

Summary and discussion Occupation at the Potteries site probably began in the seventh century, and continued until the eleventh. The 88

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earliest structures, built directly on floodplain alluvium, were not sufficiently uncovered so that anything could be said about their use. At Phase 2 they were overbuilt by an integrated complex of rooms that was probably some kind of religious establishment, though it did not have all the usual features of a monastery. At Phase 3 pottery production was begun on a small scale, but it was probably incidental to the main, religious function of the site. The ceramic products were presumably just for local use. At the end of Phase 3 the site was heavily damaged by a flood, which left up to a meter of flood-borne mud in most of the rooms. It was at that point, if my surmise is correct, that the inhabitants moved away to the higher ground at the nearby monastery of el-Wizz, (Scanlon 1970; 1972), while their former home was given over exclusively to pottery-making activities. The products were now widely exported throughout Lower Nubia, and to some extent further south as well. There is some indication, though it is not conclusive, that the Potteries specialized in the production of different wares at different times, perhaps in response to immediate market demands. The vessels produced at Faras were decorated only in the Classic Christian Fancy Style N.IVA, not in the simpler Geometric Style N.IVB (cf. Adams 1986, 245-7). Vessels decorated in Style N.IVA have not been found in abundance anywhere except at the Potteries itself, which may suggest that for the mass of Nubians they were scarce and prized luxury goods. They are far more scarce than are either the preceding Early Christian wares (Ware Group N.III) or the succeeding Late Christian wares (particularly Ware Group N.VI). Probably three-quarters of all the known specimens of Classic Christian ware decorated in Style N.IVA have come from the single site of the Faras Potteries. What caused the final abandonment of the Potteries, some time around AD 1000, is a mystery. That it was hasty and unpremeditated is attested by the vessels in all stages of completion that were found throughout the site, including many that were already decorated and ready for the kiln. There was no evidence of any disaster, either natural or man-made, that could have brought the enterprise so suddenly to a close, although the exhaustion of local fuel supplies is one possible hypothesis. Another is the competition of cheaply made, mass-produced Aswan wares, which flooded the Lower Nubian market in the interval following the abandonment of the Potteries (cf. Adams 1986, 22). Yet neither of those development should, in theory, have been sufficient to precipitate a sudden and unpremeditated abandonment.

Cross-sections: passim throughout field notes; see individual room and kiln notes. Also Figures 27-28 herein. Plans: separate plans for each period, and composite (Figures 25-34 herein). Published references: Mileham 1910, 25; Griffith 1926, 63-5 and pls. 41-45; Dunbar 1929, 112; Monneret de Villard 1935, vol. 1, 193; vol. 2, pl. 81; Adams 1961; 1977, 496-8; 1986, 16-22.

24-N-3: Early Christian pottery kilns, Serra (Figure 36; Plates 8a-b) The site consisted of four separate, rounded mounds of sand and ash, thickly strewn with sherds, brick fragments, and slag. The mounds had accumulated around the remnants of pottery kilns, which were preserved just below the surface. We carried out excavations in three of the mounds, finding remnants of kilns in each. However, we did not excavate any of the mounds in its entirety; our excavations in each were confined to trenching and/or surface clearance in areas where there was some evidence for the presence of kilns. Therefore, the possibility exists that there were additional, undiscovered kilns in each of the mounds. We did some surface clearing but did not excavate in Mound 4, which was partly overbuilt with modern houses. The remains encountered in Mounds 1, 2, and 3 were in all cases the remnants of furnace chambers, from what had obviously been double-chamber updraught kilns of the same type encountered at Faras. However, no part of the upper (firing) chamber was preserved in any kiln. Our excavations did not discover any structural remains other than those of kilns, plus one small section of partition wall separating Kilns 1 and 2. The products made at Serra included most if not all of the decorated wares of Early Christian Group N.III, and also a few examples of Classic Christian Group N.IV, but also and most abundantly utility vessels of Ware U5. Qawadis were made by the thousands at Mounds 1 and 2, and large storage jars and pots were only slightly less common. The pottery finds suggested that the Serra kilns were in use through the whole of the Early Christian period, with possibly some continued use in the earliest part of the Classic Christian period. Site specifications Situation: a group of relatively high mounds of sand and ash, situated just behind tamarisk growth, about 200m from the river bank. The mounds were just behind the most easterly houses in Serra West village. Area: four separate mounds, more or less in a northsouth line, over a distance of about 500m. Dating: Early Christian.

Documentation First noted: by G. S. Mileham, 1910. First excavation: by Oxford University Expedition, 191112. Sudan Antiquities Service excavations: by W. Y. Adams, February 20-May 15, 1960. Original notes: WYA Books I-III, and Faras Potteries Summary. Photos: F/122 through F/139 (all). Sketch plans: passim throughout field notes; see individual room and kiln notes.

Mound 1 The most southerly of the mounds had an elongate, irregularly oval shape something like the sole of a shoe. It was approximately 30m long and 15m wide, with the long axis northwest-southeast. The maximum height was about 3m. Our excavations uncovered the remains of Kilns 1, 2, and 3, as shown in Figure 36. The possibility exists that

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Figure 36. Plans of the Serra Kilns, Site 24-N-3 (scale 1:100).

there were other kiln remains within the unexcavated areas of Mound 1, although none were revealed by surface clearing. A trench through Mound 1 reached a depth of 1.5m at the middle of the mound. At the highest point, the uppermost 65cm (Level 1) consisted of several alternating beds of ash and sand. Below this, Level 2 consisted of about 50cm. of soft sand containing sherds, but without ash deposits. At the base of this deposit was a well devel-

oped mud floor—the last occupation surface at the time when the kilns were in use. Below the floor, Level 3 consisted of about 25cm of dark floor deposit containing many sherds, laid down at the time when the kilns were in use. This was underlain by clean, sterile sand (Level 4).

Kiln 1 The preserved remnant of this kiln comprised the lower portion of the furnace chamber, together with the stoking 90

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passage and aperture. Most of the surviving structure was the portion that had been excavated below the ground; it had slightly sloping walls, lined with horizontal brick masonry. However, a small portion of the wall above the (original) ground level was also preserved. This part was vertical, with walls 20cm thick. The floor of the furnace chamber was of horizontally laid brick. The interior walls were considerably vitrified, but not as much as in some other kilns. The floor of the firing chamber had been supported on a very stout arch of brick masonry, spanning the chamber more or less at right angles to the stoke hole, and another smaller pier opposite the stoke hole. The stoking passage entered at a sloping angle on the east side of the structure. It was partially roofed over with a small brick vault. The original aperture of the stoke hole had been round, about 50cm in diameter. The entrance to the stoke hole had been heightened at least once. Within the chamber, the upper 50cm of fill consisted of sand and refuse thrown in after abandonment. Below this was a fill of ash containing broken pots, very large sherds, and slag, continuing all the way to the floor of the chamber.

burned brick which may have been fallen material from the roof. Most of the above-ground perimeter wall of the kiln was 15cm thick. However, a section at the southeast side had been reinforced to a thickness of 40cm. It seemed probable that originally the whole upper wall had been of this thickness, before most parts were destroyed. As in Kiln 1 there was a vaulted stoking passage, but it was preserved only for a short distance beyond the perimeter of the kiln itself. Kiln 2 specifications Outside diameter: 1.7m, except where thicker section of wall was preserved. Inside diameter above ground: 1.4m. Inside diameter at bottom of furnace chamber: 1.2m. Thickness of walls: mostly 15cm, but 40cm at southeast side. Total preserved height of walls: 1.7m. Maximum height of preserved walls above ground level: 35cm. Depth of excavated portion: 1.35m. Length of stoke hole passage: 50cm as preserved. Width of stoke hole passage: 50cm. Maximum height of stoke hole passage: 40cm. Diameter of stoke hole aperture: not preserved. Orientation through stoke hole: 295º.

Kiln 1 specifications Outside diameter: 2.5m. Inside diameter above ground: 2.1m. Inside diameter at bottom of furnace chamber: 1.75m. Thickness of walls: 20cm. Total preserved height of walls: 1.65m. Height of preserved walls above ground level: 25-50cm. Depth of excavated portion: 1.15m. Dimensions of northern arch pier: 50 x 37cm. Dimensions of southern arch pier: 40 x 37cm. Dimensions of western arch pier: 20 x 37cm. Length of stoke hole passage: 90cm. Maximum width of stoke hole passage: 85cm. Maximum height of stoke hole passage: 1.25m. Diameter of stoke hole aperture: 60cm. Orientation through stoke hole: 330º.

The outside working areas adjoining Kilns 1 and 2 were separated from each other by a low partition, about 15cm high and 3m long, which ran in a SSW to NNE direction. It was located considerably closer to Kiln 1 than to Kiln 2. There was no evidence of any adjoining walls.

Kiln 3 Located about 3.5m to the southwest of Kiln 1, this was a considerably smaller kiln than either of its neighbors. Whether it was built on, and dug below, the same ground surface as Kilns 1 and 2 was not determined, since the intervening area was not excavated. The excavated portion of the chamber had markedly sloping walls, lined with brick masonry, so that the flat floor was only 60cm in diameter. As in Kiln 2, there were no surviving remnants of arch piers to support a roof. The interior was heavily vitrified. The upper walls were preserved to a height of 40cm above ground level, and were uniformly 40cm thick. The kiln as originally built had a long projecting stoking passage, with a markedly sloping floor, to the southeast; it projected 1.2m beyond the exterior wall of the kiln itself. It was enclosed by brick walls and had an interior width of 55cm; the covering arch was not preserved. At a late date the outer (more southeasterly) portion of the passage was walled off with a 20-cm brick partition. Thereafter the kiln had a shorter stoking passage, with stoke hole apparently adjoining the kiln wall itself.

Registered finds from Kiln 1 3. Footed bowl portion, Ware R5, Form D54. 7. Footed bowl, Ware R7, Form D23. 8. Cup, Ware R7, Form A12. 9. Amphora portion, Ware U5, Form Z10. 11. Storage jar portion, Ware U5, Form X3. 12. Fiber mat fragment.

Kiln 2 (Plate 8a) This kiln, situated 2m to the southeast of Kiln 1, was built on the same original ground level, and was preserved to about the same height. It was considerably smaller in diameter than its neighbor, and there were no surviving remnants of interior arch piers to support a roof. It is not clear therefore how the roof was supported. The construction of the underground portion of the furnace chamber was the same as in Kiln 1, with slightly sloping, brickwalled sides and a flat floor. The interior walls were considerably more vitrified than in Kiln 1 (cf. Plate 8a), suggesting a longer period of use. The interior of the kiln was entirely filled with ash, containing great quantities of

Kiln 3 specifications Outside diameter: 2m. Inside diameter above ground: 1.2m. Inside diameter at bottom of furnace chamber: 60cm. Thickness of walls: 40cm. Total preserved height of walls: 1.8m.

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Height of preserved walls above ground level: 40cm. Depth below ground level: 1.4m. Original length of stoke hole passage: 1.2m. Width of stoke hole passage: 55cm. Maximum height of stoke hole passage: not preserved. Diameter of stoke hole aperture: not preserved. Orientation through stoke hole: 165º.

the passage built up with large round lumps of clay. The kiln was found entirely filled with ash. Kiln 4 specifications Outside diameter: 1.7m. Inside diameter above ground: 1.2m. Inside diameter at bottom of furnace chamber: 1.2m. Thickness of walls: 30cm. Total preserved height of walls: 1m. Height of preserved walls above ground level: 45cm. Depth below ground level: 55cm. Length of stoke hole passage: 60cm, as preserved. Maximum height of stoke hole passage: not preserved. Diameter of stoke hole aperture: not preserved. Orientation through stoke hole: 225º.

Registered find from Kiln 3: 4. Storage jar fragment, Ware R5, Form X3.

Additional registered finds from Mound 1 1. Footed bowl portion, Ware R5?, Form D40. 5. Lamp portion, Ware W2 or W6, Form P18. 10. Chipped stone blade.

Mound 2

Kiln 5

This was the largest of the three excavated mounds. It had a fairly regular oval shape, measuring perhaps 45 x 60m, with a height of 6 or 7m at the top. It was immediately adjacent to Mound 1, on its northwest side. The crowns of the two mounds were about 40m apart. The surface of the mound, as in Mound 1, was thickly strewn with sherds and slag. Our excavations uncovered the remains of Kilns 4 and 5. They were not as well preserved as in Mound 1, with relatively little structure surviving above the original ground level. The surviving above-ground walls were in a very dilapidated condition, at least partly as a result of long use. It is possible that there were other kiln remains or other structures in portions of the mound not excavated by us. Within the mound, the top 10cm (Level 1) consisted of soft windblown sand with large numbers of sherds. Level 2 consisted of material extending down from Level 1 to a hard occupation surface on which the kilns had originally been built. To the windward (north and east) side of the kilns this consisted also of soft sand with plentiful sherds. To leeward (south and west) it was a typical deposit of compacted, stratified beds of ash and refuse, deposited while the kilns were in use. The maximum depth, at the crown of the mound, was 50cm. Level 3, below the occupation surface, consisted mainly of soft sand, with lesser quantities of ash and a few sherds. This material was excavated to a depth of about 1m at the west end of the trench, but no additional occupation surfaces were found.

This was the smallest of the Serra kilns, located about 2m southwest of Kiln 4. It was built on the same ground surface as Kiln 4, and had the same orientation. Like Kiln 4 also it had straight furnace chamber walls, but in this case it was excavated below ground level only to a depth of about 40cm. The lower walls were of horizontal rather than vertical brick, with a flat floor. There were no traces of piers to support a roof arch. The whole interior surface was extremely vitrified. The kiln above ground had an exceptionally thin perimeter wall, only 15cm thick. There was a stoking passage on the southeast side, but its enclosing walls were preserved only for a distance of about 40cm beyond the perimeter of the kiln. The kiln when found was full of ash, broken brick, and sherds. Kiln 5 specifications Outside diameter: 1.1m. Inside diameter above ground: 80cm. Inside diameter at bottom of furnace chamber: 80cm. Thickness of walls: 15cm. Total preserved height of walls: 90cm. Height of preserved walls above ground level: 50cm. Depth below ground level: 40cm. Length of stoke hole passage: 40cm as preserved. Width of stoke hole passage: 30cm. Maximum height of stoke hole passage: not preserved. Diameter of stoke hole aperture: not preserved. Orientation through stoke hole: 210º.

Kiln 4

Registered find from Mound 2:

This kiln was located about 4m east of the crown of Mound 2. The surviving remains were those of the lowermost part of the furnace chamber. The interior surface was highly vitrified and in a generally dilapidated condition, as were the exteriors of its walls. The brick-built walls were very nearly vertical; their lower portion, to a height of 35cm, was formed of upright bricks. Along the walls at regularly spaced intervals were the bases of four arch pilasters which had supported the roof; however, these projected only slightly from the wall surfaces. The stoking passage was at the southeast, and extended for 60cm beyond the perimeter wall. However, only its lower portion was preserved. The walls enclosing the stoking passage had been heightened once, and the floor of

2. Cup fragment, Ware R2, Form A26.

Mound 3 This was a small round mound, located about 300m northeast of Mound 2. It was about 13m in diameter, and 1m high as preserved. Kiln 6 was encountered near the center of the mound. The deposit on the northwest side of the kiln consisted mainly of sand, while that on the southeast consisted of a typical mixture of ash and refuse. The original ground surface was encountered at a depth of about 50cm below the mound surface.

Kiln 6 (Plate 8b) This deep, thick-walled kiln was one of the better pre92

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Registered find from Kiln 6

served Serra kilns. The furnace chamber, as in Mound 1 kilns, had markedly sloping, brick-walled sides and a flat brick floor. The roof had been supported on a single master arch spanning the chamber at right angles to the stoke hole. The inner walls showed far less vitrification than did most other Serra kilns. The original stoke hole was a narrow passage at the southeast side, sloping so steeply that it entered the furnace chamber almost at floor level. The stoke hole structure projected westward only about 80cm from the kiln wall. It was enclosed by brick walls 15cm thick. Although it showed fewer signs of use than other kilns, Kiln 6 was modified at least twice in the course of its use. In the first modification, the floor level in the furnace chamber was raised by about a meter, by filling it up with mud and bricks. A drying bin, enclosed by 20-cm walls, was built adjoining the northeast side of the kiln wall, opposite the stoke hole. The bin was built on top of accumulated sherds and refuse from the original use of the kiln. When found, it was full of fine ash. At some point after this modification, a child burial was intruded into the kiln fill at the base of the east wall, about 1m above the floor. In the process of making this grave, the top of the east arch support was dug away. In a final modification, the kiln floor was raised again, to a level just above the child burial. The interior, adjoining the walls, was filled in with mud in such a way as to produce a greater slope in the furnace walls than was formerly present. This addition had the effect of blocking off the original stoking aperture, and the entire stoke hole passage was now blocked with mud. Instead, a new stoke hole at a higher level was cut through, just to the north of the original stoking passage (that is, on the east side of the kiln). Outside the kiln, sand had built up to such a level that it completely covered the drying bin on the northwest side. The kiln walls were then heightened, resting partly on top of the ash fill within the bin, and partly on top of accumulated sand around the remainder of the kiln perimeter. A new working surface was established on top of this material; it was at a level about 40cm above the original surface.

6. Pilgrim bottle fragment, Ware W7, Form K2.

Mound 4 This was a very large, more or less round mound located about 50m north of Mound 3. It was perhaps 35m in diameter and 5m high. The whole east side was built over with modern houses, and a good deal of the surface was strewn with modern trash. Elsewhere, the surface of Mound 4 was thickly strewn with Christian sherds. There were no concentrations of ash, burned brick, and slag such as on Mounds 1-3, but there were a good many burned sherds such as are usually found around kilns. Therefore, it could not be said for certain whether Mound 4 was or was not a pottery-making site.

Documentation Excavation: small test hole dug in Mound 4 by T. H. Thabit for Sudan Antiquities Service, 1956. 6 kilns excavated by W. Y. Adams, November 20-24, 1960. Field notes: WYA Book III, pp. 51-97. Photos: F/013: 1-5; F/014: 1-12; F/015: 1-7; F/016: 1-12; F/017: 5-12. Sketch plans: WYA Book III, passim. Cross-sections: WYA Book III, passim. Site plan: Figure 36 herein. Published references: Adams 1962b, 70-71; 1986,16.

5-T-46: Late Christian pottery kilns, Dukule Island The site, at the north end of Dukule Island, consisted of one and possibly two pottery kilns of the typical round, double-chamber type found at many other sites. They were built on a slightly sloping alluvial surface, and were surrounded by dense mounds of ash, slag, sherds, and fragments of burned brick.

Kiln 1 What survived of this kiln was the brick-built lower (furnace) chamber, which was preserved up to the level of the firing chamber floor. The chamber as usual in Christian kilns had sloping sides. Most of the over-arching floor of the firing chamber had collapsed into the furnace chamber, but some remnants were preserved around the edges. The firing chamber floor was supported on a single master arch running across from east to west, at right angles to the stoke hole. The stoke hole was an oval, sloping depression without brick lining, but surrounded at the surface by masonry of small stones. The stoke hole when found was blocked with very large stones. The kiln had apparently been used for a very long time, and had been reinforced and heightened several times. Several successive floor levels could be discerned within the ash deposit in the furnace chamber; they were marked by layers of fallen slag and brick. There was in addition a very dense accumulation of ash and trash around the outside of the kiln, and some later reinforcements added to the outer walls rested partly on this deposit. The furnace chamber as found was itself dug into an older, dense

Kiln 6 specifications Outside diameter: 2.35m. Inside diameter above ground: 1.65m. Inside diameter at bottom of furnace chamber: 1m. Thickness of walls: 40cm. Total preserved height of walls: 1.55m. Height of preserved walls above ground level: 55cm. Depth below ground level: 1m. Width of arch supports: 30cm. Length of stoke hole passage: 1.1m. Outside width of stoke hole passage: 85cm. Inside width of stoke hole passage: 50cm. Maximum height of stoke hole passage: not preserved. Orientation through stoke hole: 160º. Outside dimensions of drying bin: 1.4 x 0.9m. Inside dimensions of drying bin: 1 x 0.7m. Depth of drying bin: 40cm.

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24-R-7: Early Christian unidentified structure, Debeira

ash deposit which was probably the refuse from an earlier kiln. The refuse deposits suggested that the kiln was used overwhelmingly for the production of Ware U5 qawadis, of the squat Late Christian type (Form V1). There were also a few fragments of large Ware U5 jars and storage jars.

(Plate 8c) The site was located in an area of drifted sand immediately beside the riverbank. It consisted entirely of a perfectly circular, well-built structure of mud brick, with walls 60cm thick and preserved to an average height of 90cm. The interior diameter of the circle was 5.6m. At the southeast side was an entryway 60cm wide. Exactly in the center of the circle was a round mud brick column 1.2m in diameter, and preserved to a height of 1.1m. The uppermost bricks in the column were laid in such a way that they radiated outward from a common centerpoint; whether this was true also of the lower courses was not determined. Both the surface of the column and the interior surface of the brick circle were very smoothly plastered with mud. Early Christian sherds and vessel fragments were recovered from the fill. The structure was located immediately to the south of Early Christian habitation site 24-R3, and probably formed part of the same complex as that site. According to its excavator, P. L. Shinnie, Site 24-R-3 bore extensive evidence of manufacturing activity (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 42-4). However, we were unable to form even a guess as to the function of Site 24-R-7.

Kiln 1 specifications Outside diameter: 2.6m. Inside diameter of firing chamber: 1.4m. Wall thickness: 60cm. Depth, firing chamber to furnace floor: 1.5m. Diameter of furnace chamber floor: 75cm. Length of stoke hole projection: 1.1m. Width of stoke hole projection: 80cm. Orientation through stoke hole: northeast (45º).

Kiln 2 (?) About 8m to the east of Kiln 1 was a second mound of dense ash, having much the same appearance as had Kiln 1 before its excavation. However, a test trench cut into the side of the mound did not encounter any structure; merely a deposit of ash and trash at least 1m deep. It is possible that there was no kiln here, and that this was merely an ash dump from Kiln 1, since it was downwind from Kiln 1.

Documentation

Registered finds

Excavation: by W. Y. Adams, 13 January 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 92-4. Photos: F/089: 3-6. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42.

1. Footed bowl fragment, Ware R5, Form D74. 2. Bowl portion, Ware R2, Form uncertain. 3. Goblet, Ware W2, Form B1. 4. Portion of mud jar seal.

Documentation Excavation: fully excavated by G. J. Verwers, Winter, 1961. Field notes: GJV Book IV, pp. 29-31. Photos: F/020: 35-37. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

5-T-47: Late Christian settlement and kiln, Gaminarti Island A rocky outcrop immediately to the south and west of the Gaminarti Church (5-T-4) showed evidence of extensive habitation, reported in Chapter 4. At the base of the settlement on its north side, close to the river, was a small surviving remnant of a pottery kiln. What survived was a round brick-lined depression with tapering sides, 75cm deep and having an inside diameter of 1.2m. The wall thickness was 55cm. There was a stoke hole aperture 50cm wide at the east side. Most probably the structure was the lower part of the firing chamber of a double-chamber kiln, although this could not be certainly confirmed since no part of the upper chamber was preserved. The kiln had been extensively used, as attested by vitrification of the inner walls.

5-0-16: Early Christian wineshop (?), Abdel Qadir (Figure 37; Plates 8d-e) This large, somewhat irregular-shaped building was part of a very early Early Christian complex near Abdel Qadir that also included the proto-type Church (?) 5-0-14 and a small group of houses designated as 5-0-15—both described in previous chapters (cf. also Figure 20). Building 5-0-16 was roughly rectangular in shape, with walls of stout stone masonry, some of it laid in the “herringbone” courses that were common in Ballaña and very early Early Christian architecture. The interior arrangement of rooms was quite irregular, with no two being the same size. There were two suites, here designated as Suite A and Suite B. Suite A comprised Rooms 1-4, at the north end of the building, and Suite B comprised Rooms 5-7 and 9-10, occupying the southern two-thirds of the building. Room 8, at the west side of the structure, did not interconnect with any of the other rooms. The abundant potsherds found in the building were

Documentation Excavation: test excavations by W. Y. Adams and H.-Å. Nordström, January 14-16, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 95-6; WYA Book VI, p. 3ff (notes by HÅN). Photos: F/089: 7-8. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 42-4.

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Figure 37. Plan of Christian wineshop or tavern, Site 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir. Cross-hatching identifies excavated areas (scale 1:100).

the Nile. Size: 12 x 23m. Number of rooms: 10. Construction: fairly stout stone masonry of small, irregular blocks laid on heavy mud mortar. Some courses of upright or diagonal stones. Wall thickness: uniformly about 40cm. Foundations: stone masonry. Plaster: irregular mud plaster on most interior walls. Floors: well laid mud floors; 2 floor levels in several rooms. Some flagstones in Room 5. Doorways: plain and fairly wide; no rebates or buttresses shown on plan. One exterior and three interior doorways were found solidly blocked. Roofs: undoubtedly flat. Fill: upper fill mostly sand with considerable numbers of sherds, some fallen wall material. Fill overlying Floor 1, and fill between Floor 1 and Floor 2, consisted of sand

overwhelmingly of imported amphora types U2 and U4. They suggest that the place was used at least in part for the storage and dispensing of wine, which was probably off-loaded from Egyptian boats at this point, just below the Second Cataract (see also description of Site 5-0-15 in Chapter 4). For this reason the place is very tentatively identified as a kind of tavern serving the needs of the visiting boat crews, but it may also have been a storage entrepot for shipments of wine in transit. The single fragmentary Greek ostrakon found in the site appears to be part of some kind of account, and is closely similar to several specimens found at Site 5-0-15. The structure was only partially excavated, which in hindsight seems regrettable, since nothing else quite like it was found in the course of the survey. Site specifications Setting: built on an alluvial surface perhaps 100m from 95

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with considerable admixture of ash and charcoal. Condition: walls mostly preserved to a height of between 50 and 80cm, except at extreme NW and SE corners where small portions were missing. Dating: Transitional and Early Christian.

tion, since it abutted against the east wall of Room 8. This would suggest that Rooms 10 and 7 were originally a single very large, L-shaped room. Only a small portion of Room 10, at the north side, was excavated to floor level. Room 9 was a very small area partitioned off at the west end of Room 10, and adjoining Room 8 to the south. It was entered through a wide doorway in its east wall, from Room 10. The walls separating this room from Room 10 abutted against the north and south walls of Room 10 in such a way as to suggest that they were later additions. The room was not excavated below the wall tops. Room 7. As previously noted, this room may originally have been continuous with Room 10. After it was partitioned off, it was a very large L-shaped chamber whose northern part occupied more or less the center of Building 5-0-16, while the southern part extended eastward as far as the east house wall. Within the room, near the north end of the east wall, there was a doorway into Room 6, which was found solidly blocked. The excavated portion of Room 7 had only a singe, uneven mud floor laid directly on bedrock. In the eastern angle of Room 7, two square fireplaces, enclosed by stone masonry walls, adjoined the outside house wall and the south wall of Room 6. The smaller and more western fireplace was about 1m square, and the larger fireplace, which adjoined it on the east, was a little over 2m square. Both were found filled with ash. The field plan shows a rectangle of stone masonry within the southeast corner of the larger fireplace. Room 6 was the best preserved room in Site 5-0-16, with walls standing a little over 1m high, and with good surviving plaster. It was a large, regularly rectangular room entered through a doorway in the middle of its west wall, from Room 7. The doorway was found blocked, as noted above. A wide doorway at the north end of the same wall opened into Room 5. Room 6 had the same two levels of well-laid mud floors, separated by 25cm of sand fill, as were found in Room 1. The room was fully excavated. Room 5 was a small square chamber in the center of the building, adjoining the north end of Room 6. It was entered through a wide doorway in its east wall, from Room 6. The room like its neighbor had walls standing over 1m high, although the wall plaster was somewhat dilapidated. The room had only a single floor level, at the same level as the lower floor in Room 6; it was formed partly of mud and partly of flagstones. It was found in a rather dilapidated condition, unlike the floors in Room 6. It is surmised that this room, which would have kept especially cool by virtue of its interior location, was used for the storage of wine vessels. Room 5 was fully excavated. Room 8 adjoined the west side of Room 7, at the west side of Building 5-0-16, but it was not connected with either Suite A or Suite B. Its only entrance was a wide doorway in the north wall, which gave onto the outside of the building. The room had a small fireplace in the northwest corner, enclosed by stones. Room 8 may have been an open working area without walls of full height. It was not excavated below the wall tops.

Suite A, Rooms 1-4 (Plate 8e) This suite of four rooms comprised about the northern third of the building. Only Room 1 was fully excavated; arrangement of the other rooms was determined by clearing the tops of the walls, and removing a small part of the interior fill. Access to Suite A was through Room 4, a kind of irregular-shaped corridor that ran all the way across the southern side of the suite. It was entered from the outside by doors both at the east and west sides. The eastern door was found solidly blocked. A doorway from Room 4 opened into Room 1, and from this a second door opened into Rooms 2 and, probably, 3. It looked as if Rooms 4, 2, and 3 had originally been a single large chamber, later partitioned off by the wall at the north side of Room 4. This latter wall rested on top of older floor deposits. Room 1, a regularly rectangular room at the north end of the building, was the only room in Suite A that was fully excavated. It was originally entered by two doorways, as previously noted; both were solidly blocked with stone and mud masonry when found. The room had two layers of flooring. Floor 1 was a thin layer of wet-laid mud, best preserved in the northern half of the room. There was a crude fireplace, enclosed by loose stones, at the north end of the room. The two door blockages rested on the Floor 1 surface, and may have been put in when the building was abandoned. Floor 2 was a level wet-laid mud surface continuous throughout the room, at a level 25cm below Floor 1. Fill material between the two floors consisted mostly of soft sand with an admixture of mud fragments and charcoal, and a few sherds. At the north end of the room however there was a mass of trash, consisting of fallen wall material and sherds, resting on Floor 2 and buried under Floor 1. Room 2 was a small, regularly rectangular room adjoining Room I on the west, and entered from it. It was adjoined in turn, on the west, by the larger Room 3. It could not be determined with certainly that Rooms 2 and 3 were interconnected, because the wall between them was only partially exposed. Suite B (Rooms 5-7 and 9-10) This was a very irregular cluster of at least six rooms, no two of which were the same size. As found, there was no outside entryway to the group. However, a portion of the outside wall of Room 10 was missing, at the southeast corner of the building, and there could conceivably have been an entryway at this point. Field notes suggest that Rooms 5 and 6 may have been the only ones enclosed by masonry walls of full height, the other rooms being open working areas enclosed by low walls. In this suite Rooms 5, 6, and parts of Rooms 7 and 10 were excavated to floor level. Room 10 was a long room running across almost the full width of the building, at the south side. On the north it adjoined Rooms 7 and 8. However, only the western half of the wall separating Room 10 from Room 7 was preserved, and this wall seemed to have been a later addi-

Registered finds 1. Bowl, Ware W2, Form C74. 96

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2. Goblet, Ware W2, Form B1. 3. Vase portion, Ware R10, Form F29. 4. Vase portion, Ware R10, Form F29. 5. Small pot fragment, Ware R5, Form G37. 6. Small pot portion, Ware R5, Form G37. 7. Footed bowl fragment, Ware R5, Form D74. 8. Footed bowl fragment, Ware R5, Form D13. 9. Footed jar portion, Ware W2, Form X14 or X15. 10. Bowl fragment, Ware R14, Form C4. 11. Bowl portion, Ware R14, Form C23. 12. Vase portion, Ware R10, Form F11. 13. Greek ostrakon on Ware U2. 14. Bronze pin. 15. Mud jar seal fragments. 16. Mud jar seal fragments. 17. Small pot fragment, Ware W2, Form G36 or G37.

tub: an elongate oval, squared off at one end. Connected to it at the rounded end was a kind of stone-bordered channel, extending away for a distance of about 3m. Both the basin walls and the channel walls were preserved to a height of 30-40cm, and were probably never any higher. The structure was built directly on sand, but had a smooth, hard mud floor. The purpose of these constructions is entirely unclear. The channel ran off in the direction of the river, but it does not seem as if the structure would have held water or any other liquid for any length of time. There were no other remains anywhere in the vicinity. We hypothesized a Christian date on the basis of sherds found in and around the basin. Site specifications Setting: on a broad sand flat. Dimensions: basin 3.8m long, 2-2.15m wide. Channel 3m long, 20-40cm wide. Wall construction: rows of large granite blocks set in mud mortar, with smooth plastered interior faces. Wall height; 30-40cm; probably never any higher. Wall thickness: 25-30cm. Plaster: smooth mud plaster on basin interior; not indicated for channel. Floor: smooth, hard mud floor. Fill: sand. Condition: substantially intact. Dating: Christian sherds found around and within the basin.

Documentation Excavation: excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, October 30November 2, 1961. Rooms 1, 5, and 6 excavated in toto, Rooms 7 and 10 partially excavated; wall tops cleared in other rooms. Field notes: HÅN Book III, pp. 6, 7-10. Photos: F/067: 5-12. Sketch plan: HÅN Book III, opp. p. 5. Plans: 2. Published report: Adams and Nordström 1963, 39-40.

5-S-10: Early Christian building, Mirgissa (French Sitem.VI)

Documentation

This was the very denuded remnant of a fairly large, regularly rectangular building of mud brick, located on a flat beside the Nile and just to the north of Mirgissa Fortress (5-S-1). The outside dimensions were 18.4 x 15m. Only the foundation courses survived, and these also were missing in some places. We did no excavation, as the site was within the French Mirgissa concession. On the surface we found highly abundant sherds of amphora Wares U2 and U4, and some Early Christian wares, on the basis of which we guessed that this might have been another tavern or wine depot. Excavation was carried out by the French Expedition in 1962 (Sitem.VI), but only a brief paragraph has been published (Vercoutter 1964, 60).

Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, 10 March 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 35. Photo: F/101: 1. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 35. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

Documentation Alternate designation: French Sitem.VI. Recorded: by W. Y. Adams, December 6, 1961. Excavation: by French Mirgissa Expedition, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 47. Photos: none. Plans: none. Published references: Adams and Nordström 1963, 14; Vercoutter 1964, 60.

5-X-30: Christian stone-lined basin, Mirgissa (Plate 8f) This curious structure was situated on a broad sand flat near Mirgissa Fortress. It was built of heavy stone blocks set in mud mortar, and had a shape somewhat like a bath97

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6. MORTUARY SITES

Grave 1: Shaft with two side chambers This may have been an older grave reused by Christians.

Investigation of cemeteries was not a primary objective of the West Bank Survey; at least not as regards the postPharaonic periods. Still, we were of course obliged to record every mortuary site we found, and in most cases we dug at least a few graves to be sure about the dating, and to learn something about the local burial practices. Mortuary sites—some of them too small to be called cemeteries—made up just over one-third of all the Christian sites we encountered. Several involved a continued use of Meroitic or Ballaña burial grounds, but the largest number did not.

Superstructure: none. Orientation: not given. Shaft type: a square rock-cut shaft, with rectangular chambers to the northwest and southeast. Dimensions: shaft 1 x 1m; NW chamber 2 x 1 x 1m; SE chamber 1.7 x 1 x 1m. Depth: 1.8m. Condition: burial in NW chamber intact; burial in SE chamber partly disturbed. Body coverings: none. Body wrapping: burial in NW chamber wrapped in coarse material. Burials: 1 adult in NE chamber; 1 or more adults in SE chamber. Body positions: NW burial extended on right side, head at NW end, facing up. SE burial upper part missing; lower part extended, with feet to SE. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, pp. 1-3. Photos: none. Sketch plan: GJV Book I, p. 2.

24-E-28: Christian cemeteries, Faras This was the collective designation we gave to the group of four huge Christian cemeteries, close together, that were designated by Griffith as the Western Cemeteries at Faras. They extended for half a kilometer or more along the desert margin, to the west of the dry western channel at Faras. They were first noted by Mileham (1910, 23), and large surface areas were subsequently cleared by Griffith (1927, 66-77). At the most southerly end there were very well preserved superstructures, extensively photographed by Griffith (Ibid, pls LII-LVII). We excavated nine graves—all rock-cut tombs, and all but one lacking superstructures. Of these six were square shafts with a chamber on each side; one was a shaft with a side chamber on the south only, and two were rectangular, bottom-niche graves. All had apparently held Christian burials, although several had been plundered, apparently on the mistaken assumption that they were pre-Christian. In view of the orientation (mostly NNWSSE) and the double-chamber grave type, it seems possible that the shafts themselves were indeed pre-Christian (possibly Pharaonic), re-used by Christians. However, the two bottom-niche graves were probably Christian only, since graves of this type are hardly known from any preChristian period.

Grave 2: Bottom-niche grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: SSE-NNW. Shaft type: rock-cut, rectangular with bottom niche. Dimensions: 1.7 x 0.7m. Depth: 1.5m. Condition: disturbed. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none. Burial: adult? Body position: disturbed. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, p. 3. Photos: none. Sketch plan: GJV Book I, p. 2. Plan: none.

Site specifications Setting: along the desert margin, beyond the dry western channel. Extent: uncertain but very large; probably several thousand graves. Condition: many superstructures very well preserved; graves mostly not plundered. Dating: lamps illustrated by Griffith suggest dating from the beginning of the Christian period to early Classic Christian.

Grave 3: Bottom-niche grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: SSW-NNE. Shaft type: rock-cut, rectangular with bottom niche. Dimensions: 1.9 x 0.7m. Depth: 1.1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: stone slabs. Body wrapping: none described. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up. Offerings: none.

The graves Graves were excavated and described but not numbered by Verwers. Numbers are added here for descriptive convenience.

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Field notes: GJV Book I, p. 3. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Depth: not recorded. Condition: totally plundered. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burials: scattered remains in both chambers. Body positions: disturbed. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, p. 7. Photos: F/001: 15A. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Grave 4 This is described only as a “heap of sherds at the west side of the wadi. Probably from Griffith’s excavations.” Grave 5: Square shaft with sunken side chamber Superstructure: none. Orientation: not recorded. Shaft type: square rock-cut shaft with rounded, partly sunken side chamber on SSE side. Dimensions: shaft 80 x 70cm; side chamber 1.1 x 0.6 x 0.85m. Depth: 1.2m. Condition: empty. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none. Burial: none. Body position: none. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, p. 5. Photos: none. Sketch plan: GJV Book I, p. 4. Plan: none.

Grave 8: Square shaft with two side chambers Superstructure: none. Orientation: NNW-SSE. Shaft type: rock-cut, square shaft with side chambers at NNW and SSE. Dimensions: not recorded. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: both chambers closed by large stones. Body wrapping: none recorded. Burial: 1 adult in NNW chamber; SSE chamber not opened. Body position: extended, head to NNW, legs partly contracted. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, p. 7. Photos: F/001: 13A. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Grave 6: Square shaft with two side chambers This was almost certainly a reused older grave. Superstructure: none. Orientation: NNW-SSE. Shaft type: rock-cut square shaft, with oval side chambers to NNW and SSE. Dimensions: shaft 80 x 60cm; both chambers 1.8 x 1.45 x 0.9m. Dimensions of chamber doors 70 x 50cm. Depth: 1.2m. Condition: SSE chamber disturbed; NNW chamber intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: all burials wrapped in coarse material. Burials: 2 adults in NNW chamber; 3 adults in SSW chamber. Body positions: SSE burials disturbed; NNW burials dorsally extended, heads to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, pp. 5-7. Photos: none. Sketch plan: GJV Book I, p. 4. Plan: none.

Grave 9: Square shaft with two side chambers Superstructure: none. Orientation: NW-SE. Shaft type: rock-cut, square shaft with side chambers at NW and SE. Dimensions: shaft 75 x 65cm; dimensions of chambers not recorded. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: totally plundered. Body covering: originally stones closing the chambers. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burials: remains of at least 6 burials on NW chamber; SE chamber not investigated. Body positions: all disturbed. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, pp. 7-9. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Grave 7: Square shaft with two side chambers In this tomb there was a carved monogrammatic design over the doorway to the north chamber, shown in Plate 10a. Identification as a Christian tomb in hypothetical, in view of the total plundering.

Grave 10: Square shaft with two side chambers Superstructure: top of shaft covered by pavement of unshaped stones set in mud. Orientation: NW-SE. Shaft type: rock-cut, square shaft with side chambers at NW and SE. Dimensions: Shaft 75 x 75cm; both chambers 2 x 0.8m. Depth: 1.6m. Condition: intact. Body covering: none recorded.

Superstructure: none. Shaft closed by large stone slab at surface. Orientation: NNW-SSE. Shaft type: rock-cut, square shaft with side chambers at NNW and SSE. Dimensions: shaft 65 x 60cm; side chambers not given. 100

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Superstructures

Body wrapping: none recorded. Burials: 3 in NW chamber; 2 in SE chamber. Body positions: all dorsally extended, heads to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: GJV Book I, p. 9. Photos: F/001: 12A. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

The three superstructures we cleared were rectangular stone mastabas covered by white plaster, with lamp boxes at the west end. One is shown in Plate 9a. The tops were denuded, so that the full original form of the structures could not be determined. All were oriented east-west, though other superstructures that we did not clear appeared to be oriented slightly differently, some more to the northeast and some more to the southeast. Lamps were found in situ in two cases.

Documentation Alternate designation: Griffith, “Western Cemeteries;” Cemeteries 4-7. Recorded: originally by G. S. Mileham, 1910. Excavation: surface clearing and random excavation of graves by Oxford University Expedition, 1910-12. Nine graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, winter, 1960. Field notes: GJV Book I, pp. 1-8. Photos: F/001: 12-15. Sketch plans: GJV Book I, pp. 2, 4. Plan: none. Published references: Mileham 1910, 23; Griffith 1927, 67-77 and pls LII-LVII; Verwers 1961, 29.

Adult grave Superstructure: rectangular stone mastaba with lamp box. Grave type: slot. Shaft dimensions: not recorded. Shaft depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Burial: adult. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: none preserved. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 13. Photos: none Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

24-E-29: Christian brick tombs, Faras The site was located within the Faras “Great Enclosure” (cf. Griffith 1926, 25-9) close to the base of the great Faras kom. It consisted of the surviving lower portions of two brick chamber tombs, aligned side by side and directly contiguous to one another. Presumably the chambers had originally been vaulted, but only the vertical lower portions of the walls were preserved. One tomb contained 15 bodies and the other 13 bodies, all extended with heads to the west. The bodies were fully desiccated, with most of the fleshy tissue preserved. As we were at the time completely unprepared to conserve burials in this condition, they were reburied after the upper ones had been exposed. A hand-made votive lamp (Ware H5, Form P25), found at the western end of one of the tombs, suggested a Late Christian dating. Probably these were among the Christian vaulted tombs previously noted, but not excavated, both by Mileham (1910, 23) and by Griffith (1927, 92-3). The notes and photos on these tombs, dug in the very first days of our first season, have been lost.

Infant graves “2 small oval pits were found containing child burials, 1 piece of iron.”

Registered finds without recorded provenience 1. Lamp, Ware R5, Form P17. 2. Lamp, Ware R4, Form P1. 3. Cup, Ware R1, Form A31.

Documentation Excavation: 3 graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, Fall, 1960. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 13. Photos: F/019: 16-24. Sketch plans: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Verwers 1962, 27-8.

24-M-11: Early Christian cemetery, Serra

24-R-4: Christian cemetery, Debeira

This was a cemetery of 80 or more graves, identified at the surface by rectangular stone mastabas. The surface had been badly disturbed by cultivation in the past. We excavated one adult burial and two infant burials. The lamp types as well as the mastaba types indicated a very early Christian date; in one case a Ballaña cup had apparently been used as a lamp.

An extensive cemetery covering an area of perhaps 300 x 100m, on a sandy flat very close to the riverbank. The field notes are very scanty. The number of graves was not estimated, and the number that were excavated is not indicated. Notes mention both slot and lateral-niche graves, some marked at the surface by an irregular heap of stones. Orientations were ESE-WNW. There is no description of bodies or contents, and there are no registered finds.

Site specifications Setting: on sand-strewn alluvial plain, about 500m from the riverbank; immediately in front of some of the houses of Serra West village. Extent: about 80 graves identified, but others probably present. Areal extent not recorded.

Documentation Excavation: unknown but presumably small number of graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, Winter, 1961. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 29. Photos: none. 101

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The Christian graves

Sketch plans: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Verwers 1962, 29.

Graves 2-4: Slot graves Superstructures: none recorded. Grave types: all apparently slot graves. Dimensions: not recorded. Depth: not recorded. Condition: all undisturbed. Body covers: not recorded. Body wrapping: one body had remnants of cloth wrapping. Burials: 1 individual in each grave. Body positions: all dorsally extended, heads to west, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 33. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

24-R-9: Christian cemetery, Debeira This was an apparently large group of Christian graves located on the sandy, gravel-strewn slope to the west of Church 24-R-44; possibly associated with the church. The existence of the graves was previously noted by Mileham (1910, 14) and Somers Clarke (1912, 62), but neither did any digging. We excavated five graves. Two had superstructures consisting of a hollow rectangle of bricks laid on edge. (One example is shown in Plate 9b). Notes suggest that one grave was an oval pit, which possibly had originally had a brick vaulted roof. One is described as a lateral-niche grave; others presumably were slot graves. All graves were undisturbed, and contained dorsally extended burials, with heads to the west. All were oriented east-west. Subsequent to our work, the University of Ghana Expedition discovered an additional five graves, and excavated four. They are described as a bottom-niche grave with a brick superstructure; a rectangular shaft with an end chamber at the east, containing four burials; a cutting in the rock for a grave that was never completed; and a small child’s grave sealed with blocks of stone (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 32-3).

Grave 5: Vaulted brick tomb Superstructure: rectangular brick pavement. Superstructure dimensions: 3.2 x 1.9m. Grave type: vaulted brick chamber, with long dromos to the west. Dromos: rectangular with rounded west end. Dromos dimensions: width 1.1m. Dromos depth: sloping toward east; maximum depth 2.1m. Chamber form: rectangular brick vault. The space in the shaft above the vault crown was filled with brick masonry, which continued above ground as the superstructure. Chamber dimensions: length and width not clearly recorded; height of vault 1.4m. Condition: undisturbed. Burial: 1 adult. Body cover: body was contained in a wooden coffin, bound with iron at the corners. Body wrapping: none recorded. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: GJV Book 33, pp. 33-35. Photos: F/020: 43-47. Sketch plan: GJV Book IV, p. 34. Plan: none.

Documentation First recorded: by G. S. Mileham in 1899. Excavation: 5 graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, Winter, 1961; 4 graves excavated by University of Ghana Expedition in 1963. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 31. Photos: F/020: 39-41. Sketch plans: none. Plan: none. Published references: Mileham 1910, 14; Somers Clark 1912, 62; Verwers 1962, 29; Shinnie 1964, 212; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 32-3.

24-R-11: Ballaña and Christian cemetery, Debeira An unknown but apparently large number of Ballaña and Christian graves. The site was located fairly close to the riverbank and a little to the south of Early and Classic Christian settlement 24-R-8, and Church 24-R-44. It was probably continuous originally with cemetery 24-R-12; the two were separated in modern times by a small wadi. Ballaña graves were marked at the surface by low, round tumuli, at least one of which was ringed with stones. Some Christian graves were marked by a heap of stones, and at least one had a rectangular brick-pavement superstructure. The orientation of all the graves was east-west. One grave was excavated by the Antiquities Service survey of 1956, and five others by us, of which four were identified as Christian. Subsequently, the University of Ghana Expedition excavated one Ballaña grave (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 45-7).

Documentation First recorded: by Antiquities Service survey, 1956. Excavation: 1 grave excavated by T. H. Thabit, 1956; 5 graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, Winter, 1961; 1 grave excavated by University of Ghana Expedition, 1962. Field notes: GJV Book IV, pp. 33-35. Photos: F/020: 43-47. Sketch plan: GJV Book IV, p. 34. Plan: none. Published references: Vercoutter 1956, 10; Verwers 1962, 28-9; Shinnie 1963, 263; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 45-7.

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24-R-12: Ballaña and Christian cemetery, Debeira

Grave types: narrow rectangular slots. Orientation: not recorded. Dimensions: not recorded. Condition: intact. Burials: presumably 1 per grave. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: 1 was bound together with tapes. Body positions: dorsally extended, head to west. Finds: none. Original notes: GJV Book IV, p. 39. Photos: none. Sketch plans: none. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

A cemetery located on a sandy flat about 300m from the riverbank. It was believed to be extensive, though we did not estimate the number of graves. There were Ballaña graves with mound tumuli, and also Christian graves having rectangular superstructures of stone masonry, one with a lamp box. The site was essentially a continuation of cemetery 24-R-11, separated from it only by a small wadi. The Antiquities Service Survey excavated one grave in 1956, and we excavated three in 1961, of which two were of Ballaña and one of Christian date. The Ballaña graves have been described in a previous volume (Adams 2004, 126-127). Subsequently, the University of Ghana Expedition excavated two additional Ballaña graves in 1962 (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 45-8).

24-R-19: Christian cemetery, Debeira We estimated that the site included between 20 and 30 graves, situated on a sandy flat behind the Debeira cultivations, about 700m from the riverbank. We excavated five graves, but notes are minimal.

The Christian grave Grave 2: Slot grave Superstructure: rectangle of stone masonry, with lamp niche at west end. Poorly preserved. Grave type: slot. Orientation: east-west? Dimensions: not recorded. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Burial: 1 individual. Body cover: none recorded. Body wrapping: textile. Body position: not recorded. Registered find (probable): 5. Lamp, Ware R2? Form P15. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 35. Photos: F/020: 49. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Superstructures: rectangular heaps of stones. Grave types: rectangular slots, at least some with lateral niche. Orientations: not recorded. Dimensions: not recorded. Burials: one dorsally extended; others not excavated. Finds: none.

Documentation Excavation: 5 graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, winter, 1961. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 45. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: none.

24-V-7: Christian graves, Argin

Documentation

At this site only five graves were identified. They were situated on a sanded-over flat, about 750m from the riverbank. The number of graves actually excavated is not indicated in the notes. The following apparently applies to all of the graves that were excavated:

First recorded: by Sudan Antiquities Service survey, 1956. Excavation: 1 grave excavated by T. H. Thabit, 1956. 3 graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, 1961. 2 graves excavated by University of Ghana Expedition, 1962. Field notes: GJV Book IV. p. 35. Photos: F/020: 49-51, 55. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published references: Verwers 1962, 28-29; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 45-8.

Superstructures: rectangular heaps of stones. Orientation: apparently east-west. Grave types: slots. Condition: intact. Burials: presumably one in each grave. Body positions: dorsally extended, heads to west. Finds: none.

24-R-14: Christian cemetery, Debeira

Documentation

The site consisted of about 30 graves, located on a sandy flat behind the cultivated fields of Debeira, about 250m from the riverbank. We excavated four graves, but there are no notes on individual graves. The following notes apparently apply to all graves:

Excavation: unknown number of graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, Winter, 1961. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 59. Photos: none. Sketch plans: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Verwers 1962, 30.

Superstructures: rectangular brick pavements, with heaps of stones on top. 103

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24-V-9: Meroitic, Ballaña (?) and Christian cemetery, Argin

graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, April, 1961; 222 graves excavated by the Spanish Expedition, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 68-70. Sketch plans: HÅN Book II, pp. 68, 70. Cross-section: HÅN Book II, p. 70. Site plan: none. Photos: F/052: 8-10; F/054: 5-8. Published references: Nordström 1962, 43; Almagro et al. 1963, 182-3; Pellicer 1963.

(Spanish Site MAN) After our preliminary examination we registered this as a “very large cemetery including at least 10 Ballaña tumuli, a large number of Christian slot graves without superstructures, and perhaps 150 Meroitic graves.” We excavated two graves which were clearly Meroitic, two which we identified as Christian because they were undisturbed, and one which was uncertain. Subsequently however, after very extensive excavations, the Spanish Expedition identified all of the slot graves as Meroitic rather than Christian, and did not identify any Ballaña graves. It seems amply clear therefore that the cemetery was overwhelmingly Meroitic. Nevertheless, it also seems clear that two of the graves excavated by us were Christian. The Meroitic graves have been reported in a previous volume (Adams 2004,57-59).

6-B-13: Christian cemetery, Argin This was a group of about 40 graves, situated just in front of the houses in Argin village, about 500m from the riverbank. All the graves were without superstructures, and were oriented east-west. Two graves were excavated by us in 1961, and 37 graves by the Colorado Expedition in 1963-64. The excavations encountered both slot and lateral-niche graves, with extended burials. The Colorado excavations were undertaken solely to collect skeletal material, and have not been published, but some information on dentition is included in Greene 1966 and Greene 1967.

Site specifications Setting: about 300m from the riverbank, behind the riverside dunes and acacia thickets of Argin. Area: about 200m north-south by 100m east-west.

Graves excavated by the West Bank Survey

The Christian graves

Grave 1: Side-niche grave Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: rectangular shaft with small lateral niche on south side. Dimensions: shaft 2.6 x 1m. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed by leaning stones. Body wrapping: not recorded. Burial: adult. Body position: extended, head to west. Finds: none. Field notes: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 84. Photo: F/058:12.

Grave 3: Slot grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: rectangular slot. Dimensions: 2.3 x 0.8m. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: intact. Body covering: not recorded. Body wrapping: not recorded. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 69. Sketch plan: none. Photos: none.

Grave 2: Slot grave Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: rectangular shaft tapering slightly to bottom, with rounded ends. Dimensions: not indicated. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: intact. Body covering: none indicated. Body wrapping: not indicated. Burial: adult female. Body position: extended, head to west. Finds: none. Field notes: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 84. Photo: none.

Grave 4: Slot grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: rectangular slot. Dimensions: 2.3 x 0.9m. Depth: 1.35m. Condition: intact. Body covering: not recorded. Body wrapping: not recorded. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 69. Sketch plan: none. Photo: F/052:10.

Documentation

Documentation

Excavation: 2 graves excavated by H-Å. Nordström, April, 1961; 37 graves excavated by University of Colorado Expedition, 1963-64. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 84.

Originally recorded: by T. H. Thabit for Antiquitie Service, 1956. Excavation: 1 grave excavated by T. H. Thabit in 1956; 5 104

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Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 84. Photo: F/058: 12. Site plan: none. Published reference: Nordström 1962, 43.

Grave 4: Infant burial Orientation: northwest-southeast. Shaft type: small rectangular slot. Dimensions: 64 x 32cm. Depth: 45cm. Condition: intact?. Body covering: not indicated. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: infant. Body position: not indicated. Finds: one bead. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 31-32. Photos: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 32.

6-F-2: Christian graves, Gezira Dabarosa This was a group of four Christian graves without superstructures, dug into a gently sloping sandy surface, about 100m from the riverbank. We excavated all four. Grave 1: Side-niche grave Orientation: northwest-southeast. Shaft type: rectangular slot with small side niche at northeast side. Dimensions: 1.6 x 0.52m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: large stones in shaft. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: presumably adult. Body position: on right side, with legs tightly contracted, head to northwest, facing west. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 30-31. Photos: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 30.

Documentation Excavation: all graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, February, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 30-32. Sketch plans: HÅN Book II, pp. 30, 32. Photos: F/031: 1-4. Site plan: none. Published reference: Nordström 1962, 48.

6-G-2: Meroitic, Ballaña, and Christian cemetery, Gezira Dabarosa The site, of undetermined size, was located on the sandy flat immediately adjoining the cultivated floodplain at Gezira Dabarosa. It included both end-chamber graves with dromos, which were probably Meroitic, and deep lateral-niche graves, which were probably Ballaña. Later, Christian burials had been intruded into graves of both types. No superstructures of any age were preserved. We excavated five burials, of which at least three were Christian, dorsally extended, head to the west, with hands on the pelvis. There are no detailed notes on individual graves, but in the two photographed examples, the head was facing up. One individual was wrapped in textile, and had a string of beads at the neck; this burial was in a lateral-niche grave (Plate 10f). Subsequent to our excavations, some additional testing was done by the University of Colorado Expedition in 1964, but this work has not been published.

Grave 2: Slot grave Orientation: northwest-southeast. Shaft type: rectangular slot. Dimensions; 1.5 x 0.44m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: large stones in shaft. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: presumably adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to northwest, facing up, arms at sides. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 31-32. Photos: F/031:2. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 32. Grave 3: Slot grave Orientation: northwest-southeast. Shaft type: long, narrow slot tapered nearly to a point at both ends. Dimensions: 2.1 x 0.42m. Depth: not recorded; apparently shallow. Condition: intact. Body covering: three large stones upright along left side of body. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: presumably adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to northwest, facing up, arms folded across abdomen. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 31-32. Photos: F/031:3. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 32.

Documentation Excavation: 5 graves excavated by G. J. Verwers, winter, 1961. Some additional testing by the University of Colorado Expedition, 1964. Field notes: GJV Book IV, p. 61. Photos: F/021: 46-48, 68-72. Sketch plan: GJV Book IV, p. 60. Plan: none. Published reference: Verwers 1962, 60.

6-G-8: Christian cemetery, Gezira Dabarosa A large, very denuded and partially disturbed cemetery located in the central part of Gezira Dabarosa village. Its width could be estimated to at least 20-25m. All graves were encountered a little beneath the sand surface, where some pieces of mud bricks and sandstone slabs were ex-

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posed. The western edge of the cemetery was disturbed by modern habitations. For this reason and due to the lack of surface features it was difficult to estimate precisely the number of graves, but in all probability there were more than 100. Most of them, particularly in the southern half of the cemetery, appeared to be simple slot graves, generally orientated in NW-SE. A few vaulted chamber tombs of Christian type were uncovered in the central part of the site. We excavated two slot graves, one bottom-niche grave, four brick vaults, and one infant burial in a pottery vessel. All of the vaulted tombs had been plundered, but we concluded nevertheless that they had been Christian tombs because of the total lack of offerings or of pre-Christian sherds on the site. Subsequently, the University of Colorado Expedition excavated an additional 33 graves in 1964, for the purpose of obtaining skeletal material for comparative study. Dental analyses of this material are incorporated in Greene 1966 and Greene 1967, but no cultural information has been published.

Body position: skeleton located in the bottom niche, dorsally extended, head to NW. Head disturbed by plunderers. Finds: none. Original notes: HÅN Book II, p. 5. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p, 2. Photos: F/025: 8-9. Grave 3A-B: Two vaulted brick chambers side by side, constructed as a unit Location: southern half of the site. Superstructure: none. Orientation: NW-SE. Chambers: two rectangular brick chambers side by side, divided by a brick partition. Each was entered by a quarter-round dromos at the west end. Overall dimensions: 2.5 x 3.3m. Depth: 95cm. Condition: burials plundered and structures dilapidated; used as a trash dump in modern times. Vault chamber 3A Dimensions: 1 x 2.1m. Height: 70cm, as preserved. Dromos: quarter-round in outline, c. 50cm high and 50cm wide at the base. Outside the chamber entrance was a low mastaba-like threshold of mud brick. Condition: heavily plundered. Burial: remains of an almost wholly disturbed adult. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: originally wrapped in cloth. Body position: head to NW. Finds: remains of blue-green cloth band with a yellow border, and a pair of well-preserved leather shoes on the feet. Registered finds: 2 leather shoes. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 6. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 6. Photos: F/025:11-12

Graves excavated by the West Bank Survey Grave 1: a small, irregular shaft with child burial Location: northern half of the site, close to the front of a modern house. Orientation: NW-SE, with the narrowest part at NW. Superstructure: none. Shaft: small, slightly trapezoid outline, dug in the top silt layer. Dimensions: width 30-50cm, length 1m. Depth: 30cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: upper part of the shaft closed by four slanting sandstone slabs of irregular outline; the one at the NW end broken in two pieces. Body wrapping: none described. Burial: child skeleton in situ beneath the slabs. Body position: dorsally extended, head to NW. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 5. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 2. Photos: F/025: 7 and 10.

Vault chamber 3B Dimensions: 1.1 x 2.1m. Height: 70cm, as preserved. Dromos: quarter-round in outline, c. 50cm high and 50cm wide at the base. Chamber entrance partially blocked by mud bricks . Condition: heavily plundered. Burials: remains of at least five adult skeletons. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none noted. Body positions: four burials completely disturbed, the skulls lying in the NW part. Fifth skeleton partially in original position, located along the S side of the chamber, dorsally extended, head to NW. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 7. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 6. Photos: F/025:11-12.

Grave 2: Bottom-niche grave Location: northern half of the site. Superstructure: none. Orientation: NW-SE. Shaft: rectangular with bottom niche, dug in alluvial silt. Dimensions: 0.85 x 2.15m. The bottom niche consisted of a narrow slot, width 45-50cm. Depth: 50cm. Condition: head disturbed by robbers; remainder intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: body partially wrapped in cloth, tied together by narrow bands of fabric. The bands were made of plaited cords of two colors, light yellow-brown and dark brown. Burial: adult.

Grave 3C: Child burial in a simple slot. Location: 50cm to the south of Chamber 3B.

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6-G-11: Christian (?) grave, Gezira Dabarosa

Superstructure: none. Orientation: east-west. Shaft: small rectangular slot. Dimensions: 40 x 95cm. Depth: 20cm. Condition: intact? Body covering: none noted. Body wrapping: none noted. Burial: remains of a child skeleton. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing south. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 7. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 6. Photos: none.

A narrow oval grave pit without superstructure, located on the desert sand slope behind the cultivated fields of Gezira Dabarosa, about 400m from the riverbank. The grave was oriented northwest-southwest, and contained a single burial on its right side, with head to the northwest, knees slightly flexed. Notes indicate that it was partly disturbed. There were no finds.

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, January, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 10-11. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 10. Photos: F/026: 7-8. Site plan: none. Published reference: Nordström 1962, 48.

Grave 4: Vaulted brick tomb Location: central part of the cemetery, near Tomb 3A-B. Superstructure: none. Orientation: NW-SE. Chamber: rectangular brick chamber, with half-round dromos at NW end. Dimensions: 1.75 x 3.1m. Depth: 1m. Chamber closure: transverse mud-brick wall at the NW end. Chamber dimensions: 2.3 x 1.2m. Chamber height: originally c. 1m. Condition: heavily disturbed. Burials: remains of four adults. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none noted. Body positions: disarticulated. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book II, p. 9. Sketch plan: HÅN Book II, p. 8. Photos: none.

5-0-10: Christian (?) grave, Abdel Qadir A single partially plundered grave, probably but not certainly of Christian date. Setting: on a slightly elevated terrace about 700m from the riverbank. Superstructure: none; surface almost certainly deflated. Orientation: northwest-southeast. Dimensions: 1.8 x 0.4m. Depth: 35cm. Condition: disturbed; upper bones partially displaced. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: none. Burial: a small female or adolescent. Body position: dorsally extended, head to northwest. Finds: body was lying on a woven mat (of palm fiber?)— not collected.

Documentation Excavation: by H. -Å. Nordström, October, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 2. Sketch plan: HÅN Book III, opp. p. 2. Photos: F/064: 9. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 15.

Grave 5: Vaulted brick tomb; not excavated The superstructure is shown in Plate 9d. Location: north end of the cemetery. Description: rectangular roof of an apparently unplundered chamber tomb.

5-T-2: Christian graves, Abu Sir Immediately north of Abu Sir church (also designated as Site 5-T-2), and extending northward for about 40m, we located a group of about 100 Christian graves. They were marked at the surface either by an oval outline of upright stones or by a rectangular paving of mud brick. The former were most probably of Early Christian date, and the latter of Classic Christian date. The whole surface was cleaned, but no graves were excavated.

Grave 6: Infant burial in a broken pottery jar Location: southern part of the cemetery. Description: Infant burial in broken pottery jar; ware and form not recorded. Dug into alluvial silt, with vessel rim encountered only 5-10cm beneath the surface. Remains of hair and fingernails preserved on body.

Documentation

Documentation

Field notes: HÅN Book II, pp. 1-9. Photos: F/025: 6-11; F/026, 1-6. Sketch plans: HÅN Book II, pp. 2, 4, 6, 8. Plan: none. Published references: Nordström 1962, 48; Adams and Nordström 1963, 25.

Excavation: cemetery surface cleared but not excavated by W. Y. Adams, November 20-24, 1961. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 34. Photos: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 32, 44-6.

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5-S-16: Christian graves in Pharaonic hut, Mirgissa

5-S-22: Christian (?) grave, Mirgissa On the desert terrace behind Mirgissa fortress, about 700m from the riverbank, a single intact burial was found in windblown sand, a few centimeters below the surface. The undisturbed condition and the body position suggested that it was probably Christian.

The site was located on the sandy terrace a short distance to the north of the Mirgissa fortress. Its chief component was a hut or house of two or more rooms, very rudely built of stone masonry. On the basis of associated sherds we identified this structure as Pharaonic, and presumably coeval with the fortress. However, intruded into the floor of one room was an undisturbed burial (Grave 1) that was almost certainly Christian. It was dorsally extended, head to the west, with hands on the pubis (Plate 11a). This burial was found at a depth of only 40cm below the surface; presumably it was interred at a time when the sand fill within the hut was considerably deeper than it was when we excavated. Grave 2, probably also Christian, was encountered just outside the south wall of the structure. It was marked at the surface by a rather roughly-laid rectangle of granite stones, measuring 2.4 x 1.1m. Beneath was a partially disturbed burial, dorsally extended with head to the west. Other details of the grave were not recorded.

Grave Superstructure: none; surface apparently very deflated. Orientation: northwest (324º) Shaft type: slot? Dimensions: not determinable. Depth: 10-20cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: few small stones. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head turned to right, hands on pubis. Finds: none.

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, December, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 39. Sketch plan: HÅN Book III, opp. p. 39. Photo: F/079: 6. Published reference: none.

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordström, December, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 36. Sketch plan: HÅN Book III, opp. p. 36. Photos: F/078: 1-5. Published reference: none.

5-S-23: Ballaña and Christian graves, Mirgissa

5-S-21: Christian (?) graves, Mirgissa

A site apparently consisting of two graves only, dug into a sloping alluvial surface close to the Nile. Both graves were of lateral-niche type, but one (robbed) was evidently of Ballaña type, and one (not robbed) of Christian type. The Ballaña grave has been described in a previous volume (Adams 2004, 135). These graves were probably a family burial plot for nearby house Site 5-S-24, which was of Ballaña and Early Christian date.

On the desert terrace behind Mirgissa fortress, about 1km from the riverbank, a group of about 15 round or nearly round rough stone structures was discovered. They might have been the remains of disturbed grave superstructures, although excavation of one structure revealed no grave underneath. Nearby, however, one probably Christian grave was discovered. Grave Superstructure: none. Shallow depth suggests that the surface was very much deflated. Orientation: northwest (300º). Shaft type: rectangular slot with rounded corners. Dimensions: 2.6 x 0.6m. Depth: 25cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: small stones? Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head facing left. Right arm on pubis, left arm at side. Finds: none.

Grave 2: Side-niche grave (Plate 10e) Superstructure: none preserved, but surface deflation possible. Orientation: SW-NE. Grave type: rectangular shaft with rounded corners; lateral niche at NW side. Shaft dimensions: 1.8 x 0.75m. Niche dimensions: 1.8 x 0.3m. Depth: 70cm as preserved. This may not be the full original depth, due to surface deflation. Condition: fully intact and desiccated. Body covering: granite stones laid all alongside and over body, and filling the shaft up to 30cm below the top. Body wrapping: shroud of coarse material, of which only small bits survived. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended with head to west, turned to face north. Arms crossed across breast. Offerings: none.

Documentation Excavation: one grave excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, December, 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 39. Sketch plan: none. Photos: F/079: 4-5. Site plan: none. Published reference: none

Documentation Excavation: 2 graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordstrom and

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W. Y. Adams, 17-18 December 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 40; WYA Book V, pp. 5052. Photos: F/081: 4-7. Sketch plan: WYA Book V, p. 50. Published references: Adams and Nordström 1963, 13.

Dimensions: 1.85 x 1.05m. Depth: 40cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: stones. Body wrapping: shroud, without tapes. Burial: infant, c. 6 years. Body position: on left side, with head to west. Body partially mummified. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 12f. Photos: F/099: 2. Sketch plan: none.

5-S-29: Christian cemetery, Shamnarti Island The cemetery was located in a narrow, sandy draw among rocky hills, and was in two parts, separated by intervening rock outcrops. We estimated that 30 to 40 graves were present. All of them had an east-west orientation and typical Christian surface marking, and the five that we excavated were undoubtedly Christian. Nevertheless, several graves appeared to have been disturbed, presumably in the mistaken belief that they were pre-Christian. All the graves in both parts of the site were dug into soft river sand, which crumbled readily. The graves that we recorded could not be definitely dated within the Christian period. In Nubia generally, graves with stone outline or stone-pavement superstructures are most often of Early Christian date, and graves with superstructures of brick are of Classic Christian date (cf. Adams 1998), and this may have been the case here. The fill of Grave W1 contained Late Christian sherds, but this very aberrant grave might have been considerably later than the others.

Grave E3: Slot with small side niche Superstructure: none noted. Orientation: 290º Shaft type: slot, with shallow niche at north side. Dimensions: 2.5 x 0.8m. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed with stones. Body wrapping: shroud, without tapes. Burial: adult female. Body position: on left side, with head to west. Field notes: WYA Book VI, opp. p. 13. Photos: F/098: 7. Sketch plan: none.

Western sector This sector appeared to include from 20 to 30 graves. Most were marked at the surface by outlining of stones, which might be a regular rectangle, or a rectangle with rounded ends. A few had a complete paving of stones. A few also had a rectangle of bricks set on edge, some with stone outlining resting on top.

Eastern sector This part included no more than 12 graves, of which at least two had obviously been disturbed. We excavated three graves, as follows: Grave E1: Slot with very small side niche Superstructure: disturbed. Orientation: 240º Shaft type: narrow slot with very small side niche to north. Dimensions: 1.8 x 0.45m. Depth: 85cm. Condition: slightly disturbed; head removed from body. Body covering: removed, if any. Body wrapping: shroud, without tapes. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended with head to west; head removed by robbers and placed on top of chest. Body desiccated, with soft tissue remaining. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 12. Photos: F/097: 12. Sketch plan: none. Remarks: plunderers apparently removed the head in search of ornaments, but did not disturb the remainder of the body,

Grave W1 A highly aberrant grave containing the bodies of two individuals, apparently hastily and carelessly interred (Plate 11d). Superstructure: large oval outlining of stones, over 2m in diameter. Orientation: heads of bodies to west. Shaft type: a shallow oval “pan” scooped out of soft sand. Dimensions: 3 x 2.5m. Depth: 50cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none. Burial 1: adolescent of undetermined sex. Burial 2: adult male. Body positions: Burial 1 on left side, twisted so that shoulders and head faced downward, knees very tightly flexed. Burial 2, immediately behind Burial 1, in very contorted position. Lying on back with head sharply turned to right, knees considerably bent upward, arms partly extended outward (Plate 11d). Fill contents: the fill contained some sherds of Late Christian wares. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 13f. Photos: F/098: 8-10.

Grave E2: Infant burial Superstructure: oval of small stones outlining the pit. Orientation: 215º Shaft type: ‘bathtub’-shaped depression with flat floor; burial in depression in the middle of the floor.

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Presumed Christian graves

Sketch plan: none.

Grave 2: Side-niche grave Superstructure: low, round tumulus 8m in diameter, ringed by stones which may originally have covered the complete structure. Shaft orientation: 261º Shaft type: deep slot, with side niche on north side. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.9m; side niche 60cm wide. Depth: 1.6m. Condition: intact. Body covering: large stones blocking side niche. Body wrapping: none described. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, hands on pubis. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 29. Photos: F/094: 5; F/097: 1-2. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown on site plan.

Grave W2: Infant burial Superstructure: none noted; possibly disturbed by robbers. Orientation: 295º Shaft type: ‘bathtub’-shaped depression with flat floor; burial in a slot in the middle of the floor. Dimensions: 2.1 x 1.3m. Depth: 45cm. Condition: apparently partly disturbed. Body covering: stones. Body wrapping: none. Burial: infant of 6-8 years. Body position: dorsally extended with head to west, hands on pubis. Skull missing, presumably removed by robbers. Field notes: WYA Book VI, opp. p. 14. Photos: F/098: 11-12. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 3: Side-niche grave Superstructure: Low, round tumulus 8m in diameter, ringed by large, rough granite stones; interior filled with mud. Shaft orientation: 293º Shaft type: deep slot, with side niche on north side. Dimensions: 2.10 x 0.75m at surface; inset slightly at a point 1.1m below surface. Side niche 80cm wide. Depth: 1.8m. Condition: intact. Body covering: side niche closed by stones. Body wrapping: completely wrapped in cloth, tied with tapes. Burial: adult. Body position: extended on left side, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 30-31. Photos: F/094: 4, 6. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown on site plan.

Documentation Excavation: 5 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams, February 24-25, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 12-13. Photos: F/097: 12; F/098: 2-3, 7-12. Sketch plans: none. Plans: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

5-T-27: Ballaña and Christian cemetery, Abu Sir (Figure 38) This cemetery was first noted by N. F. Wheeler during the Harvard-Boston Excavations at Mirgissa in 1931, and was recorded in his diary (Wheeler 1961, 104). The cemetery was located on a broad, sandy flat, on a high terrace above the riverbank, and contained an estimated 50 to 100 graves. We cleared three small areas near the southern end of the cemetery, and excavated 13 graves (Figure 38). All but three of the graves had apparently had round earthen tumuli—several of them large—and most had other Ballaña characteristics as well. At the same time the bodies in all but one case were shrouded and oriented east-west, and only two graves contained offerings. On the basis of this evidence we classified the two graves with offerings as Ballaña, and all the others as Christian. The Ballaña graves have been reported in a previous volume (Adams 2004, 129-131). Because the cemetery was located on higher ground than most others investigated by us, preservation conditions were excellent. Most of the bodies were naturally mummified, with their shrouds intact, and other perishable objects were preserved as well. We did not in any case attempt to unwrap the bodies, and thus were unable to determine the age or sex of the burials. We could also not determine the positioning of the hands in most cases.

Grave 4: Side-niche grave (Plate 10d) Superstructure: apparently a small round tumulus, 3.6m in diameter, covered with large stones that were partially displaced. Shaft orientation: 270º Shaft type: slot, with side niche to north. Dimensions: 1.9 x 0.95cm; side niche 40cm wide. Depth: 1.9m. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth, tied with tapes (Plate 10d). Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 28. Photos: F/095: 7; F/097: 7. Sketch plan: none. Plan; shown on site plan.

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Figure 38. Partial plan of Abu Sir Cemetery 5-T-27, showing only the excavated portion (scale 1:300).

Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 28. Photos: F/096: 1; F/097: 5. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown on site plan.

Grave 5: End-chamber grave There was no superstructure directly over the grave shaft, but a low tumulus immediately to the east of it was positioned over the end chamber in which the burial was located. The grave was not fully excavated because of the danger of collapse of the end-chamber roof.

Grave 9: Slot with combined end and side chamber The grave contained two burials: a child burial at a depth of 40cm, and an adult in the bottom of the shaft. Each was separately covered by sandstone slabs. The upper burial was undoubtedly a later intrusion.

Superstructure: round tumulus 2.8m in diameter, outlined by large stones. Shaft orientation: 270º Shaft type: slot, with very long and narrow burial chamber extending out to the east. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.7m at the surface, tapering inward considerably toward the bottom. End chamber 2.75m long, 1m wide, 60cm high. Depth: 2.7m. Condition: intact. Body covering: mouth of the end chamber blocked by large mud bricks, under a brick spanning arch. Burial: a burial could be seen just inside the entrance, to the left, but it was not investigated. Body wrapping: ? Body position: probably extended, in view of the dimensions of the end-chamber. Offerings: none in the grave shaft; end-chamber not investigated. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 28-29. Photos: F/095: 6; F/097: 3. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 28. Plan: shown on site plan.

Superstructure: plan suggests a small round earth tumulus, about 2.2m in diameter. Shaft orientation: 288º Shaft type: slot, with combined side and end chamber at north and east ends. Dimensions: 1.80 x 0.7m at top, narrowing to width of 40cm at bottom. Extra width at top was probably due to later intrusion of the child burial. Additional length of end chamber 10cm. Depth: 1.7m. Condition: intact. Grave 9 upper burial Body covering: stones all over. Body wrapping: none. Burial: child. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up. Offerings: none. Photos: F/095: 11; F/096: 2, 12.

Grave 7: Side-niche grave Superstructure: none? Shaft orientation: 288º Shaft type: slot, with side niche on north side. Dimensions: 1.15 x 0.9m. Depth: 2.1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed with stones and slabs of mud, which also filled the bottom of the shaft. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth, tied with tapes. Burial: sub-adult? Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 27. Photos: F/096: 4. Sketch plan none. Plan: shown on site plan.

Grave 9 lower burial Body covering: stone slabs all over. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth, tied with tapes. Burial: adult? Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 27. Photo: F/095:12. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 27. Plan: shown on site plan. Grave 10: Slot with combined end and side chamber This grave, like Grave 9, had an intruded child burial in the upper part of the shaft. Superstructure: none indicated on plan, but possibly destroyed when child burial was intruded. Shaft orientation: 270º Shaft type: slot with combined end and side chamber. Dimensions: slot 2 x 0.65m. Added dimensions of endside chamber 1m long, 80cm wide, 45cm high. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: intact.

Grave 8: Slot with bottom niche and end niche Superstructure: plan suggests small round earth tumulus, c. 1.6m in diameter, covered with sandstone slabs. Shaft orientation: 285º Shaft type: slot, with bottom niche and small end niche at east. Dimensions: 1.6 x 0.55cm. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: stone slabs along entire length. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth, tied with tapes. Burial: adult?

Grave 10 upper burial Body covering: partially covered with mud bricks. Body wrapping: none. Burial: child. Body position: dorsally extended, head west, facing up. Offerings: none. 111

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Photo: F/095: 5.

Superstructure: none. Orientation: 244º Shaft type: oval pit, with shallow side chamber at north side. Dimensions: 90 x 55cm; length of side niche 65cm. Depth: 60cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth. Burial: child. Body position: extended, with head to east. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 30. Photo: F/096: 8. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown in site plan.

Grave 10 lower burial Body covering: end chamber partially blocked with stones. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth, tied with cords. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 27. Photo: F/096: 3. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown on site plan. Grave 11: Side-niche grave. This grave once again had an intruded child burial in the upper part of the shaft. Superstructure: low round tumulus, 3m in diameter, covered by large, irregular stones. Partly disturbed when child burial was intruded. Shaft orientation: 280º Shaft type: slot, with narrow sunken side chamber at north side. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.7m. Depth: 1.2m. Condition: intact.

The basketry cache About 1m from the north edge of the Grave 1 tumulus there was found a cache of 36 guffa-type baskets, deposited in a kind of sand crevice between two hard alluvial deposits (Plate 11e). They were at a depth of about 2030cm below the ground surface, and were buried in windblown sand. All but a few of the baskets were lying on their sides, tightly nested together; a few were nested together and standing upright. The specimens were very similar to guffas in use today, but only three were found to have handles. These objects were clearly not grave offerings; they were used in the process of digging and filling the graves. 34 of the baskets were registered as Unit 6. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 31-32. Photos: F/093: 7-6. Sketch plan: none. Plan: Yes.

Grave 11 upper burial An infant, covered by very large sandstone slabs which were encountered at the surface. No other information recorded in the notes. Grave 11 lower burial Body covering: sandstone slabs nearly all over. Body wrapping: fully wrapped in cloth, tied with cords. Burial: adult. Body position: extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 28. Photos: F/095: 9-10; F/097: 6. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 27. Plan: shown on site plan.

Footprints The deposit within the excavation area was partly formed of flood-borne alluvium, interspersed with beds and pockets of sand. In an area to the southeast of Tumulus 2, a number of naked human footprints were observed, as well as prints of camel and possibly donkey. The surface was covered by a layer of sand.

Grave 12: Side-niche grave (Plate 10b) Superstructure: none shown in plan. Shaft orientation: 261º Shaft type: slot, with side niche to north. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.75cm; additional dimensions of side niche 80cm wide, 70cm high. Depth: 1.55m. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed with large slabs (Plate 10b). Body wrapping: wrapped in cloth. Burial: adult. Body position: extended on left side, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 30. Photo: F/096: 5. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown on site plan.

Discussion Cemetery 5-T-27 clearly belongs to the very threshold of Nubian Christianity, and represents a transition in burial ritual. Ballaña characteristics, in the graves excavated by us, included the use of round earth tumuli, very deep burial shafts, end-chambers in two cases, and offerings in two cases. Christian characteristics included extended burials with head to the west, complete shrouding, tied with tapes, in all but one case, and the lack of grave goods in all but two cases. It seems quite possible that the individuals buried in Graves 1 and 13, classified as Ballaña, were actually converts to Christianity, who had not yet come to know all the details of Christian burial ritual.

Documentation

Grave 14 Child burial intruded into the tumulus of Ballaña Grave 13.

Recorded: first noted in the diary of N. F. Wheeler for 13 December 1931. 112

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Excavation: 13 graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordstrom, February 21-22, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 26-32. Photos: F/093: 7-8, 12; F/094: 1-5; F/095: 5-12; F/096: 112; F/097: 1-7; F/104: 54-68. Sketch plans: HÅN Book IV, opp. pp. 27, 28. Plans: 2. Published references: Wheeler 1961, 104; Adams and Nordström 1963, 31, 44.

Condition: intact. Body covering: 3 granite slabs. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 30.

Documentation Excavation: by H.-Å. Nordstrom, 29 November 1961. Field notes: HÅN Book III, p. 30. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963. 42-4.

5-T-28: Christian cemetery, Abu Sir A group of perhaps a dozen graves, located about 200m west of Abu Sir Church (Site 5-T-2). The cemetery was located in a deep sand drift, between granite knolls and outcrops. Some graves were outlined at the surface by small square granite blocks set directly in the sand; others had upright sandstone slabs set in mud mortar. In the three graves excavated by us, the shafts were oval pits dug into soft sand. All measured about 2 x 0.8m, with a depth of 1m. The orientation in each case was nearly true east-west. The bodies, all of adults, were covered by small stone slabs and mud. Two bodies were dorsally extended, with head facing up (Plate 11b); one was lying on the on left side. Superstructures of the type found here suggest an Early Christian dating, possibly coeval with Abu Sir Church.

5-T-36: Meroitic, Ballaña, Christian, and Muslim cemetery, Matuga Island (Figure 39) This very large cemetery had once been larger still. Parts had been eroded away by flood action at the south and southwest, and probably also at the north. Other parts at the south had been overbuilt by modern buildings. In addition, the whole east side was a modern cemetery, still in use at the time of excavation, in which Muslim graves were intruded among older Christian graves. We did not attempt to map or excavate this part. Cemetery 5-T-37, situated about 100m to the east, was almost certainly originally a continuation of this cemetery, before the intervening area was scoured out by floods. The graves were dug into deposits consisting of alternating layers of alluvium and sand, the result obviously of alternating river deposition and wind deposition. Since the older graves were made, the surface had clearly been subjected to flooding and consequent surface degradation, for only one superstructure (the tumulus of Ballaña Grave 3) was preserved. The shallow depth of many graves—1m or less—indicates that a considerable amount of overburden had been carried away. We cleared and mapped the whole surface area except in the part containing Muslim graves, and excavated 36 Meroitic graves, 18 Ballaña graves, and 23 Christian graves. The total extent of the area cleared and mapped by us was about 100 x 200m. The pre-Christian graves, all of which had been thoroughly plundered, have been reported in a previous volume (Adams 2004, 61-65, 131135).

Documentation Excavation: 3 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams, November 16-20, 1961. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 29. Photos: F/070, 7-8; F/071: 3-6 Plans: none. Published reference: none.

5-T-30: Christian cemetery, Abu Sir A group of 40 to 50 graves clustered together on a sloping sand surface, about 150m from the bank of the Nile. Surface markings were an oval or a rectangular outline of small stones, or a rectangular paving of stone slabs over the whole surface. Graves were probably interments in soft sand, but none were excavated. Surface markings of this type are usually Early Christian.

Documentation Recorded: by W. Y. Adams November 22, 1961. Excavation: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 35. Photos: none. Plans: none. Published references: none.

Christian graves Christian graves were very tightly clustered at the southern end of the cemetery (cf. Figure 39). Those at the west side were partly intruded in the area of older Meroitic graves. We mapped over 100 Christian graves, but excavated only 23. There were additional graves, not mapped by us, within the area of the modern Muslim cemetery, and a good many others were almost certainly beneath the modern Matuga Clinic, since there were Christian graves immediately adjoining it on three of its four sides. Additional Christian graves had probably been eroded away by flood action at the south end of the cemetery. Absence of superstructures and lamps prevents any precise dating of individual graves within the Christian

5-T-33: Christian grave, Abu Sir A single grave dug into a mixture of windblown sand and alluvium; probably somewhat deflated. Superstructure: none. Orientation: ENE-WSW. Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 1.6 x 0.5m. Depth: 1m.

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Figure 39. Partial plan of Matuga Cemetery 5-T-36, showing area of Meroitic and Christian graves at the south end. Excavated graves are indicated by heavy outlining (scale 1:300).

Grave 6, Burial A: Side-niche grave A burial intruded into the upper portion of a Ballaña shaft. Burial B, not reported here, was the Ballaña burial at the bottom of the shaft.

period. Since the cemetery was used both in the preceding Ballaña period and in the succeeding Muslim period, however, it seems probable that the cemetery was in use during the whole of the Christian period.

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Orientation: approximately east-west. Shaft: rectangular slot with side niche on north. Dimensions: 2 x 0.9m. Depth: 1m, to level of this burial. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult female. Body position: dorsally extended, facing up, hands crossed on pubis. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 65. Photos: F/082: 7-8. Sketch plan: none.

slightly sunken side niche on north side. Dimensions: 1.9 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.5m. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed by coarse granite slabs. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head turned to north, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 2. Photo: F/084: 5. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 8: Slot grave A burial intruded into a Ballaña shaft, resulting in partial enlargement of the shaft. The burial seems to have been put into a grave intended for a smaller person, requiring a considerable bending of the knees.

Grave 23: Side-niche grave Orientation: WNW-ESE. Shaft: small rectangular shaft with rounded corners, opening onto a much larger, sunken side chamber on the north side. Dimensions: 1.2 x 0.85m. Depth: 30cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult, with a few child bones beside the skull. Body position: dorsally extended, head turned to north, left hand on pelvis, right arm crossed over the thorax. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 2. Photos: F/083: 1. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV. opp. p. 2.

Orientation: northeast-southwest. Shaft: elongate oval, without niche. Dimensions: length 1.6m; original width not determinable. Depth: 65cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks all along body. Body wrapping: much of shroud intact. Burial: adult female. Body position: extended on left side, with hands in front of face; knees very much bent. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 66-67. Photos: F/082: 1, 10. Sketch plan: WYA Book V, p. 66.

Grave 26: Side-niche grave Orientation: 300º Shaft: elongate oval shaft with shallow niche at north side. Dimensions: 2.35 x 0.65m. Depth: 70cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult male. Body position: dorsally extended, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 64. Photos: F/083: 5; F/084: 1. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 9: Infant burial This small infant grave was located among Ballaña graves but was probably Christian, in view of the intact condition. Orientation: northeast-southwest. Shaft: oval shaft with sunken niche at north side. Dimensions: 1 x 0.95m. Depth: 75cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: infant of 5-6 years. Body position: extended on back, with head turned to right. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 59. Photos: F/082: 2. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 29: Side-niche grave Orientation: 300º Shaft: narrow oval slot with sunken niche on north side. Dimensions: 1.85 x 0.45m. Depth: 75cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult male. Body position: dorsally extended. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 64. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 16: Side-niche grave In spite of its location among the Ballaña graves, this is believed to have been a Christian burial because of its undisturbed condition and lack of offerings. It may have been the earliest Christian grave in the cemetery. Orientation: 260º Shaft: rectangular slot with rounded corners, with 115

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Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed by stones all along. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 76. Photos: F/086: 3. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 33A: Side-niche grave A burial intruded into the pit surrounding Meroitic Grave 33, on the north side of the Meroitic vaulted chamber. Orientation: 295º Shaft: oval slot with niche at north side. Dimensions: 1.95 x 0.7m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed by large stones. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended with head turned to left. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 74-75. Photos: F/085: 9-11; F/086: 1-2. Sketch plan: WYA Book V, p. 74.

Grave 50: Side-niche grave This grave was intruded into the dromos fill in Meroitic Grave 40. Although it was found totally robbed, the shaft typology suggests that it was a Christian burial. It was probably destroyed by robbers in the process of opening Grave 40. Orientation: 300º Shaft: elongate oval shaft with niche at north side. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.65m. Depth: 80cm. Condition: totally plundered. Body covering: ? Body wrapping: ? Burial: all removed. Body position: ? Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 77. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 33B: Side-niche grave Another burial intruded into the pit surrounding Meroitic Grave 33, on the south side of the Meroitic vaulted chamber. Orientation: 295º Shaft: oval slot with niche at north side. Dimensions: 2.4 x 0.6m. Depth: 1m. Condition: some disturbance. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 74-75. Photos: F/085: 9-11; F/086: 1-2. Sketch plan: WYA Book V, p. 74.

Grave 54: Slot grave Orientation: east-west. Shaft: elongate oval slot, without side niche. Dimensions: 1.7 x 0.7m. Depth: 70cm. Condition: partially disturbed; upper skeleton missing. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended; position of arms and head not determinable. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 80. Photos: F/086: 9. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 34 A small empty pit, not a grave. Probably a robbers’ prospect hole. Grave 35: Side-niche grave Orientation: 270º Shaft: oval slot with slight offset niche on north side. Dimensions: 1.65 x 0.5m. Depth: 70cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult? Body position: dorsally extended; head turned to north. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 65. Photos: F/084: 5. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 55: Side-niche grave Orientation: east-west. Shaft: narrow slot, with narrow, sunken side niche at north side. Dimensions: 2.4 x 0.5m. Depth: 80-90cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: side niche blocked with mud bricks. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, knees slightly bent to north, head turned to north, arms along sides. Finds: a few sherds in fill. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 2.

Grave 42, Burial A: Side-niche grave A grave intruded into the excavated space of Meroitic Grave 42, along its north side. Orientation: 305º Shaft: elongate oval slot with niche at north side. Dimensions: 2.1m long; width not determinable. 116

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Photos: F/086: 8, F/087: 5. Sketch plan: none.

Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head facing up, legs considerably bent upward and to left, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 3. Photos: F/087: 7; F/088: 1. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 56A: Slot grave A Christian burial intruded into Meroitic Grave 56. Orientation: east-west. Shaft: oval shaft. Dimensions: 2 x 0.45m. Depth: 80-90cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult? Body position: dorsally extended, arms at sides. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 3. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 61: Slot grave Orientation: 275º Shaft: elongate oval slot, without side niche. Dimensions: 2.3 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.25m. Condition: intact. Body covering: heavy stones. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult male. Body position: dorsally extended, head turned to left, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 83. Photos: F/087: 2. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 57, Burial A: Side-niche grave A burial intruded into the top of Meroitic Grave 57 shaft. Orientation: east-west. Shaft: rectangular shaft with side niche to north. Dimensions: 1.8 x 0.3m. Depth: 80cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: extended on right side, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 4 Photos: F/087: 10. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 62: Side-niche grave Orientation: WNW-ESE. Shaft: elongate oval slot, with niche on north side. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.7m. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult, probably female. Body position: dorsally extended, arms at sides. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 79. Photos: F/087: 3. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 59: Fetus or neonate burial A fetus or neonate burial in an amphora of Ware U2. Orientation: east-west. Shaft: shallow oval pit. Dimensions: 70 x 20cm. Depth: 30cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: amphora. Body wrapping: not determined. Burial: fetus or neonate. Body position: ? Finds: none. Registered object: G.59: Ware U2 amphora. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 3. Photos: F/083: 4. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 64: Slot grave Orientation: 280º Shaft: elongate oval slot without side niche. Dimensions: 2.5 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.4m. Condition: partially disturbed; skull missing. Body covering: bricks all along? Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: small adult. Body position: dorsally extended, with knees slightly bent. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 83. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

Grave 60: Slot grave Orientation: east-west. Shaft: narrow oval shaft. Dimensions: 2 x 0.5m. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved.

Grave 65: Bottom-niche grave Orientation: 280º Shaft: elongate oval slot, with sunken niche in the bottom to accommodate the burial. Dimensions: 2 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.75m. Condition: intact. 117

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Body covering: bricks all along. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: large adult male. Body position: dorsally extended, head facing up. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 83. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

dently a Nile overflow channel, where all graves had been washed away. Some graves had almost certainly been carried away along the east side as well. The entire surviving surface area was very much degraded by flooding, and no superstructures were preserved. In many graves the stone covering of the bodies was encountered just below the surface, which suggested that as much as 1m of overburden had been carried away. We cleared the entire surface area, measuring about 70 x 40m, but did not map the cemetery. We estimated that it contained about 250 narrow slot graves, all with an orientation of about 300º. We excavated three graves (not numbered). All were intact slot graves, two with lateral niches on the north side and one on the south side. Two contained ventrally extended bodies, with heads to the west, and one contained a dorsally extended body.

Grave 66: Grave of unknown form The grave shaft had been entirely dug away by claydiggers; only the body itself remained. Orientation: 270º Shaft: ? Dimensions: ? Depth: ? Condition: burial intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adolescent. Body position: dorsally extended, facing up. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 82. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

Documentation Excavation: surface cleared, 3 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams, 2-4 January 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 87. Photo: F/088: 7. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

Grave 70: Side-niche grave Orientation: 270º Shaft: oval slot, with niche on north side. Dimensions: 2.15 x 0.65m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult female. Body position: dorsally extended, head facing up, hands on pubis. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 73. Photos: F/088: 3-4. Sketch plan: none.

5-T-43: Christian and Muslim cemetery, Tila Island This was apparently the small remainder of an originally larger cemetery. It occupied a remnant of alluvial surface, among rocky ridges, and was surrounded by lower ground which had evidently been scoured away. The surviving portion contained about two dozen slot graves, covered by stone pavements. There appeared to be about equal numbers of Christian and Muslim graves, which were in most cases carefully interspersed so that there was no intrusion on older graves. This suggested that use of the cemetery spanned the transitional period from Christianity to Islam. The Muslim graves that we believed to be earliest were oriented almost due south. These graves were carefully separated from the Christian graves. Muslim graves which we believed to be later in date were oriented somewhat more to the east. A few of these were intruded into Christian graves. We excavated one Christian and one Muslim grave. Both were lateral-niche graves, in which the niche was closed by stones. Burial positions are not indicated in the notes. Near the center of the cemetery were two round excavations about 50cm in diameter and 70cm deep, containing dense quantities of fine ash. They were carefully located so that they did not intrude on the graves or vice versa, suggesting that their use was contemporary with, or earlier than, the digging of the graves. Their purpose could not be determined.

Documentation First reported: by N. F. Wheeler, Harvard-Boston Expedition, 1931. Excavation: 77 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams and H-Å. Nordström, 19 December 1961 – 5 January 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 53-86; HÅN Book IV, pp. 1-4. Sketch plans: WYA Book V, pp. 53-86, passim. Photos: F/081: 6-12; F/082: 1-12; F/083: 1-12; F/084: 1-5; F/-085: 1-12; F/086: 1-12; F/087: 1-11; F/088: 1-5. Site plans: 2 (including Figure 39 herein). Published references: Wheeler 1961, 111; Adams and Nordström 1963, 29-31.

Documentation

5-T-37: Christian cemetery, Matuga Island

Excavation: surface cleared, 2 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams, 10-11 January, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, pp. 90-91. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

A very large cemetery situated on an alluvial flat, among rocky hills. Originally, it was almost certainly a continuation of Cemetery 5-T-36, which lay about 100m to the west. The intervening area was a depression which was evi118

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Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

but they could not be dated for lack of datable sherd material. One plundered vault grave and one undisturbed Christian grave were excavated.

5-T-44: Christian cemetery, Dukule Island

Grave 1: Stone vault tomb; probably not Christian Orientation: WNW-ESE. Shaft type: vaulted chamber with stone masonry sides, mud-plastered. Traces of brick vault springing were preserved at a level 40cm above the floor of the tomb. There is no reference to a dromos in the notes. Dimensions: 2.5 x 0.75m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: plundered. Body covering: ? Body wrapping: ? Burial: ? Body position: disarticulated. Finds: none preserved. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 2ff (notes by HÅN). Photos: none. Sketch plan: none.

This cemetery, like several others among the Second Cataract islands, appeared to be the remainder of a once larger site, of which other portions had been washed away by floods. The surviving part contained about 20 graves, all with east-west orientation and a few with rectangular stone pavement coverings. We cleared the surface and excavated two graves. Both were slot graves with lateral niches, which had been closed off with stones over the bodies. Surprisingly, one grave had been robbed, and the bones were disarticulated. The other body was dorsally extended, head to west.

Documentation Excavation: surface cleared and 2 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams, 11 January 1962. Field notes: WYA Book V, p. 91. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

Grave 2: Slot grave Orientation: northwest-southeast. Shaft type: slot, without lateral niche. Dimensions: 2 x 0.6m. Depth: 70cm as preserved. Condition: upper part of shaft disturbed; burial intact. Body covering: disturbed; apparently mud bricks. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult, probably female. Burial position: extended on right side, hands at pubis, knees slightly bent. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 2ff (notes by HÅN). Photos: F/090: 3; F/092: 6. Sketch plan: none.

5-T-49: Meroitic (?), Ballaña (?) and Christian cemetery, Gaminarti Island At the southern end of Gaminarti Island, graves were scattered here and there among the rocks, and on the slopes below them. On one patch of degraded alluvial surface a group of nine Christian slot graves, without superstructures, was identified. All were oriented nearly due eastwest. The area was so deflated that most burials were encountered only about 25cm below the surface. There had probably been many additional burials in this area that were totally destroyed by flooding. In this group one grave (here designated as Grave A) was excavated.

Registered object

Grave A: Side-niche grave Orientation: east-west. Shaft: slot with very small niche on north side. Dimensions: large; measurements not recorded. Depth: 1m, as preserved. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult male. Body position: dorsally extended, head turned to south. Finds: none. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 2. Photos: F/090: 1. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

1. Classic Christian lamp of Ware W6, found on surface.

Documentation Excavation: 3 graves excavated by W. Y. Adams and H.Å. Nordstrom, January 16-17, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 2 ff (including notes by HÅN), Photos: F/090: 1-3; F/092: 6. Sketch plans: none. Published references: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

5-T-50: Ballaña? and Christian cemetery, Serrarti Island On a fairly low part of the island, some 30 to 40 graves were dug into alluvial deposits. The site was covered by river sand and small stones fallen from the outcrops above, and parts of it were also overgrown with trees. Both Christian and Ballaña sherds were observed on the surface. The graves were oriented east-west, and consisted of narrow shafts with or without stone covers. Lengths varied from 1.9 to 2m for adult burials, and were about 1m

Scattered among the rocks to the west and southwest of the group just described there may have been as many as several score additional graves. Many were simple slot graves and were certainly Christian, but there were also some more nearly rectangular graves, which were probably vault graves. On typological grounds these graves were almost certainly either Meroitic or Ballaña, or both, 119

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long for infant graves. Two graves were excavated, one Christian and the other possibly but not certainly Ballaña.

ignated 5-X-31 and 5-X-39. Fetal burials in Section 5-X-31 were designated by numbers, and graves of adults and sub-adults by letters.

Grave 1 A fairly deep oval pit, oriented east-west; dimensions not given. A superstructure is mentioned on the artifact card, but not described in the notes. The pit contained the very disturbed bodies of two or possibly three skeletons. They had apparently been bordered by mud bricks along one side. The fact of extensive robbing suggests an Ballaña grave, but a lamp of Classic Christian Ware W6 was found in the disturbed fill. Part of a small bottle of Ware W6 was also found in the superstructure. Photo; F/093: 6.

Section 5-X-31 All these graves except Grave D were probably Christian. Grave 1 Fetal burial in a pot of Ware H2, closed by a large stone. The pit was crudely covered by stones. Photo: F/103: 9. Grave 2 Fetal burial in a pot of Ware H2, closed by the base of a qadus. The pit was crudely covered by stones. Photos: F/105: 9-10.

Grave 2 A very shallow grave, as the surface here was evidently much deflated. It was a slot grave, oriented east-west, of unrecorded dimensions. The body was that of an adult, lying on the left side, head to the west. The bones were in very poor and partly crushed condition, possibly due to repeated flooding. Photo: F/093: 5.

Grave 3 Fetal burial in a pot of Ware H2, closed by a large sherd. The pit was crudely covered by stones. Grave A: Slot grave Superstructure: “spine and ribs” pavement of mud bricks (Plate 9c). Orientation: 72º Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 2 x 0.85m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: mud bricks. Body wrapping: none recorded. Burial: adult. Body position: not recorded, but head apparently to northeast. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 44. Photo: F/103: 11. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 44.

Registered finds G.1. Lamp portion, Ware W6, Form P18. G.1/2. Small bottle portion, Ware W6, Form G35.

Documentation Excavation: 2 graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordstrom, February, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 20. Photos: F/093: 5-6. Sketch plans: none. Plans: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

5-X-31 and 5-X-39: Ballaña? and Christian cemetery, Gemai

Grave B: Slot grave Superstructure: “spine and ribs” pavement of mud bricks. Orientation: 72º Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 1.4 x 0.85m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: mud bricks. Body wrapping: none recorded. Burial: sub-adult. Body position: not recorded, but head apparently to northeast. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 44. Photos: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 44.

Sites 5-X-31 and 5-X-39 were actually somewhat detached parts of the same small cemetery, numbering perhaps 15 to 20 graves. It was located on a gravel slope above the floodplain, and was partly intruded into C-Group cemetery 5-X-38. The graves were dug into loose, sandy gravel. The original size may have been larger than the 15 to 20 graves we estimated, as the area was very much denuded. We excavated seven graves, of which two were those of infants, as well as three fetal burials in pots. The cemetery seemed to include a considerable number of other infant burials, that were not excavated. The graves exhibited a combination of Ballaña and Christian characteristics. All were oriented either north-south or northeast-southwest, with the heads (in the case of undisturbed graves) to the north or northeast. Four graves had been plundered, suggesting the probability that they were pre-Christian. The intact graves however showed typical Christian characteristics. All the bodies were dorsally extended, and none of the graves contained any offerings. Moreover, two of the graves had brick-pavement superstructures of the type found only on Christian graves (Adams 1998, 22). Graves were numbered separately for the sections des-

Grave C: Infant grave Superstructure: covering of mud and stones. Orientation: not clear. Shaft type: round pit. Dimensions: diameter 80cm. 120

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Depth: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: not recorded. Body wrapping: none recorded. Burial: infant. Body position: not indicated, except for head to ENE. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 44. Photos: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 44.

Condition: totally plundered; no contents. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 45. Photo: none. Sketch plan: none. Grave 3: Side-niche grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: ENE-WSW. Shaft type: slot with notably rounded ends, small side niche at northwest side. Dimensions: 1.6 x 0.6m. Depth: 60cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: side niche blocked by mud bricks. Body wrapping: none. Burial: female adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to ENE. Offerings none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 45. Photo: F/105: 1. Sketch plan: none.

Grave D: Slot grave This was probably a Ballaña grave, in view of the plundered condition. Superstructure: none. Orientation: 50º Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 1.6 x 0.55m. Depth: not recorded. Condition: totally plundered. Body covering: stones along north side. Burial: ? Body position: ? Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 44. Photos: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 44.

Grave 4 Not excavated. Grave 5 A child’s grave oriented ENE-WSW. Not excavated.

Registered objects All the registered objects were hand-made pots that had contained the infant burials in Graves 1, 2, and 3, Section 5-X-31.

Section 5-X-39 Judging by the shallow depth and the lack of superstructures, it seems evident that these graves were in a deflated area. From the orientation and plundering it appears possible also that all except Grave 3 were Ballaña graves.

1. Pot, Ware H2, Form U26. 2. Pot, Ware H2, Form U26. 3. Pot, Ware H2, Form U26.

Documentation

Grave 1: Slot grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: north-south. Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 2 x 0.5m. Depth: 55cm. Condition: partially disturbed; skull missing. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: none. Burial: adult. Body position: extended, torso partially turned on right side, head (missing) to north. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 45. Photo: F/103: 12. Sketch plan: none.

Excavation: 7 graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, March 25, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 44-5. Photos: F/103: 9, 11-12; F/105: 1, 8-10. Sketch plan: HÅN Book IV, opp. p. 44. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

5-X-36: Christian cemetery, Gemai The alluvial flat immediately to the southeast of Gendal Irki Church (5-X-1, Unit D) had evidently been the community cemetery. We cleared the surface and discovered about 40 graves. However, large adjoining areas had been denuded both as a result of cultivation and through downwash from the adjoining bluffs, and we therefore assumed that the original cemetery might have been considerably larger. We excavated two graves.

Grave 2: Slot grave A plundered grave with a subsequently intruded infant burial, which was found just beneath the surface, oriented ENE-WSW.

Site specifications Setting: alluvial flat adjoining the southeast side of Gendal Irki Church (5-X-1). Area: perhaps 250 x 500m, as preserved. About 40 graves observed. Grave superstructures: majority rectangular brick pavements, with lamp box at west end. Also some rectangular

Superstructure: none. Orientation: north-south. Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: not recorded. Depth: 30cm. 121

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stone pavements, and stone outlines. Grave orientations: east-west. Dating: probably Classic and Late Christian, in view of brick superstructures. Some graves with stone pavements or outlines could have been earlier.

graves. Of the latter group, nine had been intruded into plundered Meroitic dromoi or chambers, while 20 had separately dug shafts. Our excavations covered only about half of the total estimated area of the cemetery. Meroitic and possible Ballaña graves have been reported in a previous volume (Adams 2004, 65-69).

Grave 1: Slot grave (Plate 10c) Superstructure: none recorded. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: slot, without side niche. Dimensions: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks over face only. Body wrapping: shrouded, tied with tapes (Plate 10c). Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, hands on pubis. Head very slightly turned to north. Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 42. Photo: F/103: 7. Sketch plan: none.

Christian graves Christian graves were concentrated mainly in the northern portion of the cemetery, where there were no Meroitic graves. Further south, however, other Christian graves were intruded into Meroitic ones. Most graves had rectangular stone or brick superstructures; either pavements or low mastabas. Typical sizes were 2-2.1 x 0.8-0.9m; there were also some smaller children’s graves with superstructures measuring about 1 x 0.4m. Orientations were mostly due west, or slightly to the north of it. Grave 1: Bottom-niche grave Superstructure: rude rectangular pavement of large stones set in mud mortar; open lamp box at west end, with lamp in situ. Orientation: 252º Shaft type: slot with bottom niche. Dimensions: 2.3 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks all along, with two bricks leaned together over the face. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up. Offerings: G.1. Lamp, Ware R2, Form P15. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 46-7. Photos: F/105: 2, 4-5; F/106: Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan; also special plan of superstructure.

Grave 2: Side-niche grave Superstructure: none recorded. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: narrow slot, with slight side chamber on south side. Dimensions: not recorded. Condition: intact. Body covering: not recorded. Body wrapping: none? Burial: adult. Body position: extended on right side? Finds: none. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 42. Photo: F/103: 8. Sketch plan: none.

Registered object 1. Complete lamp of Ware R7, Form P19 (found in a superstructure lamp box).

Documentation

Grave 2: Bottom-niche grave Superstructure: rectangular mud pavement, edged by brick, with interior filled with mud. At west end a halfround extension of molded mud, without brick edging. Adjoining the west end of rectangular portion, a small, square lamp box of molded mud, with lamp in situ. Orientation: 260º Shaft type: slot with bottom niche. Dimensions: 2.2 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.6m. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up. Offerings: G.2. Lamp, Ware R2, Form P16. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 47. Photos: F/105: 6.

Excavation: 2 graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, 24 March 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 34; HÅN Book IV, p. 42. Photos: F/103: 6-8. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963. 44-6.

5-X-40: Meroitic and Christian cemetery, Gemai A very large Meroitic cemetery, partially overlapped by a smaller Christian cemetery, on a broad, sandy flat at the foot of low bluffs. We estimated about 200 Meroitic graves, and 40-50 Christian graves. There were no definitely identifiable Ballaña graves, but three possible ones. Lamps indicated that Christian graves were from the very beginning of the Christian period. We excavated 77 Meroitic graves, three graves which might have been Ballaña, though this was not certain in any case, and 29 Christian 122

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Sketch plan: none Plan: cemetery plan; also special plan of superstructure.

Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 1.3 x 0.5m. Depth: 70cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks all along. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: child. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings (all in lamp box): G.35/1. Miniature footed bowl, Ware R2, Form D42. G.35/2. Miniature footed bowl, Ware R2, Form D42. G.35/3. Lamp, Ware R2, Form P16. G.35/4. Lamp, Ware R4, Form P1. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 42. Photos: F/108: 9, 12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 3: Bottom-niche grave Superstructure: rectangular pavement, or possibly mastaba, of very large stones set in mud mortar. A short distance from west end, a small separate lamp box of mud brick, open to west, with lamp in situ. Orientation: 260º Shaft type: slot with bottom niche. Dimensions: 2 x 0.6m. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: intact. Body covering: stones at both ends; mud bricks in middle. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: G.3. Lamp, Ware R2, Form P15. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 47. Photos: F/105: 7. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan; also special plan of superstructure.

Grave 36A: Unexcavated? Photos show a mastaba of stone masonry, measuring 1.9 x 0.8m, oriented approximately east-west. The top was partially denuded, surviving to a maximum height of about 25cm. Adjoining the west end was a “terrace,” apparently of brick pavement, to serve as a rest for a lamp. There are no notes regarding any burial beneath this superstructure. Photos: F/108: 10-11.

Grave 8: Intrusion in Meroitic end-chamber grave The plundered chamber of Meroitic Grave 8 contained an intruded Christian adult burial, dorsally extended, head to the west, facing up. The chamber was closed with stones. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 49.

Grave 37: Slot grave Superstructure: “spine and ribs” mud brick pavement; no lamp box preserved. Orientation: 252º Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 2 x 0.45m. Depth: 80cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks over upper body. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 25. Photo: F/114: 12. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 9: Two intrusions in Meroitic grave This plundered Meroitic grave had a Christian burial intruded into the shaft, covered by large bricks. It was dorsally extended, head to west, facing up, with the hands on the pubis. It was probably a young female. Two small faience beads were found at the head. Within the chamber itself was another secondary Christian burial, dorsally extended, head to the west, facing south. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, p. 48. Grave 24: Intrusion in Meroitic grave dromos The dromos of this Meroitic grave contained a Christian child burial, covered by mud bricks and a few small granite stones, at a distance of 55cm below the surface. It was dorsally extended, head to the west, facing south. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 13.

Grave 39: Slot grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: 280º Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 1.25 x 0.4-0.6m. Depth: 70cm. Condition: disturbed. Body covering: bricks. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: sub-adult? Body position: dorsally extended, hands on pubis, head to west (skull missing). Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 13. Photos: F/110: 4; F/114: 3.

Grave 27: Intrusion in Meroitic end-chamber grave The chamber of this Meroitic grave contained a secondary Christian burial, dorsally extended with hands at its sides, head to the west, facing south. The chamber had been partially reclosed with bricks that were probably the original Meroitic bricks, reused. Field notes: HÅN Book V, pp. 8-9. Grave 35: Slot grave Superstructure: “spine and ribs” brick pavement, measuring 1.35 x 0.8m, with detached lamp box of brick at some distance from west end. Orientation: 270º 123

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Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 39. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 41: Slot grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: 260º Shaft type: slot. Dimensions: 1.9 x 0.7m. Depth: 1.3m. Condition: intact. Body covering: bricks all along. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 40. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 64: Slot grave intruded into the dromos of Meroitic Grave 54 Superstructure: rectangular pavement of stones and reused bricks; no lamp box preserved. Partially disturbed. Superstructure dimensions: 1.65 x 0.75m. Orientation: 270º Shaft type: slot; intruded into the north side of Meroitic Grave 54. Shaft orientation: 270º Shaft dimensions: 1.6 x 0.35m. Depth: 30cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 26. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 53B: Slot grave? Superstructure: none. Orientation: 256º Shaft type: slot? Dimensions: 1.6m long; width not recorded. Depth: 1.8m. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: body was lying on a fiber mat (not recovered). Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 38. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Grave 68: Side-niche grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: 265º Shaft type: triangular slot (apparently a Meroitic dromos) with side niche at north side sunken 20cm below the shaft bottom. Dimensions: shaft 2.7 x 0.6-0.8m; side niche 1.6 x 0.45 x 0.4m. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: niche closed by bricks all along. Body wrapping: brown cloth. Burial: adult? Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 36. Photo: F/115: 6. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 54: Intrusion in Meroitic grave dromos A child burial was intruded into the entrance dromos of this Meroitic tomb, 90cm below the surface. It was covered by bricks and was dorsally extended, head to the west, facing up. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p.33. Grave 55: Intrusion in Meroitic end-chamber grave This plundered Meroitic tomb chamber contained a presumably Christian skeleton, dorsally extended, head to the west. The chamber was entirely blocked with bricks and stones. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 17.

Grave 73: Slot intruded into Meroitic grave chamber Superstructure: rectangular pavement of stones and re-used bricks; no lamp box preserved. Superstructure dimensions: 1.65 x 0.8m. Orientation: 252º Shaft type: slot, accidentally intruded into chamber of Grave 57. Body on floor of Grave 57 chamber. Shaft orientation: 248º Condition: intact as Christian burial. Body covering: stones all over. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult.

Grave 63: Side-niche grave Superstructure: none. Orientation: 243º Shaft type: slot, with side niche at north. Dimensions: 1.5 x 0.7m. Depth: 50cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: side niche blocked with bricks. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: child. 124

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Body position: not recorded. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, pp. 26, 43. Photos: none. Sketch plan: HÅN Book V, opp. p. 42. Plan: cemetery plan.

an adult Christian burial, dorsally extended with head to the west, facing up; hands on pubis. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 39. Grave 88: Side-niche grave, intruded into dromos of Meroitic Grave 88 Superstructure: none. Orientation: 248º Shaft type: slot, with small side niche at south side. Dimensions: 1.2 x 0.35m. Depth: 50cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: side niche blocked by bricks. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: child. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 36. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 76: Side-chamber grave? Superstructure: none. Orientation: 290º Shaft type: not clear; apparently a side chamber with dromos to north. Dimensions: not recorded. Depth: 1m. Condition: intact. Body covering: chamber closed by granite slabs. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: adult. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, facing up, hands on pubis. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 42. Photo: F/119: 8. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 89: Fetal burial in a pot A fetal burial in a pot of Ware H2, Form U26—almost certainly of Christian age. The pot when found was lying on its side, on the alluvial ground level, covered by sand. There was no closure on the vessel. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 21.

Grave 77: Infant grave of uncertain type Superstructure: none. Orientation: 280º Shaft type: not recorded. Dimensions: not recorded. Depth: 70cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: infant. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west, hands on pubis, legs slightly bent at the knees. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 42. Photo: F/119: 9. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 90: Infant burial in pit Superstructure: none. Orientation: 265º Shaft type: small pit. Dimensions: 70 x 25cm. Depth: 10cm. Condition: intact. Body covering: none. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: child. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 36. Photos: none. Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

Grave 81: Intrusion in Meroitic end-chamber grave This plundered Meroitic tomb chamber contained a presumably Christian skeleton, dorsally extended with head to the west. The lower legs had been disarticulated by plunderers when they opened the chamber; the remainder of the skeleton was intact. Field notes: HÅN Book V, pp. 19-20.

Grave 91: Side-niche grave cut into side of Meroitic dromos, Grave 91 Superstructure: none. Orientation: 275º Shaft type: side niche cut into the north side of Meroitic dromos 91. Dimensions: side niche 1.8 x 0.7 x 0.4m. Depth: 1.8m. Condition: slightly disturbed. Body covering: none recorded. Body wrapping: none preserved. Burial: child. Body position: dorsally extended, head to west. Offerings: none. Field notes: HÅN Book V, p. 40. Photos: none.

Grave 86: Disturbed grave Superstructure: rectangular pavement of broken mud bricks and stones; very disturbed. Dimensions: 2 x 1.5m. Orientation: 265º No other data recorded; the grave was completely disturbed. Grave 87: Intrusion in Meroitic end-chamber grave The plundered chamber of this Meroitic tomb contained 125

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Sketch plan: none. Plan: cemetery plan.

site, of which we found some traces. It is possible that some of the vaulted graves were pre-Christian, although all had an east-west orientation. In contrast to the vault graves, many of the slot graves retained their superstructures intact. All of them were brick pavements with a lamp box at the west end—the most common superstructure type of Classic Christian times (Adams 1998, 22). Brick sizes were 36 x 18 x 9cm in some superstructures, and 40 x 20 x 8 in others. The former were probably of Early or Classic Christian date, and the latter Late Christian.

Grave 95: Intrusion in Meroitic end-chamber grave The plundered chamber of this Meroitic tomb contained an adult Christian burial, dorsally extended with head to west. Field notes: HÅN Book V, pp. 41-2.

Discussion The lamps of Ware R2, found on several graves, as well as the form of several superstructures suggest that most if not all of the Christian graves in this cemetery may date from the very beginning of the Christian period. However, “spine and ribs” brick pavements might be later. Re-use of Meroitic chambers for Christian burials is a novel feature not found by us in other cemeteries.

“Grave 1” This was not a grave, but a rectangular section of paving in the floor of Church 5-X-44, which had exactly the structure and dimensions of a brick grave superstructure of the “spine and ribs” type. On excavation however we found no grave beneath it. See Site 5-X-44, described in Chapter 2.

Registered Christian finds of unrecorded provenience 11. Cup fragment, Ware W2, Form A3 (surface find). 12. Lamp, Ware R4, Form P1. 13. Lamp portion, Ware R2, Form P15 (surface find). 14. Lamp, Ware R5, Form P17. 15. Lamp, Ware R2, Form P15 (surface find).

Grave 2: Vaulted brick tomb This was a vaulted brick tomb dug into the slope of the kom, about 2m from the southwest corner of Church 5-X44. It was intruded into the underlying Meroitic house remains (Site 5-X-46), and partly cut through the Meroitic walls. At one point however it made use of a section of Meroitic wall, resulting in a rather irregular outline. Photos show that the vault was entered through the west end. The tomb was overlain by the brick pavement surrounding the church, but it was evidently very denuded before the brick pavement was overbuilt, since the chamber floor was only about 40cm below the pavement. Although the chamber was 1.3m wide, its two intact burials were both crowded close to the north side, leaving plenty of room for additional burials to the south (Plate 11c). Disarticulated bones of a third burial were also found in the chamber, perhaps left by robbers who initially mistook this for a pre-Christian grave. A votive lamp of Ware W12 was located under a brick “housing” in the northwest corner of the chamber. This provides a secure dating to the Classic Christian 2 or Late Christian 1 period.

Post-Christian surface finds 8. Smoking pipe. 9. Smoking pipe fragment. 10. Glass bottle neck.

Documentation Excavation: 77 Meroitic, 29 Christian, and 3 possible Ballaña graves excavated by H.-Å. Nordström, March 25April 18, 1962. Field notes: HÅN Book IV, pp. 46-50; Book V, pp. 5-45. Photos: F/105: all; F/106: all; F/107: all; F/108: all; F/110: all; F/111: all; F/114: all; F/115: all; F/116: all; F/117: all; F/ 118: all; F/119: all; F/120: all. Sketch plans: several sketch plans of individual graves, q.v. Plans: plans of whole cemetery, and of central area. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 2930, 44-6.

Superstructure: none preserved. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: brick chamber, presumably vaulted originally. Dimensions: 2 x 1.3m. Depth: about 40cm as preserved. Condition: top of chamber denuded. Two burials intact; one disturbed. Body coverings: none. Body wrappings: none. Burials: 3 adults. Body positions: both intact burials extended on left side, heads to west, knees somewhat flexed (Plate 11c). Registered find: G2. Footed bowl of Ware W12, used as lamp. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 41. Photos: F/113: 6-8. Sketch plan: none. Plan: shown on Site 5-X-44 plan.

5-X-45: Christian cemetery, Meili Island This cemetery, of undetermined size, adjoined Church 5X-44 on its east, west, and south sides. Most of the preserved graves were in the general vicinity of the church, but there were additional graves nearer the south end of the island, 100m or more away. The intervening area had been scoured away by flooding, but probably had contained many additional graves. We identified about 30 graves in the vicinity of the church, and excavated three. The graves included both vaulted brick tombs and slot graves. The vaulted tombs appeared to be older than the others, for their covering vaults had all been partially destroyed or denuded, and no superstructures were preserved. These graves definitely antedated the later Church 5-X-44, for their broken tops were covered over by the brick pavement that surrounded the church. Most of them probably were associated with an earlier church at the 126

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Photo: F/113: 1. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Grave 3: Vaulted brick tomb This was a rectangular brick vault, with an opening at the west end, located at the foot of the brick-paved area, about 5m west of Church 5-X-44. Like Grave 2 it was very denuded, with only the lower 50cm of the chamber surviving. The tomb had been thoroughly ransacked by robbers, in the mistaken assumption that it was preChristian. Only small, scattered fragments of bone were left in situ. That it was not pre-Christian was indicated by the fact that a small votive cup-lamp of Ware H3 was left in situ at the west end of the chamber. This would suggest an Early Christian dating.

Registered finds 1. Bowl portion, Ware R2, Form C67. 2. Lamp, Ware H4, Form P22. G2. Bowl, Ware W12, Form D34. G3. Cup, Ware H3, Form A13. G5/1. Iron anklet. G5/2. Footed vessel, Ware R13, form uncertain. G6. Pottery lamp, Ware H3, Form P25.

Documentation

Superstructure: none preserved. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: brick chamber, presumably vaulted originally. Dimensions: 2 x 1m. Depth: 50cm as preserved. Condition: totally plundered. Body coverings: ? Body wrappings: ? Burials: ? Body positions: ? Registered object: G.3. Cup-lamp of Ware H3. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 41. Photo: F/113: 2. Sketch plan: none. Plan: none.

Excavation: surface cleared and three graves excavated by W. Y. Adams, April 9-10, 1962. Field notes: WYA Book VI, pp. 40-42. Photos: F/112: 6-10; F/113: 1-2. Sketch plans: none. Plans: Graves 2 and 5 shown in Site 5-X-44 plan. Published reference: Adams and Nordström 1963, 44-6.

WEST BANK MORTUARY SITES NOT REPORTED IN THIS VOLUME The following are additional West Bank mortuary sites, excavated by other expeditions. 24-E-27: Faras Christian graves in the Meroitic cemetery. Fourteen Christian brick vaulted tombs were found and excavated by the Oxford Expedition in 1911 (Griffith 1927, 62-7).

Grave 5: Vaulted brick tomb This was another vaulted chamber tomb, located on the kom slope 3m due east of Church 5-X-44. Like Graves 2 and 3 it was already very much denuded before the brickpaved apron of the church was built over it. It contained the bones of no fewer than six adults, but had been thoroughly ransacked by robbers, and the bones mostly disarticulated. That it was not pre-Christian was indicated by the fact that the base of a footed vessel of Ware R13, used as a lamp, was found within the chamber. This suggests a Classic Christian 2 or Late Christian 1 dating.

24-V-1: Argin Meroitic, Ballaña, and Christian cemetery. A huge cemetery originally discovered by the Antiquities Service Survey of 1956. Four hundred and fifty graves, including 330 Christian graves, were excavated by the Spanish Expedition in 1962-63 (Almagro et al. 1963, 183-7; Pellicer and Llongueras 1965).

Superstructure: none preserved. Orientation: east-west. Shaft type: rectangular chamber faced partly with brick and partly with stone. Presumably vaulted originally. Arched entryway at west end. Dimensions: 2.25 x 1m. Depth: About 50cm as preserved. Condition: plundered. Most bones disarticulated, but not removed. Body coverings: apparently none. Body wrappings: none. Burials: 6 adults. Burial positions: mostly disarticulated. One which was partially intact was dorsally extended, head to west, turned partly to the south. Registered objects: G.5.1. Iron anklet on one burial. G5/2. Fragment of Ware R13 bowl, used as lamp. Field notes: WYA Book VI, p. 41f. 127

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7. POTTERY VESSELS As usual in Nubian excavations, the great majority of registered finds from the West Bank Survey (about 70%) are pottery vessels. Among those from Christian sites, nearly 50% came from a single site—the great pottery factory at Faras (24-E-21). All of the registered vessels from Christian sites are listed in Table 3, grouped according to the ware groups and wares to which they belong. Under the heading of each ware, vessels are grouped according to vessel form. The system of classificatory terminology is explained below. Table 3 lists only registered vessels. However, the discussion of the different ware groups and wares that follows the table is based on the examination of sherd material as well as on the registered finds. Although the Late and Terminal Christian wares were abundant at Meinarti (cf. Adams 2002, 47-60 and 101-3), they are much more poorly represented in the West Bank Survey collections than are wares of the Early and Classic Christian periods. This is partly because we dug extensively in only two Late Christian sites, 5-X-1 and 5-X-32, and partly because the large vessel forms which were characteristic of the later periods were not often preserved intact, or even in large fragments, even when smaller sherds were abundant.

usually of one to three centuries. Ware groups represented in the present chapter are Group D.II (X-Group and Earlier Christian Domestic Wares); Group D.III (Later Christian Domestic Wares); Group N.II (Ballaña and Transitional Christian Nubian Wares); Group N.III (Early Christian Nubian Wares); Group N.IV (Classic Christian Nubian Wares); Group N.V. (Post-Classic Christian Nubian Wares); Group N.VI (Late Christian Nubian Wares); Group N.VII (Terminal Christian Nubian Wares); Group NU (Nubian undecorated wheel-made wares); Group A.II (Byzantine Aswan Wares); A.III (Early Islamic Aswan Wares); and Group A.IV (Medieval Aswan Wares).

Classificatory terminology

In addition to the synthetic classification of families, ware groups, and wares, there are also separate, analytic classifications of vessel forms and of decorative styles.

Wares are the minimum unit of classification. In addition to a common fabric, a common group of forms, and a common decorative style, all the vessels in each ware also exhibit the same set of colors, and sometimes also the same surface treatment (burnished, polished, or matte). A typical Nubian ware group will include at least three or four different wares, some red-slipped and some white- or cream-slipped, but otherwise identical in forms and decoration. There may also be both polished and matte wares that are otherwise identical.3 Altogether, examples of 40 different medieval wares were registered from the West Bank Survey; they are listed in Table 3.

Throughout the discussion that follows, pottery finds are described in accordance with the classificatory systems published in Ceramic Industries of Medieval Nubia.1 The classificatory terminology will be briefly explained in the next paragraphs, before the actual finds are discussed.

Vessel forms have been classified into 27 basic form classes (cups, goblets, bowls, etc.) and 625 individual forms, which are numbered separately, beginning with 1, for each form class. Thus, the various cup forms are A1, A2, A3, etc.; the goblet forms are B1, B2, B3, etc. Altogether 127 different vessel forms occur among the registered Christian vessels from the West Bank Survey, as shown in Table 4.4

Families are the most inclusive unit of pottery classification. They designate groups of vessels having the same mode of construction (wheel-thrown, hand-built, or molded), the same fabric (paste plus temper), and a recognizable continuum of development over time. They are presumed to represent pottery made by the same people, in the same place or places, over a long period. The pottery families described in this chapter are Family D (the Nubian hand-modeled wares), Family N (the Nubian wheelthrown wares), and Family A (the Aswan wares), plus a small number of exotic wares not belonging to these families.2

Decorative styles have been classified according to a very complex scheme that involves seven “general styles” (red slip only, white slip only, rim stripe only, unslipped, etc.); 23 “horizon styles,” each of which is distinctive of a particular ware group; and “individual styles,” each of which is found on one ware only. General styles are designated only by Roman numerals, from I to VI plus X. Horizon styles are designated by the name of the ware group on which they are found, followed by a letter A, B, or C if more than one style was associated with the same ware group. Individual styles have the same designation as the ware on which they are found. In addition to the overall classification of styles, there are two other formal classifications, of design elements

Ware groups are chronological subdivisions within each family. They designate groups of vessels which, in addition to the same method of construction and the same fabric, exhibit common standards of vessel form and of decorative design, which were in vogue during a period 1 Adams 1986. The classificatory designations do not in most cases correspond to the designations previously published by me in Kush (Adams 1962b, 235-88, and Adams 1964a, 126-73.) 2 For further discussion of families and their designation see Adams 1986, 64-65.

3 For further discussion of wares and their designation see Adams 1986, 65. 4 For further discussion of forms and their designation see Adams 1986, 63.

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and of motifs, either of which may occur in many different styles. Design elements are designated by capital letters, e.g. A, rim stripes; G, continuous friezes; N, radial designs, etc. Meroitic motifs are designated by lower-case letters, e.g. b, connected circles, k, crescents, m, lotus flowers, etc. X-Group and Christian motifs are designated by Arabic numbers, e.g. 5, zigzag, 11, arches, 17, guilloche, etc. Within each style, individual designs are classified and designated according to the element and the motif that they represent. Designs are described according to this system on the artifact cards.5

Ware R2. Transitional red ware A26 Cups C32 Bowls C67 Bowls ? Bowls D42 Footed bowls P15 Lamps P16 Lamps Total Ware R2

Family D. Nubian hand-made wares Group D.II. X-Group and Earlier Christian domestic wares

Ware H2. Earlier red-topped domestic ware U26 Pots Total Ware H2

11 11

Ware H3. Earlier red domestic ware A13 Cups C17 Bowls C43 Bowls P25 Lamps P26 Lamps P29 Lamps P32 Lamps S2 Dokas S3 Dokas U26 Pots ? Lamp Total Ware H3

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11

1 1 1 2 1 1 7

Ware H5. Later red domestic ware Q16 Lids ? Lid Total Ware H5

1 1 2

Ware H6. Late Christian fine domestic ware A2 Cups

1

Ware R3. Early Christian matte red ware A14 Cups A24 Cups C23 Bowls C75 Bowls D30 Footed bowls D74 Footed bowls X3 Footed jars X15 Footed jars Total Ware R3

1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 11

Ware R5. Early Christian polished red ware A14 Cups C4 Bowls C5 Bowls C23 Bowls D13 Footed bowls D23 Footed bowls D30 Footed bowls D40 Footed bowls D54 Footed bowls D67 Footed bowls D69 Footed bowls D74 Footed bowls D77 Footed bowls E1 Plates G30 Small bottles G37 Small bottles P13 Lamps P16 Lamps P17 Lamps P18 Lamps W25 Jars X3 Footed jars X4 Footed jars Total Ware R5

3 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 39

5 For further discussion of styles and their designation see Adams 1986, 213-35.

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1 1 3 1 3 7 4 20

Group N.III. Early Christian wares

Group D.III. Later Christian domestic wares Ware H4. Later plain utility ware A2 Cup? P22 Lamps P26 Lamps U17 Pots Y1 Storage jars ? Dish lamp Total Ware H4

1 1 2

Group N.II. X-Group wares

Tallied by ware and vessel form

1 4 5

1

Ware H8. Later black domestic ware P24 Lamps P26 Lamps Total Ware H8 Family N. Nubian ordinary wares

TABLE 3. REGISTERED CHRISTIAN VESSELS FROM THE WEST BANK SURVEY

Ware H1. Early domestic plain utility ware U3 Pots U12 Pots Total Ware H1

Ware H7. Late painted domestic ware B32 Goblets

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Ware R10. Transitional orange ware F11 Vases F29 Vases Total Ware R10

1 2 3

Ware W1. Early Christian peach ware F12 Vases

1

Ware W6. Classic Christian matte yellow ware A12 Cups A25 Cups C4 Bowls C17 Bowls C22 Bowls C50 Bowls ? Bowl D23 Footed bowls D30 Footed bowls D54 Footed bowls D77 Footed bowls F12 Vases F23 Vases G35 Small bottles P18 Lamps P19 Lamps ? Lamp Total Ware W6

Ware W2. Early Christian decorated white ware A3 Cups 2 A4 Cups 1 A26 Cups 1 B1 Goblets 2 C11 Bowls 1 C17 Bowls 2 C23 Bowls 2 C74 Bowls 1 C75 Bowls 1 C82 Bowls 4 D12 Footed bowls 1 D13 Footed bowls 1 D29 Footed bowls 1 D30 Footed bowls 2 D47 Footed bowls 1 D77 Footed bowls 2 ? Footed bowl 1 G36 Small pots 1 P3 Lamps 1 P15 Lamps 1 P16 Lamps 1 P18 Lamps 1 Q3 Lids 1 Q11 Lids 1 X15 Footed jars 1 Total Ware W2 34

Ware W7. Classic Christian heavy white ware K2 Pilgrim bottles 6 Ware W10. Classic Christian polished yellow ware A25 Cups 1 C17 Bowls 1 C23 Bowls 1 C45 Bowls 1 C49 Bowls 3 C50 Bowls 7 ? Bowl 1 D12 Footed bowls 1 D23 Footed bowls 4 F12 Vases 16 F16 Vases 1 F23 Vases 1 ? Vase 1 K2 Pilgrim bottles 1 Total Ware W10 40

Ware W9. Early Christian polished white ware B34 Goblets 1 C75 Bowls 1 Total Ware W9 2

Group N.V. Post-Classic Christian wares

Group N.IV. Classic Christian wares Ware R7. Classic Christian fine red ware A12 Cups A14 Cups D13 Footed bowls D23 Footed bowls D77 Footed bowls P19 Lamps Total Ware R7

2 2 1 1 1 3 10

Ware W5. Classic Christian fine white ware C4 Bowls C22 Bowls C23 Bowls C48 Bowls C49 Bowls ? Bowls D23 Footed bowls E1 Plates G30 Small bottles Total Ware W5

1 27 2 2 9 2 1 1 1 46

Ware R22. Post-Classic Christian red ware D23 Footed bowls

131

1

Ware W20. Post-Classic Christian polished yellow ware D23 Footed bowls 1 Group N.VI. Late Christian wares Ware R11. Late Christian polished orange ware A10 Cups 3 A11 Cups 1 A20 Cups 1 A26 Cups 1 B12 Goblets 1 C12 Bowls 1 C23 Bowls 1 C49 Bowls 1 D23 Footed bowls 1 ? Footed bowl 1 F12 Vases 1 131

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1 1 1 1 6 3 1 10 1 2 3 4 1 1 3 5 1 45

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F17 Vases F23 Vases ? Lamp Total Ware R11

3 2 1 19

P5 Lamps Total Ware W3

Ware W16. Late Christian polished yellow ware A9 Cups 1

Ware U2. Aswan Byzantine pink utility ware Z4 Amphorae Z6 Amphorae Total Ware U2

Group N.VII. Terminal Christian wares

Group A.III. Aswan early Islamic wares

Ware R26. Terminal Christian polished orange ware D43 Footed bowls 1

Ware U8. Aswan early Islamic red utility ware Z8 Amphorae 1

Ware W14. Terminal Christian decorated white ware A29 Cups 1 F30 Vases 2 ? Vase or bowl 1 W26 Jars 2 Total Ware W14 6

Ware R12. Aswan medieval decorated red ware F12 Vases 1

Group NU. Nubian coarse utility wares Ware U5. Christian red utility ware A14 Cups D77 Bowls H4 Qullas T1 Basins U16 Pots U21 Pots ? Pot V1 Qadus W25 Jars W33 Jars X3 Footed jars X15 Footed jars Y3 Storage jars Y7 Storage jars Z10 Amphorae Z22 Amphorae Total Ware U5

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 6 1 1 2 3 3 1 3 1 29

Ware U10. Later Christian pink utility ware Y7 Storage jars Z11 Amphorae Total Ware U10

3 1 4

Ware R13. Aswan medieval plain red ware C39 Bowls ? Bowl D1 Footed bowls D2 Footed bowls D20 Footed bowls D58 Footed bowls ? Footed vessel Total Ware R13

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 8

Ware W12. Aswan medieval white ware A4 Cups A20 Cups D34 Footed bowls D55 Footed bowls N4 Oil bottles P28 Lamps P30 Lamps P34 Lamps W35 Jars Total Ware W12

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 10

Ware U6. Aswan medieval grey utility ware U16 Pots

2

Family T. Theban wares Ware U4. Theban brown amphora ware Z3 Amphorae

Ware U9. Ballas ribbed utility ware ? Pot

Group A.II. Byzantine Aswan wares Ware R4. Aswan Byzantine polished red ware P1 Lamps 6 P6 Lamps 1 Total Ware R4 7

Unidentified wares B20 Goblets P29 Lamps ? Glazed vessel

Ware R14. Aswan Byzantine decorated pink ware C4 Bowls 1 C23 Bowls 1 Total Ware R14 2

1

2 1 1

Family D. The Nubian hand-made wares Hand-made pottery has been produced in Nubia continually from Neolithic times to the present. These wares belong to a tradition that is widespread in eastern and central Africa; they represent the single most purely Afri-

1

132

132

2

Sub-family LB. Ballas wares

Family A. Aswan wares

Ware W3. Aswan Byzantine cream ware D55 Footed bowls

1 1 2

Group A.IV. Aswan medieval wares

Ware W18. Terminal Christian thin white ware C35 Bowls 1

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can component in the Nubian cultural inventory, at least since Pharaonic times. From the Meroitic until the end of the Christian period, however, they had to share the stage with the much more numerous and more elaborate wheelmade wares. The common assumption, based on ethnographic parallels, is that the hand-made wares were fashioned by women, as a kind of home industry practiced in many parts of Nubia. Meanwhile the wheel-thrown wares were produced by male specialists working in a few factories like Faras, Debeira, and Old Dongola.6 Hand-made pots throughout the Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian period were mainly vessels involved in the preparation, serving, and storage of food; chiefly bowls and pots. In the later Christian periods, however, small hand-made bowls were also employed very extensively as lamps. Many vessels of all periods are wholly unslipped; others may employ either a red or a black slip, which when present is always burnished (pebble-polished) to increase impermeability. Until the Terminal Christian period, decoration was uncommon and was nearly always incised or punched rather than painted. The great majority of designs were simply diagonal or zigzag lines.7

as containers for fetal burials. Ware H3: Earlier Christian red domestic ware 11 Vessels in this ware differ from those in Wares H1 and H2 in having an all-over red slip and burnished surfaces. The ware was used occasionally for pots, but much more often for smaller vessels such as cups, bowls, and simple bowl-shaped lamps. Eleven specimens, each exhibiting a different form, were recorded by the West Bank Survey. Three are shown in Plate 12c, nos 2, 3, and 6. Many of the specimens were found in churches, where they had been used as votive lamps. Group D.III: Later Christian domestic wares 12 These wares represent a significant departure in the development of Nubian hand-made pottery, and one that deserves further study. There are some similarities to the wares in Group D.II, but vessels of Group D.III are harder, have much heavier walls, and occur in somewhat different forms. There are many more large pots and jars than in the preceding group. Vessels in the unslipped Ware H4 are consistently more crudely formed that their predecessors in Group D.II. An extraordinary and unexplained feature of the group is the reappearance of a black-slipped ware (H8), which had been absent from the Nubian pottery complex since Meroitic times (then designated as Wares H9 and H11; see Adams 1986, 418-19). Collectively, the changes were sufficiently radical as to suggest the possibility that a new group of potters had immigrated to the Nile Valley, possibly from the western Sudan or the Chad Basin (cf. Adams 1986, 425-6).

Group D.II. X-Group and earlier Christian domestic wares (Plates 12a-c) The three hand-made wares of the Early and Classic Christian periods were all carry-overs from the Ballaña period. They are not represented by large numbers of registered finds, because these relatively soft and thin-walled vessels were very easily broken, and therefore not often found intact or even in large segments. A truer measure of their frequency can be found in sherd counts from Qasr Ibrim, where they represented consistently about 7% of the pottery from Early and Classic Christian levels.8

Ware H4: Later domestic plain utility ware 13 This crudely formed and unslipped ware was the successor to Ware H1 in Group D.II, but it was used for a much wider variety of vessel forms, both small and large. Nearly all have very heavy walls. Pots and jars are occasionally decorated with simple, crudely executed patterns of incised diagonal or criss-crossed lines at the neck or shoulder. Seven specimens were registered by us. Some smaller specimens are shown in Plate 12c, nos 4, 5, and 8; two large pots are shown in Plate 12d. The tapered form with small lug handles at the rim, shown in Plate 12d, no. 1, is especially characteristic of this ware.

Ware H1: Early domestic plain utility ware 9 An unslipped and rather coarsely finished brown ware used mainly for pots and jars, but also sometimes for jar lids and other forms. Vessel walls are typically thin. These vessels are commonly found in house sites; very frequently buried up to the rims in room floors. Only five specimens—all pots—were registered by us. By far the most prevalent form, as suggested by sherd finds, was the globular pot Form U12, illustrated in Plate 12a.

Ware H5: Later Christian red domestic ware 14 This was a successor to Ware H3 in the previous group, and a companion ware to Ware H4, from which it is distinguished by the use of a hard, burnished red slip over the entire vessel. The ware was used mainly for bowls of all sizes, but also for lamps, lids, pots and jars. Sherd finds were fairly numerous, but the only registered specimens are two lids.

Ware H2: Earlier Christian red-topped domestic ware 10 This ware, used almost exclusively for pots and jars, differs from Ware H1 only in that there is a band of burnished red slip on the uppermost part of the vessel body. Eleven specimens were registered by us, all of them bagshaped jars of Form U26 (shown in Plate 12b). Several of these were found in cemeteries, where they had been used 6 For Faras see Adams 1986, 16-22; for Debeira see ibid., 1416; for Old Dongola see Pluskota 1994. 7 For general discussion see Adams 1986, 411. 8 Adams 1986, 630. 9 Designated in Adams 1962b, 276, as Ware 27, and in Adams 1964a, 161, as Ware VA. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 418. 10 Designated in Adams 1962b, 276, as Ware 27, in part. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 423-4.

For the full ware description see Adams 1986. 424. For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 425-7. 13 For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 427-30. 14 For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 428-30. 11

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or century and a half of the Christian Nubian era. Although it was clearly derived from the X-Group Ware R1, and in at least one case was made at the same factory (see Adams 1962b, 68-70), fewer than half a dozen specimens of Ware R2 have ever been found in X-Group graves (Adams 1986, 634, n. 2). The ware was used primarily for small vessel forms such as cups, bowls, small bottles and lamps. Twenty specimens, representing seven different vessel forms, were registered by the West Bank Survey. The largest number of these had been used as votive lamps on grave superstructures, or in churches. The vessels shown in Plate 13a, nos 12, 13, and 16 are typical of this ware.

Ware H6: Later Christian incised red domestic ware 15 This is a rare variant of Ware H5, used only for small vessels having fine incised decoration. The geometric patterns are a good deal more complex, and much more finely executed, than those found on the other hand-made wares.16 The ware, like Ware H7, belongs mainly to the Terminal Christian period. Only one cup was registered; it is shown in Plate 12c, no. 7. Ware H7: Late Christian painted red domestic ware 17 A highly distinctive variant of Ware H5, having painted designs in Style D.III, almost always in both black and white, on a red background. The ware belongs entirely to the Terminal Christian and post-Christian periods. Although sherds were fairly common at Site 5-X-32, only one vessel, a fragmentary goblet, was registered.

Group N.III: Early Christian Wares 21 These are the “signature wares” of the Early Christian period. Although they evolved directly from the X-Group wares of Group N.II, they are set apart from their predecessors by a markedly distinct group of vessel forms, in which cups and goblets have been largely replaced by an enormous diversity of bowl forms, both plain and footed. White wares and red wares are about equally predominant, but appear is mostly distinct vessel forms. There is also a somewhat more formal decorative style (N.III), which will be described later.

Ware H8: Later Christian black domestic ware 18 This was the first black ware made in Nubia since Meroitic times. It was used mainly for bowls, pots, jars, and dokas, similar to the vessels of Ware H5 but having a glossy, burnished black slip instead of a red one. The only registered specimens are two lamps, one of which is shown in Plate 12c, no. 1. Family N. The Nubian wheel-made wares These wares, produced by specialists at a limited number of factory centers within Nubia, were the principal pottery used by Nubians throughout the Christian period. The wares underwent a succession of evolutionary changes from Meroitic to late medieval times, represented by the successive Ware Groups N.I through N.VII. There were at the same time a great many undecorated utility vessels, made at the same centers as the decorated vessels but not exhibiting any of their stylistic characteristics. They are designated collectively as Group NU. Representatives of all the numbered groups, as well as of Group NU, were found in Christian sites excavated by the West Bank Survey.

Ware R3: Early Christian matte red ware 22 This rather uncommon ware was a variant of the much more abundant Ware R5, described below. Vessel forms are mostly the same as those in Ware R5, but are distinguished by the possession of matte surfaces, usually dull red in color, and by a rather soft fabric. Typical forms in both wares are shown in Figure 40. Specimens often have painted decoration in both black and white, though this was not true of any of the specimens registered in the West Bank Survey. Several had a black or white rim stripe, but no other decoration was observed. The 11 registered specimens, all incomplete, included cups, bowls, footed bowls, and jars. All were found at the Faras Potteries, where they were probably made. Ware R5: Early Christian polished red ware 23 This ware, highly abundant in Early Christian times, was in one sense an outgrowth of Transitional Ware R2, in that it was made at the same factories (see Adams 1986, 68-70). However, the vessel forms were nearly all copied from the contemporary Aswan Ware R4, which had already begun to appear in Nubia somewhat earlier. In general, they represent a local manifestation of the Late Roman Redware tradition, especially as developed in North Africa (see especially Waagé 1948, 1-60; Hayes 1972). Plain and footed bowls are by far the most prevalent forms, although larger forms are also found. Stamped designs, mostly unique to this ware, are somewhat more common than is painted decoration. This was probably the first

Group N.II: X-Group wares 19 The only ware in this group whose use persisted into Christian times was the Transitional Red Ware R2, which made its appearance near the end of the Ballaña period as a successor to the Classic X-Group Red Ware R1. Ware R2: Transitional red ware 20 This was a rather short-lived successor to Ware R1, occurring in a somewhat different range of vessel forms and having a slightly different decorative style (N.IIC), which often included a rim stripe. The ware when found is an extremely useful horizon marker, because its manufacture seems to have been confined entirely to the first century For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 431. For illustrations see Adams 1986, 268-9. 17 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 431-2. 18 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 432. 19 For the full description and discussion of the group and its constituent wares see Adams 1986, 458-73. 20 Designated in Adams 1962b, 272, as Ware 2. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 470. 15

21 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 473-81. 22 Designated in Adams 1962b, 272, as Ware 6, in part. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 481. 23 Designated in Adams 1962b, 272-3, as Wares 5, 8, and 9. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 484-5; for illustrations see ibid., 474-6.

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Figure 40. Early Christian Wares R3 and R5: typical vessel forms and decoration.

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ware made at the Faras Potteries, where both fired and unfired specimens were found. The ware was also made at the Serra Kilns (Site 24-N-3), at Qasr Ibrim, and probably also other centers. Thirty-nine specimens, in 23 different forms, were registered in the West Bank Survey. Some of the vessels are shown in Plate 13a, nos 14, 15, and 17-21. Typical forms are shown in Figure 40.

Group N.IV: Classic Christian wares 29 These are the characteristic, and highly distinctive, wares of the Classic Christian period, made between about AD 850 and 1100. They mark a radical and apparently a sudden transformation in the evolution of Nubian ceramic art, involving major changes is vessel forms, in color preferences, and above all in decorative style. There was some continuity in plain and footed bowl forms, but cups and goblets virtually disappeared. At the same time there appeared a mostly new class of forms, called vases (Form Class F), which were to remain prevalent in all later periods. For the most part, the same vessel forms occur in all the Classic Christian wares. Characteristic forms and decoration in the finer Wares, R7, W5, W6, and W10 are shown in Figures 44-46; forms in the heavier Wares R23 and W7 are shown in Figure 47. Although there were still some white vessels (Ware W5) and a very few red vessels (Ware R7), the overwhelmingly preferred slip colors in Classic Christian times were yellow and orange (Wares W6, W7, and W10). The prevailing, ornate decorative style (Style N.IVA) will be described in a later section. All the Classic Christian wares were made at the Faras Potteries, which was the source of all but a very few of our registered finds. Other centers of production, in Lower Nubia, have not been identified.

Ware R.10: Transitional orange ware 24 This is a very uncommon ware found only in the earliest century or two of the Christian period. It was probably made at the same factory that produced the white Wares W1 and W9, described below. It is characterized by a bright orange slip, often with black painted decoration in a style peculiar to this ware (Style R10).25 Only three fragmentary vases were registered, all from the very early Site 5-0-16. Ware W1: Early Christian peach ware 26 The antecedents of this unusual and rather uncommon ware are uncertain, since it is not obviously derived from any X-Group predecessor. The ware occurs mostly in the form of bowls having a highly polished, lustrous surface. The vessels were fired in such a way that the interiors are commonly white to cream colored, while exteriors shade from lemon yellow to a golden pink or light orange (hence the name “peach ware”). There is very rarely any decoration, except for an occasional black or red rim stripe. Only one fragmentary vase was registered; it is shown in Plate 13a, no. 11.

Ware R7: Classic Christian fine red ware 30 This polished red ware was never common, as the overwhelming preference in Classic Christian times was evidently for lighter-slipped wares. Ware R7 was used mainly for footed bowls and vases, decorated in both black and white in a style (Style R7) peculiar to this ware.31 The ten specimens registered from the West Bank Survey include cups, footed bowls, and lamps. An intact cup is shown in Plate 14a, no. 3.

Ware W2: Early Christian matte white ware 27 This ware, a direct outgrowth of X-Group Ware W11, was by far the most common of the Early Christian white wares, and occurs in a very wide variety of forms, both small and large. Vessels may at times be decorated in either black or red or both, in Style N.III (described later), but the great majority of those found in the West Bank Survey are undecorated, or have only a rim stripe. Thirty-four vessels, in 25 different forms, were registered; some of them are shown in Plate 13a, nos 1, 2, 4-6, and 7-10. Typical vessel forms and decoration are shown in Figures 41-43.

Ware R23: Classic Christian heavy red ware 32 This is a very rare redware counterpart of the white Ware W7, used for the same large, heavy-walled vessels. The vessels have a thick, matte red or pink slip, and occasional decoration in the same style as Ware R7. Although sherds were found at several sites, there are no registered examples.

Ware W9: Early Christian Polished White Ware 28 This uncommon ware differs from Ware W2 in having an exceptionally hard fabric and highly polished surfaces, which usually have a pearly-grey color. Like Ware W1 (of which it may be a variant) it seems to have been made only in the earlier part of the Early Christian period. Its antecedents are unknown. Registered finds from the West Bank Survey are limited to a fragmentary goblet and a bowl, shown in Plate 13a, nos 3 and 7.

Ware W5: Classic Christian fine white ware 33 This rather uncommon ware, having a lustrous white slip and red or brown decoration, was used almost entirely for small vessels; especially saucer-like bowls of Forms C22 and C49. These vessels, unlike those of the companion Wares W6 and W10, are decorated exclusively in red29 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 485-91. 30 Designated in Adams 1962b, 272, as Ware 7, in part. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 491-2. 31 For a description see Adams 1986, 248; for illustrations see ibid., 327-8. 32 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 492; for illustrations see ibid., 489. 33 Designated in Adams 1962b, 273-4, as Ware 15 and Ware 14, in part. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 492-3; for illustrations see ibid., 486.

Designated in Adams 1962b, 272, as Ware 3. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 482-3. 25 For a description see Adams 1986, 243; for illustrations see ibid., 300. 26 Designated in Adams 1962b, 273, as Ware 11. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 483. 27 Designated in Adams 1962b, 273-4, as Wares 12 and 18. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 483-4. 28 Designated in Adams 1962b, 274, as Ware 19. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 481-2. 24

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Figure 41. Early Christian white wares: cup, goblet, and bowl forms with typical decoration.

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Figure 42. Early Christian white wares: footed bowl, plate, and vase forms with typical decoration.

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Figure 43. Early Christian white wares: small pots, lamps, lids, and larger vessel forms, with typical decoration.

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brown or, very occasionally black. Ware W5 was in production at Faras at the time when the site was abandoned, and large numbers of both finished and unfinished specimens were found there. All but two of our 46 registered specimens came from this site. The great majority are “saucers” of Forms C22 and C49, many of which are unfired. A selection of these vessels is shown in Plate 13b, and individual specimens, exhibiting characteristic decorative patterns, are shown in Plates 13c-f. One bowl is also shown in Plate 14a, no. 1. Typical vessel forms and decoration are also shown in Figure 44.

a large part of the ceramic market was captured by the mass-produced Aswan Wares of Groups A.III and A.IV (cf. Adams 1986, 553). A measure of the relative scarcity of the Post-Classic wares, and of the value therefore attached to them, is provided by the fact that so many of them, after breakage, had been drilled for mending. Although a considerable amount of sherd material was found at Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32), only two fragmentary specimens of vessels belonging to the Group N.V wares were registered by the West Bank Survey. Both are footed bowls of Form D23, one in the red Ware R22 and one in the yellow Ware W20.

Ware W6: Classic Christian matte yellow ware 34 This ware, which lacks the fine polish of Ware W5, is distinguished also by a slip which may be variously pale pink, beige, or yellow, shading sometimes to yellow-orange. It was used for larger vessels than was Ware W5, and above all for footed bowls and vases, many of which are decorated in both black and red. The 45 registered specimens are mainly bowls, footed bowls, and vases; all but 13 came from the Faras Potteries. Examples are shown in Plate 14a, nos 5-7, and Plate 14b, nos 3-5. Typical vessel forms and decoration are shown in Figures 45-46.

Group N.VI. Late Christian wares 39 This group was a gradual outgrowth of Group N.V, and was almost certainly made at the same factory or factories. Unlike the wares of Group N.V, however, those of Group N.VI were highly abundant throughout Lower Nubia. There is relatively little difference from Group N.V wares except in the decorative style (principally Style N.VIA, to be described later), which is a good deal more elaborate than its predecessor. The same vessel forms— mostly bowls and vases—occur in all the wares of this group except Ware R19. Typical vessel forms and decoration are shown in Figures 48 and 49. All but one of the 20 vessels registered by the West Bank Survey belong to the orange Ware R11, described below. The single exception is the cup, of yellow Ware W16, shown in Plate 14c, no. 1.

Ware W10: Classic Christian polished yellow ware 35 This is a variant of Ware W6, distinguished only by highly polished surfaces and by a slip that is somewhat more commonly yellow-orange than in the case of Ware W6. Among our 40 registered specimens the vast majority once again are bowls, footed bowls, and vases; no fewer than 16 are collared vases of Form D12 (Plate 14b, nos 1-8). A few other forms are shown in Plate 14a (nos 2, 4, 8 and 9). Typical vessel forms and decoration are shown also in Figures 45-46.

Ware R11: Late Christian polished orange ware 40 This is by far the most abundant and most characteristic ware of the Late Christian period. A scattering of bright orange sherds on the surface of any site is a nearly certain evidence of Late or Terminal Christian occupation. Ware R11 is an outgrowth of Ware R21 in the preceding group, but is distinguished both by its decorative style and by having thicker vessel walls. Decoration is nearly always in dark brown only, though a few specimens have a sparing use of white edging within the designs. Nineteen examples, in 14 different vessel forms, were registered in the West Bank Survey. Several examples are shown in Plate 14c, nos 2-7.

Ware W7: Classic Christian heavy white ware 36 This ware was used for large, thick-walled vessels having a rather coarse fabric: most commonly for very large footed bowls, pilgrim bottles, and jars. Slip colors vary from white to yellow-orange, with decoration usually in both black and red. The six specimens registered by us are all fragments of pilgrim bottles, Form K2. Other vessel forms in Ware W7 are shown in Figure 47. Group N.V: Post-Classic Christian wares 37

Group N.VII: Terminal Christian wares 41

This ware group, which seems to have had its origin somewhere in Upper Nubia,38 made a brief appearance at the beginning of the Late Christian period. The Post-Classic wares were uncommon everywhere in Lower Nubia, where

This is a very disparate group of wares, whose only common denominator is that they were all made in the last century or two of the Christian Nubian era. The two principal wares, W14 and R28, were clearly outgrowths of Group N.VI, and were probably made at the same factory or factories. Their decorative style, N.VII, shares many elements with Style N.VIA, but is somewhat simplified, and makes more use of heavy, bold lines. However, the most unusual feature of Ware W14 and R28 vessels is their hypertrophied forms. Both bowls and vases tend to

Designated in Adams 1962b, 274, as Wares 16b and 16c. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 493-4; for illustrations see ibid., 487-8. 35 Designated in Adams 1962b, 274, as Ware 16a, and Ware 20 in part. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 494; for illustrations see ibid., 487-8. 36 Designated in Adams 1962b, 274, as Ware 17. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 494-5; for illustrations see ibid., 489. 37 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 495-8. 38 There seems to be good evidence for the manufacture of some of the wares at Old Dongola. See Pluskota 1994, 361-77. 34

39 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 501-4. 40 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 504-5; for illustrations see ibid., 502-3. 41 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 506-10.

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Figure 44. Classic Christian White Ware W5 vessels, with typical decoration.

be large, with extraordinarily thick walls, and most lack a ring base. Other wares in Group N.VII have much simpler decoration, if any, and were probably made at centers different from those that produced Wares W14 and R28. Although distinctive and easily recognized, the Terminal Christian wares have not been found in quantity anywhere; probably because they were never made in quantity. Only six

examples were registered by us, all from Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32). Ware R26: Terminal Christian polished orange ware42 This attractive ware may have been an outgrowth of the 42 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 510-11; for illustrations see ibid., 507.

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Figure 45. Classic Christian Wares R7, W6, and W10: cup, bowl, and plate forms with typical decoration.

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Figure 46. Classic Christian Wares R7, W6, and W10: vases, small pots, and other forms, with typical decoration.

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common orange Ware R11 in Group N.VI, but the connection is not obvious. The only similarity between the two is in the slip color, which in the case of Ware R26 is always a bright orange, never shading to red-orange or to brown as in the contemporary Ware R28. The ware was used mainly for small or, occasionally, medium-sized cups, bowls, and vases. A few vessels are undecorated, but the great majority have a least a black rim stripe. Only one specimen was registered by us: the footed bowl shown in Plate 14c, no. 8.

both because of their resinated interiors and because they have simple painted decoration in the Early Christian Style N.III, to be described later. Painted decoration on vessels of Ware U5 was decidedly rare, and was never found after the Early Christian period. Ware U10: Later Christian pink utility ware 46 This distinctive, thin-walled utility ware became abundant in the Late Christian period, although it never fully displaced Ware U5. It is distinguished from Ware U5 by thinner vessel walls, by its rather porous fabric, and by its pinkish-grey color which contrasts with the brick-red color of Ware U5. It was the preferred ware for bell-mouthed storage jars (Form Y7) and for amphorae (Forms Z11 and Z12). Because of the size of these vessels, and their thin walls, they were very rarely preserved intact or even in large fragments, although a number of specimens were found among the buried pottery caches at Meinarti (Adams 2002, 60 and pls 14d and 14f). From other West Bank sites we registered only three fragments of storage jars, and one fragment of an amphora.

Ware W14: Terminal Christian decorated white ware 43 This ware, decorated in Style N.VII, was clearly an outgrowth of Ware W16 in Group N.VI, but was used mostly for larger and heavier vessels. The exterior slip color may be anything from dull white to pale pink, tan, yellow, or orange, while the interior is nearly always cream-colored. Decoration is in dark brown or black, with red used for rim stripes and for broad spacer stripes between black design bands. The most distinctive vessel forms are large, heavy vases of Form F30, which lack a ring base (Plate 14d, nos 2-5). Typical forms and decoration are shown in Figure 50. Six specimens were registered by us, of which three are shown in Plate 14c, nos 9 and 10 and Pl. 14d, nos 3, 4, and 9.

Family A: the Aswan wares From the Roman era until the end of the Middle Ages, pottery was produced in enormous quantities at or near Aswan, and was widely traded into Nubia. From early Ballaña times until Classic Christian times, the Aswan potters provided the primary models that were copied by the potters of Nubia. The Aswan-made vessels are often identical in form to the Nubian copies, with the distinction however that they have a very hard, light pink fabric instead of a softer fabric of Nile mud. Usually too the Aswan vessels are somewhat more carelessly finished, and generally more carelessly decorated, than are the Nubian copies. Although the specific place of manufacture for these wares has not been determined, their overwhelming prevalence in the kom site at Elephantine suggests the probability that they were made somewhere nearby, if not on the island itself. The wares were very widely traded, northward as far as Thebes and southward throughout Lower Nubia, with a few specimens reaching as far south as Soba.47 However, it is only in the vicinity of Aswan that they seem to be predominant. Aswan wares nevertheless constitute between 10% and 30% of the pottery found in Nubian sites of all periods from the Meroitic until the Terminal Christian.48

Ware W18: Terminal Christian thin white ware 44 An uncommon, matte white ware used for small vessels with quite thin walls, and having only very simple decoration of plain stripes in black, red, or both. One bowl was registered; it is shown in Plate 14d, no. 6. Group NU: Nubian coarse utility wares This is the collective designation for a group of coarse, mostly undecorated utility wares that were manufactured, with little or no change, over long periods of time. They therefore cannot be assigned to any of the numbered ware groups. Specimens of two wares, U5 and U10, were registered in the West Bank Survey. Ware U5: Christian red utility ware 45 This brick-red, rather heavy-walled utility ware was made throughout the whole of the Christian period. In the Early and Classic Christian periods it was virtually the only utility ware made in Nubia, but in the Late Christian period it was partly displaced by the somewhat lighter and thinner-walled Wares U10 and U14. It remained however the only ware used for qawadis (saqia pots), and was used also for many other forms, both small and large. Because of the enormous need for qawadis throughout Nubia, the ware was made at a great many local factories, as well as at the Serra Kilns and the Faras Potteries. We registered 29 examples, in 16 different forms. Two footed jars of Form X15 are shown in Plate 12e, and two storage jars of Form Y3 in Plate 12f. The former are highly unusual

Group A.II: Byzantine Aswan wares 49 These wares were fairly prevalent in Ballaña times but considerably less so in Early Christian times, with the single and conspicuous exception of amphorae of Ware U2. Only a few examples of the other wares were found by us in Christian contexts, and all are fragmentary except for 46 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 523; for illustrations see ibid., 518. 47 Welsby and Daniels 1991, 238, Fabric 14, 243; Welsby 1998, 92. 48 For the actual figures for each period see Adams 1986, 630. 49 For the ware group description see Adams 1986, 542-3.

For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 512-13; for illustrations see ibid., 508. 44 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 514; for illustrations see ibid., 510. 45 Designated in Adams 1962b, 275, as Ware 25. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 516-22. 43

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Figure 47. Classic Christian Wares R23 and W7: typical vessel forms and decoration.

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Figure 48. Late Christian Group N.VI: cup, goblet, and bowl forms with typical decoration.

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Figure 49. Late Christian Group N.VI: vases, qullas, and other forms, with typical decoration.

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Figure 50. Terminal Christian Wares R28 and W14: typical vessel forms and decoration.

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a few small lamps.

Classic Christian period they may also have enjoyed the advantage of cheapness, for they were evidently massproduced at very high speeds, to judge by their careless finish and haphazard decoration. At any rate they captured a large share of the Nubian market in the latter part of the Classic Christian period, outnumbering the locally made vessels which for a time were scarce and expensive.56 By the Late Christian period however their ascendancy was ending, as the Nubian-made Wares of Group N.VI came back in force.

Ware R4: Aswan Byzantine polished red ware The only specimens of this ware that were found in Christian contexts were small mold-made lamps, Forms P1 and P6, that had been used as ex-votos on grave superstructures. Several examples are shown in Plate 14f, nos 2-4, 6, and 7. 50

Ware R14: Aswan Byzantine decorated pink ware 51 This very uncommon ware, found mainly in the Early Christian period, has the odd peculiarity that the vessels lack a slip, but have designs in black painted directly on the natural pink surfaces. Only two small bowl fragments were registered, both from the wineshop Site 5-0-16.

Ware R13: Aswan Islamic plain red ware 57 This was the last of the Aswan wares which still carried on some features of the late Roman redware tradition. Although made at the same time as Ware W12, it was never decorated. Vessels have only a plain red slip, and appear in some of the same forms (notably goblets and footed bowls) that had been produced at Aswan centuries earlier. We registered eight specimens—all fragments of bowls or footed bowls, of several different forms.

Ware W3: Aswan Byzantine cream ware 52 An uncommon variant of Ware R4 having a cream or yellow slip and sometimes painted decoration in Style A.II. It was used mainly for large bowls and plates. One fragmentary bowl and one lamp were registered from the West Bank Survey; neither has painted decoration.

Ware W12: Aswan medieval white ware 58 This ware, with its “slapdash” decoration in black and red on a dull cream or tan background, was so abundant at Meinarti as to be virtually the “signature ware” of the later Classic Christian period (Adams 2002, 62). In the West Bank Survey however we registered only ten specimens, four of which had been used as lamps.

Ware U2: Aswan Byzantine pink utility ware 53 This was the standard Aswan utility ware of the Ballaña period, found occasionally in the form of bottles, jugs, and jars as well as amphorae. However, the only forms that survived into the Christian period were ribbed amphorae of Forms Z4 and Z6, which continued to be imported in large numbers in the Early Christian period. Because of their size however they are rarely found intact. We registered two specimens, one of which had been used as a container for a fetal burial. Both specimens are shown in Plate 14e, nos 1 and 2.

Ware U6: Aswan medieval grey utility ware 59 This hard, thin-walled utility ware, yellow-brown or yellow-grey in color, was used most commonly for globular pots. The vessels were highly abundant at Meinarti, but we registered only two fragmentary examples from the West Bank Survey, both from Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32).

Group A.III: Early Islamic Aswan wares 54

Family T: Middle Egyptian mud wares

This was a rather short-lived group, transitional between the more enduring norms of Group A.II and Group A.IV. The member wares, except for Ware R13 (which belongs also to Group A.IV) were imported into Nubia only in small numbers. Only two specimens were registered from the West Bank Survey: a fragmentary vase of the red Ware R12, and a portion of an amphora of the utility Ware U8.

Ware U4: Middle Egyptian brown utility ware 60 This ware was used in Ballaña times for a number of large and small vessel forms, but in Early Christian times the only surviving forms were distinctive, heavy-walled amphorae in Forms Z3 and Z3a. We registered one fragmentary and one complete amphora of the ware; the latter is shown in Plate 14e, no. 3.

Group A.IV: Medieval Aswan wares 55 These wares, although made at or near Aswan, seem always to have been destined mainly for the Nubian market, for they have been found much more abundantly to the south of Aswan than to the north of it. They enjoyed a certain competitive advantage over the local Nubian pottery because of their much greater hardness. In the

Sub-family LB: Ballas wares Ware U9: Ballas ribbed utility ware 61 This very thin-walled ware is known in Nubia only from a 56

For discussion see Adams 2001, 85-6, and Adams 1986, 495-

7.

50 Designated in Adams 1962b, 272, as Ware 4. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 543-4. 51 For the ware description see Adams 1986, 544. 52 For the ware description see Adams 1986, 544-5. 53 Designated in Adams 1962b, 275, as Ware 22. For the full ware description and illustrations see Adams 1986, 543-4. 54 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 546-50. 55 For the full ware group description and discussion see Adams 1986, 553-8.

57 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 550-51; for illustrations see ibid., 547. 58 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 558-9; for illustrations see ibid., 554-8. 59 Designated in Adams 1962b, 276, as Ware 26. For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 559-60; for illustrations see ibid., 556. 60 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 567-8; for illustrations see ibid., 565. 61 For the full ware description see Adams 1986, 572-4.

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handful of examples. From the Faras Potteries we registered a single example: a portion of a hemispherical basin of Form T4.

3, 5, and 7. Wheel-made cups are shown in Plate 13a, no. 2, Plate 14a, nos 1, 3, and 4, and Plate 14c, nos 1 and 2. B. Goblets.63 This form class includes all cups having a modeled foot. Such vessels were highly prevalent in the Ballaña period, but virtually disappeared in Christian times. Very small numbers did nevertheless continue to be made in each of the different Christian phases. We registered seven examples, in five different forms and five different wares: three from Early Christian contexts, two (unfired) from Classic Christian contexts, and two from Late Christian contexts. An Early Christian goblet is shown in Plate 13a, no. 4.

Form classes and forms The registered vessels from the West Bank Survey belong to 20 different form classes, from cups to amphorae, and exhibit 127 individual forms. For each form class, Table 4 shows the total number of registered specimens, the number of individual forms that are represented, and the number of different wares in which they occur. These figures are not, of course, an accurate reflection of the different forms actually in use, or of their frequency, since the smaller forms were much more likely to be preserved intact, and therefore to be collected and registered, than were the larger forms. Amphorae, for example, were highly abundant in the Early Christian period, but are represented by only 11 registered specimens. The table also does not include a few registered specimens whose form could not be identified.

C. Bowls.64 This category includes all bowl forms lacking any kind of modeled base. Such vessels were prevalent throughout the whole of the Christian period, though slightly less so in Later Christian times than earlier. They occur in a very wide variety of forms. We registered 106 vessels in 21 forms and in 13 different wares. However, no fewer than 70 of the specimens are small bowls (“saucers”) of Forms C22, C23, C49, and C50, all of which were in production at the Faras Potteries at the time of abandonment. Several of the registered pieces are unfired. Examples of these vessels are shown in Plates 13b-f. Apart from these specimens, no other bowl form is represented by more than four finds. Other bowl forms are shown in Plates 12c, no. 6; 13a, nos 3, 5, 6, and 14-16.

TABLE 4. REGISTERED CHRISTIAN VESSELS FROM THE WEST BANK SURVEY

Tallied according to form classes Form class

No. of specimens

No. of forms

No. of wares

31 7 106 67 2 39 7 1 7 59 4 2 2 24 6 6 10 6 11 398

14 5 21 22 1 7 4 1 1 19 3 2 2 6 1 4 2 3 7 127

15 5 13 14 2 6 4 1 2 12 2 1 2 5 1 4 3 2 5 --

A. Cups B. Goblets C. Bowls D. Footed bowls E. Plates F. Vases G. Small pots H. Qullas K. Pilgrim bottles P. Lamps Q. Lids S. Dokas T. Basins U. Pots V. Qadus W. Jars X. Footed jars Y. Storage jars Z. Amphorae Totals

D. Footed bowls.65 This designation is given to bowls having a ring or pedestal base. Footed bowls were uncommon in Meroitic and Ballaña times, but became common in the Early Christian period, and even more so in Classic and Late Christian times. They were equally common in the Nubian-made wares of Family N and in the Aswan wares of Family A. We registered 67 examples, in 14 wares and in 22 individual forms. By far the more prevalent is the broad bowl with upturned rim, Form 23, which is represented by 21 examples. Most of these vessels came from the Faras Potteries, where they were in production at the time of abandonment. Examples are shown in Plates 14a, no. 7 and 14c, no. 7. Another common form produced at Faras is the ledge-rim Form D77, represented by eight finds. Examples are shown in Plates 13a, no. 8 and 14a, no. 6. The relatively small bowl with modeled rim, Form D74, was one of the most popular forms in the early Aswan Ware R4, and was imitated in the Early Christian Nubian Ware R5. We registered seven examples, of which one is shown in Plate 13a, no. 20. Other registered footed bowls are shown in Plate 13a, nos 9, 10, 13, 18, 19, and 21; and Plate 14c, no. 8.

A. Cups.62 These were among the most common of all vessels in the Ballaña period. They were somewhat less common in the Early Christian period, became very scarce in Classic Christian times, and staged a modest comeback in Late Christian times. In our registered collection, cups are found in many different wares, of all ages, and in a wide variety of forms. No single form is especially prevalent. Altogether, 31 cups were registered, of which 12 belong to the Early Christian period, nine to the Classic Christian period, and 10 to the Late and Terminal Christian periods. Hand-made cups are shown in Plate 12c, nos

E. Plates.66 The occurrence of these vessels was confined almost entirely to the Early Christian period, and even then they were rare. They occur mainly in the For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 101; for illustrations see ibid., 112-14. 64 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 101-2; for illustrations see ibid., 116-22. 65 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 102; for illustrations see ibid., 129-32. 66 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 102; for illustrations see ibid., 130. 63

62 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 101; for illustrations see ibid., 108-11.

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Aswan Wares W3 and R4, and in very occasional Nubian imitations of them. We registered two specimens, both of Form E1, from the Faras Potteries. One is an unfired piece in the red Ware R5, and one a fired piece in the white Ware W5.

even more so in Christian times, when they were used both for lighting and in votive contexts. More than half of our registered specimens came in fact from either churches or from grave superstructures. We registered 59 lamps of 19 different forms and in 12 different wares. Lamps occur commonly in both hand-made and wheel-made wares, as well as in mold-made specimens of Aswan Ware R4. The preferred lamp forms underwent a significant process of change, from bottle-like forms in Ballaña times to forms shaped like a candle-holder in Early and Classic Christian times, and then to simple, open dishes in Late Christian times. Also popular in Early Christian times were mold-made lamps of Aswan ware, which commonly have embossed sacred designs or names on the upper surface. We registered six of these vessels, shown in Plate 14f, nos 1-4, 6, and 7; all were found on Early Christian grave superstructures. The collection also includes one moldmade specimen embossed in the form of a frog, similar to the lamp shown in Plate 14f, no. 9. This was a common Ballaña type which is rarely found in Christian contexts, but our specimen, like the other molded lamps, was found on a Christian grave superstructure. Our registered collection includes also 16 lamps of the small bottle-like forms P5 through P16, which were popular at the beginning of the Christian period (Plate 13a, nos 1 and 12); 18 lamps of “candle-holder” types P17 through P19, all in Early or Classic Christian Nubian wares, and 12 lamps of the simple bowl-like forms P22 through P32. Eight of these latter vessels are in hand-made wares (shown in Plate 12c, nos 1, 2, and 4) and three in Aswan ware W12; one is unidentifiable. Two bottle-like lamps of Form P34, found in Terminal Christian sites, are of a hard stoneware, whose place of origin is unknown but was certainly outside Nubia, and possibly outside Egypt. These vessel and others like them have been classified as bottle-lamps because they show some evidence of having been used as such, but in fact they were probably designed originally for use as naphtha grenades, to be employed in siege warfare.72 The vessels have notably thick and heavy walls, especially at the base, and they always have rounded or pointed rather than flat bottoms.

F. Vases.67 These relatively tall and more or less cylindrical vessels made their first appearance in Early Christian times, though only in very small numbers. In Classic and later Christian times they became among the most abundant decorated forms in both the Nubian and the Aswan wares. What they were used for remains something of a mystery, for they seldom show any signs of wear as do many bowl forms. They are the most consistently and the most elaborately decorated of all Nubian vessels, and it may be that they were intended primarily as showpieces. We registered 39 examples, mostly from the Faras Potteries where they were in production at the time of abandonment. No fewer than 24 are collared vases, as illustrated in Plate 14a, nos 5 and 8, and Plate 14b, nos 1-8. Six other vase forms, in six different wares, were also registered; some examples are shown in Plate 13a, no. 11; Plate 14a, no. 9; Plate 14b, no. 9; 14c; nos 3-6 and 9; and 14d, nos 3 and 9. G. Small pots and bottles.68 This is something of a catchall designation for small vessels, usually decorated, that may have been used for a variety of purposes. They were fairly common in the X-Group wares, rare in the Early Christian wares, and thereafter virtually disappeared, although one unfired specimen was found at the Faras Potteries. We registered seven examples, in four different forms. An Early Christian specimen is shown in Plate 13a, no. 17. H. Qullas. 69 These water-cooling bottles, having a perforated filter in the neck, made their first appearance in the later Classic Christian period, although they did not become at all common until Late Christian times. The first qullas to appear were those in Ware U13, imported from Fostat, but the Nubian potters soon began to imitate them, mostly in the decorated Ware R19 but also sometimes in the utility Ware U14. However we registered only one fragmentary specimen, in the utility Ware U5. K. Pilgrim bottles.70 These are vessels shaped like a truncated cylinder, with a spout at one side; they have much the same appearance as a modern hiker’s canteen. Although they were made very occasionally at earlier periods, they did not become common in Nubia until Classic Christian times. They were being made at the Faras Potteries at the time of its abandonment. We registered seven fragmentary specimens, all of Form K2, and all but one in the heavy decorated Ware W7.

Q. Lids.73 Pottery lids were never common in Nubia, where vessels were usually stoppered with mud, if at all. Nevertheless, a few ceramic lids were made throughout the Christian period; they occur both in decorated specimens in the Nubian wheel-made wares, and in crudely formed and undecorated specimens of hand-made ware. We registered two wheel-made lids (Forms Q3 and Q11) from Early Christian sites, and two hand-made lids (Form Q16) from Late Christian Site 5-X-32.

P. Lamps.71 Lamps were common in Ballaña times, but

S. Dokas. 74 These are the large, round pottery slabs or shallow basins on which native bread (kisra) is baked. They are always hand-made, and have either a red bur-

For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 102; for illustrations see ibid., 131-4. 68 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 102; for illustrations see ibid., 135-8. 69 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 103; for illustrations see ibid., 139. 70 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 103; for illustrations see ibid., 145. 71 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 103-4; for illustrations see ibid., 150-54. 67

72 For an illustration of similar vessels see Adams 2001, pl. 30c; for discussion see Adams 1996, 144 and nn. 32-34. 73 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 104; for illustrations see ibid., 155-6. 74 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 104; for illustrations see ibid., 158.

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nish on the upper surface (Ware H2) or a black burnish (Ware H8). Because they were low-fired and easily broken, examples are rarely found intact. We registered two fragmentary specimens of Ware H2, both from the Faras Potteries, although it is unlikely that they were made there. One is flat (Form S3) and one very slightly concave (Form S2).

utility Wares U5, U10, and U14. We registered only six jars from the West Bank Survey, and five of these are neck fragments only. They represent the fairly wide-mouthed Forms W25 and W26, and the narrow-mouthed Forms W33 and W35. The one nearly complete specimen, in Terminal Christian Ware W14, is shown in Plate 14c, no. 10 and 14d, no. 9.

T. Basins.75 The vessels in this category are essentially very large, wide, and usually deep bowls, with either a hemispherical or an angular profile. The great majority are in the hand-made wares or in the utility Wares U5 and U10. Because of their size they are very rarely found intact. From the West Bank Survey we registered two fragmentary specimens, one a cylindrical form (Form T10) in the Nubian utility Ware U5, and one a hemispherical form (Form T4) in the very uncommon Ballas Ware U9. The Nubian specimen has a cross is raised relief on the inner surface, and may have been used for ritual foot washing, since it was found in Kisinarti Church (Site 5-T-1).76

X. Footed jars.80 These are jars having a ring base. They were abundant in Meroitic times, somewhat less so in both Ballaña and Early Christian times, and very rare thereafter. Unlike plain jars, the great majority of footed jars were in the decorated wares of Family N, Group N.III. However, six of our ten registered specimens are in the utility Ware U5; the other four are in Early Christian Wares R3, R5, and W2. Four are in the nearly identical necked forms X3 and X4, and six in the necked Form X15. Two of the latter, in Ware U5, are shown in Plate 12e; both are unusual in having simple painted decoration in Early Christian style.

U. Pots.77 In Ballaña and in Early Christian times, the majority of globular cooking vessels were hand-made. These still remained abundant in Classic and later Christian times, but they were now joined by rather similarly shaped, but much thinner-walled, pots of the Aswan Ware U6. From the West Bank Survey we registered 25 specimens, of which all but six are hand-made. Four are globular pots (Form U12) of Ware H1, shown in Plate 12a; 12 are globular with everted rim (Form U26) in Ware H2, of which examples are shown in Plate 12b; two are more nearly cylindrical specimens (Form U17) in Late Christian Ware H4 (Plate 12c, no. 8 and Plate 12d, no. 1). There are also two somewhat angular pots (Form U21) of Nubian utility Ware U5, and three globular pots (Form U16) of Aswan Ware U6.

Y. Storage jars.81 Large ceramic storage vessels became common for the first time in the Late Christian period; to some extent they seem to have taken the place of the mud-walled qusebas of earlier times. They were made both in the hand-made wares and in the utility wares of Group NU. Hand-made storage jars are fairly wide-mouthed, and lack a neck; they are essentially the same as very large pots. Some wheel-made specimens have a definite neck, and a fairly narrow mouth. We registered six specimens, all from Late Christian Site 5-X-32 (Kasanarti). One is a hand-made vessel of Ware H4, Form Y1; it is shown in Plate 12d, no. 2. The other six are all of wheel-made utility Ware U5. Three are neckless specimens of Form Y3, and three necked specimens of Form Y7. Two of the former are shown in Plate 12f.

V. Qawadis (sing. qadus ).78 These vessels were common in Nubia from the time when the saqia (ox-driven waterwheel) was first introduced, since up to 50 of them were required for each saqia. Occasionally, for not very obvious reasons, the vessels were brought indoors, where presumably they were used as liquid containers. Six specimens were registered by us, all in utility Ware U5 and all in the typical Christian Form V1. Five of the six were found in Late Christian houses at Site 5-X-32.

Z. Amphorae.82 Amphorae, mostly of Egyptian manufacture, were imported in enormous quantities throughout the Meroitic, Ballaña, and Early Christian periods, but their volume dropped off dramatically thereafter. Probably this was because the Abbasid Caliph had forbidden the export of wine to Nubia (see Forand 1971, 116-20; also Adams 1986, 100). The cessation of imports seems to have given rise to a short-lived attempt at viticulture in Nubia, as evidenced by the making of resinated amphorae at the Faras Potteries (see Adams 1966, 278-83). However, these were no longer made in the latter part of the Classic Christian period. We registered 11 amphorae of seven different forms and in five different wares. Five are imports: they include Aswan vessels of Ware U2, Forms Z4 and Z6 (Plate 14e, nos 1 and 2) and Theban vessels of Ware U4, Form Z3, of which one is shown in Plate 14e, no. 3. There is also one much later Aswan amphora of Ware U8, Form Z8. Of our six locally made amphorae, three are products of the Faras Potteries, in utility Ware U5, Form Z10. They

W. Jars.79 These vessels differ from pots in having a somewhat more constricted mouth, as well as a definite neck. They occur in a very wide variety of forms. Jars were highly abundant in Meroitic times, somewhat less so in Ballaña times, and comparatively rare throughout the Christian period, when they largely gave way to pots. Most of the forms that continued to be made were in the 75 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 104; for illustrations see ibid., 159. 76 For three similar specimens from Meinarti see Adams 2001, pl. 31c. 77 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 104-5; for illustrations see ibid., 161-4. 78 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 105; for illustrations see ibid., 165. 79 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 105; for illustrations see ibid., 166-71.

80 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 105; for illustrations see ibid., 172-4. 81 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 105-7; for illustrations see ibid., 175-7. 82 For discussion of the class see Adams 1986, 107; for illustrations see ibid., 177-82.

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were apparently in production shortly before the site was abandoned. The other three amphorae are slightly more bulbous forms (Form Z11) in the later utility Ware U10.

have more than one decorative band or frieze, though many have also a rim stripe. Distinguishing characteristics of Style N.III are shown in Figure 51. The designs are executed in one color only: red in the case of Ware W2, and black in the cases of Wares W1 and W9. However, the color of the rim stripe may contrast with that of the design. In place of painted decoration, vessels of Ware R5 sometimes have stamped designs, which may occur either in repeating bands on exterior vessel walls, or as isolated elements in the bottoms of bowls. The most commonly recurring motifs are crosses, but geometric designs made up of recurring spots are also found. However, only one of the vessels registered from the West Bank Survey had stamped decoration: an encircling band of lozenges, with one or more crosses below it.

Decorative colors Over the centuries, Nubian pottery underwent a series of pendulum-swings between a preference for red-slipped and a preference for light-slipped vessels. The latter were heavily predominant in the Meroitic period, although red vessels, generally imitative of the late Roman redware tradition, also made an appearance in the last Meroitic centuries. By Ballaña times the red vessels had almost wholly captured the market, and white vessels of all kinds were extraordinarily rare. By the Early Christian period the pendulum had swung about half-way back: white wares and red wares were about equally prevalent. In addition, for the first time, two wares with orange slips (Wares W1 and R10) had also made an appearance, though only in small numbers. By Classic Christian times the pendulum had completed its return swing, and red-slipped vessels were as rare as they had been common in Ballaña times. The light-slipped vessels now exhibited a much wider range of slip colors than in earlier centuries, including white or cream (Ware W5), buff, pale pink, and pale yellow (Ware W6), and bright yellow shading to orange (Ware W10). By Late Christian times the pendulum had once again swung markedly in the opposite direction. By far the most prevalent ware was the orange Ware R11, followed by the red Ware R17, while the white and yellow Wares W15 and W16 were rare. The white wares made something of a comeback in the Terminal Christian period, but were still considerably outnumbered by orange vessels, of several different wares. Until Late Christian times painted decoration was always common on the white wares but rare on the red wares, which continued for centuries to adhere to the late Roman tradition. Both in the Early and in the Classic white wares (Groups N.III and N.IV) the designs might be either in red or in black, or, very commonly, both. Decoration on the red vessels, when present, was nearly always in black only. In the Late Christian period however nearly all vessels, with all the different slip colors, were decorated at least with a rim stripe: red in the case of white and yellow wares, and black in the case of orange and red wares.

Style N.IVA: Classic Christian fancy style 84 This highly ornate style, with its combinations of bands and friezes involving geometric, floral, animal, and abstract motifs, was characteristic of all the wares in Group N.IV. The style represents one of the most complete and radical departures in the history of Nubian ceramic art, showing strong influences from contemporary manuscript decoration.85 Whether or not it was originated at the Faras factory, it seems to have reached its fullest florescence there, as exhibited in Plates 13b-f and 14a-b. Distinguishing characteristics of the style are shown in Figures 52 and 53. In place of painted designs, small bowls (“saucers”) of Ware W5 sometimes have a fancy stamped medallion design in the center bottom, which is commonly overpainted in red. Some examples are shown at the bottom in Figure 53. This form of decoration is not found on other wares of Group N.IV. Style N.VA: Post-Classic Christian style 86 This rather short-lived style is the defining feature of all the wares in Group N.V. It developed directly out of the late Classic Christian Style N.IVB, and evolved in its turn into Style N.VI, without any sharp breaks in tradition. Style N.VA can be distinguished from its predecessor because bands and friezes are usually framed by triple rather than by double lines, there is an extensive use of frieze elements consisting of groups of bundled vertical lines, and there is a distinctive form of radial design in bowl interiors. In the West Bank Survey collections the style is represented only in two fragmentary specimens, of Wares R22 and W20.

Decorative styles Style N.III: Early Christian style 83 Vessels in the Early Christian ware group N.III were somewhat more frequently and more formally decorated than were the vessels of Ballaña times. Painted decoration, found mainly on the white wares, consists usually of narrow bands or friezes, executed in fine lines. The designs are nearly all geometrical, among which arch and festoon (i.e., inverted arch) patterns are the most common. The designs are usually framed above and below by single lines; much less commonly by double lines. Vessels never

Style N.VIA: Late Christian fancy style 87 This is the defining style for most vessels in Ware Group N.VI. The style evolved gradually from Style N.VA, and the two share a great many design elements in common, 84 For discussion of the style see Adams 1986, 245-7; for illustrations see ibid., 309-19. 85 For the derivation of many of the design elements see Adams 1981. 86 For discussion of the style see Adams 1986, 247-8; for illustrations see ibid., 329-33. 87 For discussion of the style see Adams 1986, 249-50; for illustrations see ibid., 335-46.

83 For discussion of the style see Adams 1986, 243-5; for illustrations see ibid., 301-8.

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Figure 51. Distinguishing characteristics of Early Christian decorative Style N.III.

but Style N.VIA is more strictly rectilinear. Newly added features include the numerous and varied “bracket” elements that appear in border friezes, and especially the black triangular filling inserted into the angles of zigzag and criss-cross designs. These and other distinguishing features are shown in Figure 54. Designs in Style N.VIA are nearly always in black only, although vessels in the white and yellow wares may sometimes have a red rim stripe, and those in the red Ware R17 may very occasionally have a white rim stripe. Orange Ware R11 always has black decoration only.

Style N.VII: Terminal Christian style 88 This style is the distinguishing feature of the two principal Terminal Christian wares, W14 and R28, in Group N.VII. It is a very much simplified and bolder successor to Style N.VIA, lacking much of the frilliness of the predecessor style. Designs tend to be executed in heavy rather than fine lines, and are often framed above and below by a single heavy line rather than by the triple lines usual in 88 For discussion of the style see Adams 1986, 250-51; for illustrations see ibid., 349-52.

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Figure 52. Distinguishing characteristics of Classic Christian decorative Style N.IVA.

a feature that sets Ware R26 apart from nearly all other orange wares. However, our one registered specimen has only a plain black rim stripe.

Style N.VIA. Other distinguishing features of Style N.VII are shown in Figure 55. Ware R26 Style 89 This very simple style is found only on the bright orange Ware R26 of the Terminal Christian period. The decoration consists of simple geometric stripes, bands, and friezes, outlined in black and very often filled with white—

Decoration on the Nubian utility wares. Very occasionally, pots and jars of utility Ware U5 may also have a band of simple, incised wavy-line decoration around the neck or shoulder. This was true of four of our registered specimens. Even more rarely, and only in the Early Christian period, jars in Ware U5 may have simple white painted designs, in Style N.III. Two such speci-

89 For discussion of the style see Adams 1986, 251; for illustrations see ibid., 354.

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Figure 53. Distinguishing characteristics of Classic Christian decorative Style N.IVA (cont.).

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Figure 54. Distinguishing characteristics of Late Christian decorative Style N.VIA.

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Figure 55. Distinguishing characteristics of Terminal Christian decorative Style N.VII.

mens are shown in Plate 12e. One basin of Ware U5 has a simple embossed cross design on the inner wall, just below the rim.

Owners’ graffiti on pottery Owner’s graffiti, like maker’s marks, were very rare on the pottery from the West Bank Survey. The only recorded examples are shown in Figure 56.

Maker’s marks These were very rare on the vessels from the West Bank Survey, in contrast to those from Meinarti (Adams 2002, 70-71). The few specimens that we registered, all on utility vessels of Ware U5, as shown in Figure 56. All are from Late Christian Site 5-X-32 (Kasanarti).

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Figure 56. Impressed maker’s marks and scratched owners’ graffiti on pottery vessels (not to scale).

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8. NON-POTTERY OBJECTS

The object register from the West Bank Survey lists 188 objects, other than pottery vessels, from Christian sites. In addition to objects found by us in the survey, the descriptions in this chapter include also five objects of Christian types which were found, without documentation, in the Wadi Halfa Museum. They came almost certainly from the Antiquities Service preliminary survey of 1956, but no site attributions are possible.1

sites being no more than accidental survivals (see Adams 2000, 91-2 and plate 20c; also Adams 2001, 36).4 The specimens when complete always have a large head; short, upraised arms; and small but clearly identifiable breasts. The lower body is a mere round column, with no anatomical features represented. Our specimens, both from the Faras Potteries (Site 24-E-21), are missing the head and arms, and one is also missing the lower body. The larger figure has a thin red-brown slip, and the smaller one a cream or white slip. There is no surviving trace of any other decoration, although simple painted designs are common on figurines from other sites (cf. Adams 2000, 92). The specimen shown at right in Figure 57 may also be the lower body of a figurine, but this is far from certain. The body, unlike that in the other two figures, is hollow, though the piece is not wheel-made or mold-made. There are faint traces of red painted decoration on a cream slip.

Registration numbers Registration numbers for the various objects described in this chapter will be found in Tables 5-12, as well as in the figures and plates where they are illustrated. Sudan National Museum accession numbers are given in the Appendix.

Objects of ceramic and unfired clay, other than vessels

Human nose (Figure 58,1). The item shown in Figure 58, no. 1 and in Plate 16a, no. 7 is a slightly larger-than-life sized representation of an aquiline human nose. It is nearly complete as a nose, with indentations on the lower side to indicate nostrils. It was evidently part of a larger piece; perhaps a mask. The specimen is made of unfired clay but is painted dark red all over, suggesting that it may have been awaiting the kiln. Like most of our unfired clay finds it came from the Faras Potteries.

Architectural elements (Plate 15a) The three ceramic objects shown in Plate 15a were all found in the fill of Gezira Dabarosa Church (Site 6-G-7). The two larger items are clearly parts of column capitals, which were originally painted white or cream. Enough survives of the larger piece to show that the original form was a hollow square, and the perforation suggests that it was affixed to the top of a wooden column. Presumably these were parts of a “triumphal arch” which had originally separated the bema from the body of the church.2 The small piece, exhibiting part of a floral design within a square, is curved in cross-section, like a piece of very large pipe or tubing. It is presumably a decorative architectural element, but is probably not part of a capital.

Human phallus (Figure 58, 2). The item shown in Figure 58, no. 2 and in Plate 16a, no. 8 is the distal end of a miniature model of a human phallus. It is made of unfired clay, without decoration. Animals (Plate 16a, 3-6). The Faras Potteries yielded a number of fragmentary animal figurines of unfired clay, as shown in Plate 16a, nos 3-6. Number 3 seems clearly to be the body of a humped bovine, nos 4 and 5 are camels, and no. 6 is most probably a giraffe. All these figures are thin in profile; there is no attempt to represent the full thickness of the animal. Nevertheless, at least in the case of nos 1 and 3, the figures stood on separated left and right legs, while in no. 4 the legs were not separated. Number 3, only, is covered with a white wash; the others are unpainted. Whether or not these objects were intended for the kiln is uncertain; both fired and unfired animal figurines have been found at other sites (Adams and Adams 1998, 84; Adams 1996, 192; 2002, 78).

Toilet (Plate 15b) The item shown in Plate 15b is a typical ceramic toilet fixture of the type used mainly in Classic Christian times. Numerous examples of these were found by us at Meinarti (Adams 2001, 94-5 and pls 17e, 31e), but this is the only toilet found at any other site in our survey.3 Figurines Human females (Figure 57). The two specimens shown at left in Figure 57 are torso fragments of rather crudely formed female figurines, of a type common in Ballaña sites but rarely found in Christian sites, and only at the earliest period. The iconic significance of these figures has never been determined, but it probably relates to pagan rather than to Christian beliefs, the specimens found in Christian

Camel saddles (Plate 16a, 1-2). The two small items shown in Plate 16a, nos 1-2 are models of camel saddles, probably meant to rest on the backs of figurines like those described above. Although they are unfired, no. 2 has a painted design of red stripes.

1 On the artifact cards, these items are registered simply as “Christian 1,” “ Christian 2,” etc. 2 See Adams 1965a, 99. For other ceramic capitals see Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, pl. XLVIII. 3 For toilets at Debeira see Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 10-12, 17, and 106; for a specimen from Qasr Ibrim see Adams 1996, pl. 40, a.

4 For very similar figurine fragments from Debeira see Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, pl. XLIV, b.

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TABLE 5. REGISTERED OBJECTS OF CERAMIC AND UNFIRED CLAY FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no.

Reg. no.

Site type

Material

Object

Condition

Plates

6-G-7 6-G-7 6-G-7 5-X-32 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 5-X-32 5-X-32

9 10 8 19 185 186 188 233 232 228 227 231 225 226 229 230 250 187 54 59

Church Church Church Village Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Village Village

Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic

Capital Capital Architectural element Toilet Female figurine Female figurine Figurine? Figurine of nose Phallus figurine Giraffe figurine Cow figurine Animal figurine? Camel figurine Camel figurine Camel saddle figurine Camel saddle figurine Toy vessel Vessel handle Bottle stopper? Bottle stopper?

Fragment Portion Fragment Restored Portion Portion Portion Complete Portion Portion Portion Complete Portion Portion Complete Complete Complete Portion Portion? Complete?

15a, no. 2 15a, no. 1 15a, no. 3 15b

24-E-21

179

Factory

Clay

Jar stamp

Almost complete

5-X-32

15

Village

Potsherd

Stamping seal?

Complete

5-X-32

50

Village

Ceramic

Stamping seal

Almost complete

5-X-32

57

Village

Ceramic

Stamping seal

Almost complete

Factory

Ceramic

Stamping seal

Complete

?

Ceramic

Stamping seal

Almost Complete

11-L-4 Christian

8

24-E-21

178

Factory

Ceramic

Pot stamp

Almost complete

24-E-21

180

Factory

Clay

Pot stamp

Complete

24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-N-3

183 184 251 252 253 254 255 256 13

Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory

Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper Scraper

Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete

24-E-21

205

Factory

Hone?

Complete

24-E-21 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 24-E-21

224 1.1 1.3 1.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 15 43 91 97 98 99 101 236

Button? Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Ground disc

Complete Complete Complete Half Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Almost complete Complete

5-T-9

1.3

Factory Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Factory Refuse deposit

Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Clay and marble Clay Potsherd Ceramic Potsherd Ceramic Ceramic Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Ceramic Ceramic Ceramic Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd

Ground disc

Complete

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16a, no. 7 16a, no. 8 16a, no. 6 16a, no. 3

Figures

57, no. 1 57, no. 2 57, no. 3 58, no. 1 58, no. 2

16a, no. 5 16a, no. 4 16a, no. 2 16a, no. 1 16a, no. 19 59 60, no. 2 60. no. 1 15c, no. 6; 15d, no. 6 16c, no. 4 15c, no. 8; 15d, no. 8 15c, no. 5; 15d, no. 5; 15e 15c, no. 7; 15d, no. 7 15c, no. 4; 15d, no. 4 15c, no. 2; 15d, no. 2; 15f 15c, no. 1; 15d, no. 1 16b, no. 2 16b, no. 1 16b, no. 5 16b, no. 6 16b, no. 7 16b, no. 8

61. no. 3 61, no. 2

61, no. 1

16b, no. 3 16b, no. 4 62

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16a, no. 12 16c, no. 5 16c, no. 13 16c, no. 19 16c, no. 7 16c, no. 8 16c, no. 2 16c, no. 6 16c, no. 4 16c, no. 10 16c, no. 11 16c, no. 9 16c, no. 3 16c, no. 18 16c, no. 17

63, no. 5 63, no. 4 63, no. 1 63, no. 2 64 63, no. 3

TABLE 5. REGISTERED OBJECTS OF CERAMIC AND UNFIRED CLAY FROM CHRISTIAN SITES (CONT.). Site no.

Reg. no.

5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-43 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21

1.2 10 100

24-R-7

4

5-0-14 5-0-16 5-0-16 5-X-44 5-X-44 5-X-44 6-G-7 6-G-7 6-G-7 6-G-7 Christian 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 6-G-7 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 5-X-40 5-X-40

3 15 16 8 9 11 3 4 5 6 13 182 195 44 7 258 249 223 8 9

234 235 248 257 189 190 220 221 222

Site type

Material

Object

Condition

Village Village Village Village Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Round structure Church Tavern Tavern Church Church Church Church Church Church Church ? Factory Factory Factory Church Factory Factory Factory Cemetery Cemetery

Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay

Ground disc Ground disc Ground disc Incised disc Gaming die? Gaming board? Beads Bead? Signet impression Signet impression Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal

Complete Complete Complete Complete Fragment Portion 4 complete Portion Complete Complete Portion Almost complete Fragment

16c, no. 14 16c, no. 15 16c, no. 16 16c, no. 1 16a, no. 11 16a, no. 10 16a, nos. 13-16 16a, no. 18 17a 17b 17c, no. 3

66, no. 5 66, no. 2

Clay

Jar seal

Almost complete

17c, no. 2

66, no. 3

Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Clay Potsherd Potsherd Potsherd Mud Clay Clay Clay Ceramic Ceramic

Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Jar seal Practice piece Ground fragment Grooved sherd Painted plaster Spherical object Spindle-like object Perforated rectangle Smoking pipe Smoking pipe

Fragment Mostly complete Portion Portion Fragment Complete Fragment Fragment Fragment Fragment Mostly complete Complete Fragment Complete Fragment Complete Complete Complete Complete Portion

17c, no. 4

66, no. 6 66, no. 4

17c, no. 1

66, no. 1

65, no. 2 65, no. 1

68 69 16a, no, 17 16a, no. 9

Sealing stamps (Plates 15c, 4-8; 15d, 4-8; 15e; Figure 61) The ceramic or unfired clay objects shown in Plates 15c and 15d, nos 4-8, were designed to make stamped impressions on clay jar or amphora seals. Side views are shown in Plate 15c, and views of the stamping faces in Plate 15d. All the specimens except nos 6 and 7 originally had shank handles which have broken off; an intact example is seen in no. 6. The cruciform stamp, no. 4, is closely similar to one from Debeira (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 79, fig. 104). Number 5 has a hole in the top of the handle, suggesting that it may have been affixed to the end of a wooden stick. An impression from this specimen is shown in Plate 15e. Number 6, found at the Faras Potteries, is of unfired clay, but nevertheless shows evidence of use, as the design end is clogged with clay. In addition to the irregular star design on the stamping face, there is a much smaller, regular five-pointed star design incised in the top of the shank, shown in Figure 61, no. 3.

Vessel handle (Figure 59) The ceramic object shown in Figure 59 appears to be a handle which was once attached to the rim of a very large bowl or basin. It is a hollow cylinder, wheel-thrown from Nile mud and closed off at the outer end, except for a small hole in the middle. It has a pinkish cream slip, and decoration in red stripes as shown. The fabric and decoration suggest that it belongs to Early Christian White Ware W2. Bottle stoppers? (Figure 60) The two very different ceramic objects shown in Figure 60 may both be bottle stoppers, though this is hardly more than a guess in either case. The mushroom-shaped specimen at top has been deliberately fashioned from Nile mud, and has a matte white slip.5 The shank may originally have been longer than the portion that is preserved.

6 Early Christian qawadis sometimes had a deep indentation in the bottom of the base knob, as this specimen apparently did. This was not true of later qawadis.

For similar stoppers from Kulubnarti see Adams and Adams 1998, pl. 5.2B. 5

163

163

Figures

The specimen below it has been ground down from the base knob of a qadus of Ware U5, Early Christian type.6

Toy bowl (Plate 16a, 19) The item shown in Plate 16a, no. 19 is a tiny miniature bowl of unfired clay, which was obviously modeled over the end of the potter’s finger.

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Figure 57. Fragmentary ceramic figurines. 1, Female figurine with red-brown slip (24-E-21/ 185); front view and cross-section near base. 2, Female figurine with cream slip (24-E-21/186); front view and cross-section near base. 3, Figurine (?) of undetermined original form (24E-21/188), with hollow body, cream slip and traces of red painted decoration. a, front view; b, side view (scale 1:2).

Number 7 is unique among recorded stamping seals in having a loop rather than a shank handle. This specimen comes from a pottery-making site (11-L4) on the Island of Mugufil, far to the south of Gemai. Since the Mugufil dig was carried on as an adjunct to the West Bank Survey, however, it seems appropriate to report the find here (for the dig report see Adams 1962b, 72-4). Number 8 is also distinctive in having a very slightly convex stamping face. Both no. 7 and no. 8 have incised designs on the upper side of the stamping portion, shown in Figure 61, nos 1 and 2.7 7 For other sealing stamps see Adams 1996, 192-5; Adams and Adams 1998, pl. 10.1A; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 79.

Figure 58. Unfired clay models from the Faras Potteries. 1, Human nose (24-E-21/233); a, side view; b, view from underside. 2, Human phallus (24-E-21/232); a, side view; b, end view (scale 1:1).

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Figure 59. Hollow ceramic handle, broken from the rim of a bowl or basin (24-E-21/187); a, top view; b, side view. The decorative stripes are in red, on a pinkish cream slip (scale 1:2). Figure 60. Ceramic stoppers? 1, Side view of stopper (?) with matte white slip (5-X-32/59). 2, Side view of stopper (?) made from ground down qadus knob of Ware U5 (5-X-32/54) (scale 1:1). Figure 61. Designs on the tops of ceramic and clay stamping seals. 1, Design on top side of stamping disc (5-X-32/50). 2, Design on top side of stamping disc (11-L-4). 3, design on top of shank handle (24-E21/179) (scale 1:2).

Figure 62. Hone (?) made from a fragment of marble tablet set into slab of clay (24-E-21/205); a, top view; b, cross-section (scale 1:4).

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in such a way as to suggest that it may have been used as a palette or sharpening stone.

Pot stamps (Plates 15c, 1-2; 15d, 1-2; 15f) The two items shown in Plates 15c and 15d, nos 1 and 2, are similar in design to the stamping seals just described, but somewhat smaller. It is evident that these were used to make the fine stamped central designs commonly found in small bowls (“saucers”) of Classic Christian Ware W5 (see Adams 1986, 319). Both stamps were found at the Faras Potteries, where Ware W5 was produced in abundance. Number 1 is an unfired specimen whose design appears to have been a cross, although it is largely worn off.8 Number 2, of fired ceramic, carries a bird design; an impression is shown in Plate 15f. Pot scrapers (Plate 16b) The objects shown in Plate 16b are all scrapers used to smooth the surfaces of pottery vessels after they had

Button? (Plate 16a, 12; Figure 63, 5) The object of unfired clay shown in Plate 16a, no. 12 and in Figure 63, no. 5 is of unknown use. It seems too crudely formed to be a stamping seal or pot stamp, while the fact that the projecting shank is horizontally rather than vertically perforated rules out the possibility of a spindle whorl. One possible use would be as a large button, although the medieval Nubians are not known to have worn any garments closed with such buttons. The face bears a simple cruciform design, best seen in Figure 61. Spindle whorls (Plate 16c, 2-3 and 7-13; Figure 63, 1-4) Plate 16c shows several objects that were probably spin-

Figure 63. Ceramic spindle whorls and/or buttons: top views (upper row) and side views (lower row). 1, Undecorated specimen (5-X-32/4.1). 2, Specimen with punctate dots around the perimeter (5-X-32/4.2). 3, Discoidal specimen with decoration of fine lines and dots on upper surface (5-X-32/91). 4, Small specimen with decoration of fine lines and dots on upper surface (5-X-32/1.3). 5, Crudely formed specimen of unfired clay, with horizontal perforation through shank as shown; possibly a button (24-E-21/224) (scale 1:2).

dle whorls. Numbers 2 and 3 are made from ground potsherds, respectively of Wares U6 and U5.9 Numbers 5 and 6 are similarly made from ground sherds, but seem a bit too small to be effective as spindle whorls. The original pottery ware in no. 5 cannot be determined; no. 6 is made from a piece of green and yellow Mamluk glazed ware (Group G.IV). Numbers 7, 8, 10, and 13 (also shown in Figure 63, nos 1-4) are deliberately modeled ceramic pieces, vertically perforated, which are probably though not certainly spindle whorls. (Numbers 9 and 11-12 in Plate 16c are Meroitic specimens, described in an earlier volume. See Adams 2004, 77).

been thrown on the wheel, and before slipping and firing. All the specimens were found at pottery-making sites: no. 4 at Site 24-N-3 at Serra, and all the others at the Faras Potteries. Number 1, with its perforated handle, is unique in that it has been deliberately fashioned in the form shown, not ground down from a broken vessel. All the other scrapers have been ground down from large sherds, of several different wares. Numbers 2 and 6 are of Early Christian Red Ware R5, no. 3 of Classic Christian Ware W6, no. 4 of Aswan White Ware W3, no. 5 of Aswan Utility Ware U2, no. 7 of Aswan Red Ware R4, and no. 8 of Nubian Utility Ware U5. Numbers 6-8 have fine incised grooves along the working edge, as can be seen in the photo.

Gaming counters? (Plate 16c, 14-17) The items shown in Plate 16c, nos 14-17 are small discs neatly ground down from potsherds. Such items have been found in many Christian sites, and are believed to be gaming counters (cf. Adams 1996, 198-9; 2001, 96-7; 2002, 76-7 and pl.18d; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 79, fig. 102.)

Hone? (Figure 62) The object shown in Figure 62 is a discoidal slab of clay, with a small fragment of a marble slab (probably part of a tombstone or libation tray) set into the upper surface. The polished surface of the marble is pitted and scratched

9 Spindle whorls made from potsherds are ubiquitous in Christian sites. See Adams 1996, 134-5; Adams and Adams 1998, 4950 and pl. 6.2B; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, pl. XLII, a.

For very similar pot stamps from Debeira see Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 79, fig. 104. 8

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Very often they are made from the center-stamp designs of Ware W5 bowls, as is the case with our no. 14. Number 15 is also made from a sherd of Ware W5, but bears a fragment of a painted design in brown on white, rather than a stamped design. Numbers 16 and 17, made from plain Nubian white wares, both have a symmetrical pattern of shallow holes drilled into the surface, as can be seen in the photo. In the case of no. 17 the interior of the holes is filled with black pigment.

intended for the kiln, as it would not have lasted long as a gaming piece in its unfired condition.10 Gaming board? (Plate 16a, 10; Figure 65, no. 1) The fragmentary item of unfired clay shown in Plate 16a, no. 10 and in Figure 65, no. 1 is a kind of tablet, one of whose surfaces is neatly contoured, and has four lines of small holes as shown. The opposite (lower) surface is very roughly finished. This item was most likely used in a game of some sort.

Perforated sherd discs (Plate 16c, 18-19) The two items shown in Plate 16c, nos 18 and 19 are perforated sherd discs which are almost certainly too small to have served as spindle whorls. Their use is unknown. Number 18 is of greenish-grey Fostat Ware U13, and no. 19 of plain blue glaze (probably Group G.I).

Beads (Plate 16a, 13-16, 18) The four items shown in Plate 16a, nos 13-16, are rather crudely formed spherical beads of unfired clay. Number 18 is part of a tubular bead, also of unfired clay. Like nearly all our other items of clay, these came from the Faras Potteries.

Sherd disc with incised design (Plate 16c, 1) The item shown in Plate 16c, no. 1, is a large sherd of Classic Christian Yellow Ware W10 which has been ground down into a disc shape. Parts of the edges appear to have been chipped away from what may once have been a fairly regular round form. The convex surface of the piece bears a floral design that has been very carefully incised into the surface, certainly after the slip was applied to the vessel, and possibly after it was fired. The notch visible at one edge may be the remnant of an original hole for suspension. If so, this would presumably have been some kind of a pendant.

Signet impressions (Plates 17a-b) Plates 17a and 17b show two small lumps of unfired clay bearing impressions made by signet rings. The specimen with an animal design has a small perforation showing where it was originally affixed to a string, presumably tied around a document or a small object. Jar and amphora seals (Plate 17e; Figures 66-67) Our collection includes 15 examples of clay lumps which were once used to seal pottery vessels. Impressions on the undersides make it clear that most if not all the specimens were affixed to amphorae. All of them bear one or, more often, several impressions of a sealing stamp. Where multiple impressions occur on any specimen, they are always from the same stamp. Four of the best preserved specimens are shown in Plate 17e. Figure 66 shows the distribution of seal impressions on some of the better preserved specimens, and some of the seal designs are shown in Figure 67. These objects came almost certainly from Egypt, affixed to the amphorae of Wares U2 and U4 in which wine was imported. The stamp designs do not in any case correspond to those exhibited by locally made jar stamps, exhibited in Plate 15e. The fact that in 13 of the specimens the stamp impressions are overpainted in red, and in two cases in white, suggests the possibility that they may have served to identify respectively red and white vintages. One design, shown in Figure 67, no. 8, appears on two different seals, painted in red in one case and in white in the other. Three of the amphora seals came from the Faras Potteries, and nearly all the others from churches— testimony to the important role that wine played in the Christian liturgy.

Perforated qadus knob (Plate 16c, 4; Figure 64) The item shown in Plate 16c, no. 4 and in Figure 64 is the base knob from a qadus of Ware U5. Both the upper and lower surfaces have been ground off flat, and the piece has been drilled through with a conical hole which is large at one end but much smaller at the other. Both the flat faces bear deeply incised designs, consisting only of radiating lines on one face, and of radial lines with interspersed dots on the other face, as shown in Figure 64. The use of this object is entirely unknown.

Figure 64. Thick, perforated disc made from a qadus knob (5-X-32/15). a, top view; b, cross section; c, bottom view (scale 1-2).

Practice piece? (Figure 68) This item is a sherd of utility Ware U5, on which designs had been painted in red, on both sides, after the piece had been broken into its present form. The designs show a recognizable affinity with those in Classic Christian Style N.IVA, and more specifically with those found on “saucers” of Ware U5. Probably this was a practice piece on

Gaming die (Plate 16a, 11; Figure 65, 2) The object of unfired clay shown in Plate 16a, no. 11 and in Figure 65, no. 2 seems quite clearly to be a fragment of a rather large gaming die. The pattern of the spots is conventional, but one side (which apparently bore number four) has two parallel grooves in addition to the spots. This item, found at the Faras Potteries, was most likely

10 For a die of fired ceramic see Weeks 1967, 65 and 68; for a sandstone die see Adams 1996, 198 and pl. 60d.

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Figure 65. Gaming equipment (?) of unfired clay. 1, “Cribbage board” (24-E-21/235); top view and cross section. 2, Fragmentary die (24-E-21/234), showing the four preserved faces (scale 1:1).

Gemai. They are mold-made, and each has a maker’s mark at the base of the stem. These objects are clearly postChristian, and most probably of nineteenth century date.

which a decorator at Faras tried his hand, before undertaking the decoration of an actual vessel. (For an example of the design that the potter was practicing, see Plate 13b, esp. no. 4).

Objects of glass

Weight? (Figure 69) This object is a thick, heavy sherd of utility Ware U5 that has a crossing pattern of grooves filed into both faces, and is notched where the grooves meet the edges. The edges are otherwise rough and unmodified. Most probably this is a suspension weight, perhaps for a net.

Finds of glass from sites other than Meinarti were few and, with one exception, highly fragmentary. All of the registered finds are listed in Table 6. Small flasks The specimen shown in Plate 18a, of pale green glass, is the only intact glass object found by us. It was found resting on a stair in one of the houses at Gendal Irki (Site 5-X-1). It contains a black granular material which is almost certainly kohl. The ribbed vessel neck shown in Figure 70, no. 1, is certainly also part of a small flask, of pale green glass. There were also some fragments of small flasks in the registered sherd collection from the Faras Potteries, described below.

Problematical clay objects (Plate 16a, 9 and 17) The Faras Potteries yielded several problematical objects of unfired clay. One, shown in Plate 16a, no. 17, is a sphere of clay which has been partially hollowed out on the inside. However, the opening and the interior cavity are too small to suggest a toy pot. Another object (Plate 16a, no. 9) is a small rectangular block with a perforation as shown in the photo. A third, not illustrated, is a kind of spindleshaped object rather like the pot stamp shown in Plate 15c, no. 1.

Bottle? (Figure 70, 2) This specimen appears to be a small fragment from the neck of a bottle, having an attached loop handle.

Smoking pipes Two ceramic pipe bowls, one complete and one fragmentary, were found on the surface of Cemetery 5-X-40, at

Bowl (Figure 70, 3) This small fragment is from the rim of a bowl. The modeling 168

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Figure 66. Clay amphora seals, showing placement of stamp impressions. Impressions on nos. 4 and 6 are stamped in white; all others in red. All specimens except no. 1 are shown in top and side views. 1, 5-X-44/11 (side view only). 2, 24-E21/221. 3, 24-R-7/4. 4, 5-X-44/8. 5, 24-E-21/220. 6, 5-0-16/16. For the actual stamp designs see Figure 67 (scale 1:4).

Figure 67. Stamp designs found on amphora seals (not to scale). 1, 6-G-7/3, stamped in red. 2, 24-E21/220, stamped in red. 3, 24-R-7/4, stamped in red. 4, 6-G-7/6, stamped in red. 5, 5-0-16/16, stamped in white. 6, 5-X44/9, stamped in red. 7, Christian 13, stamped in red. 8, 5-X-44/8, stamped in white, and 5-X-44/11, stamped in red.

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TABLE 6. REGISTERED FINDS OF GLASS FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no.

Reg. no.

Site type

Glass color

5-X-1

9

Village

Pale green

5-S-30 5-X-44 24-R-2 5-X-44 24-E-21 24-R-8 5-S-31

5 5

Village Church Church Church Factory Village Village

Pale green Pale green Pale green Blue-green Various ? Blue-green

3 191 3 8

Object Perfume flask Small flask Bottle? Bowl Goblet Miscellaneous vessels Miscellaneous vessels Miscellaneous vessels

of the rim and the contour of the adjoining part of the wall are reminiscent of a very common vessel form (Form D71) found in Early Christian pottery.

Portion

Plate

Complete

Figure

18a

Neck Neck fragment Rim fragment Base Sherds Sherds Sherds

70, no. 1 70, no. 2 70, no. 3 70, no. 4

Objects of metal Finds of metal were not numerous, and were generally in a very corroded condition. All but ten of the 24 registered objects came from the single village site of Kasanarti (5X-32). A complete list of the registered finds, of silver, bronze, and iron, is given in Table 7.

Goblet (Figure 70, 4) This evidently was the base of a large stemmed goblet, of pale blue-green glass.

Silver bead? (Plate 18b, 3) This is our only registered object of silver. It is a small rectangular piece of sheet silver which had been doubled back on itself to form a kind of tubing. Possibly it is a large bead.

Sherd collections The registered sherd collection from the Faras Potteries (24-E-21/191) includes 18 fragments, mostly pale green but with a few greenish-brown, and one marbled specimen. Included are the bases of two small flasks with dimpled bases, and two flasks with long necks. The collection from Site 24-R-8 comprises three sherds whose color was not recorded, as well as one bead apparently of quartz crystal. The collection from Site 5-S-31 comprises 15 sherds of pale blue-green glass, which might all be part of the same vessel. The form or forms are not determinable.

Objects of bronze Bracelets (Plate 18b, 6 and 12) The objects shown in Plate 18b, nos 6 and 12 are both portions of bracelets made from round rods of bronze. Both have decoration of encircling, incised lines near the unbroken end. Number 6 has five pairs of lines, about

TABLE 7. REGISTERED OBJECTS OF METAL FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no. 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-1 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-2 5-X-32 24-E-21 5-0-16 24-E-21 5-X-32 5-0-14 5-X-1 5-X-45 5-X-44 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32 Christian 5-X-32

Reg. no. 17 6 35 16 50 10 42 33 2 41 193 14 194 51 2 11 G.5 6 23 49 28 9 55

Site type

Material

Object

Condition

Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Village Factory Tavern Factory Village Church Village Cemetery Church Village Village Village ? Village

Silver Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Bronze Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron Iron

Bead? Bracelet Bracelet Ring Ring Bowl Bowl Kohl stick Implement Sheathing Tubing? Tweezers? Pin Disc Implement Cross pendant Cross pendant Anklet Tether Implement Implement Nail or handle Problem. object Unidentified object

Complete Half Half Complete Complete Fragment 4 small fragments Complete Complete Fragment Fragment Portion Complete Almost complete Fragment Complete Complete Complete Complete 2 fragments Fragment Fragment Portion Fragment

Plate 18b, no. 3 18b, no. 6 18b, no. 12 18b, no. 8 18b. no. 19

71, no. 2 71, no. 1 18b, no. 13 18b, no. 14 71. no. 3 18b, no. 7 18b, no. 11 18b, no. 4 18b, no. 5 18b, no. 1 18c

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71, no. 4 72, no. 1 72, no. 2 73, no. 3 73, no. 1 73, no. 2 72, no. 3

Figure 68. Sherd of utility Ware U5 (24-E-21/182), on both sides of which a pottery decorator has practiced drawing Classic Christian design elements. The designs are in dark red, on a brick-red background. The middle of Side a has been abraded away subsequent to drawing of the designs (scale 1:1).

Figure 69. Sherd of Ware U5 (5-X-32/ 44), with deep crossing grooves cut into both faces and all four edges. Probably a net weight (scale 1:1).

Figure 70. Small glass vessel fragments. 1, Neck of a small flask, of pale green glass (5-S-30/5). 2, Fragment with small handle, from the shoulder of a vessel of undetermined form, pale green glass (5-X-44/5). 3, Rim fragment from a bowl of pale green glass, exhibiting a common late Roman form (24-R-2). 4, Base of a goblet, of pale blue-green glass (5-X-44/3) (scale 1:1).

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Objects of iron

7mm apart, and no. 12 has two sets of three lines, about 7mm apart.11

Pendant crosses (Plate 18b, 4-5) The two pendant crosses shown in Plate 18b, nos 4-5, and in Figure 72, nos 1-2, are very similar in size and design. Each has a pair of small suspension loops at the end of one arm.12 One was found in the prototype Church 5-014, at Abdel Qadir, and one in habitation refuse at Gendal Irki (Site 5-X-1).

Rings (Plate 18b, 8 and 10) The rather heavy ring shown in Plate 18b, no. 8 is made from a round rod of bronze bent into a loop, but with the ends not fused together. The smaller ring (no. 10) is a complete circlet without an opening. Bowls (Figure 71, 1-2) Illustrated in Figure 71, number 2, is a rim fragment of what was apparently a large, very thin-walled bowl of bronze. It was a slightly closed form, and has two fine scored encircling lines 12 mm below the rim.

Anklet (Plate 18b, 1) The anklet of iron was found on a burial in Cemetery 5-X45, at Gemai. It tapers in thickness to a pair of very thin, pointed ends. The cross-section along most of the length is half-round.

Kohl stick (Plate 18b, 13) Plate 18b, no. 13 illustrates a bronze kohl stick of the type commonly found in Christian Nubian sites (cf. Adams 2001, 44 and pl. 15a; Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 74 and pl. XXXVIIIa). It has a short central section which is square in cross-section, with a pattern of filed decoration, adjoined on either side by sections of round rod. Spatulate implement (Plate 18b, 14) This implement is a section of round bronze rod which has one slightly concave, spoon-like end, as though for dipping something. It is too small however to be considered a spoon. Sheathing (Figure 71, 1) Shown in Figure 71, no. 1 is a portion of very thin bronze sheathing that probably once surrounded a wooden handle. The edges are crimped together as shown in the diagram. There are plain, encircling lines of decoration near both of the preserved ends. Tweezers? (Plate 18b, 7) This item may be part of a small pair of tweezers. The preserved lower end is spatulate.

Pin (Plate 18b, 11) This fine pin is square in cross-section but with an enlarged round head. Presum- Figure 71. Bronze fragments. 1, Tubular sheathing of thin sheet bronze, with ably it was originally straight. bands of encircling decoration as shown (5-X-2). The edges are crimped together as suggested in the diagram below the drawing. 2, Bowl fragments of thin beaten Disc bronze (5-X-32/42). The drawing shows a cross-section at the rim, and the Not illustrated is a very small disc of thin largest of four fragments. 3, Tip of a blade-like object of thick sheet bronze sheet bronze, 11mm in diameter, found at (5-X-32/51); top view and cross-section (scale 1:1). the Faras Potteries. It is not a coin. Unidentified implement (Figure 71, 3) Shown in Figure 71, no. 3 is the pointed end of some kind of implement of thin bronze. The edges are rounded, not sharpened.

Tether (Plate 18c) This well preserved object is a length of heavy iron chain, with a closeable loop at one end. The links, somewhat variable in size, are each hand-wrought from a small piece of strap iron, in the form of a figure “8.” Obviously this is

11 For similar bracelets of copper from Debeira see Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, pl.XL.

12 For a somewhat similar iron cross from Askut see Badawy 1964, pl. XVI, a.

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a tether, most probably for a donkey. It was found resting on the floor of Meili Island Church (5-X-44), but almost certainly dates from a time after the building had ceased to function as a church, and was used as an animal pen. It might be of fairly recent date.

Tombstones (Plates 19a-b; Figure 74) The relatively small and simple tombstone shown in Plate 19a had been re-used as a door pivot stone in the Faras Potteries, as can be clearly seen in the photograph. It is made of reddish sandstone, and is considerably less well finished than are most Nubian tombstones. The text is in Coptic. The following translation was kindly furnished by the late Professor J. M. Plumley:

Problematical objects (Figure 73) Three problematical objects of iron. Number 3 is a very heavy, curved rod, tapering to what was apparently a pointed end. It is too thick to have been any kind of cutting tool. Number 1 is one end of a cylindrical shaft, terminating in a rounded point. Number 2 is a piece of heavy wrought iron, one end of which has been worked into something like a loop handle. The object shown in Figure 72, no. 3, a piece of thick wrought iron, is the central member of something having four extending arms, all of which are broken off.

Do not weep, my mother, either for Enodye or Apion upon the earth. This is the day on which the blessed one . . . . . rested herself. On the (eighth) day of (the month of) Paone Jesus (Christ) help her. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ion. According to Plumley, the date is possibly 8th or 9th century. The item shown in Plate 19b and in Figure 74, no. 1 is the top half of a larger and much more elaborate tombstone, having a decorative half-rosette and the holy letters Α ΙX ΠΕXC and ω above the inscription. The speci. men is closely similar to one from Meinarti (6-K-3/832), of

Objects of stone Registered finds of stone are of many different kinds, and made from many different stones. Objects of sandstone, granite, quartzite, chert, and schist are probably of local origin, while marble and alabaster objects came either from Egypt or even further afield.

TABLE 8. REGISTERED OBJECTS OF STONE FROM CHRISTIAN SITES Site no.

Reg. no.

Site type

24-E-21 24-E-21 24-N-6 24-E-9 24-V-12 6-G-6 6-G-7 24-E-21 24-R-8 5-X-44 24-E-21 5-T-27 5-X-32 5-X-32 24-E-21 5-X-32 Christian 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-N-3 24-E-21 24-V-13 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 6-G-6 5-X-1 5-X-32 5-X-32 Christian 5-X-1 5-X-44 5-X-32 5-X-32

237 238 5 S 2 39 11 199 4 10 202 S 58 24 197 4.5 10 203 204 10 201 5 196 198 200 40 12 29 45 11 13 7 9 77

Factory Factory Church? Temple Village Village Church Factory Village Church Factory Cemetery Village Village Factory Village ? Factory Factory Factory Factory Village Factory Factory Factory Village Village Village Village ? Village Church Village Village

6-G-6

38

Village

Material

Object

Condition

Plates

Sandstone Marble Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Marble Marble Marble Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Granite Sandstone Quartzite Alabaster Sandstone Conglomerate Unidentified Sandstone Sandstone Agate Chert Sandstone Sandstone Schist Schist Schist Schist Steatite Alabaster Alabaster Steatite? Ferricrete sandstone

Tombstone Tombstone? Tombstone Architectural fragment Architectural fragment Architectural fragment Architectural fragment Altar top? Altar top Altar top Incised block Incised tablet Sealing stamp Perforated disc Perforated disc Perforated disc Spindle whorl Pounder? Grinding stone Rubbing stone Sharpening stone Sharpening stone Polishing pebble Polishing stone Grooved weight? Perforated weight Net weight Net weight Net weight Net weight Vessel Vessel Lip or nose plug Lip or nose plug?

Complete Fragment Half Fragment Fragment Fragment Fragment Fragment 9 fragments Fragment Complete Complete Complete Complete Half Half Half Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete? Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete Fragment Fragments Complete Complete

19a 20a 19b

Scraper

Complete

19c 19e, no. 4 19d

173

75, no. 1 74, no. 1 75, no. 4 74, no. 2 75, no. 3

19f 19e, no. 2 20d, no. 13 15c, no. 4; 15d, no. 3 20d, no. 6 16c, no. 22; 20d, no. 8 20d, no. 7 19e, no. 5 20d, no. 3 19e, no. 3

19e, no. 6 19e, no. 1; 20b-c 20d, no. 11 20d, no. 10 20d, no. 9 20d, no. 12 20d, no. 3 20d, nos 4-5 20d, no. 15 20d, no. 14

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74, no. 3 75, no. 2 76, no. 2 76. no. 1 78, no. 2 77, no. 3 77, no. 1 77, no. 2 78, no. 3 78. no. 4 78, no. 3

79, no. 2 79, no. 1

80

81

Figure 72. Small iron objects. 1, Cross pendant (5-0-14/2); side view and cross-section of one arm. 2, Cross pendant (5-X-1/11); side view and cross-section of one arm. 3, Portion of an object of unknown form, made from thin wrought iron (5-X-32/55) (scale 1:1).

Figure 73. Fragmentary iron implements, of unknown use. 1, Section of heavy round rod, with rounded end and tapered shaft (5-X-32/49); side view and cross-section. 2, Object of heavy strap iron, with handle at one end (Christian 9); side view and cross-section. 3, Curved, tapered rod, found in two pieces (5-X-32/23); side view and cross-section (scale 1:1).

conch.”13 The specimen had been re-used in the lining of a saqia well at Serra, which may account for its battered and partly

which Professors Lajtar and van der Vliet have written . . . Among stelae from Christian Nubia, where unembellished plaques highlighting a plainly incised text are more or less standard, it stands out by its nicely sculptured and painted decoration, which clearly continues late antique patterns. Its text is framed by an aedicula consisting of two columns which support an arched canopy containing a

13 Lajtar and van der Vliet 1998, 38. For the specimen itself see Adams 2001, pls 35a and 35b. Lajtar and van der Vliet go on to cite a number of similarly embellished tombstones from other Lower Nubian sites (op. cit., 38-9).

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Figure 74. Large sculptured stone fragments. 1, Top portion of a sandstone tombstone (24-N-6/5). 2, Decorative sandstone element perhaps originally set into a wall (24-V-12/2); top view and cross-section. 3, Corner of what was probably a marble altar top (5-X-44/10); top and side views (scale 1:5).

obliterated condition. The text begins with a Greek invocation, “In the name of . . ., “ but very little of the remainder can be read. It is possible that the main body of the text was in Coptic, as was true in the Meinarti tombstone (Adams 2001, 98-9). The nearest Christian site to the actual place of finding was Site 24-N-6, presumed to have been a church. The marble fragment shown in Plate 20a and in Figure 75, no. 1 was probably originally part of an altar top. The upper surface is very smooth and polished, while the lower surface is somewhat uneven. The very crudely lettered

and partly ligatured inscription on the lower surface is almost certainly a later addition. It has been tentatively identified as part of a Coptic mortuary inscription. Architectural elements The irregularly shaped sandstone block shown in Plate 19c and in Figure 74, no. 2 appears to have been made to affix to a wall, since it has a carved design on one side but is rough and unfinished on the other. It may possibly be of Pharaonic origin, but was found among the ruins of a Christian village (Site 24-V-12). Along one side are incised 175

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Figure 75. Smaller sculptured stone pieces. 1, Fragment of marble slab, with part of a secondary (?) inscription (24-E-21/ 238). 2, Loaf-shaped sandstone piece, with design cut into the rounded upper surface (24-E-21/202). 3, Ornately carved architectural fragment of sandstone, possibly from a window grille (6-G-6/39). 4, Fragment of a very elaborately shaped sandstone shaft (24-E-9/6). a, end view; b, side view (scale 1:2).

marks that look like some kind of script, but they are not recognizable as Greek or Coptic letters. The portion of sandstone slab shown in Plate 19d is clearly part of a door jamb. It was found in the Gezira Dabarosa Church, Site 6-G-7. The small, ornately carved fragments shown in Plate 19e, no. 4 and in Figure 75, nos 3 and 4 were found among the refuse in Christian sites, but they may possibly be of pre-Christian origin. Presumably they were architectural embellishments of some sort.14 One (Figure 75, no. 3) might be part of an ornate window grille. The other (Figure 75,

no. 4) in a piece of sandstone shaft carved in a very elaborate shape, with a rosette pattern incised in one end. There is nothing to suggest what this was used for. Altar tops (Plate 19f; Figure 74) Plate 19f shows the remnants of a finely shaped altar top of white marble, of which nine fragments were found. The pieces were found during trial excavations in the village Site 24-R-8, subsequently excavated by the University of Ghana Expedition (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978).15 The speciAs of 1966 this specimen had been delivered to Mr. Jozef Gazy, of the Polish Faras Expedition, for restoration. I have no record of what has subsequently become of it. 15

For somewhat comparable fragments see Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, pl. XLVII. 14

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men is closely similar to horseshoe-shaped altar slabs, probably of ancient origin, that were observed in two Coptic churches in Cairo in the 19th century (Butler 1884, vol. 2, 8). Another marble piece, shown in Figure 74, no. 3, is probably also the corner of an altar top. It was found in the church at Meili Island (Site 5-X-44). A cross is very neatly incised in one of the narrow sides. A small piece of marble slab, reused as a door pivot stone at the Faras Potteries, may also have come originally from an altar top. It is one corner of a plain rectangular slab, very smoothly finished on the top but without a raised border.

Large perforated disc (Figure 78, 2) The large, slightly irregular disc of grey granite, shown in Figure 78, no. 2, has a biconically drilled hole through the center. The lower surface is flat, and the upper one slightly convex. The edges are somewhat battered, as though the object had been used for some kind of chopping action. Grinding and polishing stones (Figure 78, 1 and 3-4) The objects shown in Figure 78, except no. 2, were all probably used as handstones in grinding. Number 1 (also shown in Plate 20d, no. 2) of some dark brown crystalline rock. One edge is slightly battered. Number 3 (also shown in Plate 19c, no. 5), of sandstone, has shallow depressions pecked into the centers of both faces. Number 4, of a coarse purple conglomerate, was probably made from a waterworn cobble found in the riverbed.

Decorated sandstone pieces (Plates 19e, 3; 20d, 13; Figures 74-75) The object shown in Plate 19e, no. 2 and in Figure 75, no. 2 is a small, roughly loaf-shaped piece of sandstone which has a design incised into the upper surface. The piece is not very smoothly shaped or finished, except that the bottom side (the side opposite the decoration) has been ground off flat, as though the object had been used for grinding. The object shown in Plate 20d, no. 13 and in Figure 76, no. 2 is a thin tablet of sandstone in the form of a rectangle, but with notches ground into the corners so as to give it a kind of cross shape. There are rather crudely executed designs, of wide, shallow grooves, in both faces, as shown in the drawing.

Sharpening stones (Plate 19e, 3) Among the registered finds are two irregular chunks of sandstone that have a series of grooves worn into the surfaces, in no very coherent pattern. Probably these were used for sharpening the points and also smoothing the shafts of wooden tools. One specimen is shown in Plate 19e, no. 3. Polishing pebble? Among the finds from the Faras Potteries is a finely polished, irregularly oval pebble of veined agate, having one

Sealing stamp (Plates 15c, 3 and 15d, 3; Figure 76, no. 1) Most of the sealing stamps registered in the West Bank Survey were made of ceramic, and have been described in a previous section. However, there is also a single small specimen of sandstone, shown in Plates 15c and 15d, no. 3. The cruciform design of the stamp itself is best seen in Figure 76, no. 1.16 Perforated stones (Plate 20d, 6-8; Figure 77) Three small, nicely finished perforated discs of stone are shown in Plate 20d, nos 6-8 and in Figure 77, though in each case only half the object is preserved. Number 3 is made of sandstone, while the other Figure 76. Small incised sandstone items. 1, Sealing stamp (5-X-32/58); a, side view; b, two are of either alabaster or design on the stamping face. 2, Thin tablet with notched corners, crudely incised designs quartzite. Number 2 is very prob- on both sides 5-T-27/S); a and b, views of the two flat faces; c, side view (scale 1:1). ably a spindle whorl, to judge from the shape. In the case of no. 3, however, the central perfopart white and one part dark brown. It appears to be a ration seems to large for a spindle whorl, while no. 1 has a natural stream pebble, which may have been used to polish slightly concave shape and a grooved edge, as can be pots. seen in the drawing. It is not known what purpose these Weights (Plate 19e, 1 and 6; Plates 20b-c; Figure 79) two objects served. The sandstone object shown in Plate 19e, no. 1 and in Plates 20b and 20c is almost certainly a weight. One of the 16 Other stone sealing stamps are shown in Adams 1996, pl. 58; flat faces has a rather crudely incised criss-cross design, 2002, pl. 22c; and Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, pl. XLIX, a. while both ends have more elaborately executed cross 177

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Figure 77. Small discs of stone, ivory, bone, and shell; top views and cross-sections. 1, Fragmentary alabaster or quartzite disc with curving profile and notched edge (5-X-32/4.5). 2, Fragmentary alabaster or quartzite disc with plano-convex profile (Christian 19). 3, Fragmentary sandstone disc (24-E-21/197). 4, Small fragment of ivory disc; possibly not perforated (24-E-21/192). 5, Disc of rather soft bone, with plano-convex profile (5-X-32/4.7). 6, Perforated disc made from a spiral mollusk shell (5-X-32/4.6) (scale 1:1).

Figure 78. Grinding and chopping stones; top views and cross-sections. 1, Discoidal stone of dark brown crystalline rock (24-N-3/10), with slight battering at one edge. 2, Discoidal stone of grey granite (5-X-32/24), with central perforation. The edges are considerably battered. 3, Rounded grinding stone of sandstone (24-E-21/203), with pecked depressions in both surfaces. 4, Large grinding stone of coarse purple conglomerate (24E-21/204) (scale 1:4).

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Figure 79. Sandstone weights. 1, Perforated weight (6-G-6/40), with crude criss-cross design on one face and more elaborate designs on both ends. The drawing shows the decorated face and the two ends. 2, Trapezoidal stone block (24-E-21/200) with groove all the way around the edges; top view and side view. (scale 1:4).

designs, visible in Plate 20d and in Figure 79, no. 1.17 The much smaller object in Plate 19e, no. 6 and in Figure 79, no. 2 is probably also a weight, though not one used in actual weighing transactions. Though somewhat irregular in shape, it has an incised groove all around the perimeter, presumably so that a rope could be tied around.

Nose or lip plugs (Plate 20d, 14-15) The small objects of highly polished stone shown in Plate 20d, nos 14 and 15, might be nose or lip plugs; it is hard to suggest any other use for them. Number 14, apparently of steatite, is in the form of a slightly tapered cylinder, with a groove just below the wider end. (For a similar item from

Net weights (Plate 20d, 9-12) Small, rounded pebbles of schist, with incised grooves all around them, have been found in a number of Christian Nubian sites; they are believed to be weights used with a fishing net (cf. Adams 1986, pl. 62b; Adams and Adams 1998, 15 and pl. 3.2A, nos b-8). Four examples from the West Bank Survey are shown in Plate 20d, nos 9-12. Vessels (Plate 20d, 3-5; Figure 80) The alabaster fragments shown in Plate 20d, nos 4 and 5 appear to be rim fragFigure 80. Large alabaster bowl (5-X-44/7); cross-section and two fragments. ments from a very large The actual dimensions were not recorded. ground stone vessel. They Meinarti see Adams 2001, pl. 37e, no. 4.) Number 15, of are better shown in Figure 80. They were found in the alabaster, is more nearly mushroom-shaped. A very simichurch at Meili Island (Site 5-X-44), and might be part of a lar item was found at Kulubnarti (Adams and Adams 1998, baptismal font. pl. 8.4D, d). The fragment shown in Plate 20d, no. 3 is part of the wall of a fairly large vessel made of ground steatite. It has Paleolithic scraper/ chopper (Figure 81) a vertically ribbed surface, as can be seen in the photo. One of the registered finds from Gezira Dabarosa Village Similar fragments were found at Meinarti (Adams 2002, (Site 6-G-6) is a crudely flaked scraping or chopping tool fig. 30 and pl. 22f, no. 2) and Qasr Ibrim (Adams 1996, 106). of ferricrete sandstone, shown in Figure 81. It is heavily patinated and is clearly of Paleolithic origin, though the 17 For somewhat comparable weights from Meinarti see Adams Christian inhabitants at Gezira Dabarosa presumably found 2001, 42 and fig. 14. some use for it. 179

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large, white spiral snail shell. Votive tablet (Plate 18d) The little oval tablet shown in Plate 18d is made from highly polished mother of pearl. On one side is a finely incised design representing a holy figure with a cruciform headdress, and holding a cross-headed staff. There is no decoration on the other side. The height of the piece is 36 mm. It was found on the floor of a Late Christian house at Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32). Perforated shell Among the finds from Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32) is a Nile oyster shell which has been partially ground off along the edges, to an irregular oval shape, and has a large hole drilled through the center. The purpose of this object is unknown.

Objects of fabric and fiber Fabric fragments Four small fabric rags were found at the Faras Potteries. One, of an apparently white material, had been used for wiping clay either onto or off of surfaces. It was found completed matted with clay, and stuck into the plaster of a wall. Another badly disintegrated fragment has a very fine dark brown weft, apparently of animal hair, on a somewhat coarser warp. There was apparently one all-white band in the weft, of which only traces remain at one edge. Another find consists of five small fragments of a rather heavy, dark brown fabric that is loosely woven. The weave has a kind of herringbone appearance, which probably means that it is some kind of cross-stitch. Another group

Figure 81. Paleolithic scraper or chopper of ferricrete sandstone (6-G-6/38), found in a Christian settlement (scale 1:2).

Objects of bone, ivory, and shell Bone button? (Figure 77, no. 5) The perforated disc shown in Figure 77, no. 5 has been ground from a piece of rather spongy bone, and is nicely polished. The plano-convex shape suggests a spindle whorl, but the diameter seems too small.

TABLE 9. REGISTERED OBJECTS OF BONE, IVORY, AND SHELL FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no.

Reg. no.

Site type

Material

Object

Condition

5-X-32 5-X-32 24-E-21 5-X-32 5-X-32 5-X-32

4.7 5 192 4.6 8 32

Village Village Factory Village Village Village

Bone Bone Ivory Shell Shell Shell

Button? Knife? Bead Button? Incised tablet Drilled shell

Complete Fragment Fragment Complete Complete Complete

Plates

77, no. 5 77, no. 4 77, no. 6 18d

of fragments are from a finely woven object, perhaps a blanket, having blue and white stripes. The original registration card describes the fiber as cotton, but this cannot be taken as a certainty.18

Bone tool? A small splinter of a very large animal femur, most probably from a camel, appears to have been ground to a very sharp edge at one side and to a point at one end.

Palm fiber matting A single small fragment of palm fiber matting was found at the Serra Kilns (Site 24-N-3). It exhibits the typical plaitconnected technique characteristic of both ancient and modern Nubian matting (cf. Adams and Adams 1998, 567).

Ivory disc (Figure 77, no. 4) The small fragment shown in Figure 77, no. 4 is part of a rather thick disc of ivory, with slightly tapering sides, as shown in the drawing. It is decorated top and bottom with pairs of fine incised, concentric grooves. Whether or not the piece was perforated cannot be determined. The original diameter would have been about 25 mm.

At the time when we registered these objects, in the 1960s, we had nothing like the expertise in the identification of fibers that Nettie Adams has since attained. 18

Shell disc (Figure 77, no. 6) Shown in Figure 77, no. 6 is a perforated disc made from a 180

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180

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rather thick, shiny black leather: one piece for the sole, one piece for the upper, and one reinforcing piece applied to the back of the heel, as shown in Figure 82. The three pieces are sewn together with a double seam of linen or cotton cord. The opening at the top is reinforced all the way around with an additional narrow strip of leather sewn to its inner side. From the Faras Potteries comes a mass of leather fragments and thongs which are believed to be parts of a sandal, although the identification is less than certain.

TABLE 10. REGISTERED FINDS OF FABRIC AND FIBER FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no.

Reg. no.

24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-N-3 24-E-21 24E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21

212 213 214 215 12 216 217 218 219

Site type Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory

Material Fabric Fabric Fabric Fabric Palm fiber Palm fiber Bast fiber Bast fiber Bast fiber

Object Fragment Fragment Fragments Fragments Mat? Cord Mass Mass Mass

Condition Fragment Fragment Fragments Fragments Fragment Fragment Loose Loose Loose

Bags? (Figure 83) Figure 83 shows a partial reconstruction of an object which was apparently a fairly large tubular bag, of fine leather. It is made with the hair side outward. At the top the leather has been doubled over for reinforcement, and the doubled portion is decorated with fine incised lines. All around the rim, at closely spaced intervals, are surviving fragments of braided leather thongs, presumably for suspension, which are passed through holes in the bag rim. The object, from the Faras Potteries, was found in four large fragments and several smaller ones. The Faras Potteries also yielded an enormous, thick mass of leather, sewn in numerous places with leather thongs, which was found very much folded and doubled over. It appears to be a complete goatskin, with the hair side inward.

Palm fiber cord A small segment of two-strand twisted cord of palm fiber was found in the Faras Potteries. Bast fiber masses The Faras Potteries yielded three concentrated masses of fibers which in each case had apparently been contained in bags, of which only tiny scraps remained. The fibers in two cases were about 70mm long, and in one case were 40 to 60mm long. In each group they were partly yellow and partly dark brown in color. The straightness and the length of the individual strands indicates that they were some kind of bast; probably but not certainly flax. They may have been used to make brushes, for applying decoration to pottery.

Objects of leather

Sheath (Figure 84) The object shown in Figure 84, also from the Faras Potteries, looks like part of a narrow sheath, something like a scabbard. It is made by doubling over a strip of fine leather, and sewing together the two cut edges. The top end (i.e.

Footgear (Plate 21a; Figure 82) Two very well preserved leather shoes were found on the feet of a burial in Cemetery 6-G-8. There is a possibility

TABLE 11. REGISTERED FINDS OF LEATHER FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no.

Reg. no.

6-G-8 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21 24-E-21

3a 206 209 211 207 210 208

Site type Cemetery Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory Factory

Object

Condition

Plates

Figures

2 shoes Sandal? Bag Bag? Sheath Unidentified object Unidentified object

Complete Numerous fragments Rim fragment Numerous fragments Fragments Fragment Numerous fragments

21a

82

that this was a Ballaña rather than a Christian grave, since footgear have otherwise rarely been found in Christian burials. It is also true that the grave had been plundered, as had several others in this cemetery, which is usually indicative of a pre-Christian grave. On the other hand the burial had been shrouded and tied with tapes, in the typical Christian fashion, and neither we nor the Colorado Expedition (which excavated 33 graves here) found any objects of sherds of Ballaña type at the site. Each of the shoes is well made from three pieces of

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84 85

the opening) has been doubled back for reinforcement, and stitched. In addition to stitching, there are rows of decorative dots along the side, near the top end. The piece is made with the hair side inward. Unidentified fragments (Figure 85) This object appears to be part of a single sheet of thin leather which has been doubled back on itself and sewn together with a leather thong. Of the two cut ends, one is square and one is round, as can be seen in the drawing. 181

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Figure 82. Leather shoe (6-G-8/3a). a, top view; b, side view; c, back view (scale 1:3).

ostraka and their contents.

Another unidentified find consists of a great many leather fragments of different thicknesses, sewn together with numerous seams.

Commercial records Of the ten ostraka found in one of the houses at Site 5-015, all but one are in Greek, and seem to relate to commercial transactions of one sort or another. Five, which are complete, are unmistakably bills of lading for shipments of barley. They were all written by the same notary, a

Ostraka Of our 14 registered ostraka,19 all but two came from a little community of very Early Christian date, situated just

TABLE 12. REGISTERED OSTRAKA FROM CHRISTIAN SITES

Site no.

Reg. no.

24-E-21 5-0-14 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-15 5-0-16 5-X-1

181 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 13 8

Site type Factory Church Houses Houses Houses Houses Houses Houses Houses Houses Houses Houses Wineshop Village

Pottery ware

Language

Text

W6 R5 U2 U2 U2 U2 U2 U2 U2 U2 R1, R2 or R3 W3 U2 U2

Greek? Old Nubian? Greek Greek Greek Greek Uninscribed? Greek Greek Greek Coptic Greek Greek? Coptic

Illegible Illegible Lading Lading Lading Lading

below the foot of the Second Cataract (Sites 5-0-14, 5-015, and 5-0-16). Table 12 provides a summary list of the

Illegible Memorandum? Lading Letter Account? Account? Letter

182

182

21b 21c 21d

certain Marcus. A typical specimen reads as follows: “Into the boat of Athanasios the sailor, 50 artabs of barley were delivered in the month of Thoth of the 4th indiction by me, Marcus the notary.” The formula is virtually the same in all five of the bills of

19 Translations of all the ostraka that could be dechiphered have been furnished courtesy of Professor G. M. Browne.

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Plate

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Figure 83. Fragment from the rim of a nicely made, apparently tubular bag of fine leather (24-E-21/209).

lading. Variation is found only in the names of the boatowners, who are variously Athanasios, Rhobia, Senouthios, Arousea, and Theodosius, and in the date of indiction. Four of the latter are in the month of Thoth (September 11-October 10), and one in the month of Pachon (May 9- June 7). The cargo in all cases is 50 artabs of barley (equal to about 300 bushels). There are many points of interest about these documents, beginning with the fact that they are all in Greek, and were evidently written by a Greek scribe. It is noteworthy too that three of the boatmen have recognizably Greek names, and one has a Coptic name. Noteworthy too is the fact that the cargo in all cases was barley, which almost certainly was destined for points upriver. I have surmised that Site 5-0-15 was an entrepot where cargoes, coming from Egypt in large boats, were transshipped into smaller vessels for passage through the Second Cataract

Figure 84. Fragments of a sheath or scabbard of fine leather (24-E-21/207). a, side views; b, end view (scale 1:2). The drawing shows only three of the seven fragments actually found. The original length was at least 70 cm.

and beyond. (For further discussion see Chapter 4, Site 50-15). Three additional ostraka from Site 5-0-15 are also in Greek, but are less clearly legible. One appears to be some kind of memorandum, one to be some kind of account, and one is illegible. There is also an ostrakon from the neighboring wineshop Site 5-0-16 which appears to be part of an account, in Greek. All nine of the Greek ostraka are inscribed on sherds of the Egyptian amphora Ware

Figure 85. Leather scrap, comprising two pieces sewn together (24-E-21/210) (scale 1:2).

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U2, which were scattered in profusion all over the two sites. Letters Two ostraka, both in Sahidic Coptic, have been identified as fragments of letters. One, from Site 5-0-15, preserves the beginnings of three lines, as follows: “. . . I sent it (or: her) . . . There is no slave . . . “ A second ostrakon fragment, from Site 5-X-1, retains parts of the first three lines of a letter, beginning with an invocatory cross. The text that follows reads” I greet you. If you receive this ostrakon, . . . with it . . . it . . .” The context is either Classic Christian 2 or Late Christian 1.

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9. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION

Although the West Bank Survey contributed substantially to our knowledge of the Ballaña, Meroitic, and earlier periods, is it also true that a great deal was already known about those cultures through the work of previous Nubian salvage programs, and of a few other major expeditions. The same is emphatically not true in the case of Christian Nubia. With the exception of churches, and of two very large cemeteries, sites of the medieval period had been almost wholly ignored at the time when we began our work. The number of Christian sites excavated by us (95) exceeds by a factor of four or five the total of sites that had been previously excavated. As a result, probably three-quarters of all that is known today about Christian Nubian culture, at least in Lower Nubia, has come about as a result of the West Bank Survey. Typologies of churches (Adams 1965a), house architecture (Adams 1977, 489-93; Adams 1994a), graves (Adams 1998), and pottery (Adams 1962a; 1973; 1986) have all been direct outcomes of our work, as has a periodization of the different phases of medieval Nubian history (initially Adams 1964b, 242-7). I have discussed at length many of the features of medieval Nubian culture, in the works just cited. Still more recently and more importantly, Derek Welsby has synthesized much of this information, in addition to a great deal of other archaeological and historical information, in an excellent overview of medieval Nubian history and archaeology (Welsby 2002). For these reasons it seems unnecessary to review in detail the findings of the West Bank Survey here; I will merely attempt to highlight the most important things that we learned.

concentration at Gezira Dabarosa (map section 6G), where there was in modern times a broad adjoining floodplain. Part of the explanation may lie in the periodic shifting of the river channel, as alluvium was scoured away from one bank and redeposited along the other. This factor however will not explain the surprising abundance of sites among the Second Cataract islands, a circumstance that has recently been found in surveys of the Fourth Cataract as well.1 Some of the larger islands had a certain amount of cultivable land, but many of the smaller ones had none at all. A substantial majority of the island sites date from the militarily insecure Late Christian period, when they probably provided a refuge from marauders. There are nevertheless evidences of earlier occupation on several of the islands, which are not so easily explained. It is possible that some settlements were devoted to fishing, as was true in the recent past. Conditions of preservation varied substantially, as is always true in archaeology, but overall they were considerably better than in any earlier period. Walls were standing over 1m high in many places, and a few houses as well as churches retained parts of their roof vaults intact. Christian graves, of course, had the enormous advantage that almost none of them had been plundered, since the absence of offerings in these graves was evidently well known to the robbers. Grave superstructures were preserved in many cemeteries, but in many others they had been destroyed by surface deflation.

Continuity of occupation Although it was once popular to attribute cultural changes in early Nubia to the coming of new peoples (cf. Adams 1977, 5) no one has suggested that the Christian Nubians were anything other than descendants of the Ballaña people who had preceded them. This is evidenced in the continued use of both habitations and cemeteries. Most of the larger settlements, like Arminna (Trigger 1967; Weeks 1967); Faras (Griffith 1926; 1927; 1928); Gezira Dabarosa (Hewes 1964; Lister 1967) and Meinarti (Adams 2000; 2001) continued in use from Ballaña and indeed even from Meroitic times, as did four of the smaller habitations and ten of the cemeteries investigated by us.

The sites Distribution and preservation Christian sites found by us were considerably more numerous than were Meroitic and Ballaña sites combined. However, this is not necessarily an indication of population growth. It is partly a matter of duration, since the Christian period lasted half again as long as did the late Meroitic and Ballaña periods combined (in Lower Nubia). Preservation of course was also better, since the Christian sites were of more recent date. It is also the case that Christian cemeteries tended to be smaller and more scattered than those of earlier times, even though the total number of graves may not have been larger. As Figure 4 shows, Christian sites were pretty well scattered all along the West Bank as well as among the Second Cataract islands, just as were Nubian settlements in the recent past. A surprising finding, however, is that there was not a strong correlation between the number and size of sites and the presence of nearby alluvial resources, except at Faras, where both sites and alluvium were plentiful. A glance at Figure 4 will reveal a heavy concentration of sites at Debeira (map section 24-R), an area completely devoid of alluvial resources, in contrast to the much lower

Building techniques Except in the case of a few churches, the quality of architecture in the Early Christian period was generally poor. House walls were thin, often curving, and were built from highly erratic combinations of brick and stone masonry, as they had been in much of the preceding Ballaña period. Construction standards improved in the Classic Wolf 2004, 23-24. Welsby (pers. comm.) suggests that the exceptional availability of seluka land among the islands may be one contributing factor. 1

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Christian period, and still more in the Late Christian period, when the stout-walled, freestanding unit house was introduced. These houses also had vaulted brick ceilings, a feature previously found mainly in churches. Other houses presumably had light roofs of poles and palm thatch, as did most modern Nubian houses in the Sudan.2 At least to the north of the Second Cataract, all construction after the Early Christian period was in mud brick. At Kasanarti and at Gendal Irki, however, some Late Christian houses had stone lower courses, surmounted by mud brick above a level of about 1m. The same mode of construction was observed in many late churches. In modern times the majority of Nubian villagers built their own houses, but a few of the best houses were the work of professional builder teams (Wenzel 1972, 20-21) . This may have been true in Classic Christian times as well, as the few stoutly built brick houses with vaulted roofs, at Debeira, Gendal Irki, and Kasanarti, contrast markedly with the more flimsy surrounding structures. It is likely too that some if not all of the castle-houses of the Terminal Christian period were built by professionals (Adams 1994a, 18). This was surely true of most if not all the Nubian churches.

corner rooms. The sanctuary area was often separated from the body of the nave by a “triumphal arch” resting on columns, and perhaps also be a railing, but there does not seem to have been a fully developed higab, or separating wall. An odd peculiarity of a few of the earliest churches was the presence of a remarkably skewed plan, with external corners deviating from a right angle by as much as 15°. This feature was later eliminated at the Faras Cathedral and at Meinarti when the churches were rebuilt. Classic Christian churches of Type 3 retained the basilican plan, with entrances at the north and south, but were consistently smaller in size than their predecessors. The fully developed Classic churches of Type 3c had three distinguishing peculiarities: the presence of a narrow passage behind the apse, connecting the corner rooms; the presence of a tribune (stepped choir seats) in the apse, which necessitated the moving of the altar further to the west; and the presence of a fully developed screen wall (higab) between the sanctuary and the rest of the nave. This feature took the place of the triumphal arch, which was no longer built. Some churches, possibly transitional between the Early and Classic Christian types, had the passage behind the apse but lacked the tribune and higab (Type 3b). Also in the Classic Christian period, all of the older churches of Type 2a were converted to Type 3a by the insertion of a tribune in the apse, and consequent moving of the altar further to the west, and by the building of a higab. This modification required the blocking of the small doorways that had previously communicated directly from the apse to the corner rooms. In these churches however it was not possible to add an eastern passage behind the apse. Farther south in Nubia, in the Kingdoms of Makouria and Alwa, the passage behind the apse and the tribune within the apse were both apparently present in churches from the beginning (cf. Welsby 2002, 149-51). It is possible therefore that the adoption of these features in Lower Nubia was concurrent with the merger of the kingdoms of Nobadia and Makouria, which took place most probably in the seventh century (cf. Adams 1977, 462). The adoption of the more southerly practice would presumably reflect the political ascendancy of Makouria. A revolutionary change in church architecture took place in the Late Christian period with the appearance of the little cupola church of Type 4. These structures were still smaller than their predecessors, and had only the simplest of interior features. The apse and its tribune disappeared, to be replaced by a plain square sanctuary chamber which contained the altar, and in most though not all cases there was no higab separating the sanctuary from the nave. There was no longer an eastern passage connecting the two eastern corner rooms, while in many of the churches one or both of the traditional western corner rooms also disappeared. Many and perhaps all of the churches had a tall cupola standing above the center of the nave (cf. Plate 1e), a feature that has given this type its name. Three tiny churches, at Abdel Qadir (5-0-1), Diffinarti (11-P-1) and Attiri (16-J-6) are believed to represent a still later evolutionary development (Type 5), in which there

Churches Before the 1960s there had already been extensive studies of Nubian church architecture by G. S. Mileham (1910), Somers Clarke (1912), F. Ll. Griffith (1927, 55-61, 65-86; 1927, 57-62), and especially Ugo Monneret de Villard (1935; 1957). We found in our survey only five churches that had not previously been recorded by one or another of these predecessors. The earlier scholars however lacked any reliable means of dating, and thus were not able to perceive the sequence of architectural development that became apparent to us, when we could date the buildings on the basis of pottery types found in and around them (Adams 1965a, esp. 134-8). We also recorded certain internal details that had previously gone unnoted, because we were able to do much more actual excavation than were our predecessors. We found one building at Abdel Qadir (5-0-14) that appeared to be a prototype church, identifiable mainly by the presence of a pulpit at the traditional location (described above, pp. 13-15). It was closely similar to another such building at Karanog, already identified as a prototype church (Woolley 1911, 40 and pls 11, 28). Apart from these, most of the churches of the Early Christian period were quite large, with an average length of 15-20m. In the Faras area there was a group of seven churches, built mainly of stone, that were so similar as to suggest the probability that they were all designed by the same architects (Type 2a). Other early churches were built mainly of brick (Type 2b), and lacked some of the distinctive internal features of the Type 2a. Features common to both of the early types were an east-west orientation, a basilican plan, entrances on the north and south sides, an altar situated within the apse, and the absence of a narrow passage behind the apse, connecting the two eastern 2 Vaulted roofs remained the norm among the Kenzi Nubians of Egyptian Nubia.

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was only a single transverse chamber at the eastern end of the building, in place of the separate sanctuary and corner rooms found in all earlier churches. In these buildings the altar was built directly adjoining the east wall, rather as a freestanding construction. Churches of Type 4 seem to reflect the introduction of architectural influences from the Levant and Greece (Adams 1965a, 118). A few of them might have been built as early as the tenth or eleventh century, although they were clearly in the minority during those centuries. After about 1200 however they, and the still later churches of Type 5, seem to have been the only types of churches built. It should not be supposed however that they wholly supplanted the earlier buildings. There is abundant evidence that some of the earlier churches, like that at Abdallah Nirqi, continued in use until the end of the Christian period (Van Moorsel, Jacquet and Schneider 1975). The distribution of churches is not easily explained, for it seems to bear little relationship to the size or even sometimes to the proximity of settlements. The extraordinary concentration of churches at Faras is perhaps sufficiently explained by the concentration of population there (attested by the huge Christian cemeteries), but this will hardly explain the concentration of churches at the much smaller community of Tamit (Monneret de Villard 1935, 146-8; Università degli Studi 1967). And how do we account for the three contiguous churches at Tamit (Università degli Studi 1967, 27-30) which were clearly all in use at the same time, or for the two desert churches at Faras (Mileham 1910, 27-36)? These two large buildings, situated less than 200 m apart, were nearly identical in plan, built at the same time and very probably by the same architects. At Qasr Iko there were two little Type 4 churches side by side, on an island that boasted fewer than half a dozen ordinary houses (Presedo Velo 1963). There was also a concentration of four churches, all of Late Christian Type 4, at Serra East (Mileham 1910, 41-7). One possible explanation is that each of the churches had its own dedicatory saint, who had his or her own votaries. It seems unlikely however that there were actual enrolled congregations. Standing in marked contrast to the aforementioned concentrations are the sizable communities of Meinarti and Arminna, each of which had only one church, and of Kasanarti which had none. There is some indication that in Late and Terminal Christian times certain churches were deliberately built at a distance from the settlements, perhaps to deflect the attention of raiders. This category would include the extramural churches at Qasr Ibrim (Adams 1996, 79-81) and Serra East (Mileham 1910, 42-3), the island churches at Kisinarti (Site 5-T-1) and Qasr Iko (Presedo Velo 1963), and the church at Kulubnarti (Adams 1994b, 149-84). It seems probable also that the little Type 5 church at Abdel Qadir (Site 5-0-1) was built to serve the inhabitants at Meinarti, during the last years of that island settlement.

treaty negotiated with Egypt in 652. As a result, fortifications did not play a significant part among the constructions of medieval times. At least in Lower Nubia it is not certain that any fortifications were built de novo by the Christian Nubians, although in several places they took advantage of, and sometimes repaired, older fortress walls. This was true mainly in the years after 1173, when the destructive raid of Shams ed-Dawla Turan Shah had shown the Nubians that they were no longer safe from attack by their northern neighbors. It was in those circumstances that the long-neglected fortifications at Qasr Ibrim were rebuilt (cf. Adams 1996, 84), and people also crowded into the ancient fortress of Serra East (Knudstad 1966), abandoned since the Egyptian New Kingdom. At the same time many older, unprotected villages were abandoned, while there was wholesale settlement on the Second Cataract Islands, many of which were previously uninhabited. The three fortified enclosures on the Second Cataract Islands—two on Nabash Island and one at Kisinarti—are nevertheless difficult both to date and to explain.3 In all three cases the enclosure wall, although massive, was roughly built of dry-laid stone chunks, and it enclosed a very irregularly shaped area. The walls bore no resemblance at all to the straight and well built Pharaonic brick fortifications that were earlier constructed in the cataract area. Stout though they were, the rough stone walls would hardly have been an effective deterrent to determined marauders, unless they were continually manned along their whole length. They would have been more effective in keeping animals either in or out than in keeping humans out, yet there is no reason to suppose that any number of animals were kept on the Second Cataract islands, given the paucity of forage. These structures may not have been of Christian origin. Although there was clear evidence of Late Christian occupation in all three of the Second Cataract enclosures, in at least one case the wall itself was evidently much earlier, and this might have been true in the other two cases as well. Whatever their age, however, their function remains a mystery. Defensive arrangements are much more intelligible in the housing than in the fortified enclosures of the Second Cataract area, as will be described in the next section.

Houses Early Christian houses were generally small and poorly built, comprising no more than two or three rooms. Those that we excavated were almost wholly devoid of mastabas, bins, or other interior features. The houses of the Classic Christian period however were conspicuously larger and more regular in plan. They usually included at least one interior room that can be identified as a store room, and storage facilities such as qusebas and bins were plentiful. For the first time in Nubian history, many though not all houses had an indoor toilet chamber at the back of the house.

Fortifications

In the Second Cataract area additional walled enclosures of indeterminate date were found by the Scandinavian Joint Expedition. See Gardberg 1970, 47-49. 3

The Christian period was for most of its duration a time of unprecedented peace, thanks to the terms of the Baqt

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The great majority of Classic Christian houses were still thin-walled, but a few more substantial houses, with vaulted roofs, were identified at Debeira (Shinnie and Shinnie 1978, 4, 41, 43), Meinarti (Adams 2001, 67-8), and Gendal Irki (Site 5-X-1, described in Chapter 4). These were perhaps the residences of local notables, something like the elite houses of Meroitic and Ballaña times, and they were probably the work of professional builders. Pottery suggests that they were built in the latter part of the Classic Christian period, foreshadowing the unit houses which were soon to follow. In the Late Christian period the stoutly built unit house, having thick walls and a vaulted roof, came into general use. Unlike their predecessors, these houses rarely shared a party wall with an adjoining structure. For the most part they retained the same floor plan as the Classic Christian houses, and some continued to include an indoor toilet chamber. Very often now, however, the interior storage chamber had no lateral access, and could be entered only from above, through a hatchway in the roof. During the same time when these durable structures were being built, however, other Nubians were taking refuge, either temporarily or permanently, in small and rudely built stone huts among the Second Cataract Islands. The majority of these structures were half-round in shape, built up against rock outcrops or, occasionally, old fortification walls. Most contained no interior features of any kind. There is consequently a wide discrepancy between the two most common house types of the Late Christian period, the unit houses and the island huts. Whether or not this is evidence of an emergent class differentiation is uncertain The ultimate manifestation of the fortified house within our survey area was the two-storey castle-house, having blind cellars on the lower floor that could be entered only from above. Between Faras and Gemai we located only two of these structures, at Meinarti (Site 6-K-3) and Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32); many others were subsequently identified further upriver, in the Batn el-Hajjar (Adams 1994a). The round two-storey tower at Abu Sir (Site 5-T29) had some of the same characteristics as the castlehouses, and was also probably of Terminal Christian date, but it was very much smaller than most castle-houses, and was the only one having a round shape.

but the exhaustion of local wood supplies seems a likely explanation. We did not locate any sites between Faras and Gemai where the Post-Classic (Group N.V) or later decorated wares were made. Indeed the scarcity of the Post-Classic wares within this area makes it highly probable that they were not made here, but perhaps further to the south (see Adams 1986, 497-8). The same was emphatically not true of the Late Christian wares (Group N.VI), which were superabundant, but we could not identify any kiln where they were produced. While production of the decorated wares seems to have been confined most of the time to a single site within our area, qawadis (saqia pots) were made locally at several places. Individual kilns, devoted largely if not exclusively to the making of qawadis were identified at Gezira Dabarosa (Site 6-G-6), Meinarti (see Adams 2001, 59-60), Dukule Island (Site 5-T-46) and Gaminarti Island (Site 5-T47), as well as at Mugufil Island in the Batn el-Hajjar (Adams 1962b, 72-4). All of the kilns, in the villages as well as at the major factories, were identical in the basic features of their design, although varying somewhat in size. They were cylindrical, updraught kilns of brick, exactly like those still in use at the major pottery centers in Egypt today. Hand-made pottery of Family D was ubiquitous in Christian sites of all ages, accounting for most of the vessels used in the everyday preparation, serving, and storage of food (cf. Adams 1986, 411). These vessels were, so far as we know, fired in simple excavated pits, which could be difficult to recognize archaeologically. We did not find any between Faras and Gemai, although we did identify them at Mugufil Island (Adams 1962b, 72-3), and subsequently also at Kulubnarti (Adams 1994b, 272-3).

Commerce Archaeologically, commerce is best attested in the case of wine. Its volume can be measured to a considerable extent by the enormous quantities of imported amphora sherds found in all Early Christian sites, and the much lesser quantities found in Classic and later sites. Actual taverns of the Meroitic and Ballaña periods have been identified at Sayala (Kromer 1967) and Qasr Ibrim (Plumley and Adams 1974, 218-19), but the closest equivalent that can be identified for the Christian period is the Early Christian building excavated by us at Abdel Qadir (Site 5-0-16), which I have designated provisionally as a wineshop. This structure did not have the characteristics of an ordinary house, and it contained great quantities of amphora sherds of Aswan Ware U2 and Theban Ware U4. On the other hand fragments of drinking vessels were not highly abundant here, as they were at Sayala and Qasr Ibrim. It seems possible therefore that Site 5-0-16 served more for the storage than for the actual serving of wine. Ostraka found in the neighboring Site 5-0-15 have made it clear that this place was a transshipment point for cargoes of barley, coming upriver from Egypt, so the possibility that it was also a transshipment point for Egyptian wine seems reasonable enough. The site dated exclusively from the Early Christian period, when the Egyptian wine trade was

Industries The only medieval Nubian industry that is directly attested through archaeology is pottery-making, though several others can be readily inferred. Within our survey area we identified three sites where the decorated wares were made in quantity, at Debeira East (Site 24-R-23), Serra (Site 24-N-3), and Faras (Site 24-E-21). Although there was some overlap in time, these factories had operated for the most part sequentially. X-Group and a very few Early Christian vessels were made at Debeira; Early Christian wares only were made at Serra, and a few Early Christian but mostly Classic Christian wares were made at Faras. Each factory therefore probably came into existence as a replacement for its predecessor. The reason for the final abandonment of each of the sites can only be guessed,

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at its height. Its abandonment might have been a consequence of the Abbasid Caliph’s decision to forbid the export of wine to Nubia, some time in the ninth century (cf. Forand 1971, 116-17). Site 5-S-10, situated in the Mirgissa area, may also have been a wine depot, but this is less than certain. The site was first located by us, but was excavated by the French Expedition at Mirgissa. Their very brief published description (Vercoutter 1964, 60) does not provide very much information beyond the fact that it was a large rectangular building of mud brick, very poorly preserved. In our preliminary survey notes we recorded highly abundant sherds of amphora Wares U2 and U4 on the surface, as well as some Early Christian Nubian sherds, and this led to our supposition that the place might have been another wine depot. It is worth noting that the two sites, 5-0-16 and 5-S10, were located respectively just at the foot and just at the head of the Second Cataract, so that both would be logical transshipment points.4 Commerce in barley is attested directly by five ostraka found at Site 5-0-15, q.v. Another item of commerce, almost certainly, was dates, although there is no written record in this case. To a certain extent, however, commerce may be implied by the presence of storage facilities. In the Classic Christian period, a great many houses at Meinarti had storage bins and qusebas for both grain and dates (Adams 2001, 53), and the strong-rooms built into many Late Christian houses may also have been for these commodities (Adams 2002, 11). Commerce in pottery is clearly implied by the very wide distribution of the Aswan wares throughout nearly all of the Christian period. The Nubian fancy wares were themselves obviously the subjects of a considerable commerce, since they were made (at any given time) only at one or two factories, but were traded over a very wide area. There is at least a suggestion that Site 5-X-1, at Gendal Irki, was some kind of a storage depot. In addition to one very well built house, there were three straggling clusters of mostly small and poorly-built rooms, partly of brick and partly of stone, which had very low vaulted ceilings. They were mainly if not entirely of Late Christian date, but they differed markedly from typical Late Christian houses in the manner of their construction, in their very low ceilings, and in the near total absence of floor features. It seems more probable therefore that these were storage chambers, perhaps used by the residents of the nearby island settlement of Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32).

revealed by the West Bank Survey, and by other concurrent digs in the High Dam Salvage Campaign (for an overview see Adams 1998, esp. 15-18). They had, like all other early expeditions, the further disadvantage of having no secure basis for dating the graves as Early, Classic, or Late Christian. I have reviewed the features of Christian mortuary practice in extenso in another publication (Adams 1998), and will only summarize the key points here. This review is based on data not only from the West Bank Survey but from several other expeditions as well. Distribution Christian cemeteries were considerably more dispersed than were those of the two preceding periods, and consequently more numerous. This was particularly true in the area of the Second Cataract islands and adjacent west bank, where we found only three Meroitic and Ballaña cemeteries, but twenty Christian ones, including eight on the islands. The Christian cemeteries varied enormously in size, from the vast necropoli of several thousand graves at Faras to family burial plots of fewer than a dozen graves. Most though not all churches had an adjoining cemetery, or at least a few nearby graves, but the majority of cemeteries were not associated with a church. In some cases also there was no recognizable settlement nearby. Superstructures The use of superstructures was usual if not universal in the Early Christian and perhaps the Classic Christian period, but seems to have been rare in the Late Christian period. Although nearly all superstructures were rectangular constructions of brick or stone which covered only the area directly above the grave shaft, they varied enormously in nearly all other respects. Variation was both temporal and geographical. In the Early Christian period the great majority of superstructures were of stone, while in the Classic period nearly all, other than flat pavements, were of brick. The amount of spatial variation was remarkable. At Faras and from there northward, both Griffith and Junker had observed that the great majority of superstructures were rectangular mastabas having a rounded, vault-like top. We did not find any such structures in the survey area to the south of Faras, where the majority of superstructures were flat-topped mastabas. A high percentage of those at Meinarti had an embossed cross of brick on the upper surface, and a low, raised pylon at the western end (Adams 2003, fig. 16), a type not found at any other site in our survey area.5 However, no fewer than seven other superstructure types, including a few small domed structures, were also found at Meinarti (Adams 1998, 17; Adams 2003, 46, fig. 16). To the south of Meinarti, through the Second Cataract and the Batn el-Hajjar, virtually all superstructures were flat pavements. Stone pavements, which were usual in the Early Christian period, were often very simple arrangements of large stones, without mortar. Some were mere outlines of stones around the perimeter of the grave shaft.

Mortuary sites Long before our survey, exhaustive investigations in Christian cemeteries had been carried out by Reisner at Shellal, by Junker at Arminna, and by Griffith at Faras. Each of these scholars published a kind of typology of Christian graves (Reisner 1910, 308-9; Junker 1925, 126-9; Griffith 1927, 62-81). Since each worked mainly or entirely at a single site, however, they were not able to observe the full variability of Christian mortuary practice that was 4

For a more extended discussion of wine trade see Adams 1966.

5

But see Welsby 2002, 60.

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In the Classic Christian period these generally, though not always, gave way to rectangular brick pavements that were somewhat more carefully constructed. These observations apply only to the areas actually surveyed by us. Given the extent of spatial variability observed within this area, it is quite likely that many additional variations will be found in the areas further upriver, and indeed some have already been noted (cf. Welsby 2002, 57-61).

Body wrapping In the majority of graves excavated by us, perishable materials were not preserved. In every case where they were preserved, however, we were able to determine that the body had been tightly wrapped in cloth, and then usually bound around with tapes or cords. A few were buried in large pieces of plain white material that were probably woven deliberately as shrouds, but a larger number were clothed in old garments or blankets, or pieces thereof. Sometimes the wrapping was made by piecing together parts of two or more separate textiles, and in a few cases portions of leather were also used.

Orientations An east-west orientation, with the head of the deceased to the west, was perhaps the most nearly invariable feature of Christian Nubian burial practice although there were a few exceptions. Individual graves naturally deviated by as much as 20°, north or south, from a true westward orientation, as might be expected since the medieval Nubians were not possessed of magnetic compasses. They may have taken the position of the sun at sunset as their reference point, which of course would have resulted in somewhat different orientations at different times of year.

Body positioning Virtually all Christian dead were buried in an extended position, with the head toward the west. To the north of Debeira nearly all were in dorsal position. Further south, a considerable number were on their sides, although dorsal burials were still in the majority. Between Debeira and the Second Cataract the burials were more often on the right than on the left side, while to the south of Meinarti there was a heavy preference for burial on the left side. In the case of dorsal burials, from Debeira southward, it was a common practice to turn the head of the deceased toward one side—nearly always the north. This practice was not recorded to the north of Debeira. The hands of the deceased most commonly rested, one on top of the other, directly over the pubis, but occasionally they were extended along the sides, or very rarely crossed over the breast.

Grave shafts The great majority of shafts were simple, narrow slots, usually with rounded ends. A smaller number had an offset, undercut niche, nearly always on the north side, in which the body was placed. This was a continuation of a common Meroitic and Ballaña practice, but the niches of Christian times were rarely cut down to a level lower than the bottom of the main shaft, as was generally true earlier. Side-niche graves were much more common from Debeira southward than they were further north. End-chamber graves, common in Meroitic and to a lesser extent in Ballaña times, were very rare, and were confined entirely to the Early Christian period. A very few graves had a narrow niche cut directly into the bottom of the main shaft, rather than to one side. This was actually the predominant type in the region around Taifa (see Firth 1912, 40), but in the area of our survey such graves were very rare. There were also, throughout the area of our survey, a few vaulted brick tombs—another practice surviving from pre-Christian times. Larger ones were probably intended for multiple interments, although we actually found more than one burial in only a few cases. Nevertheless, two Late Christian tombs that we encountered at Faras (Site 24-E-29) held respectively 15 and 13 bodies.

Grave goods Material items found within the graves were confined almost entirely to small items of personal jewelry, such as bracelets, earrings, and beads. These were clearly not offerings in the usual sense; they were simply items of everyday wear that the burial party did not care to remove from the body. One burial was found to be wearing a pair of shoes, a practice noted also by Welsby at Soba (Welsby 2002, 49-50). Votive lamps were included occasionally within vaulted tombs. Their usual place however was on the outside of the superstructure, at the west end. Small, bottle-like lamps were preferred in the Early Christian period, while in the Classic Christian period these gave way to lamps having somewhat the appearance of a modern candle-holder. These in turn gave way to simple open dishes in the Late Christian period.

Body covering Bodies interred in side-niche graves were usually protected by a row of stone slabs (or later sometimes bricks) placed so that they leaned across the opening to the niche, sealing it off. There was however a great deal of variability in the covering of bodies in slot graves. The largest number had no protection at all, but a fair number had two bricks placed alongside the head and another bridging over the top, thus protecting the face. Sometimes there were only two bricks, and sometimes also large sherds were substituted for bricks. A few burials had bricks extending part way along the body, or even along its whole length.

The finds Pottery The pottery finds from the West Bank Survey, beginning with those from the Faras Potteries, provided virtually the entire basis for the several extended works on Nubian pottery that I have published (Adams 1962a; 1964a; 1970; 1973; 1986). They have been so thoroughly discussed elsewhere, as well as in Chapter 7 of this volume, that further description at this point seems superfluous. It may nevertheless be appropriate to say something about the methodological innovations involved in our

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ceramic studies.6 They were necessitated by the fact that, for the first time in the Nubian salvage surveys, the bulk of our attention was given to habitations, factories, and other surface remains rather than to graves. The overwhelming majority of ceramic material found in such sites consists of sherds rather than of whole vessels, which are comparatively rare. We had therefore to develop a methodology in which the sherd rather than the vessel became the basic unit of study and of classification. (For extended discussion see Adams 1987). This necessarily meant avoiding the heavy emphasis on vessel forms that was characteristic of nearly all earlier classifications. When classifications are based mainly on form, the great majority of sherds—virtually all those other than rim sherds—become unclassifiable; they are essentially non-data. On the other hand, a classification that places emphasis on features that can be observed in all or most sherds—fabric, color, surface treatment, and decoration—allows a much wider field of observation, in which all sherds are equally meaningful. This approach was first adopted in the preliminary classification of Christian pottery that I published in 1962, and has been further refined in all my subsequent studies and publications. The most significant contribution of this classificatory scheme is that it has permitted the quantitative study of sherds, within sites and between sites. We did not systematically collect and count all the sherds from each site, but we did so in most of the more important ones, including the Faras Potteries, Meinarti, and Kasanarti, as well as at several smaller sites. As a result we have been able to plot the waxing and waning frequency of all the different wares over time. This in the end has permitted the quite precise dating of deposits, based not simply on wares present or absent but on their relative frequencies (cf. especially Adams 1986, 626-33). It has also enabled us to recognize the importance of certain wares—especially imported wares—that are abundant as sherds, but are rarely found as complete vessels.

times (cf. Reisner 1910, 347). Once the saqia was introduced, there was no further advance in agricultural technology until diesel pumps made their appearance in the 20th century.7 So far as we know also, no new crops were introduced. The one change in subsistence activity that can be observed—probably not a very important one— was the abandonment of pig-keeping after the Christian period. That the inventory of household and farming goods also remained largely unchanged is attested by the fact that nearly all the tools and containers found at Qasr Ibrim and Kulubnarti, for example, were familiar to our modern-day laborers (cf. Adams and Adams 1998, 99). Settlements may have been smaller and more dispersed in the Christian period than they were earlier, though this cannot be confirmed with certainty because many settlements of the previous periods may not have been preserved. There seems to be little doubt however that cemeteries were more dispersed. The changing housing conditions of the Christian period seem clearly to reflect concurrent economic and social conditions. The poor houses of the Early Christian period are indicative of a time of general impoverishment; the more spacious houses of the Classic period, with their abundant storage facilities, bespeak an era of peace and of flourishing trade with Fatimid Egypt; the stoutly built unit houses and especially the castle-houses of Late and Terminal Christian times reflect the insecure conditions introduced by the Ayyubid and especially the Mamluk regimes in Egypt. The extreme impoverishment of housing in the Ottoman period, due in large part to a major shift in world trade patterns, is attested not only by archaeology but by the direct testimony of Burckhardt at the beginning of the nineteenth century (Burckhardt 1819, 140-41). Poverty is often a great leveler, and the houses as well as the material goods of the Early Christian period seem indeed to reflect a more democratic and less stratified society than had existed in Meroitic and Ballaña times. The re-emergence of social differentiation may have begun under the more prosperous conditions of Classic Christian times, but it is much more clearly attested in the Late Christian period, when there was once again a clear differentiation between elite and ordinary houses. However, it was probably disturbed military conditions rather than economic wealth that led to the rise of the castlebuilding magnates in the Terminal Christian period. But one of the most significant changes in all Nubian history occurred in the domain of religion. After millennia of worshipping an earthly king, and building him an opulent tomb, the Nubians transferred their primary allegiance to a heavenly king, and the human one became a mere mortal. Although archaeologists have identified the tombs of almost every known ruler of Kushite and Ballaña times, only one or two tombs of Christian rulers have ever been found, and they lack altogether the opulence of earlier times. And for lesser persons, both the tombs and their inscriptions give evidence of a newly otherworldly preoccupation. Where the mortuary inscriptions of Meroitic

Non-pottery finds The non-pottery finds from sites other than Meinarti likewise call for very little comment. They are nearly all familiar objects of everyday use, or personal ornaments, in either case well known from earlier publications. The single most nearly unique find is perhaps the small, incised shell amulet from Kasanarti, shown in Plate 18d. The most unexpected and informative finds, however, are the Greek ostraka from the little Early Christian Sites 5-0-15 and 5-0-16, and in particular the five bills of lading for barley. These shed considerable light on trade between Egypt and Nubia at the beginning of the Christian period, and may provide some confirmation for the longfamiliar terms of the Baqt treaty.

Cultural continuity and change Our excavations confirmed what was already commonly assumed: that for Nubian peasants, the material circumstances of life hardly changed from Meroitic to modern

7 For a detailed description of the land economy as it existed in the 20th century see Dafalla 1969.

6 They were loosely based on work previously familiar to me in the American Southwest; see especially Colton and Hargrave 1937.

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times proclaim the worldly accomplishments or the status of the deceased, Christian tombstones merely wish for his or her happiness in the next world. Meanwhile, a new belief in the transmigration of souls brought an end to the age-old practice of burying substantial material wealth with the dead. At the same time, the separation of church and state made possible an unprecedented democratization of religion, as organized worship for the first time was brought down to the village level. In Lower Nubia and the Batn el-Hajjar, the half dozen large temples of Meroitic (and perhaps Ballaña) times gave way to more than a hundred churches, in small villages no less than in major towns.8 Ordinary peasants might have had no access to the priesthood, which required some knowledge of Greek, but they could serve as deacons and elders in the village churches throughout the country. The importance of religion in everyday life, as attested by churches, by texts, and by ubiquitous iconography, is the single most conspicuous feature of the medieval Nubian scene. Otherworldliness may have diminished in the Classic Christian period, as is likely to happen in more prosperous times. Certainly churches became continually smaller, and less elaborate in design. Mural decorations also became notably simpler. Yet much archaeological evidence attests to the persisting importance of religion in everyday life, throughout the whole of the Christian period. It has its counterpart among peasants in every part of the world today—in Latin American, in the Mediterranean world, in India, and in China.

8

For an enumeration see Adams 1965a, 126-32.

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APPENDIX: COMPREHENSIVE LIST OF CHRISTIAN FINDS FROM THE WEST BANK SURVEY With Sudan Museum accession numbers (SNM) (Where no registration number appears, the registration number corresponds to the site number. Where no Sudan accession number appears, the item was either lost in transit, or was too broken in transit to be worth restoring. UKMA designates items currently on loan to the University of Kentucky Museum of Anthropology; not yet accessioned in the Sudan Museum.) Reg. no.

Item

SNM

Reg. no.

Bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Jar portion Jar fragment Bowl portion Bowl fragment Jar fragment Pot fragment Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Jar Jar Cup portion Bowl fragment Cup portion Cup portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Cup portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Cup portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Cup Cup portion Bowl fragment Bowl fragment Bowl Lamp portion Bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Plate Bowl portion Bowl fragment Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Cup Cup portion Bowl portion Bowl

16602 16665 16633 16660 16567 16661 16616 16050 16755 16632 16630 16631 16598 16617 16601 16048 16600 16634 16618 16623 16655 16615 16622 16659 14978 16652 16757 16756 16628 16619 16803 16752 16603 16732 16641 16751 16608 16607 16606 16614 16754 16604 16691 16723 16649 16620 16672 16722

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96

Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl fragment Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl portion Bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl Bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Plate Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Vase portion Vase portion Vase portion Bowl portion Bowl Bowl fragment Vase portion Bowl portion

193

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SNM

Site 24-E-21 (cont.)

Site 24-E-21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Item

193

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16766 16643 16767 16773 16772 16721 16799 16644 16642 16720 16769 16645 16809 16810 16771 16718 16715 16716 16711 16815 16814 16770 16713 16768 16806 16808 16804 16714 16813 16857 16807 16717 16811 16701 16817 16795 16796 16805 16748 16740 16826 16821 16841 16750 16700 16763 16794 16778

Reg. no.

Item

Reg. no.

SNM

Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl Cup Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Vase portion Vase portion Cup portion Vase portion Vase portion Vase portion Vase portion Vase portion Vase portion Vase portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Pilgrim bottle portion Pilgrim bottle portion Pilgrim bottle fragment Pilgrim bottle fragment Pilgrim bottle portion Bowl portion Vase Bowl Pot Vase Vase Cup Vase Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Cup Cup fragment Bowl fragment Bowl portion Pot portion Jar fragment Pot fragment Qulla fragment Jar fragment Bowl Bowl portion Pot Qadus portion Storage jar

161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224

16779 16777 16648 16859 16673 16798 16697 16738 16702 16749 16739 16746 16747 16787 16786 16843 16674 16842 16820 16818 16844 16823 16819 16840 16761 16699 16698 16758 16860 16760 16724 16753 16671 16783 16785 16784 16782 16762 16564 16775 16828 16825 16822 16861 16824 16646 16712 16797 16853 16812 16650 16728 16662 16730 16613 16022 16611 16610 16046 4389 16725 15999 16041 16069

Amphora portion Amphora portion Jar Jar Jar Bowl portion Lamp portion Doka fragment Pot fragment Doka portion Bowl portion Pot Pot Pot Pot Pot Lamp Jar stamp Jar stamp Jar stamp Ostrakon Practice sherd Pot scraper Pot scraper Figurine portion Figurine portion Ceramic handle fragment Ceramic handle fragment Signet impression Signet impression Glass fragments Ivory bead Bronze pin Bronze disc Ground sherd fragment Polished pebble Stone bead fragment Stone pot polisher Marble tray fragment Stone weight Grooved stone Incised stone fragment Stone implement Grinding stone Marble & clay hone? Leather shoe fragment Leather fragments Leather fragments Leather sheath fragments Leather shoe fragment Leather fragments Fabric rag Fabric rag fragment Fiber mat fragment Fabric rag Fiber cord fragment Mass of hair Mass of hair Mass of hair Mud jar seal Mud jar seal Mud jar seal portion Clay beads Ceramic button?

194

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194

SNM

Site 24-E-21 (cont.)

Site 24-E-21 (cont.) 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160

Item

7/5/2005, 2:18 PM

16612 16055 16058 16068 16070 16933 16941 16193 16186 16167 17538 16168 16180 16183 16168 16171 16736 17548 17547 17554 UKMA 17074 17070 17062 17082 17080 17072 17077 17549 17550 17207 17190 17131 17141 17179 17188 17181 17148 17199 17200 17201 17202 17197 17153 18253 17071 17054 17052 17055 17056 17053 17060 17061 17539 17058 17147 17540 17541 17542 17163 17159 17162 17120 17115

Reg. no.

Item

Reg. no.

SNM

17113 17111 17079 17083 17119 17117 17109 17114 17110 17121 17106 17131 18140 18139 16719 16791 16793 16792 17205 17078 17206 17204 17081 17093 17116 1960 17068 17063 17066 17069 17065 17067 17118 17107

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

16185

Site 24-R-8

Bowl

16599

1 2 3 4 68a

Bowl portion Cup portion Bowl fragment Bowl portion Bowl portion Vase portion

16558 16640 16654 16914 16765 17342

Camel figurine fragment Camel figurine fragment Cow figurine fragment Giraffe figurine fragment Camel saddle figurine Camel saddle figurine Animal figurine? Phallus figurine Nose figurine portion Clay gaming die? Clay gaming board? Clay gaming piece? Tombstone Tombstone fragment Bowl portion Footed bowl fragment Bowl portion Vase fragment Jar portion Goblet Toy bowl Plate portion Goblet fragments Clay beads Clay perforated rectangle Toy pot Sherd scraper Sherd scraper Sherd scraper Sherd scraper Sherd scraper Sherd scraper Clay bead portion Clay sphere

Bowl lamp

1 2 3 4 5

1 2

Jug

1 2 3 4

Lamp Lamp Lamp

Glass bowl fragment

17138

Cup Pot

14788 16174

Bowl portion Bowl fragment Goblet portion Mud jar seal portion

16621 16570 16609 17160

Lamp Lamp portion Glass vessel & beads Marble altar top Vase

16946 16929 17145 * 16847

Site 24-R-12 5

Lamp

16563

Site 24-V-12 1 2

Offering table fragment Stone relief fragment

14474 17040

Site 24-V-13

16249

1 2 3 4 5 8

Site 24-M-11 1 2 3

14846 16703 16726 16827 17041

Site 24-R-7

Site 24-I-26 1

Goblet Bowl portion Bowl portion Vase Tombstone

Site 24-R-6

Site 24-I-1 1 2 3 4 5 6

16657 14976 16597 16664 16734 16781 16776 16743 16045 17152 16071 17659 17064

Site 24-R-2

Site 24-E-31 5

Bowl portion Cup portion Bowl portion Jar fragment Lamp portion Pilgrim bottle portion Bowl Cup Amphora portion Stone blade Jar portion Fiber mat fragment Sherd scraper

Site 24-N-6

Site 24-E-29 G.1

SNM

Site 24-N-3

Site 24-E-21 (cont.) 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258

Item

16639 17355 16902

Bowl portion Lid portion Lid portion Lamp fragment Sandstone block Pot fragment

16705 16696 16697 16908 17174 14964

* This object was delivered for restoration to Mr Jozef Gazy of the Polish Expedition at Faras. I have no record of it subsequently.

195

Reg. no.

Item

Reg. no.

SNM

Site 5-0-12 16066

Site 5-0-14 Ostrakon Iron pendant cross Mud jar seal fragment

UKMA 17047 17164

1 2

Bowl portion Bowl portion Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon Ostrakon

16709 17339 UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA UKMA

Bowl Cup Vase portion Vase portion Pot portion Pot portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Jar portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Vase portion Ostrakon Bronze pin Mud jar seal Mud jar seal fragment Pot fragment

16635 16676 16588 16592 16593 16666 16595 16596 16707 17352 17351 16559 UKMA 17128 17161 17167 16693

Bowl Bowl portion Pot Pot Glass vessel fragment Signet impression

17336 16935 16169 16160 17136 17545

Bowl portion Vase fragment Jar Pot portion Bowl fragment Bowl portion Glass vessel fragments Lamp

16624 16742 15889 16938 16176 16199 17143 16942

1

6 G.59

16911 16051

Incised stone tablet

17180

Lamp fragment Amphora

16694 16059

Lamp

16735

Lamp Small bottle portion

16733 16727

Vase portion Lamp portion

16788 16737

Bowl portion Lamp portion Lamp portion Bowl portion Cup portion Jar portion Bowl fragments Ostrakon fragment Glass flask Bronze bowl fragment Iron pendant cross Stone net weight Stone vessel fragment Wooden bowl Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl portion Footed bowl portion Bowl portion

16710 16731 16953 16954 16931 16940

Site 5-T-49

Site 5-T-50 G.1 G.1/2 Site 5-T-53 1 2 Site 5-X-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Site 5-S-31 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Bowl Tile fragment

Site 5-T-36

Site 5-S-30 1 2 3 4 5 6

17344

Site 5-T-27

Site 5-0-16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Goblet portion Site 5-T-1

Site 5-0-15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

SNM

Site 5-S-32 Amphora

1 2 3

Item

UKMA 17140 17135 17045 17182 17173 16934 16800 16706 16728 16802

Site 5-X-2 Bronze fragment

17129

Pot Pot Pot

16184 16170 16179

Site 5-X-31 1 2 3

196

Reg. no.

Item

SNM

Reg. no.

Site 5-X-32

Item

Site 5-X-32 (cont.)

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 3 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51

Ceramic buttons Sherd button Sherd button Sherd button portion Bronze implement Cup Misc. buttons Ceramic button? Ceramic button? Ceramic button? Stone button portion Shell button Bone disc portion Bone knife fragment Bronze bracelet fragment Faience beads Shell amulet Stone button Sherd disc Pot Bowl Pot portion Bowl portion Ceramic pot stamp Bronze ring Silver bead Pot Toilet portion Storage jar portion Storage jar Qadus Iron implement fragment Stone disc Jar Qadus Bowl Iron nail? Stone net weight Lamp portion Lamp Drilled shell Bronze decorated pin Bronze pin Bronze rod fragment Cup portion Cup Cup fragment Pot Bronze ring Bronze object fragment Bronze vessel fragments Sherd disc Sherd disc Stone net weight Bowl Lamp portion Pot Iron object Ceramic jar stamp Bronze blade fragment

52

Jar and lid

53 54 55

Sherd jar lid Sherd bottle stopper Iron fragment

17100 17099 17096 17090 17185 16173 17098 17105 17091 17104 17186 17187 17189 17193 17132 17144 17556 17171 17087 17348 16189 16943 16912 17088 17122 17046 16044 17042 16985 16982 16981 17051 17156 16164 16043 16949 15598 17178 16944 16789 17192 17124 17127 17126 16951 17341 16919 17354 17123 17133 17130 17086 17089 17177 16181 16729 16846 17050 17552 17134 16172 16047 16950 17084 17048

56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

Jar portion Ceramic jar stamp Stone jar stamp Ceramic object fragment Pot Lamp portion Storage jar Storage jar Storage jar Pot Bowl Storage jar

68

Storage jar and lid

69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 99 100 101 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Storage jar Storage jar Qadus Storage jar Bowl portion Qadus Storage jar Jar Steatite stopper? Vase portion Vase portion Goblet portion Cup portion Cup portion Cup portion Cup portion Vase portion Basin portion Basin portion Jar portion Pot portion Beads Sherd discs Vase portion Bowl portion Pilgrim bottle fragment Lamp Tile object Sherd spindle whorl Sherd gaming piece Perforated sherd disc Lid Lid Bowl portion Jar portion Footed bowl portion Footed bowl portion Bowl portion

197

16067 17555 17553 17073 17340 16741 16161 16162 16040 16175 16916 16056 16077 16923 16003 16187 16042 15754 16920 16039 15094 16948 17176 16915 16922 16925 16924 16926 16921 16927 16918 16928 16913 16910 16905 17146 17092 16845 16917 16947 16177 17102 17103 17097 16194 16192 16801 16932 16936 16937 17343

Site 5-X-36 Lamp

16790

Smoking pipe Smoking pipe fragment Bowl fragment Lamp Lamp portion Lamp

17551 15546 16708 17353 16581 16678

Site 5-X-40 8 9 11 12 13 14

197

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SNM

7/5/2005, 2:18 PM

Reg. no.

Item

Reg. no.

SNM

Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp Bowl portion Lamp Bowl Bowl Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp Pot

16580 16578 16579 16560 16591 16590 16583 16584 16585 17349 16692 16637 16165

Embossed sherd

17094

Lamp portion Bowl Glass vessel fragment Glass vessel fragment Iron tether Marble vessel fragments Mud jar seal fragments Mud jar seal fragment Marble tray fragment Mud jar seal portion

16625 16690 17137 17139 17347 17155 17166 17165 17194 17157

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Site 5-X-43 1 Site 5-X-44 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Bowl portion Lamp Bowl Lamp Iron anklet Footed vessel fragment Lamp

16582 16191 17337 16190 17043 16907 16201

G.3a

Jar

16166

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Bowl portion

16316

Bowl portion Bowl portion Bowl Lid Vase portion Amphora Stone scraper Stone sculpture fragment Stone perforated block

16594 16663 16627 16695 16704 16057 17150 17203 17196

Meroitic offering table Amphora portion

14473 16605

Site 6-B-19 2

17169 17168 17170 17208 17108 17198 17076 17199 17039 16197

Leather shoes

17057

Lamp Lamp Lamp Bowl Lamp Lamp Lamp Ceramic stamp Iron object Spindle whorl fragment Stone net weight Carved stone lamp Mud jar seal Bowl Lamp Lamp Lamp

16562 17338 17350 16759 17346

Site 6-G-6 21 23 26 27 28 29 38 39 40 Site 6-G-7 1 2

198

WBS-Appendix table.p65

198

16945 16939 16198 16200 16626 16159 16132 16197 16744 16745 16176 16577

Christian

Site 5-X-60 17

Mud jar seal fragment Mud jar seal fragment Mud jar seal fragment Mud jar seal fragment Mural fragment Ceramic architectural fragment Ceramic capital fragment Ceramic capital fragment Stone block fragments Lamp portion Lamp fragment Lamp Cup portion Lamp Lamp portion Lamp Lamp Lamp Lamp portion Lamp Lamp Lamp Bowl

Site 6-G-8

Site 5-X-45 1 2 G.2 G.3 G.5 G.5/2 G.6

SNM

Site 6-G-7 (cont.)

Site 5-X-40 (cont.) 15 G.1 G.2 G.3 G.5/1 G.5/2 G.35/1 G.35/2 G.35/3 G.35/4 G.40/2 G.56 G.89

Item

7/5/2005, 2:18 PM

16952 17557 17049 17183 17175 17172 17158 16774 16565 16656 16629

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, W. Y. 1961. ‘The Christian Potteries at Faras’, Kush 9, 30-43. Adams, W. Y. 1962a. ‘The Archaeological Survey of the West Bank of the Nile: Introduction’, Kush 10, 10-18. Adams, W. Y. 1962b. ‘An Introductory Classification of Christian Nubian Pottery’, Kush 10, 245-88. Adams, W. Y. 1962c. ‘Pottery Kiln Excavations’, Kush 10, 6275. Adams, W. Y. 1964a. ‘An Introductory Classification of Meroitic Pottery’, Kush 12, 126-73. Adams, W. Y. 1964b. ‘Sudan Antiquities Service Excavations in Nubia: Fourth Season, 1962-63’, Kush 12, 216-50. Adams, W. Y. 1965a. ‘Architectural Evolution of the Nubian Church, 500-1400 A.D.’, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 4, 87-139. Adams, W. Y. 1965b. ‘Sudan Antiquities Service Excavations at Meinarti, 1963-64’, Kush 13, 148-76. Adams, W. Y. 1966. ‘The Vintage of Nubia’, Kush 14, 262-83. Adams, W. Y. 1967. ‘Continuity and Change in Nubian Cultural History’, Sudan Notes and Records 48, 1-32. Adams, W. Y. 1970. ‘The Evolution of Christian Nubian Pottery’, in Dinkler 1970, 111-28. Adams, W. Y. 1973. ‘Progress Report on Nubian Pottery, I. The Native Wares’, Kush 15, 1-50. Adams, W. Y. 1977. Nubia, Corridor to Africa. Princeton and London. Adams, W. Y. 1981. ‘Medieval Nubian Design Elements’, in Simpson and Davis 1981, 1-10. Adams, W. Y. 1986. Ceramic Industries of Medieval Nubia. Memoirs of the UNESCO Archaeological Survey of Sudanese Nubia, no. 1. Lexington. Adams, W. Y. 1987. ‘Time, Types and Sites: the Interrelationship of Ceramic Chronology and Typology’, Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar, vol. 8, 7-46. Adams, W. Y. 1992. ‘The Nubian Archaeological Campaigns of 1959-1969: Myths and Realities, Successes and Failures’, in Bonnet 1992, 3-7. Adams, W. Y. 1994a. ‘Castle-Houses of Late Medieval Nubia’, Archéologie du Nil Moyen 6, 11-46. Adams, W. Y. 1994b. Kulubnarti I: the Architectural Remains. Lexington. Adams, W. Y. 1996. Qasr Ibrim: the Late Medieval Period. Egypt Exploration Society, Excavation Memoir 59. London. Adams, W. Y. 1998. ‘Toward a Comparative Study of Christian Nubian Burial Practice’, Archéologie du Nil Moyen 8, 13-41. Adams, W. Y. 2000. Meinarti I: the late Meroitic, Ballaña and Transitional Occupation. Sudan Archaeological Research Society Publication no. 5. London. Adams, W. Y. 2001. Meinarti II: the Early Christian and Early Classic Christian Occupation. Sudan Archaeological Research Society Publication no. 8. London. Adams, W. Y. 2002. Meinarti III: the Late and Terminal Christian Phases. Sudan Archaeological Research Society Publication no. 9. London.

Adams, W. Y. 2003. Meinarti IV and V:The Church and the Cemeteries. The History of Meinarti, an interpretive overview. Sudan Archaeological Research Society Publication no. 11. London. Adams, W. Y. and N. K. Adams 1998. Kulubnarti II: the Artifactual Remains. Sudan Archaeological Research Society Publication no. 2. London. Adams, W. Y. and H-Å. Nordström 1963. ‘The Archaeological Survey on the West Bank of the Nile: Third Season, 196162’, Kush 11, 10-46. Almagro, M., F. Presedo and M. Pellicer 1963. ‘Preliminary Report on the Spanish Excavations in the Sudan, 1961-62’, Kush 11, 175-95. Ampère, J. J. A. 1868. Voyage et Recherches en Égypte et en Nubia. Paris. Badawy, A. 1964. ‘Preliminary Report on the Excavations by the University of California at Askut (First Season, October 1962-January 1963’, Kush 12, 47-53. Bonnet, C. (ed.) 1992. Études Nubiennes I; Conférence de Genève. Geneva. Borchardt, L. 1923. Altägyptische Festungen an der Zweiten Nilschnelle. Leipzig. Budge, E. A. W. 1907. The Egyptian Sudan (2 vols). London. Burckhardt, J. L. 1819. Travels in Nubia. London. Butler, A. J. B. 1884. The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt (2 vols). Oxford. Cailliaud, F. 1826. Voyage à Méroé et au Fleuve Blanc (6 vols). Paris. Clarke, S. 1912. Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valley. Oxford. Clarke, S. 1916. ‘Ancient Egyptian Frontier Fortresses’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 3, 155-79. Colton, H. S., and L. L. Hargrave 1937. Handbook of Northern Arizona Pottery Wares. Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin 11. Flagstaff. Contenson, H. 1966. Aksha I. Paris. Crowfoot, J. W. 1927. ‘Five Greek Inscriptions from Nubia’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 13, 230-31. Crowfoot, J. W. 1971. Early Churches in Palestine. College Park, MD. Dafalla, H. 1969. ‘Land Economy of Old Halfa’, Sudan Notes and Records 50, 63-74. Dinkler, E., (ed.) 1970. Kunst und Geschichte Nubiens in Christlicher Zeit. Recklinghausen. Dunbar, J. H. 1929. ‘Betwixt Egypt and Nubia’, Ancient Egypt 14, 108-17. Firth, C. M. 1912. The Archaeological Survey of Nubia, Report for 1908-1909 (2 vols). Cairo. Gardberg, C. J. 1970. Late Nubian Sites. Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, Vol. 7. Stockholm. Gau, F. C. 1822. Antiquités de a Nubie. Paris. Gough, M. 1961. The Early Christians. New York. Greene, D. L. 1966. ‘Dentition and the Biological Relationships of some Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian Populations from Wadi Halfa, Sudan’, Kush 14, 284-8.

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Greene, D. L. 1967. Dentition of Meroitic, X-Group, and Christian Populations from Wadi Halfa, Sudan. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, no. 85. Salt Lake City. Griffith, F. Ll. 1913. The Nubian Texts of the Christian Period. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Berlin. Griffith, F. Ll. 1926. ‘Oxford Excavations in Nubia XL-XLII’, Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 13, 17-37 Griffith, F. Ll. 1927. ‘Oxford Excavations in Nubia XLIX-LV’, Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 14, 57-113. Griffith, F. Ll. 1928. ‘Oxford Excavations in Nubia LVI-LXI’, Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology 15, 63-88. Hayes, J. W. 1972. Late Roman Pottery. London. Hewes, G. W. 1964. ‘Gezira Dabarosa: Report on the University of Colorado Nubian Expedition, 1962-63 Season’, Kush 12, 174-87. Hintze, F. 1964. ‘Preliminary Note on the Epigraphic Expedition to Sudanese Nubia’, Kush 12, 40-42. Hintze, F. 1965. ‘Preliminary Note on the Epigraphic Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, 1963’, Kush 13, 13-16. Irwin, H. T. and J. B. Wheat 1965. ‘Report of the Paleolithic Section, University of Colorado Expedition’, Kush 13, 1723. Junker, H. 1925. Ermenne. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse Denkschriften 67, Band 1. Knudstad, J. 1966. ‘Serra East and Dorginarti’, Kush 14, 16586. Kromer, K. 1967. Römische Weinstuben in Sayala (Unternubien). Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhilosophischHistorische Klasse Denkschriften, 95 Band. Lajtar, A. and J. Van der Vliet 1998. ‘Rich Ladies of Meinarti and Their Churches’, Journal of Juristic Papyrology 28, 3553. Lepsius, R. 1913. Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien, Vol. 5. Leipzig. Lister, F. 1967. Ceramic Studies of the Historic Periods in Ancient Nubia. University of Utah Anthropological Papers, no. 86. Salt Lake City. Lucas, A., and J. R. Harris. 1962. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th ed. London. Michalowski, K. 1962a. Faras, Fouilles Polonaises 1961. Warsaw Michalowski, K. 1962b. ‘Polish Excavations at Faras, 1961’, Kush 10, 220-44. Michalowski, K. 1964. ‘Polish Excavations at Faras, 1962-63’, Kush 12, 195-207. Michalowski, K. 1974. Faras; Wall Paintings in the Collection of the National Museum in Warsaw. Warsaw. Michalowski, K., and G. Gerster. 1967. Faras, die Kathedrale aus dem Wüstensand. Zurich and Cologne. Mileham, G. S. 1910. Churches in Lower Nubia. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Eckley B. Coxe Junior Expedition to Nubia, vol.2. Philadelphia. Monneret de Villard, U. 1935. La Nubia Medioevale, vols 1-2 (2 vols). Cairo. Monneret de Villard, U. 1957. La Nubia Medioevale, vols 3-4 (2 vols). Cairo.

Nelson, G. C. 1960. Ceramics. New York. Nordström, H.-Å. 1962. ‘Excavations and Survey in Faras, Argin and Gezira Dabarosa’, Kush 10, 34-58. Otto, K.-H. and G. B. Otto. 1991. Felsbilder aus dem Sudanesischen-Nubien, Teil 1. Publikation der Nubien-Expedition 1961-1963, Band 1. Otto, K.-H. and G. B. Otto. 1993. Felsbilder aus dem Sudanesischen-Nubien, Teil 2. Publikation der NubienExpedition 1961-1963, Band 2. Pellicer, M. 1963. La Necropolis Meroitica de Nag-Shayeg. Comité Español de la UNESCO para Nubia, Memorias de la Misión Arqueológica, 2. Pellicer, M. and M. Llongueras 1965. Las Necropoiis Meroiticas del Grupo “X” y Cristianas de Nag el-Arab. Comité Español de la UNESCO para Nubia, Memorias de la Misión Arqueológica, 5. Plumley, J. M. and W. Y. Adams 1974. ‘Qasr Ibrim 1972’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 60, 212-38. Pluskota, K. 1991. ‘Old Dongola – Kiln 1 (Post-Classic Christian Pottery Deposit)’, Nubica III/1, 361-77. Preseco Velo, F. R. 1963. Antigüedades de la Isla de Kasar-Ico. Comité Español de la UNESCO para Nubia, Memorias de la Misión Arqueológica, 1. Reisner, G. A. 1910. The Archaeological Survey of Nubia, Report for 1907-1908, Vol. 1 (2 vols). Cairo. Richardson, R. 1822. Travels along the Mediterranean. London. Scanlon, G. T. 1970. ‘Excavations at Kasr el-Wizz: a Preliminary Report. I’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 56, 29-57. Scanlon, G. T. 1972. ‘Excavations at Kasr el-Wizz: a Preliminary Report. II’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 58, 7-42. Sherif, N. M. 1964. ‘The Arabic Inscriptions from Meinarti’, Kush 12, 249-50. Shinnie, P. L. 1963. ‘The University of Ghana Excavations at Debeira West’, Kush 11, 257-63. Shinnie, P. L. 1964. ‘The University of Ghana Excavation at Debeira West, 1963’, Kush 12, 208-15. Shinnie, P. L. and M. Shinnie. 1978. Debeira West. Warminster. Simpson, W. K. and W. Davis, (eds) 1981. Studies in Ancient Egypt, the Aegean, and the Sudan. Boston. Steindorff, G. 1900. Vorläufige Bericht über seine in Winter 18991900 nach der Oase Siwe und nach Nubien unternommenen Reisen. Bericht über der Verhandlungen der K. Sächs Gesellschaft der W. Leipzig 51, 209-39. Thabit, T. H. 1955. Report of the Antiquities Service and Museums, 1954-55. Khartoum. Trigger, B. G. 1967. The Late Nubian Settlement at Arminna West. Publications of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt, no. 2. Philadelphia. Università degli Studi di Roma 1967. Tamit (1964). Rome. Van Moorsel, P., J. Jacquet and H. Schneider 1975. The Central Church of Abdallah Nirqi. Leiden. Vercoutter, J. 1956. Report of the Antiquities Service and Museums, 1955-56. Khartoum. Vercoutter, J. 1957. ‘Archaeological Survey in the Sudan, 195557’, Sudan Notes and Records 38, 111-17. Vercoutter, J. 1964. ‘Excavations at Mirgissa—I’, Kush 12, 57-62. Verwers, G. J. 1961. ‘Trial Excavations in the Faras Region’,

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Kush 9, 15-29. Verwers, G. J. 1962. ‘The Survey from Faras to Gezira Dabarosa’, Kush 10, 10-18. Waagé, F. O. 1948. Antioch-on-the-Orontes, vol. 4. Princeton. Weeks, K. R. 1967. The Classic Christian Townsite at Arminna West. Publications of the Pennsylvania-Yale Expedition to Egypt, no. 3. Philadelphia. Welsby, D. A. 1998. Soba II, renewed excavations at the metropolis of the Kingdom of Alwa. British Institute in Eastern Africa monograph series no. 15, London. Welsby, D. A. 2002. The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. London. Welsby, D. A. and C M Daniels 1991. Soba - excavations at a medieval capital on the Blue Nile. British Institute in Eastern Africa monograph series no. 12, London. Wendorf, F. (ed.) 1968. The Prehistory of Nubia. Dallas. Wendorf, F., R. D. Daugherty and J. Waechter 1964. ‘The Museum of New Mexico-Columbia University Nubian Expedition: the 1962-1963 Field Programme’, Kush 12, 12-18. Wendorf, F., J. L. Shiner, A. E. Marks, J. de Heinzelin and W. Chmielewski 1965. ‘The Combined Prehistoric Expedition: Summary of 1963-64 Field Season’, Kush 13, 28-55. Wendorf, F., A. E. Marks, J. de Heinzelin, W. Chmielewski and R. Schild 1966. ‘The 1965 Field Season of the Southern Methodist University’, Kush 14, 16-24. Wenzel, M. 1972. House Decoration in Nubia. London. Wheeler, N. F. 1961. ‘Diary of the Excavation of Mirgissa Fort’, Kush 9, 87-179. Wolf, P. 2004. ‘The SARS Anglo-German Expedition at the Fourth Cataract of the Nile: the 2003/04 Season’, Sudan & Nubia 8, 17-26. Woolley, C. L. 1911. Karanog, the Town. University of Pennsylvania Museum, Eckley B. Coxe Junior Expedition to Nubia, vol. 5. Philadelphia. Zyhlarz, E. 1928. Grundzüge der Nubischen Grammatik im Christliche Fruhmittelalter. Leipzig.

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201

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202

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WBS- Arabic.p65

5

7/15/2005, 10:42 AM

WBS- Arabic.p65

6

7/15/2005, 10:42 AM

a. 6-G-7. Gezira Dabarosa Church from the west.

c. 5-0-14. Abdel Qadir prototype Church (?) from the south.

e. 5-T-1. Kisinarti Church from the southwest.

b. 6-G-7. Gezira Dabarosa Church, detail of the east end showing tribune and altar.

d. 5-0-14. Abdel Qadir prototype Church (?), detail of pulpit.

f. 5-T-1. Kisinarti Church, the central cupola.

Plate 1. Church remains.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

1

7/5/2005, 2:32 PM

b. 5-T-4. Gaminarti Church, denuded remains of the apse.

a. 5-T-2. Abu Sir Church from the southwest.

c. 5-X-1. Gendal Irki Church from the north.

d. 5-X-1. Gendal Irki Church. Interior view of the sanctuary and southeast corner room.

f. 5-X-44. Meili Island Church. Interior view looking east toward the apse.

e. 5-X-1. Gendal Irki Church. Remnants of paintings and inscriptions in the sanctuary. Plate 2. Church remains.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

2

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a. 5-T-29, Abu Sir. Fortified watchtower, from the west. b. 5-S-31, Nabash Island. Habitation remains of Area B, within the fortified enclosure. The remnant of the fortification wall can be seen at left.

c. 5-S-32. Nabash Island, the fortification wall. d. 24-E-30. Faras, remains of Early Christian House 1.

e. 5-S-30. Shamnarti Island, remains of House A. Plate 3. Fortifications and habitation remains.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

3

f. 5-S-30, Shamnarti Island. Detail of House A, with Room 2 in foreground.

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b. 6-G-6. Gezira Dabarosa, Rooms in House 11 (Colorado photo).

a. 6-G-6. Gezira Dabarosa, Rooms in House 10 (Colorado photo).

c. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. General view looking east, with Unit C in the foreground.

e. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. Subterranean vaulted chamber in Unit B, House 2.

d. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. Interior ovens in Unit B, House 1.

f. 5-X-1, Gendal Irki. Unit C, House 2, from the west.

Plate 4. Habitation sites 6-G-6 and 5-X-1.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

4

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a. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. House 1 (the castle-house) from the south. b. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. Remains of Houses 3 (left) and 4 (right).

c. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. Remains of House 3, Rooms 11-14, from the southeast.

e. 5-T-1, Kisinarti. Remains of House 2. Plate 5. Habitation remains.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

5

d. 5-X-32, Kasanarti. House 8, from the north.

f. 5-X-41, Gemai. House remains, with Room 2 in foreground.

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a. General view from the west, after excavation.

b. Interior of Room 10, at Phase 2.

c. Interior of Room 18, at Level 4. d. Base of the stairs in Room 12, seen from Room 11.

e. Small interior kiln in Room 7, Phase 3.

Plate 6. Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

6

f. Room 18 at Level 6, showing mixing basins set into the floor, and kiln built into the wall.

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a. Kiln 3 from the east, showing stoke hole aperture and buttresses.

b. Top of Kiln 3, showing ascending steps on the south side.

c. Perforated floor of the firing chamber in Kiln 3.

d. Kiln 4 from the south, showing buttresses.

e. Kilns 4 (left) and 5 (right), from the south. Note dividing partition in Kiln 5. Plate 7. Kilns at the Faras Potteries, Site 24-E-21.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

7

f. Stratified ash and refuse deposits east of the kilns.

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a. 24-N-3, Serra. Kiln 2 from the south.

b. 24-N-3, Serra. Kiln 6 from the south.

c. 24-R-7, Debeira. Enigmatic circular structure. d. 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir. The wineshop or tavern, from the northwest corner.

e. 5-0-16, Abdel Qadir. The wineshop of tavern, Room IV in the foreground. Plate 8. Industrial, commercial, and enigmatic sites.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

8

f. 5-X-30, Gemai. Enigmatic basin and channel.

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b. 24-R-9, Debeira. Brick outline superstructure of a grave (not numbered).

a. 24-M-11, Serra. Stone superstructure of adult grave (not numbered).

c. 5-X-31, Gemai. “Spine and ribs” brick superstructure of Grave A.

d. 6-G-8, Gezira Dabarosa. Solid brick superstructure of Grave 5.

Plate 9. Grave superstructures.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

9

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a. 24-E-28, Faras. Carved design over the entrance to Tomb 7.

b. 5-T-27, Abu Sir. Grave 12, stones closing the side niche.

c. 5-X-36, Gendal Irki. Shrouded and tied body in Grave 1.

d. 5-T-27, Abu Sir. Shrouded and tied body in side niche, Grave 4.

e. 5-S-23, Mirgissa. Body in side niche, Grave 2. f. 6-G-2, Gezira Dabarosa. Mummified body in grave (not numbered).

Plate 10. Graves.

WBS-Plates 1-10.p65

10

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a. 5-S-16, Mirgissa. Extended burial in Grave 1.

b. 5-T-28, Abu Sir. Extended burial; grave not numbered.

d. 5-S-29, Shamnarti. Contorted burials in Grave W1.

c. 5-X-45, Meili Island. Two burials on left sides, with knees slightly contracted, in Grave 2. A brick housing for a lamp can be seen above the head of the right-hand burial.

e. 5-T-27, Abu Sir. Cache of baskets found in a pit at the edge of the cemetery.

Plate 11. Burials and basket cache.

WBS-Plates 11-21.p65

11

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a. Pots of Ware H1, Form U12; all from Site 24-E-21. 1, (176). 2, (173). 3. (174), 4. (175). Scale increments are 10cm.

c. Smaller vessels of Group DII and Group D.III wares. 1, Lamp, Ware H8, Form P26 (6-G-7/19). 2, Lamp, Ware H3, Form P29 (6-G-7/17). 3, Cup, Ware H3, Form A13 (5-X-45/ G3). 4, Lamp, Ware H4, Form P22 (5-X-45/2). 5, Cup portion, Ware H4, Form A2? (5-X-32/46). 6, Bowl, Ware H3, Form C43 (5-S-31/7). 7. Cup, Ware H6, Form A2 (5-X-32/3). 8, Pot, Ware H4, Form U17 (5-X-32/65). Scale increments are 10cm.

e. Resinated footed jars of Ware U5, Form X15. 1, (24-E21/165). 2, (24-E-21/164). Scale increments are 10cm.

b. Pots of Ware H2, Form U26. 1, (5-X-31/3). 2, (5X-31/2), 3, (5-X-40/G.89). 4, (5-X-32/63). 5, (5-X-60/ 17). Scale increments are 10cm.

d. Pot and storage jar of Ware H4. 1, Pot, Form U17 (5X-32/52). 2, Storage jar, Form Y1 (5-X-32/25). Scale increments are 10cm.

f. Storage jars of Ware U5, Form Y3. 1, (5-X-32/69). 2, (5-X-32, 67). Scale increments are 10cm.

Plate 12. Hand-made wares; wheel-made utility wares. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

WBS-Plates 11-21.p65

12

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a. Early Christian vessels, Groups N.II and N.III. 1, Lamp, b. Small bowls (“saucers”) of Ware W5, from the Faras Ware W2, Form P15 (5-X-40/G.56). 2, Cup, Ware W2, Form Potteries (Site (24-E-21). 1, Form C22 (142). 2, Form C22 A4 (24-E-21/30). 3, Bowl, Ware W9, Form C75 (5-X-44/2). (59). 3, Form C22 (56). 4, Form C22 (unfired) (50). 4, Goblet, Ware W2, Form B1 (5-0-16/2). 5, Bowl, Ware W2, 5, Form C22 (unfired) (48). 6, Form C22 (146). 7, Form Form C23 (24-E-21/35). 6, Bowl, Ware W2, Form C74 (5-0C22 (143). 8, Form C22 (62). 9, Form C49 (61). 10, Form 16/1). 7, Goblet, Ware W9, Form B34 (24-E-21/28). C49 (73). 11, Form C49 (79). 12, Form C22 (70). 13, Form 8, Footed bowl, Ware W2, Form D77 (6-G-6/26). 9, Footed C49 (145). Scale increments are 5cm. bowl, Ware W2, Form D47 (24-V-13/1). 10, Footed bowl, Ware W2, Form D30 (24-E-21/38). 11, Vase, Ware W1, Form F12 (6-G-6/28). 12, Lamp, Ware R2, Form P16 (5-X-40/ G.35/3). 13, Footed bowl, Ware R2, Form D42 (5-X-40/G.35/1). 14, Bowl, Ware R5, Form C4 (24-E-21/14). 15, Bowl, Ware R5, Form C23 (24-E-31/5). 16, Bowl, Ware R2, Form C67 (6-G-7/25). 17, Small bottle, Ware R5, Form G30 (24-E-21/15). 18, Footed bowl, Ware R5, Form D76 (5-0-16/7). 19, Footed bowl, Ware R5, Form D54 (24-N-3/3). 20, Footed bowl, Ware R5, Form D74 (24-E-21/1). 21, Footed bowl, Ware R5, Form D67 (24-E-21/ 6). Scale increments are 10cm.

c. “Saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22 (24E-21/62). Scale increments are 5cm.

d. Unfired “Saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22 (24-E-21/51). Scale increments are 5cm.

e. “Saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22 (24E-21/142). Scale increments are 5cm.

f. Unfired “saucer,” Ware W5, Form C22 (24-E-21/48). Scale increments are 5cm. Plate 13. Early and Classic Christian wares. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

WBS-Plates 11-21.p65

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a. Miscellaneous Classic Christian vessels, all from the Faras Potteries (Site 24-E-21). 1, Bowl, Ware W5, Form C4 (78). 2, Bowl, Ware W10, Form C50 (105). 3, Cup, Ware R7, Form A14 (45). 4, Cup, Ware W10, Form A25 (140). 5, Vase, Ware W6, Form F12 (139). 6, Footed bowl, Ware W6, Form D77 (96). 7, Footed bowl, Ware W6, Form D23 (136) 8, Vase, Ware W10, Form F12 (135). 9, Vase, Ware W10, Form F16 (137). Scale increments are 10cm.

c. Late and Terminal Christian vessels, all from Kasanarti (Site 5-X-32) except 1. 1, Cup, Ware W16, Form A9 (5-0-2/1). 2. Cup, Ware R11, Form A26 (37). 3, Vase, Ware R11, Form F23 (39). 4, Vase, Ware R11, Form F17 (78). 5, Vase, Ware R11, Form F23 (11) 6, Vase, Ware R11, Form F17 (60). 7, Footed bowl, Ware R11, Form D23 (66). 8, Footed bowl, Ware W26, Form D43 (14). 9, Vase, Ware W14, Form F30 (87). 10, Jar, Ware W14, Form W26 (76). Scale increments are 10cm.

e. Imported amphorae. 1, Ware U2, Form Z4 (5-T36/G.59). 2, Ware U2, Form Z6 (5-0-12). 3, Ware U4, Form Z3 (6-G-6/29). Scale increments are 10cm. Plate 14. Classic and Late Christian Nubian wares; Aswan wares. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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b. Classic Christian vases, all from the Faras Potteries (Site (24-E-21). 1, Ware W10, Form F12 (91). 2, Ware W10, Form F12 (112). 3, Ware W6, Form F12 (139). 4, Ware W6, Form F12 (89). 5, Ware W6, Form F12 (141). 6, Ware W10, Form F12 (119). 7, Ware W10, Form F12 (138). 8, Ware W10, Form F12 (135). 9, Ware W10, Form F16 (137). Scale increments are 10cm.

d. Terminal Christian vessels, Wares W15 and R28. Only nos. 3, 6, 9, and 10 are from the West Bank Survey; all from Kasanarti (Site (5-X-32). 3, Vase, Ware W14, Form F30 (86). 6, Bowl, Ware W18, Form C35 (27). 9, Vase, Ware W14, Form F30 (87). 10, Jar, Ware W14, Form W26 (76). Scale increments are 10cm.

f. Votive lamps of Ware R4. 1, Form P1 (not from West Bank Survey). 2, Form P1 (Christian 5). 3, Form P1 (24M-11/2). 4, Form P1 (Christian 6). 5, Form P1 (not from West Bank Survey). 6, Form P1 (5-X-40/12). 7, Form P1 (5-X-40/G.35/4). 8, Form P2 (not from West Bank Survey). 9, Form P3 (not from West Bank Survey). Scale increments are 10cm.

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a. Fragments of ceramic architectural elements, from Site 6-G-7. 1, Portion of capital (10). 2, Fragment of capital (9). 3, Fragment of capital? (8). Scale increments are 5cm.

c. Pot stamps and sealing stamps; side views. 1, Unfired clay pot stamp (24-E-21/180). 2, Ceramic pot stamp (24E-21/178). 3, Sandstone sealing stamp (5-X-32/58). 4, Ceramic sealing stamp (Christian 8). 5, Ceramic sealing stamp (5-X-32/57). 6, Unfired clay sealing stamp (24-E-21/ 179). 7, Ceramic sealing stamp (11-L-4). 8, Ceramic sealing stamp (5-X-32/50). Scale increments are 5cm.

e. Impression of sealing stamp (5-X-32/57). Diameter of the impression 43mm.

b. Ceramic toilet (5-X-32/19). Scale increments are 10cm.

d. Pot stamps and sealing stamps; underside views. 1, Unfired clay pot stamp (24-E-21/180). 2, Ceramic pot stamp (24-E-21/178). 3, Sandstone sealing stamp (5-X-32/58). 4, Ceramic sealing stamp (Christian 8). 5, Ceramic sealing stamp (5-X-32/57). 6, Unfired clay sealing stamp (24-E-21/179). 7, Ceramic sealing stamp (11-L-4). 8, Ceramic sealing stamp (5-X-32/50). Scale increments are 5cm.

f. Impression of pot stamp (24-E-21/178). Diameter of the impression 36mm.

Plate 15. Non-pottery objects of ceramic and unfired clay. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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a. Miscellaneous objects of unfired clay, from the Faras Potteries (Site 24-E-21). 1, Toy camel saddle (230). 2, Toy camel saddle (229). 3, Cow figurine portion (227). 4, Camel figurine portion (226). 5, Camel figurine portion (225). 6, Giraffe figurine portion (228). 7, Figurine of human nose (233). 8, Phallus figurine portion (232). 9, Perforated rectangle (223). 10, Gaming board portion? (235). 11, Gaming die portion (234). 12, Button (224). 13-16, Spherical beads (248). 17, Spherical object (258). 18, Tubular bead? (257). 19, Toy bowl (250). Scale increments are 5cm.

b. Pot scrapers made from potsherds. All are from the Faras Potteries (Site 24-E-21) except no. 4. 1, Sherd of Ware U5 (184). 2, Sherd of Ware R5 (183). 3, Sherd of Ware W6 (256). 4, Sherd of Ware W3 (24-N-3/13). 5, Sherd of Ware U2 (251). 6, Sherd of Ware R3 or R5, with grooved edge (252). 7, Sherd of Ware R4, with grooved edge (253). 8, Sherd of Ware U5, with grooved edge (254). Scale increments are 5cm.

c. Miscellaneous discoidal objects of ceramic, potsherds, and stone. 1, Sherd of Ware W10, with incised design (5-X-43). 2, Spindle whorl of Ware U6 (5-X-43/4.3). 3, Spindle whorl of Ware U5 (5-X-32/99). 4, Thick disc of Ware U5, possibly a gaming counter (5-X-32/15). 5, Spindle whorl? of Ware 10 (5-X-32/1.1). 6, Spindle whorl or button of glazed ware (5-X.32/4.4). 7, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (5-X-32/4.1). 8, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (5-X-32/4.2). 9, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (Meroitic) (5-X-32/98). 10, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (5-X-32/91). 11, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (Meroitic) (5-X-32/97). 12, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (not from West Bank Survey. 13, Molded ceramic spindle whorl? (5-X-32/1.3). 14, Ground sherd disc of Ware W5 (5-X-32/1.2). 15, Ground sherd disc of Ware W5 (5-X-32/10). 16, Ground sherd gaming piece? of Ware W2 (5-X-32/100). 17, Ground sherd gaming piece of Ware W6? (24-E-21/236). 18, Perforated sherd disc of Ware U13 (5-X-32/101). 19, Fragment of perforated disc of blue glazed ware (5-X-32/1.4). 20, Perforated disc of sandstone (5-X-32/4.7). 21, Perforated disc of shell (5-X-32/4.6). 22, Fragment of perforated disc of quartzite (5-X-32/4.5). Scale increments are 5cm.

Plate 16. Non-pottery objects of ceramic, potsherds, and unfired clay. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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a. Unfired clay lump with signet impression (24-E-21/189). The dimensions are 20 x 18mm.

b. Unfired clay lump with signet impression (24-E-21/190). The dimensions are 25 x 21mm.

c. Clay jar seals with stamped impressions. 1, Amphora seal (5-X-44/11). 2, Amphora seal (24-R-7/4). 3, Amphora seal (24-E-21/221). 4, Amphora seal (5-X-44/8). Scale increments are 10cm.

Plate 17. Non-pottery objects of ceramic, potsherds, and unfired clay. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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a. Flask of pale green glass (5-X-1/9). The length is 110mm.

b. Objects of silver, bronze, and iron. 1, Iron anklet (5-X-45/G.5). 2, Bronze ring (not from West Bank Survey). 3, Silver bead (5-X-32/17). 4, Iron cross pendant (5-0-14/2). 5, Iron cross pendant (5-X-1/11). 6, Bronze bracelet fragment (5-X-32/6). 7, Bronze hooked pin (24-E-21/ 193). 8, Bronze ring (5-X-32/16). 9, Bronze model of an amphora (not from West Bank Survey). 10, Bronze ring (5-X-32/40). 11, Bronze pin (5-0-16/14). 12, Bronze bracelet fragment (5-X-32/35). 13, Bronze kohl stick (5-X-32/33-34). 14, Bronze rod with spatulate end (5-X-32/2). Scale increments are 5cm.

c. Iron tether and hobble (5-X-44/6). Scale increments are 5cm.

d. Shell ornament with incised design showing a holy figure (5-X-32/8). The height of the piece is 36mm. Plate 18. Objects of glass, metal, and shell. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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b. Upper portion of tombstone, partially obliterated (24-N-6/5). Scale increments are 5cm. a. Coptic tombstone, reused as a door pivot stone (24-E-21/237). Scale increments are 5cm.

c. Fragment of sculptured stone (24-V-12/2). Scale increments are 10cm.

e. Miscellaneous small sandstone items. 1, Weight (6-G-6/40). 2, Fragment with incised design (24-E-21/202). 3, Sharpening stone (24-E-21/201). 4, Fragment with elaborate carving (6-G-6/ 39). 5, Pounder? (24-E-21/203). 6, Grooved weight (24-E-21/ 200). Scale increments are 5cm.

d. Fragment of door jamb (6-G-7/11). Scale increments are 10cm.

f. Marble altar top (24-R-8/4). Scale increments are 10cm.

Plate 19. Miscellaneous objects of sculptured stone. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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b. Perforated sandstone weight; view of flat side (6-G-6/40). Scale increments are 5cm. a. Fragment of marble tombstone (24-E-21/238). The long dimension is 108mm.

c. Perforated sandstone weight; view of one end (6-G-6/40). Scale increments are 5cm.

d. Miscellaneous small objects. 1, Sharpening stone (6-G-6/37). 2, Rubbing stone (24-N-3/10). 3, Fragment of ground soapstone vessel (5-X-1/13). 4-5, Fragments of alabaster vessel (5-X-44/7). 6, Perforated sandstone disc (24-E-21/197). 7, Perforated alabaster disc (Christian 19). 8, Perforated quartzite disc (5-X-32/4.5). 9, Schist net weight (5-X-32/45). 10, Schist net weight (5-X-32/ 29). 11, Schist net weight (5-X-1/12). 12, Schist net weight (Christian 11). 13, Sandstone tablet with incised cross (5-T-27/S). 14, Soapstone nose or lip plug? (5-X-32/77). 15, Alabaster nose or lip plug (5-X-32/9). Scale increments are 5cm.

Plate 20. Small stone objects. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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a. Pair of leather shoes, found on a burial (6-G-8/3A). Scale increments are 10cm.

b. Ostrakon (5-0-15/3). Height 145mm.

d. Ostrakon (5-0-15/5). Height 145mm.

c. Ostrakon (5-0-15/4). Height 115mm. Plate 21. Leather shoes; ostraka. Registration numbers for each object are given in parentheses.

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Figure 21. Plan of settlement Site 5-X-1, Gendal Irki (scale 1:300)

Figure 22. Site 5-X-32, Kasanarti Island: plan and crosssections of Classic Christian houses (scale 1:200).

Figure 23. Site 5-X-32, Kasanarti Island: plan and cross-sections of Late Christian houses (scale 1:200).